RMV 08 09:Revue 08

Nutrition and immunity in the newborn calf:
new advances from yeast based technologies
D. WILDE*
Alltech (UK) Ltd, Ryhall Road, Stamford, Lincolnshire, PE9 1TZ, UK.
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Cet article a fait l’objet d’une communication au 4ème “Dairy Solutions Symposium” les 25 et 26 septembre 2008, Lasalle Beauvais, FRANCE.
SUMMARY
Mortality rates in the newborn calf have not changed in the last ten years in
the national dairy herd, despite improvements in management and feeding
techniques. The reported mortality is primarily because of enteric diseases
within the first few weeks of life and a failure of transfer of passive immunity from dam to calf. The nutrition of the cow and calf in the periparturient
period can play a vital role in the early development of immunity in the neonate. In recent years, new technologies have emerged that are reported to
have a beneficial impact in preventing and aiding recovery from disease episodes. This short review considers some yeast based technologies that have
demonstrated creditable results when incorporated in to either the maternal
or neonatal diet. In particular, yeast cell wall derived mannanoligosaccharide
and its role in intestinal health and development is discussed, along with
yeast nucleotides and their impact on intestinal morphology. Mineral nutrition of the periparturient cow is examined with emphasis on the two trace
elements, selenium and iodine.
Keywords: Nutrition, immunity, mannanoligosaccharide,
nucleotide, selenium, iodine, dairy cow, calf.
RÉSUMÉ
Nutrition et immunité du veau nouveau-né : nouvelles données
Le taux de mortalité des veaux nouveaux-nés n’a fondamentalement pas
changé au cours des dix dernières années, malgré des progrès notables en
terme de gestion d’élevage et de nutrition. La mortalité rapportée est principalement due à des pathologies intestinales apparaissant dans les premières
semaines de vie ainsi qu’à un taux d’échec élevé de transfert de l’immunité
passive des vaches à leurs veaux. L’alimentation de la vache et du veau dans
la période entourant le vêlage peut jouer un rôle primordial dans le développement précoce de l’immunité du veau nouveau-né. Au cours des dernières années, de nouvelles technologies ont été testées avec un effet positif
sur la prévention et rapidité de guérison lors d’épisodes pathologiques.
Cette revue courte considère l’emploi de produits à base de levures qui ont
montré des résultats positifs lorsqu’ils ont été introduits dans l’alimentation
de la vache gestante ou dans celle de son veau dans les jours suivant sa naissance. L’emploi de mannan-oligosaccharides extraits de la paroi de levures
ainsi que de nucléotides issus de levures sera en particulier évoqué quant à
leurs effets bénéfiques sur l’équilibre de la flore intestinale et le développement de la muqueuse intestinale. L’alimentation en oligo-éléments de la
vache gestante est abordée, avec une attention particulière portée au rôle du
sélénium et de l’iode.
Mots clés : Nutrition, immunité, mannanoligosaccharides,
nucléotide, sélénium, iode, vache, veau.
Introduction
The health of the newborn calf is a limiting factor in achieving genetic growth potential. Globally, the size of individual dairy herds is increasing, which brings about many new
challenges for the farmers, such as overcrowding issues.
With increased cow numbers, there will also be increased
heifer calves for rearing. Whilst much thought is put in to
new housing for the lactating animals, often very little is
reserved for the calf housing. The potential increase in stocking density of the calves will bring it’s own stresses and
increased risk of disease and mortality. The majority of calf
mortality occurs within 3 weeks of life and usually due to
enteric problems, such as salmonella, E. coli, clostridia inter
alia. BLOWEY [2] estimated calf mortality in the United
Kingdom of live-born calves to be 2-5%. More recently,
BRICKELL [5] surveyed farms in southern England and
found neonatal mortality to be 3.4%, agreeing closely with
BLOWEY [2]. In both cases, this mortality is described as
calves born alive and dying within the first month of life.
Revue Méd. Vét., 2009, 160, 8-9, 425-428
Where perinatal mortality is considered (described as any
calf born dead or dying within 24 hours), BRICKELL [5]
found this to be 8.1%, ranging from 3-14%. ESSLEMONT
and KOSSAIBATI [7] put this figure at 7.8%, so there has
been a negative progression in 11 years. Further, in 1992, it
was estimated in the USA that 50% of pre-weaned calf mortality was directly related to inadequate passive immunity
[18]. Costs associated with mortality before weaning could
be as much as €260 per animal [8].
Maternal Nutrition
Immunity against pathogen loading and viruses begins
with the dam. Calves are born with an immune system that
is naive and must be “taught” before it is able to respond
fully to pathogenic challenges on its own. The second and
third week of life have been found to be the most critical in
terms of calf mortality and could be viewed as a “weak” period where the effectiveness of passive immunity is lessening
426
and adaptive immunity is not fully functional [25].
Colostrum is the calves main defence mechanism until the
active immunity is fully developed over the first month.
Clearly, enhancing colostrum quality and the potential for
uptake of the immunoglobulins is vital.
Mannanoligosaccharides
Recently, there has been much interest in the use of glycomics in animal nutrition. The functional role of certain carbohydrates in biochemical processes is being defined. The
Type 1 fimbral agglutination of mannose by bacteria has been
known since the 1960’s. Mannanoligosaccharides (MOS)
from the outer cell wall of saccharomyces cerevisiae are
attracting interest with their antigenic behaviour. It has been
established that the β-glucans cross link the proteins and that
this makes these proteins effective [15]. The MOS are comprised with over 50% carbohydrates forming fimbriae [17].
Studies on a particular mannanoligosaccharide – Bio-Mos®
(Alltech Inc, KY, USA) - have shown that strains of
Salmonella and Escherichia coli will agglutinate to it in vitro
and that it will thus act as a competitive, non-absorbable binding site in the intestinal lumen [23]. Bio-Mos® was first studied in milk replacer for calves in 1993 [20], where improvements in weight gain and a reduction in respiratory infection was seen. Since then, numerous studies have evaluated
the efficacy of this MOS in all species.
Researchers at the University of Kentucky found that supplementing the diet of precalving cows with 10g of the mannanoligosaccharide Bio-Mos® improved the response to a
vaccination program against rotavirus. The cows were vaccinated at 4 and 2 weeks before expected calving date and
blood measurements taken at calving and at 24 hours in cows
and their calves. Specific immunity was improved in the
cows and there was a tendency for the calves to have enhanced serum rotavirus neutralisation titres at 24 hours after
birth. The calves from cows supplemented with the MOS
also tended to have higher serum protein concentrations [9].
These results demonstrated that the use of this MOS in the
precalving diet of cows could enhance the response to specific immune responses and also improve the passive transfer
to calves via the colostrum.
Selenium
The mineral requirements of dairy cows was reviewed in
2001 by the National Research Council [19] in the USA.
However, the effect of differing sources of trace minerals, in
particular chelates and organic sources was not fully explored.
Selenium is well known as a major component of the immune
system and likened to being the keystone nutrient therein.
The best known selenoprotein is glutathione peroxidase
(GSH-px) and this is also involved in intestinal protection of
membranes.
Silvestre [22] examined the effect of replacing sodium
selenite with organic selenium yeast (Sel-Plex® Alltech Inc,
KY, USA) in Florida dairy cows. The study started 3 weeks
WILDE (D.)
pre-calving with cows fed 0.3 mg/kg DM selenium as either
form. The cows fed Sel-Plex® had significantly higher plasma Se concentrations (87µg/ml versus 69µg/ml), showed a
significant decrease in fever in multiparous cows by day 10
post calving (13.2% versus 25.4%) and improved uterine
health. The cows fed Sel-Plex® also had greater second service
pregnancy rates and produced more milk. In Canada [14],
researchers evaluated the effect of Se source on neutrophil
function and apoptosis. Cows receiving organic selenium
(Sel-Plex®) in place of sodium selenite had neutrophils that
could produce a greater oxidative burst. Interestingly, apoptosis of the neutrophils was not different between Control
cows (receiving no selenium supplementation) and cows
receiving Sel-Plex® (6% and 5% apoptosis, respectively).
However, cows fed sodium selenite had 20% apoptosis of the
neutrophils.
GUYOT et al. [11] at Liege University, Belgium, tested
the effect of replacing sodium selenite with organic selenium
yeast (Sel-Plex®) in the diets of Belgian Blue cows and examined the impact on calf health. The cows fed Sel-Plex® produced colostrum and milk with higher selenium content.
Only calves from these cows were born in good selenium
status (>70µg/l plasma) and they had lower incidence of neonatal diarrhoea. The average daily gain of the calves from
Sel-Plex® fed cows also tended (P=0.06) to be greater, though
there was a bias in the sex ratio of the calves that may have
caused this trend.
Iodine
Selenium also plays a role in the utilisation of iodine,
through the conversion of thyroxine to triiodothyronine via
the selenoprotein iodothyronine 5’-deiodinase. Awadeh [1]
tested the effect of level and chemical form of selenium on
thyroid hormones. Calves from cows supplemented with
60ppm Sel-Plex in the mineral salt had higher T3 at birth
than calves from cows supplemented with either 20 or
60ppm selenium as sodium selenite. As T3 is required in
growth and metabolism, this may go some way to explaining
the greater rate of gain in the Belgian study above.
The EU maximum inclusion of iodine is now 5.7mg/kg of
dry matter intake in ruminant animals having been reduced
by 50% in 2005 after concerns of transfer of high levels in to
milk and meat for human consumption. This caused concern
in many European countries where iodine deficiency in dairy
cattle was considered widespread, despite a lack of evidence.
Interestingly, a series of studies carried out in Ireland at the
University College of Dublin, reported that feeding mineral
supplements to ewes resulted in a very significant depression
in the uptake of IgG by the newborn lamb [3, 6, 10]. This
was true if the supplementation occurred in the final 2 weeks
prepartum and did not vary on source (powdered mineral,
liquid or block). BOLAND et al. [4] in a series of three further experiments examined individual minerals and found
that there was a negative linear reduction in serum IgG
concentration and absorption efficiency in lambs as the
maternal iodine supplementation increased. Neonatal health
is dependent upon IgG transfer from the dam and it has been
Revue Méd. Vét., 2009, 160, 8-9, 425-428
NUTRITION AND IMMUNITY IN THE NEWBORN CALF: NEW ADVANCES
427
demonstrated that overfeeding iodine has a detrimental
impact on IgG uptake in lambs. It is not known if the same
would be true in cows and calves, however, ensuring an adequate selenium status of both the cow and calf may have a
role in allowing lower levels of iodine to be included in the
daily diet, thus potentially avoiding the negative effects seen
in sheep.
containing purified nucleotides, the Nupro® fed calves had
improved intestinal morphology (through increased abundance of nucleoside transporter mRNA and lower alkaline
phosphatase), increased beneficial intestinal microflora and a
decreased diarrhoea incidence [16]. The yeast derived
nucleotides caused a numerical increase in villi length and
slightly greater xylose uptake.
Calf Nutrition
Conclusion
MANNANOLIGOSACCHARIDES
New technologies are being developed that may allow for
improved calf health without the use of antibiotics. Studies
are showing benefits to newborn animals through a decrease
in the incidence of enteric disease, improved IgG uptake and
lower mortality. These benefits can be transferred to the neonate
via colostrum from supplementation of these technologies to
the dam.
As previously discussed, the uptake of IgG by the newborn
animal is greatly influenced by maternal nutrition. The use of
mannanoligosaccharide from saccharomyces cerevisiae
(Bio-Mos®) in the diet of calves has also been examined. A
study at Penn State University compared Bio-Mos® (4g/day)
to antibiotics (Neomycin® and oxytetracycline) and a negative
control in milk replacer for calves up to 6 weeks of age [12].
They concluded that the Bio-Mos® was equally as effective
in improving faecal scores (faecal fluidity, scour severity and
faecal consistency) as the antibiotics, leading them to
conclude that the MOS could replace the antibiotics in milk
replacer formulation. By blocking the attachment and colonisation of the intestine by gram negative pathogenic bacteria
with Bio-Mos®, the autogenous population is in a less stressful
environment making the gut more efficient, and there will be
more nutrients available for lean tissue growth and immunity.
TERRE et al. [24] also examined the effect of Bio-Mos® in
milk replacer on calf health in an enhanced-growth feeding
program. Inclusion of the MOS stimulated greater starter
feed intake post weaning and resulted in a significant reduction
in Cryptosporidium spp in the first week of supplementation.
Further research in Australia [21] demonstrated positive
effects on intestinal morphology with the inclusion of mannoprotein (Bio-Mos®) in the milk replacer from day 2 to 21.
Serum IgG loss was reduced with supplementation and villi
height increased in the ileum. The defence functions of the
Peyer’s patches were also enhanced through greater numbers
of T cells.
Bio-Mos® also facilitates changes in the mucin production in
the intestinal lining. This could be due to the upregulation of
gene expression in crypt cells and brush border transporter proteins
[26]. Greater mucin production allows for better protection
against pathogen attachment and enhanced nutrient uptake.
These benefits of MOS in the diet of pre-weaned calves
are not restricted to health. Hooge [13] carried out a metaanalysis of 17 studies involving Bio-Mos® being incorporated
in to milk replacer. The average improvement in weight gain
was some 15%, equating to a daily weight gain increase of
70g per day.
NUCLEOTIDES
More recently, a source of nucleotides also from saccharomyces cerevisiae (Nupro®) has been used in early calf diets
via milk replacer. Compared to negative control and a diet
Revue Méd. Vét., 2009, 160, 8-9, 425-428
Conflict Statement
The author previously worked for Alltech (UK) Ltd.
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Revue Méd. Vét., 2009, 160, 8-9, 425-428
The relationship between trace elements
status and health in calves
F. ENJALBERT1,2*
Université de Toulouse ; INPT, ENVT ; UMR 1289 Tandem, Tissus Animaux, Nutrition, Digestion, Ecosystème et Métabolisme; ENVT, F-31076 Toulouse Cedex 3, FRANCE.
INRA ; UMR 1289 Tandem, Tissus Animaux, Nutrition, Digestion, Ecosystème et Métabolisme; Chemin de Borde-Rouge, Auzeville, F-31326 Castanet-Tolosan, FRANCE.
1
2
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Cet article a fait l’objet d’une communication au 4ème “Dairy Solutions Symposium” les 25 et 26 septembre 2008, Lasalle Beauvais, FRANCE.
SUMMARY
This paper reviews the present knowledge on the relationship between
selected trace element nutrition of cows or calves and the health in calves.
Trace elements deficiencies can lead to specific diseases relating to specific
nutritional functions; myopathy for selenium, goitre or thyroid dysfunction
for iodine, anaemia for iron. Insufficient status of copper, zinc and mainly
selenium can lead to a decrease of defences, mediated in the newborn calves
by a low transfer of immunoglobulin from the colostrum, and in older calves
by a depressed acquisition of immunity. These effects on immunity have
more often been demonstrated experimentally on biological markers of
immune defences than on the incidence of diseases. However, large scale
survey can evidence an increased risk of diseases, mainly diarrhoea, in calves
from herds with poor trace element status. As a consequence, deficiencies
must be avoided, particularly in late pregnancy cows, by meeting recommended allowances without imbalances, and checking the nutritional status
of animals when the dietary supply is uncertain.
Keywords: Calves, trace elements, copper, zinc, selenium,
iodine, iron.
RÉSUMÉ
Risques sanitaires liés au statut en oligo-éléments chez le veau
Cet article est une synthèse des connaissances actuelles relatives aux relations entre le statut nutritionnel en oligo-éléments des vaches ou de leurs
veaux et la santé des veaux. Les carences en oligo-éléments peuvent se traduire par des maladies spécifiques, en liaison avec des rôles nutritionnels
spécifiques : myopathie pour le sélénium, goitre ou insuffisance thyroïdienne
pour l'iode, anémie pour le fer. Un statut nutritionnel insuffisant en cuivre,
zinc et surtout sélénium peut conduire à de moindres défenses, chez le nouveau né en raison d'un moindre transfert d'immunoglobulines par le colostrum, et chez le veau plus âgé en raison d'une moindre immunité acquise.
Ces effets sur les défenses immunitaires ont le plus souvent été démontrés
expérimentalement sur des marqueurs biologiques plutôt que sur l'incidence des maladies. Cependant, des enquêtes à grande échelle peuvent mettre
en évidence un risque accru de maladies, surtout de diarrhée, chez les veaux
en troupeau carencé en oligo-éléments. Par conséquent, les carences doivent
être évitées, en particulier chez les vaches en fin de gestation, en couvrant
les apports recommandés sans déséquilibre, et en contrôlant le statut nutritionnel des animaux lorsque les apports par la ration ne sont pas sûrs.
Mots clés : Veau, oligo-élément, cuivre, zinc, sélénium,
iode, fer.
Introduction
The objective of this paper is to review information
concerning the influence of trace elements nutrition of cows
and calves on the health of calves. In calves, the effects of
trace element deficiencies can be observed in newborn animals, whose trace-elements stores are in relation with maternal
nutrition. Indeed, the trace elements status of newborn calves
depends on maternal transfer via the placenta, the colostrum
or the milk. For this reason, maternal nutrition can be considered as a major determinant of the status of young calves,
affecting directly their health. Deficiencies can also be observed in older calves but they are then due to an insufficient
supply in their diet.
The effects of trace elements deficiencies in animals have
been described for a long time. First described effects were
clinical signs, some of them being specific enough to provide
a diagnostic relative to one trace-element deficiency. Such
specific effects are usually observed only with strong deficiencies. Moderate deficiencies mainly result in non-specific
disorders, decreasing growth or affecting health, mainly via
depressed immune defences.
Revue Méd. Vét., 2009, 160, 8-9, 429-435
Evidencing the effects of trace element deficiencies on
animals can be made via experiments, mainly based on the
effects of trace element supplementation, or via large scale
surveys in commercial herds. In a recent retrospective study
[13], based on a data set of analysis in 2080 dairy and beef
cattle herds in France and Belgium, copper, zinc and selenium status of herds were investigated as risk factors for
health problems in calves. Available data were:
- health problems in dams and calves in the herd,
- individual trace-element status of adult cows assessed by
plasma copper, plasma zinc and erythrocyte glutathione peroxidase activity. Herd statuses were classified as deficient,
marginal, low-adequate or high-adequate, based on the lower
tercile of individual values. Table I shows the main relationships observed in this survey between trace-element status
of adult cows and major health disorders of calves, calculated
as odd-ratios comparing case herds and control (without
health abnormalities) herds. This table shows that all three
trace elements can be involved as risk factors for health problems in calves.