revues - Société pour l`Education, la Formation et la Recherche

REVUES
SOMMAIRE
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTERCULTURAL RELATIONS (ABSTRACTS)
Introduction : Aims and scope
Vol 29 n° 2, March 2005
Vol 29 n° 3, May 2005
Vol. 29 n°4, July 2005
Vol. 29 n°5, September 2005
Vol. 29 n°6, November 2005
Vol 30 n°1, January 2006
INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION (ABSTRACTS)
Vol. 16, n° 1, March 2005
Vol 16, n° 2, May 2005
Vol 16, n° 3, August 2005
Vol 16, n° 4, October 2005
Vol 16, n° 5, December 2005
Voir aussi INTERCULTURES, l'ancienne revue de SIETAR-FRANCE
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTERCULTURAL RELATIONS
Official Publication of the International Academy for Intercultural Research
Editor in Chief : Dan Landis, University of Mississipi
(Pergamon. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. Printed in Great Britain)
La collection complète de l'International Journal of Intercultural Relations se trouve à la
Bibliothèque de l'Interculturel (SIETAR-France) à Paris.
INTRODUCTION : AIMS AND SCOPE
The INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTERCULTURAL RELATIONS is dedicated to advancing
knowledge and understanding of theory, practice, and research in intergroup relations. The
contents encompass theoretical developments, field-based evaluations of training techniques,
empirical discussions of cultural similarities and differences, and critical descriptions of new
training approaches. Papers selected for publication in IJIR are judged to increase our
understanding of intergroup tensions and harmony. Issue-oriented and cross-discipline discussion
is encouraged.
The highest priority is given to manuscripts that join theory, practice, and field research design.
By theory, we mean conceptual schemes focused on the nature of cultural differences and
similarities. Practice refers to techniques of intercultural training that are both theoretically
well founded and usable in the field. The research design we are looking for should: (a) be fieldbased rather than laboratory-based and (b) pit the training technique under consideration
against other approaches. Whereas true experiments in the field are ideal, they are also hard to
come by, and we expect many will more closely resemble quasi-experimental models. It is
recognized that it may not be possible to include all of the above elements in a given manuscript.
However, the authors should attempt such inclusion whenever possible.
No restriction is made on the definition of "culture" as proper subject matter for a manuscript.
Acceptable studies may deal with any of the following: national, cross-cultural, racial, social
class, sex differences, and even management versus union differences, among others. However,
it is the responsibility of the authors to show that the groups under consideration actually form
a culture.
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Volume 29, Number 2, March 2005
ABSTRACTS
Intercultural communication competence: Identifying key components from
multicultural perspectives
Lily A. Arasaratnam, Department of Speech Communication, Oregon State University, USA
Marya L. Doerfel, Department of Communication, The State University of New Jersey, USA
Intercultural communication competence (ICC) is an area of study that is becoming more
relevant in the increasingly multicultural communities that we live in. Though much progress has
been made in this area of research since Hall [(1959). The silent language. New York: Anchor
Books], a satisfactory model of ICC and a scale that translates well into different cultures is yet
to be developed. This paper presents a review of past research in ICC and describes a unique
approach to identifying variables that contribute toward perceived ICC. Specifically, this study
triangulates and updates past research on ICC by integrating the theoretical backgrounds of
social psychology, interpersonal communication, and anthropology to construct a multidimensional
understanding of ICC. Data were collected via face-to-face interviews with participants
representing 15 different countries and responses were analyzed using semantic network
analysis. A definition of intercultural communication was derived from the responses, and
knowledge and motivation were identified as important components of ICC. Additions to a
multidimensional definition of ICC include listening skills, prior cross-cultural experiences, having
a global outlook as opposed to an ethnocentric one, and another-centered style of communication.
Limitations of the study and implications for future research are discussed.
Keywords : Intercultural communication; Competence; Semantic network analysis
Culture, gender, organizational role, and styles of conflict resolution: A metaanalysis
Jennifer L. Holt, Holt Enterprises Consulting Services, Minneapolis, MN, USA
Cynthia James DeVore, Inver Hills Community College, Inver Grove Heights, MN 55076
The popularity of self-report five-style conflict resolution instruments, spawned by Blake and
Mouton's [(1964). The managerial grid. Houston, TX Gulf Publishing] dual concerns theory,
resulted in a plethora of research studies examining possible differences in culture, gender and
organizational role. Using the Managerial Grid, dual concerns theory postulates that conflict
involves balancing the desire to meet production goals (x) versus concern for personal
relationships (y). Five styles of managing conflict are then revealed: smoothing, withdrawing,
compromising, problem-solving, and forcing. Numerous studies using instruments derived from
this theory validate its basic premises, but results have provided confusing results.
Given the disparity of results, a meta-analysis was conducted to provide a clearer overall picture
for the variables of culture (individualistic versus collectivistic), gender, and organizational role
(superior, subordinate, and peer). Based upon 123 paired comparisons within 36 empirical studies,
the results of the meta-analysis indicate: (1) individualistic cultures choose forcing as a conflict
style more than collectivistic cultures; (2) collectivistic cultures prefer the styles of
withdrawing, compromising, and problem-solving more than individualistic cultures; (3) in
individualistic cultures, compromising is endorsed more frequently by females; (4) females are
more likely to endorse the use of compromising than males, regardless of culture; (5) males are
more likely to report using forcing than females in individualistic cultures; and (6) with regard to
organizational role, males are more likely than females to choose a forcing style with their
superiors.
Further research is needed, particularly on the variable of cultural status. (0 2005 Elsevier Ltd.
All rights reserved.
Keywords : Conflict; Conflict resolution; Conflict resolution style; Gender; Culture;
Organizational role; Meta-analysis; Managerial grid; Dual concerns theory; Conflict styles; Blake
and Mouton; Conflict management survey; CMS; Rahim organizational conflict inventory; ROCI-I;
ROCI-II; Employee conflict inventory; ECI; Thomas and Kilmann; Management-of-differences
exercise; MODE
Becoming friends or remaining foes: An empirical test of a causal model of
intergroup contact across two cultures
Sharon G. Goto, Department of Psychology, Pomona College, Claremont, CA, USA
Darius K.-S. Chan, Chinese University of Hong Kong
This study examined the antecedents and consequences of intergroup contact between African
Americans and White Americans. In Triandis's [(1992). Paper presented at the meeting of the
international congress of psychology, Brussels, Belgium; Triandis, Kurowski, & Gelfand (1994).
Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 4, 2nd ed.) (pp. 769-827). Palo Alto,
CA: Consulting Psychologists Press] model for dealing with cultural diversity, culturally based
perceptions (i.e., perceptions of knowledge of outgroup culture, history of conflict, and cultural
similarity) were hypothesized to influence perceptions of similarity. This, in turn, was
hypothesized to influence (d is) satisfaction with the contact experience. Satisfaction with
contact was predicted to influence intergroup attitude, and desire for future interactions. In a
test using structural equations modeling, the model received support, although some model
modifications by group were necessary. For White Americans, perceived cultural similarity
influenced intergroup attitude directly through contact, in addition to the hypothesized effects
through contact. For African Americans, contrary to expectation, perceived history of conflict
failed to predict intergroup attitudes through perceptions of similarity. Instead, perceived
history of conflict influenced intergroup attitude directly. Results are discussed with respect to
dominant and non-dominant status, and the need for universal and culture-specific models of
intergroup contact.
Keywords: Intergroup dynamics; Race and ethnic discrimination; Race and ethnic difference
Transformation abroad: Sojourning and the perceived enhancement of selfefficacy
Tema Milstein, Department of Communication, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
This paper empirically examines communication self-efficacy as a possible profound payoff of
sojourning. A review of relevant literature explores the interrelationships of communication,
sojourning, and personal growth. Questionnaire data from an international sample of 212 Japan
Exchange and Teaching Programme (JET) alumni are used to test hypotheses about the sojourn
and perceived changes in communication self-efficacy. Data analysis revealed that 95.5% of the
sample retrospectively reported a perceived increase in self-efficacy. In addition, positive
correlations were found between self-reported challenge of sojourn and reported perceived
change in self-efficacy, and between self-reported success of sojourn and perceived
communication self-efficacy scores. Discussion addresses these findings as well as study
limitations, possible future research directions, and implications for practice.
Keywords: Self-efficacy; Sojourner; Transformation; Growth; Intercultural adaptation; Culture
shock; Reentry
Self-construal and depression among Vietnamese-American adolescents
Brian Trung Lam, California State University, Long Beach, CA, USA
This study examined the role of self-construal and its direct and indirect impact on depression
through various correlates, including family cohesion, peer support, and self-esteem. Using
structural equation modeling, the proposed model was tested on 152 Vietnamese-American
adolescents from a high school in Southern California. The results demonstrated that dimensions
of self-construal (i.e., interdependent self and independent self) contributed to depression only
through indirect pathways. Interdependent self-construal was associated with high family
cohesion, which bolstered adolescents' self-esteem and, in turn, contributed to less depression.
However, independent self-construal was associated with depression through peer support and
self-esteem. Better peer support and high self-esteem was found to mediate the relationship
between higher independent self-construal and lower depression.
Keywords: Self-construal; Depression; Vietnamese-American adolescents; Self-esteem; Family
cohesion; Peer support
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Volume 29, Number 3, May 2005
ABSTRACTS
The role of demographic variables and acculturation attitudes in predicting
sociocultural and psychological adaptation in Moroccans in the Netherlands
Otmane Ait Ouarasse, Fons J.R. van de Vijver, Department of Psychology, Tilburg University,
The Netherlands
The goals of the present study were two-fold : (i) to test the independence of the attitudes of
second-generation migrants toward their culture of origin and toward the culture of the host
society; and (ii) to test a path model in which these acculturation attitudes moderate and/or
mediate the relationship between demographic factors (age, gender, occupation, education, and
length of stay) and acculturation outcomes (including psychological adjustment, as measured by
mental health and sociocultural acculturation as measured by school success, work success). Both
hypotheses were to a large extent confirmed in a group of 155 secondgeneration Moroccans in
the Netherlands. The results suggest that the two underlying dimensions of acculturation
attitudes were largely independent across migrants and slightly negatively related within
migrants; furthermore, there were some indications that ethnic culture was to some extent
more liked in the personal domain and the host culture more in the public domain. Acculturation
attitudes mediated the relationship between demographic variables and sociocultural adaptation.
In turn, sociocultural adaptation mediated the relationship between acculturation attitudes and
psychological adaptation. The results showed also that sociocultural and psychological adaptation
had their own predictors; psychological adaptation was directly predicted by background
variables while sociocultural adaptation was directly predicted by acculturation attitudes.
Keywords: Acculturation; Sociocultural adaptation; Psychological adaptation; Moroccans; The
Netherlands
The role of majority attitudes towards out-group in the perception of the
acculturation strategies of immigrants
Ankica Kosic, Rohert Schuman Centre for Advanced studies, European University Institute, Italy
Lucia Mannetti, Dipartimento di Psicologia dei Processi di Sviluppo e Socializzazione, Università
di Roma, "La Sapienza", Italy
David Lackland Sam, Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Norway
The aim of this study was to examine host group members 'towards immigrants' acculturation
strategy preferences and the relationship between these attitudes and the level of prejudice
towards immigrants. A questionnaire containing different prejudice scales was administered to
160 Italian participants living in Rome. In addition respondents were presented with vignettes
depicting different acculturation strategies: Assimilation, Integration, Separation, or
Marginalization. Respondents received a vignette each describing only one acculturation
strategy. Results showed that prejudice towards immigrants affected the evaluation of
acculturation strategies. The more prejudice the respondent was, the more negative was his or
her attitude towards Separation and Marginalization and the more positive was his or her
attitude towards Assimilation.
Keywords: Acculturation strategies; Prejudice; Immigrants
Re-examining the role of training in contributing to international project
success: A literature review and an outline of a new model training program
Daniel J. Kealey, David R. Protheroe, Doug MacDonald, Thomas Vulpe, Center for Intercultural
Learning, Canadian Foreign Service Institute, Bisson Campus, Gatineau, Quebec, Canada
International projects face greater obstacles to success and fail more often than do similar
domestic projects, even those with a multicultural workforce. Cross-cultural training of
individuals has been the standard response, and has no doubt been generally effective in
equipping personnel with most of the knowledge and skills needed to live and work successfully in
another culture. But the question is raised here: Is there a gap between the needs of
international projects and what the current approaches to cross-cultural training offer for
meeting those needs? The authors contend that current cross-cultural training fails to address
adequately the organizational and environmental factors which impact significantly on the overall
success of international projects. After reviewing a selection of studies from the literature
dealing with the causes of success and failure of international projects, the authors propose the
elements of a new model training program intended to equip international personnel with a
broader range of the knowledge and skills needed to enhance the chances of project success.
Keywords: Cross-cultural training; Cross-cultural skills; Cultural differences; International
projects; Organizational culture; Cross-cultural management
Language, ethnic identity, and the adaptation of Turkish immigrant youth in the
Netherlands and Sweden
Paul Vedder, Center for the Study of Education and Instruction, Leiden University, The
Netherlands
Erkki Virta, Stockholm University and University of Helsinki, Finland
This study analyzes the relationships between immigrant adolescents' ethnic identity, their first
and second language proficiency and their psychological and sociocultural adaptation using three
models: the ethnic identity model, the language assimilation model, and the language integration
model. The study explores what model best explains adaptation processes of second-generation
immigrant youth in the Netherlands and Sweden. Participants were 158 Turkish adolescents in
the Netherlands and 237 in Sweden (13-18 years). As expected we found support for the ethnic
identity model in the Swedish sample and for the language assimilation model in the Netherlands.
We also found weak support for the integration model in the Swedish sample. Overall the
findings support a notion that in terms of adaptation outcomes there is no such thing as a
preferred acculturation strategy that is valid for all times and places. This paper shows that
possibilities for optimizing adaptation outcomes as well as choices of acculturation strategies
may vary by context with regard to immigrant language policy and corresponding experiences.
Keywords: Immigrant youth; Identity; Adaptation
Developing criteria for expatriate effectiveness: time to jump off the
adjustment bandwagon
Stefan T. Mol, Marise Ph. Born, Henk T. van der Molen, Institute of Psychology, Erasmus
University Rotterdam, The Netherlands
While job performance is quintessential to assessing expatriate effectiveness, significant
domestic advances in performance measurement have seldom been applied to evaluating
expatriate training and selection practices. Based on a critical assessment of expatriate
research and deliberations about the conversion of these domestic taxonomies to the expatriate
domain, this theoretical paper voices a number of propositions that should serve to benefit the
field. Specifically, it is proposed that : (1) Dependent variables that have been employed thus far
within the field of expatriate effectiveness are best construed as mediators between their
predictors and yet to be delineated criteria of expatriate effectiveness that actually sample
expatriate job performance; more adequate sampling of the expatriate job performance domain
is called for; (2) behaviorally specific criteria, such as those developed by Tett et al., (Human
Performance, 2000, 13(3) 205) are essential to the adequate assessment of expatriate job
performance; (3) the dimensions of adaptive performance which were developed by Pulakos and
colleagues (Journal of Applied Psychology, 2000, 85(4) 612; Human Performance, 2002, 15(4)
299) constitute an important subdomain of expatriate job performance; and (4) an over reliance
on the generalization of domestic taxonomies will result in criterion deficiency, as expatriate
specific criteria to complement these generalized criteria need to be developed.
Keywords : Expatriate; Selection; Criteria; Adjustment; Performance; Bandwidth; Fidelity
Ethnicity and perceptions of being a "typical American" in relationship to ethnic
identity development
Robert S. Weisskirch, Liberal Studies Department, California State University, Monterey Bay,
Seaside, CA, USA
Individuals who are ethnic minorities in the US form both an ethnic identity and an American
identity. Some ethnic minorities may not view themselves as part of being a typical American. A
total of 372 college students (female = 350, male = 22) completed the multigroup ethnic identity
measure (MEIM) [Phinney, 1992. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7, 156-176] and responded to
a questionnaire on perceptions of being like and unlike a "typical American." In this study, Asian
Americans and Latinos have the highest levels of ethnic identity and see themselves as not being
typical Americans more than other ethnic groups. However, Latinos who report not being typical
Americans have higher levels of ethnic identity. For Asian Americans, perception of being a
typical American made no difference in levels of ethnic identity.
Keywords: American identity; Ethnic identity; Latinos; Asian Americans; Ethnic minorities
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Volume 29, Number 4, July 2005
ABSTRACTS
The influence of comparative media use on acculturation, acculturative stress,
and family relationships of Chinese international students
Susan L. Kline, School of Communication, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
Fan Liu
The purpose of the study was to explore the media use and relational communication practices
Chinese international students use to maintain their family relationships, and the association of
these practices to acculturation, stress, and family cohesion. The media use and communication
practices of Chinese international students studying at a large US university were analyzed.
Consistent with media niche theory, Chinese students preferred to use and did use the
telephone more often than email to contact family members. In comparison to email, they used
the telephone to communicate with family more often per week, covered a greater diversity of
conversation topics, used a greater number of relational maintenance themes, and had a greater
level of openness in their communicative exchanges. Gender, phone contacts per week and email
topic diversity predicted students' acculturative stress levels, while phone topic diversity and
open phone communication predicted acculturation level. Open phone and email communication
predicted family cohesion. Consistencies in particular topics and relational message themes were
also discovered, with similar relational message themes occurring in email as well as in the
telephone context. However, that a greater variety of topics and relational message themes
were used in the telephone than in the email context supports the idea that phone conversations
may more likely be used to convey emotional information than email.
Keywords: International students; Email; Family communication; Acculturative stress; Longdistance relationships
Expatriate leadership: An organizational resource for collaboration
Patricia A. Cassiday, Sasebo, Japan
This qualitative research study asked: (a) What are the deeply held values, beliefs, and
assumptions of effective organizational leaders with international experience ? and (b) How do
the internally held values, beliefs, and assumptions of the leader affect leadership practices in
an international setting and within the global organization ?
The 11 research participants were middle and upper level managers with a minimum of 2 years
international experience. The six women and five men ranged in age from 29 to 68 with an
average age of 45. They were employed by 11 different organizations, and in 11 different career
fields. Collectively, they had a total of 96 years of experience in 16 foreign countries. Seven
participants were US Americans and one participant was born in each of the following countries:
Canada, Jordan, Taiwan and (formerly East) Germany. The diverse demographics of the
participants and the uniqueness of their individual experiences added to the richness of the
study.
All participants were screened using the Intercultural Development Inventory. Only participants
in an ethnorelative stage of development on the IDI were included in the research. Two semistructured interviews were conducted with each participant. The interview data were recorded
and transcribed. The transcribed data were analyzed, using QSR NUD*IST, version 5 software.
Each participant also completed a Values Management Inventory, providing an objective
assessment of personal values and leadership style. Values Technology analyzed the data from
the VML The values expressed by the expatriate leaders who participated in this study
clustered in Hall's cycle four of leadership development. In this cycle, Hall reports an enormous
shift of consciousness, and an opportunity for significant growth.
Findings revealed that these expatriate leaders were able to maintain creative tension between
two or more worldviews, which precipitated their ability to work across cultures. Participants
described relationship-building skills that allowed them to synthesize best practices from
different cultures toward a competitive advantage. Policy implications for selection of
successful expatriate candidates, as well as, suggestions for in-country support of leadership
development emerged from this study. An "In-Country" model for support of expatriate leaders
allows organizations to garner greater knowledge and insight from their own expatriates. These
leaders were often found to be an untapped resource of first hand international experience,
intercultural knowledge and cross-cultural skills.
A cross-cultural investigation of time management practices and job outcomes
S.A. Nonis, C.W. Ford, Department of Management and Marketing, Arkansas State University,
AR , USA
J.K. Teng, Department of Management Information Systems, Barry University, Miami shoes, FL,
USA
The study compared separate monochronic and polychronic time cultures with regard to time
management and its influence on key job outcomes. Results support the notion that positive
effects of time management practices may not be limited only to Western cultures, and that
selected time management dimensions may be more effective in improving job performance
perceptions and job satisfaction in certain cultures than in others. Furthermore, the impact that
time management practices have on job performance was more evident for individuals who were
polychronics as compared to monochronics, regardless of cultural differences. Discussion
includes implication for management.
Keywords : Monochronic and polychronic time orientation; Polychronicity; Time management; Job
outcomes; Sri Lanka
Goal interdependence for working across cultural boundaries: Chinese employees
with foreign managers
Yi-feng Chen, Dean Tjosvold, Department of Management, Lingnan University, Tuen Mun, N. T,
Hong Kong
Sofia Fang Su, Finance School Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, PR China
The interaction between foreign managers and local employees is critical in helping them combine
their expertise to innovate. However, their diverse cultural values can make developing a
productive leader-member relationship challenging. This study proposes that goal
interdependence is an important antecedent of an open-minded discussion of opposing views,
innovation, and commitment. One hundred and eleven Chinese employees each described a
specific interaction with their foreign manager and then responded to questions that were later
used in the statistical analyses. The correlational and structural equation analysis indicated that
cooperative but not competitive goals facilitated constructive controversy, which in turn
promoted innovation and job commitment. These results suggest that Chinese employees and
foreign managers can use the theory of cooperation and competition to develop their
relationship, which help them integrate their ideas and abilities to implement useful innovations
and heighten their commitment.
Keywords: Goal interdependence; Constructive controversy; Innovation; Commitment
Cultural diversity and learning teams: The impact on desired academic team
processes
Warren E. Watson, Anat BarNir, Department of Management, University of North Texas,
Denton, TX, USA
Robert Pavur, Department of Information Technology and Decision Sciences, University of
North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
This research developed a cultural model in order to extend typical definitions of cultural
diversity and observe these variables' effect on desired academic team process outcomes. We
employed an established learning team procedure longitudinally and examined the learning
process, namely, by observing individual cultural characteristics and adding a heterogeneity
analysis of these characteristics. The model shows the influence of these diversity metrics on
team processes that affect team performance. Results supported the use of a more extended
cultural model. Discussion is given regarding the importance of understanding the composition of
learning teams.
Keywords: Cultural diversity; Learning teams; Team processes
Application of the scenario questionnaire of horizontal and vertical individualism
and collectivism to the assessment of cultural distance and cultural fit
Valery 1. Chirkov, Sora Niwa, Department of Psychology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon,
Canada
Martin Lynch, Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology, University of Rochester,
New York, USA
The article reports the results of the development and application of a scenario questionnaire
for the assessment of four cultural orientations: horizontal individualism (HI) and collectivism
(HC) and vertical individualism (VI) and collectivism (VC). The 12-item questionnaire which is
designed for application in the academic domain among university students has acceptable
internal reliability and construct validity. This questionnaire was used to create the indices of
cultural distance and cultural fit, and the hypotheses about their relations with cultural
adaptation and the psychological well-being of international, Canadian-born and US-born
students were supported. International students, who arrived mostly from China, Japan and
South Korea see their home academic settings as more collectivistic (HC and VC) and less HI in
comparison to Canada. A discrepancy between these students' home country and Canada
regarding the VC orientation was associated with higher depression. International as well as
North American students had various degrees of fit to the culture of their university. The most
predictive orientations with regard to the indicators of well-being and social adaptation were
vertical orientations (VC and VI). Results are discussed in terms of the applicability of the
developed questionnaire to study acculturation and in terms of the different role of horizontal
versus vertical dimensions in cultural adaptation.
Keywords : Scenario questionnaire; Cultural orientations; Cultural distance; Cultural fit
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Volume 29, Number 5, September 2005
ABSTRACTS
The effects of self-construals and embarrassability on predicament response
strategies
Noreen D. Tarr, Min-Sun Kim, William F. Sharkey, Department of Speech, University of Hawaii,
Manoa, USA
The purpose of this study was to discover the relationship between self-construals,
embarrassability, and predicament response strategies such as apologies, excuses, justifications,
and denials. It was predicted that independent self-construals would be negatively correlated
with embarrassability, which, in turn, would lead to the higher likelihood of using more assertive
predicament responses such as justifications or denials. On the other hand, it was proposed that
interdependent self-construals would be positively correlated with embarrassability, which, in
turn, would lead to the higher likelihood of using more mitigating predicament responses such as
apologies and excuses. One hundred and eighty students at the University of Hawaii participated
in this study which consisted of reading two hypothetical situations involving self-induced social
predicaments and then rating the likelihood of using the corresponding predicament response
statements. The participants were also given Leung and Kim's [1997. A modified version of selfconstrual scale. Manoa: University of Hawaii] revised self-construal scale and Modigliani's [1968.
Embarrassment and embarrassability. Sociometry, 31, 313-326] embarrassability scale. As
expected, interdependent self-construals were positively correlated with embarrassability,
which in turn, led to the greater likelihood of use of apologies and excuses; however, the
expectation for independent self-construals to be negatively correlated to embarrassability was
not borne out by the data. Additionally, the relationship between self-construals and
embarrassability was not significantly linked to justification or denial. Discussion of these
results and suggestions for future research is provided.
Keywords: Self-construals; Embarrassability; Strategies; Culture; Predicaments; Responses;
Tactics
Learning styles and typologies of cultural differences: A theoretical and
empirical comparison
Yoshitaka Yamazaki, Graduate School of International Management, International University of
Japan, Kokusai-cho, Minami Uonuma, Niigata, Japan
This study presents the relationship between six typologies of cultural differences and the
learning styles of Kolb's learning model. Several cross-cultural studies about learning styles
indicate that learning styles may differ from one culture to another, but few studies have
addressed the question of which culture is related to which learning style or ability. The present
study concerns this inquiry. Exploration of this inquiry has been made in two parts. The first
part investigates conceptual analogies and relationships between Kolb's model and the six
cultural typologies in the domains of anthropology, crosscultural management, and cross-cultural
psychology. The second part focuses on the empirical results of six comparative studies about
cross-cultural differences in learning styles in the past and discusses how six propositions
generated from the first theoretical examination can reflect upon their past empirical results.
Those two examinations suggest that particular culture, as categorized in those domains, relates
to certain learning styles or abilities.
Uncertainty, anxiety, and avoidance in communication with strangers
Patricia M. Duronto, Graduate School of Information Media Studies, University of Library and
Information Science, lbaraki-ken, Tsukuba-shi, Japan
Tsukasa Nishida, Department of Intercultural Relations, College of International Relations,
Nihon University, Mishima, Japan
Shin-ichi Nakayama, Research Center for Knowledge Communities, Institute of Library and
Information Science, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki-ken, Tsukuba-shi, Japan
Anxiety/uncertainty management theory explains interpersonal and intergroup communication. It
suggests that managing uncertainty and anxiety are central processes that affect our
communication with strangers and that the anxiety and uncertainty that we experience when we
communicate with others are related to each other. This research is concerned with the
association of anxiety and uncertainty with avoidance in interpersonal and intercultural
communication. The effect of anxiety and uncertainty on avoidance was examined through
communication between strangers of the same and different cultures. The results indicate that
anxiety and uncertainty are associated with avoidance in communication with strangers from
both the same and different cultures. Furthermore, the data suggest that anxiety and
uncertainty may be good predictors of avoidance. When studying communication between
strangers of a different culture, anxiety and uncertainty were found to be associated with one
another. Nevertheless, anxiety and uncertainty were not related to each other in communication
between strangers of the same culture. These results provide partial support for AUM theory.
Predicting Asian international students' sociocultural adjustment: A test of two
mediation models
Andrew Li, Michael B. Gasser, Department of Psychology, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar
Falls, IA, USA
Integrating a number of theoretical perspectives, this paper examined predictors of Asian
international students' sociocultural adjustment. A total of 117 students (aged 18-46 years)
from 17 Asian countries and regions completed questionnaires about their sociocultural
adjustment, contact with the hosts, ethnic identity, and cross-cultural self-efficacy. As
hypothesized, contact with the hosts partially mediated the effect of cross-cultural selfefficacy on sociocultural adjustment. The hypothesis that contact with the hosts would mediate
the effect of ethnic identity on sociocultural adjustment was not supported.
Keywords : Sociocultural adjustment; Ethnic identity; Self-efficacy; Cross-cultural contact
Skilled immigrants and selection bias: A theory-based field study from New
Zealand
Kim Coates, Stuart C. Carr, School of Psychology, Te Kura Hinengaro Tangata, Massey University,
Auckland, New Zealand
Skilled immigrants often find it difficult to secure jobs that match their qualifications, raising
the possibility of selection biases operating against particular countries-of-origin. Focusing on
occupations germane to businesses in New Zealand, 80 subject matter experts, representing
recruitment agencies, practitioners in 1/0 psychology, and members of the Human Resources
Institute of New Zealand, predicted probable selection patterns regarding finely balanced,
equally matched job candidates who ostensibly happened to originate from New Zealand versus
other countries in Australasia, Europe, Africa, Asia, and the South Pacific. These selection policy
experts predicted clear preferences, or biases, which also increased with (a) perceived
intercultural similarity to, and (b) perceived socio-economic dominance of the candidates'
country- of-o rigin. An exception is (c) close neighbour Australia, whose socio-economic standing
over New Zealand was not questioned, but whose candidates were preferred less. Through their
consistency with principles of (a) Similarity-Attraction, (b) Social Dominance, and (c) Inverse
Resonance (from Social Identity Theory), these data signal a range of opportunities for 1/0
psychology to make a difference in managing regional cooperation, knowledge waves, and
boundary-less careers.
Keywords : Immigration; Development; Selection; Ethnicity; Discrimination
Attachment styles and majority members' attitudes towards adaptation
strategies of immigrants
Jacomijn Hofstra, Jan Pieter van Oudenhoven, Brain P. Buunk, Department of Psychology,
University of Groningen,The Netherlands
The present study examined the relationship between attachment styles and majority members'
attitudes towards adaptation strategies of immigrants. A second purpose was to determine the
construct validity and the stability of the Attachment Styles Questionnaire. A group of 177
first-year psychology students (Study 1), and a more representative group of 260 adults (Study
2) filled out the questionnaire about attachment, model of self, trust in others, and attitude
towards adaptation strategies of immigrants. During the follow-up, roughly one year later, both
groups filled out the attachment styles questionnaire a second time. In addition, the students
answered the questions about the adaptation strategies. The construct validity and stability of
the Attachment Styles Questionnaire were satisfactory. Furthermore, the secure attachment
style appeared to be positively related to the attitude towards integration (Study 2). Fearful
attachment was positively associated with the attitude towards assimilation (Study 1), and
negatively with the attitude towards integration (Study 2). Dismissive attachment was negatively
related to integration (Study 1) and positively to separation (Study 2). The preoccupied
attachment style appeared to be positively related to marginalization (Study 1). Moreover, the
attachment styles predicted-to some extent--the attitudes towards adaptation strategies of
immigrants over a period of roughly one year.
Keywords : Attachment styles; Majority members; Immigrants; Attitude; Adaptation strategies
Intercultural communication competence in the healthcare context
DeWan Gibson, Mei Zhong, San Diego, CA, USA
This study examined the intercultural. communication competence of medical providers at a
healthcare organization, including patient perceptions of the medical provider's ability to
communicate with a diverse patient population. Surveys were given to medical providers and
patients at a large healthcare organization. One survey asked medical providers to rate their
own ability to communicate across cultures, and the other survey instructed patients to rate the
intercultural communication competence of their medical providers. Analysis of variance and
Pearson correlation coefficients were used to analyze the data from 45 medical providers and 91
patients. The findings demonstrate that empathy, bilingualism, and intercultural experience are
related to intercultural communication competence.
Keywords: Intercultural; Healthcare; Communication competence
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Volume 29, Number 6, November 2005
ABSTRACTS
Building trust among enemies: The central challenge for international conflict
resolution
Herbert C. Kelman, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
The article presents an approach to the gradual building of trust among enemies, who-even when
they have an interest in making peace-are afraid to extend trust to each other lest it jeopardize
their own existence. Efforts to resolve the conflict, therefore, confront a basic dilemma:
Parties cannot enter into a peace process without some degree of mutual trust, but they cannot
build trust without entering into a peace process. The article discusses the ways in which
interactive problem solving-a form of unofficial diplomacy, which the author has applied most
extensively to the Israeli-Palestinian case-attempts to deal with this dilemma. It describes five
concepts that have proven useful to confronting this dilemma in problem-solving workshops with
politically influential Israelis and Palestinians and that should also be relevant to trust building in
the larger peace process: the view of movement toward peace as a process of successive
approximations, in which the level of commitment gradually increases with the level of
reassurance; the role of the third party as a repository of trust, particularly in the early stages
of the process; the focus on "working trust" in the other's seriousness about peace based on
their own interests (rather than interpersonal trust based on good will); the view of the
relationship between participants in the peace process as an uneasy coalition-, and the
development of a systematic process of mutual reassurance, based on responsiveness and
reciprocity.
Keywords : International conflict; Problem-solving workshops; Trust; Israeli-Palestinian conflict
Culture and conflict: Understanding, negotiating, and reconciling conflicting
constructions of reality
Anthony J. Marsella, Department of psychology, University of Haivaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA
The paper explores the relations between culture and conflict that emerge when parties with
differing constructions of reality come into contention regarding the distribution of power,
control, and influence. While differences in the construction of reality do not necessarily mean
conflict, and while conflict does not necessarily lead to violence, differences in the construction
of reality that are codified and embedded in "unassailable" belief systems, such as those
associated with fundamentalist political, economic, and religious systems, can elicit and sustain
serious forms of violence, including ethnic and religious cleansing, genocide, and torture. This
paper argues that we must recognize the power of culture in constructing our realities, and the
reluctance we have as human beings to tolerate challenges to these realities because they
introduce unacceptable levels of uncertainty and doubt. The consideration of culture in the
mediation of conflict broadens options for resolution by introducing possibilities outside the
limits of one's own cultural spectrum, including an improved understanding of the role of history
and life contexts in generating shared meanings and behavior patterns. Following a discussion of
various examples of cultures in conflict associated with political and religious fundamentalism,
the paper advances a series of recommendations for understanding, negotiating, and mediating
conflict via the use of cultural understanding, learning, and the development of cultures of
peace.
Keywords : Culture; Conflict; Peace; War; Conflict negotiation; Global problems
The Intercultural Conflict Style Inventory: A conceptual framework and
measure of intercultural conflict resolution approaches
Mitchell R. Hammer, Hammer Consulting Group, LLC, International Peace and Conflict Resolution,
American University, Ocean Pines, MD, USA
Grounded in the pragmatics of human communication perspective, the current study examined
how disagreements and emotion function across cultural context in resolving conflict.
Specifically, the research effort developed the Intercultural Conflict Style (ICS) inventory, a
36-item measure of intercultural conflict resolution style based on two core dimensions : Direct
vs. indirect approaches to dealing with disagreements and emotionally expressive vs. emotionally
restrained patterns for dealing with the affective dimension of conflict interaction.
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) found the proposed two-factor model was a good fit to the
data. Analysis of the CFA findings identified a final set of 18 direct/indirect items and 18
emotional expressiveness/restraint items. The direct/indirect scale obtained a coefficient alpha
of .73 and the emotional expressiveness/restraint scale achieved .85 reliability. Validity testing
of the scales found no significant effects by gender, education or previous intercultural living
experience. A theoretical framework for understanding differences in conflict resolution styles
grounded in the development of this inventory, a practical, four-quadrant intercultural conflict
resolution style model is proposed based on high/low levels of directness and high/low levels of
emotional expressiveness: (1) discussion style (direct & emotionally restrained), (2) engagement
style (direct & emotionally expressive), (3) accommodation style (indirect & emotionally
restrained) and (4) dynamic style (indirect and emotionally expressive).
Acculturation : Living successfully in two cultures
John W. Berry, Psychology Department, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
The theme of this conference focuses attention on conflict and negotiation. In this paper, I take
one example of these issues, and examine the cultural and psychological aspects of these
phenomena that take place during the process of acculturation. During acculturation, groups of
people and their individual members engage in intercultural contact, producing a potential for
conflict, and the need for negotiation in order to achieve outcomes that are adaptive for both
parties. Research on acculturation, including acculturation strategies, changes in behaviours, and
acculturative stress are reviewed. There are large group and individual differences in bow people
(in both groups in contact) go about their acculturation (described in terms of the integration,
assimilation, separation and marginalisation strategies), in how much stress they experience, and
how well they adapt psychologically and socioculturally. Generally, those pursuing the integration
strategy experience less stress, and achieve better adaptations than those pursuing
marginalisation; the outcomes for those pursuing assimilation and separation experience
intermediate levels of stress and adaptation. Implications for public policy and personal
orientations towards acculturation are proposed. With respect to the conference theme, since
integration requires substantial negotiation, but results in the least conflict, the concepts and
findings reviewed here can provide some guidance for the betterment of intercultural relations.
Keywords : Acculturation; Intergroup relations; Immigrants
Culture and mediation: A contemporary processual analysis from southwestern
Gambia
Mark Davldheiser, Nova Southeastern University, Lauderdale, FL, USA
This paper draws on archival sources and data gleaned from over two years of intensive
fieldwork in The Gambia to provide a processual analysis of culture in mediation. The literature
on the salience of culture in facilitated dispute settlement includes several purported cross-
cultural models, and, in some cases, these have been used to support assertions about the
widespread applicability of generic approaches of conflict resolution.
The results of this study uncovered remarkable variance in societal preferences for structuring
mediation, thereby problematizing the notion of widespread cross-cultural process similarities in
the process. The idea of an intrinsic structure to the mediation process was further
contravened by the remarkable diversity found at lower levels of analysis. Gambian mediatorseven those sharing many similar attributes--exhibited remarkable diversity in their approaches.
Significant variation occurred in relation to all mediation activities except setting the stage and
ritualization. In fact, individual mediators often reacted to situational constraints by employing
divergent process structures in different cases.
The project findings suggest that theorizing about peacemaking behaviors must delve much
further than the meta-level of comparison and that constructs such as individualism versus
collectivism and high- and low-context societies must be used cautiously. Societal perspectives
are highly uneven and culture operates on multiple levels and is continually at work, although its
effects may not always be observable. Mediators are impacted by structural constraints such as
socio-cultural patterning, but they are also agents who are able to adjust their behaviors in
reaction to contextual factors and according to their personal preferences.
Keywords: Conflict resolution; The Gambia; West Africa
Culture's role in conflict and conflict management: Some suggestions, many
questions
Stephen Worchel, University of Hawaii at Hilo, HI, USA
The contributions to this edition of the Journal are viewed as identifying two roles of culture in
intergroup conflict. One is that culture separates people into an in-group and out-group based on
the criterion of whether or not they share a common culture. According to social identity
theory, this division creates the necessary condition for intergroup (intercultural) conflict. The
second role is that culture shapes the individual's perception of conflict and how he or she will
respond to the conflict. It is argued that embedded within the history and myths of a culture
are stories that identify specific out-groups as likely protagonists. A model for achieving
peaceful co-existence between cultural groups is presented. Peaceful co-existence has three
components: cognition (acceptance of the right of the out-group to exist), emotion (low fear of
the out-group), and behavior (willingness to engage in cooperative interaction with the outgroup). It is argued that in order to achieve peaceful co-existence between cultural groups,
intergroup contract must promote the security and identity of the ingroup, reduce the perceived
threat of the out-group, and promote the perception of diversity within the outgroup. The
difficulties of achieving positive relations between cultural groups is recognized, and that a
focus on intercultural relations should be prevention of hostility rather than reducing violent
conflict after it has occurred.
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Volume 30, Number 1, January 2006
ABSTRACTS
Understanding multicultural attitudes: The role of group status, identification,
friendships, and justifying ideologies
Maykel Verkuyten, Faculty of Social Sciences, Utrecht University, The Netherlands
Borja Martinovic
Questions of multiculturalism and the management of cultural diversity are much debated in
many countries. The present research aims to further the understanding of people's attitude
toward multiculturalism by examining ethnic majority and minority group adolescents in the
Netherlands. In two studies, the endorsement of multiculturalism was examined in relation to
ingroup identification, perceived structural discrimination, outgroup friendships (Studies I and
2) and the ideological notions, communalism and individualism (Study 2). The ethnic minority
group participants were found to be much more in favor of multiculturalism than the majority
group. Furthermore, ingroup identification, perceived discrimination, outgroup friendships, and
the two ideological notions appeared to be related independently to multiculturalism. However,
high ethnic identification was related to lower endorsement of multiculturalism among the
majority group and to higher endorsement of multiculturalism among the minority group. In
addition, outgroup friendships only had a positive effect on multiculturalism for the majority
group. The effects for perceived structural discrimination and communalism were positive and
similar for both groups of participants. Individualism had a negative effect on multiculturalism
for both groups.
Keywords : Multiculturalism; Group status; Identification; Ideologies
The relationship between attitudes toward language study and cross-cultural
attitudes
Toshiyuki Sakuragi, Department of Modern Languages, Literatures, and Cultures, Gustavus
Adolphus College, St. Peter, MN, USA
This study investigated the relationship between attitudes toward foreign language study (a
general attitude toward language study; attitudes toward specific languages-Chinese, French,
Japanese, and Spanish; and instrumental and integrative attitudes) and cross-cultural attitudes
(world-mindedness and social distance). The results of a survey of US college students (N = 151)
indicated that: (1) a general attitude toward foreign language study was significantly related to
world-mindedness and social distance; (2) attitudes toward Chinese, Japanese, and Spanish were
significantly related to both world-mindedness and social distance, whereas an attitude toward
French was not significantly related to either world-mindedness or social distance; and (3) an
integrative attitude was significantly related to social distance, whereas an instrumental
attitude was not significantly related to either world-mindedness or social distance.
Keywords : Foreign language study; Cross-cultural attitude; Chinese; French; Japanese; Spanish
Immediacy and out-of-class communication: A cross-cultural comparison
Qin Zhang, Department of Communication, Fairfield University, CT, USA
The objective of the present study is to extend out-of-class communication (OCC) research by
comparing OCC frequency, content, and satisfaction, and examining the influence of instructor
immediacy on OCC in Chinese and US college classrooms. The survey of relevant literature
suggests this study represents the first direct empirical cross-cultural comparison of OCC,
which reports five major findings: (a) Chinese students engage in more OCC than US students;
(b) Chinese OCC is more personal problem oriented, but US OCC focuses on coursework; (c) US
students have a significantly higher OCC satisfaction than Chinese counterparts; (d) Chinese and
US students differ in OCC forms. Chinese students visit instructors' office more often, but US
students email their instructors more; (e) US instructor immediacy is not correlated
significantly with OCC frequency and satisfaction, whereas Chinese instructor verbal immediacy
is correlated significantly with OCC frequency and satisfaction. Chinese nonverbal immediacy is
associated significantly with OCC frequency, but not with OCC satisfaction.
Keywords: Immediacy; Out-of-class communication; Cross-cultural comparison; Chinese
classrooms; US classrooms
Emotion expression and the locution "I love you»: A cross-cultural study
Richard Wilkins, Elisabeth Gareis, Department of Communication Studies, Baruch College/CUNY,
New York, NY, USA
This exploratory study is aimed to advance the understanding of emotion expression across
cultures by focusing on the declaration of love and studying its expression across cultures. In
particular, the use of the locution "I love you" was investigated. Results indicate that the use of
the locution "I love you" fluctuates greatly across cultures: It is used exclusively for romantic
declarations of love in some cultures, but has a much wider distribution in others. Interestingly,
normative speakers seem to use the locution "I love you" more in English than their native
language. Differences are also noticeable within cultures, particularly across genders and age
groups. Thus, females tend to use the expression more often than males. In addition, there
seems to be more widespread use of the locution now than just a few decades ago.
Keywords: Emotion expression; Love; Intercultural communication
Ethnographic preparation for short-term study and residence in the target
culture
Jane Jackson, Department of English, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, N. T, Hong
Kong SAR, China
This article focuses on the central role of ethnography in an experiential language and cultural
immersion program for Hong Kong English majors. At their home institution, the students were
introduced to the theory and practice of this mode of research. Through weekly tasks and
debriefing sessions, they honed the skills of participant observation, note-taking, reflexive
interviewing, data analysis, and report-writing. Using the tools of ethnographic research, the
students conducted a project to explore a sub-culture (e.g. the discourse and culture of Mahjong
players, the life of a Filipino amah (maid) in a Chinese family). Then, during a 5-week stay in
England, the students investigated a cultural scene of their choice (e.g. their homestay). In both
settings, their responses to ethnographic preparation and fieldwork were carefully monitored,
revealing that this approach encouraged them to take a more active role in the world around
them; most became more conscious of the uniqueness of their own culture and developed an
understanding and appreciation of other worldviews. The author highlights the benefits and
challenges involved with preparing advanced foreign language learners to undertake ethnographic
research, as one means of enhancing their language skills, intercultural awareness, and personal
growth in short-term study abroad programs.
Keywords: Study and residence abroad; Ethnography; Pre-sojourn preparation; Intercultural
training; Experiential learning; Fieldwork
Psychological adaptation and autonomy among adolescents in Australia: A
comparison of Anglo-Celtic and three Asian groups
Cynthia Leung, Wally Karnilowicz, Victoria University, Australia
Rogelia Pe-Pua b, School of Social Science and Policy, The University of New South Wales,
Sydney, Australia
A questionnaire was administered to 426 adolescents to investigate ethnic group differences on
eight variables. It was hypothesized that Asian (Chinese, Filipino and Vietnamese) adolescents
would score higher on parental authority values, school adjustment and psychological symptoms;
and lower on gender relationship/children's rights values, sense of mastery, self-esteem, life
satisfaction and behavior problems than Anglo-Australians. Females were hypothesized to report
higher scores on psychological symptoms but lower scores on behavior problems and sense of
mastery. The results showed all three Asian groups scoring higher on parental authority values.
Chinese-Australians reported higher school adjustment scores than Anglo-Australians. The
three Asian groups scored significantly lower on gender relationship/children's rights values and
behavior problems. But only the Vietnamese-Australians scored lower on life satisfaction; and
only the Chinese- Australians reported a lower sense of mastery than Anglo-Australians. There
was no group difference on self-esteem. Generation status did not exert an influence on values;
but there was an interaction effect (with ethnicity) with regards to self-esteem, life
satisfaction and school adjustment. The implications in relation to cultural and migration-related
factors and cultural values were discussed.
Hawaiian attributional perspectives on intercultural interactions in higher
education: Development of an intercultural sensitizer
Kenoalani C.K. Dela Cruz, Counseling and Support Services Center, Hawai'i Community College,
Hilo, Hawai'i, USA
Michael B. Salzman, Department of Counselor Education, University of Hawai'i at Manoa,
Honolulu, Hawai'i, USA
Richard Brislin, College of Business Administration, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, Honolulu,
Hawai'i, USA
Naomi Losch, Department of Hawaiian and Indo-Pacific Languages and Literature, University of
Halvai'i at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai'i, USA
Counselors, academic advisors and educators working in educational institutions must address
the increasingly diverse mental health and academic needs of culturally diverse groups. In
Hawai'i, Native Hawaiians are a cultural minority. To alleviate the negative effects of current
culturally inappropriate counseling and teaching methods, university personnel would benefit
from intercultural training. The Intercultural Sensitizer (ICS) is a well-researched tool used in
attribution training. The purpose of this study was to develop a Hawaiian ICS to train nonHawaiian university personnel. The researcher gathered critical incidents from Hawaiian
university students (N = 113); presented 20 edited, critical incidents to a bicultural Hawaiian
panel (N = 6) to elicit culturally relevant attributions, and investigated the meanings Hawaiian
students and non-Hawaiian students (N = 285) attributed to the critical incidents. Statistical
tests indicated 3 of 20 critical incidents and 14 attributions were statistically significant,
revealing finite, cultural differences between the Hawaiian and non-Hawaiian samples. Counseling
and educational implications are suggested that should increase the chances of success among
Hawaiian students enrolled in college.
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INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION
(Formerly European Journal of Intercultural Studies)
Intercultural Education is a peer-reviewed journal published three or four times a year by
Carfax Publishing, Taylor & Francis Ltd, 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE, UK.
tel. +44(0)207 583 9855.
"European Journal of Intercultural Studies" et "Intercultural Education" se trouvent à la
Bibliothèque de l'Interculturel (SIETAR-France) à Paris
Volume 16, Number 1, March 2005
ABSTRACTS
Identity, beliefs and community: LDS (Mormon) pre-service secondary teacher
views about diversity
Grace Huerta, Associate Professor, and Leslie Flemmer, University of Utah, USA
Research shows that pre-service teachers must engage in a self-examination of identity,
attitudes and assumptions concerning such issues as privilege, group membership, religion,
gender and language before entering a classroom. However, this is no easy task for students
with little experience of living in or learning about diverse communities. Such a state is Utah in
the US, a region whose historical roots are rural and-unlike any other American state-whose
citizens, political leaders and educators are predominately Euro-American and members of the
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (LDS), commonly known as Mormons. While some
teacher educators encourage their predominantly LDS secondary pre-service teachers to utilize
critical pedagogy, it becomes clear that students' religious identity comes into conflict with
issues associated with race, class, language and gender. The following qualitative case study
examines how the theology of the LDS Church informs the identity and educational belief
systems of six female, LDS pre-service secondary educators as they prepare to teach in diverse
communities across the US.
Teaching intercultural awareness to first-year medical students via experiential
exercises
Keith R. Aronson, Rhonda Venable, Nicholas Sieveking and Bonnie Miller The Pennsylvania State
University, USA
This study assessed the extent to which a one-time experiential intervention improved
intercultural awareness and sensitivity among first-year medical students. The students
participated in group activities in which they shared personal experiences, solved a hypothetical
problem, and engaged in team building exercises. Post-intervention, students reported less
intercultural awareness, but a greater commitment to improving the intercultural climate of the
medical school and an increased willingness to work in diverse groups during their medical
training. The results of the study suggest that experiential interventions may provide an
important complement to didactics around issues of intercultural awareness and sensitivity with
medical students. Importantly, experiential interventions must provide students with sufficient
time to reflect upon and discuss feelings, thoughts and attitudes that emerge during this kind of
intercultural awareness training.
"This is American get punished»: unpacking narratives of Southeast Asian
refugees in the US
Gail Hickey, School of Education, Indiana University - Purdue University, Fort Wayne, Indiana,
USA
This paper explores acculturative experiences and perceptions of Southeast Asian refugees
residing in the Midwestern US through analysis of oral history narratives of Southeast Asian
refugees representing the countries and/or cultures of Burma, Laos, the Philippines, Singapore
and Vietnam. Through this paper, I seek to add to the sparse research base on Southeast Asians
residing in the US, to shed light on the experiences of young refugees' attempts to negotiate
identities in the host society, and to inform educators and others who work with refugee
populations.
Limits of the effectiveness of intercultural education and the conceptualisation
of school knowledge
Klara Ermenc, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
1 argue in this paper that the hidden and official curriculum of Slovenian public elementary
schools work together to develop an ethnocentric and Eurocentric frame of mind when judging
other cultures. This presents an obstacle for the professed promotion of intercultural learning
and valuation, and fosters the social marginalisation of ethnic minorities. The arguments for this
claim can be found in: (1) the existing dichotomy of 'pluralistic' and 'nationalistic' objectives of
education, which can be traced to the core documents of the Slovenian public elementary school
(a nine-year school); (2) the prevalence of 'national' objectives over 'pluralistic' ones, which is
only further strengthened by the operationalisation of objectives and learning topics., and (3)
the matching of the contents of selected school subjects. which place pluralistic, intercultural
objectives high on their agenda, and school practice-this matching can be seen in the emphasis
on 'national' objectives, accompanied by the strengthening of ethno- and Eurocentric
judgements.
International and intercultural issues in English teaching textbooks: the case of
Spain
Maria del Carmen Méndez Garcia, Universidad de Jaén, Spain
The sociocultural content of foreign language textbooks has become a concern of scholars and
practitioners owing to the fact that the traditional emphasis on purely linguistic issues has been
expanded to embrace a language in context approach. This paper studies the English-speaking
communities that are described in English language teaching textbooks marketed in Spain. It
examines to what extent an international and/or intercultural approach is a constituent element
in their design.
Interculturally trained Finnish
intercultural competence
teachers'
Katri Jokikokko, University of Oulu, Finland
conceptions
of
diversity
and
As schools become increasingly multicultural, teachers need special sensitivity to recognize
differences and intercultural competences to be able to support the personal and academic
growth of diverse students. This paper introduces newly qualified teachers' conceptions of
diversity and intercultural competence in a Finnish context. The teachers in the study graduated
from a Masters of Education International Teacher Education Programme, which focuses on
intercultural aspects of education and teachers' work. Data for this research were collected and
analysed qualitatively by applying a phenomenographical research approach. On the basis of the
data interpretation, three different diversity categories were formed: visible and invisible group
level differences and individual differences. Conceptions of intercultural competence in
educational contexts also formed three qualitatively different categories (1) an ethical
orientation including values, interpersonal characteristics and basic orientation towards other
people and the world; (2) efficiency orientation including organizational skills and ability to act in
various roles and situations; and (3) pedagogical orientation including intercultural pedagogical
competences.
Challenges for ESL teacher professionalization in the US: a case study
Manka Varghese, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
and Susan Jenkins, St. Michael's College, Vermont, USA;
As the language minority student population in the US increases at a rapid pace, a larger number
of teachers are pursuing a primary or secondary certification in English as a Second Language
(ESL). This case study describes the professional development efforts to provide an ESL
endorsement to a group of K-12 teachers in a large mid-western university. It describes the
systemic nature underlying their professional development, highlighting the influence of
different constituencies. These range from federal, state, county and district levels to the
university teacher preparation program, as well as the teachers themselves. By understanding
how these factors influence teachers' professional development, the authors identify important
lessons that can be learned by teacher educators
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Volume 16, Number 2, May 2005
SPECIAL ISSUE
HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION
ABSTRACTS
EDITORIAL
Transformative learning and human rights education: taking a closer look
Felisa Tibbitts, Human rights Education Associates (HREA), Cambridge, MA, USA
A working definition of Justice needs to be focused on peace building, and personal and social
transformation.
Human rights education as a tool of grassroots organizing and social
transformation: a case study from Turkey
Pinar Ilkkaracan and Liz Ercevik Amado, Women for Women's Human Rights (WWHR)-New
Ways, Istanbul,Turkey
Women for Women's Human Rights (WWHR)-New Ways has been carrying out a Human Rights
Education Program for Women throughout Turkey for over a decade, in cooperation with
community centers. The training has a holistic, comprehensive nature, linking several areas of
human rights through a critical gender perspective lens. One of the overarching aims of the
program is to support women's grassroots organizing in economically disadvantaged areas by
equipping women to mobilize around self-identified needs. This article focuses on the impact of
the program on women, methodological factors that contribute to its success and its role as a
catalyst to promote social transformation at the local level.
Learning and transforming reality: women from Rosario's neighborhoods demand
access to public health services free of discrimination
Susana Chiarotti, University of Rosario, Argentina
This article focuses on the activities of two women's groups in Argentina-CLADEM and
INSGENAR. CLADEM, which has a much broader presence in Latin America, aims to give a
feminist perspective to the construction of real democracies with social justice, free of
discrimination and with full exercise of human rights. INSGENAR is a local, non-governmental
organization based in Rosario in the Province of Santa Fe, one of the provincial chapters of
CLADEM-Argentina. We describe the human rights workshops that have been conducted with
women in the past few years and their transformative impact.
Pedagogy of human rights education: a Latin American perspective
Abraham Magendzo, UNESCO, Santiago, Chile
Because we started to work with teachers on human rights education in Latin American in the
middle of the 1980s, with dictatorial regimes in power, we understood that our pedagogical
approach needed to be a critical one. This transformative process of change has not been easy.
Many personal, social, political and cultural challenges have been faced. In this article I mention
some of those challenges, especially: (1) the lack of a critical approach; and (2) the cultural
'incapacity' to recognize the 'other' as a legitimate 'other' and to accept the existence of
social and cultural diversity. Finally, the article gives theoretical and practical recommendations
on how to overcome these two main obstacles.
Early adolescents' reflections on social justice: Facing History and Ourselves in
practice and assessment
Dennis J. Barr, Facing History and Ourselves, Brookline, MA, USA
This article describes Facing History and Ourselves, an international moral, character and civic
education program, and introduces an assessment instrument used to explore young people's
perspectives on their and others' choices in relation to social exclusion and teasing among peers.
The instrument, developed collaboratively by educational researchers and practitioners, is based
on a theory of psychosocial development and core themes and practices of the program. The
assessment elicits students' responses to a true story about a girl who had been ostracized by
peers and is then invited to join them in teasing another girl. A rubric is introduced for analyzing
perspectives on the girls' choices as a bystander to teasing.
Coming to Justice: a program for youth around issues of international justice
Barry van Driel, Anne Frank Stichting, The Netherlands
In this article I describe the origins, aims and content of a program developed by the Anne
Frank House around issues of international justice. The program, designed for high school and
university students who are 17-years-old and older, and entitled Coming to Justice, takes the
betrayal of Jews during the Holocaust as its starting point. Students from different countries
critically examine through interactive exercises the history of the Nuremberg trials and then
shift their focus to a genocide that took place during their lifetime: the conflict in Bosnia. Part
of the program involves attending an actual trial at the International War Crimes Tribunal for
the former Yugoslavia in the Hague. Internal evaluations show that attending a trial leaves a
lasting impression on the student and a desire to remain focused on human rights issues.
Using transformative learning as a model for human rights education: a case
study of the Canadian Human Rights Foundation's International Human Rights
Training Program
Vincenza Nazzari, Paul McAdams and Daniel Roy, Canadian Human Rights Foundation, Montréal,
Canada
This paper examines the essential practices and conditions for fostering transformative learning
using the Canadian Human Rights Foundation's International Human Rights Training Program as a
case study. It suggests that the program's participants challenge their own values and
assumptions about human rights, their work and their society through critical reflection.
Consequently, it argues that if human rights educators are to contribute to the transformative
education of others, it is necessary for them to understand the theoretical and practical
underpinnings of the learning process associated with human rights education.
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Volume 16, Number 3, August 2005
ABSTRACTS
Intercultural teaching in higher education
Theresa Man Ling Lee, Department of Political Science, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
In this paper I examine the difference between a multicultural curriculum and an intercultural
one. I argue that such a distinction is important because it helps teachers in universities and
colleges to move beyond the canon debate and its politics, and focus on the more fundamental
task of fostering intercultural thinking. 1 assert here that interculturalism in teaching is not
about covering multiple cultures; rather it is about working through a dialogue between cultures.
A dialogue, of course, requires minimally a party of two. Once that requirement is satisfied, in
my view the focus should then be on the dialogue itself rather than on the multiplicity of voices
for the sake of inclusivity.
Critical reflective thinking through service-learning in multicultural teacher
education
Xin Li and Shirley Lal, California State University, Long Beach, CA, USA
This paper describes and discusses the effect of service-leaming on students' reflective
thinking about their own knowledge in multicultural teacher education at a state university in
Southern California (USA). Two versions of students' multicultural autobiographies, one at the
beginning and the other at the end of the course, were examined to determine their individual
progress. Two classes, one with a service-learning assignment and the other without, were
involved to identify differences. Using King and Kitchener's model of reflective judgment, this
study compares and contrasts the progress of student critical reflective thinking and
differences between the two classes. The research suggests that service-learning stimulated
and increased students' reflective thinking about their own knowledge in multicultural education.
Are there children to educate for peace in conflict-ridden areas? A critical
essay on peace and coexistence education
Zvi Bekerman, Hebrew University, Mount Scopus, Jerusalem, Israel
In this paper, 1 reflect on the education that is being conducted in two Israeli schools, often
held up as exemplary, that have the declared educational aim of cultivating tolerance and
recognition of otherness. What is 'going on' with those presumed to be the primary
beneficiaries (the children studying at these schools) of an integrated educational enterprise?
Should the focus for future peace be on these children at all. 1 take a critical look at the way we
are attempting to forge a peaceful future through our young.
Emerging from the cocoon of Romani pride : The first graduates of the Gandhi
Secondary School in Hungary
Susan Roberta Katz, University of San Francisco, CA, USA
Despite recent educational reforms in Hungary, only 33% of Roma who enter primary school
subsequently enroll in secondary school, and a mere 0.2% progress to higher education. To
address this situation, in 1994 the Gandhi Secondary School opened its doors as the first college
preparatory school for Roma in Europe. In 2000, the school graduated 18 of its original 56
students. Based on interviews conducted in 2004 with 10 of these students, two of the school's
founders and two teachers, this paper documents the graduates' reflections on their
experiences during high school and beyond. Data revealed that students found a second family at
the school - indeed a protective cocoon - but did not always feel equipped to handle the racism
they encountered later in both the workplace and university.
Research-based teacher education for multicultural contexts
Judith K. Bernhard, Carlos F. Diaz and Ilene Allgood, Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Graduate programs in education face the challenge of preparing teachers and specialists in
education to work with English Language Learners (ELLs). Programs must be culturally
responsive, while at the same time respecting state and federal standards for scientifically
based practice according to best evidence. The focus of the present study is a graduate program
in education that sought to prepare graduate students to address the needs of ELL students.
Among the articulated goals of the program grant were that teachers enrolled would be able to:
(1) use effective English for Speakers of Other Languages and bilingual educational strategies
and methods. (2) use findings from testing, assessment and research functionally; and (3)
promote multilingualism, and, in a broader sense, respect and equitable treatment of the
heritages of home languages. The extent to which graduates of the master's program who were
working as teachers and administrators at the time of the study were able to make culturally
competent connections with ELL students and to establish a repertoire of scientific evidence,
based on research findings that they could then use to support their teaching theory and
practice, is discussed.
Findings reflecting the responses of 57 graduates of the program were as follows: (a) the
training provided by the master's program was rated as more useful than the in-service provided
by the state because its emphasis on research allowed graduates to judge the merits of
proposed educational reforms and to clarify their own pedagogy; (b) the ability to cite research
reports enabled graduates to be heard by colleagues and to depoliticize discussions regarding
curricular reforms. (c) in developing their 'communities of practice', graduates made connections
with others who had been trained in the use of scientific research in education. The study
illustrates how a graduate education program focused on transformation and the encouragement
of home language use can prepare teachers to work effectively in a political context of
'evidence-based practice'.
Foreign students' attitudes in Portuguese language classrooms: an exploratory
study
Maria Cabral, University of the Algarve, Faro, Portugal
This exploratory study aims to investigate the attitudes and motivation of four English-speaking
students in two Portuguese public schools towards their Portuguese and English language classes.
Our research revealed that the needs of these students were not met in their Portuguese
language classes nor their English language classes. This can be attributed to various factors,
including traditional teaching methods and classroom environments that largely ignored the fact
that foreign students were sharing the classroom.
Promoting interculturality in Spain: assessing the use of the Jigsaw classroom
method
Miguel A. Santos Rego and M. Del Mar Lorenzo Moledo, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela,
Spain
This note examines the effectiveness of a program in Spain that uses the Jigsaw learning
technique, as an educational intervention. We used a quasi-experimental research design with
two groups, two measures and an independent variable (the program). Use of the Jigsaw
technique is shown to have been fairly effective on a series of measures.
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Volume 16, Number 4, October 2005
ABSTRACTS
Understanding the discipline gap through a cultural lens: implications for the
education of African American students
Carla R. Monroe, College of Charleston, SC, USA
African American students are disciplined at rates that are disproportionately higher than Black
students' statistical representation in public schools. Coined as the discipline gap, racial and
ethnic disparities are present in virtually every major school system across the United States.
Because African American students seldom share the cultural frameworks of their teachers, the
overrepresentation of Black students on measures of school discipline may, in part, be a function
of cultural mismatches in the classroom. This article contains a synopsis of what is currently
known about the discipline gap, and sets forth suggestions to address the issue.
Recommendations focus on the roles of culturally responsive discipline, teacher recruitment and
cultural immersion experiences. Irvine's construct of cultural synchronization serves as the
article's interpretive basis.
Interculturalizing education in Bulgaria: the contribution of the National
Helpdesk for intercultural learning materials
Richard Fay, University of Manchester, UK
and Leah Davcheva , British Council, Bulgaria
Whilst there has been extensive discussion of the models and policies concerning intercultural
education in Bulgaria, there has been to date surprisingly little work undertaken regarding the
potential contribution of Bulgarian school textbooks across the curriculum towards the
objectives of intercultural education. The National Helpdesk for Intercultural Learning
Materials has been established to address this need. In this article, we describe the context
against which the Helpdesk needs to be understood before discussing its mission statement,
evaluation model, textbook evaluation project and ongoing activities.
Identity, boundary and schooling: perspectives on the experiences and
perceptions of refugee children
Leslie Bash, Anglia Polytechnic University, UK
In assuming ethnic/national identity as problematic, we examine its dynamic aspects in the
context of refugee children and their educational experiences. While the starting point of our
analysis is a deconstruction of ethnic/national identity in conventional terms of language,
religion, education etc., the emerging focus is the notion of boundary. On the one hand. we look
at the relevance of fluid boundaries for identity formation, while on the other hand, the
experience of crossing boundaries will also be examined, particularly in the case of forced
migration and displacement. Boundaries are conceptualised in the context of a continuum in which
the experiences of refugee children range across school, home, locality and country. To
illustrate the central arguments two case studies will be highlighted: a child refugee from
Kosovo, the older of two brothers arriving in the UK about four years ago, who now attends a
north London primary school; and several young minors, mainly from Kosovo, who attend a youth
club in south London. Preliminary observations of the child, together with subsequent small group
discussions and semi-structured interviews, serve to identify how the child relates to the
various spaces in the school. The analysis of his drawings forms the main part of the argument.
In the case of the youth club users, observations and conversations show how these young people
construct their individual and social identities by accessing global resources in response to local
interests.
Learning from genocide ? A study in the failure of Holocaust education
Geoffrey Short, University of Hertfordshire, UK
The importance of learning lessons from die Holocaust and from the mass slaughter in Rwanda
was recognised in the theme underpinning Britain's Holocaust Memorial Day in 2004. This article
is principally concerned with the lessons learnt from the Holocaust by a culturally diverse group
of students aged 14 to 16. They all attended schools in an outer London borough and were
interviewed after taking part in a local event held to mark the 2004 commemoration. The article
concludes with a discussion of the main findings of the investigation.
Social representations of diversity: multi/intercultural education in a South
African urban school
Nicole Carignan, University of Quebec at Montreal, Canada
Roland G. Pourdavood, Cleveland State University, USA
Lonnie C. King and Nosisi Feza, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, South Africa
The story of School X started in South Africa in 1875. At that time, the school was built for
white children only. More than hundred years later, the 1994 elections demarcated the end of
the apartheid era and the school enrolled black Xhosa-speaking children for the first time. As a
result, in 2004, 90% of the students were black Xhosa-spcaking. The theoretical perspectives of
our study are based on notions of multicultural and intercultural education, and of diversity. Our
study is embedded in a socio-constructivist inquiry paradigm. Using questionnaires and
interviews, we aimed to understand the social representations regarding diversity of a principal,
a teacher, seven students and four parents in a K-7 open school. We examined diversity of
values, cultures, religions, languages, attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, etc. regarding a
multi/intercultural perspective in education. We attempted to discern what the participants'
understandings of diversity were, how they identified diversity, and why they justified their
practices and actions with respect to diversity.
Integrating ICT (Information and Communication Technology) and multicultural
aspects within a classroom: the SAIL (Specialized Animated Interactive
Learning) project
Michelle Caruana-Dingli, University of Malta, Malta
The implementation of technology in the primary school sector during the last few years has
resulted in issues being raised relating to teachers' knowledge of technology and their
propensities for incorporating ICT into an already packed curriculum. Teachers in Malta were
faced with challenges to their various teaching professional knowledge and to their prior and
developing understanding of the conceptual and procedural aspects of technology. SAIL provided
opportunities for teachers to develop their understandings of minorities in Europe within a
community of teachers, while at the same time promoting technology both as a process and a
product.
The influence of a multicultural teacher education program on teachers'
multicultural practices
Kezia McNeal, Georgia State University, USA
This study examined the multicultural classroom practices of two novice secondary English
teachers employed by the same US school district that serves a diverse student population.
Findings indicated a high level of consistency between the teachers' intended multicultural
practices and their implemented practices. Based on classroom observations, both teachers
implemented the general multicultural practices of critical pedagogy, real life application,
student choice, multicultural literature, individual student attention, cultural physical adaptation,
active learning and cooperative grouping. The factors supporting multicultural infusion were the
teachers' previous experiences with diverse populations, the teachers' own previous meaningful
high school experiences and the teachers' backgrounds that were similar to their students. The
impeding factors were the structure of the school, time constraints, racism and tracking.
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Volume 16, Number 5, December 2005
ABSTRACTS
Teachers' initial training in cultural diversity in Spain: attitudes and pedagogical
strategies
Odet Moliner Garcia, Universitat Jaume I, Spain and Rafaela Garcia Lopez, Universitat de
Valencia, Spain
This paper examines a number of issues relating to educational responsibility for increasing
social cohesion and preventing the segregation of people from different cultures who have to
pass through the Spanish educational system. Using a descriptive analysis, we review the present
situation. Our review shows that the treatment of cultural diversity by Spanish universities is, in
general, insufficient with respect to the training needs that students will demand from the
educational system both now and in the future. Simply taking a single course on intercultural
issues is not enough to prepare teachers to cope with cultural diversity in the school and
classroom. Therefore, educational approaches, curriculum planning, teacher organization and
teaching methodology all need to change in the earliest stages of teacher training. A important
first step would be to develop positive attitudes toward diversity and inclusion, which can then
guide new educational approaches. In turn, these can focus on innovation within an intercultural
framework in order to allow the implementation of increasingly committed and complex projects
and educational experiences (investigation-action, social action projects, etc.). Such
developments are intended to provide teachers with teaching-learning strategies in five
fundamental core areas. These represent the minimum content of any intercultural education
program: friendship with people from other cultures, multicultural coexistence, coexistence and
learning about other cultures at school, intercultural cooperation and respect for cultural
diversity.
Support programmes for Roma children: do they help or promote exclusion?
Kazuyo Igarashi, JICA Tanzania Office, Tanzania
This article critically examines current education programmes for Roma primary school students
in the Czech Republic and the impact of these programmes. The research described here, based
on in-depth case studies, challenges popular beliefs in the 'success' of Roma oriented
programmes, as well as the stereotypical negative images of Roma parents. The studies also
explore the dilemmas experienced by teaching staff and their views of both Roma and the
majority 'non-Roma' children.
Teaching and learning in multicultural contexts: a comparative analysis of
language teaching and learning in a Norwegian and Dutch primary school
classroom
Jeff Bezemer, University of London, UK
Astri Heen Wold, Lutine de Wal Pastoor, Else Ryen, Tilburg University, The Netherlands
Sjaak Kroon, University of Oslo, Norway
In this paper, multicultural primary school classes in Norway and the Netherlands are compared
in terms of language teaching and learning. Drawing on observations, interviews, and school and
policy documents, four dimensions of comparison are discussed. First, we deal with the different
ways in which separate language classes for language minority pupils were organized in the two
cases. Secondly, the different ways of teaching and the underlying views on learning language
are characterized. Thirdly, we analyse how these ways of teaching affect on language minority
pupils. Fourthly, we address the question as to how these approaches relate to the educational
policies, traditions and discourses of the respective countries.
Across continents or across the street: using local resources to cultivate
intercultural awareness
Carla R. Chamberlin-Quinlisk, Penn State Abington College, USA
This paper describes a project designed for college students unlikely to participate in
international exchange programs but who, nonetheless, can learn much about intercultural
communication through available resources in their own communities. The project involved a
mentoring program between third and fourth year university students and first and second year
ESL students at the same institution. The project was conducted over a 15-week semester-long
course, and learning outcomes were documented through journal entries, written reflective
statements, class discussions, oral presentations and instructor observations. A qualitative
analysis of these data sources, framed through transformative learning theory, revealed
outcomes leading to increased intercultural awareness. While engaging in face-to-face
conversations, students transformed their prior knowledge about 'others' into a deeper
understanding of themselves, their culture and their intercultural relationships.
Learning to be seen: the depiction of encounters between Israeli and newcomer
children in children's literature
Deborah Golden and Tatyana Drubetskoy, University of Haifa, Israel
Books written for and about children may serve to convey central cultural tenets to new
members of society. This paper looks at the depiction of encounters between newcomer and
locally born children in contemporary Hebrew literature aimed at teenage readers and presents
the major resources and practices by means of which the newcomer protagonists are portrayed
as coming to find their place in the new society. The paper suggests that, rather than
introducing Israeli-born readers to newcomer cultures, as might be expected in the current
ideological climate of cultural pluralism, these books serve as a means of conveying to children
and young people socially sanctioned modes of coming to belong to Israeli society.
School adaptation of Roma children
Encho Gerganov, Silvia Varbanova and Hristo Kyuchukov, New Bulgarian University, Bulgaria
This paper examines the degree of school adaptation among Roma children who were included in
a program for the desegregation of Roma schools in Bulgaria. More specifically, the program
requires Roma children to attend mixed classes with Bulgarian students and Roma teacher
assistants to work with them. The Bulgarian version of the Questionnaire on School Adaptation,
developed at the Harvard Graduate School of Education was used. A factorial experimental
design was applied to test the hypothesis that Roma children adapt better to school when they
study in mixed classes with the support of a Roma teacher assistant rather than in homogeneous
classes. As predicted, the results reveal that Roma students in mixed classes with Roma teacher
assistants adapt better than Roma students in homogeneous classes on the most important
indicators of adaptation.
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