Biology teaching in French Higher Education institutions

Transcription

Biology teaching in French Higher Education institutions
M. VOLOVITCH, University PARIS VII - Denis Diderot
and D. DUNON University Paris VI-Pierre and Marie Curie
October 1998
1. Introduction
2. Organization of French Higher Education
2.1. Institutions
2.1.1. Overall view
2.1.2. Structure of Institutions
2.1.3. Advisory bodies
2.2. Degrees
2.2.1. First level
2.2.2. Second level
2.2.3. Third level
2.3. Lecturers
2.4. Students
2.4.1. Recruitment
2.4.2. Progession to the different courses and links between systems
2.4.3. Grants
3. Studies in Biology
3.1. University teaching
3.1.1. Basic studies
3.1.1.1. Content
3.1.1.2. Organization
3.1.1.3. Impact of European Community Programmes
3.1.2. Specialized post-graduate studies
3.1.2.1. Content
3.1.3. Doctoral studies
3.1.3.1. Content
3.1.3.3. Impact of European Community Programmes
3.2. Professional education
3.2.1. Job recruitment
3.2.1.1. Students with a university degree
3.2.1.2. Students with a diploma in Engineering
3.2.1.3. Students admitted to a competitive examination for teachers
3.2.2. Continuing education
3.2.3. Preparation of Teachers
3.2.4. Role of Scientific Associations and Learned Societies
3.2.5. Others
4. New needs in Biology studies
4.1. Shortcomings and gaps
4.2. Future requirements
5. Ways to satisfy the new demands
5.1. At theUniversity level
5.2. At the government level
5.3. At the European Union level
Annexes
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A. Sarbu - A. Vadineanu
1. Introduction
The French Higher Education system is quite diversified. We find State or private institutions,
Universities and other specialized Schools with selective or non-selective recruitment. Qualifications
and degrees may be awarded at the end of examinations (when admission is based solely on
reaching a particular standard) or competitive examinations (when the number of admissions is strictly
limited). It might be worth recalling at this point some traditional boundaries in the French educational
system: the primary schools teach children from 6 to 10, the secondary schools those from 11 to 18.
Beyond secondary education, demarcated by the Baccalaureat, students are admitted to Higher
Education (excluding some short vocational training).
Counting the number of students, we may say that the University is the predominant Higher Education
establishment. French Universities are State run, with a few exceptions (private Universities have a
marginal role). As a rule, all Universities are on an equal footing and obtain their operating budgets
and resources for teaching staff from the Ministry responsible for the Universities (currently the
Ministry of Higher Education and Research), either a Ministry in its own right or a subsidiary Ministry
included in the Ministry of Education. The so called Grandes Ecoles (some of them already in
existence before the Napoleonic reform of the French University) provide only a small proportion of
students in Higher Education. The importance of this sector, in which we find State, semi-State and
private institutions, is nevertheless considerable. These very selective Grandes Ecoles play a major
part both as a reference standard (some of them are very prestigious) and because they attract a
significant number of the most brilliant students. At the same time, they produce graduates who are at
a considerable advantage in the challenging job market, compared with those from the University.
The organization of the three university degree courses presented below will be deeply modified in a
near future. In spring 1998, the Education Ministers of France, Italy, Germany and United Kingdom
issued a declaration stating that first, second, and third degrees will last 3, 2, and 3 years respectively
(the so-called 3/5/8 sheme). The organization of each degree as well as the application date of this
reform are not yet defined.
2. Organisation of French Higher Education
2.1. Institutions
2.1.1.
Overall view
French Higher Education operates in three types of institutions, the Universities, the Grandes Ecoles
and in some post-Baccalaureat classes taken in the secondary schools (see Annexes 1 and 2). The
numbers of students in these three types of institutions are quite dissimilar. Universities account for
more than 80% of the whole, followed by the technician streams (Sections de Techniciens Supérieurs)
in the secondary schools. There are also some small Higher Education institutions with special status,
such as the Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, the College de France or the Ecole Pratique des
hautes Etudes. Within the Universities themselves, some recently established organizations have
substantial autonomy. The IUT (Instituts Universitaires de Technologie, University Institutes for
Technology) created in the 60's, give short technical training courses. The University Schools of
Engineering train engineers, and the Instituts Universitaires Professionalisés (IUP, Vocational
University Institutes) created very recently train engineering instructors. The IUFM (Instituts
Universitaires de Formation des Maîtres, University Institutes for Teacher Training) created at the
beginning of the 90's, train teachers for primary and secondary schools.
The institutions grouped together under the heading Grandes Ecoles comprise a few hundred Schools
of Engineering and additional institutions, such as the Ecoles Normales Supérieures, the Ecole
Vétérinaire (Veterinary School), the Ecole des Hautes Etudes Commerciales (School for Higher
Commercial Studies) and other Schools of business and management. They receive accreditation
from a specialized national committee, and they select their students on the basis of strongly
competitive examinations. The candidates study for this examination for 2 years in specialized
preparatory classes. Studying at the Grande Ecole itself generally lasts 3 years and normally provides
the status of qualified engineer. The Ecoles Normales Supérieures (of which there are four) are the
exception to the rule: studying lasts 4 years and leads either to a high-level competitive national
examination for recruitment of teachers, or the preparation of a thesis (or sometimes both of them)
leading to research careers.
Some secondary schools teach beyond the Baccalaureat providing qualified technician courses. The
students are selected on the basis of a written application and studies lead to the BTS (Brevet de
Technicien Supérieur, Qualified Technician Diploma) after 2 years. Each of these diplomas can lead
to a well-defined job.
The IUTs (Instituts Universitaires de Technologie, University Institute for Technology) within
Universities provide qualifications for similar jobs. In two years, students obtain the DUT (Diplôme
Universitaire de Technologie, University Degree in Technology) a rather vocational diploma. Some
IUTs offer a 3rd year for specialization.
University training is officially divided into three levels or Cycles (see § 2.2.). The major degree is the
Maîtrise, usually obtained after 4 years (normally at the age of 22) and this represents the end of
undergraduate courses. Universities also award other degrees, some of them being vocational (see
Annex 1) and they are responsible for doctoral training.
2.1.2.
Structure of institutions
In this section we shall disregard Grandes Ecoles and specialized Institutes which are usually small
and have varied statutes. Universities can be very large (up to 40,000 students) and have a more
complex organization, but are relatively standardized. Since the law of 1968 which caused the former
faculties to disappear, they are divided into UFRs (Unités de Formation et de Recherche, Training and
Research Units). These UFRs combine teaching departments and research laboratories into a
discipline or a group of disciplines, whose borders and precise definitions vary from one University to
another. Some UFRs are very similar to the former faculties, as in the case of a University having only
one UFR for Science. In other Universities it is possible to find one UFR for Mathematics and one for
Physics, Chemistry or Biology. Sometimes one UFR for Biology and one for Biochemistry may be
found within the same University. Medical UFRs are usually centered around a hospital with the rank
of CHU (Centre Hospitalo-Universitaire) or teaching hospital.
2.1.3.
Advisory bodies
Besides the main administration of the Ministry, there are several different authorities involved which
play a part in deciding out the policy for Higher Education. The major official consultative authority is
the CNESER (Conseil National de l'Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche, National Council for
Higher Education and Research) which is consulted by the Ministry on important topics along with the
CPU (Conférence des Présidents d'Universités, Board of University Presidents). Fifteen years years
ago, the government created the CNE (Comité National d'Evaluation, National Assessing Committee),
an independent body which is responsible for assessing the Universities. The CNU (Conseil National
des Universités, National Committee for Universities), another official body, is the national authority in
charge of the management of the permanent teaching staff (see § 2.3.). The CNU is made up of both
elected and appointed members from the academic and scientific community and is divided into
sections for different disciplines (about 20 sections for the sciences).
The Association des Grandes Ecoles plays a major part in all activities concerning the Grandes
Ecoles. Finally the main teacher's trade unions which represent lecturers and scientific researchers,
and other different associations take part in debates on Higher Education.
2.2. Degrees
Higher Education studies are divided into 3 levels of courses (or cycles), the first two minimally
totalling 4 years. In order to lead to a national degree, each course must be authorized by the Ministry.
Authorization from the Ministry is usually given for only 4 years (this is always the case for the 3rd
degree courses, under the form of formally defined PhD programmes). First and 2nd degree course
diplomas are awarded from results of written examinations (sometimes with a viva). The presentation
of essays or other written projects is very rare in the 1st and 2nd cycles (except in Arts for which a
dissertation for the Maîtrise degree plays a major part). However, written work and individual study of
the candidates are the most important elements for obtaining the 3rd cycle degree.
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2.2.1. First degree course (first cycle)
The 1st degree course at University (commencing at age 18) normally lasts 2 years. It generally leads
to a DEUG (Diplôme d'Etudes Universitaires Générales, Degree in General University Studies). In the
sciences there are also some more vocational short courses leading in 2 years to a DEUST (Diplôme
d'Etudes Universitaires Scientifiques et Techniques, Degree in Scientific and Technical University
Studies). Transfer to the second year of the DEUG is contingent upon passing a substantial part of the
first year examination. Students are allowed to repeat a year only once. Unless students have special
individual dispensation, they cannot register more than 3 times for the 1st degree course. The global
success rate at the DEUG remains about 60%. However, some administrative positions take it
officially into consideration, and it may represent for an employer the guarantee of a minimal Higher
Education training.
2.2.2. Second degree course (second cycle)
Second degree courses normally last 2 years (except for medical studies). These result in the Maîtrise
degree which represents the most common final examination for Higher Education, normally being
completed at age 22-23. Successful completion of the first year of the second cycle studies results in
the Licence degree and entry to the second year leading to the Maîtrise degree. Since the 1969
reform which created the Maîtrise, the Licence degree has been loosing much of its interest, although
it still provides an entry into administrative careers (above all in Arts) and is a requirement to teach in
secondary education (and also primary education since 1993). Some institutions also award other
degrees, for example degrees in Engineering (totalling 5 years’ study) awarded by the University
Schools in Engineering, and the Maître-Ingénieur degree (totalling 4 years’ study) awarded by the IUP
(being also part of the Universities). This is also the case for the Magistères awarded by some
Universities (often in collaboration with the Ecoles Normales Supérieures). These are in fact combined
courses for a Maîtrise followed by a DEA (see below) strongly oriented towards research training. A
Maîtrise degree allows the students either to join the job market or to proceed to a doctoral course
after selection.
2.2.3. Third degree course
The length of a 3rd degree course varies. It mainly includes doctoral training and some vocational
specialized studies (leading for example to aDESS for Diplôme d'Etudes Supérieures Spécialisées,
Degree for Specialized Higher Studies). In doctoral studies the 1st year is completed by a D E A
(Diplôme d'Etudes Approfondies). This is not normally considered as an end in itself, except for some
students coming from Schools of Engineering, but is an obligatory step in a PhD. Until now, selection
for entry into doctoral studies depended mainly on the admission to register for the DEA. The
minimum length for doctoral studies is 3 years (including the DEA year) although a thesis is rarely
finished within this period. The study period may be extended by 1 or 2 years, contingent upon a
strong recommendation by the thesis director and the professors convening the DEA-doctoral studies.
Except in a few disciplines (mainly in Physics in which a large number of thesis are completed in 3
years) the length for thesis preparation in sciences is usually between 3 and 5 years (including DEA).
After the PhD thesis, applicants for a professor position in the University must be authorized to direct a
research group (HDR, standing for Habilitation à Diriger des Recherches), by a jury composed of
professors. This cannot take place before 5 years after completion of a PhD.
2.3. Lecturers
In the University, two kinds of lecturers are responsible for teaching. The teachers with a permanent
statute (Maîtres de Conférences and Professeurs) are tenured civil servants. Applicants for these
permanent positions have to be registered on a competency list at the CNU (see § 2.1.3.). They must
have a PhD and, in the case of positions for Professeurs, they must have been authorized to direct a
research group (HDR). These permanent teachers are assisted by staff working on a temporary basis:
the ATER (Assistant Temporaire d'Enseignement et de Recherche, Temporary Assistant for Teaching
and Research) and the Moniteurs (instructors). The ATER are hired for 2 years at the most, most
often after their PhD. They have a normal teaching duty. In French Universities, this usually consists
of 128 (for lectures) or 192 (for tutorials and practicals) contact hours per year (for details on the
diversified forms of teaching see below § 3.1.1.2.). The Moniteurs (students in the 2nd or 3rd year of
their PhD thesis) are also taken on for 2 years and teach half the time.
2.4. Students
2.4.1. Recruitment
After the Baccalaureat which concludes the secondary education (age 11-18 years) students may
choose between two systems for access to Higher Education.
The first is an open system of access to the Universities. In principle the Baccalaureat is sufficient
enough. This diploma is thus both a diploma at the end of the secondary education and a diploma
giving access to Higher Education. Universities are allowed some flexibility for directing the students
into one or another subject areas, but from a legal standpoint they are not allowed to make a true
selection of their students (except in a few specified cases). This system leads to training with an
academic content of increasing difficulty, and selection of the students progressively takes place
during the different degree courses.
The second system is more selective and is itself diverse. The results of the Baccalaureat are
supported by a written application which is examined by an admission jury. This system is in force
especially in the Classes Préparatoires aux Grandes Ecoles (Preparatory Forms). These classes
prepare students for the competitive entrance examination to the Grandes Ecoles. There is also a
selection for the entrance into the IUT and the BTS training but it is decidedly less severe. This
training mainly concerns students interested by short term studies (normally 2 years) leading to
technical jobs.
2.4.2. Progression to the different courses and links between systems
For short training courses such as the BTS and DEUST, the opportunities for repeating examinations
are very limited. On successful completion of such a course, most graduates immediately look for a
job. However, a small minority ask for credits to be taken into account to allow them entry into the 1st
general degree course.
The situation for students having obtained a DUT is changing. Firstly, more and more of them engage
in regular university studies, for which they usually obtain complete recognition of their credits,
especially in Physics. Secondly, several IUTs now offer a third year of study.
Students who fail to be admitted to a Grande Ecole will usually choose the University instead. They
may obtain credits to allow them to enter directly into the 2nd degree course at the University. This
depends on their results in the competitive examinations for the Grandes Ecoles. These examinations
are organized in 2 parts: the first consists of written papers and leads to admissibilité (eligibility to sit
the second part of the exam), the second consists of an oral examination (vivas). The final ranking
position of each student (including the marks of the 2 parts) determines the admission to a Grande
Ecole, according to the limited number of places predetermined by each institution. The students who
were admissible but not admitted usually obtain full credits for the 1st degree course.
Conversely there is some transfer of students from the University to the Grandes Ecoles. Some of
these have created specific competitive exams in order to diversify their recruitment. They accept a
few students who have attended a strengthened 1st degree course. Other Grandes Ecoles prefer to
organize this additional recruitment at a later stage by selecting candidates having a Maîtrise in
Science. This is organized as written application.
As a rule DEUG leads to the 2nd degree course. A few university courses are an exception, entry
being allowed on the basis of selection amongst candidates (Magistères, MST, Ecoles d'Ingénieurs
Universitaires). This leads to a conflict between the legal agreement for the automatic transfer to the
2nd degee course and the limited capacity of the Universities in finding sufficient places. Each
University solves this problem by empirical means which may sometimes be on the border of legality.
A student must pass all (or almost all) his third year exams before he or she can proceed from Licence
to Maîtrise. There is no administrative limitation to the number of registrations. However, Universities
try to discourage the students who have failed many times. Some students, not many in the Sciences,
abandon their studies after the Licence. Others decide to apply to the IUFM, so as to prepare for the
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The Diploma at the end of the 2nd degree course, the Maîtrise degree, allows the students either to
look for a qualified job or to apply for a 3rd degree course. The admission to this is selective, whether
it is for a long course leading to the preparation of a thesis (in the case of a DEA), or for a short course
leading to a well qualified job (in the case of a DESS).
2.4.3. Grants
In the French Universities, registration fees are not too expensive (between 200 and 400 Euros per
year). Grants may be provided according to different criteria for undergraduate and post-graduate
studies.
2.4.3.1. First and Second degree course grants
For this level of study, the government provides grants according to social requirements: students
whose family have a very low annual income may get such grants as long as they do not fail their
examinations.
2.4.3.2. Third degree course grants
Students in DEA or DESS may easily obtain low annual grants (about 200 Ecus per month). Following
the DEA, students obtain grants from the Ministry, at least in Sciences. A smaller number of grants are
also distributed by State or semi-State organizations. The Ministry allocates a quota of grants to the
different 3rd degree courses which have been recognized, according to a general national policy
based on geographic and thematic distribution. The academic quality and the resulting job
opportunities of these doctoral programmes are taken into account when the Ministry determines the
number of grants provided for each DEA. These grants or Allocations de Recherche du Ministère de
l'Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche are given for 2 years after the DEA (minimum length for
doctoral studies). These grants are about 1,000 Ecus per month. They may be extended for a
maximum of 1 year. Supplementary grants may also be obtained for a limited period of time (usually
one year) from organizations or foundations which support French research, through the laboratories
where students study for their thesis. While studying for their thesis, some students on a grant are
able to obtain a Moniteur position at the University. For 2 years this position allows them to get used to
higher education teaching with a limited teaching duty whilst being under lecturer supervision.
Moniteurs receive roughly 300 Ecus per month. The other grants (or Aides à la Formation par la
Recherche) given by State organizations are mostly the CIFRE (Conventions Industrielles de
Formation pour la Recherche, Industrial Conventions for Training by Research), the BDI (Bourses de
Doctorants Ingénieurs, Grants for Engineer-Doctors) from CNRS (Centre National de la Recherche
Scientifique, National Center for Scientific Research) and the positions of ASC (Attaché Scientifique
Contractuel, Contract Scientific Assistant) from INRA (Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique,
National Institute for Agronomical Research).
2.4.3.3. Other grants
Some Grandes Ecoles prepare their students for Civil Service careers. The Ecoles Normales
Supérieures students are in principle destined for teaching or research careers while graduates of the
Ecole Polytechnique are in theory destined for military careers. Becoming therefore student civil
servants from the moment of their admission to the Grande Ecole, they have a salary and a contract
to serve the State for 10 years after their training.
3. Studies in Biology
3.1. University teaching
3.1.1.
Basic studies
French Universities (the largest ones were divided up in 1969) are multidisciplinary. However this
does not mean that they teach all disciplines. Among the 93 French Universities, 53 offer biology but
only 29 of them offer complete programmes in this subject (see Annex 3).
3.1.1.1.
Content
In the University (as part of DEUG, Licence and Maîtrise courses), the contents of courses in biology
depend upon a typology defined by the Ministry.
In the 1st degree course students in biology are registred for a DEUG in Science, designated Life
Sciences. This is designed as a preparatory course for the 2nd degree studies. The programmes are
multidisciplinary. They include a trial and advising period which varies according to each University
(generally one semester). Teaching programmes constitute about 500 to 550 hours per year. They
include approximately - over 2 years - 250 hours in mathematics (including statistics and an
introduction to computer science), 250 hours in physics and chemistry, and about 400 hours in
biology, which gives solid basic knowledge in zoology, embryology, botany and plant physiology,
cellular biology and physiology, biochemistry and genetics. The weight given to these different
subjects may vary from one University to another. It may also vary within the same University,
depending on the options which are often proposed for the 2nd year of the DEUG in the largest
Universities. Optional courses (for 100 to 200 hours) make up the programme, and may be used by
some students to specialize further. Among the options some Universities propose foreign languages
(almost always English).
In the 2nd degree course, the various degrees in biology (in the broad sense of the subject), which
were authorized up to 1995 by the Ministry in the form of Licence or Maîtrise, may be divided into two
groups (see Annex 4 and 5). The first group of 29 curricula is mainly based on biochemistry. The
second group is made up of 105 curricula in biology subdivided into two subgroups. The first subgroup
is made of 42 curricula (Licence or Licence and Maîtrise in Biologie and Biologie générale ) for the
students who plan to teach in secondary schools. Such students will have to teach animal biology,
plant biology, physiology, cellular biology and the fundamentals of genetics and ecology, as well as
geology. The second subgroup consists of 87 curricula specialized in precise biological fields. We can
roughly identify programmes which focus on: organismal and population biology, cellular and
molecular biology, physiology, and programmes at the interface with other disciplines (chemistry,
environmental studies, oceanography, social sciences, medicine, sports).
The curricula in biology follow the general scheme described above (§ 2.2.). Registration in the first
degree course of biology is in principle automatic for students holding the Baccalauréat option
Sciences. It leads to the DEUG in Sciences, option Life Science, after 2 years (maximum 3). Obtaining
the DEUG leads to the second degree courses (Licence then Maîtrise), which are more diverse.
Students are not always allowed to choose what they would like. The University takes into account its
own capacity, which is sometimes quite small. Students normally pass the final exmination for the
Maîtrise within 2 years, but the number of annual registrations in the second degree course is not
administratively limited. Examinations occur in two sessions. The first session takes place either in
February or June. Students who have failed may resit the examination in September. Teaching is now
organized by semester and the subjects have to be grouped into Modules. (teaching units), usually six
per academic year. The examination corresponding to one Module may consist of several tests.
Progression to the next level normally depends on success to all Modules, but some forms of
equalizing between Modules are also organized at the University level. The final marks, out of 20, give
mentions (Honours): Passable for marks between 10 and 12, Assez Bien above 12, Bien above 14,
Très Bien above 16. In addition, some Universities give an overall mention for their diploma.
Teaching of biology is undertaken in three forms. Lectures, usually given by the Professeurs and
Maîtres de Conférences constitute the essential part of the theoretical instruction In the first degree
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course, 100 to 300 students often attend these lectures; there are usually 50 to 200 students in the
second degree courses, but some lectures are for a smaller number of students, around 30. Tutorials
(Travaux Dirigés or TD) either back up lectures with the help of specific examples, are sessions of
exercises, or sessions in which students analyse scientific articles or present other kind of individual
study. The Practicals (Travaux Pratiques or TP) consist of laboratory exercises. They may be
condensed over short periods (1 to 2 weeks full time), or spread over longer periods (one day or half a
day per week during a half-year, for instance). For these simple experiments, two students work
together, in classes of about 20 students. They can very seldom carry out complete experiments due
to time limitation, and just carry out a few steps under conditions where their degree of initiative is
usually very limited. For TP and T D, teaching is usually provided by Maître de Conférences and
ATER, with the help of some Moniteurs especially in the first degree courses. On average, the 500 to
550 hours of teaching per year are generally shared out to include 200 to 250 hours of lectures, 100 to
150 hours of exercise classes and about 150 hours of practicals.
Success rates (cumulative) for examinations in the first and second degree course are not available
for every discipline. For first level degree (DEUG) in 1998, about 60% of the students who were still
registered after 2 or 3 years passed their examination. This percentage varies between 65% and 80%
for the Licence and Maîtrise examinations in the Sciences (independent of discipline, or completion
time taken by the students). In 1997-1998, among about 225,000 students in sciences (all degree
courses taken together) 123,000 were registered for first degree courses and 72,000 for second
degree courses (of whom 41,000 were in Licence and 31,000 in Maîtrise). In biology 48,000 students
were registered for the DEUG in Life Sciences in 1997-1998, representing roughly one-third of the
students in Science. For the second degree courses, 33,000 student were registered (approximately
18,000 in Licence , 15,000 in Maîtrise) and 15,300 were engaged in doctoral studies.
3.1.1.3
Impact of European community programmes
With the exception of Teaching Staff Mobility or Curriculum Development programmes which are
weakly developed, french universities now efficiently participate in SOCRATES-ERASMUS schemes.
Indeed, on the 13 Intensive Programmes organized in Life Sciences in 1995-1996, 5 were coordinated
by french universities. The student exchange programme is so famous among french students that
frequently applicants have to be selected. In addition, the training periods in research laboratories can
now be officially recognized as integral parts of the undergraduate scientific studies and such training
periods are promoted by the ERASMUS programme. For instance at University Paris VI, a four month
training period in an european laboratory accounts for one semester of the Maîtrise level. French
students who have been mobile or have attended intensive course as part of an ERASMUS exchange
programme, have obviously a widened and diversified view on the differents ways of approaching Life
Sciences.
3.1.2.
Specialized post-graduate studies
3.1.2.1.
Content
Post-graduate specialized studies are very diversified, and are all oriented towards particular
applications. Their content thus cannot be easily summarized. As an example, a list of the DESS
(Diplômes d'Etudes Supérieures Spécialisées) is given in Annex 6.
3.1.2.2.
Organization
Specialized post-graduate studies in biology, as distinct from doctoral studies, are firstly represented
by the DESS awarded by the Universities, and secondly by the last year (or Specialization year) in
some Schools of Engineering. In the case of the Schools of Agronomy (the Institut National
d'Agronomie at Paris-Grignon and the other Ecoles Nationales Supérieures d'Agronomie, all of them
overseen by the Ministry of Agriculture), a Diplôme d'Agronomie Approfondie (Degree in Thorough
Agnonomy) is awarded at the end of the third year. This is also the case for some other Grandes
Ecoles, such as Ecole Polytechnique or Ecole des Mines de Paris. In all cases, the numbers are very
limited (there are usually about 20 students registered for a DESS).
Access to DESS is open to students holding a Maîtrise in biology and wishing to study for a
professional qualification rather than a DEA-PhD. The access is selective. It requires one year of
study to complete the degree, which includes 100 hours theoretical instruction, and a 6 month period
working in a laboratory for applied research. These laboratories usually belong to industrial companies
who have an agreement with the University organizing the degree. At the end of this period of work
experience, students write a dissertation which they defend orally.
Proceeding to the specialization year in the School for Engineering is automatic for students having
passed the examinations for the first 2 years. It is worth noting that an ever increasing number of
students from the Grandes Ecoles prefer to take a doctoral course, they thus register for a DEA
instead of the traditional specialization. This is facilitated by agreement given by the Ministry jointly to
Universities and Grandes Ecoles. These specialized studies are organized in quite different ways.
They all result with a personal presentation of the student's work via a written dissertation which is
also orally defended.
3.1.3.
Doctoral studies
3.1.3.1.
Content
In biology, the content of doctoral studies is very diversified (see Annex 7). PhD programmes are
subject every four years to appraisal by the Ministry, which delivers the authorization to award doctoral
degrees. This authorization is often obtained jointly by several Universities.
3.1.3.2.
Organization
Doctoral studies in biology generally last from 4 to 5 years (average: 4.7 years, including the first year,
or DEA). During thesis preparation, students are registered in a particular PhD programme, which
manages grants obtained from the Ministry (see § 2.4.3.2).
Access to a PhD programme is selective, and is open to students holding a Maîtrise in biology or a
diploma considered to be equivalent. There are 161 DEAs in biology in France, each enrolling 20 to
40 students (average: 34; median: 28). In each programme, a Committee selects the students
according to their results as undergraduates, according to their motivations - often assessed during an
interview - and on the contents of their previous training (some DEA have a formal list of prerequisites). In biology, half the students have obtained a Maîtrise, a quarter are medical doctors (or
students of medicine), the others coming from the Grandes Ecoles or foreign institutions.
During the DEA, students attend theoretical lectures, the volume and format of which may vary. They
are usually made up of 100 h of traditional lectures, specific seminars (not only for the DEA students),
bibliography seminars presented by students and research seminars for which students have to
prepare reports. Bibliographical analysis can be quite sophisticated, such as the writing of a
programme for their thesis. Besides theoretical training, they spend their time working in a laboratory
(sometimes in two successive laboratories). They are given a personal project in the general theme
studied by the laboratory, under the supervision of a qualified scientist. At the end of this year,
students write a report on their work and present it orally before the DEA jury, which selects the
successful candidates and ranks them. Considering the severe selection for entry to DEA, the success
rate is quite high (80% to 85% in biology between 1986 and 1993). This ranking is very important to
students as its determines the award of a grant (most of which are distributed by the Ministry among
the different DEA, see § 2.4.3.2.), and thus the possibility to continue preparing a thesis. There are
however other ways of financing the preparation of a thesis, especially in subjects linked to
biotechnology, pharmacological research or human biology. In 1992-1993, about 60% of the 3,652
holders of a DEA in biology were continuing their studies, with 1,879 in a PhD programme. Among
those students, more than half received grants from State organizations (804 from the Ministry of
Higher Education and 515 from other official organizations, 179 of them having been in addition
appointed as Moniteurs at a University).
At the end of the DEA, the student carries on with his training and research work (more often in the
laboratory where the DEA was completed, although this is not always the case). A student may
sometimes change to another PhD programme, with the agreement of the directors of the two
programmes. It is very rare that a thesis in biology can be finished within the minimum time period
stated by regulations, i.e. 2 years after the DEA. Traditionally there was no more formal teaching after
the DEA This is changing today however with special conferences being organized for audiences
10
partly made up of PhD students. This is for instance the case within the context of the Ecoles
Doctorales (Doctorate Schools), which group several PhD programmes in a flexible frame, as
encouraged by the Ministry.
When two examiners, designated by the thesis committee in the UFR, judge that the student's work is
up to standard, he is allowed to present his manuscript. The student then defends his thesis orally in
public, before a jury made up of the two principal examiners (who have to give a written report) and
several other members (usually presided over by the director of the PhD programme, and including
the head of the laboratory where the work was carried out). During this oral presentation, the student
presents his research subject, the results of his work, his conclusions and hypothesis. Then he
answers questions from the jury members and discusses the scientific problems he has tried to solve.
After deliberation, the jury gives one of three grades: Honorable, Très Honorable, or Très Honorable
avec félicitations du jury. In biology, different disciplines do not all have the same guidelines
determining the degree of achievement necessary for completion of a thesis. In some fields, the
candidate has to have published 2 papers in international Journals with peer review. In other fields,
such a standard is difficult to meet. The Ministry controls the duration of PhD studies rather strictly.
This cannot be less than 3 years (DEA included) and dispensations are normally granted up to 5
years, but there is strong pressure for the thesis in biology to be finished within 4 years.
3.1.3.3.
Impact of European Community programmes
This remains moderate on PhD studies. The programmes for research development have had little
direct impact on PhD studies, however they have had some indirect consequences by encouraging
European cooperation and by facilitating post-doctoral exchanges. In this respect, the summer
courses promoted by the Erasmus programme play an interesting role. Clearly, other programmes of
the EC participate to the training of PhD students: Training and Mobility of Researchers, Biomed,
Biotech etc...
3.2. Professional education
3.2.1.
Job recruitment
3.2.1.1.
Students with a university degree.
To our knowledge no statistical survey is available for university graduates in biology. Students having
a double training, for example a diploma from one of the Grandes Ecoles or a degree in medicine in
addition to their university degree are of course at some advantage when seeking employment. Here
we shall restrict discussion to the case of students just having a university degree.
Limited evidence shows that students with a first level degree course or a Licence often enter jobs
which are not related to their qualifications. In fact, employers prefer the academic degree, rather
irrespective of its content. Students having a Maîtrise more easily find a job related to their studies,
quite often in technico-commercial areas.
Students with a third degree diploma generally find a job in their chosen field, especially students with
a DESS (this is less true for students having only a DEA). Some specific data are available for the
years 1990-1992. Among the students with a DEA in biology, about 60% continued their studies
(generally preparing a PhD) and 20% entered a profession (5% in companies, 5% in hospitals, 3% in
teaching, 1% in research organizations and 6% in varied employments). The others are divided up
into students doing their military service (about 5%), foreign students who returned to their home
country (2%), unemployed (2%) and unknown situations (about 10%).
Students holding a PhD in biology quite often find a job appropriate to their qualifications. Some of
them become Enseignant-Chercheur (lecturer-researcher) at the University, others become
permanent scientists in the main State research organizations, whilst others are recruited by Industry.
For biologists, it should be noted that the time period between completion of a PhD and the attainment
of a definitive professional situation tends to increase. According to surveys by the Ministry, 30% of
the doctors in biology go through a temporary post-doctoral position, whereas 45% secure a job: 14%
in Education (most of them at the University), 12% in Research organizations, 10% in companies, and
5% in hospitals. The other cases correspond to foreigners going back to their home country (10%),
doctors looking for a job (5%) and other situations. The CNRS (within its Life Science department)
it
b t 70 d t
i bi l
h
INSERM (I tit t N ti
l d l S té t d l
Recherche Médicale, National Institute for Health and Medical Research) makes about 40
recruitments. INRA (Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, National Institute for Agronomical
Research) and some other organizations also provide employment.
3.2.1.2.
Students with a diploma in Engineering
With the exception of the Schools of Agronomy, very few Schools of Engineering propose biology as a
specialisation. The trend is nevertheless for a rapid expansion in this area (see § 3.1.2.2.). These
students easily find a job which suits their qualifications.
3.2.1.3
Students admitted to a competitive examination for teachers
By definition, students admitted to these examinations are civil servants, employed as permanent
teachers in the secondary schools for pupils from 11 to 18 years of age (see § 3.2.3.).
3.2.2. Continuing education
Some Universities and the main State research organizations (CNRS, INSERM and INRA) provide
continuing education, generally in the form of intensive workshops. The target audience often consists
of technicians and engineers employed by these organizations, but the courses are extended to
professionals in varied fields (hygiene, environment protection, applied research and development...)
and the workshops are also sometimes designed for young scientists.
As far as secondary school teachers are concerned, the Ministry has set up regional task forces (one
in each Académie, the territorial subdivision for education), which organize short sessions on various
subjects in general teaching methods or in more specialized areas. Some important initiatives have
also come from teachers associations, as for instance the Association des Professeurs de Biologie et
Géologie (Association for school teachers of biology and geology).
3.2.3. Preparation of teachers
Permanent teachers in secondary schools are usually appointed on the basis of competitive
examinations. For historical reasons, there are two kinds of such examinations in France. The first
dates back to the 19th century and is called Agrégation des lycées. The second, created after world
war II, is called CAPES (Certificat d'Aptitude au Professorat de l'Enseignement Secondaire, Certificate
of aptitude for teaching in secondary education). The CAPET (Certificat d'Aptitude au Professorat de
l'Enseignement Technique, Certificate of aptitude for teaching in technical education) was modelled
on the CAPES. The number of positions offered in each discipline is decided each year by the
Ministry. The level of theoretical knowledge is higher in the Agrégation than in the CAPES. The
number of positions is smaller for Agrégation than for the CAPES (about 180 for Agrégation and 450
for CAPES in 1998 for all disciplines in biology).
To take the Agrégation, students must have a Maîtrise. In biology there are two distinct competitive
exams: the Agrégation in Earth and Life Sciences (previously called Sciences Naturelles) with options
in geology, animal and plant biology; the Agrégation in Biological Engineering (formerly called
Physiology and Biochemistry, created in the mid-sixties). Students study for these examinations in
some Universities or in the Ecoles Normales Supérieures where they can be taken as auditeurs libres
(free attenders) if they are not regular students in these Schools. The preparation lasts one year, and
the examinations are divided into three groups: written papers (4 to 7 hours), practicals (laboratory
experiments) and orals (before the jury). The successful candidates are recruited as permanent
teachers. During the first year they work a limited number of hours, so as to get acquainted with
pedagogic practice. They usually teach in the Lycées, secondary schools for pupils from 16 to 18
years. Those having taken the Agrégation in Earth and Life Sciences teach the classical mainstream
pupils, those having taken the Agrégation in Biological Engineering teach pupils in the technical
education stream, who generally will not continue into higher education. Some of them become
lecturers at the University or in the preparatory classes for entrance to Grandes Ecoles.
Candidates to CAPES - having obtained a Licence - prepare the examination in the IUFM within the
Universities (see § 2 1 1 ) During the first year they study for the written and oral parts of the
12
examination. The eligible candidates must follow a second year, where they are instructed in teaching
practice under the supervision of a senior permanent teacher, and receive additional training in
teaching methods. Before being recruited as fully qualified teachers, they are again assessed by a
jury. The CAPET examination follows the same rules as those of the CAPES. The Professeurs
Certifiés teach in the Collèges secondary schools to pupils from 11 to 15 years and in the Lycées (see
above).
Due to insufficient permanent teachers in secondary, there are several other grades of non-statutory
teachers, such as the Maîtres-Auxilliaires (Auxillary Masters), without tenure. They are usually holders
of a Licence or a Maîtrise degree but they were not successful (or even candidates) for the
competitive qualifying examinations. They work under fixed-term contracts (for one year usually).
Their salaries are lower than those of statutory teachers, and they teach more hours: 21 h a week as
compared to 18 h for holders of CAPES and 15 h for holders of Agrégation. This situation clearly
raises social and pedagogical problems in the French educational system.
3.2.4.
Role of Scientific Associations and Learned Societies
These associations play only a minimal role in professional education. The Ministry sometimes
consults the Académie des Sciences when it plans some reforms in educational programmes. The
Association des Grandes Ecoles is influential as regard to professional studies. Occasionally, some
Scientific Associations can act as a go-between for the students and institutions responsible for
dissemination of knowledge, essentially in Paris (Palais de la Découverte, Musée des Sciences et des
Techniques de la Villette, Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle). Finally, some teachers associations
are very active in these consultative processes (see above § 3.2.2.).
3.2.5.
Others
The official consultative bodies - the CNESER (Conseil National de l'Enseignement Supérieur et de la
Recherche, National Council for Higher Education and Research) and the CNE (Comité National
d'Evaluation, National Committee for Evaluation, see above § 2.1.3.) - participate in the elaboration of
policy for professional Higher Education. Trade Unions and other Associations of academics also take
part in these debates.
4. New needs in Biology studies
4.1. Shortcomings and gaps
Rapid progress in our knowledge during the last few decades has obliged French Universities to
adapt, and biology teaching seems to be in general adequate in France. There is no major imbalance
between disciplines, and teaching is reasonably up to date. The most serious problems are linked to
the dichotomy of the French system, where one finds side by side Grandes Ecoles practising a very
strong selection and training a very small number of students (85,000 in 1998, including the Schools
belonging to Universities and the IUPs), and the totally open university system which has to take in
ever more students (1,450,000 in 1998, of which 630,000 are in the first cycle, see Annex 2). A very
large disproportion also exists in the resources allocated to these two sectors. This situation weighs
heavily on all university training, but its negative effects are reinforced in the teaching of experimental
sciences.
The form of teaching still largely dominant in French Universities gives an excessive place to formal
lectures (see § 3.1.1.2.). This trend is increased by the shortage of university libraries. Contact with
experimental research is often indirect and poor, too often limited to Practicals being somehow
artificial as compared to genuine laboratory work. These shortcomings have historical reasons but
their survival, even their recent worsening, mostly stems from the lack of resources in terms of staff
and equipment in university institutions. The overuse of formal lectures is obviously favoured for
budget reasons and the same reasons also explain the size of tutorials (Travaux Dirigés) and limit the
interest and meaning of practical training. French academics have relatively heavy teaching duties,
and they teach rather large classes. This problem is partly related to the existence of separate
institutions for research mainly the CNRS (National Center for Scientific Research) whose scientists
do not teach (except in doctoral studies in a few cases). This institution, vital for the good health of
fundamental research in France was created after the second world war to offset the insufficiency of
research carried out within the Universities, and has since taken over its role.
The other level where inadequacy is to be noted concerns flexibility. On the one hand, contrary to the
wishes of the legislators in 1968, the present structure of Universities does not favour multidisciplinary
studies. This creates problems in implementing teaching at the interface between different disciplines
(mathematics and biology, or physics and biology for instance). Difficulties are even greater in relation
to the training of students in a group of disciplines such as linguistics, computer science, psychology
and neurobiology. The need for multidisciplinary teaching will become greater. Generally, in spite of
the smaller size of French Universities since 1968, interactions between departments are rare. They
are nearly non existant between Science and Arts departments, even when they coexist in one
University, which is rare. This is probably correlated to the almost complete disappearance in France
of the notion of a campus, as has been maintained in anglo-saxon Universities. Difficulties of the same
sort are also encountered when adaptation to outside systems and methods are concerned. This is
not the case for trans-european exchanges, french Universities being now very active in the ErasmusSocrates scheme.
4.2. Future requirements
It will be necessary in the near future to train a more significant proportion of students in
multidisciplinary studies including biology and other subjects. The most clear examples are the
requirements for training in biological physics (beyond traditional biophysics), in biological chemistry
(far beyond biochemistry), in environmental sciences (where interactions between ecologists and
geographers are still insufficient) and in the subjects which are now commonly grouped together as
cognition sciences.
Another aspect of future requirements lies in the balance between fundamental and applied science.
The policy for science has to be examined because Higher Education is inseparable from fundamental
research. Biology has progressed into the sphere of industrial and medical applications. Links
between academic institutions and the large industries are now possible, and they are encouraged. If
we are not careful, however, the risk exists of subjecting university research financing to rules of the
market. This would be a major mistake, which would ultimately threaten the pursuit of innovation.
5. Ways to satisfy these new demands
5.1. At the university level
New needs cannot be covered in a single University. It would thus be useful for French Universities to
organize a simple system for inter-university cooperation, as they already do for doctoral studies.
Collaboration is more difficult to organize for undergraduate studies, but it is a necessity. The new
credit system instituted in 1994 (modules, see §3.1.1.2.) should enable more students to study partly
in another department or another French university, and allow easier exchanges with European
universities.
Students in biology should be exposed earlier to the realities of the laboratory or the field. Two targets
should be aimed at: (i) to improve the quality of practical teaching, and (ii) to organize training periods
in research laboratories for undergraduate students on a more systematic basis. Concerning practical
teaching, three things should be revised. First, experiments to be performed should come closer to
true experimental practise, in particular for students in their third and fourth year. Then, Universities
should be provided with technical staff sufficiently trained, and whose working conditions and salaries
are appropriate, which is very seldom the case. Lastly, the budget allocated for teaching should be
evaluated, taking into account the real costs for practical teaching in such subjects as biology. These
two last points largely come under the responsability of the government, which allocates to
Universities the bulk of their current budget and the whole of their staff endowment. Concerning the
second target, a training period in research laboratories is still uncommon and those in existence are
often optional and vaguely designed. It has now been officially recognized that these training periods
can be considered as integral parts of the undergraduate scientific studies, and accounted for in
student evaluation. It is the responsability of Universities to promote this kind of training and to
organize it efficiently Given the limited capacity of research laboratories for welcoming undergraduate
14
students, this cannot be extended to the 15,000 students registered in a biology Maîtrise in France.
Other types of individual study (bibliography, other kinds of investigation...) should be proposed for
those students whose taste and abilities do not lead them to experimental research.
5.2. At the government level
It is not always easy to determine the level (University versus government) at which decisions should
be taken to satisfy new needs. French Universities obtain their resources from the government, but
they have some latitude to divide them. Some elements, like the budget allocated for practical classes
(TP) or the quality of technical staff (see § 5.1.) depend upon choices made by the University, but
even more upon the overall level of its total funding. Indeed, the Higher Education budget has not
reached the level that successive governments have themselves decided was appropriate. A
reasonable target could be to make up this deficit.
The effort to promote fundamental science should also be increased, including the sectors which do
not appear to be of immediate profit, first and foremost because there cannot be a good degree level
education that is not closely linked to concomitant advanced fundamental research. This would also
allow more students in biology to have access to laboratories in their fourth year of studies, under
realistic and beneficial conditions (see § 4.1.1.).
The rules for distributing teaching duties should be reconsidered (cf § 2.3. et § 4.1.1.). In particular,
the government should find ways of promoting a greater participation of scientists in CNRS, INSERM
or INRA, in university teaching in biology, without endangering the existence, originality or the mission
of these organizations.
It is also the responsability of the government to improve dissemination of general information among
the public, and to provide for continuing education to biology teachers. From this point of view and
amongst other initiatives, the presence and functions of secondary school teachers seconded to the
University should be considered. For some years now, positions exist at the University which are kept
aside for secondary school teachers (Agrégés, these positions being named PRAG). However, on the
one hand these are nearly exclusively allocated to Arts departments, and on the other hand these
positions are only for teaching, not for research, at least in principle. It might be useful that such
positions be available for a reasonable period of time (3 to 4 years for instance), to secondary school
teachers in science. This would have a real meaning only if they were involved in reasearch projects,
enabling them to participate in the continuing education of their colleagues when back in secondary
schools.
The dual system of Universities and distinct Grandes Ecoles is a French feature which was the source
of serious drawbacks. Barriers are now less strict between the two systems and true collaborations
now exist, noticeably for doctoral studies. These collaborations could be expanded to the field of
research (where most of the Schools do not have a strong tradition) and to teaching. The government
could encourage the development of these relationships.
Links between Universities and industry were strongly encouraged by successive governments, and
progress in biological siences has indeed led to major development in the realms of industrial
production. However, nothing was planned for the efficient management of these links. The
Universities possibly delegated one of their member to this task, without them having the resources,
the expertise, nor even the necessary time to deal successfully with this issue. Rather, the
government should give Universities the resources to hire competent professionals, able to do the job.
Concerning European cooperation, governments have encouraged the Universities to actively
participate in Eramus, but they did not fund the necessary administrative staff, neither for Universities,
nor for the government agencies. In addition, despite the substantial problem of student housing in
most large cities in France, nothing was done to plan the accomodation of additional European
students that could be expected from the success of Erasmus. Finally, it is urgently required that the
French government extend and improve the teaching of several European languages. The complete
domination of English (with Spanish as poor relation) has some serious disadvantages, and the trend
is becoming worse.
5.3. At the European Union level
The recent establishment of the ECTS (European Credit Transfer System) in our universities allows
useful comparisons between biology curricula in Europe and constructive thinking about the ways to
for the duration of the three universitary degrees by France, Italy, Germany and United Kingdom
illustrates perfectly this process.
It would however be dangerous to try to define a dogmatic model for the teaching of biology, which
would be applied everywhere in Europe. Such efforts would be in vain, and would only result in the
strengthening of local prejudice against every attempt at harmonization and convergence.
In biology, a specific policy for promoting the mobility of PhD students would be of great significance.
Indeed, this is the level where similarities are already high, and this might play a catalytic role because
of its central position between undergraduate studies and employment. In this regard, the summer
courses and student mobility promoted by the Erasmus programme play an interesting role. Many
other programmes of the EC participate to the training of PhD students: Training and Mobility of
Researchers, Biomed, Biotech, Agriculture and fisheries, environment etc... Finally, the Eurobio PhD
project requiring a mobility of six months, mainly in Excellence Research Centers of the EC, should
also improve the quality of PhD biological studies.
On the other hand, problems of qualitative evaluation of curricula should be approached in a very
cautious way. This is in fact a subject where difficulties are already very obvious within the member
states who have started to consider it. This is typically an area where supranational intervention runs
the risk of being ill-received. The European Union could still play an useful role in furthering the
exchange of information on present practices, their results and pitfalls, and by providing a forum for
discussion.
The last aspect of European Union intervention could revolve around the support provided for basic
research in biology. The research policy adhered to untill now by the European Commission was
essentially devoted to the concept of technology transfer. Such a choice can be disputed, as can be
the centralized procedures for its implementation, which are considered to be heavy and poorly
adapted (see I.B. Holland, 1994).
References
Publications du Ministère de l'Education Nationale
- Notes d’information n°98-09, 98-10, 98-19, 98-20, 98-21, 98-29, 98-30. (Direction de
programmation et du Développement) This documentation is now available
http//www.education.gouv.fr/dpd
- Rapport sur les études doctorales, Paris, (Direction Générale de la Recherche et de
Technologie)Février 1994
- Annuaire des Diplômes d’Études Approfondies . (Direction Générale de la Recherche et de
Technologie)Paris, Novembre 1995.
-
la
at
la
la
Annuaires de l’Enseignement Supérieur 1998 (Publications l’Étudiant), Paris , 1998.
Holland IB (1994) A fresh start for European science. Nature 367: 592
Holland IB (1994) European biotechnology - scourge or saviour of the basic scientist ? Trends in
Biotechnology 12: 253-254
Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledge Professors André Adoutte (université Paris XI, Orsay), Philippe Ascher
(Ecole Normale Supérieure, Paris), Jean-Claude Boucaut (Université Paris VI), Gilbert Brun and
Germain Gillet (Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon), I. Barry Holland (Institut de Génétique et
Microbiologie, Orsay) et Isabelle Olivieri (université de Montpellier II) for their remarks and
suggestions. They are not however responsible for the opinions expressed here, nor the possible
errors and omissions, which are the authors' own.
16
Annex 1
Annex 2
18
Annex 3
French universities having biology (1997-98)
UNIVERSITIES
1- Aix-Marseille I
2- Aix-Marseille II
3- Aix-Marseille III
4- Amiens
5- Angers
6- Antilles-guyane
7- Artois
8- Avignon
9- Besançon
10- Bordeaux I
11- Bordeaux II
12- Brest
13- Bretagne Sud
14- Caen
15- Cergy-Pontoise
16- Clermont-Ferrand I
17- Clermont-Ferrand II
18- Corte
19- Dijon
20- Grenoble I
21- La Réunion
22- La Rochelle
23- Le Mans
24- Le Havre
25- Lille I
26- Limoges
27- Littoral
28- Lyon I
29- Lyon II
30- Metz
31- Montpellier II
32- Nancy I
33- Nantes
34- Nice
35- Orléans
36- Pacifique
37- Pau
38- Perpignan
39- Poitiers
40- Reims
41- Rennes I
42- Rouen
43- Saint-Etienne
44- Strasbourg I
45- Toulouse III
Biochimie*
LM
LM
M
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
Biologie *
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
M
M
L
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
L
L
LM
L
LM
L
LM
L
LM
LM
L
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
Biologie générale*
M
LM
LM
M
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
M
M
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
L
LM
LM
L
LM
LM
L
L
L
LM
L
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
L
L
L
LM
LM
LM
LM
L
LM
LM
Annex 3 (continued)
UNIVERSITIES
46- Tours
47- Versailles
48- Paris V
49- Paris VI
50- Paris VII
51- Paris XI
52- Paris XII
53- Paris XIII
Biochimie*
LM
LM
LM
LM
Biologie*
LM
LM
L
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
Biologie générale*
LM
LM
LM
LM
The table indicates the universities awarding Licence (L) and Maîtrise (M) degrees in Biochimie
(Biochemistry,) Biologie (Biology: organismal and population biology, cellular and molecular biology,
physiology, etc... ) and Biologie générale (Natural History, preparation of secondary school teachers).
* For definitions of these terms in the French education system, see text. Sources: Annuaires de
l’Enseignement Supérieur 1998 (Publications l’Étudiant), Paris , 1998.
20
Annex 4
Second cycle degrees in biology in French universities (1997-1998)
______________________________________________________________________
Title
_______________________________________
Licences
Maîtrises
__________
_______________
Biochimie
marked biochimie moléculaire et cellulaire
marked biochimie structurale
marked nutrition
marked biochimie moléculaire et cellulaire,
biochimie structurale
29
Biologie
marked biologie générale et sciences de la terre
marked biologie générale et sciences de la terre
et de l’univers1
marked formation des professeurs
marked biologie cellulaire et physiologie
marked biologie des organismes
7*°
34*
18
3
5
1
2
1*
1
31
20
Biologie cellulaire et physiologie
marked biologie générale
marked biologie générale et sciences
de la terre
marked génétique moléculaire et cellulaire
marked nutrition humaine
marked physiologie
marked sciences et technologies du végétal
13*°
14*
Biologie des population et des écosystèmes
marked environnement
marked formation des professeurs
20
13
1*
Sciences cognitives
3*
13
1
23
1
3
3
______________________________________________________________________
The table gives the number of universities entitled to award the Licence and Maîtrise degrees of a
given type, as indicated. * Indicate the differnt curricula proposed for the preparation of secondary
school teachers in biology. ° Most of these degrees allow preparation of secondary school teachers
as well as specialized studies in different biology fields. Sources: Annuaire de l’Enseignement
Supérieur 1998, Publication l’étudiant, Paris, 1998).
Annex 5
Second cycle degrees in the field of
Life Sciences in French universities
All degrees below have 500 to 550 h teaching per year
______________________________________________________________________
1.1. Licence de biochimie (3rd year degree in biochemistry)
including 100 h minimum of practicals and 250 h minimum of:
- organic chemistry
- structural and metabolic biochemistry
- enzymology
- molecular biology
1.2. Maîtrise de biochimie (4th year degree in biochemistry)
- physico-chemistry of biological molecules
- molecular biology
for the maîtrises marked:
molecular and cellular biochemistry
structural biochemistry
150 h minimum of specific teaching in these subjects
2.1. Licence de biologie (3rd year degree in biology)
- structural and metabolic biochemistry
- molecular biology
- cellular biology
- genetics
for the licences marked:
cellular biology and physiology
biology of organisms
general biology and earth science
2.2.a. Maîtrise de biologie cellulaire et physiologie (4th year degree in cell biology and physiology)
- molecular and cellular genetics, immunology, developmental biology
- molecular and cellular physiology, physiology of main functions
for the maîtrises marked:
molecular and cellular genetics
physiology
general biology
2.2.b. Maîtrise de biologie des populations et des écosystèmes (4th year degree in population
biology and biology of ecosystems)
- population biology and population genetics
- ecosystems and environment
- soil, hydrosphere and atmosphere sciences
- modelling
- ethology, ecophysiology
for the maîtrise marked:
environment
_________________________________________________________________________________
Universities may ask for dispensations, which they have to justify. Sources: Journal officiel de la
république française, 17 février 1993, pp. 2577-2581.
22
Annex 6
Diplômes d'Etudes Supérieures Spécialisés (DESS) degrees in biology
in France (1994-1998)
DESS title
Agriculture et environnement
Aménagement intégré des territoires
Assurance qualité du médicament
Assurance qualité en agro-alimentaire, chimie et bio-industrie
Biologie-Biotechnologie
Biologie de la reproduction
Biologie et pharmacologie du vieillissement
Biologie et technique de commercialisation
Biotechnologie des champignons
Biotoxicologie environementale et industrielle
Communication et information scientifique et médicale
Conception de projets en éco-développement
Conception, valorisation et analyses du médicament
Conseil aux collectivités territoriales en matière de politique de
développement et de politique de l’environnement
Contrôle de la qualité des aliments
Contrôle des médicaments
Controle des médicaments et des cosmétiques
Cosmétologie: conception, réalisation et communication
Cosmétotechnie
Cytologie moléculaire et appliquée
Design industriel-conception des produits
Développement agricole
Développement et enregistrement international des médicaments
Développement pharmaceutique et fabrication industrielle
des produits de santé
Développement, production, management et stratégies
dans les bio-industries
Distribution de l’industrie des réactifs et du matériel de laboratoire
Documentation chimique du médicament
Droit économie gestion des entreprises agricoles et agro-alimentaires
Droit de l’agriculture et des filières agro-alimentaires
Droit de l’agro-alimentaire
Droit de la santé
Droit médical
Dynamique des écosystèmes aquatiques
Eau-santé-environnement
Eaux continentales: pollutions et aménagements
Eaux souterraines- hydrogélogie chimique et physique
Economie du système agro-alimentaire
Economie et gestion du secteur agro-alimentaire
Economie et gestion des systèmes de santé
Économie rurale et gestion des entreprises agro-alimentaires
Écosystèmes méditerrannéens
Universities______
INP de Toulouse
INA Paris-Grignon
Montpellier II
Toulouse III
Paris V
Tours
Aix-Marseille III
Paris V
Paris VI
Grenoble I
Bordeaux II
Lille II
Paris VII
Lille I
Rennes I
Paris XIII
Dijon
Grenoble I
Paris XI
Reims
Paris XI
Nantes
Montpellier II
Compiègne
Paris I
Paris XI
Bordeaux II
Orléans
Limoges
Reims
Toulouse I
Paris I
Nantes
Bordeaux IV
Paris XI
Tours
Pau
Bordeaux II
Besançon
Grenoble I
Angers
Nantes
Aix-Marseille II
Pau
Paris I
Montpellier I
Corte
Annex 6 (continued)
DESS title
Éducation et santé
Élaboration et amélioration de la production végétale
Environnement en milieu rural
Environnement, aménagement et développement agricole
et agro-alimentaire
Environnement, gestion et équipements des pays de montagne
Environnement, sols, eaux continentales et marines
Epidémiologie appliquée
Ergonomie
Ergonomie: conception des systèmes de travail et santé
Ergonomie et changements technologiques
Ergonomie et conception des systèmes de production
Ergonomie et gestion des risques professionnels
Ergonomie et psycxhologie du travail
Ergonomie industrielle
Essais cliniques et marketing pharmaceutiques
Espace et milieux
Espace rural et environnement
Exploitation des ressources vivantes côtières
Ethologie appliquée et chronobiologie du comportement
Facteurs humains et systèmes de travail
Fiabilité et disponibilité des produits et services
Formation de formateurs en sciences et techniques
Formation en santé, stratégies et développement de formation en santé
Génie biomédical
Génie cellulaire et moléculaire
Génie de l’environnement
Génie des procédés des traitements des eaux
Génie protéique
Gestion de la planète: environnement
Gestion de la qualité nutritionnelle et marketing des produits alimentaires
Gestion de projets en situation de développement
Gestion des industries agro-alimentaires
Gestion des propriétés sensorielles des aliments
Gestion des ressources naturelles renouvelables
et amélioration de la qualité de la vie
Gestion des systèmes agro-sylvo-pastoraux en zones tropicales
Gestion globale des risques et des crises
Gestion sociale et territoriale des déchets et pollutions
Hydrogéologie et environnement
Hygiène sécurité et protection de l'environnement
Immunotechnologie
Industries laitières
Information médicale à l’hôpital et dans les flilières de soin
Informatique appliquée à la biologie
Universities______
Lille II, III
Clermont-Ferrand II
INP Toulouse
Amiens
Chambéry
Caen
Rouen
Grenoble I
Paris V
Bordeaux II
Lyon II
Paris I
St Etienne
Dijon
Poitiers
Valenciennes
Poitiers
Paris VII
Dijon
Caen
Paris XIII
Amiens
Angers
Bordeaux I
Pau
Paris XIII
Lyon I
Lille I
Paris XI
Lille I
INP Lorraine
Nancy I
Nice
Lille I
Bordeaux II
Dijon
Dijon
Lille I
Paris XII
Paris I
Le Mans
Avignon
Reims
Aix-Marseille II
INP de Nancy
Nancy I
Montpellier I
Aix-Marseille II
Nancy I
Paris VI
24
Annex 6 (continued)
DESS title
Informatique appliquée aux sciences expérimentales
Informatique et applications aux sciences de la vie
Informatisation et communication homme-machine
Ingénierie de l’eau, mesures, méthodes
Ingénierie des laboratoires de biologie
Ingénierie marine mention télécommunication robotique
Instrumentation en biologie et médecine
Maîtrise d’ouvrage et maîtrise d’oeuvre en aménagement environnemental
Maîtrise et gestion de l’environnement industriel
Maîtrise et management de la qualité dna les entreprises agroalimentaires
Management des entreprises agro-alimentaires
Management des industries pharmaceutiques et des technologies médicales
Management environnemental et qualité des eaux
Marketing management et droit des industries de santé (européen)
Marketing pharmaceutique
Marketing, santé et société
Méthodes scientifiques et techniques en archéologie
Méth. statistiques des industries agro-alimentaires et pharmaceutiques
Méthodologies analytiques appliquées aux produits de santé
Microbiologie
Microbiologie appliquée à l’hygiène des produits pharmaceutiques,
cosmétiques et alimentaires
Microbiologie appliquée et génie biologique
Modèles cellulaires in vitro: application à l'évaluation des xenobiotiques
Neuropsychopharmacologie et toxicomanies
Nutrition et alimentation dans les pays en développement
Oenologie des vins de Champagne
Pharmacie galénique industrielle
Pharmacie industrielle
Pharmacocinétique et métabolisme des médicaments
Pharmacotechnie vétérinaire
Physique-chimie des aérosols et aérocontaminations
Pollutions chimiques et environnement
Prévention des risques et nuisances technologiques
Productions animales en régions chaudes
Production et contrôle pharmaceutique
Productions animales, environnement, hygiène et qualité
Productivité végétale
Promotion de la santé et du développement social
Promotion et développement de l’éducation à la santé
Protection et valorisation du végétal
Psychologie clinique et pathologique
Universities______
Toulouse III
INP de Toulouse
Paris V
Valenciennes
Bordeaux III
Nantes
Toulon
Aix-Marseille II
Tours
Grenoble I
Nantes
Rennes I
Lyon III
Limoges
Bordeaux II
Paris XI
Paris VI
Dijon
Montpellier II
Bordeaux II
Lyon I
Strasbourg I
Paris VI
Paris XI
INA-Paris Grignon
École Vétérinaire
Paris XII
Bordeaux II
Montpellier II
Reims
Lille II
Lyon I
Grenoble I
Strasbourg I
Paris XI
Paris V
Limoges
Paris XII
Paris XI
Aix-Marseille II
Ecole Vétérinaire
INA-Paris Grignon
Museum Paris
Toulouse III
Tours
Paris VII
Nancy I
Aix-Marseille I
Pau
Paris X
Annex 6 (continued)
DESS title
Psychologie clinique et psychopathologique
Psychologie de la santé
Psychologie du travail et ergonomie
Qualité chimique et biologique des atmosphères
Qualité des produits et sécurité alimentaire
Qualité du médicament de la préformulation à la transpostion industrielle
Qualité, environnement et sécurité dans l’industrie
Qualité totale et bioproduits
Qualitologie: gestion de la qualité
Radiopathologie-radioprotection
Règlementation du médicament dans l’union européenne
Relations industries santé, gestion et optimisation des flux d’interface
Relations publiques de l’environnement
Répartition pharmaceutique
Ressources animales et végétales
Ressources naturelles et environnement
Ressources naturelles et matériaux minéraux
Santé publique
Santé, protection sociale et vieillissement
Sciences de l’environnement
Sciences et procédés des industries alimentaires
Sciences et techniques des productions horticoles
Structure et analyse des matières plastiques à usage pharmaceutique
Sûreté de fonctionnement des systèmes industriels
Sûreté de mission des organisations
Technologies alimentaires avancées
Technologie du végétal
Technologie et gestion industrielle
Technologie et logistique en biologie et médecine
Technologies appliquées aux organes végétaux
Technologies biomédicales hospitalières
Traduction et rédaction spécialisée (Anglais, domaine biomédical)
Traitement de l’information médicale et hospitalière
Urbanisme, aménagement, environement
Universities______
Besançon
Dijon
Metz
Strasbourg I
Paris VII
INP de Toulouse
Dijon
Dijon
Angers
Lyon I
Grenoble 1
Lille II
Angers
Cergy-Pontoise
Limoges
Corte
Metz
INP de Nancy
Nancy I
Toulouse III
Paris V, VI, VII, XI
Grenoble II
Strasbourg I
INP Lorraine
INP de Toulouse
Paris XI
Le Havre
Angers
Artois
Angers
Bordeaux I
Lille I
Lille II
Paris VI
Compiègne
Lyon II
Rennes I
Reims
Universities organizing jointly a DESS degree are indicated on successive lines. INP: Institut National
Polytechnique (National Polytechnics Institutes) they are 3 in France, having statute of universities.
INA: Institut National Agronomique Paris-Grignon (National Institute for Agronomy). Sources:
Universités, les diplômes de troisième cycle: Diplômes d'Etudes Supérieures Spécialisées 1993-1994
(Publications du Ministère de l'Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche, Direction Générale des
Enseignements Supérieurs) Paris, 1994; Annuaire de l’Enseignement supérieur 1998, (Publications
L’étudiant) Paris 1998.
26
Annex 7
Diplômes d'Etudes Approfondies (DEA) degrees in biology
in France (1995-1998)
DEA title
Activités biologiques des substances naturelles
Adaptation et survie en environnements extrêmes
Analyse de génomes et modèlisation moléculaire
Analyse et modélisation des systèmes biologiques
Bases de la production végétale
Bases cellulaires et moléculaires du fonctionnement
rénal normal et pathologique
Bases fondamentales de l'oncogenèse
Bases génétiques et moléculaires du système immunitaire
Biochimie
Biochimie, biologie cellulaire et moléculaire
Biodiversité: génétique, histoire et mécanismes de l’évolution
Biologie
Biologie cellulaire
Biologie cellulaire
Biologie cellulaire
Biologie cellulaire, biologie structurale et microbiologie
Biologie cellulaire et moléculaire
Biologie cellulaire et moléculaire des épithéliums digestifs
Biologie cellulaire et moléculaire et sciences de la santé
Biologie cellulaire et moléculaire végétale
Biologie de la cellule normale et pathologique
Biologie de l’évolution et écologie
Biologie des cellules sanguines
Biologie des populations et éco-éthologie
Biologie diversité et adaptations des plantes cultivées
Biologie du comportement
Biologie du système buccal et osseux et biocompatibilité
des matériaux de remplacement
Biologie du vieillissement
Biologie et biophysique moléculaires et cellulaires
Biologie et génétique moléculaires et cellulaires- biotechnologies
Biologie et pharmacologie cutanées
Biologie et pharmacologie de l’hémostase et des vaisseaux
Biologie et physiologie de la circulation et de la respiration
Biologie et productions animales
Biologie forestière
Biologie moléculaire de la cellule
Biologie moléculaire et cellulaire du développement
Biologie ostéoarticulaire, biomécanique et biomatériaux
Biologie-santé
Biologie-santé
Biologie-santé
Biologie structurale et fonctionnelle
Biomathématiques
Biomembranes: biochimie, biologie physiologie et
pharmacologie cellulaires
Biomécanique: mécanique des sytèmes biologiques
Coordinating university__
Museum Paris
Lyon I*
Paris VII
Lyon I*
Montpellier II*
Paris VII*
Paris VII*
Paris V
Lyon I*
Dijon*
Paris XI*
Clermont-Ferrand II*
Nantes*
Nice
Caen*
Aix-Marseille II*
Grenoble I
Paris VI*
Strasbourg I
Paris VII
Rennes I*
Toulouse III*
Paris V*
Montpellier II
Paris VII
Tours*
Paris XI*
Paris XIII*
Paris VII*
Paris VII*
Orléans*
Toulouse III*
Paris VII*
VII*
Paris VII*
Rennes I
Nancy I*
Paris XI
Paris VI*
Paris VII*
Bordeaux II
Lille II*
Montpellier II*
Grenoble I
Paris VI*
Poitiers*
Paris XII*
Annex 7 (continued)
DEA title
Biophysique moléculaire
Paris VI*
Biotechnologies et industries alimentaires
INP Lorraine
Biostatistiques
Montpellier I*
Chimie, environnement et santé
Aix-Marseille II*
Chimie des biomolécules et applications
Toulouse III
Chimie et microbiologie de l’eau
Poitiers*
Chimie informatique et théorique
StrasbourgI*
Conditions matérielles de pratique sportive, mécanique
et physiologie de l’entrainement
Rennes II*
Cristallographie et RMN biologiques
Paris XI*
Différenciation, génétique et immunologie
Lyon I*
Droit social
Lille II
Écologie
Paris XI*
Écologie microbienne
Lyon I*
Écosystèmes continentaux arides, méditerranéens et montagnards
Aix-Marseille III*
Endocrinologie et interactions cellulaires
Paris XI*
Environnement: temps espaces, société, gestion de la
biodiversité et développement durable
Orléans*
Épidémiologie clinique et évaluation des actions de santé
Nancy I*
Épidémiologie et intervention en santé publique
Bordeaux II*
Éthique médicale et biologique
Nancy I*
Expression gènique chez les micro-organismes
Paris XI*
Fonctionnement physique, chimique et biologique
de la biosphère continentale
Paris VI*
Génétique adaptations et productions végétales
Rennes I
Génétique cellulaire et moléculaire
Paris XI*
Génétique humaine
Paris VI*
Génétique moléculaire des maladies du développement
et de l’oncogénèse
Paris V
Génie biologique
Nancy I*
Génie biologique et médical
Lyon I*
Génie biologique et médical
Paris XIII*
Génie biomédical
Compiègne*
Génie enzymatique, bioconversion, microbiologie
Compiègne*
Immunologie
Aix-Marseille II
Immunologie
Paris VI*
Informatique et ingénierie
Informatique médicale
Rennes I
Instrumentation et informatique de l’image
Dijon*
Interaction hôtes-parasites
Paris XII*
Interactions toxiques dans les écosystèmes et biotechnologies
liées aux toxines
Museum Paris
Interface chimie-biologie: syst. moléculaires à visée thérapeutique
Montpellier I*
Métabolisme et mécanisme d'action des médicaments
Nancy I*
Métabolismes endocrinologie nutrition
Lyon I
Méthodes d’analyse des systèmes de santé
Lyon I*
Méthodes de recherche sur l’environnement et la santé
Grenoble I*
Méthodes d'évaluation des agents anti-infectieux
Paris VII*
Microbiologie
Paris VII*
Microbiologie: écologie microbienne, pathogénie des microorg.
Paris XI*
Microbiologie, enzymologie, nutrition
Nancy I
Microbiologie fondamentale et appliquée
Caen*
28
Annex 7 (continued)
DEA title
Modèles et instruments en médecine et biologie
Molécules et matériaux organiques
Muséologie des sciences naturelles et humaines
Neurobiologie des processus de communication et d’intégration
Neurosciences
Neurosciences
Neurosciences
Neurosciences
Neurosciences et neuropharmacologie
Neuropsychologie
Nutrition: aspects moléculaires et cellulaires
Nutrition et sciences des aliments
Océanologie biologique et environnement marin
Oenologie et ampélologie
Paléontologie
Parasitologie
Pharmacochimie moléculaire, pharmacologie expérimentale
Pharmacologie cardiovasculaire
Pharmacologie et biologie cellulaires et moléculaires
Pharmacologie et pharmacochimie
Pharmacologie expérimentale et clinique
Pharmacologie moléculaire et cellulaire
Pharmacologie moléculaire et cellulaire
Pharmacotechnie et biopharmacie
Physiologie cellulaire et moléculaire des plantes
Physiologie de la reproduction
Physiologie des invertébrés
Physiologie du développement et de la
différenciation fonctionnelle
Physiologie et biomécanique de la performance motrice
Physiologie et physiopathologie de la nutrition humaine
Physiopathologie cellulaire et moléculaire
Psychopathologie et neurobiologie du développement
et des comportements
Physiopathologie humaine
Radiobiologie
Rayonnements et imagerie en Médecine
Relations hôte-greffon
Reproduction et développement
Santé publique
Santé publique et pays en voie de développement
Sciences agronomiques
Sciences alimentaires
Sciences chirurgicales
Sciences cognitives
Sciences cognitives
Sciences de l'alimentation
Sciences des agroressources
Sciences des aliments
Sciences des aliments (assurance qualité)
Sciences du bois
Sciences du sol
Grenoble I
Bordeaux I*
Museum Paris
Montpellier II*
Aix-Marseille I*
Lyon I*
Paris VI*
Strasbourg I*
Bordeaux II*
Lyon I*
Aix-Marseille III*
Paris VI*
Bordeaux II*
Montpellier II*
Lille II*
Paris V
Lyon I*
Nice
Strasbourg I
Paris XI*
Paris VI*
Toulouse III
Paris XI
Paris XI*
Paris VI*
Paris VI*
Paris VII*
Lille II*
Paris VII
Paris VI
Paris VI*
Toulouse III
Paris XI*
Toulouse III*
Besançon*
Montpellier I*
Paris XI
Paris VI
INP de Lorraine*
Paris XI*
Paris V
EHESS, Paris*
Paris XI
Dijon
INP Toulouse
Montpellier II*
Bordeaux I
Nancy I*
Nancy I*
Annex 7 (continued)
DEA title
Sciences et techniques appliquées au handicap et à la réadaptation
Dijon
Sciences et techniques des activités physiques et sportives
Aix-Marseille II*
Signaux et images en biologie et médecine
Tours*
Sports, performance facteurs biomécaniques
et environnement social
Grenoble I*,
Sport, santé, société
Bordeaux II*
Structure et fonctionnement des systèmes biologiques intégrés
Paris XI
Structure fonction et ingénierie des protéines
Paris VI*
Systématique animale et végétale
Museum Paris
Systèmes de communication intercellulaires en endocrinologie
Aix-Marseille II*
Systèmes de soin hospitaliers
Paris VII
Toxicologie
Paris V*
Thérapeutiques biotechnologiques
Paris VII
Toxicologie de l'environnement
Metz*
For DEA jointly organized by several universities, only the coordinating institution (*) is indicated.
EHESS: Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales (School for Social Science higher studies),
Paris. Museum : (Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle), Paris. INP: Institut National Polytechnique
(National Polytechnics Institutes) they are 3 in France, having statute of universities. Sources:
Annuaire des Diplômes d’Études Approfondies (Publications du Ministère de l'Enseignement supérieur
et de la Recherche, Direction Générale de la Recherche et de la Technologie) Paris, 1995.

Biology teaching in French Higher Education institutions

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