III. - XIIe CONFÉRENCE DE LA COMMISSION RÉGIONALE

III. - XIIe CONFÉRENCE
DE LA COMMISSION RÉGIONALE
DE L'O.I.E. POUR L'ASIE,
L'EXTRÊME-ORIENT
ET L'OCÉANIE
Djakarta (Indonésie)
10-14 novembre 1980
A. -
RAPPORTS
REPORTS
INFORMES
1.
Rage.
Rabies.
Rabia.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 55-59.
Rabies - the Australian position
and a regional perspective
by
W.A. GEERING(*)
AUSTRALIAN POSITION
Australia is free of Rabies a n d has been so for m a n y years. In fact
the only likely occurrence of the disease in Australia since European
colonisation was in 1 8 6 6 - 6 7 . This incident, which occurred in
H o b a r t , Tasmania, involved cases in several dogs, a pig a n d o n e
p e r s o n ( P U L L A R a n d M c l N T O S H , 1 9 5 4 ) . T h e authorities r o u n d e d u p
and destroyed stray dogs in t h e vicinity a n d the disease disappeared.
Geographical isolation a n d t h e long duration of the sea voyage
under sail from E u r o p e (from where most of t h e dogs, cats a n d
livestock were introduced) during early colonial times would have
provided a fair measure of protection for Australia against Rabies.
It is, however, remarkable that a disease which has such a long incu­
bation period was excluded. It is even more remarkable that Rabies
was n o t introduced to Australia with the waves of migration of abo­
riginal m a n from Asia that took place periodically between 1 0 , 0 0 0
and 5 0 , 0 0 0 years ago — particularly as the dog was also introduced
from Asia in the same process a n d became established in the Austra­
lian fauna. Perhaps t h e simple explanation is that Rabies itself has
only been introduced t o East Asia in comparatively recent times,
and indeed there does n o t appear t o be any record of Rabies being
present in t h e region earlier than about 1 8 5 0 (STEELE, 1 9 7 5 ) .
Whilst rudimentary quarantine procedures for imported animals
were adopted as early as 1 8 0 4 , comprehensive national quarantine
programmes were only brought into force in Australia in 1 9 0 8 with
(*) Australian Bureau of Animal Health, Department of Primary Industry, Can­
berra, A.C.T. 2600.
— 56 —
the passing of the Commonwealth Quarantine Act. The C o m m o n ­
wealth Government then assumed the responsibility for the imple­
mentation of h u m a n , animal and plant quarantine in Australia.
Since that time the direct importation of dogs and cats from any
country in which Rabies exists has been prohibited. Importation of
dogs and cats from some Rabies-free countries is permitted subject
to requirements outlined below. These measures have provided a
high degree of protection for Australia.
At present dogs and cats can only be imported directly to Austra­
lia from the United Kingdom (including Northern Ireland, Channel
Islands and the Isle of M a n ) , the Republic of Ireland, New Zealand,
Fiji, Hawaii, P a p u a New Guinea and Norfolk Island. In all cases
the animals must have been resident in the country of export (out­
side official quarantine stations) continuously for at least six m o n t h s
or since birth. Animals from the United Kingdom are required to
spend 60 days in official quarantine after arrival in Australia if they
are transported by sea or 90 days if they are transported by air. Ani­
mals from Fiji, Hawaii, P a p u a New Guinea and Norfolk Island are
required to spend 9 m o n t h s in quarantine. Animals from New Zea­
land are not required to undertake quarantine after entry. Dogs and
cats from other countries can be imported to Australia, but only
indirectly through one of the above countries and only if they then
meet the above conditions.
Quarantine facilities for dogs and cats have been provided by the
Commonwealth Government in Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne, Ade­
laide and Perth. A new quarantine station at Wallgrove, N S W , that
can house 597 dogs and 87 cats, was opened in 1980. This has m o r e
t h a n doubled the available quarantine accommodation for these spe­
cies in Australia.
The only likely way that Rabies would be introduced to a free
country such as Australia is by the illegal entry of a live infected ani­
mal. The risk of Rabies being introduced is therefore not quite as
high as for some other foreign animal diseases where other modes of
entry such as infected a r t h r o p o d vectors, fomites and contaminated
foodstuffs are also important. Nevertheless, the risk is always pre­
sent. Very occasionally people are apprehended at airports and sea­
ports, smuggling pet animals into the country. These are confisca­
ted. However the area for greatest concern is the remote, sparsely
inhabited and frequently inaccessible northern coastline of the Aus­
tralian continent. A wide variety of vessels (from cargo ships to fis­
hing vessels, refugee b o a t s , small craft and pleasure yachts) utilise
—
57 —
these waters. Dogs, cats and other small animals could easily be
released ashore from these vessels either through ignorance or as a
deliberate attempt t o circumvent Australian quarantine laws. To
counter this, daily low-level coastal quarantine surveillance flights
are m a d e from Cairns in Queensland to Geraldton in Western Aus­
tralia, a distance of some 1 0 , 0 0 0 k m . A n y suspicious activities sigh­
ted from these flights can be quickly followed up by interception
parties of quarantine officers travelling by boat, land vehicle or heli­
copter. Extra veterinary and quarantine officers have been posted in
strategic locations in northern Australia over the last few years.
If Rabies did become established in Australia there are u n d o u b ­
tedly sufficiently high populations of potential vector a n d reservoir
host species over most of t h e country for a sylvatic cycle to occur.
The E u r o p e a n red fox (Vulpes vulpes), which has proven t o b e a
very efficient reservoir host for Rabies in Europe, was introduced to
Australia in t h e early nineteenth century a n d quickly became feral.
Its range n o w extends over most of Australia except t h e extreme
n o r t h a n d Tasmania and in m a n y areas its population density is hig­
her t h a n that known t o sustain a Rabies epidemic (i.e. one f o x /
square k m ) . In many areas of Australia dingoes (Canis
familaris
var. dingo), feral dogs and feral cats could be important hosts. The
potential role of marsupial animals is less clear. In the Americas
marsupial opossums do not play a significant role in the epidemio­
logy of Rabies a n d they are fairly resistant t o experimental infection
( B E A M E R et al., 1960). However M O R A H A N ( A N O N . , 1 9 6 7 ) found
that, in contrast to new-world species, some New Guinea marsupials
(Phalanger maculatus, Phalanger orientalis and Petaurus
marsupialis) are highly susceptible t o experimental Rabies infection. It is
doubtful whether the herbivorous marsupial species in Australia
would have the necessary attributes to act as efficient vectors for
Rabies. However some of t h e smaller carnivorous marsupials m a y
be involved in sylvatic cycles should Rabies occur in Australia.
Detailed contingency plans have been prepared to counter a possi­
ble outbreak of Rabies in a quarantine station or an urban or rural
environment in Australia. The policy is for eradication at the earliest
opportunity. The plans are based on the well-proven methods of
destruction of infected and dangerous-contact animals, compulsory
licensing and restriction of the movement of owned dogs, removal
of stray animals and animal vaccination campaigns. A diagnostic
facility, capable of performing all the laboratory diagnostic tests for
Rabies, is maintained in Australia. Imported dogs and cats that die
— 58 —
whilst in quarantine in Australia are routinely subjected to exclusion
tests for Rabies. Animals that exhibit unusual central nervous
system syndromes, possibly suggestive of Rabies, are also tested.
REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE
In East Asia, Rabies is endemic in Burma, Thailand, Kampuchea,
Laos, Vietnam, the Philippines and Indonesia. The incidence of the
disease in m a n y regions of these countries is probably as high as
anywhere in the world. However it is difficult to obtain an accurate
assessment of the incidence because of inadequate surveillance and
laboratory diagnostic facilities particularly in the rural areas of some
countries.
J a p a n (1956), Taiwan (1961), H o n g Kong (1955) and Singapore
(1953) succeeded in eradicating Rabies by the traditional methods of
dog vaccination campaigns and elimination of stray animals. The
years in brackets are those in which the last animal cases were detec­
ted in each country. Malaysia is free of Rabies apart from a very
occasional occurrence near the Thai border. The incidence in South
Korea has also dropped to a very low level, due to compulsory vacci­
nation campaigns. Dogs and cats are rare in China and Rabies is not
regarded by the Chinese as a significant problem anywhere in the
country.
Indonesia has done an excellent j o b in keeping the island groups
east of Java, and Irian Jaya, free from Rabies.
A
does
The
dogs
unique feature of Rabies throughout the region is that there
not appear to be a significant reservoir of infection in wildlife.
classical urban Rabies cycle occurs in semi-owned and stray
in all endemic countries in the region.
SMITH and his co-workers found Rabies in dog-eared fruit bats
(Cynopterus brachyotis) (SMITH et al., 1967) and in bandicoot rats
(Bandicoota indicus) and other rodent species (SMITH et al., 1968) in
Thailand, but these observations have not been confirmed by other
workers. Large surveys of bats and other small m a m m a l s in the Phi­
lippines (STEELE et al., 1973) failed to show any evidence of infec­
tion. There are occasional reports of Rabies in monkeys from some
countries.
The fact that several countries have managed to eliminate Rabies
simply by applying measures to control dog Rabies supports the sup-
—
59 —
position that there are n o significant wildlife Rabies cycles in the
region.
Countries in East Asia therefore have an opportunity to eradicate
Rabies, given currently available technology, which is denied to all
other major endemic regions in the world. Eradication programmes
would of course need a high level of co-operation between Ministries
of Health a n d Agriculture t o be successful. Improved laboratory
diagnostic a n d vaccine production capabilities would also be an
essential pre-requisite, as would public education programmes.
Archipelago countries such as the Philippines and Indonesia are par­
ticularly well placed for Rabies eradication as campaigns could be
undertaken o n a n island by island basis.
*
**
REFERENCES
A N O N . — C D C Veterinary Public Health Notes, published by US
Department of Health, Education a n d Welfare, July 1 9 6 7 .
B E A M E R ( P . D . ) , M O H R ( C . O . ) a n d B A R R ( T . R . B . ) . — Resistance of
the opossum to Rabies virus. Amer.
J. vet. Res., 1 9 6 0 , 82, 5 0 7 -
510.
P U L L A R ( E . M . ) a n d M C I N T O S H (K.S.). — T h e relation of Australia
to the world Rabies problem. Aust.
vet. J., 1 9 5 4 , 30, 3 2 6 - 3 3 6 .
S M I T H ( P . C . ) , L A W H A S W A S D I (K.), VICK ( W . E . ) a n d S T A N T O N
(J.S.). — Isolation of Rabies from fruit bats in Thailand.
Nature,
1 9 6 7 , 216, 3 8 4 - 3 8 6 .
STEELE (J.S.). — History of Rabies. In : « The Natural History of
Rabies », Vol. I, ed. B A E R ( G . M . ) , Academic Press, New
York, 1 9 7 5 , 1 - 2 9 .
S T E E L E ( J . S . ) , A R A M B U L O (P.V.) a n d B E R A N ( G . W . ) . — T h e epide­
miology of zoonoses in the Philippines. Arch. Environ.
1973,
26, 330-339.
Health,
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 61-63.
Rabies control in Korea
by
CHANG-KOO, LEE(*)
A review of the veterinary records over the past 60 years shows
great changes in Rabies outbreaks in m a n and animals. Veterinary
epidemiologists are interested in how much infection and disease
outbreaks occur and how much is the loss in animals particularly in
dogs. In this paper, a brief summary of the Rabies control p r o ­
g r a m m e is presented with emphasis on the immunization of the
canine population. Prior to the 1960s, the calf brain tissue inactiva­
ted vaccine had been in wide use, however, this tendency has been
changed since the introduction of the modified live virus Rabies vac­
cine.
TABLE l.
Number of dogs vaccinated for Rabies.
Year
Number vaccinated
Year
Number vaccinated
1922
1925
1930
1935
1939
1945
1950
1955
4,018
10,503
47,337
55,225
47,657
1960
1965
1970
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
61,899
399,500
259,298
607,298
1,110,924
460,610
460,278
478,492
_(*)
2,260
18,907
(*) Figures not available.
The role played by wild animals and other vector species in the
transmission of Rabies is not clearly known. The prevalence of fox,
wolf and bat along the North Korean border line was identified and
(*) Director, Institute of Veterinary Research, Ministry of Agriculture and Fishe­
ries, Anyang.
— 62 —
most Rabies outbreaks in the recent years were observed mainly in
the northeastern part of the country. The above-mentioned facts
indicate that the disease has most probably been introduced from
the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. Even though the inci­
dence of Rabies outbreaks has been very low in recent years, it is
thought to be significant because pet animals are living in the i m m e ­
diate closeness to the h u m a n population and it is dangerous both
for veterinary and h u m a n public health. Most cases of infected dogs
were stray and unvaccinated. Thus the immunization of the dog
population is the only way for the control of Rabies o u t b r e a k s .
TABLE 2.
Incidence of Rabies outbreaks in dogs.
Year
1915
1920
1926
1930
1935
1938
1945
1950
1955
Number of
outbreaks
209
246
574
738
702
377
-(*)
32
9
Year
Number of
outbreaks
1960
1965
1970
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
80
47
3
91
10
9
2
0
(*) Figures not available.
The Veterinary Research Institute of the Ministry of Agriculture
and Fisheries is the central diagnostic facilities for Rabies in the
country and the institute is coordinated with 11 local veterinary dia­
gnostic laboratories. The first step diagnosis is always m a d e by the
local practitioner on the basis of clinical manifestations and the spe­
cimens collected by the local veterinarians are forwarded to the cen­
tral diagnostic laboratories for further confirmation. Special featu­
res in the Rabies control are that the Korean Veterinary Medical
Society conducts the mass vaccination p r o g r a m m e with the financial
aid of each local government. In this regard, the private practising
veterinarian plays the key role because he assumes the responsibility
for vaccinating the dogs and reports the results of his activities to
the respective local government. The mass vaccination is conducted
every spring and there is p r o p a g a n d a for immunization of the entire
canine population. Very often veterinarians will be besieged with
complaints from dog owners who are attributing every form of
— 63 —
death and sickness of their animals during this period t o Rabies vac­
cination. Careful necropsy and histopathological examination will
screen out all such complaints. It is believed that the live modified
virus vaccine has been a great contribution for. controlling Rabies
among the dog population and in the future, the E R A strain will
also be used for the manufacture of Rabies vaccine when field trials
on the E R A strain of the virus are completed.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 65-72.
Rabies and its control
in Indonesia(*)
by
Soehardjo HARDJOSWORO, Abdulgani Amri SIREGAR(*)
and Artowo SASTROSEMITO(**)
INTRODUCTION
Rabies has been known to Indonesia almost 1 0 0 years a g o , since
E S S E R ( 1 ) a n d P E N N I N G ( 2 ) reported cases of Rabies, respectively, in
a buffalo a n d in dogs.
Out of 2 7 Provinces of Indonesia, only 5 Provinces are still free
from Rabies i.e. : Mollucas, Irian Jaya, East Nusa Tenggara, West
Nusa Tenggara a n d Bali. The rest of the Provinces are Rabies infec­
ted or suspected infected areas. In Indonesia Rabies is predomi­
nantly a disease of dogs ( 3 , 4 ) although cases in other species also
have been reported, e.g. : horses ( 5 ) , cows ( 6 ) , goats ( 7 ) , cats ( 8 ) a n d
monkeys ( 9 ) .
Wildlife Rabies is so far limited to one species only, musang
(Paradoxurus
hermaphroditus);
one case was reported from West
Java in 1 9 5 8 ( 1 0 ) a n d another from Banda Aceh in 1 9 7 5 ( 3 , 4 ) .
This report describes the Rabies situation in animals a n d in m a n ,
based o n data collected u p t o 1 9 7 9 .
RABIES I N A N I M A L S
A total of 2 , 3 8 4 cases of animals which died of Rabies were repor­
ted in 1 6 Provinces during 1 9 7 7 t o 1 9 7 9 , i.e. a yearly average of 7 9 4
cases o r m o r e than 2 animals which died of Rabies daily (Table 1 ) .
(*) Virus Laboratory, FKH-IPB, Bogor.
(**) Directorate of Animal Health, Jakarta.
— 66 —
TABLE 1
Rabies in animals
(1977-1979)
Provinces
1977
1978
1979
1977-1979
Yearly
average
D.I. Banda Aceh
North Sumatra
West Sumatra
Riau
Jambi
South Sumatra
Bengkulu
Lampung
D.K.I. Jakarta
West Java
Mid Java
D.I. Yogyakarta
East Java
East Kalimantan
Mid Kalimantan
South Sulawesi
South East Sulawesi
Mid Sulawesi
North Sulawesi
29
194
110
—
39
34
39
3
—
157
34
157
134
—
53
59
55
6
—
144
1
14
263
139 >
—
13
50
1
—
—
29
—
7
56
—
1
2
10
3
19
127
6
—
188 )
3>
—
—
2
f)
15
3
12
122
77
614
383
—
105
143
138
15
—
489
4
—
1
3
9
54
6
38
305
25.6
204.6
127.6
—
35
47.6
46
5
—
163
1.3
—
0.3
1
3
18
2
12.6
101.6
TOTAL
698
805
881
2,384
794.6
-
a)
b
44C)
d
e
7
D a t a : Dir. o f A n i m a l Health, Ministry o f Agriculture a n d Dir. o f A n i m a l - b o r n e H u m a n Diseases, Ministry o f
Health.
a) 2 cats, the rest were dogs; b) 1 cattle, 2 cats, the rest were d o g s ; c) 2 cattle, 2 g o a t s , 3 cats, t h e rest were d o g s ;
d) 1 horse, t h e rest were d o g s ; e) Cilacap area; 0 1 g o a t , the rest were d o g s .
N o r t h S u m a t r a , West J a v a , West S u m a t r a a n d N o r t h Sulawesi
were highly enzootic areas, with a yearly average, respectively, of
204, 163, 127 and 101 cases (Table 1).
Dogs predominantly died of Rabies, 2,371 cases (99,45%) follo­
wed by cats, 7 cases ( 0 , 2 9 % ) , cattle, 3 cases (0,13%) a n d goats,
3 cases (0,13%) (Table 2).
TABLE 2
Distribution of Rabies in animals
(1977-1979)
No. of cases
Dogs
Cases (%)
Cats
Cases (%)
Cattle
Cases (%)
Goats
Cases (%)
2,384
2,371 (99,45)
7 (0,29)
3 (0,13)
3 (0,13)
— 67 —
Rabies in dogs and cats has been known for years. Cases in cattle
and goats, however, were known only in the 70's. For cattle, 8 cases
have been reported : 2 cases in West Java (1974), 3 cases in West
Sumatra (1976) and in this report, 1 case in West Sumatra (1979)
and 2 cases in Bengkulu (1979). A total of 5 cases in goats have been
reported : 1 case in 1972 and another case in 1974, both were from
Banda Aceh, 2 cases in Begkulu (1979) and 1 case in Mid Kaliman­
tan (1979).
Animal
bites.
From 1977 to 1978, there were 30,638 cases of animal bites, or
15,319 cases on a yearly average occurred in 17 Provinces, or there
were 42 cases of animal bites daily.
The animal bites cases apparently were also high in the highly
enzootic Provinces, i.e. North Sumatra, 3,796 cases; West Java,
2,605 cases; West Sumatra, 2,477 cases and North Sulawesi, 1,387
cases on a yearly average (Table 3).
TABLE 3
Animal bites (1977-1978)
Provinces
1977
1978
1977-1978
Yearly
average
D.I. Banda Aceh
North Sumatra
West Sumatra
Riau
Jambi
South Sumatra
Bengkulu
Lampung
D.K.I. Jakarta
West Java
Mid Java
D.I. Yogyakarta
East Java
East Kalimantan
Mid Kalimantan
South Sulawesi
Mid Sulawesi
North Sulawesi
South East Sulawesi
426
4,378
2,572
94
188
1,192
243
1,042
557
3,214
2,382
18
177
1,817
258
1,363
983
7,592
4,954
112
365
1,999
501
2,405
491.5
3,796
2,477
56
182.5
1,499.5
250.5
1,202.5
TOTAL
—
2,632
—
—
—
2,578
5,210
2,605
—
—
—
—
129
161
—
—
290
—
145
—
197
1,279
79
132
37
1,591
154
1,496
161
231
39
1,591
351
2,775
240
115.5
19.5
795.5
175.5
1,387.5
120
14,542
16,096
30,638
15,319
99
2
—
Data : Dir. o f A n i m a l - b o r n e Human Diseases, Ministry o f Health.
— 68 —
H U M A N RABIES
For the period 1977 to 1978, eleven Provinces recorded 142 cases
of h u m a n Rabies or 71 cases on a yearly average, or every 5 days
one person died of Rabies (Table 4).
TABLE 4
Human Rabies (1977-1978)
Provinces
D.I. Banda Aceh
North Sumatra
West Sumatra
Riau
Jambi
South Sumatra
Bengkulu
Lampung
D.K.I. Jakarta
West Java
Mid Java
D.I. Yogyakarta
East Java
East Kalimantan
Mid Kalimantan
South Sulawesi
Mid Sulawesi
South East Sulawesi
North Sulawesi
TOTAL
Yearly
average
1977
1978
1977-1978
2
9
—
—
—
4
13
6
6
22
6
—
—
—
—
—
28
1
11
5
5
11
33
6
22
16.5
3
11
—
—
—
—
3
6
9
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
13
7
1
1
15
7
2
1
28
3.5
1
0.5
14
68
74
142
71
1
—
3
11
3
4.5
D a t a : Dir. o f A n i m a l - b o r n e H u m a n Diseases, Ministry o f H e a l t h .
Post-vaccinal
encephalitis.
Nerve tissue vaccine is cheap, readily available and is the com­
monly used vaccine for post-exposure treatment in Indonesia. For
years, cases of post-vaccinal encephalitis h a d not been reported or
overlooked. Since 1972, however, 4 Provinces have reported the
occurrence of encephalitis following post-exposure Rabies vaccina­
tion, North Sulawesi, South Sumatra, Bengkulu and L a m p u n g .
In North Sulawesi, from 1972 up to June 1980, there h a d been 82
cases reported out of 6,212 vaccinées, and 34 of them died (Table 5).
One case, who finally died, was reported in South Sumatra in 1978.
— 69 —
There was one case in Bengkulu and 3 cases, of which one died in
Lampung.
TABLE 5.
Post-vaccinal encephalitis in North Sulawesi.
Year
No. of
vaccinated
No. of cases (%)
Death (%)
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980*)
358
467
263
468
445
992
1,495
1,324
400
1 (0.27)
2 (0.42)
3 (1.14)
10 (2.13)
4 (0.89)
16 (1.61)
9 (1.27)
8 (0.67)
19 (4.75)
1 (0.21)
1 (0.38)
7 (1.49)
2 (0.44)
7 (0.70)
6 (0,40)
4 (0.34)
6(1.50)
6,212
82 (1,32)
34 (0.54)
*) up to July 1980.
Data : R.J. T H E O S , Provincial Health Service of North Sulawesi.
The data in this paper shows that Rabies is becoming a more and
more serious public health problem in Indonesia. The number of
animals which died of Rabies has increased twice over the number
of cases which occurred in the previous 3-year period, i.e. : 1 case
per day in the period 1972-1976 (3) and 2 cases per day in the period
1977-1978. The number of animal bites also increased, from 24 bites
per day to 40 bites per day.
H u m a n Rabies occurred more often than in previous years. In the
period 1948-1972, there were 114 cases of h u m a n Rabies or 1 case
every 26 days; in the period 1973-1976, 115 cases or 1 case every
9 days; and from 1977-1978, 142 cases were reported or 1 case every
5 days (Table 6).
TABLE 6.
Human Rabies (1948-1978).
1948-1972a)
No. of cases
Yearly average
Case/day
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
114c)
4.52
1/26.6
Data : Subdir. Z o o n o s i s , Ministry o f Health.
Ref. N o . 3 .
9 Provinces.
5 Provinces.
16 Provinces.
1973-1976 b)
155d)
38.8
1/9.28
1977-1978a)
142e)
71
1/5.08
— 70 —
The increased n u m b e r of Rabies cases in m a n and in animals and
also of animal bites might be due to a better surveillance, a greater
n u m b e r of decentralized laboratories able to diagnose Rabies or a
combination of b o t h . But it is also possible that it represents the
situation in the field. In the past few years, several laboratories have
been equipped with F A microscopes, i.e. : Animal Disease Investi­
gation Centers in Ujung P a n d a n g , M e d a n , Bukittinggi and Tanj u n g k a r a n g and 4 laboratories in Java.
North Sumatra, West Java, West Sumatra and North Sulawesi are
endemic Provinces. In the period 1977-1978, the chance to get
Rabies from an animal bite in North Sumatra was that out of
21 cases of animal bites 1 was bitten by a rabid animal; in West Java
17 to 1; in West Sumatra 20 to 1; and in North Sulawesi 15 to 1. The
risk of dying of Rabies due to an animal bite differed between these
Provinces. The highest was in North Sulawesi, every 96 animal bites
caused 1 h u m a n death of Rabies; in North Sumatra 345 to 1, in
West Java 579 to 1 and in West Sumatra 825 to 1 (Table 7).
TABLE 7.
Rabies in highly endemic Provinces (1977-1978).
North Sumatra
West Java
West Sumatra
North Sulawesi
Rabies
in man
Animal
bites
Human deaths
from Rabies
b/a
b/c
175
150
122
91
3,796
2,605
2,477
1,387
11
4.5
3
14
21.7
17.4
20.3
15.3
345
579
825
96
Ratio
Death after having been bitten by an animal has to be interpreted
cautiously, i.e. as not merely due to Rabies per se but m o r e likely
due to failure to get protection from vaccination. North Sulawesi
has less experience t h a n the other 3 Provinces and is located far
away from the vaccine producer (Bandung); whereas West Java,
West Sumatra and North Sumatra have experienced Rabies for a
long time; an adequate supply of vaccines is provided and vaccina­
tion has been routinely practised.
Close association between dog and m a n has been responsible for
the incidence of Rabies in these provinces. Dogs are used for wild
pig hunting (West Sumatra), for food (North Sumatra a n d N o r t h
Sulawesi) and as watch dogs (West Java).
— 71 —
Incidence of post-vaccinal encephalitis in North Sulawesi is unu­
sually high, 13 per 1,000 vaccinees. Brain tissue vaccine has been used
in Indonesia for years, also in North Sulawesi, so the possibility of
post-vaccinal encephalitis would exist. But the fact that the inci­
dence is unusually high and mostly occurred in only one Province,
N o r t h Sulawesi, gives us an indication that other factors might be
involved, e.g. : race susceptibility or due to other viral encephalitides. Such factors are not easily determined, at the m o m e n t , howe­
ver, due to among others, the limited facilities of the existing virus
laboratory.
CONTROL
Rabies regulation, vaccination and killing of stray or ownerless
dogs have been used consistently to control Rabies in Indonesia.
Rabies is handled through cooperation of 3 ministries, i.e. : the
Department of Agriculture (Directorate of Animal Health) for
Rabies in animals, the Department of Health for Rabies in m a n and
the Department of Internal Affairs for law enforcement.
Mass vaccination is applied to the district where Rabies is repor­
ted, together with restriction of movement of animals and killing of
stray or ownerless dogs. Although nation-wide mass vaccination has
not been programmed by the Government, a stepwise mass vaccina­
tion has been carried out in several cities and districts, e.g. J a k a r t a ,
Bandung, Cirebon, Garut and Cianjur. Besides, the Government
has provided vaccines to the infected areas. A total of 450,000 doses
have been distributed to different Provinces in 1977 and 1978.
Nerve tissue (Semple type) and live attenuated Flury vaccines are
produced in Indonesia. Nerve tissue vaccine is the most used in the
field for vaccination of dogs as well as for post-exposure treatment
of m a n . Tissue culture killed vaccine is also available on the market
in limited quantity and imported.
Control of Rabies has been hampered by : a) lack of knowledge
of the danger of Rabies; b) difficulty in performing vaccination
among dogs, especially in rural areas; c) limited funds; and d) exis­
tence of large and scattered Rabies areas.
*
* *
— 72 —
REFERENCES
1. ESSER ( J . W . ) . — Diagnose « Dolheid » by een buffel.
l Bld. v. Ned. Ind., 1889, 3, 104.
Veearts.
2. P E N N I N G ( G . A . ) . — Hondsdolheid (Rabies) in Nederland Indie.
Veearts. Bld. v. Ned. Ind., 1890, 4 , 119.
3 . H A R D J O S W O R O (S.) a n d P A R T O A T M O D J O (S.) (Ed.). — Peneli-
tian tentang latar belakang peledakan penyakit Anjing Gila
(Rabies) di beberapa daerah di Indonesia. F K H - I P B publica­
tion, 1977.
4. H A R D J O S W O R O (S.), P A R T O A T M O D J O (S.) a n d SIREGAR ( A . A . ) .
— Rabies a n c a m a n Kesehatan Masyarakat yang meningkat.
Seminar Mikrobiologi II, 5-7 April 1978, Yogyakarta, 1978.
5. H O E T (T.). — Rabies (dolheid) by een p a a r d . Veearts. Bld. v.
Ned. Ind., 1896, 10, 214.
6. Provincial Veterinary Service of West Sumatra, Yearly r e p o r t s .
7. Provincial Veterinary
reports.
Service of D . I . Banda Aceh.
Yearly
8. LIER (V. G. A d . ) . — Twee gevalen van dolheid by katten.
Veearts. Bld. v. Ned. Ind., 1905, 1 7 , 36.
9. Provincial Veterinary
Report 1974-1976.
Service of East
Kalimantan.
Rabies
10. G O E N ( L . S . ) a n d U S U P . — A case of sylvatic Rabies.
Zoa, 1958, 6 5 , 15.
Hemera
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 73-75.
Rabies control in Japan
by
Ko N A M B A ( * )
1.
Outbreaks
An outbreak of Rabies in Japan is recorded in an old medical
b o o k published in 982 A . D . There are other records after 1736 that
report outbreaks of Rabies. Rabies is therefore considered to have
existed in fairly old times.
The records became complete since the end of the 18th century. In
the early part of the 19th century, Rabies prevailed fairly extensi­
vely. F r o m 1923 and 1925, about 2,500-3,000 dogs and about 150200 persons a year suffered from Rabies.
Then, the patients decreased to only a few a year. After World
War II, the number of patients began to increase again in 1946. In
1950, the Law for Rabies Prevention was enacted. As a result of
p r o m o t i o n of preventive measures under the Law, outbreaks of
Rabies were decreased drastically, so that Rabies has not broken out
since 1954 in m a n and since 1956 in dogs.
2.
Prevention
On the basis of the Law for Rabies Prevention enacted in 1950,
the measures in normal times include registration of pet dogs, inocu­
lation against Rabies in dogs, capture and detention of the dogs that
are not registered or do not receive inoculation, and quarantine of
the dogs that are brought in from abroad. The measures at the time
of a Rabies outbreak are prohibition of keeping a dog at large,
emergency inoculation, restriction or interception of traffic, prohi­
bition of movement of dogs, etc.
(*) Deputy Director of Veterinary Sanitation Division, Environmental Health
Bureau, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Tokyo.
— 74 —
(1)
Registration.
The law obliges the owner of a dog to register the dog once every
year with the governor of the prefecture.
(2)
Inoculation.
The law obliges the owner of a dog to receive an inoculation
(injection of inactivated vaccine) against Rabies once every six
months.
(3) Capture,
detention.
Stray dogs that have not been registered a n d / o r inoculated are
returned to the owners if they are k n o w n . If the owners are not
k n o w n , the stray dogs are subjected to slaughter.
(4)
Quarantine.
The dogs which are to be exported or imported must be quaranti­
ned before export or after import.
3. Personnel
engaged in preventive
measures
A b o u t 2,600 personnel from among the veterinarians employed
by prefectural governments are appointed as Rabies prevention offi­
ciers and are playing a major role of promoting preventive measu­
res.
Quarantine inspection of imported dogs is conducted by 133 vete­
rinary officers who are working at the animal quarantine services of
the central government (see Table 1).
Inoculation of the dogs within the country is performed by about
3,000 veterinary practitioners throughout the country under the
whole-hearted cooperation of the J a p a n Veterinary Medical Asso­
ciation.
M a n y other prefectural and municipal office workers are involved
in registration, capture and detention of dogs.
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Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 77-79.
Rabies in Malaysia (*)
Incidence
Rabies h a d been known in Malaysia since the 19th century. Some
major outbreaks occurred between 1945-1953. The disease was sub­
sequently controlled and in 1954/55 Malaysia was declared free of
Rabies. Outbreaks since then h a d been sporadic and isolated in
nature. Between 1956-1975 there were 23 confirmed cases of Rabies
in dogs, 1 in a cat and 1 in a goat. In 1977, 1978 and up to October
1980 there were 1, 2 and 3 confirmed cases of Rabies in dogs respec­
tively.
A severe Rabies outbreak occurred in the interior of the country
between 1950-1953 and the rest of the outbreaks occurred near the
Malaysian/Thai border.
There is an apparent absence of natural reservoirs for Rabies;
there is n o epidemiological evidence that wildlife plays a significant
role in the spread of the disease.
Rabies
Control
Rabies control measures developed and adopted over years consist
of destruction of stray dogs, vaccination and licensing of all dogs
and maintenance of an immune belt along the Malaysian/Thai bor­
der.
Destruction
of stray
dogs.
There is a continuous permanent programme for the destruction
of stray dogs throughout the country which is carried out by the
Veterinary Services and by the Town Boards or Municipalities in
some u r b a n areas. Dogs without licence are shot.
(*) Report presented by the Malaysian Delegation.
— 78 —
Immune
beli.
In 1955 an immune belt 30-50 miles wide was established along
the Malaysian/Thai border comprising all or part of the four nor­
thern border states. The purpose of the i m m u n e belt was to deli­
neate an area where very intensive control measures could be carried
out continuously as a safeguard against the spread of Rabies from
the border areas where the disease has been known to be prevalent.
Compulsory vaccination and registration/licensing of dogs are
carried out at the beginning of every year in this i m m u n e belt. 4,0005,000 vaccinations are carried out annually in the i m m u n e belt. In
addition, the destruction of stray and unlicensed dogs is carried out
at all times.
Movement of dogs in and out of the i m m u n e belt is permitted
only following vaccination at least 1 m o n t h prior to movement.
The status of the i m m u n e belt depends very much on the status of
southern Thailand. Much of the i m m u n e belt is hilly, jungle terrain
with n o natural barriers within such areas. There is a constant move­
ment of people and stray dogs across the border.
Voluntary
vaccination.
Vaccination of dogs is voluntary in the rest of the country but
becomes m a n d a t o r y in a particular area/state whenever an isolated
case of Rabies is detected and the area/state is subsequently gazet­
ted. The vaccines used are Flury freeze-dried attenuated live virus,
low egg passage in dogs a n d high egg passage in cats and Convac
E R A strain attenuated live virus of porcine tissue culture origin.
Constant
surveillance.
Constant surveillance is carried out by the Veterinary Services. All
dog bite cases brought to the attention of any local veterinary office
are investigated regardless of whether the dog is showing signs of
Rabies. The dog is usually quarantined for a minimum of two weeks
and subsequently released if found clinically healthy.
Publicity
through
the mass
media.
Publicity is given to the disease and its control measures t h r o u g h
the usual channels especially in the northern states. Public interest is
stimulated whenever there is an outbreak but unfortunately a com­
placent attitude tends to develop as soon as the outbreak subsides.
— 79 —
Legislation.
The rules pertaining to the control of Rabies are contained in the
Animals Ordinance, 1953. In the exercise of the powers conferred
by the Animals Ordinance the Chief Minister of the State, on the
advice of the State Veterinary Officer, may declare and gazette an
area or state as Rabies-infected and order the vaccination of all dogs
in the area, prohibit the movement of dogs in and out of the area
and order other control measures to be adopted.
Importation of animals is permitted only with an import licence
issued by the Veterinary Services.
Quarantine
regulations.
All dogs and cats other than from known Rabies-free countries
like Singapore, Canada, the United Kingdom, Eire, Northern Ire­
land, Australia and New Zealand, are vaccinated upon landing and
quarantined for a minimum of 30 days before release.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 81-82.
Rabies in Thailand (*)
Introduction
Rabies has existed in Thailand for some decades, without any his­
tory as to h o w it occurred; it was just known to exist and its exis­
tence was considered to be very significant. The disease spread to
h u m a n beings as early as 1952. There is no doubt that the disease
has maintained a characteristic symptomatology and has caused a
high mortality in the dog population since that time.
Rabies control programme
in
Thailand
The disease is controlled by the Rabies Prevention Law under the
Ministry of Public Health in cooperation with the Department of
Livestock Development. For the control of Rabies in dogs, provi­
sion is m a d e for vaccination of dogs, isolation of suspected animals
and capture of stray dogs (150 dogs per day). Licensing of all dogs
will be applied in a near future.
Production
of a potent
vaccine
So far, we have been importing Rabies vaccine from foreign coun­
tries to vaccinate dogs. Inactivated vaccine (25% sheep brain sus­
pension) has been produced by the Pasteur Institute of Thai Red
Cross. During 1962, the Department of Livestock Development
established a Rabies Laboratory and prepared a potent living Rabies
vaccine from chick embryos with L E P Flury strain of Rabies virus.
At present, the Department of Livestock Development has been
successful in producing a modified live virus vaccine from tissue cul­
ture origin for use in dogs and cats on an experimental scale.
(*) Report presented by the Delegation of Thailand.
— 82 —
At the diagnostic laboratories of the Department of Livestock
Development we use the following methods :
1. Sellers strain for Negri bodies.
2. Fluorescent antibody technique (FAT).
3. Virus isolation (mice).
The diagnostic Laboratories of the Department of Livestock
Development are as follows : the Rabies Vaccine Production Unit of
Veterinary Biologies Division, the Northeastern Diagnostic L a b o r a ­
tory Center and the Southern Diagnostic Laboratory Center.
Other diagnostic laboratories for Rabies in Thailand are the P a s ­
teur Institute of Thai Red Cross, the Military Medical Research Ins­
titute, the Virus Research Institute of the Medical Science Depart­
ment, the Siriraj General Hospital, the Chiengmai General Hospital
and nine regional Public Health Diagnostic Centers.
The human fatality
rate per
year
(from the Ministry of Public Health)
Year
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
Cases
310
278
298
276
297
237
231
304
322
355
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 83-89.
Moyens permettant de limiter
et d'éradiquer la rage canine
par
P.P. R A K H M A N I N E , V . A . VEDERIMIKOV et V . A . SEDOV(*)
On sait que toutes les principales particularités des épizooties de
rage dépendent de la nature du réservoir de l'agent de la maladie. A
partir de cet indice, on distingue les épizooties de type naturel, maintenues par les animaux carnassiers sauvages et les épizooties de type
urbain où le chien est le réservoir du virus. Au cours des 30 à 35 dernières années, dans plusieurs pays du continent américain et dans la
plupart des pays d ' E u r o p e , les épizooties de rage naturelle (selvatique) ont pris une grande extension. Ce processus évolutif a pris un
caractère d'actualité également pour certains territoires du continent
asiatique. Cependant, dans la plupart des pays d'Asie, le chien reste
encore le principal propagateur du virus rabique et c'est lui qui
transmet la maladie à l ' h o m m e et aux animaux domestiques.
C o m m e le note TIERKEL (6), la lutte contre la rage canine est un p r o blème vital pour l'Inde, les Philippines, la Thaïlande, la Birmanie, le
Pakistan, le Sri L a n k a , l'Indonésie, le Bangladesh, le Viet-Nam. Le
r a p p o r t de l ' O . M . S . (7) p o u r 1976-1977 atteste également la nette
prédominance de la rage canine dans l'épizootologie de cette maladie en Thaïlande, au Viet-Nam, au Pakistan, en Indonésie et en
Iran.
Après la seconde guerre mondiale (jusqu'au milieu des années 50),
le chien est également resté le principal propagateur de la rage dans
de nombreuses régions de l ' U . R . S . S . C'est en 1951-1954 q u ' a été
constatée la dernière grande flambée d'épizooties de type urbain
dans notre pays. Au cours de cette période, entre 10.000 et 13.000
cas d ' a n i m a u x atteints de rage ont été signalés chaque année. La cartographie des foyers apparus a montré qu'effectivement c'étaient les
villes les plus importantes qui étaient les principaux centres de l'épi-
(*) Direction Générale Vétérinaire, Ministère de l'Agriculture de l'U.R.S.S., Moscou.
— 84 —
zootie. Les chiens représentaient une proportion de 50 à 5 5 % du
n o m b r e des animaux atteints; une augmentation saisonnière de la
morbidité était observée au printemps et en été. La maladie avait
pris une extension particulièrement importante dans plusieurs
régions de l'Ukraine, en Ouzbékistan, en Lituanie, en Lettonie et,
p o u r la R . S . F . S . R . , dans les régions de Moscou, Léningrad, Orel,
Toula, Gorki, Voronèj, Koursk, Kouïbychev, Saratov, Rostov et
dans plusieurs autres zones à très forte densité de p o p u l a t i o n . C'est
ainsi que dans la région de Moscou, 706 foyers de rage ont été recensés en 1951-1952. 1.825 chiens, 217 chevaux, 87 bovins, 23 porcs, 78
m o u t o n s et chèvres ont été atteints. En fait, le degré de diffusion de
la maladie était sans r a p p o r t avec les caractéristiques naturelles des
territoires infectés.
Il convient de noter que, dès ces années-là, des cas isolés de rage
furent dépistés parmi des animaux sauvages : loups et plus rarement
renards, chiens sauvages et autres carnivores. Parfois, des carnassiers sauvages devenaient une source de maladie pour des animaux
domestiques. Mais, semble-t-il, il n'existait pas de foyers stables de
rage dans la nature. Dans les villes et les zones suburbaines infectées, les épizooties étaient maintenues par la circulation incessante
du virus parmi les chiens. Dans ces conditions, comme nous l'avons
déjà dit, les chiens étaient le principal réservoir du virus rabique et la
source de ce virus pour l ' h o m m e et les animaux domestiques.
C o m p t e tenu de l'importance épizootologique, et surtout épidémiologique, de la rage canine, u n p r o g r a m m e de lutte contre la
maladie à l'échelle nationale fut élaboré et une instruction spéciale
ayant force de loi fut adoptée. Ce p r o g r a m m e comportait des mesures de destruction des chiens et chats errants, le contrôle des conditions d'entretien des animaux domestiques et, surtout, la mise en
œuvre de l'immunisation prophylactique obligatoire des chiens dans
toutes les zones infectées et menacées.
Le rôle décisif de l'immunisation généralisée des chiens dans l'éradication des épizooties de type urbain est confirmé par l'expérience
de n o m b r e u x pays. Dans la République Populaire de Bulgarie, par
exemple, la rage a été une épizootie permanente dans les premières
années d'après-guerre. Entre 1945 et 1954, elle a tué 10.517 anim a u x , dont plus de 7 9 % de chiens. La mise en œ u v r e de l'immunisation prophylactique obligatoire et la limitation du n o m b r e des
chiens ont permis de libérer pratiquement le pays de la rage (1).
Dans la République Populaire de Hongrie, la mise en œuvre de la
vaccination antirabique obligatoire, de l'enregistrement et de
— 85 —
l'impôt sur les chiens a eu pour résultat l'éradication de l'épizootie
d'après-guerre dès la fin des années 50. Cette situation favorable
s'est maintenue pendant 15 ans, j u s q u ' à ce que se propage la rage de
type selvatique (2).
La République Socialiste Tchécoslovaque a également réussi à éliminer complètement la forme urbaine de la rage. Un contrôle rigoureux sur tout le territoire du pays et la vaccination obligatoire et gratuite de tous les chiens âgés de plus de trois mois ont permis d'abaisser la morbidité parmi les chiens à de rares cas sporadiques (entre 0
et 10 par an), liés en règle générale à la propagation de la rage du
renard (4).
Dans la République Populaire de Pologne, où la rage était principalement observée sur les chiens dans les premières années d'aprèsguerre, la vaccination préventive généralisée, entreprise en 1948,
aboutit dès les années 50 à une situation épizootique très favorable.
Cette situation n ' a commencé à se détériorer qu'en 1957, avec la
propagation de la maladie parmi les animaux sauvages (3).
Même en République Démocratique Allemande, où les problèmes
de la rage urbaine n'existent plus depuis des décennies, mais où
l'épizootie de type selvatique est largement répandue, on a mis en
oeuvre à partir de 1974 la vaccination préventive des chiens de
chasse, des chiens guides d'aveugles et des chiens de garde, dont
l'importance est particulièrement grande dans la chaîne des contaminations possibles : animal sauvage — chien — h o m m e (5).
Dans notre pays aussi, la réglementation de l'entretien des chiens
et leur vaccination préventive généralisée ont permis une amélioration relativement rapide de la situation épizootique. En 1957, le
n o m b r e des cas de rage animale dépistés a été trois fois moindre
q u ' e n 1954. Par la suite, la rage a pu être totalement éliminée d ' u n
grand n o m b r e de régions et républiques autonomes du Centre et du
Nord-Ouest du pays : régions de Léningrad, Vologda, M o u r m a n s k ,
Novgorod, Pskov, Vladimir, Ivanovo, Kalinine, Kostroma, Moscou, Orel, Iaroslav, Kirov, RSS autonome de Carélie, RSS a u t o n o m e des Komis, RSS autonome des Mariis, Estonie, ainsi que de
plusieurs régions de l'Oural, de la Sibérie et de l'Extrême-Orient.
Dès 1958, cependant, la situation générale a commencé à subir les
effets du développement d'une épizootie nouvelle — de type naturel
cette fois. Progressant rapidement, elle s'est étendue à l'heure
actuelle à de nombreux territoires dans les zones semi-désertiques,
les zones de steppes, de steppes boisées et de forêts mixtes. Les
— 86 —
bovins, contaminés lorsqu'ils sont attaqués par des carnivores sauvages, ont pris la première place parmi les espèces animales frappées
par la maladie. Les cas de rage canine ne sont restés relativement
fréquents que dans les républiques d'Asie Centrale et de Transcaucasie. Cependant, des flambées isolées et localisées de rage canine ont
également été observées à plusieurs reprises dans certaines zones de
la Sibérie orientale et de l'Extrême-Orient, où la situation dans son
ensemble reste favorable depuis de nombreuses années. Il est import a n t , actuellement, de tenir compte du fait que de telles flambées
peuvent survenir sur n ' i m p o r t e quel territoire, quel qu'ait été son
état indemne antérieur, si on n ' y met pas en œuvre la vaccination
préventive des chiens et si on y tolère l'existence de chiens et de chats
errants. En effet, étant d o n n é les moyens de communication modernes, il est très difficile d'exclure complètement l'éventualité de
l'introduction d ' a n i m a u x domestiques contaminés provenant de
régions infectées lointaines. De plus, des foyers naturels n o n décelés
de la maladie peuvent déjà exister sur des territoires considérés
comme indemnes. Quant au risque de l'implication des chiens et des
chats dans la chaîne épizootique de la rage naturelle, il est absolument évident.
L'évolution que nous venons de décrire a nécessité un nouveau
renforcement des actions de prophylaxie. La vaccination annuelle
des chiens a été rendue légalement obligatoire sur tout le territoire
du pays. Son ampleur ne cesse d'augmenter. Alors q u ' e n 1960,
2.104.000 chiens avaient été immunisés, leur n o m b r e a atteint
3.159.000 en 1965, 4.780.000 en 1970, 6.316.000 en 1975 et
7.524.000 en 1979.
On utilise pour la vaccination des chiens et des chats un vaccin
antirabique lyophilisé phénolé. Il s'agit d ' u n produit inactivé, préparé à partir du cerveau de m o u t o n s infectés avec du virus fixe
adapté à l'organisme des animaux de cette espèce. L'activité du vaccin est bonne et l'immunité dure au moins 12 mois.
Du fait du changement intervenu dans la situation, une attention
particulièrement grande est accordée à la régularisation de l'entretien et de la vaccination des animaux domestiques dans les localités
rurales, où l'on constate actuellement l'écrasante majorité des cas de
rage canine. Les caractéristiques épizootologiques actuelles de la
rage sont également prises en compte pour la fixation des dates de
mise en œuvre de l'immunisation généralisée des chiens.
P o u r l'organisation de l'action, les obligations de tous les services
et administrations intéressés sont définies et délimitées avec préci-
— 87 —
sion. Un moyen éprouvé pour atteindre cet objectif consiste dans
l'élaboration de plans d'ensemble ratifiés pour chaque subdivision
administrative par les organes locaux du pouvoir. Sur la base de ces
plans d'ensemble, les organes municipaux (et les Soviets locaux dans
les localités rurales) veillent à la mise en œuvre de l'enregistrement
des chiens, au contrôle du respect des règles d'entretien des chiens et
des chats, ainsi q u ' à la capture ou (suivant les dispositions légales en
vigueur) à l'abattage des animaux errants sans surveillance.
L'administration des bureaux d'hygiène et de nettoyage, des
entreprises de transport automobile, des marchés, des entreprises de
transformation de la viande et du lait, des magasins, des cantines,
des restaurants, les employés des bureaux du logement, les responsables des habitations collectives, les gérants d'immeubles ainsi que
chaque propriétaire d'immeuble assurent une hygiène satisfaisante
des entreprises, marchés, immeubles et décharges publiques. On
empêche les chiens et chats sans surveillance d'y pénétrer, ainsi que
dans les caves, les greniers et autres locaux inhabités.
Les spécialistes de la chasse et des chiens apportent leur aide au
b o n entretien des chiens de chasse. Les sociétés de chasse organisent
la lutte contre les chiens et les chats qui braconnent sur les terrains
de chasse.
Une grande attention est portée au travail auprès de la population. Son organisation et sa mise en œuvre permanente sont l'affaire
c o m m u n e des organes de la santé publique et du service vétérinaire.
Dans chaque subdivision administrative, des règles ont été élaborées
et approuvées pour l'entretien des animaux domestiques. Elles sont
établies sur la base des règles correspondantes en vigueur dans la
république (le territoire, la région) et tiennent compte obligatoirement des conditions locales.
Les laboratoires vétérinaires du pays procèdent à plus de 20.000
examens de dépistage de la rage par an, en utilisant les méthodes
modernes du diagnostic de la maladie (méthode des anticorps fluorescents, etc.). Dans la plupart des zones infectées, on a mis sur pied
un recensement des cas de rage parmi les animaux sauvages, on
assure l'information régulière des services agricoles et médicaux à
propos des modifications de la situation en matière de rage, on élabore des pronostics saisonniers et annuels de la situation, on fait des
recommendations concernant les mesures de prophylaxie et de lutte
contre la maladie en tenant compte des particularités naturelles et
économiques de chaque zone. L'industrie des produits biologiques
—
88 —
et les instituts de recherche vétérinaire satisfont pleinement les
besoins des praticiens en vaccins antirabiques et en produits de diagnostic.
L'ensemble des mesures mises en œuvre a permis de limiter notablement l'extension de la rage canine, comme le confirment les changements observés dans la structure de la morbidité p a r espèces animales. La part relative des chiens dans le total des cas de maladie
dépistés est t o m b é e de 5 0 - 5 5 % en 1 9 5 1 - 1 9 5 4 à 4 , 5 % en 1 9 6 6 . Il est
vrai que, par la suite, cette part a de nouveau quelque peu augmenté
( 9 , 8 % en 1 9 7 9 ) . Cela est dû à la progression continue de l'épizootie
de type naturel, à l'accroissement du n o m b r e des loups dans certaines régions du pays et à l'augmentation constante de la population
canine tant dans les villes que dans les localités rurales. Il suffit de
dire q u ' à Moscou et Léningrad, il y a eu trois fois plus de chiens
enregistrés en 1 9 7 9 q u ' e n 1 9 5 8 . C'est p o u r q u o i le plan prévoit pour
les prochaines années d'accroître encore davantage l'ampleur de
l'immunisation préventive. Dans certaines zones, il est a p p a r u nécessaire de vacciner également les chats, assez souvent impliqués dans
la chaîne épizootique de la rage naturelle.
L'acquis principal des dernières années est le fait que les chiens
ont pratiquement cessé d'être un réservoir de l'agent de la rage pour
les animaux. Les cas de rage chez les chiens sont devenus isolés. En
1 9 7 9 , l'indice représentant le n o m b r e des cas de rage canine par
localité infectée a été de 1 , 2 7 . Dans l'écrasante majorité des cas, des
carnivores sauvages ont été la source de contamination des chiens
n o n vaccinés pour une raison ou une autre. P a r m i les chiens euxmêmes, il ne peut plus se former de chaîne de contamination ininterr o m p u e . C'est p o u r q u o i on ne saurait être d'accord avec l'opinion
du Professeur WACHENDÖRFER ( 8 ) , qui range la partie européenne
de l ' U . R . S . S . dans la zone d'extension de la rage urbaine avec des
foyers naturels localisés de la maladie. En fait, dans toute cette partie de notre pays, le problème de l'élimination de la rage urbaine est
déjà résolu et il est près d'être résolu sur le reste du territoire de
l'U.R.S.S.
*
* *
RÉSUMÉ
Le problème de l'élimination des épizooties de rage de type urbain
est discuté à partir de l'expérience de l ' U . R . S . S . et des autres pays
—
89 —
socialistes. L ' i m p o r t a n c e de l'immunisation préventive des chiens est
soulignée; étant donné le développement des transports modernes et
l'extension de la rage naturelle, cette immunisation doit être mise en
œuvre sur u n e plus vaste échelle. L'importance d'une action planifiée p o r t a n t sur l'ensemble des mesures générales de prophylaxie est
notée.
*
**
BIBLIOGRAPHIE
1. DMITROV (N.). — La lutte contre la rage animale en Bulgarie.
Veterinaria,
1 9 5 7 , N ° 1, 8 3 - 8 6 .
2 . KOLTAI (L.). — Rabies of n o n domesticated animals in H u n g a r y .
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1 9 7 6 , 86, 2 2 5 - 2 3 4 .
3 . L i s (H.) et M O L ( H . ) . — Rabies situation in P o l a n d . Bull.
int. Epiz.,
Off.
1 9 7 6 , 86, 2 5 3 - 2 5 8 .
4 . P O L A K ( L . ) , M A T O U C H (O.) et SVRCEK (O.). — Lutte contre la
Rage dans la République Socialiste Tchécoslovaque.
Off
int. Epiz.,
Bull.
1 9 7 6 , 86, 2 7 7 - 2 9 1 .
5. A N O N . — Prophylaxie et lutte contre la Rage en République
Démocratique Allemande. Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1 9 7 6 , 8 6 ,
147-153.
6. TIERKEL (E.S.). — Canine Rabies. In : « The Natural History of
Rabies ». A c a d . Press, L o n d o n , 1 9 7 5 , Vol. II, 1 2 3 - 1 3 8 .
7. World Survey of Rabies, XVIII.
8. W A C H E N D Ö R F E R (G.). — Le problème de la rage dans la région
européenne. Rapport du Bureau régional européen de
I ' O . M . S . sur la conférence de Francfort-sur-le-Main, 1 5 - 1 9
nov. 1 9 7 7 . Copenhague, 1 9 7 9 , 5 2 - 6 8 .
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 91-92.
Rabies (*)
Rabies is a dread highly fatal disease affecting domestic and wild
animals which is transmissible t o m a n . Its importance in the annals
of medical history are well known to all.
This disease is endemic in wild animals t h r o u g h o u t the continental
United States a n d , with few exceptions, other countries of the Wes­
tern Hemisphere.
Spread of the disease from this reservoir, especially from bats,
skunks, foxes, and raccoons to domestic species and, directly or
indirectly, to m a n necessitates the maintenance of strong diagnostic
and control programs throughout these countries.
Some efforts expended in control have been directed to reduction
of numbers in the reservoir species and by restricting the movement
of pet species on a local or regional basis, but most activity in the
United States has involved protecting the domestic pet species by use
of vaccine, indirectly providing protection t o h u m a n s . Prophylactic
vaccination of people at high risk is conducted. Very limited n u m ­
bers of large domestic animals are vaccinated, mostly in areas where
bats are prevalent carriers.
Large-scale vaccination programs for dogs and cats are conducted
in m a n y areas of the United States with considerable variation in
administrative procedures and legal requirements. Many follow
plans devised and disseminated by the Rabies Compendium Com­
mittee of the National Association of State Public Health Veterina­
rians, Inc., especially involving animal identification and certifica­
tion.
Rabies vaccines licensed by the United States Department of Agri­
culture include both modified live viruses and killed viruses. Modified
live virus products now marketed are of cell culture origin and, except
for one m a d e with Flury Strain, are not recommended for use in cats.
Killed virus vaccines are produced from infected neural tissue and
(*) Report presented by the U.S. Delegation.
— 92 —
from virus-bearing cell cultures, with recommendation for use limi­
ted to dogs and cats.
Only one product, a modified live virus, SAD strain vaccine, is
recommended for use in large domestic animals
Problems inherent in products containing live microorganisms
and newly developed methods for improved killed virus products
have resulted in a substantial shift from modified live to killed virus
vaccines in recent years.
2. L u t t e c o n t r e la f i è v r e a p h t e u s e .
F o o t - a n d - M o u t h Disease control.
L u c h a c o n t r a la f i e b r e a f t o s a .
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 95-103.
Foot-and-Mouth Disease
eradication programme
in Indonesia
by
I . G . N . TEKEIM T E M A D J A ( * )
INTRODUCTION
The geographical conditions of Indonesia consist of thousands of
islands with the internal seas serving as a natural barrier beneficial
for the control of the spread of animal disease.
Agriculture plays an important role in the economic life of the
country. Livestock are virtually maintained on small holdings and
have largely been kept under traditional management to provide
traction for land cultivation, for family food, for traditional festivi­
ties, but less frequently to provide cash income.
There are two seasons in Indonesia, the dry season and the rainy
season. Most agricultural activities are in the rainy season where
livestock are actively involved.
T h e livestock population is low considering the abundance of
under-utilized grassland area still available for livestock farming and
the favourable climatic conditions. In this respect the Government
of Indonesia has been launching a development p r o g r a m m e for
livestock production aimed at increasing the livestock population,
providing j o b opportunities, and increasing the income of farmers.
However, the existence of various animal diseases is the most impor­
tant hindrance to the development of livestock production. F M D ,
A n t h r a x , Haemorrhagic Septicaemia, Surra, parasitic diseases,
Newcastle Disease, are of major importance. Animal losses due to
(*) Director of Animal Health, Directorate General of Livestock Services, Depart­
ment of Agriculture, Indonesia.
— 96 —
animal diseases are tremendous. According to a rough calculation
which was carried out in 1967 the economic losses due to F M D
amounted to R p . 9 billion.
Before the commencement of the first Five-Year Development
Plan (1969-1973) the control of F M D was carried out only for sup­
pressing further spread of an outbreak and for psychological p u r p o ­
ses. Since then, with the improved facilities of the Veterinary Servi­
ces the control of F M D has been given priority and improved.
There is a national laboratory in the country dealing with F M D
diagnostic work and vaccine production. With the Australian assis­
tance the productive capacity of F M D vaccine of this laboratory is
expected to be increased in order to meet the national demand.
Before this coming into existence the current demand for F M D vac­
cine has been met by importation from Burrough Wellcome,
England under the Australian assistance. Vehicles, vaccination kits,
expertise in conjunction with the vaccine production are also inclu­
ded in the Australian assistance.
Objective
The main objective of the F M D eradication p r o g r a m m e is to
secure the disease-infected areas and t o protect them from being re­
infected which means to create a favourable climate for the develop­
ment of livestock production.
Foot-and-Mouth
1. Historical
Disease
situation
background.
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) was first reported in September
1887 by B O S M A in Malang (East Java). The following outbreaks
were reported in J a k a r t a (1889), Aceh (1892), M a d u r a and Kaliman­
tan (1906), Sulawesi and Medan (1907) and Bali and L o m b o k
(1911). Since then the disease was also reported in South Sumatra,
J a k a r t a , West Java, Central Java and Jogjakarta. So far the disease
has never been reported in Maluku islands, Irian Jaya and islands
eastwards of L o m b o k .
For many years Bali had been free of F M D , until new outbreaks
appeared in 1962 and 1973, whereas Sporadic outbreaks used to
occur in Java, Aceh and South Sulawesi.
— 97 —
In Indonesia F M D affects cattle, buffaloes and pigs. So far no
cases in sheep, goats and wildlife have been reported.
In 1971 the introduction of cattle from East J a v a was suspected as
the source of outbreaks in N o r t h Sumatra, whereas introduction and
smuggling of buffaloes from East Java were suspected as the source
of outbreaks in Bali in 1972 and 1973.
2. Zonal
division.
Based on the situation of the disease in 1974 the Indonesian terri­
tory is divided into three zones, which are :
(a) FMD-free zone including West and East Nusatenggara, Irian
Jaya, Maluku islands and East Timor.
(b) No-reported-cases zone i.e. areas without any reported case
for a few years. This zone includes Kalimantan, Sumatra and Sula­
wesi (except South Sulawesi).
(c) Infected zone including Java, Bali and South Sulawesi.
3. Types of control
policies.
To prevent the spread of the disease from one island area to a n o ­
ther island area and to m a k e the implementation of the eradication
p r o g r a m m e successful the different control policies are adopted as
follows :
(a) Free zones : Strict animal movement control by enforcement
of quarantine measures. No animal movements from suspected or
infected zones are allowed.
(b) No-reported-cases zones : A surveillance team or an investiga­
tion team is sent periodically to check the disease status.
(c) Infected zones : Mass vaccination coupled with sanitary mea­
sures and surveillance.
MASS V A C C I N A T I O N P R O G R A M M E
Experience in the past revealed that slaughter m e t h o d and ring
vaccination alone did not stop the spread of the disease. Therefore,
systematic mass vaccination coupled with sanitary measures and sur­
veillance is considered as a method of choice in eradicating F M D in
Indonesia.
— 98 —
Starting from the implementation of the first Five-Year Develop­
ment Plan the vaccination p r o g r a m m e has been carried out intensi­
vely and it reached its culmination since 1974 with the assistance
from the Government of Australia.
1. Preparatory
steps.
Prior to the commencement of the mass vaccination p r o g r a m m e
preparatory steps should be m a d e covering the following activities :
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
Inventory of the total population of animals to be vaccinated;
Providing required vaccination kits;
Providing required vaccine;
Training of vaccinators;
Extension service;
Setting up the vaccination organization;
Setting u p the pattern or system of vaccination.
2. Vaccination
organization.
Within the organization apart from the elements of the Veterinary
Services other social elements or agencies should be included such as
the civil administration (Governors and their subordinates), the mili­
tary forces, the police forces, the civil defence forces, the informa­
tion agencies from the provincial level down to the village level.
A Governor's decree is required to support the implementation of
the p r o g r a m m e which emphasizes the mass vaccination being per­
formed by the Veterinary Services is of national interest, and public
especially the farmers are requested to help the p r o g r a m m e . Sanc­
tion is also included in the decree that is non-vaccinated animals are
not allowed to be sold.
3. Pattern
of
vaccination.
Based on a thorough study of the source of infection, the flow of
livestock movements and other factors associated to the p r o ­
g r a m m e , the pattern or system of vaccination is formulated as fol­
lows :
(i) The crash programme
system.
A guideline has been set u p by the central Government requiring
that the implementation of the F M D eradication p r o g r a m m e should
— 99 —
start from the infected areas situated easternmost of the country,
e.i. Bali, East Java and South Sulawesi. This p r o g r a m m e to be
implemented rapidly with a view to the least possible chance the
disease agents might avail to spread wider to other areas, particu­
larly eastern areas, as well as to the prevention of re-infection.
Additionally, this p r o g r a m m e is based on the following facts :
(a) Livestock traffic in Indonesia is mostly flowing from the eas­
tern to the western areas.
(b) Those three infected provinces are livestock producing centres,
especially Bali, South Sulawesi and East Java being a source of bree­
ding stock and slaughter cattle, and conversely East Java is conside­
red to be the source of F M D outbreaks to other parts of Indonesia.
(c) Those three provinces are a potential for export of livestock to
meet b o t h national as well as overseas demand.
(d) Those provinces are on the contrary a source of F M D .
(e) They are concurrently most adjacent to FMD-free areas.
(ii) The low speed programme
system.
While the crash p r o g r a m m e system is underway the low speed
p r o g r a m m e system is also carried out. In this system vaccination is
carried out gradually but intensively giving priority to the rest of
Java island, that is Jogjakarta, Central Java, West Java and
J a k a r t a . The implementation is carried out from the easternmost of
Central Java bordering East Java westwards and from the western­
most of West Java eastwards.
(iii) Other
measures.
To secure the success of the mass vaccination p r o g r a m m e the fol­
lowing measures are taken :
(a) Vaccination is carried out three times during three consecutive
years involving cattle and buffaloes above three m o n t h s old. A
booster vaccination was carried out in the first year.
(b) Total coverage should be at least 8 0 % of the whole cattle and
buffalo population. Pigs are vaccinated only in case of an out­
break, whereas sheep and goats are not vaccinated since for m a n y
years there have been no cases in these animals.
(c) The ear-marking system is used to identify vaccinated animals.
Different patterns of ear-marking are used for different districts.
— 100 —
(d) A strict control of animal movements, animal products, p r o ­
ducts of animal origin, animal fodder, vehicles to the spot of vacci­
nation is imposed.
(e) Since the F M D vaccine needs special treatment for storage and
transportation, cold rooms in each province are needed where
imported vaccine can be stored in bulk and districts should be provi­
ded with refrigerators. For transportation of vaccine from the dis­
trict to the villages or spots of vaccination, ice boxes are used.
(f) A follow-up vaccination surveillance should be carried out to
monitor the possibility of recurring cases.
(iv)
Implementation.
Bali : The p r o g r a m m e was started in 1974 and terminated in 1976.
East Java : The p r o g r a m m e was divided into two parts. P a r t 1
covering 10 districts in the eastern part of the province where the
first vaccination was started in 1975. Part 2 covering the rest of the
districts of the province where vaccination was started in 1976. Mass
vaccination was completed in the whole province in 1978.
South Sulawesi : The mass vaccination campaign was started in
1978 and completed by August 1980.
Central Java and Jogjakarta : The p r o g r a m m e was started in two
districts adjacent to the western part of East Java in 1976 as a buffer
zone to protect East Java from being re-infected by incidental move­
ment of breeding animals from these districts. It was extended to six
other districts in 1977 and nine other districts in 1978. The crash
p r o g r a m m e mass vaccination covering the whole of Central Java
and Jogjakarta was started in 1980.
West Java : The p r o g r a m m e was started in 1976 in the districts of
Tangerang and Serang. The vaccination was later extended to other
districts i.e. Pandeglang and Lebak. The crash p r o g r a m m e mass
vaccination for the whole province was started in 1980.
(v)
Evaluation.
Evaluation is made each year and overall evaluation after a 3-year
p r o g r a m m e . If there were no cases after a 3-year p r o g r a m m e then
the areas under control could be declared as being free of F M D . In
this case the method applied is as follows :
— 101 —
Evaluation
system
:
T o conduct direct surveillance in the field by means of :
— collecting d a t a from field veterinary services, slaughterhouses,
livestock markets and animal quarantine stations;
— interviewing farmers;
— performing clinical inspection and epidemiological surveillance
of animals in the field on a r a n d o m basis;
— collecting specimens (if necessary) for laboratory tests both at
the Centre for Veterinary Biologies and at Pirbright, England.
Sampling
determination
:
— Samples are collected from districts representing a minimum of
3 0 % of the region under evaluation. From each district four subdistricts are evaluated and from each sub-district two villages are
under inspection. Regions under evaluation are those which have
ever been infected or suspected and also those which have never
been infected with F M D .
— The interviewed farmers involved in the evaluation are those
who have experience in keeping livestock for more than two years
and their total number is 10 persons.
— The total livestock under inspection are a minimum of 500
head taken on a r a n d o m basis.
The result of the evaluation is as follows :
Bali : Based o n the report of the evaluation team that there was
n o case of disease after the 3-year programme the whole island was
declared free of F M D in 1978 (published in O . I . E . Information
Note N o . 374 c, 1978).
East Java : An
Based on its report
ther team was sent
province the result
evaluation team was sent to M a d u r a in 1977.
M a d u r a was declared free of F M D in 1978. A n o ­
in 1980 to evaluate the whole p r o g r a m m e in the
of which was no case found.
South Sulawesi : An evaluation team will be sent in 1981 and it is
hoped that this area could be declared free of F M D next year (1981).
Besides those three provinces the evaluation was also carried out
in other provinces such as North Sulawesi, Central Sulawesi, South
East Sulawesi, the whole provinces of Sumatra and Kalimantan the
result of which revealed that there was no case found in those areas
so they could be declared as being free of F M D .
— 102 —
CONCLUSION
In general the F M D eradication p r o g r a m m e in Indonesia has
some advantages. A m o n g others they are due to the following fac­
tors :
1. The pattern of the eradication p r o g r a m m e has been carefully
planned and adapted to the flow of livestock movements.
2. The p r o g r a m m e has been supported by an organization invol­
ving social elements and agencies such as the civil administration
(Governor and his subordinates), the military forces, the police for­
ces, the civil defence forces, the information agencies from the p r o ­
vincial level down to the village level.
3. T h e total coverage of the vaccination is at least 8 0 % of the
total livestock population in the area under p r o g r a m m e .
4. The availability of mobile facilities which enables the eradica­
tion team to move easily and rapidly.
5. The only serotype of F M D present in Indonesia is type O.
6. The preservation of the vaccine's temperature from the central
storage and during the transportation u p to the spot of vaccination.
7. The geographic conditions of Indonesia consist of thousands of
islands with the internal seas constituting a natural barrier which
enables the interinsular movement control of livestock to be intensi­
vely carried out.
8. The climatic condition of Indonesia seems to have helped in
reducing the speedy spread of the virus. Therefore the spread of the
disease in a region is most likely due to the disease carrier namely
the infected animal itself.
*
* *
SUMMARY
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is one of the major diseases
found sporadically in some parts of Indonesia which constraints the
development of animal husbandry.
— 103 —
The economic loss due to F M D is regarded as great. According to
a rough calculation it a m o u n t e d to R p . 9 billion (1967).
Before the commencement of the first Five-Year Development
Plan (1969-1973) the control of F M D was carried out only for sup­
pressing further spread of an outbreak and for psychological p u r p o ­
ses but since then it has been given priority. Since 1974 the Govern­
ment of Indonesia in cooperation with the Government of Australia
have been undertaking an intensive control programme to cope with
FMD.
Under Indonesian conditions mass vaccination coupled with sani­
tary measures and surveillance has proved to be effective in control­
ling F M D provided that its implementation is supported by adequate
facilities and participation of farmers.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 105-107.
Foot-and-Mouth Disease control
in Malaysia (*)
Introduction
Malaysia h a d been free of Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) since
1939 until 1973 when an outbreak in cattle was detected in the bor­
der state of Perlis. All affected animals and in-contacts were des­
troyed and the disease was rapidly controlled. F M D was confirmed
by the World Reference L a b o r a t o r y at Pirbright to be type A22In 1978-1979 another outbreak occurred, this time more wides­
pread, involving all the four border states of Perlis, Kedah, Perak
and Kelantan. Cattle and buffaloes were affected. Tremendous suc­
cess was achieved with the destruction and compensation policy,
except in the state of Kelantan where vaccination was also carried
out later t o control the disease. F M D type Oi was confirmed in this
outbreak.
The F M D situation in South Thailand and Malaysia was carefully
assessed before importation of cattle from South Thailand was resu­
med in April 1980 m a n y m o n t h s after the disease h a d subsided.
A bilateral arrangement pertaining to the importation of cattle
from Thailand to Malaysia was agreed between the Thai and Malay­
sian veterinary authorities. Cattle originating from known F M D free areas would be vaccinated with F M D type O vaccine at the farm
and confined for 15 days before being sent to the Thai quarantine
station for re-vaccination and a further quarantine of 3 days. The
animals would then proceed to the Malaysian quarantine station.
Present
outbreak
In August 1980 another F M D outbreak involving cattle and buf­
faloes occurred in the border states of Perlis and Kedah. The two
(*) Report presented by the Malaysian Delegation.
— 106 —
possible causes of the present outbreak were introduction of infec­
tion via uncontrolled animal movement across the border or flaring
u p of the latent infection from the 1978-1979 outbreak. The disease
was subsequently detected in the other two border states of Perak
and Kelantan. Pigs further south of the border also became infected.
In cattle and buffaloes, the characteristic stringy/ropy salivation
was seen together with vesicles/bullae on the dental p a d , tongue and
buccal mucosa, which ruptured leaving ulcers. Occasionally, vesicles
appeared on the feet especially in the clefts and coronet.
In pigs vesicles were invariably present in the coronet of the feet
sometimes resulting in loss of hooves. Lesions were occasionally
seen on the snout of some pigs, usually bullae rather than solitary
vesicles. Vesicles were also seen o n the teats in sows. The sows
appeared to be very severely affected, became dry and were down
for a few days. Sucklings of such sows invariably died.
Very few cases of F M D were seen in goats. The lesions were
usually mild, with tiny vesicles on the dental pad and dorsum of the
tongue.
The virus type of this outbreak in cattle, pigs and goats was con­
firmed to be F M D type
which is similar to the virus type of the
1978-1979 outbreak.
Following the F M D outbreak of 1978-1979, vaccination of the
cattle/buffalo and sheep/goat population had been in progress in
certain strategic areas of the border states of Perlis, Kedah, Perak and
Kelantan. Initially the vaccination coverage achieved was between 809 0 % but subsequently decreased to less than 5 0 % due to difficulties in
the field and complacency on the part of farmers, veterinary person­
nel and other supporting services when the disease subsided.
Control measures
adopted
The infection h a d spread so rapidly and widely that destruction of
animals as a means of eradication of the disease was not justifiable.
The veterinary authority, instead, has decided on a vaccination
policy as a means of control.
1. Intensive ring vaccination a r o u n d all infected foci and mass
vaccination in all the four border states were carried out in the
— 107 —
cattle, buffalo and goat population. Vaccination was also carried
out in the entire pig population of the affected area.
2. Movement of all animals and animal products within, into or
out of the affected areas was prohibited. Ropes were given out to
farmers to tie their infected animals and in some areas infected ani­
mals were fenced u p and feeding was provided.
3. Slaughter of animals was permitted only in certain abattoirs in
big towns under veterinary supervision.
4. Road blocks were set u p in certain strategic points to check on
illegal movement of animals and animal products.
5. A standing committee on F M D control was set u p at the Veteri­
nary Services headquarters.
6. Additional staff were mobilized to the affected areas to help
with the control p r o g r a m m e .
One of the constraints of the vaccination control p r o g r a m m e is
the proper identification of vaccinated animals which is extremely
important for follow-up vaccinations of these same animals. In wet
weather animals cannot be branded with a hot iron brand and other
methods of identification are not altogether accepted by the farmers
on religious grounds.
Regional
FMD control
programme
As a control measure on a regional basis the Asian veterinary
authorities have come up with recommendations for the standardi­
zation of quarantine regulations and the establishment of diseasefree zones. A P H C A has also recommended the establishment of a
commission to advise on control of F M D in the region. To be more
effective the Commission should also incorporate countries like
Kampuchea, Laos, Vietnam and Burma, India, Bangladesh.
It is felt that control measures should be carried out firstly in
island countries, secondly in peninsular countries and thirdly in the
establishment of disease-free zones in countries with more than one
b o u n d a r y or frontier.
As an immediate control measure it is proposed that a buffer zone
be established on either side of the Malaysian-Thai border.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 109-110.
Foot-and-Mouth Disease
in Thailand(*)
F o o t - a n d - M o u t h Disease is considered a world-wide problem. It
occurs in m a n y countries of the world with a few exceptions. Three
of the seven virus types, namely O, A and Asia 1, exist in Thailand.
All these three types affect mainly cattle and buffaloes. Until n o w ,
natural infection of pigs is found to be caused by type O. The occur­
rence and situation stage of the disease varies from one area to ano­
ther. The epizootic wave depends on the season and on the results of
the vaccination campaign.
F o o t - a n d - M o u t h Disease is usually controlled either by slaughter
policy or by vaccination, or both methods simultaneously, depen­
ding on the stage of the disease and the number of affected animals.
To control the disease with the final goal of its eradication is consi­
dered as being most important. Vaccination is used to control the
disease in Thailand. The vaccination p r o g r a m m e varies from one
area to another depending on the disease situation and geographical
conditions; it can be summarized as follows :
1. Mass vaccination is applied in an epidemic area or an area with
widely distributed sporadic occurrence of the disease. Animals in the
area are vaccinated in the greatest possible number.
2. Maintenance of the existing disease-free zone, and at the same
time attempting to initiate a new free zone.
3. Establishment of bilateral buffer zones between countries.
Thailand and Malaysia are now establishing a buffer zone on either
side of their c o m m o n border. Susceptible animals within the area
are routinely vaccinated.
Since the spread of the disease in the country is mainly caused by
animal movement, the strict control of such movement especially to
the south is carried out in cooperation with the police and the army.
Quarantine stations are improved so that their function and activity
(*) Report presented by the Delegation of Thailand.
— 110 —
are strengthened. It is also considered important t o have a necessary
n u m b e r of new stations.
Finally, the control or eradication of the disease will not
cessful if F M D vaccine is insufficient or of low quality. The
vaccine production capacity is 200,000 doses for suspension
vaccine and 12,000 doses for vaccine produced by the rolling
method per week.
be suc­
current
culture
culture
Because of the widespread occurrence of the disease in the
country, imported vaccine is used in support of local vaccine. The
expansion of the F o o t - a n d - M o u t h Disease vaccine-producing centre
at N o n g Sarai, Nakhonratchasima, is now undertaken by a serious
consideration of both the Department of Livestock Development
and the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operative. The new larger
equipments are now being purchased and are expected to be instal­
led in the next five to six m o n t h s .
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 111-114.
La fièvre aphteuse en U.R.S.S.
de 1968 à 1979
par
P.P.
RAKHMANIIME(*)
La prophylaxie des maladies animales est une des conditions de la
réussite du développement de l'élevage.
La fièvre aphteuse fait partie des maladies infectieuses les plus
dangereuses, pouvant entraîner de lourdes pertes économiques et
paralyser les relations économiques et commerciales.
Les succès remportés dans l'étude de la maladie, l'application
étendue des moyens spécifiques de prophylaxie, le perfectionnement
et le renforcement constants des mesures de lutte ont stoppé le développement des épizooties et rendu de vastes territoires indemnes de
fièvre aphteuse d ' u n e manière stable. Mais il existe aussi des pays et
des régions où cette maladie continue d'être enregistrée et, si les
mesures appropriées ne sont pas prises, elle risque de frapper l'élevage d'autres pays.
On peut citer en exemple la panzootie aphteuse de type A22 qui
s'est étendue en 1965-1966 à de nombreux pays du Proche et du
Moyen-Orient et a pénétré sur le territoire de l ' U . R . S . S . : la coopération de diverses Organisations internationales et des Services vétérinaires nationaux fut alors nécessaire pour mettre au point et appliquer une action collective de défense de l'élevage contre cette maladie.
En Union Soviétique, l'Etat attache une grande importance à la
prophylaxie de la fièvre aphteuse.
Le perfectionnement constant des mesures de lutte anti-aphteuse,
l'élévation du niveau sanitaire de l'élevage, l'application de vaccins
(*) Chef adjoint de la Direction Générale Vétérinaire, Ministère de l'Agriculture
de l'U.R.S.S., Moscou.
— 112 —
plus efficaces, la création de vastes zones immunes par la vaccination systématique et planifiée du bétail, le renforcement du contrôle
vétérinaire des produits de l'élevage lors des opérations d'exportation et d'importation, ont eu pour effet une forte réduction du n o m bre des foyers de fièvre aphteuse. L'évolution de la situation concernant cette maladie de 1968 à 1979 est caractérisée par les données
suivantes.
Nombre de foyers de fièvre apheuse
Ce diagramme m o n t r e que la situation la plus défavorable a été
observée en 1968, après quoi la vague épizootique est retombée et,
pendant cinq ans (1969-1973), la fièvre aphteuse s'est manifestée par
des flambées localisées avec une évolution modérée. P e n d a n t cette
période, une grande partie du territoire de l ' U . R . S . S . est restée
indemne de fièvre aphteuse.
— 113
Au cours des années suivantes (1974-1979), la situation épizootique a continué de s'améliorer. Les foyers isolés de la maladie ont
été, p o u r la plupart, observés dans les républiques d'Asie Centrale et
de Transcaucasie; ils n'avaient pas une grande importance épizootique.
Durant ces années, dans le cadre de l'action d'ensemble contre la
fièvre aphteuse, parallèlement aux mesures d'organisation, aux
mesures économiques et aux mesures spécifiques, on a commencé à
pratiquer plus largement l'abattage des animaux guéris ou la destruction des sujets malades dans les foyers primaires de la maladie.
Une attention particulière a été portée à la protection des fermes
d'élevage contre l'introduction du virus aphteux, ainsi q u ' à la mise
en œ u v r e des mesures sanitaires en vue de sa destruction dans l'environnement.
Dans les zones d'élevage des animaux au pâturage, on a renforcé
le contrôle de la répartition du bétail sur les pâturages et de son
immunisation anti-aphteuse obligatoire et mis en œuvre la surveillance et l'aménagement des pistes à bétail; des restrictions à la circulation (au transport) des animaux d ' u n secteur de pâturage à u n
autre ont été imposées. Sur les pâturages, des spécialistes vétérinaires ont été affectés à la surveillance de l'état de santé des animaux,
les habitats des animaux sauvages et leurs migrations ont été étudiés,
des mesures ont été prises pour empêcher leurs contacts avec les animaux domestiques.
Le succès de la lutte anti-aphteuse a été également assuré par le
travail efficace et précis des laboratoires vétérinaires chargés de
déterminer les types et les variantes du virus aphteux. Ces établissements ont été dotés des matériels et des réactifs nécessaires; le travail
d'identification du virus aphteux y a été effectué en respectant des
règles sanitaires rigoureuses excluant toute fuite du virus.
L'analyse des résultats du typage du virus aphteux au cours de la
période considérée (1968-1979) m o n t r e que, jusqu'en 1969, la maladie a été principalement causée par le virus A22; ensuite, le virus O1
a eu un rôle épizootologique dominant, tandis que des flambées isolées de fièvre aphteuse de type C étaient constatées aux frontières
occidentales de l ' U . R . S . S . : région de Kaliningrad de la R . S . F . S . R . ,
région de Brest en Biélorussie, Moldavie et région d'Odessa en
Ukraine.
La situation épizootique en matière de fièvre aphteuse, telle
qu'elle a été observée en U . R . S . S . au cours des dernières années,
— 114 —
m o n t r e de façon convaincante que le système scientifiquement fondé
de mesures de lutte contre la maladie adopté dans notre pays a permis de protéger l'élevage contre la fièvre aphteuse et de poser d ' u n e
manière pratique l'objectif de son éradication complète sur le territoire de l'Union Soviétique.
La solution de ce problème dépendra pour beaucoup du niveau de
l'état indemne de fièvre aphteuse des pays limitrophes, d ' u n e information fournie à temps sur les cas d'apparition et de diffusion de
nouveaux types et sous-types du virus aphteux, ainsi que de l'élaboration d'actions conjointes en vue de combattre cette dangereuse
maladie.
RÉSUMÉ
A u cours des 12 dernières années (1968-1979), des succès considérables ont été remportés en U . R . S . S . dans la lutte contre la fièvre
aphteuse; le système des mesures adoptées dans le pays permet de
garantir 1'éradication complète de cette maladie sur le territoire de
l'Union Soviétique.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 115-116.
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (*)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is still one of the most feared
contagious livestock diseases, sapping livestock resources in deve­
loping countries and severely interfering with international m a r k e ­
ting of livestock and livestock products. Fortunately, the situation
as it concerns the North American Continent has been stable since
we addressed this topic at the Regional O . I . E . Conference held in
New Zealand in the fall of 1977.
While n o one can predict whether such stability will prevail, it has
u p to this point provided breathing space for further refinement of
existing contingency planning. The Emergency Programs organiza­
tion within the U . S . Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant
Health Inspection Service, Veterinary Services, in existence since the
early seventies, has been further refined and tested specifically in
regard to F M D by conducting a national test exercise, simulating an
outbreak of F M D in several States of the Union. Insights gained
during this test exercise led to a modification of existing plans.
These, up to now, had called for eradication by destruction and dis­
posal of all affected and exposed animals. Changing circumstances,
like size of modern feeding operations, rapidity of spread due to
modern transportation techniques and last but not least, environ­
mental considerations, put greater and greater obstacles into the
path of a strict and immediate « stamping out » p r o g r a m . Accor­
dingly, thought is now given to using vaccination as a means to slow
down spread and gain time for a more orderly destruction and dis­
posal of diseased animals. This line of thinking gives new impetus to
the idea of forming vaccine b a n k s , as a national or international
undertaking.
U . S . importation regulations for livestock and livestock products
have been kept as strict as ever and m a y take credit for keeping the
disease out of the country so far. However, and this appears to be a
global p h e n o m e n o n , there is increasing pressure to facilitate the
exchange of germ plasm considered unique and necessary for the
(*) Report presented by the U.S. Delegation.
— 116 —
improvement of indigenous breeds. The VS gained first experience
in this regard with the introduction of cattle from Brazil, a country
not considered to be free from F M D . This was accomplished by
using a high security, long term quarantine facility, especially cons­
tructed for the purpose and applying very strict health requirements
and testing procedures. Obviously, the procedure is not without p r o ­
blems.
U . S . cooperation with neighbors in the Hemisphere to both pre­
vent and prepare for F M D reintroduction is continuing. The green
light for the completion of the P a n American Highway, a project to
connect North and South America by way of an uninterrupted land
connection, has not been given as far as the United States is concer­
ned. While progress in stabilizing the disease situation has been
m a d e , it is painstakingly slow and not considered sufficient at this
time to alleviate U . S . concerns about possible disease introduction
via such a highway.
3. M a l a d i e s c l o s t r i d i a l e s des m o u t o n s
C l o s t r i d i a l diseases of s h e e p .
E n f e r m e d a d e s clostridiales o v i n a s .
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 119-123.
Clostridial diseases of sheep
in Australia(*)
by
W . A . GEERING(*) and H.D. M I D D L E T O N ( * * )
Enterotoxaemia (Clostridium perfringens,
type D), Tetanus (Cl.
tetani), Black Disease (Cl. oedematiens),
Blackleg (Cl.
chauvoei)
and Botulism (Cl. botulinum, types C and D) are all economically
important diseases of sheep in Australia. Malignant Oedema or gas
grangrene (various Clostridia spp.), swelled head of rams (Cl. oede­
matiens type A) and Braxy (Cl. septicum) also occur but are less
significant. On the other h a n d lamb Dysentery (Cl. perfringens type
B) and Struck (Cl. perfringens type C) rarely occur in Australia, if at
all.
Much of the pioneering research to elucidate the nature of these
diseases was in fact carried out in Australia. Particularly notable
was the discovery of the cause of Enterotoxaemia by Dr H . W . B E N ­
N E T S in Western Australia about fifty years ago.
Although clostridial diseases retain the potential for causing
serious losses to the Australian sheep industry, they are n o w gene­
rally well controlled by vaccination.
Enterotoxaemia.
This is an acute and frequently fatal disease of sheep resulting
from the rapid multiplication of Cl. perfringens type D in the a b o masum and small intestine with exotoxin production. This organism
is ubiquitous in the Australian environment and most sheep carry it
in small numbers in their bowels. The triggering mechanism for its
rapid multiplication is over-eating or a sudden change in diet which
(*) Australian Bureau of Animal Health, Canberra, A.C.T. 2600, Australia.
(**) Commonwealth Serum Laboratories, Melbourne, Australia.
— 120 —
results in bowel stasis and excess starch in the gut. In Australia these
conditions are more likely to be provided by grazing on lush green
pastures or fodder t h a n by « feed-lot » conditions with feeding of
concentrates.
Enterotoxaemia occurs in all States of Australia but particularly
in the higher rainfall sheep farming areas. The heaviest losses occur
in lambs, 3-12 weeks of age, in the spring when there is an a b u n d a n t
supply of milk and green pastures. Frequently cases occur in the
lambs in best condition. Losses can also occur in adult sheep in
areas where there is pasture growth following late summer and
a u t u m n rains. In Western Australia Enterotoxaemia also occurs in
adult sheep during summer when they graze o n cereal stubble. In
unvaccinated flocks the morbidity rate during outbreaks m a y occa­
sionally be as high as 3 0 % , although a more c o m m o n figure would
be 5 to 1 0 % . There is very considerable variation in incidence from
year to year.
Focal symmetrical encephalomalacia, a sporadic fatal central ner­
vous disease of sheep in Australia, is believed to be a neurological
manifestation of sub-acute Enterotoxaemia.
Tetanus.
Tetanus is ubiquitous in Australia and m a y occur in all domestic
animal species, as in other parts of the world. The disease tends to
be sporadic, but sometimes severe losses can be experienced in sheep
flocks associated with castration and tail-docking of lambs, the
Mules operation for Myiasis control, and shearing cuts. The use of
elastic ligatures for tail-docking and castration has been found to be
particularly hazardous as a predisposing cause for Tetanus.
Black
Disease.
Black Disease, or Infectious Necrotic Hepatitis, is a fatal toxae­
mia of sheep and cattle caused by the multiplication of Cl. oedematiens in the liver with exotoxin production. This organism is com­
monly present in the soil, in the intestines of sheep and cattle, and is
often present as latent spores in the livers of healthy animals. The
disease is usually associated with liver fluke (Fasciola
hepatica)
infestation in Australia. Immature flukes migrating t h r o u g h the
liver and the consequent inflammatory responses and necrosis p r o ­
vide a suitable environment for the rapid multiplication of the
— 121 —
vegetative form of Cl. oedematiens
from dormant spores, with
release of alpha-toxin into the bloodstream.
The epidemiology of Black Disease in Australia is therefore clo­
sely linked with that of liver fluke infestation. The disease occurs
most commonly in certain areas of New South Wales, Victoria, Tas­
mania, and South Australia. Outbreaks occur during summer and
a u t u m n , but occasionally extend into winter. The mortality rate in
affected flocks usually varies from 5-10%, but may occasionally be
higher.
Blackleg.
Blackleg, or Blackquarter, is an acute infectious myositis of the
gas-gangrene type that occurs in sheep and cattle in all areas of Aus­
tralia. The principal cause of the disease is Cl. chauvoei. Cl. septicum has also occasionally been incriminated but its significance in
the aetiology of Blackleg is doubtful.
Blackleg in sheep m a y occur through contamination of wounds at
castration, shearing, dipping, lambing, etc. However Blackleg m a y
also occur spontaneously, presumably through activation of spores
in tissues by bruising or some other triggering mechanism.
The disease m a y occur in flocks as sporadic cases or as outbreaks
with u p to 2 0 % mortality. As with Enterotoxaemia, the sheep in
best condition are often affected.
Blackleg frequently occurs selectively on a farm or in a district
only in either cattle or sheep, although both species are present. The
reason for this is u n k n o w n .
Botulism.
Botulism occurs in all States of Australia. The usual cause is
intoxication through ingestion of materials contaminated by Cl.
botulinum type C, although Cl. botulinum type D is also important
in some localities. All domestic animal species are affected, but the
most serious losses in Australia occur in cattle in phosphorous defi­
cient areas t h r o u g h bone chewing. There is an endemic belt in the
south-west of Western Australia where Botulism is also important in
sheep. Outbreaks in sheep there occur in late summer when pastures
have dried off and sheep suffer from sarcophagia — eating dead
rabbits and other carrion. Vaccination is routinely used in this
region. Serious losses due to Botulism in sheep have also occurred
periodically in the south-west of New South Wales, also as a result
of the ingestion of carrion.
— 122 —
Malignant
Oedema.
Malignant Oedema, or gas gangrene, occurs sporadically in sheep
flocks t h r o u g h o u t Australia. It results from infection of wounds
incurred at shearing, dipping, castration, lambing or t h r o u g h picking by crows or other causes. Various clostridial species including
Cl. chauvœi, Cl. septicum,
Cl. œdematiens,
Cl. sordellii and Cl.
perfringens
type A m a y cause Malignant Oedema. Periodically
heavy losses occur in individual flocks from Malignant Oedema
after the use of dirty needles or equipment for vaccination.
Swelled
Head.
This is an inflammatory oedema of the head and neck of r a m s
caused by Cl. œdematiens type A , that occurs as a result of fighting.
It is usually fatal. Sporadic cases occur t h r o u g h o u t Australia. It can
prevented by immunising rams with Black Disease vaccine.
Braxy.
Braxy is a condition in sheep in which there is a Cl. septicum
infection of the a b o m a s u m followed by toxaemia and death. It
occurs after the ingestion of frozen or very cold food. It is not
u n c o m m o n in E u r o p e , but only occurs in Australia in a restricted
area of Tasmania during winter.
Control
of clostridial
diseases of sheep in
Australia.
The main method of control is by vaccination. This is voluntary
in Australia, but m o r e enlightened farmers routinely vaccinate
against clostridial diseases, because it has proven an effective and
relatively cheap method of control. In the m o r e arid extensive sheepfarming areas of island Australia the low incidence of the major
clostridial diseases m a y not justify routine vaccination.
Enterotoxaemia, Black Disease, Tetanus, Blackleg (combined Cl.
chauvoei and Cl. septicum) and Botulism vaccines are available in
Australia. There are produced in the form of purified toxoids which
are usually absorbed to an aluminium abjuvant. The one exception
is Cl. chauvoei vaccine which is a bacterin. These vaccines are m a r keted as single vaccines or multicomponent products effective
against u p to five diseases. Farmers m a y then choose the combination most appropriate to their district.
— 123 —
Whilst antigenic competition can be a problem when several clos­
tridial vaccines are combined in a single dose, the various c o m p o ­
nents are carefully balanced to minimise this. Australian biological
standards require each vaccine in a multicomponent vaccine to elicit
an i m m u n e response equivalent to its administration as a single vac­
cine.
The vaccination regimen generally recommended for clostridial
vaccines is for a primary immunisation course of two doses adminis­
tered four weeks apart. This is given at or before weaning depending
on circumstances. Annual booster doses may be warranted.
Booster vaccination of ewes before lambing to enhance
maternally-derived immunity has been found to be an effective way
of protecting young lambs against clostridial diseases.
Management practices can also be adopted to reduce the risk of
some clostridial diseases. For example the food intake can be adjus­
ted t o reduce the risk of Enterotoxaemia and prevention program­
mes for liver fluke infestation will also help to prevent Black
Disease.
Antitoxins are available in Australia for several of the clostridial
diseases a n d antibiotics may be useful in treating some infections
(e.g. Blackleg and Malignant Oedema). However treatment is rarely
practicable for clostridial diseases in sheep.
Bull. Off int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 125-130.
Clostridial diseases of sheep
in Indonesia
by
S.
HARDJOUTOMO(*)
INTRODUCTION
According t o the F . A . O . Production Yearbook for 1976, 95 per
cent of the sheep in South-East Asia are located in Indonesia. In fact
Indonesia has 3,188,000 and a total of 146,000 are found in five
countries in South-East Asia, namely Thailand, Peninsular Malay­
sia, the Philippines, Viet N a m and Democratic Kampuchea as
shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1
Sheep population in South-East Asia, 1976.
Indonesia
Thailand
Peninsular Malaysia
The Philippines
Viet Nam
Democratic Kampuchea
Brunei
Lao
Sabah
Sarawak
Singapore
Source : I . L . M A S O N . — Sheep in Java. World Animal
3,188,000
54,000
46,000
32,000
12,000
2,000
none
Review,
1978, 27.
As a matter of fact within Indonesia the distribution is equally
irregular as shown in Table 2. 9 0 % of the sheep are on the island of
Java.
(*) Bacteriologist, Animal Disease Research Institute, Bogor.
—
126 —
TABLE 2
Sheep distribution in Indonesia, 1973.
West Java (including Jakarta)
Central Java (including Yogyakarta)
East Java (including Madura)
Sumatra
Other islands
1,450,000
928,000
475,000
207,000
147,000
3,207,000
Source : Buku Saku Peternakan, Direcktorat Penyuluhan Peternakan, Jakarta, 1975.
There are three native sheep breeds in Indenosia, namely the local
Javanese thin-tailed; the Priangan of West Java and the fat-tailed
sheep of East Java. Indeed recently, breeds of sheep were imported
t o Indonesia, but not m a n y , such as the Suffolk, Dormer
(Dorset X Merino) and Suffmer (Suffolk X Merino) imported from
Australia to be cross-bred with the native ones. Sheep husbandry
here in Indonesia is simple, the animals graze wasteland during the
day and are kept at night in simple covered b a m b o o pens or sheds;
these have slatted or woven b a m b o o floors raised 3 0 - 4 0 cm above
the ground. There they are fed on cut forage and agricultural waste;
sometimes they are given rice bran and salt ( M A S O N , 1 9 7 8 ) .
As stated in the text b o o k s , there are clostridial diseases of sheep
with a world-wide distribution such as Enterotoxaemia caused by
Cl. welchii type D ; Black Disease caused by Cl. septicum; Tetanus
caused by Cl. tetani; Malignant Oedema or gas gangrene caused by
Cl. septicum or maybe Cl. welchii type A , Cl. novyi or Cl. chauvoei
as well, and Botulism caused by Cl. botulinum type A , B, C , D and
E (COLE,
1967).
S I T U A T I O N O F S H E E P D I S E A S E IN I N D O N E S I A
Owing to their small numbers, compared with cattle, goats and
pigs, irregularity in distribution throughout the archipelago and the
method of husbandry, we have relatively limited data available con­
cerning the disease situation of sheep in Indonesia up to now. Based
on the annual reports by Lembaga Penelitian Penyakit H e w a n ,
Bogor or the Animal Disease Research Institute, Bogor ( A D R I ,
Bogor) between 1 9 7 1 and 1 9 7 4 there were 1 1 6 specimens of sheep to
be diagnosed by the Institute comprising 8 4 cases of suspect bacte-
— 127 —
rial diseases a n d 32 cases of non-bacterial diseases. These were hel­
minth infestations (15 positive cases out of 32 cases of non-bacterial
diseases or 4 7 % ) d o m i n a t e d by H a e m o n c h o s i s , c o m p a r e d with b a c ­
terial infection (24 positive cases out of 84 cases of bacterial diseases
or 2 9 % , of which 9 cases of Clostridium septicum (11%) and 4 cases
of Clostridium $sp. (5%) were detected respectively).
TABLE 3
Diseases of sheep diagnosed by ADRI, Bogor.
I. Bacterial diseases : 84 cases.
— Positive cases (24) = Cl. septicum (9); B. anthracis (5);
Anaplasma sp. (4); Clostridium sp. (4); M. tuberculosis (1)
and E. coli (1).
— Negative cases (60).
II. Non-bacterial diseases : 32 cases.
a) Parasitic diseases : 16 cases.
— Positive cases (15) = Haemonchus sp. (11); Fasciola sp. (2);
Coccidia (1) and other helminth (1).
— Negative case (1).
b) Pathological disorders : 16 cases.
(e.g. bronchopneumonia, cedema pulmonum, cystitis and enteritis).
Source : A n n u a l reports, Animal Disease Research Institute, Bogor, 1971-1974.
As a m a t t e r of fact, based on d a t a available at the Institute, bet­
ween 1971 a n d 1979 there were 132 specimens of sheep to be exami­
ned bacteriologically with results as shown in Table 4.
TABLE 4
Microorganisms of sheep isolated by ADRI, Bogor from 1971 to 1979 (132 specimens).
Positive cases (44).
Cl. septicum
Staphylococcus sp.
E. coli
B. anthracis
Anaplasma sp.
Clostridium sp.
Proteus sp.
Cl. welchii
Aeromonas sp.
M. tuberculosis
Negative cases (88).
10
8
7
5
4
4
3
1
1
1
Brucella sp.
Anaplasma sp.
B. anthracis
Pathogenic bacteria
P. multocida
44
Source : Animal Disease Research Institute, B o g o r (unpublished data).
25
22
20
16
5
88
— 128
In addition Table 5 gives us an illustration of how m a n y Clostridia
of animals were isolated in Indonesia from 1971 to 1979. For sheep
there were pathogenic Clostridia namely Cl. septicum and Cl. welchii
and nonpathogenic ones namely Cl. tertium and Clostridium sp. as
well.
TABLE 5
Clostridia of animals isolated by ADRI, Bogor from 1971 to 1979 (45 specimens)
Animals
Specimens
Cattle (C)
Sheep (S)
Buffaloes (B)
Pigs (P)
Monkeys (M)
Dogs (D)
Komodoes (K)
Guinea-pigs (G)
19
15
4
3
1
1
1
1
45
Distribution in
Species of Clostridia
CI. septicum
CI. welchii
CI. putrifaciens
CI. tertium
CI. butiricum
CI. innocuum
CI. difficile
Clostridium sp.
C
S
6
6
4
10
1
B
P
M
1
D
K
G
1
Total
—
—
1
1
2
2
—
i
—
1
—
18
7
7
3
1
1
1
7
19
15
4
3
1
1
1
1
45
—
2
1
—
—
—
2
1
1
1
_t
—
--
Source : A n i m a l Disease Research Institute, Bogor (unpublished data).
DISCUSSION
There were Clostridia of sheep isolated by A D R I , Bogor between
1971 and 1979 as a result of specimen examination, namely Cl. septi­
cum, Cl. welchii, Cl. tertium and Clostridium sp. Most of the speci­
mens were in the form of pieces of internal organs sent by local vete­
rinary services mostly from areas of West Java. T h e first t w o mentio­
ned Clostridia are pathogenic for guinea-pigs, but since it is already
known that m a n y Clostridia can be found in the intestine of the ani-
—
129
—
mals, so their finding from any necropsy specimen does not necessa­
rily to be associated with an outbreak of any clostridial disease
unless additional supporting evidence is available.
On the other h a n d , helminth infestations, mainly Haemonchosis,
appear to be the most prevalent disease compared with other parasi­
tic problems in sheep in Indonesia. From a study conducted by
M A S O N in Indonesia in August 1 9 7 7 , as far as disease was concer­
ned, he concluded that in West Java liver fluke, tapeworm and Haemonchus were the most serious afflictions. In Central Java, Scab,
not Haemonchus
is the chief problem. Whereas in East Java hel­
minths are the major parasites and Haemonchus may be a cause of
mortality. Further he stated that n o doubt the slatted floors are an
advantage and m a y account for the absence of Foot-rot in sheep.
CONCLUSION
From the data discussed above it can be concluded that u p to n o w
clostridial diseases of sheep in Indonesia are not yet important as a
cause of mortality in sheep.
*
**
SUMMARY
There were 1 3 2 specimens of sheep in total received and examined
by A D R I Bogor between 1 9 7 1 and 1 9 7 9 . 2 9 % of them were recor­
ded as positive bacterial findings, among these the pathogenic Clos­
tridia Cl. septicum
( 8 % ) and Cl. welchii ( 1 % ) and the n o n ­
pathogenic ones Clostridium sp. ( 4 % ) . These findings are not neces­
sarily associated with any outbreak of clostridial disease of sheep.
On the other h a n d , parasitic diseases of sheep ( 4 7 % positive fin­
dings) in which Haemonchus was recorded frequently, should not be
ignored. After all clostridial diseases in Indonesia are not yet impor­
tant as a cause of mortality in sheep.
*
**
— 130 —
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to express his thanks to Dr. J A N N A R I ,
Director, Lembaga Penelitian Penyakit Hewan, Bogor, for invalua­
ble suggestions in preparing this paper.
*
* *
REFERENCES
1. Buku Saku P e t e r n a k a n . Direcktorat Penyuluhan
J a k a r t a , 1975.
2.
Peternakan,
(V.G.). — Diseases of sheep. Grazcos co-operative limited,
Sydney, 1967.
COLE
3. Lembaga Penelitian Penyakit H e w a n . L a p o r a n t a h u n a n , Bogor,
1971/1972.
4. Lembaga Penelitian Penyakit H e w a n . L a p o r a n t a h u n a n , Bogor,
1972/1973.
5. Lembaga Penelitian Penyakit H e w a n . L a p o r a n t a h u n a n , Bogor,
1973/1974.
6. Lembaga Penelitian Penyakit H e w a n . L a p o r a n t a h u n a n , Bogor,
1974/1975.
7.
(I.L.). — Sheep in Java. World Animal
R o m e , 1978, 2 7 , 17-23.
MASON
Review,
F.A.O.,
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 131.
Clostridial diseases of sheep
in Malaysia(*)
There are very few sheep in Malaysia, the entire sheep population
in the country being about 52,000 head only. Most are owned by
small holders.
Clostridial diseases have rarely been reported in sheep and have
caused n o problems.
(*) Report presented by the Malaysian Delegation.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 133-148.
Clostridial diseases of sheep
in New Zealand
by
F.W. BECKETT(*)
INTRODUCTION
The clostridial diseases of Blackleg, Malignant Oedema, Entero­
toxaemia and Tetanus, are endemic in sheep, flocks throughout New
Zealand. Before effective vaccines became available these diseases
were important causes of economic loss to the sheep farming
industry. N o w the main loss is the cost of vaccination, occasional
outbreaks in unvaccinated sheep, and sporadic deaths which occur
from time to time. Black Disease is endemic only in certain areas,
although Cl. novyi as a cause of Malignant Oedema and navel infec­
tion appears to be more widespread.
A n u m b e r of clostridial diseases, Botulism, Braxy, lamb Dysen­
tery and Struck, present in other parts of the world do not cause
problems or do not occur. Botulism has not been reported in sheep
although it has been found in waterfowl. Although Cl. septicum is
present as a major cause of both Malignant Oedema and navel
infections, Braxy has never been known to cause any problems.
Similitary although Cl. perfringens type B and type C have been iso­
lated, their significance is u n k n o w n .
Blackleg (Cl. chauvoei).
Although Blackleg in cattle was first recognised in 1 8 9 1 it was not
until 1 9 3 8 that Cl. chauvoei was recognised as an important cause of
sheep mortality ( B U D D L E , 1 9 5 4 ) . M O N T G O M E R Y ( 1 9 7 6 ) states that at
that time in South Otago and Southland some farmers lost u p to
2 5 % of their flock annually from so-called « blood poisoning ».
(*) Animal Health Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Dannevirke,
New Zealand.
—
134
—
In sheep the disease is always a result of wound infection ( B L O O D
and H E N D E R S O N , 1 9 7 4 ) . In adult sheep, losses occur following par­
turition, shearing, dipping or vaccination. High mortalities may
occur in hoggets (young sheep less t h a n 1 year old) while grazing
rape, turnips, or swedes, in the a u t u m n and winter ( M O N T G O M E R Y ,
1 9 7 6 ) . Blackleg causes losses in lambs through navel infection and
following docking ( H A R T L E Y and K A T E R , 1 9 6 4 ) .
Since the widespread adoption of vaccination Blackleg disease of
sheep has become rare.
Malignant
Oedema.
Malignant Oedema is an acute wound infection caused by orga­
nisms of the genus Clostridium and is characterised by acute inflam­
mation at the site of infection with a profound systemic toxaemia
( B L O O D and
HENDERSON,
1974).
The most c o m m o n aetiological agents in New Zealand are Cl. sep­
ticum and Cl. novyi. Apart from navel infection most cases of Mali­
gnant Oedema occur as a result of parturition, castration, docking,
vaccination or shearing. High losses occur occasionally as the result
of dipping sheep too soon after shearing, as m o d e r n bacteriostats
are quite ineffective against clostridial spores in fouled dip wash. In
Canterbury outbreaks with mortality rates u p to 1 0 % sometimes
occur in hoggets grazing rape or turnips in the a u t u m n .
Black Disease (Infectious
Necrotic
Hepatitis).
Black Disease is an acute toxaemia of adult sheep causing high
mortality. It has a dual aetiology and is the result of infection with
Cl. novyi type B in association with agents producing liver damage
especially liver fluke infection. The disease was first recognised in
New Zealand in 1 9 2 7 and is mainly confined to H a w k e ' s Bay and
Gisborne areas. The spread of liver fluke to new areas over the last
decade m a y result in a wider distribution. Cl. novyi can be found in
normal sheep livers from endemic areas.
Navel
Infection.
Clostridial infections can be the most important cause of early
post-parturient navel infections. It has been estimated ( H A R L E Y and
K A T E R , 1 9 6 4 ) that about 8 0 % are due t o Cl. septicum
with the
remainder caused by Cl. chauvoei and Cl. novyi. M C F A R L A N E
( 1 9 6 6 ) in his survey of perinatal lamb losses from five different dis-
— 135 —
tricts in New Zealand in 1956, showed that there were wide differen­
ces between districts in the proportion of lambs which had lesions of
navel infection. These varied from 14% in Central South Island dis­
tricts to 7 4 % in North Island East Coast districts.
The prevalence of clostridial navel infections varies from year to
year, from farm to farm, and even between different paddocks on
the same farm. It is more c o m m o n when wet m u d d y conditions
occur at lambing time. Losses from navel infection now rarely
exceed 2 - 3 % except for occasional outbreaks when Cl. septicum is
involved and losses m a y be as high as 10% ( H A R T L E Y and K A T E R ,
1964). High losses m a y occur in lambs that have been confined with
foster mothers in contaminated buildings.
Tetanus.
Tetanus is endemic throughout New Zealand but only became a
serious disease of sheep in the late 1950's with the widespread use of
the rubber ring elastrator for castration and docking of lambs. Los­
ses can also occur following use of searing irons for docking. It is
more c o m m o n in lambs docked at 3-4 weeks of age t h a n in younger
lambs; in fact the use of rubber rings within a few days of birth
practically eliminates the disease. The great majority of Tetanus
cases occur 8-14 days after docking. Prevalence can be as high as
10% of a m o b , affecting usually the best lambs.
Tetanus also occurs infrequently as a result of navel infection,
dog bites, shearing wounds and flystrike.
Enterotoxaemia
(Cl. perfringens type D).
At the turn of the century New Zealand sheep farmers on better
developed farms were troubled by a highly fatal disease of young
lambs between 3 and 4 weeks of age. A n excellent description of this
disease now known to be Enterotoxaemia is recorded in the 1907
Annual Report of the New Zealand Department of Agriculture.
Enterotoxaemia occurs throughout New Zealand, usually in the
best grown lambs between 3 and 10 weeks of age. It is more preva­
lent on well developed farms with high quality pastures. In North
Island East Coast districts outbreaks may occur during the early
summer associated with a heavy infestation of tapeworms (Moniezia
spp.) in lambs which may or may not be thriving ( T H O M A S et al.,
1956). Outbreaks m a y be associated with feed changes, particularly
—
136
—
in weaned lambs on rape crops, turnips or lucerne, and rarely in
older sheep on wheat or barley stubble, precipitated by overeating
grain.
Focal symmetrical Encephalomalacia as described by H A R T L E Y
( 1 9 5 6 ) is occasionally seen especially in older lambs during Entero­
toxaemia outbreaks, or m a y have a sporadic occurrence in 6 m o n t h
old lambs which were vaccinated at docking time ( M O N T G O M E R Y ,
1976).
DIAGNOSIS
A p a r t from Tetanus which is easily recognised clinically, the dia­
gnosis of clostridial diseases in b o t h the field and in the laboratory
presents problems because of the rapid decomposition of the carcase
a n d the rapidity in which clostridial organisms, normally present in
the gut, invade tissues after death. Therefore, unless lesions are
found which are consistent with the disease, laboratory demonstra­
tion of the organism is of limited value. S T E V E N S O N ( 1 9 7 6 ) states
that all clostridial diseases produce distinctive microscopic lesions
even when the tissues look and smell grossly abnormal because of
putrefactive changes. The essentials for a diagnosis are a good flock
and case history, typical necropsy findings supported by histopathological changes and bacterial isolation.
Blackleg,
Malignant
Oedema,
Black
Disease.
These three diseases are recognised by farmers as « blood poiso­
ning ». Affected sheep are invariably found dead, with blood stai­
ned froth from the nose; the carcase is rapidly distended by gas;
there are areas of skin discoloration, and the wool plucks readily.
Despite subtle differences reported in standard texts, necropsy
findings in the field for all three diseases are similar, except in Black
Disease where characteristic necrotic liver lesions are present with
evidence of migrating fluke. Carcases show blood stained effusions
in all b o d y cavities and internal organs show marked decomposition
changes.
In Blackleg and Malignant Oedema affected muscle tissue is
darkly discoloured with accumulation of sero-sanguineous fluid bet­
ween muscles and in subcutaneous tissues.
—
137
—
Differentiation of the three diseases must be made by histopathological a n d bacteriological examination of suspected lesions, liver
and kidneys.
Enterotoxaemia.
Necropsy findings in sheep dying of Enterotoxaemia are reaso­
nably characteristic unless masked by decomposition changes.
They are :
(a) a pale carcase in a good state of nutrition;
(b) straw coloured exudate with gelatinous clots which distends
the pericardial sac;
(c) sub-epicardial and sub-endocardial haemorrhages;
(d) congestion and oedema of lungs;
(e) soft pulpy kidneys a few hours after death;
(f) small intestine, almost empty except for cream-coloured
ingesta in the ileum which is thickened and friable.
L a b o r a t o r y tests which can be used for confirmation, are the pre­
sence of glycosuria, the presence of gram positive rods in the ileal
contents, a positive biological test for Cl. perfringens type D , and
the presence of characteristic kidney lesions, or in cases that survive
for several days, lesions of focal symmetrical encephalomalacia
(STEVENSON,
1976).
CURRENT PREVALENCE AND DISTRIBUTION
As clostridial diseases are not notifiable in New Zealand n o relia­
ble statistics exist on current disease prevalence, neither have any
recent studies of epidemiology of these diseases in New Zealand
been published. In D A V I S ' survey of sheep mortality in 1 9 7 1 and
1 9 7 2 o n nine selected farms in H a w k e ' s Bay, « blood poisoning »
ranked fourth in the list of disease conditions found, being responsi­
ble for 7 . 5 % of all deaths or a mortality rate of 3 . 2 per thousand
sheep. However, many of these were farmer's opinions so this figure
is likely to be overestimated.
New Zealand is well serviced by diagnostic laboratories for animal
disease and information from this source provides some useful gui­
dance providing the limitations of the data is recognised. L a b o r a t o ­
ries receive samples from disease problems selected by farmers for
— 138 —
veterinary attention, and these are submitted by veterinarians for
laboratory examination. As far as sheep are concerned individual
farmers are motivated by economic considerations and except in
valuable stud sheep, are unlikely to seek veterinary assistance unless
a disease outbreak with heavy losses occurs, or if they believe there
has been a breakdown in their vaccination p r o g r a m m e . Much
depends on the veterinarians's enthusiasm, his autopsy expertise,
and his selection of good material for laboratory examination.
For these reasons it is considered that laboratory statistics on the
occurrence of clostridial diseases cannot be considered as a dependa­
ble indication of the true prevalence of these diseases.
Examination
of laboratory
data.
Detailed laboratory data from Animal Health Laboratories is
available from 1973 to the end of June 1980. The following observa­
tions can be m a d e from examination of this data in relation t o the
three major « blood poisoning » diseases, Cl. chauvoei, Cl. septi­
cum and Cl. novyi.
1. Clostridial disease diagnoses occur in a very small proportion
(less t h a n 1%) of the total sheep cases submitted through the labora­
tories.
2. Variations occur from year to year in confirmed diagnosis of
Cl. chauvoei, Cl. septicum and Cl. novyi (Figure I).
3. Most clostridial isolations originate from the m o r e intensive
sheep farming areas. Cl. chauvoei is the most c o m m o n isolate in the
Rangitikei district, Cl. novyi in H a w k e ' s Bay and Mid a n d South
Canterbury. In other districts there are no apparent dominance of
particular Clostridia (Figure II).
4. Cl. septicum is the most c o m m o n isolate in young lambs, Cl.
chauvoei and septicum in hoggets; Cl. novyi is m o r e c o m m o n in
older sheep (Figure III A ) .
5. Changes in seasonal prevalence is shown in Figure IV. Peaks
coincide with the main risk periods of birth, docking for lambs, and
lambing for ewes. The winter peak for Cl. novyi in ewes is hard to
understand — if this was fluke associated it would be expected in the
autumn.
Annual incidence figures for Enterotoxaemia laboratory diagnosis
varies between 1.8 and 3.0% of all ovine case submissions. Of these
— 140 —
Fig. II : Distribution of ovine clostridial « bloodpoisoning » diseases :
from laboratory diagnosis in N e w Zealand, 1973-1980.
141 —
Fig. III A : A g e distribution of clostridial diseases :
f r o m laboratory diagnoses in N e w Zealand, 1973-1380.
Fig.IIIB : Age distribution of Clostridium perfringens type D :
from laboratory diagnoses in New Zealand, 1973-1980.
— 142 —
— 143 —
Fig. IV : Seasonal prevalence of clostridial diseases :
from laboratory diagnoses in N e w Zealand, 1973-1980.
— 144
Fig V : Seasonal prevalence of Cl. perfringens type D
from laboratory diagnosis in N e w Zealand, 1973-1980.
—
145
—
more t h a n half originate from the eastern half of the South Island
(range 5 5 - 7 2 % of all cases annually). Most diagnoses occur in lambs
2 - 6 m o n t h s of age (Figure IV) during the months of September to
November with a secondary peak occurring in the autumn in March
probably associated with crop feeding (Figure V).
C O N T R O L O F C L O S T R I D I A L DISEASES
The most important development in the control of clostridial
diseases of sheep in New Zealand, was the establishment of the tech­
nique for the large-scale production of a potent Blackleg vaccine by
B U D D L E in the late 1 9 4 0 ' s . Starting with Cl. chauvoei of bovine ori­
gin, he developed a formalinised alum precipitated vaccine prepared
in a beef infusion glucose-cysteine medium, which could be concen­
trated and combined with other clostridial antigens without detri­
ment to its efficiency. He also developed a procedure for potency
testing of anaerobic vaccines and provided recommendations for
their use, which are the basis of clostridial disease control today
(BUDDLE,
1954).
The widespread use of anaerobic vaccines in the 1 9 5 0 ' s , produced
a dramatic reduction in the prevalence of the c o m m o n clostridial
diseases. In the 1 9 6 0 ' s highly purified polyvalent vaccines which
were capable of immunising against as many as five separate disea­
ses were developed. Since W A L L A C E ( 1 9 6 3 , 1 9 6 4 ) and C O O P E R
( 1 9 6 6 , 1 9 6 7 , 1 9 7 6 ) demonstrated that the duration of passive immu­
nity for Enterotoxaemia in the lamb persisted up to 1 0 weeks of age
and was augmented by natural exposure, there has been a constant
swing away from lamb vaccination towards vaccination of the pre­
gnant ewe for lamb protection.
Use of
vaccination.
Somewhere between 7 0 - 8 0 % of farmers use polyvalent vaccines in
ewes, essentially as an all r o u n d insurance against clostridial disea­
ses. A b o u t 2 0 % rely on « blood poisoning » protection of ewes by
vaccination of yearling sheep with Blackleg, Malignant Oedema vac­
cine and lamb protection by the use of Enterotoxaemia or combined
Enterotoxaemia vaccine-Tetanus antitoxin.
The actual immunological procedure to be followed depends on
local disease knowledge and the most practical method suitable for
— 146 —
the particular conditions. Vaccination programmes commonly used
both singly or in combination are as follows :
(a) Lambs at docking (2-3 weeks of age) :
Enterotoxaemia or E n t e r o t o x a e m i a / T e t a n u s antitoxin (100
I.U.).
(b) Hoggets (sheep 6-12 m o n t h s of age) :
for protection from « blood poisoning » and Enterotoxaemia
on root crops :
Blackleg/Malignant O e d e m a / E n t e r o t o x a e m i a or « 5 in 1 » as
sensitizer.
(c) 2-tooth ewes (ewes 18 m o n t h s of age) at mating :
Blackleg/Malignant Oedema for ewe « blood poisoning »
protection or « 5 in 1 » sensitizer for lamb protection.
(d) All ewes prelambing :
E n t e r o t o x a e m i a / T e t a n u s toxoid for lamb protection for Ente­
rotoxaemia and Tetanus or « 5 in 1 » for lamb protection for
navel infection, Enterotoxaemia and Tetanus.
Hygiene
and
antibiotics.
Vaccination does not eliminate the need for good hygiene proce­
dures at lambing, docking, vaccination and in the shearing sheds.
Penicillin is routinely used by m a n y farmers after assisted lambings.
*
**
SUMMARY
1. Blackleg, Malignant Oedema, clostridial navel infections, Ente­
rotoxaemia (Cl. perfringens
type D) and Tetanus, occur widely
t h r o u g h o u t New Zealand. Blackleg Disease is endemic in certain
areas mainly in H a w k e ' s Bay and Gisborne districts.
2. The prevalence of these diseases has been greatly reduced by
widespread vaccination of ewe or l a m b flocks.
3. Changes in vaccination policies have occurred over the last
decade, with greater reliance being placed o n passive protection of
lambs by the use of polyvalent vaccines in ewes.
*
**
— 147 —
REFERENCES
1.
BUDDLE
(M.B.). — Production of immunity against Clostri­
dium chauvoei infection in sheep. N.Z. J. Science and
Tech., 1954, 35, 5, 395-413.
2.
MONTGOMERY
3.
BLOOD
4.
HARTLEY
( R . H . ) . — Clostridial diseases of sheep in the
South Island. Proc. N.Z.V.A.
Sheep Society, 1976, 38-43.
and H E N D E R S O N . — Veterinary Medicine. 4th edition,
Bailliere, Tindal, 1974.
(W.J.) and K A T E R (Joan C ) . — Perinatal disease
conditions in sheep in New Zealand. N.Z. vet. J., 1964, 12,
3, 49-57.
5. M c F A R L A N E (D.). — Perinatal lamb losses — A preliminary
survey of New Zealand perinatal lamb losses in the areas
surrounding Gisborne, Wairos, Nelson, Rangiora and Ashb u r t o n . N.Z. vet. J., 1966, 14, 9, 137-144.
6.
GILRUTH
7.
THOMAS
8.
HARTLEY
9.
STEVENSON
10.
(J.A.) and R E A R E S (C.J.). — Report of the Depart­
ment of Agriculture, 1907, 387-389.
( P . L . ) , D O W N E Y (N.E.) and D R E A D O N (R.S.). — Mor­
tality in lambs due to Enterotoxaemia associated with heavy
infestations of Moniezia expansa. N.Z. vet. J., 1956, 4, 161165.
( W . J . ) . — Focal Symmetrical Encephalomalacia of
lambs. N.Z. vet. J., 1956, 4, 4, 129-135.
(B.J.). — The diagnosis of clostridial diseases in
lambs. Proc. N.Z. V.A. Sheep Society, 1976, 44-46.
DAVIS
N.Z.
(G.B.). — A sheep mortality survey in H a w k e ' s Bay.
vet. J., 1974, 2 2 , 4, 39-42.
11.
WALLACE
(G.V.). — Homologous passive protection of lambs
against various clostridial diseases. Part 1. N.Z. vet. J.,
1963, 1 1 , 2, 39-40.
12.
WALLACE
13.
COOPER
(G.V.). — Homologous passive protection of lambs
against various clostridial diseases. Part 2. N.Z. vet. J.,
1964, 14, 11, 186-190.
(B.S.). — Protection of lambs against Tetanus.
vet. J., 1966, 14, 11, 186-190.
N.Z.
— 148
(B.S.). — The transfer from ewe to lamb of clostridial
antibodies. N.Z. vet. J., 1967, 15, 1, 1-7.
14. C O O P E R
15.
COOPER
N.Z.V.A.
(B.S.). — Clostridial diseases
Sheep Society, 1976, 47-49.
of
lambs.
Proc.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 149-157.
Les maladies clostridiales
des animaux domestiques.
(Etiologie, diagnostic,
mesures de lutte)
par
L.V.
KIRILLOV(*)
Les maladies clostridiales, qui atteignent les animaux et l ' h o m m e ,
sont causées par des germes anaérobies du genre Clostridia. Les
clostridies forment un groupe nombreux (environ 90 espèces) de
micro-organismes qui ont en c o m m u n un certain nombre de propriétés très caractéristiques. Morphologiquement, les populations des
différentes espèces de clostridies se ressemblent beaucoup; la plupart
se caractérisent par la continuité des cellules qui les composent; ces
dernières ont une forme allongée et des dimensions relativement
importantes. Toutes les espèces de clostridies forment des spores,
dont la taille est souvent supérieure au diamètre du bâtonnet. En
outre, lorsque la spore a une position médiane, la cellule microbienne rappelle par sa forme un fuseau (Clostridium). Le genre Clostridia comprend des groupes nombreux d'agents de fermentation et
de putréfaction. Les clostridies pathogènes sont relativement peu
nombreuses. Parmi les espèces de clostridies les plus importantes en
pathologie animale et humaine, on peut citer Cl. botulinum,
Cl.
tetani, Cl. perfringens,
Cl. novyi, Cl. septicum, Cl. chauvoei,
Cl.
histolyticum,
Cl. sordellii, Cl. sporogenes, Cl. fallax, etc.
Dans l'ensemble, les maladies animales d'étiologie clostridiale ne
sont pas très répandues en U . R . S . S . C'est dans l'élevage du m o u t o n
qu'elles causent le plus de pertes : on y observe l'entérotoxémie
infectieuse des adultes et des jeunes de plus de trois mois, la dysenterie des agneaux, l'hépatite nécrosante, le bradsot et l ' œ d è m e malin
(*) Institut d'Etat de l'U.R.S.S. pour le contrôle scientifique des produits vétérinaires, Moscou.
— 150 —
(gangrène gazeuse). P o u r la période 1976-1980, les maladies clostridiales ont représenté 32,4 % de la mortalité due à des maladies
infectieuses chez les m o u t o n s . Il est donc naturel que les spécialistes
vétérinaires consacrent un m a x i m u m d'efforts au diagnostic, à la
prophylaxie spécifique et à la lutte contre les maladies clostridiales
ovines.
Enterotoxémie
infectieuse.
Il s'agit d ' u n e maladie à évolution aiguë, causée par les toxines
des germes Cl. perfringens.
Chez les m o u t o n s , ce sont les types C et
D qui sont les agents de cette maladie; chez les porcs, la maladie est
généralement causée par le type C; chez les bovins, la maladie
frappe les jeunes âgés de 2-5 jours à deux mois, l'agent étiologique
étant le plus souvent Cl. perfringens des types B, C et D . Les flambées d'entérotoxémie due au type A sont relativement rares.
Dans toutes les espèces animales, l'entérotoxémie se manifeste à
partir de troubles fonctionnels du tube digestif qui créent des conditions favorables à la multiplication de l'agent dans l'intestin, accompagnée par la formation de grandes quantités de toxines léthales.
L'entérotoxémie infectieuse du m o u t o n est constatée dans les
zones d'élevage intensif. L a maladie a un caractère saisonnier très
net; les adultes et les jeunes de 8-10 mois sont atteints. On observe
habituellement deux périodes où l'infection devient plus active, au
printemps et à l ' a u t o m n e . L'agent de l'entérotoxémie du m o u t o n ,
Cl. perfringens types C et D , ne se trouve et ne se conserve longtemps que dans le sol des pâturages des exploitations infectées, mais
uniquement dans les secteurs où les sols présentent une réaction neutre ou alcaline.
Le diagnostic de l'entérotoxémie infectieuse est établi à partir des
données cliniques, anatomopathologiques et épizootologiques, obligatoirement confirmées par des examens de laboratoire. On envoie
au laboratoire des reins, rates, os longs et fragments de d u o d é n u m .
Le matériel doit être prélevé sur des cadavres frais. Le test essentiel
pour la confirmation de l'entérotoxémie consiste à mettre en évidence la toxine spécifique dans le contenu de l'intestin par la réaction de neutralisation au moyen de sérums antitoxiques permettant
de déterminer le type de la principale toxine de Cl.
perfringens.
L'industrie des produits biologiques de l ' U . R . S . S . prépare des
assortiments de réactifs contenant les sérums des types A , C, D et E.
— 151 —
P o u r combattre l'entérotoxémie, on utilise largement les ressources de la prophylaxie active et passive de la maladie. A cette fin, on
prépare en U . R . S . S . un sérum antitoxique, curatif et prophylactique, contenant les anticorps bêta et epsilon, ainsi q u ' u n e anatoxine
polyvalente contenant des toxoïdes de Cl. perfringens types C et D ,
de Cl. novyi type B et une bactérine-toxoïde de Cl. septicum.
Lorsque la présence de l'entérotoxémie infectieuse est établie, le
troupeau ou la ferme sont déclarés infectés et les mesures suivantes y
sont appliquées :
(a) Tous les animaux malades et suspects sont isolés et reçoivent
des doses curatives de sérum antitoxique.
(b) Les animaux sains sont mis en stabulation et immunisés au
moyen de l'anatoxine polyvalente. Le produit est administré par la
voie intramusculaire, en deux fois à 20-25 jours d'intervalle.
L'immunité s'installe chez les animaux vaccinés 15-20 jours après la
première injection et dure 8 à 10 mois.
Dysenterie
des
agneaux.
Il s'agit d ' u n e toxi-infection aiguë des agneaux nouveau-nés,
caractérisée par une entérotoxémie hémorragique. L'agent de la
maladie est Cl. perfringens type B. Sont surtout atteints les agneaux
de 2-3 j o u r s , plus rarement ceux de 5-6 j o u r s . Au-delà de 10-12
jours, les agneaux ne tombent pratiquement jamais malades. P a r m i
les facteurs prédisposants, l'humidité et des précipitations abondantes pendant la période d'agnelage ont une grande importance. La
maladie peut prendre une large extension lorsque les agnelages ont
lieu en mars-avril. Les agnelages précoces (en janvier) et tardifs (en
mai) excluent en règle générale la dysenterie des agneaux.
Les principales épreuves de diagnostic consistent à mettre en évidence la toxine dans le contenu intestinal, à isoler l'agent et à en
déterminer le type.
On utilise largement, comme moyen de prophylaxie spécifique, le
sérum antitoxique que l'on administre aux agneaux des troupeaux
infectés dès leur premier jour de vie. Les agneaux présentant la
maladie clinique ne peuvent être traités. On a également recours à la
vaccination prophylactique des brebis gestantes, que l'on vaccine en
deux fois à 20-25 jours d'intervalle au moyen de l'anatoxine polyvalente, les dates étant calculées de telle sorte que la seconde immunisation ait lieu 18-20 jours avant l'agnelage.
— 152 —
Dans les exploitations les plus fortement infectées, il est recomm a n d é d'administrer le sérum antitoxique aux brebis 2-3 j o u r s avant
l'agnelage.
Entérotoxémie
anaérobie
du porc (entérite
nécrosante).
C'est une maladie infectieuse aiguë des porcelets de quelques
j o u r s , caractérisée par de la diarrhée, une toxémie généralisée et une
mortalité élevée. Elle se rencontre le plus souvent dans les élevages
de type industriel. Le schéma p o u r l'établissement du diagnostic est
identique à celui utilisé p o u r l'entérotoxémie ovine. L'épreuve diagnostique la plus sûre consiste à mettre en évidence la toxine dans le
contenu intestinal des porcelets morts ou sacrifiés à l'agonie.
La prophylaxie spécifique de l'entérotoxémie des porcelets s'effectue par l'immunisation, en deux ou trois fois, des truies gestantes,
les intervalles de 20-25 jours étant calculés de telle sorte que la dernière injection soit faite 15-20 jours avant la mise-bas. On utilise
l'anatoxine polyvalente contenant des toxoïdes de Cl.
perfringens
types C et D , de Cl. novyi et la bactérine-toxoïde de Cl. septicum.
Dans les élevages de porcs infectés, outre la vaccination des truies
gestantes, on administre à tous les nouveau-nés, dès le premier j o u r
de leur vie, le sérum antitoxique, administré par la voie intramusculaire à la dose de 50-100 M E . Cette dose de sérum assure la présence
dans le sang du porcelet d'anticorps antitoxiques dont le niveau se
maintient à 0,15-0,2 M E / m l pendant 12-15 jours après l'administration du sérum. C o m m e ce sont le plus souvent les porcelets de 3-6
jours qui sont atteints, il est rarement nécessaire d'administrer une
nouvelle fois du sérum après 14 j o u r s . Le sérum peut également être
employé à des fins curatives. Les mesures de prophylaxie spécifique
doivent être associées à des mesures d'hygiène générale visant d ' u n e
part à assurer aux truies gestantes une alimentation de b o n n e qualité
et d ' a u t r e part à décontaminer les locaux et le matériel.
Entérotoxémie
anaérobie
des
bovins.
C'est une maladie grave, à évolution aiguë, des veaux nouveaunés, caractérisée par une toxémie et des troubles digestifs. C o m m e
son agent, outre les autres types de Cl. perfringens,
peut aussi être
du type A , le diagnostic comporte obligatoirement la mise en évidence de la toxine dans le contenu intestinal des cadavres frais de
veaux. Lors de la mise en évidence de la toxine et de l'isolement de
l'agent, le type de la toxine principale est déterminé par la réaction
de neutralisation utilisant des sérums spécifiques de type.
— 153 —
La maladie est peu répandue; lorsqu'elle se manifeste, on utilise à
des fins curatives et prophylactiques un sérum antitoxique contenant
des antitoxines alpha, bêta et epsilon.
Bradsot
du
mouton.
Le bradsot est une maladie aiguë, non contagieuse, caractérisée
par une inflammation hémorragique de la caillette et du d u o d é n u m
avec météorisation dans le tube digestif. En règle générale, la maladie a une issue fatale. Elle apparaît le plus souvent pendant la saison
froide, à l'occasion de variations importantes de la température.
L'agent de la maladie est Cl. septicum qui, à la différence de la plupart des clostridies pathogènes, forme des chaînes composées de plusieurs cellules et de longs filaments.
Le diagnostic est établi à partir des données cliniques, a n a t o m o p a thologiques et épizootologiques, avec mise en oeuvre obligatoire
d ' u n examen bactériologique pour la mise en évidence de l'agent. La
maladie atteint les m o u t o n s adultes bien nourris. A l'autopsie, la
muqueuse de la caillette est enflammée et hyperémiée, les replis oedématiés présentent de nombreuses taches hémorragiques. C'est le
signe caractéristique du bradsot.
Lors de l'identification des cultures de prélèvements, il est caractéristique de Cl. septicum de déceler des filaments dans les frottisempreintes de la partie superficielle du rein de cobayes ayant succombé après avoir été contaminés avec la culture étudiée. La
prophylaxie spécifique du bradsot est réalisée au moyen de l'anatoxine polyvalente contre les maladies clostridiales ovines, qui contient la bactérine-toxoïde de Cl. septicum. L'immunisation des anim a u x en deux fois avec ce produit protège efficacement les moutons
contre la maladie pendant un an.
Hépatite
nécrosante
du mouton
(Black
Disease).
Il s'agit d ' u n e toxi-infection aiguë caractérisée par de multiples
foyers nécrotiques dans le foie, provoqués par les toxines de Cl.
novyi. Les animaux atteints succombent en règle générale. Le pâturage des animaux sur des terrains où la couche herbacée est rare,
lorsque les m o u t o n s ingèrent de la terre en même temps que l'herbe,
ainsi que des lésions de fasciolose, sont des facteurs favorisants.
Le diagnostic est établi à partir d'examens bactériologiques du
foie. L'agent est relativement facile à isoler dans les foyers nécrotiques visibles. Les liquides séreux qui remplissent la cavité du péri-
— 154 —
carde et la cage thoracique contiennent une toxine que l'on peut différencier à l'aide de sérums spécifiques.
Les produits contenant une anatoxine de Cl. novyi sont efficaces
p o u r la prophylaxie de la maladie. L'injection répétée de l'anatoxine
protège convenablement le cheptel vacciné contre l'action de la
toxine spécifique.
Charbon
symptomatique.
C'est une maladie infectieuse aiguë, n o n contagieuse, des bovins
(rarement des ovins), caractérisée par des œdèmes crépitants de la
musculature et se manifestant sous forme enzootique dans des localités bien déterminées. Son agent, Cl. chauvoei, se conserve longtemps dans le sol, le fumier et la vase des eaux stagnantes.
Dans la plupart des cas, le diagnostic ne présente pas de difficultés, car les signes de la maladie sont très caratéristiques. A l'examen
d'autopsie des parties lésées (crépitantes), on découvre une masse
musculaire friable, de couleur rouge sombre. A la coupe, on observe
des écoulements sanguinolents mousseux. Dans la cage thoracique
s'accumule une grande quantité de transsudat de couleur rougeâtre.
La vésicule biliaire est engorgée.
Un examen bactériologique est indispensable pour différencier le
charbon symptomatique de l ' œ d è m e malin causé par Cl. septicum.
On utilise comme matériel p o u r cet examen des fragments de m u s cles lésés, du liquide d ' œ d è m e , du sang, le foie, la rate. U n e émulsion du matériel pathologique ou une culture de prélèvement sont
utilisées pour contaminer des cobayes qui, en cas de présence de Cl.
chauvoei, succombent en 18 à 50 heures. Outre le tableau d'autopsie
typique, les frottis-empreintes de la surface du diaphragme du foie
des cobayes morts font apparaître des bâtonnets isolés et bien séparés les uns des autres. Si la m o r t du cobaye a été due à la présence de
Cl. septicum, de longs filaments et des chaînes de bâtonnets sont
décelés dans les frottis-empreintes.
En U . R . S . S . , la prophylaxie active du charbon symptomatique
utilise un vaccin concentré formolé à l'hydroxyde d'alumine, qui
induit chez les animaux vaccinés une immunité solide d ' u n e durée de
6-8 mois. Le vaccin est injecté en une fois par la voie intramusculaire, à la dose de 2 ml. Les bovins âgés de 3 mois à 4 ans sont obligatoirement immunisés dans les zones infectées et menacées.
— 155 —
Les cadavres des animaux morts de charbon symptomatique sont
incinérés avec leur peau. Les endroits où des animaux sont morts et
où l'on a trouvé des malades sont minutieusement désinfectés. Il est
catégoriquement interdit d'abattre des animaux malades en vue
d'utiliser leur viande pour la consommation. Grâce à la mise en
œuvre étendue de la vaccination préventive, associée aux mesures
d'hygiène vétérinaire, le charbon symptomatique n'est que rarement
constaté en U . R . S . S . , sous forme de cas sporadiques; il ne frappe
jamais des lots tant soit peu importants d'animaux.
Botulisme.
Le botulisme est une grave toxi-infection liée à l'alimentation,
causée par la toxine du germe Cl. botulinum.
C'est une maladie
caractérisée par des lésions du système nerveux central, qui se manifeste par des paralysies des muscles moteurs. On connaît six types de
l'agent du botulisme, A , B, C, D , E et F , différents par les propriétés antigéniques des toxines qu'ils produisent et dont l'activité
léthale est neutralisée par les sérums homologues.
Le botulisme se manifeste habituellement après l'ingestion par les
animaux de fourrages contenant la toxine botulinique, dont la formation résulte de la conservation (à une température de 18-30°) de
grandes masses de fourrages (produits à base de viande et de poisson, grains germés, foin humide, aliments ensilés) pollués par des
spores de Cl. botulinum.
Une source de botulisme chez les bovins
peut être l'ingestion occasionnelle de cadavres de rats, dans lesquels
la toxine peut parfois s'accumuler en grandes quantités.
Les visons, chez lesquels la
sont extrêmement sensibles à
Les chevaux, chez lesquels le
plus rarement par les types A
Les bovins sont réceptifs aux
maladie est provoquée par le type C,
la présence de la toxine botulinique.
botulisme est causé par le type B, et
et C, sont très sensibles à la maladie.
toxines des types C et D .
Le diagnostic est établi à partir des données cliniques et épizootologiques ainsi que des examens de laboratoire. Le tableau clinique
du botulisme est suffisamment caractéristique. Cependant, il est
souhaitable de confirmer chaque cas de la maladie par la mise en
évidence de la toxine ou par une culture botulinique, qui d'ailleurs
n'est pas toujours facile à réaliser. On utilise pour les examens des
échantillons de fourrages suspects, le sang, le contenu de l'estomac,
de l'intestin et des organes parenchymateux, prélevés sur des cadavres frais. La méthode la plus courante pour le diagnostic du botu-
— 156 —
lisme est la réaction de neutralisation de la toxine par les sérums spécifiques. Avant d'effectuer la réaction, on étudie la toxicité générale
des échantillons de fourrages ou du matériel pathologique.
En U . R . S . S . , on ne constate pas de cas de botulisme p a r m i les
bovins; les chevaux sont rarement atteints. Seuls les visons d'élevage
font l'objet de vaccinations préventives systématiques contre le
botulisme. On utilise à cette fin une bactérine-toxoïde botulinique,
concentrée par adjonction d ' a l u n , préparée à partir d ' u n e souche de
Cl. botulinum de type C-alpha. Tous les animaux âgés de plus de 45
jours sont vaccinés. Le vaccin est administré par la voie intramusculaire en une seule injection. L ' i m m u n i t é antitoxique induite par la
vaccination se maintient pendant un an à u n niveau qui protège les
animaux. Les vaccinations préventives systématiques, associées aux
mesures générales d'hygiène vétérinaire, ont permis de supprimer
complètement les flambées massives de botulisme chez les visons.
Tétanos.
Le tétanos est une infection n o n contagieuse, à évolution aiguë,
consécutive à une plaie, qui atteint toutes les espèces animales. Il est
caractérisé par des contractions toniques et cloniques des muscles
provoquées par l'action d ' u n e toxine spécifique. L'agent de la maladie, Cl. tetani, souvent facile à mettre en évidence dans les sécrétions
d ' u n e plaie, a l'aspect caractéristique d ' u n e baguette de t a m b o u r
(cellule microbienne avec spore terminale); il produit une exotoxine
complexe, à composants multiples, dont le facteur d o m i n a n t est la
tétanospasmine qui entraîne le tableau clinique typique du tétanos.
Ce microbe est un hôte banal de l'intestin de l ' h o m m e et des animaux; il est largement répandu dans le sol, en particulier le sol des
vergers et des potagers amendé par du fumier. La présence de
l'agent du tétanos dans l'intestin des animaux n ' a aucune conséquence néfaste, car la toxine tétanique ne traverse pas la lumière
intestinale. Le tétanos-maladie est toujours lié à la présence de
lésions traumatiques de la peau ou des muqueuses, et l'agent de
l'infection n'est jamais observé au-delà des limites du foyer de
nécrose. Cette maladie clostridiale n'est caractérisée par aucune bac-
tériémie.
Le diagnostic ne présente aucune difficulté importante, car les
animaux atteints présentent des accès convulsifs prolongés, facilement provoqués par des causes extérieures (bruits, attouchements
inattendus, etc.), tandis que la température de l'animal reste normale. Des accès convulsifs ressemblant à ceux de l'intoxication téta-
— 157 —
nique peuvent être observés lors d'empoisonnements par la
strychnine ou certaines plantes vénéneuses. Cependant, dans ce dernier cas, la mort survient beaucoup plus vite (quelques heures) que
dans le cas du tétanos (3 à 6 jours). Les chevaux sont très réceptifs,
de m ê m e que les grands ruminants et les carnivores. Les oiseaux,
dans l'ensemble, sont résistants à l'intoxication tétanique. Le p r o nostic du tétanos est défavorable : en règle générale, les animaux
atteints succombent.
P o u r prévenir le tétanos, il est essentiel de prévenir tout t r a u m a tisme et, s'il s'en présente un, d'apporter des soins chirurgicaux
rapides. Les opérations chirurgicales sur de grands effectifs d'anim a u x (castration, caudectomie des agneaux) comportent des risques
importants de tétanos.
On utilise comme moyen de prophylaxie spécifique l'anatoxine
tétanique inactivée au formol et adsorbée sur hydroxyde d'alumine.
Ce produit est administré aux animaux à des fins préventives en une
seule injection sous-cutanée à la dose de 1 ml. La non-réceptivité à la
toxine tétanique s'installe en 20 à 30 jours et dure au moins un an.
En U . R . S . S . , grâce à la mise en œuvre des mesures de prévention
généralisées, le tétanos n'est pratiquement jamais constaté.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 159.
Clostridial diseases of sheep(*)
Clostridial diseases of sheep are of limited economic importance
in the United States.
Clostridium
agni infection, European lamb Dysentery, is not
known to exist in the United States. Other clostridial infections that
do exist, occur in limited geographic distribution.
Veterinary biological products licensed by the United States
Department of Agriculture for control of clostridial diseases of
sheep range from single-fractions to those containing as many as
seven immunizing components.
For the prevention and control of those clostridial infections
involving skeletal muscle, bacterins and bacterin-toxoids are m a d e
from Cl. chauvoei, septicum, and sordellii.
For those whose pathogenic effect is localized in the liver, pro­
ducts are m a d e for active immunization against Cl.
haemolyticum
and novyi.
Antitoxins, bacterin-toxoids, and toxoids for both active and pas­
sive immunization are available for Cl. perfringens types C and D
which centralize in the gut and for Cl. tetani which affects neural tis­
sue. L a m b Dysentery is not known to exist in the United States, but
protection is afforded against the causative agent, CI.
perfringens
type B by use of types C and D products.
Some products are marketed which are combined with Pasteurella
and Leptospira sp., but n o claims are specific for sheep.
Some demonstrations of efficacy of clostridial products has been
extrapolated from work with other species, but widespread use of
the products over many years gives incontrovertible proof of excel­
lent protection when used according to the label direction and in
conjunction with good husbandry practices.
(*) Report presented by the U.S. Delegation.
4.
Myiases.
Myiasis.
+Miasis.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 163-172.
Myiasis of livestock in Australia
by
R.J. HART(*) and W . A . GEERING(**)
1. C U R R E N T S I T U A T I O N
1.1. Sheep
blowfly.
B R I D E O A K E (1979) estimated that the cost of sheep blowfly in
Australia in 1977/78 was $A55 million. Apart from drought,
blowfly strike is one of the more significant problems of the Merino
breeder in Australia ( B E L S C H N E R , 1937).
N O R R I S (1959), in a review of the species of flies involved in Myia­
sis in Australia, indicated that nineteen species of flies can attack
sheep but he and other authors ( M A C K E R R A S and F U L L E R , 1937;
W A T E R H O U S E , 1947; W A T T S et al., 1976; M O N Z U , 1979) have
shown that Lucilia cuprina is responsible for the majority (80-90%)
of strikes of sheep and especially that this species initiates most stri­
kes.
L. cuprina is an introduced species probably coming from Africa
or India ( N O R R I S , 1968). There are two sub-species of L. cuprina
namely L. cuprina dorsalis which occurs on the Indian sub­
continent, Africa and Australia and L. cuprina cuprina which has a
rather more ubiquitous distribution being present in much of Asia
and also in North and South America ( W A T E R H O U S E and P A R A M A N O V , 1950). Although L. cuprina cuprina was present in Australia in
the 1920's, L. cuprina dorsalis n o w appears to have displaced it
( N O R R I S , 1968). N O R R I S believes that L. cuprina dorsalis now occu­
pies almost every climatic zone in Australia. While it can breed on
carrion, competition from other species (especially Chrysomya
rufifacies and Calliphora augur) prevents it breeding in large numbers
(*) Australian Wool Corporation, Sydney, Australia.
(**) Australian Bureau of Animal Health, Canberra, Australia.
— 164 —
from this source and most L. cuprina originate from strikes on
living sheep ( W A T E R H O U S E , 1947). Therefore it is believed that a
significant reduction in flystrike of sheep can be achieved by measu­
res aimed at making sheep less susceptible to flystrike or by treat­
ment with insecticides to kill larvae after they h a t c h . These and
other measures will be discussed.
Types of
flystrike.
The majority of strikes of sheep are due to breech strike of ewes
which have soiled themselves with urine or faeces (Joint Blowfly
Committee, 1933; B E L S C H N E R , 1937; W A T T S et al., 1976). Sheep
can be m a d e less susceptible to breech strike by the use of the Mules
operation ( M U L E S , 1932; Joint Blowfly Committee, 1933; D U N ,
1954) which surgically removes the skin folds a r o u n d the breech
region of very wrinkly sheep.
W A T T S and M A R C H A N T (1977) have shown that if tails are also
docked to the correct length the incidence of breech strike can be
reduced almost to nil.
Other forms of strike include bodystrike, poll (or head) strike and
pizzle strike of urine-stained wool in male sheep. Of these, bodystrike is by far the most important and usually occurs for a few
weeks after wet weather in the warmer period of the year.
Pathogenesis
of
flystrike.
Recent work ( M E R R I T T and W A T T S , 1978a; 1978b; N A Y and
1977) has shown that the etiology of bodystrike is associa­
ted very closely with the proliferation of the bacterium
Pseudomo­
nas aeruginosa in the wool of sheep. P. aeruginosa proliferation
occurs following the leakage of serum from inflamed skin which has
been wet for a period of up to 6 to 8 days, following heavy rainfall
which wets the sheep to the skin a n d , more importantly, prevents
the wool from drying o u t . The bacterium produces an odour which
is highly attractive to L. cuprina and the leaking serum on the skin
provides an ideal situation for its eggs to hatch and for the young
first instar larvae to feed. The larvae moult within about 20 hours
of hatching and start to grow rapidly invading the sheep's tissue
during its growth which lasts for about 3-5 days. Provided weather
conditions remain suitable for the L. cuprina adults the strike will
sustain further egg laying from either L. cuprina or secondary spe­
cies of blowfly, and will enlarge until treated or the sheep dies. If the
strike is not supplemented by further egg laying it will heal after the
WATTS,
—
165
—
larvae drop off. It is believed that these small strikes are the mecha­
nism by which L. cuprina can sustain itself between blowfly waves
which occur fairly infrequently ( W A R D H A U G H and D A L L W I T Z ,
unpublished).
Methods
of
control.
A concerted effort is being conducted in Australia to m a k e sheep
less susceptible t o blowfly strike. Apart from the Mules operation
already mentioned, other procedures ( D O N N E L L Y , 1 9 7 7 ; P R A T T et
al., 1 9 7 9 ) t o minimize the soiling of the belly wool of male sheep,
may be carried o u t . However the principal attack on the problem
aims to identify characteristics of Merino sheep which makes them
more susceptible to fleece-rot (caused by P. aeruginosa). By this
means breeders seek t o produce sheep with heavy high-quality flee­
ces but which are relatively resistant to fleece-rot ( A T K I N S and
M C Q U I R K , 1 9 7 9 ) . It is believed that selective breeding can minimize
the bodystrike problem of most sheep in most years.
In the past and for the immediate future, sheep producers will still
need to rely on the use of insecticides applied to sheep to protect
them from blowfly strike in wet years.
Arsenical compounds were used for control of blowfly strike from
the last century in England ( F R O G G A T T , 1 9 1 5 ) , but it was not until
the development of jetting (i.e. high pressure spraying) ( M C C U L L O C H , 1 9 3 2 ) that sheep could be protected against blowfly strike by
treatment with insecticides. Benzene Hexachloride (BHC) was intro­
duced in 1 9 4 7 but it gave no better protection against strike than cal­
cium arsenite ( S H A N A H A N , 1 9 6 4 ) . Subsequently the cyclodiene
insecticides dieldrin and aldrin ( S H A N A H A N , 1 9 5 3 ; G R A H A M , 1 9 5 4 ) ,
the organophosphate ( O P ) insecticide diazinon ( S K E R M A N and
P R Y O R , 1 9 5 7 ) and later the carbamate butacarb ( H A R R I S O N , 1 9 6 7 )
and other organophosphate insecticides were introduced to control
sheep blowfly but the high level resistance of L. cuprina to dieldrin
in 1 9 5 7 ( S H A N A H A N , 1 9 5 8 ) and butacarb, 1 9 6 7 ( R O X B U R G H andS H A N A H A N , 1 9 7 3 ) prevented further use of these insecticides. In
contrast when O P resistance occurred in L. cuprina ( S H A N A H A N and
H A R T , 1 9 6 6 ) it was not of a high order and it allowed continued use
of O P insecticides for protection of sheep notwithstanding the O P
resistance ( S H A N A H A N and R O X B U R G H , 1 9 7 4 ) . Subsequently a high­
er order of O P resistance did occur ( A R N O L D and W H I T T E N , 1 9 7 6 )
but even this did not prevent their continued use.
Laboratory selection of L. cuprina produced a strain with an O P
resistance level of 3 to 6 times higher t h a n the field strains ( H A R T
— 166 —
and C A V E Y , unpublished; S H A N A H A N and R O X B U R G H , 1974b) but
this strain (CG strain) has not been detected from the field. Recent
studies ( H A R T et al., 1979a) indicate that the well established O P
insecticides diazinon, fenthionethyl and chlorfenvinphos have continued to provide a short period of protection in spite of the widespread distribution of O P resistant flies ( H U G H E S , 1978). More
recently H A R T et al. (1979b) have introduced a new triazine insecticide (Vetrazin( )) which provides longer periods of protection against
blowfly attack. There is n o cross-resistance to it from existing O P resistant strains of L. cuprina ( S H A N A H A N and H U G U E S , 1980).
R
The apparent ability of the sheep blowfly to become resistant to
the various insecticides used against it, has prompted the C o m m o n wealth Scientific and Research Organisation (CSIRO) to undertake a
study of genetically manipulated strains of L. cuprina which would
have the capacity to transfer undesirable genes into the blowfly
population and achieve effective population control ( W H I T T E N et
al., 1977). Research on this m e t h o d of control is continuing and has
shown some promise for the suppression or elimination of blowflies.
However much m o r e work is needed before it can be employed on a
sufficiently large scale to determine the effectiveness of the m e t h o d .
Blowfly strike continues to be a major problem for the sheep producer in Australia. In years with wet periods between spring and
a u t u m n graziers can suffer high losses due to sudden blowfly waves
when they are unable to muster and treat their sheep quickly because
of scarcity of labour. This is particularly true for the extensive pastoral areas. M a n y graziers are reluctant to treat their sheep with insecticides before blowfly waves commence because of their inability to
forecast the incidence of strike with any accuracy and their natural
reluctance to treat unnecessarily should the expected fly wave not
eventuate. Thus more rapid methods of treatment are needed which
will allow the grazier to react to the threat of a blowfly wave before
it creates severe damage in his flock. Equally important in this context is an improved ability to forecast blowfly waves and research is
being undertaken in this direction.
At the « National Symposium on the Sheep Blowfly and Flystrike
in Sheep » (in 1979) a great amount of information on control of
flystrike in sheep was published. It summarized the research conducted over the preceeding 70 years and the authors believe that the use
of the various techniques recommended for control of sheep blowfly
would minimize the blowfly problem for most graziers in all but the
very wettest years. A p a r t from the research on genetic control by
—
167
—
C S I R O , very active research programmes will continue in an effort
to identify the characteristics of sheep which can be used to select
sheep which are less susceptible to bodystrike.
Another research p r o g r a m m e is seeking pathogens capable of
infecting L. cuprina adults or larvae and while this m a y not eradicate L. cuprina, it certainly has potential to reduce its n u m b e r s .
However, for the immediate future graziers will have to rely on
the continued efficient use of insecticides integrated into a sound
management p r o g r a m m e for the control of this very significant pest
of the Australian sheep industry.
1 . 2 . Sheep nasal
botfly.
The sheep nasal botfly, Oestrus ovis, is a widespread and fairly
c o m m o n cause of Myiasis of the nasal cavity of sheep in Australia
( A L B I S T O N , 1 9 6 7 ) . The infestation is generally regarded as being
benign, although occasionally some loss m a y occur through irritation, loss of appetite and drop in body condition. Treatment or control of the parasite is not considered necessary in Australia.
2. POTENTIAL THREATS
2 . 1 . Screw-worm
fly
(SWF).
Neither the old world S W F (Chrysomyia bezziana) nor the new
world S W F (Cochliomyia hominivorax)
have ever been recorded in
Australia. However C. bezziana is present in many areas of Asia
and throughout P a p u a New Guinea. The risk of its introduction to
Australia is considered to be high since it is the closest exotic pest of
animals to the Australia coast. The Australian Bureau of Animal
Health has therefore recently undertaken a study of possible prevention and eradication policies for Australia in respect to S W F
(ANON.,
1979).
The main risk areas for the introduction of S W F to Australia are
the extreme northern tropical areas of the continent, particularly
Torres Strait and Cape York Peninsula. In the latter region S W F
endemic areas in P a p u a New Guinea are as close as 1 5 0 km to the
Australian mainland. There are also m a n y islands in Torres Strait
which are inhabited by owned a n d / o r feral animals and which could
act as staging posts for the southward migration of the fly. S W F
could be introduced to Australia by movement of infested animals
or even by free flight of the insect.
— 168 —
The Australian Government is exploring several methods to reduce
the risk of introduction and establishment of S W F in northern Australia. The feasibility of a p r o g r a m m e involving removal of feral
animals from Torres Strait islands, bringing owned animals in the
region under effective control and of establishing a livestock-free
buffer zone in northern Cape York is being studied. Specific attractant bait traps are being set up in strategic locations in northern
Australia for the early detection of S W F . Other steps have been
t a k e n t o increase the general level of quarantine surveillance in the
north.
If S W F were to become established in Australia it is estimated
that large areas of tropical Western Australia, Northern Territory
and Queensland have the right climatic conditions, vegetation and
availability of suitable hosts t o support populations of the fly the
year a r o u n d . During summer S W F would extend further south and
inland. The area infested would vary markedly from year to year
depending on the season. In wet summers S W F could spread as far
south as Victoria and south-east South Australia.
T h e economic losses t h a t S W F would cause t o the Australian
cattle and sheep industries would probably be much higher t h a n that
experienced in most other parts of the world. This is because few
farmers in the m o r e extensive cattle and sheep farming areas of A u s tralia would have the resources or manpower to adequately examine
and treat their stock at critical times, e.g. dams and their offspring
after parturition, calves after castration, branding and other m a n a gement procedures likely to cause wounding.
It is estimated t h a t S W F , if introduced and allowed t o spread
unchecked, could cause losses to the Australian cattle and sheep
industries of from $A65-155 million annually ( A N O N . , 1979).
The only m e t h o d at present which is likely to be successful in the
control and eradication of an outbreak of S W F in Australia is the
sterile insect release m e t h o d (SIRM). This m e t h o d is being successfully used to control Cochliomyia hominivorax
in similar environments in southern U S A and Mexico. It is not yet known whether this
m e t h o d would work for C. bezziana. However the C S I R O has a
S W F Research Unit in P a p u a New Guinea which is carrying out
research and development on SIRM for control of C. bezziana. It is
possible t h a t , if successful, the technology for this control m e t h o d
could be m a d e available to other countries in the region at some
time in the future.
—
2 . 2 . Warble
169
—
fly.
The warble
also exotic to
examined and
It is therefore
flies, Hypoderma
bovis and Hypoderma
lineata are
Australia. Cattle imported to Australia are carefully
treated for warble fly infestation whilst in quarantine.
unlikely that this pest will be introduced to Australia.
*
* *
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part 2 , A r t h r o p o d Infestations. Commonwealth Department of
Health Service Publication N o . 6 , 1 9 6 7 , 7 3 - 7 6 .
ALBISTON
A N O N . — Screw-worm fly : possible prevention and eradication
policies for Australia. Australian Bureau of Animal Health,
published by Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, 1 9 7 9 .
(J.T.A.) and W H I T T E N (M.J.). — The genetic basis for
organophosphorous resistance in the Australian sheep blowfly,
Lucilia cuprina. Bull. Ent. Res., 1 9 7 6 , 66, 5 6 1 .
ARNOLD
(K.D.) and M C Q U I R K (B.J.). — Selection of Merino sheep
for resistance to fleece-rot and bodystrike. Wool Technol. and
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ATKINS
( H . G . ) . — Review of the sheep blowfly problem in New
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BELSCHNER
(B.R.). — The estimated cost of blowfly control in the
Australian sheep industry : 1 9 6 9 - 7 0 to 1 9 7 5 - 7 6 . P r o c . of
« National Symposium on the Sheep Blowfly and Flystrike in
Sheep », Sydney, June 1 9 7 9 . N . S . W . Dept. of Agric. and the
Australian Wool Corporation, 1 9 7 9 .
BRIDEOAKE
DONNELLY
N.S.W.,
(F.B.). — Pizzle dropping of wethers. Agric.
April 1 9 7 7 , 88.
Gaz.
D U N (R.B.). — A comparison between the radical Mules operation
and the modified Mules operation. Agric. Gaz. N.S. W., 1 9 5 4 ,
63,
124.
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(W.W.).
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FROGGATT
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Sheep
—
Maggot
Flies. Farms
Bulletin,
N. S.
— Observations o n the use of dieldrin for control of bodystrike in Merino weaners. Aust. vet. J., 1 9 5 4 , 3 0 ,
GRAHAM (N.P.H.).
121-124.
(I.R.). — The development of o r g a n o p h o s p h o r u s resistance in Australian sheep blowfly, Lucilia cuprina Wied. Vet.
Rec., 1 9 6 7 , 8 0 , 2 0 5 .
HARRISON
( R . J . ) , C A V E Y (W.A.) and R Y A N (K.J.). — Efficiency of
insecticides for flystrike control especially under severe fly wave
conditions. P r o c . of « Symposium on the Sheep Blowfly and
Flystrike in Sheep ». Sydney, N S W Dept. of Agric. and the
Australian Wool Corporation, 1 9 7 9 a.
HART
( R . J . ) , C A V E Y ( W . A . ) , R Y A N ( K . J . ) , M O O R E (B.) and
(M.B.). — Technical details of a new sheep blowfly
insecticide. Wool Tech. and Sheep Breeding, 1 9 7 6 b , 27 ( 4 ) , 2 3 .
HART
STRONG
(P.B.). — Insecticide resistance in field populations of the
sheep blowfly, Lucilia cuprina (Wiedemann) in 1 9 7 7 . Aust. J.
Exp. A g r i c . and Anim. Husb., 1 9 7 8 , 18, 8 4 4 - 4 6 .
HUGHES
Joint Blowfly Committee Report N o . 1. — The sheep blowfly p r o blem in Australia. E d . R . J . T I L L Y A R D a n d H . R . S E D D O N .
N.S.W. Dept. of Agric. Sci. Bull., 1 9 3 3 , N o . 4 0 .
(I.M.) and F U L L E R ( M . E . ) . — A survey of the Australian sheep blowflies. J. Coun. Scient. Ind. Res. Aust., 1 9 3 7 , 10,
MACKERRAS
261-270.
McCULLOCK (R.N.). — Certain insoluble arsenicals and other mixtures as possible jetting fluids for use in the prevention of sheep
blowfly attack. Agric. Gaz., N.S.W., 1 9 3 2 , 4 3 , 5 6 5 - 5 7 3 .
(G.C.) and W A T T S ( J . E . ) . — A n in-vitro technique for
studying fleece-rot and flystrike in sheep. Aust. vet. J., 1 9 7 8 a,
MERRITT
54,
513.
(C.G.) and W A T T S ( J . E . ) . — The changes in protein concentration and bacteria of fleece and skin during the development of fleece-rot and bodystrike in sheep. Aust. vet. J., 1 9 7 8
b, 54, 5 7 .
MERRITT
—
171
—
(N.). — The importance of alternative primary blowfly species to the Australian sheep blowfly Lucilia cuprina (Wiedem a n n ) . P r o c . « National Symposium on the Sheep Blowfly and
Flystrike in Sheep », Sydney, June 1 9 7 9 . N . S . W . Dept. of
Agric. and the Australian Wool Corporation, 1 9 7 9 .
MONZU
( J . H . W . ) . — Blowfly pest. Surgical treatment of ewes. Pastoral Review (Aust.), 1 9 3 2 , 4 2 , 3 5 - 3 6 .
MULES
NAY
(T.) and W A T T S ( J . E . ) . — Observations on the wool follicle
abnormalities in Merino sheep exposed to prolonged wetting
conducive to the development of fleece-rot. Aust. J. Agric.
Res.,
1 9 7 9 , 28,
1095-1105.
( K . R . ) . — The ecology of sheep blowflies in Australia. In :
« Biogeography and ecology in Australia ». Series
Monographie Biologicae, Vol. IV, 11. E d s . A . K E A S T , R . L . C R O K E R and
NORRIS
C.S. Christian J U N K . The H a g u e , 1 9 5 9 , 5 1 4 - 5 4 4 .
( K . R . ) . — History, bionomics and control of pests of the
Australian pastoral industry. D . Sc. Thesis, University of
W.A., 1968.
NORRIS
(M.S), F E R G U S O N (L.), R O B E R T S O N (R.) and H O P K I N S
(P.S.). — Chemical ringing, mulesing and jowling, and chemical crutching of sheep. P r o c . « National Symposium on the
Sheep Blowfly and Flystrike in Sheep », Sydney, June 1 9 7 9 .
N . S . W . Dept. of Agric. and the Australian Wool C o r p o r a t i o n ,
PRATT
1979.
(N.A.) and S H A N A H A N (G.J.). — Carbamate resistance
in t h e sheep blowfly, Lucilia cuprina Wied. Vet. Rec., 1 9 7 3 , 93,
ROXBURGH
467.
( G . J . ) . — Prevention of bodystrike of sheep.
Gaz. N.S.W.,
1 9 5 3 , 64, 3 2 8 .
SHANAHAN
Agric.
( G . J . ) . — Resistance to dieldrin in Lucilia
cuprina
Wied., the Australian sheep blowfly. Nature, London, 1 9 5 8 ,
SHANAHAN
181, 8 6 0 .
( G . J . ) . — The sheep blowfly and the Australian pastoral industry. Agric. Gaz. N.S.W.,
1 9 6 4 , 75, 9 4 6 .
SHANAHAN
(G.J.) and H A R T ( R . J . ) . — Change in response of Lucilia cuprina Wied. to o r g a n o p h o s p h o r o u s insecticides in Australia. Nature, London,
1 9 6 6 , 212, 1 4 6 6 - 7 .
SHANAHAN
—
172
—
and H U G U E S ( P . B . ) . — Susceptibility of o r g a n o p h o s p h o r o u s resistant and non-resistant larvae of
Lucilia
cuprina to a triazine pesticide. Vet. Rec., 1 9 8 0 , 106, 3 0 6 - 7 .
S H A N A H A N (G.J.)
and R O X B U R G H ( N . A . ) . — Reduction in period
of protection from artificial flystrike by o r g a n o p h o s p h o r o u s
carbamate resistant larvae of Lucilia cuprina. Aust. vet. J.,
1 9 7 4 a, 5 0 , 1 7 7 .
S H A N A H A N (G.J.)
and R O X B U R G H ( N . A . ) . — A significant increase
in larval resistance of Lucilia cuprina Wied. to diazinon. Vet.
Rec., 1 9 7 4 b , 5 0 , 3 8 2 .
S H A N A H A N (G.J.)
( K . D . ) and P R Y O R (W. J . ) . — Prevention of breech strike
in Merino ewes by jetting with dieldrin and diazinon. Aust. vet.
J., 1 9 5 7 , 3 3 , 2 3 0 .
SKERMAN
(A.L.) and N O R R I S ( K . R . ) . —
The species reared from struck sheep in South-eastern Australia. Aust. vet. J., 1 9 7 6 , 5 2 , 4 8 8 .
W A T T S (J.E.), M U L L E R (M.J.), D Y C E
and M A R C H A N T (R.S.). — The effects of diarrhoea,
tail length and sex on the inclusion of breech strike in modified
Mulesed Merino ewes. Aust. vet. J., 1 9 7 7 , 5 3 , 1 1 8 - 1 2 3 .
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— T h e relative importance of live sheep and
of carrion, as breeding grounds of the Australian sheep
blowfly, Lucilia cuprina. Bull. Counc. Scient. Ind. Res., 1 9 4 7 ,
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W A T E R H O U S E (D.F.).
( D . F . ) and P A R A M A N O V ( S . J . ) . — The status of
the two species of Lucilia (Diptera, Calliphoridae) attacking
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( G . G . ) , V O G T ( W . G . ) , K I T C H I N G (R.L.),
(T.L.) and K O N O V A L O V (C.). — Current status of
genetic control of the Australian sheep blowfly,
Lucilia
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Cong. Ent. Washington, D.C. 1976, 1 9 7 7 , 1 2 9 - 1 3 9 .
W H I T T E N (M.J.), FOSTER
WOODBURN
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 173-178.
Myiasis in Indonesia
by
Singgih H. SIGIT
(*)
and S U T I Y O N O
PARTOUTOMO
(**)
I. I N T R O D U C T I O N
Myiasis as a problem was not recognized in Indonesia until 1 9 2 6
when the District Veterinary Officer of M a n a d o , North Sulawesi,
reported a relatively large n u m b e r of cattle in the Minahasa area
suffering from hoof Myiasis. It was caused by the then newlydescribed Booponus intonsus Aldrich ( 1 9 2 3 ) , which was first reported as a new Myiasis-producing fly in the Philippines by W O O D W O R T H and
ASHCRAFT
(1923).
Although known for m o r e than half a century, hoof Myiasis has
drawn little attention of both the Veterinary Service and the scientists, apparently due to its very limited geographical distribution.
Therefore very little is known about the bionomics of the fly and
likewise practically n o systematic and mass control p r o g r a m m e has
ever been carried o u t .
Recently, another type of Myiasis was reported as causing a
serious problem a m o n g range cattle in South Sulawesi and Sumba.
Since 1 9 7 6 , imported cattle from Australia have been harassed by
the « Old World screw-worm », Chrysomyia bezziana Villeneuve
( S I G I T , 1 9 7 8 ) . As in the case of the preceding hoof Myiasis, the p r o blem is still local in distribution and, being a new one, not much
information is available on both the fly and the disease as it occurs
in Indonesia.
This paper is an attempt to report on the Myiasis problem as it
occurs among the livestock in Indonesia as far as information is
available.
(*) Senior Lecturer of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor.
(**) Head, Parasitology Section, Animal Disease Research Institute, Bogor.
—
174
—
II. T Y P E S A N D S I T U A T I O N
To o u r knowledge thus far there are only two types of obligatory
Myiasis occurring in Indonesia, hoof Myiasis and screw-worm.
Cases of horse bots were reported from imported animals only and
have never been found to develop into m a t u r e flies.
1. Hoof
Myiasis.
The fly, Booponus intonsus Aldrich of the family Calliphoridae,
was first described in 1 9 2 3 from a hoof lesion of a water buffalo in
the Philippines. In Indonesia it was first discovered in 1 9 2 6 among
local cattle. Later it was found that horses were also affected ( K R A N E V E L D and P E T T I N G A , 1 9 4 9 ) . Apparently the spread of this fly has
not gone very far down South; recent observations m a d e by the present authors in 1 9 7 3 only found the fly as far as Central Sulawesi in
the vicinity of Palu (Fig. 1 ) .
The only description of the hoof Myiasis problem was m a d e a
long time ago during the pre-war period ( K R A N E V E L D and V A N D E R
S C H A A F , 1 9 3 7 ) . Those parts of the skin bordering the hooves a n d
the false hooves were principally attacked. The condition first manifested itself as small, r o u n d perforations of the skin. Later o n ,
superficial wounds a n d serious disturbances of the hooves m a y
occur, often secondarily infected by microorganisms a n d other fly
larvae. T h e screw-worm fly, Chrysomyia bezziana a n d a flesh fly,
Sarcophaga dux T h o m s o n were found infesting hoof lesions together with B. intonsus ( K R A N E V E L D a n d P E T T I N G A , 1 9 4 8 ) . Inflammations of the hoof joints have also been observed. T h e lesions were
found mostly on cattle raised in drier areas with sandy soils. Cattle
working in rice fields during the rainy season did not show Myiasis.
It was also reported that the lesions normally started to appear
during the dry season a n d that they healed spontaneously when the
rainy season started.
Recent observations roughly estimated that about 2 0 % of the
cattle in the Minahasa (North Sulawesi) district were infested with
Myiasis (Muchlis and S U T I Y O N O , 1 9 7 3 ) .
During the pre-war period treatment using pix liquida gave good
results. Ointment containing c o u m a p h o s at 2 % concentration p r o ved to be effective ( M U C H L I S a n d S U T I Y O N O , 1 9 7 3 ) . At present the
treatment is done on an individual basis a n d entirely left to the
owners. No mass campaign was carried out during recent years.
—
2.
175
—
Screw-worm.
T h e screw-worm fly was first found in Indonesia in 1 9 3 8 during
an investigation on hoof Myiasis in North Sulawesi. It was found
together with B. intonsus affecting the hooves of cattle ( K R A N E V E L D
and P E T T I N G A , 1 9 4 8 ) and also horses ( K R A N E V E L D and P E T T I N G A ,
1 9 4 9 ) . Apparently this fly occurs in other parts of the country as was
shown by D J A E N U D I N ( 1 9 5 1 ) in West Java and S I G I T ( 1 9 7 8 ) in South
Sulawesi and Sumba (Fig. 1 ) .
The first real problem caused by C. bezziana was reported in 1 9 7 6
from a ranch in South Sulawesi and Sumba when a large number of
imported B r a h m a n and Brahman-cross cattle from Australia were
brought in. The lesions occur mainly around the perianal and perivulval areas where wounds due to tick bites are mostly found.
Female flies are attracted to the fresh wounds and deposit eggs
around them. Observations m a d e in 1 9 7 8 showed roughly that 1 0
per cent of the cattle were infected.
A control p r o g r a m m e was carried out through regular dipping but
apparently this has not been very effective. Individual treatment of
the lesions is so far the only effective way, using diazinonsulfanilamide ointment applied on the wound as early as possible.
The relationship between « chryso-myiasis » and the breed of the
animal is a point of interest. The fact that local breeds (Bali cattle,
Ongole and Ongole-cross) are very seldom affected suggests that the
problem exists because there is a predisposing factor or factors on
the part of the imported breed. The susceptibility to tick bite is considered an important factor. Therefore, a tick control p r o g r a m m e
could also be regarded as a measure against screw-worm.
3 . Horse bot
flies.
Horse bot flies, Gasterophilus spp. actually do not occur in Indonesia. So far there have been only two cases of bot fly larvae reported from the stomachs of two imported horses. The first case was
found in 1 9 1 6 on a Mongolian horse imported from China ( S M I T ,
1 9 1 6 ) , which was then identified as Gasterophilus pecuorum (Fabricius). The second was Gasterophilus intestinalis (De Geer) found in
1 9 7 5 on a race horse imported from Australia ( S I G I T , unpublished
data). Surveillance in the vicinity of the race track in J a k a r t a u p t o
the present time failed to collect the adult fly.
S. dux
G. intestinalis
C. bezziana
B. intonsus
FIG. 1. — Geographical distribution of Myiasis in Indonesia.
— 176 —
— 177 —
III. F U T U R E P L A N S
At present m o r e t h a n 7 0 % of the cattle population of Indonesia
are found in the island of Java. Under close management by the
rural people, the tick populations are very low. The threat of Myiasis among cattle in Java is accordingly not alarming. The plan to
expand cattle industries in the outer islands through range management systems, however, will create a tick problem and hence also a
Myiasis problem.
Because of the inadequate information on Myiasis in Indonesia,
the following steps will be undertaken :
1. To initiate inventory work on the species involved in Myiasis in
Indonesia, the range of distribution, the host spectrum, and the estimated loss.
2. To initiate control programmes in areas where Myiasis occurs
in great numbers causing great losses.
3. To initiate a research p r o g r a m m e on Myiasis, covering the bionomics, ecology, and control methods.
4. To initiate quarantine precautions to prevent international and
inter-island spread.
5. To initiate surveillance among range animals as well as wild
animals. This is especially true with wild animals in the jungles of
Irian Jaya (West Irian) in the light of the fact that screw-worm is a
problem in Papua-Nugini.
*
* *
SUMMARY
There are two types of obligatory Myiasis occurring in Indonesia,
namely, hoof Myiasis caused by Booponus intonsus Aldrich and
screw-worm caused by Chrysomyia
bezziana Villeneuve. H o o f
Myiasis is up to the present time limited in its geographical distribution, being found only in the northern and central parts of the island
of Sulawesi.
The screw-worm fly, although seemingly widespread throughout
the country, does not cause any problem except among range cattle
—
178
—
raised in tick-infested pastures. So far screw-worm is troublesome
only in South Sulawesi and S u m b a .
Very little information is available on the extent of Myiasis in
Indonesia as well as the bionomics of the flies.
A systematic control p r o g r a m m e has not been carried out by the
Veterinary Service. It is intended, however, with the development of
range cattle industries in the outer islands to immediately start investigation on all aspects of Myiasis in Indonesia.
*
* *
REFERENCES
(R.). — Larvae of flies, which may occur in affections
of the hoofs of the cattle. Hemera Zoa, 1 9 5 1 , 5 8 , 5 5 7 - 5 6 0 .
DJAENUDIN
(F.C.) and V A N D E R S C H A A F (A.). — Een myiasis van
de klauwen en h u n omgeving bij runderen. Ned. Ind. Bl.
Dierg., 1 9 3 7 , 4 9 , 3 6 0 .
KRANEVELD
(F.C.) and P E T T I N G A ( J . J . ) . — Klauwmyiasis bij run
deren in de Minahasa (Noord-Celebes). Ned. Ind. Bl. Dierg.,
KRANEVELD
1948,
55, 1 7 9 .
KRANEVELD
Hemera
(F.C.) and
Zoa,
PETTINGA
( J . J . ) . — Myiasis bij het p a a r d .
1 9 4 9 , 56, 2 9 6 - 2 9 8 .
(A.) and S U T I Y O N O P A R T O U T O M O . — A short report on
the use of Asuntol ® ointment in the treatment of Cascado and
hoof myiasis. Vet. Med. Rev., 1 9 7 3 , 2 , 1 3 4 - 1 3 5 .
MUCHLIS
(S.H.). — Masalah myiasis padasapi di Sulawesi Selatan.
Media Veteriner, 1 9 7 8 , 3, ( 1 ) , 1 - 1 2 .
SIGIT
( H . J . ) . — Gastrophilus larven in Nederlandsch Indie.
senijk. Bladen v. Ned. Ind., 1 9 1 6 , 2 8 , 2 5 4 - 2 5 8 .
SMIT
Verart-
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 179.
Myiasis in Malaysia(*)
Myiasis has never been a problem in Malaysia. The bulk of the
cattle population is in the hands of small holders. The husbandry
practice does not favour the incidence of Myiasis.
Myiasis has been reported in cattle farms where large numbers of
imported cattle were kept. The incidence is easily controlled by regular inspection and adoption of practical control measures. The
disease could cause considerable losses in large cattle farms in the
country.
(*) Report presented by the Malaysian Delegation.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 181-188.
Myiasis — development of control
strategies for New Zealand
and South-East Asia
by
A.C.G. HEATH
(*)
Research into Myiasis in New Zealand sheep is described, with
emphasis on the importance of comprehensive biological information for strategic control. Ways in which this approach could be
used to study and control Myiasis in South-East Asia are discussed.
THE DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
O F MYIASIS
Myiasis is a condition in which dipterous (fly) larvae infest a vertebrate animal and, at least for a certain period, feed on the host's
dead or living tissue, body liquids or ingested food, Z U M P T (12).
Myiasis-producing flies are parasites, either obligate (e.g. bots and
warbles) or facultative (e.g. blowflies and muscids). They can be
categorized by the type of tissue or organ fed upon by the invading
larvae, e.g. sanguinivorous, dermal, intestinal, etc.
The significance of Myiasis to livestock and public health has long
been realized, but economic assessments of losses are not c o m m o n .
The effects of cattle grubs (Hypoderma sp.), the screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) and other Myiasis-producing flies in the A m e ricas result in multimillion dollar losses annually to the livestock
industry, S T E E L M A N (9). Elsewhere the screw-worm Chrysomyia
bezziana causes severe, though unquantified, losses to livestock production, particularly in P a p u a New Guinea, Formosa and India, S T E E L -
(*) Wallaceville Animal Research Centre, Research Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, P . B . , Upper Hutt, New Zealand.
—
182
—
M A N ( 9 ) . The widespread presence of C. bezziana throughout the
Oriental Zoogeographic region (Indo-Chinese and Malayan subregions) raises fears of its introduction into Australia, where it is
estimated that $ 6 5 - 1 5 5 million dollars could be lost annually due to
sterility, reduced meat and wool production, and death, N O R R I S and
M U R R A Y (7), A N O N .
(2).
MYIASIS IN S O U T H - E A S T A S I A
In all, 1 2 species of Myiasis-producing flies have been reported to
attack m a n and his livestock in the South-East Asian region. There
are 6 species that are considered most damaging a n d , by inference,
produce the greatest economic losses. These are C.
bezziana,
C. megacephala,
C. mallochi, Lucilia cuprina, Booponus
intonsus
and Hypoderma
bovis, Z U M P T ( 1 2 ) , F A D Z I L et al. ( 3 ) , G R I F F I T H S
( 4 ) , Y A H A Y A ( 1 1 ) , A N O N . ( 1 ) . A p a r t from m a n , who is attacked by
all except B. intonsus, the animals at greatest risk are cattle, water
buffalo, goats and sheep.
PRINCIPLES OF CONTROL
Control implies the reduction and subsequent long-term suppression of the number of pest species to an economically acceptable
level. To develop a control p r o g r a m m e requiring minimum expense
for m a x i m u m effect, it is important that priority be given to obtaining comprehensive knowledge about the target species. Emphasis
should be given to accumulating data o n the ecology and biology of
the pest so that control measures can be applied at biologically critical times in its life. A strategic control p r o g r a m m e will ensure that
restraints are applied at times that are optimal for reducing b o t h the
pathological effects of the pest and also its potential for increasing
in n u m b e r s . Relevant data relating to the host, parasite and environment should be evaluated.
MYIASIS R E S E A R C H IN N E W Z E A L A N D
A N D ITS A P P L I C A T I O N T O S O U T H - E A S T A S I A
As an illustration of the principles of strategic control and the
development of an integrated control p r o g r a m m e , current research
—
183
—
into ovine Myiasis (fly-strike of sheep) in New Zealand, and
vance to South-East Asia, will be discussed. Integrated
avoids total reliance on chemical control methods. Instead it
tes them with management procedures and non-chemical
measures.
Fly-strike
in New
its relecontrol
integracontrol
Zealand.
There are 6 main Myiasis-producing flies affecting sheep in New
Zealand, M I L L A R (6). These flies lay their eggs on sheep and the
emergent larvae (maggots) feed on the sheep and produce a condition known as fly-strike. This is characterized by rapid loss of appetite and b o d y weight, wool loss and staining, skin damage and, in
severe cases, death.
Each species of fly has its own biology, habits and seasonal activity, so that satisfactory control of fly-strike requires extensive
knowledge of each of the 6 species and their interaction with their
environment and the host.
Biogeography
and seasonality
of
flies.
In order that control measures can immediately precede the maxim u m prevalence of each pest species, knowledge of their seasonal
activity is essential.
In New Zealand, fly-traps baited with liver have been placed in a
number of climatically dissimilar areas so that the species composition of local fly populations can be determined. Each trap operator
sends weekly collections of flies to the Research Centre for identification. The fly-traps are situated at or close to meteorological recording stations and meteorological data are also recorded. In this way,
a relationship between climate, geography and blowfly populations
can be obtained.
Similar data for some species of South-East Asian Myiasisproducing flies could be obtained by using liver-baited traps. Lucilia
and Chrysomyia species could be monitored in this way although catches of C. bezziana are liable to be small as this species normally oviposits on host lesions, S P R A D B E R Y (8). To assess the seasonal activity of H. bovis, B. intonsus and C. bezziana, living animals would
have to be used as bait. Collection would then involve netting the
flies that were attracted. In addition, samples of fly eggs could be
taken from the host and reared through to an identifiable stage.
Emergence traps could be used in areas where pupation is known to
— 184
occur. Alternatively, larvae could be dissected at regular intervals
from hosts used as « tracers ». This latter m e t h o d is similar to the
procedure used in New Zealand where, to give fly-trapping additional relevance, fly larvae are collected from sheep struck during the
same period. This enables a comparison to be drawn between the
species composition of trapped flies and the species composition of
the larvae. This is important information, because each fly species
involved in fly-strike has its own particular requirements, habits
a n d , it is presumed, response to chemical control measures. Apart
from the intrinsic importance of these data, they also provide information that can be used to build a predictive model of the factors
predisposing to fly-strike and thus assist in the timing of control
measures in the future. The relatively short term protection afforded
against fly-strike by currently registered insecticides means that the
timing m a y be critical.
Food requirements
and host
attractiveness.
Knowledge about the biogeography and seasonality of flies is
essential for the timing and choice of control measures, but does not
deal directly with the cause of the problem; a combination of hostattractiveness, and parasite breeding and feeding sites.
1. Food sources —
larvae.
As a prelude to reducing the number of flies, information must be
acquired on the relative importance of potential breeding sites in
terms of their attractiveness for flies and their potential for fly p r o duction. To test carrion favourability, the carcases of various animals can be placed in the field so that flies can oviposit o n t h e m .
Flies emerging from p u p a e formed by maggots that have fed o n the
carcases can be caught in an emergence t r a p , identified and counted.
Use of this information can lead to the removal, treatment or destruction of important larval food sources. Carrion is only important
as larval food for South-East Asian Myiasis-producing flies, such as
L. cuprina, C. megacephala and C. mallochi, but could be investigated as outlined above. With the other Myiasis-producing species,
information could be obtained to determine the characteristics that
m a k e live animals suitable feeding sites for larvae. Apart from the
fact that adult flies usually oviposit in lesions on the host, characteristics such as host sex, age, colour and disease status could also be
relevant and should be investigated.
—
2. Food sources —
185
—
adults.
Adult Myiasis-producing flies in New Zealand require various
types of food. Both males and females feed on sugars as an energy
source and visit m a n y plants to obtain nectar or honeydew. Direct
observation of plants or analysis of the pollen content of the gut of
flies should provide an indicator of which plants are being visited.
Pollen adhering to a fly's b o d y can also be washed off and identified. Such information admits the possibilities of treating favoured
plants with insecticides (although this poses a danger to bees) or
ensuring that such plants are reduced in number.
The female flies of m a n y Myiasis-producing species require a p r o tein meal for oogenesis. The major exception is C. bezziana which is
autogenous in its first ovarian cycle but requires a protein meal for
the second, S P R A D B E R Y ( 8 ) .
Protein is taken from many sources, although carrion probably is
the most i m p o r t a n t . Identification of the sources most commonly
used m a y provide information that can be employed in a control
programme.
The adults of both H. bovis and B. intonsus
3. Host
are n o n - f e e d i n g .
attractiveness.
Although knowledge of the parasite's environmental requirements
and seasonal activity are essential to a control p r o g r a m m e , it is also
necessary t o know what role the host plays in the confrontation and
whether modifications can be m a d e for the host's benefit.
The New Zealand fly-strike research p r o g r a m m e has as one of its
aims the collection of data recording the sex, condition, wool
length, etc. from struck sheep. Thus an indication can be gained of
the characteristics of stock most at risk. In addition, management
practices relating to shearing, docking, dipping, drenching, etc., can
be evaluated and modified in such a way that they afford m a x i m u m
benefit to the host. A n y genetically determined factors relating to
host-susceptibility to fly-strike can be considered if a selective breeding p r o g r a m m e for resistance to fly-strike is envisaged.
Similar methods can be used in the South-East Asian region to
investigate host attractiveness. As C. bezziana oviposits on open
wounds, careful consideration should be given to the causes of such
injuries and in particular any relationship to other external parasites
or stock-handling.
— 186 —
Chemical
control.
It is axiomatic that effective insecticides should be sought and tested against a target pest. The apparatus used in applying the chemicals should also be evaluated. This has been a feature of the New
Zealand research p r o g r a m m e , H E A T H and T E N Q U I S T (5), T E N Q U I S T
and
ROBERTS
(10).
Standard methods for testing insecticides, both in vitro and in
vivo, should be developed as they are a valuable tool and allow the
monitoring of flies in the anticipation of development of insecticide
resistance. In addition, reliable comparisons of the efficacy of different insecticidal c o m p o u n d s can be m a d e .
Biological
and other methods
of
control.
It is imperative that parasites and predators of a r t h r o p o d pests be
recognized as potentially important regulatory factors. They should
be sought out, identified and their action maintained or enhanced. It
m a y be possible to ascertain a pest's behavioural traits such as resting sites or attraction to light of different wave lengths, and utilize
these in a control p r o g r a m m e .
For example, it is known that B. intonsus finds wet cattle unattractive, so farmers provide water-filled trenches for their stock to
walk t h r o u g h , Z U M P T (12).
The use of mass release of sterile male flies could be considered,
at least for the control of C. bezziana. This species is similar in
m a n y ways to C. hominivorax,
the subject of a successful eradication campaign in the United States, N O R R I S and M U R R A Y (7).
However, for such a p r o g r a m m e to be successful basic biological
data, particularly in regard to how m a n y males are required, how
and when they should be released and areas suitable for their release
must be accumulated. These data are not available for C. bezziana,
N O R R I S and
MURRAY
(7).
*
**
SUMMARY
Aspects of the biology of Myiasis are outlined, with particular
reference t o New Zealand and South-East Asia. Methods used in
—
187
—
research into fly-strike of sheep in New Zealand are described and
their application t o Myiasis research in South-East Asia is discussed.
Particular emphasis is placed on t h e need for comprehensive data on
the biology of Myiasis-producing flies as a prerequisite for the development a n d implementation of a strategic control p r o g r a m m e .
*
* *
REFERENCES
1. A N O N . — Animal Health Yearbook N o . 1 3 , 1 9 7 8 , 1 3 0 - 1 3 1 .
2 . A N O N . — Annual Report, 1 9 7 8 - 7 9 , Australian Bureau of Animal
H e a l t h , 198.0, 9 - 1 0 .
(M.), J A A F A R (A.) and S O O N (C.T.). — Chrysomyia bezziana Villeneuve — some observations on its activity in the
Tekam Research Station, Jeruntut, West Malaysia. Kajian
Veterinaire, Malaysia — Singapore, 1 9 7 1 , 3 , 1 0 - 1 4 .
3.
FADZIL
4.
GRIFFITHS
5.
HEATH
(R.B.). — Parasites and parasitic diseases. In : « The
H u s b a n d r y and Health of the Domestic Buffalo ». C O C K R I L L
( W . R . ) , E d . , Food a n d Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1 9 7 4 , 2 3 6 - 2 7 5 .
(A.C.G.) and T E N Q U I S T ( J . D . ) . — New insecticides : as
sheep dips against Lucilia sericata. N.Z. vet. J., 1 9 7 1 , 19, 4 5 -
46.
6.
(D.). — Blowflies (Calliphoridae) and their associates in
New Zealand. Cawthron Institute Monograph N o . 2 , 1 9 3 9 , 1-
MILLER
68.
(K.R.) and M U R R A Y ( M . D . ) . — The screw-worm problem. Aust. vet. J., 1964, 4 0 , 1 4 8 - 1 5 0 .
7. N O R R I S
( J . P . ) . — The reproductive status of
Chrysomyia
species (Diptera : Calliphoridae) attracted t o liver-baited
blowfly traps in P a p u a New Guinea. Journal of the Australian Entomological
Society, 1 9 7 9 , 18, 5 7 - 6 1 .
8.
SPRADBERY
9.
STEELMAN
(C.D.). — Effects of external and internal arthropod
parasites on domestic livestock production. Annual
Review
of Entomology,
1976, 21, 155-178.
—
10.
188
—
and R O B E R T S (M.). — Comparison of a new
sheep dipping technique with saturation-type m e t h o d s . N.Z.
TENQUIST (J.D.)
vet.
J.,
1978,
26,
88-91.
(M.F.). — The economic importance of parasitism in
food animals in peninsular Malaysia. In : « Proceedings of
the First Joint Conference of the Association of Veterinary
Surgeons, Malaysia and the Australian Association of Cattle
Veterinarians ». B A B J E E ( A . M . H . ) , Y A H A Y A ( M . F . ) , I B R A H I M (A.L.) and T H A M U T A R A M (S.) E d s . , Ministry
of Agriculture Malaysia, Bulletin N o . 1 4 6 , 1 9 7 7 , 9 0 - 1 0 2 .
11.
YAHAYA
12.
ZUMPT
(F.). — Myiasis in M a n and Animals in the Old World.
Butter worths, L o n d o n , 1 9 6 5 .
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 189-196.
Les myiases
des animaux domestiques.
Etiologie, diagnostic, mesures de lutte
by
M.A. SIMETSKI, V . M . REPINE, A.P. T O N K O N O J E N K O
et D.G. KLIENTOVSKI
(*)
Les myiases sont des maladies causées par des larves de mouches
parasitant des plaies ou des écorchures de la peau et des muqueuses
des animaux.
Elles sont largement répandues en Asie, en Afrique, en Amérique
du Nord et du Sud, en E u r o p e , en Australie et en Nouvelle-Zélande.
La plus répandue et la plus dangereuse des myiases, la wohlfahrtiose, est causée par les larves d'une mouche vivipare,
Wohlfahrtia
magnifica Schin.
Suivant leur espèce, les mouches à myiase déposent dans les plaies
ou des parties macérées du corps des animaux leurs œufs ou leurs
larves vivantes qui, en se développant, s'enfoncent dans le tissu
sous-cutané et la musculature sous-jacente, provoquent des hémorragies abondantes, accroissent la superficie et la profondeur des
plaies, facilitant l'introduction d'une microflore pathogène. Il se
forme des poches profondes avec désintégration nécrotique des tissus, dont l'odeur attire les mouches, et le n o m b r e de larves déposées
augmente rapidement j u s q u ' à 800-1500 par plaie. Après avoir
achevé leur développement, les larves quittent la plaie et s'enfoncent
dans le sol pour se transformer en pupes.
La fréquence des myiases augmente fortement dans les périodes
de castration des animaux, de tonte des m o u t o n s , d'agnelage.
(*) Institut de recherche scientifique de l'U.R.S.S. sur l'hygiène vétérinaire,
Ministère de l'Agriculture de l'U.R.S.S., Moscou.
— 190 —
Chez les béliers, les béliers castrés et les taureaux, les myiases se
développent souvent sur le prépuce, chez les brebis et les vaches sur
la vulve, la région périanale et le pis. Des cas de conjonctivites, de
lésions du conduit auditif, des gencives et du tube digestif causés par
des larves de mouches ont été signalés.
Les animaux atteints de myiase paissent mal, restent en arrière du
t r o u p e a u , maigrissent rapidement et se couchent souvent. Il n'est
pas rare de voir succomber des animaux gravement atteints. Les
myiases peuvent entraîner une diminution quotidienne du poids vif
des animaux de 0,5 à 0,8 kg. Les animaux atteints de myiase présentent une baisse de rendement en lait et en laine (1).
La maladie est particulièrement dangereuse pour les m o u t o n s à
laine fine. La tonte tardive est une des causes principales de l'apparition des myiases. K . P . A N D R E I E V (1968) indique que la wohlfahrtiose ovine peut entraîner une diminution quotidienne de 0,8 kg du
poids vif des animaux.
Selon des données rapportées par I.I. P O K I D O V (1972), au cours
de la période de pâturage au moins 5 0 % des effectifs sont atteints de
wohlfahrtiose dans les troupeaux de mâles castrés et 20 à 2 5 % dans
les troupeaux de femelles. Selon ses observations, en dix jours les
animaux malades ne présentent aucun accroissement de poids, tandis que les animaux sains voient leur poids vif augmenter de 1,16 kg.
Les pertes occasionnées p a r les myiases résultent également de la
baisse du rendement en laine chez les m o u t o n s malades, de la mort
de certains d'entre eux, des dépenses importantes en temps et en travail des spécialistes vétérinaires et des bergers pour la surveillance
quotidienne des effectifs dans les troupeaux infectés et le traitement
des malades, ainsi que du coût des insecticides et des médicaments.
Il a été rapporté q u ' a u x Etats-Unis, les pertes annuelles du fait des
myiases sont estimées à 440-550 millions de dollars. Les plaies des
bovins sont infectées dans une proportion pouvant atteindre 85 % .
La maladie est observée sur le territoire de 15 Etats. Plus de 10 millions de dollars sont dépensés chaque année pour combattre les
myiases (4).
Les pertes annuelles subies par l'élevage du m o u t o n sont estimées
à 15-20 millions de dollars en Australie (8), à 1.741.000 dollars en
Nouvelle-Zélande (9). Dans les pays d ' E u r o p e , les myiases du bétail
— 191 —
sont moins importantes. En Inde, les myiases frappent
2 4 , 3 % des m o u t o n s .
jusqu'à
Le diagnostic de myiase consiste à identifier dans les plaies ou les
écorchures de la peau et des muqueuses des animaux les larves ou les
œufs des mouches qui sont la cause de la désintégration nécrotique
des tissus et des processus inflammatoires.
Il existe actuellement de nombreuses méthodes de lutte contre les
myiases, comportant à la fois des mesures de prophylaxie et des
mesures de traitement des animaux, que l'on peut classer conventionnellement en deux catégories : méthodes individuelles et m é t h o des de masse.
On peut citer parmi les méthodes de masse pour la prophylaxie
des myiases celle utilisée aux Etats-Unis, consistant à lancer à partir
d'avions des boîtes contenant j u s q u ' à 50 millions de mouches mâles
stériles par semaine. L'élevage d'une telle quantité de mouches nécesite 40 tonnes de viande, 4.500 gallons de sang de bœuf, 9.600 gallons d'eau et 350 livres de formol par semaine. Le coût de l'installation et de l'équipement d ' u n seul établissement d'élevage de m o u ches est d'environ 1 million de dollars. Cette méthode est appliquée
aux Etats-Unis depuis une vingtaine d'années (10, 11, 12, 13).
En Australie et en Nouvelle-Zélande, on a largement employé au
cours des décennies passées les méthodes de balnéation et de pulvérisation des animaux pour la prophylaxie et la lutte contre les myiases.
On choisissait p o u r cela des insecticides à action résiduelle prolongée, ce qui a eu pour effet de développer chez les mouches une résistance élevée aux concentrations maximales d'insecticides pouvant
être appliquées aux animaux. C'est pourquoi des recherches sont
actuellement menées pour la mise au point de méthodes génétiques
de lutte contre les mouches (5, 6).
Une autre m é t h o d e de prophylaxie des myiases consiste à suspendre dans des filets, au-dessus de points d'eau, des cadavres de différents animaux. Les mouches attirées par l'odeur des tissus en
décomposition déposent leurs larves sur les cadavres; lorsque les larves quittent les cadavres pour se transformer en pupes, elles tombent
dans l'eau et périssent.
En Inde, des recherches ont été menées pour l'utilisation de divers
insecticides en vue du traitement systématique des animaux pour la
prophylaxie des myiases.
— 192 —
Les méthodes individuelles de traitement des animaux comportent
l'extraction, à l'aide de pincettes et d'autres instruments chirurgicaux, des larves des mouches à myiase présentes dans les plaies, sui
vie du traitement des plaies par différents insecticides.
Une méthode chirurgicale, la méthode de Mules, est largement
recommandée. Elle consiste dans l'ablation d ' u n e partie de la queue
et du repli péricaudal chez les jeunes animaux. Il ne subsiste plus,
ainsi, de parties du corps constamment mouillées p a r l'urine, et il
n ' y a donc pas macération de la peau. On r e c o m m a n d e d'utiliser
p o u r la prophylaxie des myiases des solutions d'insecticides appliquées sur la surface des plaies à l'aide de t a m p o n s ou par pulvérisation.
Un grand n o m b r e d'insecticides, tels que la diazinone, le chlorop h o s , le b r o m o p h o s , le trichlométaphos-3, etc., sont en usage dans la
plupart des méthodes de traitements individuels et de masse.
A notre avis, traiter les animaux par la balnéation ou la pulvérisation n'est pas tout à fait rationnel pour les raisons suivantes. Dans
un troupeau comptant 700 à 1.000 têtes, pratiquement 50 à 80 anim a u x sont atteints de myiases ; après la tonte, le n o m b r e des malades
peut atteindre 180 à 200 animaux. P a r conséquent, il n ' y a pas de
sens à traiter les 500 à 800 autres animaux restés sains. De plus, cela
entraîne une dépense accrue et une consommation n o n rationnelle
du produit.
Les produits insecticides appliqués sur la peau de l'animal pénètrent à l'intérieur de son organisme. Il n'est pas souhaitable que la
viande des animaux abattus contienne des quantités résiduelles
d'insecticides. P a r conséquent, de ce point de vue également, il n'est
pas rationnel de baigner tous les m o u t o n s .
Les larves de mouches à myiase ne sont présentes que dans les tissus de la plaie; or, en baignant les animaux on augmente la surface
de pénétration du produit (toute la surface de la peau), tandis que
pour détruire les larves de mouches il suffit d'appliquer localement
un produit ayant une action insecticide.
L'utilisation d'installations fixes p o u r la balnéation des m o u t o n s
dans des produits insecticides oblige les bergers, pendant t o u t e la
saison de diffusion des myiases (de mai à septembre), à faire paître
leurs troupeaux à proximité de ces installations.
Les solutions et émulsions d'insecticides appliquées sur les plaies
des animaux (en particulier sur la partie inférieure du tronc) s'écou-
— 193 —
lent rapidement, ce qui diminue fortement l'efficacité de l'action du
produit sur les larves de mouches.
Bien qu'exigeant en apparence beaucoup de travail, le traitement
individuel des animaux atteints de myiase est beaucoup plus facile à
réaliser par l'application locale d'insecticides, quelles que soient les
conditions d'entretien des animaux pendant l'été. Les observations
que nous avons faites pendant des années nous ont appris q u ' u n seul
berger, s'il a à sa disposition des produits insecticides prêts à
l'emploi, peut traiter de 40 à 50 animaux atteints de myiase sans rien
changer à son emploi du temps journalier. Cela supprime la nécessité de recourir à une m a i n - d ' œ u v r e supplémentaire, de construire
des installations spéciales, etc.
C'est pourquoi a été mise au point dans notre pays une méthode
efficace, exigeant peu de travail et d'une réalisation facile dans
n ' i m p o r t e quelles conditions, pour la prophylaxie et le traitement
des myiases des animaux domestiques, au moyen de produits à utiliser en aérosols. Nous avons créé les produits « Wohlfahrtol »,
« Wohlfazol-D » et « Miazol » conditionnés en vue de leur emploi
en aérosol, pour la destruction des larves de mouches dans les plaies
infestées, la prophylaxie du dépôt des larves dans les plaies fraîches,
l'accélération de la cicatrisation des plaies infectées même après une
seule application du produit.
P o u r une couverture plus complète de la surface des plaies et des
bords des parties non lésées, de manière à ce que l'insecticide soit en
contact avec la totalité de la surface de la plaie, les produits sont
appliqués sous la forme d ' u n e mousse d'aérosol qui sèche rapidement.
Pour prolonger l'action larvicide et bactéricide résiduelle, prévenir
un nouveau dépôt de larves j u s q u ' à la cicatrisation complète des
plaies et empêcher le dépôt des larves sur les plaies fraîches, 10 à 15
minutes après l'application du « Wohlfahrtol » et du « WohlfazolD » se forme sur la surface des plaies une pellicule élastique, résistante à l'eau, qui se conserve pendant 7-8 jours. Le produit « Miazol » est utilisé en application sur les plaies fraîches pour prévenir
les myiases animales.
La composition des produits « Wohlfazol-D », « Wohlfahrtol »
et « Miazol » a été étudiée de manière à garantir l'effet souhaité
sans risque d'intoxication pour les animaux traités. Le rapport entre
les composants de ces produits est tel qu'ils ne se neutralisent pas
l'un l'autre mais favorisent un meilleur contact des produits avec les
tissus lésés et une activité durable de ces produits.
— 194 —
Immédiatement après l'application sur les plaies infectées du
« Wohlfazol-D » et du « Wohlfahrtol », les larves présentent des
signes d'excitation, quittent les endroits qu'elles parasitent, se déplacent activement, tombent des plaies et meurent en 15 à 30 minutes.
On n'observe chez les animaux traités ni action irritante sur les tissus
des plaies ni signe d'intoxication. Le « Wohlfazol-D » et le « Wohlfahrtol » inhibent le développement de la microflore dans les plaies,
réduisent les processus inflammatoires, favorisent la régénération
des tissus traumatisés et la guérison des plaies qui cicatrisent en 6 à
10 j o u r s . Les plaies situées dans la région du prépuce et des lèvres
guérissent plus lentement, ce qui s'explique par le fait que les tissus
lésés sont fréquemment mouillés d'urine; dans ce cas, les produits
sont appliqués à deux ou trois reprises j u s q u ' à cicatrisation complète.
Suivant l'étendue des plaies, un seul récipient p o u r l'emploi en
aérosol, d ' u n e capacité de 385 ml, permet de traiter entre 10 et 30
animaux. Les quantités résiduelles du « Wohlfazol-D » sont complètement éliminées de l'organisme des m o u t o n s 10 j o u r s après le
traitement des plaies; celles du « Wohlfahrtol » ne sont plus décelées
dans les organes, par la m é t h o d e de la Chromatographie gazeuseliquide, 5 jours seulement après son application sur la surface des
plaies du m o u t o n . Il est à signaler que les quantités d'insecticides
introduites dans l'organisme des animaux lors de l'application du
« Wohlfazol-D » et du « Wohlfahrtol » sont minimes en comparaison du traitement par la balnéation ou la pulvérisation des animaux
avec des solutions d'insecticides.
Un nouveau produit biologique, le « Miazol », a été mis au point
pour la prophylaxie des myiases animales et commence à être utilisé
dans la pratique vétérinaire; il a une activité larvicide élevée vis-à-vis
de nombreuses espèces de diptères et est pratiquement sans danger
p o u r les animaux à sang chaud et pour l ' h o m m e .
Ce produit est employé pour traiter les plaies au m o m e n t de la
t o n t e , des opérations de castration, ainsi que les plaies accidentelles
survenues dans la période d'activité des mouches à myiase. Le
« Miazol » n ' a pas d'action répulsive, mais les larves déposées dans
les plaies sur lesquelles le produit a été appliqué meurent 2 à 3 heures
après avoir commencé à se nourrir. Le « Miazol » favorise la croissance rapide du tissu granuleux et donc la cicatrisation rapide des
plaies.
A u cours des derniers essais du «Miazol », il a été établi qu'il était
possible de combattre efficacement les myiases en traitant les ani-
— 195 —
maux blessés avec ce produit sans autre traitement préalable des
plaies.
L'efficacité économique de l'application pratique du « Wohlfahrtol » et du « Wohlfazol-D » dans la lutte contre les myiases ovines
résulte de la prévention des pertes de productivité en viande et en
laine et de la mort des animaux atteints.
Nous avons étudié la possibilité d'une réduction des populations
des diverses mouches agents de myiases et sommes arrivés à la conclusion qu'il convient de désinsectiser les bâtiments et les pâturages.
Avant les opérations de castration, les locaux où seront hébergés les
animaux doivent être désinsectisés. L'utilisation en aérosol du p r o duit « Insectol » diminue fortement la possibilité du dépôt de larves
de mouches sur les plaies fraîches des animaux après castration, caudectomie et autres opérations chirurgicales.
Il résulte de cet exposé que les myiases des animaux domestiques
sont répandues en Asie, en Afrique, en Amérique du N o r d et du
Sud, en E u r o p e , en Australie et en Nouvelle-Zélande, et qu'elles
portent un préjudice certain à l'élevage, principalement par la réduction de la productivité en viande et en laine des animaux.
Des produits efficaces conditionnés en vue d ' u n emploi en aérosol
ont été mis au point en U . R . S . S . , de même que des mesures de
prophylaxie et de lutte contre ces maladies parasitaires.
*
* *
BIBLIOGRAPHIE
1.
ANDREIEV (K.P.).
— Entomologie vétérinaire et désinsectisation.
Moscou, « Kolos », 1966, 326 p .
2.
POKIDOV
3.
RIBBECK (K.)
(I.I.). — Caractéristiques de l'action larvicide des
émulsions de TKhM-3 dans différentes zones climatiques du
territoire de Stavropol. Travaux du VNIIOK, Stavropol, 1974,
fasc. 34, t. 2, 35-38.
et al. — Lucilia sericata-Larven
als Erreger von
Wundmyiasis bei H u n d und Katze. Mh. Veter.-Med., 1979, 34,
5, 383-384.
—
—
(D.). — C u a n t o le cuestan a U d . las moscas.
Amer., 1 9 7 6 , 25 ( 4 ) .
4.
FULL
5.
HEATH
6.
HOELSCHER
Agric.
(A.) et T E N Q U I S T (J.). — New insecticides as sheep dips
against Lucilia sericata. N.Z. vet. J., 1 9 7 1 , 19, 3 , 4 5 - 4 6 .
( C E . ) et C O M B S ( R . L . ) . — Blowfly — a warning.
Agricultural
Gazette of New South Wales, February 1 9 7 1 ,
82,
7.
196
1,
29-33.
(S.). — A note on Hippobosca
and myiasis-producing
flies of domestic animals in Orissa. Food. Farm. Agr., 1 9 7 6 ,
MISRA
7, 3 2 .
8.
( G . J . ) . — A review of the flystrike problem of
sheep in Australia. J. Austral. Inst. Agric. Sci., 1 9 6 5 , 3 1 , 1 ,
SHANAHAN
11-24.
9.
et W R I G H T (D.). — The distribution, prevalence
and economic importance of blowfly strike in sheep. N.Z. J.
TENQUIST (J.)
expert. Agr.,
1 9 7 6 , 4, 2 9 1 - 2 9 5 .
1 0 . Feuillet du Service d'information d u Département de l'Agriculture des Etats-Unis, N ° 1 1 6 , mars 1 9 5 9 . Utilisation des
radiations p o u r la lutte contre la m o u c h e à viande. R a p p o r t
N° 2.
1 1 . La m o u c h e à viande et les mesures de lutte contre elle. Brochure
SA P - 1 . Service de recherches agricoles du Département de
l'Agriculture des Etats-Unis, avril 1 9 6 0 .
1 2 . Feuillet d u Département de l'Agriculture des Etats-Unis S A - 1 0 1, novembre 1 9 5 8 . Questions et réponses sur l'irradiation
radioactive des m o u c h e s .
1 3 . Feuillet N ° 1 0 8 . Bureau d'information du Département
l'Agriculture des Etats-Unis, janvier 1 9 5 8 .
de
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 197-198.
S c r e w o r m (SW)(*)
Screwworms (SW) have been a scourge of animals and m a n in t r o pical and subtropical regions of the Western Hemisphere throughout
history. Animal losses from the parasite became so severe that continuation of concentrated cattle raising in the West was questionable
until effective medications were developed in the late 1930's. Even
then, livestock raisers were often overwhelmed by the ravages of the
flies during certain seasons and years. Care of the animals was labor
intensive at all times during the fly season.
Research conducted in conjunction with the development of
improved medications resulted in the discovery of the sterile fly technique of eradication. Mass rearing and sterilization of SW flies followed by dispersal of the insects in areas where wild flies were active
resulted in sterile matings and eventual elimination of the wild populations. Successful eradication campaigns have been conducted in
Curacao Island, the United States (U.S.), Puerto Rico, the Virgin
Islands, and Baja California, Mexico.
An effort had been m a d e to protect the United States from SW fly
invasion from Mexico using a sterile fly barrier along the border ;
however, the attempt was only partially successful due to the long
border between the countries, and the resultant vast areas requiring
protection. There was not sufficient sterile fly production capability
to meet all the challenges. In 1972, an agreement was signed with
Mexico to conduct a joint effort in that country to eradicate SW
down to the narrow Isthmus of Tehuantepec and there establish a
new sterile fly barrier. The new barrier would be only 217 kilometers
wide as compared to the previous 3,219 kilometer barrier between the
countries. A rearing facility constructed in Mexico became fully operational in 1977. Sterile flies from this plant and another plant in
Texas have been used to free an area 320 kilometers south from the
U . S . border. The U . S . has remained free of SW for approximately 7
months.
(*) Report presented by the U.S. Delegation.
— 198 —
Continuous research has been an integral part of the eradication
p r o g r a m , in order to provide the most effective effort possible from
both a technical and economical standpoint. One result of this
research has been the development of an attractant-bait-pesticide
product that has revolutionized the p r o g r a m . The p r o d u c t , Screwworm Adult Suppression System (SWASS), was designed to be used
in conjunction with the sterile flies. SWASS functions most effectively against high fly populations, rapidly reducing the numbers of
wild flies to low levels where sterile flies are most effective.
Present evidence indicates the p r o g r a m schedule of achieving eradication in Mexico and establishing the sterile fly barrier at the Isthm u s of Tehuantepec by the end of 1984 continues to be a realistic
goal.
5. N o t i f i c a t i o n i n t r a - r é g i o n a l e sur les m a l a d i e s .
I n t r a - r e g i o n a l r e p o r t i n g of diseases.
Notificación intra-regional sobre enfermedades.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 201-211.
Regional reporting of diseases
by
R.S. MORRIS and W.A. GEERING
(*)
The accurate international reporting of the animal health status of
countries is vital. This allows countries importing livestock and
livestock products to define national health certification and quarantine procedures for such imports. It therefore facilitates international trade and at the same time lessens the risk of the international
spread of livestock diseases. Accurate and prompt reporting of new
disease outbreaks in a region also permits other countries to take the
necessary preventive action to protect their livestock.
The principal formal mechanisms for regional reporting of animal
diseases currently available are through the Office International des
Epizooties and F . A . O . Systems are available for immediate,
monthly, quarterly and annual reporting and these are widely used.
However, the procedures used have to a certain extent become outdated and countries can experience serious problems in conveying an
accurate picture of their animal health status with respect to certain
diseases. Moreover, it is difficult to obtain an overview of the
disease status of a country without an extensive and laborious search
through past reports.
The nature of these problems and some proposed solutions were
discussed in an earlier paper ( M O R R I S and G E E R I N G , 1 9 8 0 ) which
was presented at the Second International Symposium on Veterinary
Epidemiology and Economics, held in Canberra in May 1 9 7 9 . A
copy of this paper is attached.
In addition to meeting its obligation to O.I.E. and F . A . O . Australia also endeavours to keep countries of the region informed of its
disease status through direct exchange of information. It would welcome cooperative arrangements for exchange of more comprehen-
(*) Australian Bureau of Animal Health, Canberra, Australia.
—
202
—
sive information within the region t h a n is necessary for world-wide
systems. This regional approach has not developed as far in Asia as
it h a s , for example, in Latin America.
Australia has between 1 9 7 7 and 1 9 8 0 coordinated quarterly regional exchange of disease information within the region under the auspices of the F . A . O . Animal Production and Health Commission for
Asia, the Far East and Oceania. However, this exchange was based
on the traditional approach to disease reporting, and Australia considers that a system based on the principles outlined in the attached
paper would be more valuable for participating countries. The Asian
region would be very appropriate for development of a modified
system of regional disease reporting, and consideration should be
given t o using it as pilot area.
*
REFERENCES
(R.S.) and G E E R I N G ( W . A . ) . — Proposals for a Modified
System of International Disease Reporting. Proc. Second International Symposium
on Veterinary Epidemiology
and Economics, C a n b e r r a 1 9 7 9 . C a n b e r r a , Australian G o v e r n m e n t
Publishing Service, 1 9 8 0 , 2 9 0 - 2 9 7 .
MORRIS
Proposals for a Modified System
of International Disease Reporting
R.S. Morris and W.A. Geering
Epidemiology Branch, Australian Bureau of Animal Health, Canberra ACT.
Summary
There is a need for existing systems of international exchange of animal
disease information to adjust to changes in scientific understanding of diseases and disease agents, which have rendered traditional procedures outdated, and in some cases potentially misleading.
The problems centre around difficulties with the diagnosis and classification of diseases and agents, and the urgent need to differentiate between
diseases and agents in the reporting system. Problems also occur in adequately explaining the epidemiological significance of information supplied and
in ensuring appropriate speed of information flow, according to the nature
of the information.
A modified system should have better structure, should permit supporting
evidence to be supplied to the extent required, and information supplied
should be more closely related to the needs of the recipient.
A relatively inexpensive system could be adopted to overcome these problems, based on the use of « layered » epidemiological profiles to supply the
amount of information which countries required for their needs, in a standard format.
The approach, which would provide both uniformity and flexibility,
would most simply be implemented through five regional information
exchange centres covering the world, using minicomputers to store the information and telex or data transmission lines to provide and receive information.
Introduction
The present system of international reporting for animal diseases has
remained static in style, though not in detail, over recent decades — yet over
the same period major changes have occurred in scientific understanding of
diseases. For reasons which will be discussed later in this paper, the inconsistencies between disease reporting procedures and current understanding of
the nature of disease states are becoming more and more glaring.
— 204 —
This situation is not limited to animal diseases, and the projected declaration of worldwide eradication of smallpox has been the stimulus for a detailed re-examination of some of the existing international procedures for protecting human health (Anon., 1978).
The purpose of international exchange of information on animal health
matters is principally to minimise the risk of dissemination of infectious
diseases to areas where they are not present, while simultaneously avoiding
unreasonable restrictions being placed on the international movement of
livestock and livestock products due to lack of information about the disease
status of the source country.
Present international exchange procedures
for animal disease information
The single most comprehensive information exchange system operates
through the International Office of Epizootics (OIE), which was founded in
1924 and has its headquarters in Paris. It provides information exchange ranging between immediate and annual, depending on the disease involved and
the precise nature of the information supplied. Most, but not all, of the countries having a major influence on world animal health are members of OIE.
Details of the OIE reporting system are summarised in the Annual Reports of
the Director-General on the Scientific and Technical Activities of the OIE,
which are presented to the Annual General Sessions, and published by OIE.
A second source of information is the Food and Agriculture Organisation
(FAO), which is active in disease control activities in the developing regions of
the world, and is also responsible for the production of the FAO/WHO/OIE
Animal Health Yearbook, which summarises the situation with respect to
most major diseases in tabular form, with an entry for each participating
country for each of the diseases. Eleven species categories are covered, and the
incidence/prevalence of the disease is categorised into one of fourteen states.
Some indication is also given of control measures which are adopted. Footnotes are used to amplify points of detail which require explanation. This Yearbook is a much more succinct and usable guide to the history of diseases in
various countries than OIE publications, which generally lack a structure
which would permit them to be used as a ready reference. However the Yearbook is by its nature an historical rather than a current record.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) also contributes to the international exchange of information, by disseminating information on zoonotic
diseases. It does this through the Weekly Epidemiological Record and other
publications. WHO now has a 24 hour per day automatic telex service for
international enquiries on the disease status of countries, but this does not
extend to cover the zoonoses.
At the regional level, a variety of epidemiological surveillance systems exist
for one or more diseases. Examples include the European FMD Commission
system, the vesicular diseases and zoonoses surveillance systems in Latin
America, and the regional disease reporting system now developing in Asia
and Oceania.
Individual countries also undertake bilateral exchange of information with
other co-operating countries — some of it quite extensive in nature. While
— 205 —
some of this is formal and official in nature, other information (often the
most important) moves by informal means.
In principle at least, therefore, it is possible for a country to keep well
informed on matters which may affect its animal health status or its trading
activities. However there are substantial problems with the present system,
which are becoming increasingly serious as advances in scientific techniques
for the study of diseases and disease agents demonstrate further flaws in the
approach being used.
Deficiencies in the present international reporting arrangements
1. Diagnosis and nomenclature of agents.
The definition of « disease » which underlies the procedures used for
international reporting evolved in an era when the relationships between
infectious agents and disease were not fully understood and therefore clinical and pathological criteria were more important in the classification of
infectious diseases than microbiological considerations. Whilst changes have
been progressively made as the causation of diseases has become better
understood, international disease reporting systems have simply not been
able to keep pace with the rapid changes in the expanding fields of veterinary bacteriology and virology over the last few decades.
This has caused a dilemma for veterinary administrators, who on the one
hand want to honestly fulfil their obligations for the accurate and expeditious
international reporting of changes in the animal health status of their country,
but on the other hand do not want to unduly prejudice their country's livestock products in the international market place because of false impressions
that might be created by having to describe a subtle change in animal health
status in the framework of an over-simplistic reporting system.
The first problem is in the differentiation between infection and disease.
In many species of pathogenic micro-organisms there is a wide spectrum of
virulence among different strains of the organism. As microbiological diagnostic procedures have been improved and simplified, diagnostic laboratories and research workers have been able to isolate viruses and bacteria from
a much larger proportion of field specimens. This has led to the realisation
that, for many important animal diseases, the prevalence of non-pathogenic
and lowly pathogenic strains of the causative organism circulating in livestock populations is much higher than previously comprehended. In other
cases, important micro-organisms have been isolated from livestock populations in which there is complete absence of the clinical disease.
There are several examples of the latter phenomenon. Two of these have
occurred in Australia during recent times. Newcastle disease virus was discovered in Australia in 1966, more or less by accident. Serological surveys indicated that the virus was of recent origin in the country, but was widely distributed in poultry flocks throughout Australia. Despite this there has been
no clinical evidence of Newcastle disease whatsoever associated with this
virus in the thirteen years that it has been present in Australia. Likewise,
bluetongue virus was accidentally discovered in Australia in 1977. Serological surveys have shown that the infection has been confined to cattle and
— 206 —
buffaloes in certain areas of northern Australia. There has been no evidence
of any clinical bluetongue disease associated with this virus infection.
A similar problem occurs in the USA when a non-pathogenic strain of
Venezuelan Equine Encephalomyelitis virus has been present for many years
in the Florida Swamplands, as an infection of mosquitoes and rodents,
whilst there has been only one epizootic of the disease in horses. This occurred in a different part of the country, and was successfully eradicated within
a comparatively short time. These are just a few examples of an increasingly
common quandary being faced by veterinary administrators.
It is clear therefore that international disease reporting must discard the
implicit assumption that diseases and agents « go together like a horse and
carriage ». While this implied link is not easy to break, merely to report
information on clinical diseases and agents separately would be a major
advance, since it would adjust everyone's thinking processes.
One of the paradoxes in the situation is that the more sophisticated the
scientific methods being used in the country, and the more resources that are
devoted to achieving effective control of disease, the more likely it is that
agents of low pathogenicity will be discovered. Moreover when agents of
high pathogenicity have been eliminated from a country, it will be more
likely that strains of low pathogenicity are identified, and that resources are
devoted to studying them.
Thus the paradox which is occurring with increasing frequency is that
countries which do not know whether or not they have a particular disease
(because they do not have the resources to find out) place restrictions on animals or products from countries of demonstrably higher animal health status
in relation to an agent which is probably already present in the importing
country, or would have little impact if it entered. There is therefore a need to
weigh up more precisely the possible effect of a quarantine breach by a minor
organism against the benefits of (say) introducing beneficial genetic material.
The second problem lies in the precise characterisation and nomenclature
of the disease agents themselves. This problem is most acute in the field of
virology. As the molecular biology of viruses has progressively been unravelled the once clear distinction between individual viruses within virus groups
has become blurred, as clearly demonstrated by the paper of Gorman in this
Symposium. Findings of this type make it harder rather than easier for the
veterinary administrator to define just exactly what is a bluetongue virus, so
that he can meet his international reporting responsibilities. A similar situation occurs with the definition of fowl plague amongst the avian influenza
type A viruses.
Even rabies can no longer be regarded as a single entity, as it is now recognised that there are closely related rhabdoviruses which have a similar
pathogenesis to classical rabies virus (although of differing virulence), but
are antigenically different. Now it is more correct to speak of the rabies
group of viruses.
The problem is further complicated by increasing sophistication and precision in serological tests. Although these undoubtedly increase the sensitivity with which past exposure to agents is detected, epidemiologists are
familiar with the almost inevitable consequence — specificity is reduced,
and cross-reactions with both related and unrelated agents are found. Unless
— 207 —
great caution is shown in the interpretation of serological information, very
misleading conclusions may be drawn.
Moreover, if a previously unidentified virus or other agent is discovered a
classification decision by virologists may unleash a wave of new trade restrictions for a « new » virus, when this definition may hinge on an esoteric
laboratory detail.
The ultimate solution to these problems is to devise a system of reporting
in which each disease can be precisely defined in one of several categories,
depending on the genetic characteristics of the causative agent. Profiles
could be built up in which characteristics such as virulence are defined on
the basis of internationally accepted experimental procedures. This is however fraught with problems as there are many host and environmental factors
that determine the nature of the end disease caused by an organism, and
there would need to be very precise standardisation of diagnostic tests and
other investigation procedures.
Of course, study of most infectious diseases is not yet advanced enough to
apply such an approach, but this is a goal that should be aimed for, and
reporting systems should be progressively changed in the light of new
research findings. This would require greater flexibility than exists in the
present system.
Another problem, more amenable to easy solution, is that the nomenclature of several diseases in the FAO and OIE reporting systems are anachronistic. For example, it is difficult to find a precise definition of diseases such
as Teschen and Talfan diseases of pigs and it is thefore difficult to certify
that a country is free from these diseases. Conversely, a number of diseases
that have been recognised in recent years, and have been well defined have
yet to be included in international disease reporting systems although they
would rate higher priority than some that are reported.
Yet another problem is that newer findings on the natural history of some
infectious diseases makes it extremely difficult in some cases to decide whether a disease is still present in a region. This is well demonstrated by the
relationship between marine caliciviruses and vesicular exanthema. There is
now strong circumstancial evidence that vesicular exanthema originated
from the feeding of infected carcases of marine pinnipeds to pigs. Maybe
this involved some genetic changes in this virus, but it can no longer be confidently asserted that vesicular exanthema has been eradicated globally.
Moreover, if a disease agent is present in territorial waters, is it present in
the country ?
Finally, now that many countries are pursuing eradication campaigns for
a wide range of major livestock diseases there needs to be better definition
of what constitutes adequate evidence for a country to be internationally
recognised as being free of a disease. Proving the absence of a disease from
a population can be even more difficult than proving its presence. Theoretically, every animal in the population must be tested to give absolute confidence. On a more practical plane, statistically valid sampling and testing
procedures should be developed to validate freedom from each disease, and
this will depend on the epidemiological pattern of the disease. It is necessary
to differentiate claims of freedom from disease which are based on the
application of sound surveillance methods from those which are made
— 208 —
simply because veterinary authorities have not looked hard enough for the
diseases within their livestock populations.
2. Epidemiological significance of the
information.
Apart from information about the agents themselves, interpretation of
disease reporting data depends very heavily on the nature of the epidemiological pattern. The present reporting system is too closely tied to contagious
diseases, and is linked to « outbreaks » or « foci of infection ». This is very
useful for some diseases and agents, but may be quite misleading for others.
There is a need to vary the style of reporting according to the nature of the
disease, and a limited number of categories of pattern could easily be developed.
3. Immediacy of information flow.
In general, the more quickly information can be exchanged, the more useful will be the reporting system. However, this is less true of information
about agents than it is about clinical disease, and there is real danger that
premature release of incomplete information about agents and especially
serological reactions may mislead or confuse, rather than inform.
Overall, if information flow could be made more rapid, with provision to
either update or replace earlier reports, international disease reporting
would be greatly facilitated.
Towards an improved system
It will be clear from the foregoing discussion that the problems inherent in
the present system are already very evident, especially to major trading
countries such as Australia. However, we are fully aware that the answers
are not so easy to define, and moreover what suits one country may well not
suit another country which has different trading patterns and health status.
Inevitably change will be slow, and no perfect solution will be found. This
paper is intended solely as a starting point for discussion of possible changes. The proposals are deliberately formulated in broad terms without
details, so that they can benefit from other contributions before they are put
forward in a more detailed fashion.
The key requirements seem to be :
(i) Better structure to the reporting system.
The present procedures implicitly assume that the disease is contagious in
nature and that the agent will only be identified in association with clinical
disease. It will firstly be necessary to break the implied link between agent
and disease, and have separate reporting concerning these two facets.
Secondly, the diseases and disease-like problems of emerging importance
in international trade are, for example, arthropod-borne (bluetongue, virus
encephalitides, etc.) and product-borne agents (e.g. Salmonella spp., pesticides), and reporting procedures tend to emphasise inappropriate aspects of
these agents, or gloss over them because they do not conform with traditional categories. Rather than force all diseases into a single mould (e.g. repor-
— 209 —
ting the « number of outbreaks »), an epidemiological profile should be
developed for each of the major types of diseases, « type » meaning method
of transmission or occurrence. Adoption of reporting in the form of a standardised epidemiological profile which fitted the particular disease would
greatly enhance the uniformity and clarity of reporting. Essentially the profile would be a series of questions which countries would answer, so that a
total picture emerged but inter-country comparison was possible.
(ii) Evidence should be supplied with reports.
It should be possible to ascertain readily the basis on which the information given in a report is based — the test or other diagnostic technique used,
the extent of investigation and of diagnostic confirmation, etc.
The ideal way of strengthening this aspect of reporting would be to establish a number of levels of reporting, ranging from « clinical data only, no
laboratory confirmation of statement » through to « statement based on
regular annual testing of a stratified random sample of the population to
demonstrate that disease is present (if at all) in less than 1 per cent of animals, with 95 per cent confidence ».
Obviously countries would not adopt the higher levels of reporting unless
there was some payoff — in this case presumably because they gave increased opportunities for international trade, through easier access to particular
markets. At least, if a system were defined, countries would have a clear
objective to work towards, whereas at present the evidence demanded by
various countries from an exporter will differ in irritating details, so that
health testing efforts must be excessively tailored towards satisfying individual countries, rather than the international community at large. This tends
to raise costs, and lead to unnecessary increases in commodity prices.
A parallel can be found in international arrangements for health certification of meat being exported — enormous effort is made by exporting countries to meet hygiene requirements of importing countries, and there has
been inadequate international agreement on reasonable standards, so individual countries impose requirements which differ in minor details. In effect,
an international surveillance system is operated by importing countries on
exporting nations, to ensure that standards are met, but there is no uniformity in the requirements.
It is suggested that it is still (at least in theory) possible to avoid the same
problems becoming permanently entrenched in international reporting
arrangements, if countries could develop a greater degree of co-ordination
on the topic. It would in addition be desirable to ensure that evidence provided to support a particular report was based on a technically acceptable diagnostic procedure. World Reference Laboratories could well play a valuable
role in this.
(iii) Information supplied should be related to the needs of the recipient.
Depending on whether countries are physically adjacent or remote, have
strong or weak cultural (and therefore travel) and trading links (and various
other considerations), they will require more, or less information about
changes in each other's diseases status. For example, Australia is interested
in broad changes in the epidemiology of foot and mouth disease in Brazil
— 210 —
and is particularly interested in changes in virus characteristics. It would not
normally however be interested in the precise location of outbreaks, whereas
this would be of great interest to countries having contiguous borders with
Brazil. Australia would be very interested in detailed information for countries such as the United States, because travel and trade between the two
countries is far more extensive.
Similarly, countries which face quarantine risks from a particular disease
may wish to have new information virtually instantaneously, and physical
proximity alone may not be the factor which determines the urgency of the
matter. On the other hand, many other countries may like to know, but not
as a matter of urgency. Further, some countries rank animal health and
trade in livestock and livestock products as of major importance, while to
others it is of minor importance because of the nature of the particular economy.
A tentative mechanism for meeting these objectives
In recent years, the nature and extent of advances in information processing equipment has been breath-taking, as is well known. With extensive
information networks and the use of specialised satellite data transmission
systems, extensive and prompt exchange of information has become not
only possible, but relatively cheap in comparison with traditional methods
such as publication and postal distribution of information. For example, it
is now cheaper in many cases to search data banks and computerised information libraries in other countries than it is to purchase and maintain the
same files locally. The margin in favour of electronic storage and transmission will continue to increase as new developments occur.
This fact has led to very rapid changes in the procedures of many other
organisations working in related fields where information is disseminated or
exchanged, but there has as yet been no impact on international disease
reporting.
Building on experience gained with the Australian National Animal
Disease Information System (Roe, 1979), it can be concluded that for quite
a modest sum a basic international disease information exchange could be
established.
It would be based on about five minicomputers, one located in each
major region of the world.
These computers would store an epidemiological profile for each disease
in each country of the world, as supplied by that country. The profile would
have a carefully structured format suited to the particular type of disease,
combining uniformity of reporting with flexibility to cover differing circumstances and permit special requirements to be met. The profile would
have a layered structure, so that each user could obtain as much of the stored information as he required. For example, he may only want a brief fiveline summary, or he may want a full listing of the entire file, including the
geographical locations of all outbreaks which have occurred in the last year.
As the system built up, a retrospective history would also become available.
— 211 —
Access to the computers could be from either a telex machine or a computer terminal in the originating country — both would be equally acceptable.
Information could be entered interactively so that it complied with the
requirements for the file as specified by the computer programme. Alternatively it could be passed by cable or letter to the processing centre on a standard profile form, for entry there.
Information would be exchanged as frequently as necessary (probably
weekly) between the various computers in the system, so that all were completely up to date on information for their own region, and almost up to
date on information from other regions.
There would be a range of methods for disseminating information from
the bank. Firstly, the computer would have an « information requirement
profile » for each country, which would specify how quickly the country
wished to obtain information from the files for each disease, differentiating
also between countries according to whether they were of major or minor
interest to the enquiring country. The choices would be immediate (by telex,
or data line to a computer terminal), weekly (by computer printout),
monthly (by computer-generated publication or microfiche), or annually (as
for monthly). It would not be too difficult to arrange for transmission of
information to always occur in the particular language chosen by the
country (of the three or four languages catered for in the system).
This basic system could progressively be enhanced to meet special additional requirements which were identified by the participating countries.
Conclusion
The present international disease reporting system has serious limitations,
and its lack of flexibility tends to accentuate these problems.
For a cost which would be relatively modest in comparison with the cost
of existing systems, a more comprehensive, accurate and flexible system of
international exchange of disease information could be developed, based on
a small network of minicomputers. Although in itself this would not solve
the problems, it may well provide the needed impetus to ensure that other
improvements outlined in this paper were implemented.
References
ANON.
— The long-term future of the international health regulations.
WHO Chronicle,
1978, 32, 439.
ROE (R.T.). — Features of the Australian national animal disease information system. Proc. Second International Symposium on Veterinary
Epidemiology and Economics. Canberra, 1979.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 213-216.
Intra-regional reporting of disease
by
Sukobagyo P O E D J O M A R T O N O
(*)
INTRODUCTION
Being an archipelago country, Indonesia is advantageously possessing a natural barrier in the form of internal seas which enable to prevent the spread of diseases from one island to another. However,
with advancing technology and increasing interinsular communications the possibility of spreading of animal disease from one island to
another becomes greater.
There are Rabies and F o o t - a n d - M o u t h Disease (FMD) free zones
in Indonesia, namely in the eastern islands. Taking into account the
fact that the flow of livestock movement generally takes place from
the east to the west, the enforcement of strict control of livestock
movement and quarantine measures have successfully maintained the
free zones unchanged u p to the present time, although it must be confessed that the outbreaks of F M D in the island of Bali in 1963 and in
the province of South Sulawesi in 1973 were suspected to originate
from illegal importation of livestock from East Java to those areas.
The system of administration of Indonesia which consists of
twenty-seven provinces is divided into central and provincial administration. The latter is further divided into district and sub-district
administration.
The reporting system of animal disease is carried out commencing
from officials of Sub-district Livestock Services, sent to District
Livestock Services, then to Provincial Livestock Services and at last
to the Directorate General of Livestock Services, i.e. the Directorate
of Animal Health.
(*) Chief, Sub-Directorate of Animal Disease Surveillance, Directorate of Animal
Health, Directorate General of Livestock Services, Department of Agriculture, Indonesia.
— 214 —
If along these days the animal disease reports from the b o t t o m up
to the top level have been merely based on clinical investigations it is
expected to have animal disease reports backed with confirmation by
Animal Health Laboratories through the establishment of a network
of Animal Health Laboratories which consists of seven regional
Disease Investigation Centers, some B type Animal Health L a b o r a t o ries in some provinces and some C type Animal Health Laboratories
at the district level.
In case of an outbreak of animal disease the report should be made
within twenty-four hours and directly sent to central Offices through
the most rapid means such as messenger, telephone, cable, etc., in
order that immediate control measures could be carried o u t . Geographically Indonesia has direct inland borders with East Malaysia,
namely East Kalimantan and West Kalimantan, and with P a p u a New
Guinea, namely Irian Jaya. Although a system of exchanging animal
disease reports between Malaysia, Borneo and East and West Kalim a n t a n has not been established as yet, n o serious animal diseases
have been found in these regions so far. A cooperation through
exchange of information on animal disease situation between Irian
Jaya and P a p u a New Guinea h a s been established since the past three
years. It was expanded by sending a P a p u a New Guinea screw-worm
survey team t o Irian Jaya in 1978 and the visit of a P a p u a New Guinea team to Indonesia and followed by a tripartite meeting in Port
Moresby, P a p u a New Guinea on 20th June-lst July, 1980, attended
by delegates from Australia, P a p u a New Guinea and Indonesia
which recommended to conduct surveys on animal health in the border areas and to organize regular meetings.
THE IMPORTANCE OF INTRA-REGIONAL
R E P O R T I N G OF DISEASE
When Indonesia just started with the implementation of its F M D
eradication p r o g r a m m e an unofficial report was received concerning
an outbreak of F M D of A , O, and C types in the Philippines in 1975.
Considering the quite frequent h u m a n movement between the Philippines and the small islands n o r t h of North Sulawesi province of
Indonesia, an investigation team was sent to these islands in 1976 to
identify whether the disease had spread to the Indonesian territory,
the result of which was negative. Nevertheless as a precaution an
— 215 —
amount of A , O, C type vaccine was kept in store for two years since
1977 to be used whenever required at any time in North Sulawesi p r o vince.
A m o n g A S E A N countries the importance of exchanging information on animal disease has been felt since the first A S E A N Expert
Meeting on Livestock Production took place in J a k a r t a in 1976 ; it
has been always discussed at the following meetings of the A S E A N
Coordinativee G r o u p on Livestock P r o g r a m m e and it is further discussed more deeply at the meeting on A S E A N Animal Protection
Programme.
In this context it has been decided that Malaysia is assigned to seek
donor country expectedly to implement the A S E A N Animal Disease
Center (data bank) ; according to the plan the disease reporting
system is the one used by A P H C A . Besides, since 1978, A P H C A has
implemented a regional disease recording service which urged each
member country to complete the disease recording form every three
months and send it to Australia as the coordinator. After being compiled and processed in Australia it is sent back to each member
country of A P H C A . The system used in A P H C A is similar to the
system used by the F . A . O . recording system as published in the
F . A . O . Animal Health Yearbook. The difference is that in the
A P H C A system it is published more often and on aregional basis.
However u p to 1980 only four countries out of twelve A P H C A m e m ber countries have sent their reports regulary. It is apparently felt
that the achievement is beyond expectation.
DISCUSSION
1. To be able to implement intra-regional reporting of disease each
country should process her national recording/reporting system on
animal disease data.
2. The implementation of intra-regional reporting of disease is felt
as very important, to be continued through the on-going channel
system.
3. If required it could be expanded covering Asia, the Far East and
Oceania regions.
— 216 —
4. Observing the achievement gained by A P H C A along these days
when only four countries out of twelve member countries of A P H C A
have regulary sent their reports it is deemed necessary t o reconsider
the current system.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 217-220.
Intra-regional reporting of diseases
by
Muneo
OGATA
(*)
In order t o perform efficient and appropriate domestic animal
health administration, it is necessary to grasp properly the situation
on the outbreaks of animal diseases a n d economic damages resulting
from the diseases in a country. The same holds true in a region.
Systematic and efficient exchange of information should therefore
take place between the countries in the region.
Before systematization of information exchange is studied, however, a review should be m a d e about collection of necessary information a n d analysis in each country in the region as described in the
following :
1. C O L L E C T I O N A N D A N A L Y S I S O F Z O O - S A N I T A R Y
INFORMATION
Systems for domestic animal health and social and geographical
conditions differ from country to country. F . A . O . proposed in 1973
« Proposals for an Internationally Agreed Standard of Veterinary
Service », and disease surveillance has been regarded as important in
every country in recent years.
In J a p a n , the Domestic Animal Infectious Disease Control Law
stipulates the duty of reporting 25 specified infectious diseases.
Moreover, veterinarians are required to report on additional 14
infectious diseases if they have diagnosed them. As other measures,
the following programs are carried out on a nation-wide basis to collect local zoo-sanitary information.
(*) Director of Veterinary Drug Administration, Bureau of Animal Industry,
MAFF, Tokyo.
— 218
(1) Animal
Hygiene
Survey Program
:
Veterinarians are regularly sent to abattoirs a n d poultry dressing
plants to collect and to analyze the results of slaughter inspections
that are performed by the Public Health D e p a r t m e n t . The veterinarians also feed back t o the farmers the information that they have
collected and analyzed, or utilize the information for the improvement of the sanitation in the area.
(2) Program for Systematization
Disease Control :
of Information
about
Animal
A monitor farmer is appointed per each group of farmers raising
domestic animals, and the monitors are to report once a m o n t h on
the hygiene problem and disease situation in their g r o u p .
(3) Patrol Program
in Remote
Areas
without
Veterinary
Clinics :
In the remote areas where n o veterinary practitioners are available, private veterinary practitioners are requested, under contract, to
m a k e regular calls on farmers for the treatment of animals and collection of information about zoo-sanitary conditions.
(4) Epidemiological
Surveys
:
Regular surveys on the farms which have been selected in advance
are conducted about the outbreaks and behaviors of biting midges
(Culicoides arakawae) and changes in antibody and p r o t o z o a in
order t o estimate the extent of possible prevalence of avian leucocytozoon and bovine A k a b a n e diseases.
(5) Diagnosis
at Animal
Hygiene
Service Centers :
Testing and diagnostic services are routinely offered at 202 Animal Hygiene Service Centers t h r o u g h o u t the country. The reports
and results are gathered at the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries as urgent, monthly and annual reports, but
(a) outbreaks of the infectious diseases designated by the law are
reported to all the prefectural offices simultaneously by telex;
(b) outbreaks of other diseases are reported in monthly reports for
distribution to all prefectural offices;
(c) other related information is reported in the Animal Hygiene
Weekly issued by the Animal Health Division of the Ministry for
— 219 —
distribution t o all the prefectural offices and Animal Hygiene Service Centers.
The monthly report on the outbreaks of infectious diseases of
domestic animals is sent to the O . I . E . and F . A . O . and also t o the
countries, on an exchange basis, from and to which Japan imports
or exports domestic animals and livestock products.
A present, our monthly report is sent to 57 countries and similarly
reports are received from 37 countries.
2. I N T R A - R E G I O N A L R E P O R T I N G SYSTEM
The World Information Service of the O . I . E . and the Animal
Health Yearbooks issued by F . A . O . and O . I . E . are very useful.
They are m a d e available primarily because information is supplied
from each country. Therefore, disease surveillance in each country,
which becomes the basis of the services and information from the
international Organizations, should first be intensified and made
complete.
Information has both quantitative and qualitative aspects. The
qualitative information is not described by statistics or in certain
forms, but a study should be made t o establish some international
standards for summarizing qualitative information. Another point
that seems to be a problem is the fact that information is not obtainable soon enough.
Information that is required in more detail in the future is :
(1) Changes in the prevalence of infectious diseases and details
about the measures taken to prevent infectious diseases.
(2) Development and application of new vaccines and drugs, and
their results.
(3) Changes in the systems for the prevention of infectious diseases and quarantine systems.
(4) Others.
It is intended that the Information Service of the O . I . E . Asian
Bureau (Tokyo) should be as informative as possible. But, satisfactory results have not been realized because of limited information
from member countries. In this connection, together with coordination with « Asian Livestock » issued by A P H C A , we hope that a
— 220 —
review will be m a d e on how information services should be rendered
in the future.
*
* *
Designated
communicable
1. Rinderpest
2. Contagious Bovine
Pleuropneumonia
3. F o o t - a n d - M o u t h Disease
4. Bovine Enzootic Fever
5. Infectious Encephalitis
6. Rabies
7. A n t h r a x
8. Blackleg
9. Hemorrhagic Septicemia
10. Brucellosis
11. Tuberculosis
12. J o h n e ' s Disease
13. Piroplasmosis(*)
Infectious
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Trypanosomiasis
Tetanus
Vesicular Stomatitis
Infectious Bovine
Rhinotracheitis
Trichomoniasis
Warble Infestation
Pseudo-Farcy
Equine Paratyphoid
infectious
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
diseases
(*)
Anaplasmosis
Glanders
Equine Infectious Anemia
H o g Cholera
African Swine Fever
Swine Vesicular Disease
Swine Erysipelas
Fowl Cholera
Fowl Pest
Newcastle Disease
Pullorum Disease
Foul Brood
(*) Pathogens provided for in the
Ministerial Ordinance only.
to be
reported
9. Sheep P o x
10. Scabies
11. Transmissible GastroEnteritis
12. Swine Dysentery
13. Infectious Bronchitis of
Chickens
14. Infectious Laryngotracheitis
of Chickens
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 221-226.
Intra-regional reporting
of animal diseases(*)
INTRODUCTION
It has become increasingly evident that the movement of animals
plays a significant role in the spread of the variety of animal diseases
affecting livestock, particulary across the international boundaries in
this region. With the agriculture industries becoming more sophisticated and technologically based, disease is an important cost of p r o duction. It has, thus, become very important that efficient disease
monitoring by a surveillance system be available so that effective
control measures and import and export regulations can be made to
facilitate livestock trade between countries, as well as within countries. This a global trend and some forerunners of the international
surveillance network include E P I C in U . S . A . , A N A D I S in Australia.
The work of the Office International des Epizooties (O.I.E.) was the
first attempt at international animal disease surveillance.
It is very relevant that this topic is on the Agenda at this O . I . E .
Regional Meeting, and Malaysia is privileged to be chosen to lead the
discussion on intra-regional reporting of disease. We have recognised
the importance of disease surveillance, in view of the active livestock
trade between countries within this region. A major step forward is
the proposal for the development of the Animal Disease Information
Center (Data Bank) by A S E A N .
The proposed
Bank).
ASEAN
Animal
Disease Information
Center
(Data
The proposal for the Center was tabled at a recent meeting of the
A S E A N Animal Protection P r o g r a m m e . The rationale, objectives,
and strategy for the development of the data bank have been outlined. A time period of two years has been agreed upon for starting the
data b a n k , at an estimated cost of U.S.$ 16,700. A S E A N is seeking
(*) Report presented by the Malaysian Delegation.
— 222 —
assistance for the financing and establishment of the project from a
third country, and at this time a third country has indicated interest.
This center should represent a forerunner for a m o r e extensive
system to cover the entire region.
Malaysia is honored and p r o u d to have been selected as the site for
the data b a n k , and as the initial developer of the system. It is thus
appropriate that we have been chosen to lead the discussion. We are
ready to meet the challenge ahead, and it is hoped that useful conclusions can be derived at this Meeting so that we can proceed with the
task in h a n d .
In view of the cost involved, as a starting point, it is imperative
that we have an overview of the features of an efficient animal
disease surveillance system, particularly the features best suited for
this region, and the means of linking u p with international networks
already in existence. The World Health Organization has described
disease surveillance as the collation and interpretation of d a t a with a
view to the detection of changes in the health status of the population.
The provision
of surveillance
information.
In general, two important things should be considered in providing
surveillance information. Firstly, the requirements of the « data customers », i.e. the users of the information to be provided by the
system. The second is the cost of providing the information.
Although the latter is an important consideration, at this point, we
should examine the first in detail. Only then can we weigh and justify
the cost involved.
The « data customers » include the various organisations within
the agricultural sector. The major ones are the agencies and individuals involved in animal disease control, and those involved in the
financing and operation of research and development facilities. The
respective country's Government Veterinary Service is the traditional
agency concerned with animal disease control. As an example, the
requirement of the British Veterinary Service is for a readily accessible balanced overview of the disease situation in the field, and
appraisal of developing disease problems. The emphasis is on general
disease trends or rapid changes in disease prevalence, and their
effects on livestock t r a d e .
On the other h a n d , the research group requires information that
will determine research priorities, and guidance into the initial inqui-
— 223 —
ries into a disease. It has become clear that large population studies
yield more relevant and realistic assessment of a disease when compared to laboratory studies.
There is, t h u s , a need to examine and identify the needs of the
users of the information system for the region.
The types of facility
customers ».
to satisfy the various requirements
of the « data
It has been postulated that the varying requirements of the data
users can be met by the following types of facility :
1. A comprehensive body of simple readily accessible disease data.
The emphasis is not so much on definitive recording of disease, but
on prevalence trends. This means the collection of numerical data on
disease as well as « informed opinion » from the field. It should provide background information about diseases to the various data
users.
2. A facility capable of detailed assessment of a particular disease
situation. In essence, this means surveys. Although surveys are generally expensive, they become a necessity when background data are
meagre.
3. An early warning system of new events or disease occurrences.
This is most difficult to develop, and requires a good agricultural
extension service, the use of sentinel animals, and a manual of descriptions of exotic diseases.
4. A trace-back system. This is true with zoonoses, particularly foodborne diseases. In most developed countries, the pig and poultry
industries represent the obvious places to implement this system
because of the close link between the farms and the slaughterhouses.
5. An information system capable of exploring in some detail
relationship between disease and the agricultural systems, i.e.
farm recording.The disadvantage is the use of small elite groups,
breeding units. However, it m a y be the only way to monitor
called production diseases, such as mastitis, hypocalcaemia,
obtain information for general surveillance.
the
one.g.
soto
It is probably useful to examine the existing situation in the various
member countries, and explore the possibilities of developing these
types of facility as an adjunct or support to the regional disease
reporting system.
— 224 —
Trends in global disease
surveillance.
The general trends in international animal disease surveillance
have been outlined and include the following :
1. A major step forward in international surveillance is that the
revision of d a t a managements must be done at the source country
level. Selection, recording, storage, analysis, and uses of d a t a need to
be examined in order to improve quality and consistency of data, and
m a k e them comparable between countries. There is, thus, a need to
standardise existing disease information systems in a region to m a k e
exchange of information m o r e useful.
2. An efficient communication network is essential so that rapid
dissemination of surveillance information is possible.
3. The planning and policy units in each source country or area
should maintain and u p d a t e frequently only essential files. Only
necessary decision-orientated information is transmitted through the
surveillance system. The quality and appropriateness of the data is
just as important locally as well as intra-regionally.
4. There is a trend towards a network of small computers (minicomputers) managing data at source, and dealing only with time critical analysis. Large centralised d a t a bases are proving unmanageable. However, there is a place for the central data bank in dealing
with large essentially non-time critical tasks, e.g. analysis of data
relevant to international surveillance needs. It has become apparent
that it is i m p o r t a n t , for the operation of an efficient disease information system, to keep the decision making a prerogative at the source,
where the actual field conditions and herd history are better underst o o d . The central data b a n k can decide o n matters pertinent to the
region as a whole.
5. The central data b a n k should not operate wholly as a source for
processing routine disease reports. It should also be a means of an
early warning system, as well as for calling for information urgently
required in an emergency situation.
6. It m a y be necessary not to trespass the fundamentals of epidemiology by expressing the disease situation in terms of prevalence,
incidence, geographical distribution, characteristics of the animal
units affected and disease patterns, in the analysis of surveillance
d a t a , instead of defining the information necessary for international
surveillance. When done with full international cooperation between
participating countries, this approach yields findings and control
methods that would not be attainable on analysis of individual
country data alone.
— 225 —
Those are some areas we should examine and explore as we work
towards a system of intra-regional reporting of disease.
Existing
data sources and disease recording
systems.
There are m a n y existing disease data sources which the proposed
information system can use. T h e objective is to examine and reorganise them into useful data for the purpose of the central data b a n k .
Some of these d a t a sources include abattoir records, veterinary practices, on-farm records (as part of herd health programmes), veterinary investigation center reports, laboratory reports, serum banks,
general agriculture surveys, and even pharmaceutical sales indices.
In addition, each m e m b e r country possesses its own national
disease recording or information system. These should also be examined, and compromises be agreed upon for standardisation to fit the
operations and objectives of an animal disease information system so
that the information from the system will be meaningful for the
region.
There are also a n u m b e r of disease reporting systems operating in
the region, such as the Australian-assisted A P H C A reporting system,
the F . A . O . / W . H . O . reports. We should explore ways of improving
the reporting, both at the input side of the data flow (i.e. input format) and the output (intra-regional reports) of the data base of a
regional disease surveillance system.
*
* *
SUMMARY
What has been outlined are some general considerations that need
to be made before developing a disease surveillance and information
system. As with any computerised system, the information or data
fed into the central unit determine the value or quality of the o u t p u t .
The ideas and opinions from all countries within the region will be of
great value to those involved in the development of the system. The
cost of setting up such a system is large, and it is important that careful thought and planning be put in prior to actual development of the
project. We are in the position to examine existing information
systems throughout the world and find ways useful to examine how
the regional system can link up with the other systems.
— 226 —
Malaysia is looking forward to develop the A S E A N D a t a Bank,
with the aid of all the expertise of the member and non-member
countries. We would like to view the A S E A N Center as a forerunner
as well as a component of an extensive information network for the
whole region. T h u s , we will be working on a system best suited to
A S E A N , as well as leaving r o o m where we can link up the A S E A N
Center to the regional network covering Asia, the Far East and Oceania. The problems that will be encountered are m a n y , and include the
problems of definitive diagnosis, disease coding and classification,
delay of reporting from the field. These, however, are details that
have to be worked out when the actual setting u p of the system is
being conducted. At this initial stage, we should be in agreement
about the overall concept of disease surveillance, so that we will not
proceed on the wrong track.
Bull. Off int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 227-231.
Regional reporting of disease
by
G.H. A D L A M
(*)
This paper summarizes the existing disease reporting systems and
examines the need for an additional system to serve the members of
the Asia, Far East and Oceania region.
In considering the merits of a disease reporting system it is first
necessary to establish the purpose of the exercise and determine what
diseases should be reported, the frequency of reporting and the
method of reporting.
Probably the main reason for reporting the occurrence of a disease
is to alert neighbouring areas and countries to the precautions they
must take in order to avoid its introduction to non-affected zones.
These may include the prophylactic vaccination of susceptible animals along c o m m o n land borders, intensified control of importations including quarantine measures, restricting sources of imports to
certain defined zones or total prohibition.
More distant countries will also profit by such reports as air travel
can facilitate the spread of a disease over great distances.
While it m a y at first appear only to disadvantage a country when it
reports an outbreak of disease, when all countries within a region are
committed to this action, the benefits are reciprocal and must
increase trust and cooperation between countries when the reporting
is prompt, accurate and consistent.
It is logical that the diseases that should be reported are those that
are of universal economic importance but the list may also include
conditions that are limited in occurrence by epidemiological factors
to the specific geographical region.
(*) Director, Animal Health Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Wellington, New Zealand.
— 228 —
1. The O.I.E. disease reporting
system.
All members of the O . I . E . are obliged by the rules of membership
t o report the occurrence of outbreaks of diseases named in List A
which includes those diseases of greatest concern to countries depending on healthy herds and flocks for their international t r a d e a n d the
well-being of their people.
The reports are m a d e to the headquarters of the Organization by
the most direct and swiftest m e t h o d and the information is sent out
to all Member-Countries in the form of information Notes, and also
as a regular monthly Circular.
The a m o u n t of detail supplied is limited but normally includes the
n u m b e r of outbreaks that have occurred during a two to four week
period, the location and in some cases the species affected and the
strain of infective agent is also given.
Quarterly circulars are also sent out to all members reporting on
fourteen less serious conditions named in List B but there is n o compulsion for members to submit reports on these diseases.
The service has been in operation for over fifty years, has been
proven to be very regular and dependable and provides the information in a uniform manner in three widely used languages.
As with any disease reporting procedure there are limitations and
difficulties with the O . I . E . system.
Not all countries are members of the O . I . E . although the number
is steadily growing and currently includes 98 sovereign states located
in every continent and region of the world.
Not all member states report as frequently or as promptly as they
should notwithstanding their membership commitment to do so.
Some of the diseases in List A are of very minor importance to
most areas whilst diseases that are of considerable interest and concern to specific regions are not included.
The need to report asymptomatic diseases manifested only by serological or other laboratory tests has yet to be clarified.
2. The F.A.O.
disease reporting
system.
The F . A . O . in association with W . H . O . and O . I . E . is responsible
for the production of an annual b o o k on Animal Diseases. This
— 229
report contains information gathered on a yearly basis from over 160
countries on approximately one hundred infectious diseases. The
species affected, disease incidence and the control methods employed
are set out in an easily understood coded from. The book is printed
in three languages and contains a practical index system which facilitates rapid reference.
This is a most useful reference source on the occurrence of diseases
but obviously cannot be depended upon to provide the most up-todate information at any particular time.
3. National
disease reporting
systems.
Many countries have taken the decision to report outbreaks of economically serious animal diseases to other countries either directly or
through their own ambassadorial offices. Where this procedure is
followed the recipient countries which are usually trading partners
receive the very latest information on disease outbreaks that may
affect trade in animals and animal products.
The disadvantage of this procedure is that it is not uniformly practised and the distribution of the information is limited.
The main advantage is one of economics as it does not require
membership in any organization and the cost is limited to the production and distribution of the reports.
4. W.H.O.
reports.
The W . H . O . periodically publishes information on the occurrence
of important zoonoses (e.g. Rabies) gathered from affected countries
on an annual basis which is of considerable value and interest to
experts working in the specific fields covered. However, the specificity and periodicity of such reports puts them clearly into a different
category to the general disease reporting systems under consideration.
*
* *
The question of whether or not it would be advantageous to develop a regional disease reporting system can now be considered.
— 230 —
It is known that m a n y countries believe a regional reporting system
would have merit but the subject must be examined objectively to
determine how real are the expected advantages.
It can undoubtedly be argued that countries located within a
region have c o m m o n interests, are closely allied in trading and agriculture with similar aims and therefore the existing reporting systems
do not serve them adequately.
However, ours is a very large region and while m a n y countries
within it do have c o m m o n interests they also have interests in other
regions so that a wholly regional system would not provide all the
information required by m a n y members. For this reason a wholly
regional reporting system could not take the place of the world-wide
O . I . E . service but could be considered as supplementing it.
As indicated above the O . I . E . reporting service probably fulfils
most of the requirements of the majority of countries within the
region but may not include diseases of local regional importance and
does not cover all of the countries located within the region.
The O . I . E . list of reportable diseases has been amended from time
to time and no doubt could be further modified if the MemberCountries m a d e firm recommendations.
If all countries within the region adopted a uniform national
system of disease reporting as described in 3 above and supplied it to
all countries within the region, this would overcome the problem
related to n o n - O . I . E . members, although there would again be duplication of effort and the benefit may not extend beyond the region.
Perhaps the best solution to the problem would be to re-examine
the purpose and perhaps the location of the Asian Office of the
O . I . E . currently located in T o k y o .
In recent years regional members have considered the need to continue this office but n o firm decisions have yet been m a d e . If the central office of the O . I . E . provided the necessary support, the Asian
Office could serve as a collection and dissemination centre for animal
disease reporting by all non-member countries lying within the
region. This would benefit all O . I . E . members by providing additional information of disease outbreaks in those countries not yet members of the O . I . E .
In return the n o n - O . I . E . members in the region could be supplied
with disease outbreak reports as supplied by the central office of the
O . I . E . via the Asian Office.
—
231
In addition by regional arrangement and agreement reports on
some diseases important to countries within the region but not currently in the O . I . E . List A could be collected and disseminated from
the Asian Office.
There is a long-standing agreement between the F . A . O . and the
O.I.E. under which it is recognized that the O . I . E . is responsible for
the collecting and p r o m p t dissemination of information on livestock
diseases throughout the world, and it would seem appropriate for the
O.I.E. to collaborate through its Asian Office with the F . A . O .
A P H C A office to explore ways in which the disease reporting service
can be developed to better serve the needs of all the countries in the
region.
An active O . I . E . office in Asia would help correct an impression
held by many countries that the Office has little to offer in solving
disease problems of this region.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 233-237.
Intra-regional reporting of diseases
by
Robert C.T. LEE , Tracy T.C. L I N
(*)
(**)
, and Chao-chien
HO
(***)
Many countries in our region are m o r e or less making efforts in
developing their animal industries by importing breeding stocks and
the importation of animals in turn poses a great risk of introducing
exotic infectious diseases. T o enable a country t o d o better disease
prevention and control of her own, the creation of an efficient and
practical disease reporting and relevant information disseminating
network according to the geographic region is of great necessity. It
is our firm belief that the member-countries within the same geographic b o u n d a r y can enormously contribute not only to the development of animal industry but also to the improvement of public
health of that region by exchanging information and experience pertaining to disease occurrences a n d their controlling measures. T h e
following are our concepts regarding the establishment and operation of such intra-regional collaboration.
1. Diseases to be covered
in the
reporting.
There are m a n y diseases which are of economical importance or
of public health concern. We think it is rather appropriate that the
following diseases are covered in our disease reporting scheme :
1. 16 obligatorily
notifiable
1) Foot-and-Mouth Disease
2) Rinderpest
3) Contagious Bovine
Pleuropneumonia
diseases in the O.I.E. List A :
4)
5)
6)
7)
L u m p y Skin Disease
Anthrax
Sheep P o x
Bluetongue
(*) Chairman, Council for Agricultural Planning and Development (CAPD),
Executive Yuan, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.
(**) Senior Specialist, Animal Industry Division, CAPD.
(***) Professor, Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.
— 234 —
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
African Horse Sickness
Glanders
Dourine
Classical Swine Fever
African Swine Fever
13)
14)
15)
16)
Teschen Disease
Swine Vesicular Disease
Newcastle Disease
Rabies
(2) 4 diseases in the O.I.E. List B :
1) Enzootic Bovine Leucosis
2) Bovine Brucellosis
2. Regional
(1)
center for disease
3) Bovine Tuberculosis
4) Vesicular Stomatitis
reporting.
Venue.
There must be a center for the intra-regional reporting of diseases.
For practical reasons, such a regional center for disease reporting
would be better located in the same site as the Regional Office of the
O . I . E . Regional Commission.
(2)
Responsibilities.
a) With the consent of the O . I . E . Headquarters, the center shall
adopt the formats of disease reporting in the region. The formats
should include blank tables and country-map sketches of each
member-country. To facilitate the recognition of disease occurrences
in relation to a country's major ports of international t r a d e , we also
suggest that on a blank country-map sketch, the capital city a n d all
international air- and sea-ports are properly m a r k e d .
b) To collect and disseminate information concerning major
disease outbreaks and control measures applied and to forward
copies of these documents to O . I . E . Headquarters according to the
following priorities :
(i) Immediate reporting for any exotic epizootic of O . I . E . List A.
(ii) Monthly reporting for enzootics of O . I . E . List A .
(iii) Quarterly reporting for enzootics of O . I . E . List B.
3. Duties of
Member-Countries.
(1) Each Member-Country should prepare the blanks of disease
reporting tables and country-map sketches according to the adopted
formats described previously.
— 235 —
(2) Based on the reporting priority described in the preceding
paragraph, each M e m b e r - C o u n t r y shall fill the afore-mentioned
blank table(s) and country-map sketch(es) and then send them to the
Regional Center for Disease Reporting.
4. Suggested
table for disease
reporting.
Country :
Month/day/year :
Disease
5.
Place of
occurrence
Outbroke Eradicated Still No. of No. of PossiControl
Rein
in
exist- animals animals
ble
measures marks
(month)
(month)
ing affected killed source
Appendix.
Country
Reporting
of Epizootics
in Taiwan,
ROC
The Livestock Disease Control Centers (LDCCs), one in each
county or national city, are primarily responsible for epizootic survey, diagnosis and control, a n d for animal-related public health p r o blems in their own counties or national cities.
The intra-country reporting of epizootics in the Province of Taiwan has been governed by the Provincial Department of Agriculture
and Forestry (PDAF) which has been obliged to consult the Council
for Agricultural Planning and Development (CAPD) about overall
veterinary services in the province. While in the National Cities of
Taipei and Kaohsiung, their L D C C s , through Bureau of Construction, have submitted epizootic reports to the Ministry of Economic
— 236 —
Affairs (MOEA) and also have been obliged to consult the C A P D
about overall veterinary services in the cities.
(1) Flow-chart
of epizootic
reports.
Inter-Country
(international)
Intra-Country
(domestic)
Local
LDCCs of Counties -
LDCCs of National
Cities
(2) Notifiable
Provincial or
National Municipal
Dept. of Agri.
and Forestry
(Provincial)
Bureau of
Construction
(National
Municipal)
Central
MOEA
(Veterinary
Services, Dept.
of Agriculture)
CAPD
(Veterinary
Services, Animal
Industry Div.)
Monthly
Report
o.
I.
Quarterly
and Annual
Reports
E.
diseases.
The following epizootics are included in Article 6 of the Livestock
Infectious Disease Prevention and Control Law as notifiable diseases :
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
Rinderpest
F o o t - a n d - M o u t h Disease
Enzootic Fever of Cattle
Contagious Bovine
Pleuropneumonia
Bovine Tuberculosis
Bovine Brucellosis
Black-leg Disease
Anthrax
Equine Infectious Anemia
Glanders
Pseudofarcy
Piroplasmosis
13) Trypanosomiasis
14) Sheep P o x
15) Sheep Scabies
16)
17)
18)
19)
20)
21)
22)
23)
24)
H o g Cholera
Swine Erysipelas
Rabies
Epidemic Encephalitis
Pasteurellosis
Fowl Plague
Newcastle Disease
Fowl Cholera
Pullorum Disease
— 237 —
The following 7 diseases were added to the primary list in March
1975 :
25) Bovine Malignant
Catarrhal Fever
26) Bovine (Ovine) Bluetongue
27) Pseudorabies
28) African Swine Fever
(3) Time of
29) Swine Vesicular Disease
30) Swine Trichinosis
31) Bovine Mastitis caused by
Streptococcus
agalactiae
reporting.
1) Immediate reporting : required for any exotic epizootic, H o g
Cholera and Pseudorabies.
2) Monthly reporting : required for all notifiable diseases.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 239-240.
Animal disease reporting
in the United States
(*)
There are several systems for reporting the occurrence of animal
diseases. In general the reports m a y be issued by State governments,
the Federal government, or special interest groups.
State reports can range from informal exchanges of information
with issuance of occasional bulletins t o regularly published formal
reports. Published State reports usually include information from
diagnostic laboratories a n d meat a n d poultry inspection reports. In
some States forms for reporting disease occurrence are sent to veterinary practitioners. Information from the forms that are completed
and returned m a y be included in the State report.
Examples of special interest groups that collect and publish data
on animal disease occurrence are : the American Association of
Avian Pathologists and the Veterinary Medical D a t a P r o g r a m
(VMDP). Both groups collect data and report to their members. The
VMDP group is managed by the Association of V M D P Participants,
Inc. ; members of this group are Universities with Veterinary
Schools. The data collected is clinical information in a standardized
format which is stored in central computerized files. M a n y diagnostic
laboratories use computers for data storage. There are several ongoing programs for development of central computer storage of this
data so that it might be shared among participating laboratories. T h e
American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians has
taken a major role in this effort.
On the national level major sources of information are Meat and
Poultry Inspection of the F o o d Safety and Quality Service and Veterinary Services of the Animal and Plant Inspection Service in the
Department of Agriculture and the Public Health Service in the
Department of Health and H u m a n Services. Meat a n d poultry inspectors complete a daily activity report that includes diseases observed. Laboratory diagnostic work is also reported. Veterinary Servi(*) Report presented by the U.S. Delegation.
— 240 —
ces is responsible for the execution of programs for the eradication or
control of specific diseases. The incidence of these diseases is reported quarterly. They also are responsible for certifying animals for
export, operating quarantine stations, and investigating possible exotic disease outbreaks. The Public Health Service collects and publishes data on zoonotic animal diseases.
6. La s i t u a t i o n d e la S a n t é P u b l i q u e V é t é r i n a i r e d a n s la R é g i o n .
T h e s t a t u s of V e t e r i n a r y Public H e a l t h in t h e R e g i o n .
Situación d e la S a l u d Pública V e t e r i n a r i a en la R e g i ó n .
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 243-247.
The status
of Veterinary Public Health
in Australia
by
R.R. BIDDLE
(*)
The importance of veterinary public health t o the community is
being increasingly recognised. In Australia, this m a y be gauged by
Government expenditure in the veterinary public health sphere,
which, including the cost of disease eradication p r o g r a m s , is estimated at $A90m this year.
B E V E R I D G E (1978) defined some of the functions of modern veterinary public health practice. These include the control of zoonoses,
supervision of food hygiene (especially foods of animal origin) and
environmental hygiene. H e particularly emphasised the need for closer collaboration between the medical and veterinary professions in
controlling zoonotic diseases.
Because m a n y of these functions are essentially regulatory, they
are best performed by government bodies employing qualified veterinarians and inspectors. However, important contributions are also
made by private veterinary practitioners in disease eradication p r o grams and zoonotic disease control in companion animals.
1. V E T E R I N A R Y P U B L I C H E A L T H A C T I V I T I E S
IN A U S T R A L I A
Veterinary public health in Australia may be discussed under zoonoses, food hygiene and environmental hygiene.
(*) Australian Bureau of Animal Health, Canberra, A.C.T. 2600.
— 244 —
1.1.
Zoonoses.
Australia has traditionally placed great emphasis on quarantine to
prevent the entry of exotic zoonotic diseases. A number of serious
zoonotic diseases, including Rabies, remain exotic to Australia. To
maintain this situation in the face of greater risks from the increasing volume and speed of international air travel, the Australian
government has commissioned an extensive media p r o g r a m to
increase public awareness of the need for animal and plant quarantine.
Some endemic zoonotic diseases cause significant production losses in Australian livestock. For this and public health reasons, national eradication campaigns have been implemented. The Australian
Bureau of Animal Health (ABAH) is currently co-ordinating the
national campaign for bovine Tuberculosis and Brucellosis eradication. The campaign is funded by the C o m m o n w e a l t h , State and Territory governments, part of the costs being recouped by a cattle
slaughter levy. In the financial year 1978-79, expenditure on the
campaign totalled $A32m. of which $A10m. was contributed by
producers through the livestock slaughter levy and $A8.6m. by the
States and Territories.
State and Territory veterinary authorities are responsible for field
and laboratory operations associated with the Tuberculosis and Brucellosis eradication campaign in their respective areas. T o assist
campaign progress, the A B A H operates a computerised disease
recording system — the Australian National Animal Disease Information System (ANADIS). Details of the progress of the campaign
have been published (Australian Bureau of Animal Health, 1980a).
Another endemic zoonotic disease requiring government control
measures is Hydatid disease in m a n . Veterinary and medical authorities in Tasmania have, through an intensive public education program utilizing dog testing and abattoir monitoring, reduced the incidence of Hydatid disease in m a n to low levels. Feasibility studies on
control of the disease in mainland endemic regions are being conducted by an expert technical committee. Prevalence data on h u m a n
Hydatidosis in Australia have been reviewed ( B E A R D , 1979). Hydatidosis control will continue to require close collaboration between the
medical and veterinary professions in Australia.
Public awareness of the need to control and prevent pet-borne
zoonoses such as Toxocariasis and Toxoplasmosis has led to increasing pressure on governments, particularly at the local level, to pro-
— 245 —
vide control measures for stray pet animals. The veterinary profession has demonstrated its interest by participating in government
stray animal control programs and by its involvement with public
organisations such as the R . S . P . C . A . and the recently established
Joint Advisory Committee o n Pets in Society ( J A C O P I S ) . Veterinary treatment of pets is the major form of control. Preventive
medicine and client education are also important.
1.2. Food
hygiene.
Veterinary involvement in food hygiene in Australia is principally
in meat inspection and meat hygiene. There is a two tier meat inspection service with C o m m o n w e a l t h officers inspecting meat at
export abattoirs and State officers inspecting meat at non-export
abattoirs. In some States C o m m o n w e a l t h inspectors m a y be assisted
by State inspectors at registered export establishments. In South
Australia and the Australian Capital Territory, Commonwealth inspectors undertake all meat inspection.
The Commonwealth meat inspection service is administered by
the Veterinary Public Health Branch of the A B A H . During 1978-79,
the Branch employed 184 veterinarians and 1,796 meat inspectors in
all States and Territories. The Branch ensures that meat for export is
inspected, labelled and certified in accordance with the requirements
of the Commonwealth of Australia Exports (Meat) Regulations a n d
that it complies with any specific requirements of the importing
country. Some 70 to 80 per cent of the meat consumed within A u s tralia is inspected by A B A H staff at registered export establishments. Further details of Australia's export meat inspection service
are outlined in the 1978-79 A B A H Report (Australian Bureau of
Animal Health, 19806).
State government meat inspection services employ veterinarians
and over 400 meat inspectors.
Recent developments in meat inspection services include a contribution to disease eradication p r o g r a m s through recording a n d traceback of lesions detected during routine meat inspection and the
implementation of an export game meat inspection service.
Other animal foods inspected include dairy products, poultry and
honey. The extent of this involvement, however, varies from State
to State. Legislative responsibility for these inspection services m a y
lie with State Departments of Agriculture or State Departments of
— 246 —
H e a l t h . In the latter case inspections are conducted by health inspectors under the control of a medical officer.
Export fish inspection was formerly carried out by lay inspectors
under veterinary supervision. Export inspection is n o w supervised
by food technologists, while inspection of fish for the local market
is controlled by State Departments of Health.
Responsibility for inspection of foods not of animal origin lies
with the State Departments of Health and local government authorities. As described previously inspections are conducted by health
inspectors under the control of a medical officer.
1.3. Environmental
hygiene.
M o d e r n veterinary public health practice involves government
agencies in preserving a hygienically and physically safe environment for m a n . The environmental factors concerning veterinarians
are mainly related to the animal production and processing industries.
State government veterinary authorities provide advice on the
siting and design of intensive animal production units and the treatment and disposal of effluents. Meat inspection authorities give
similar advice on abattoirs and other meat processing facilities. Inspection authorities also seek an environment ensuring the hygienic
preparation of meat and meat products.
T h e regulation of agricultural chemicals, pesticides and stock
medicines has traditionally been a function of State government
veterinary authorities. The growing international awareness of the
potential significance to h u m a n health of residues of such comp o u n d s in foods has led to increased veterinary involvement in the
regulation of the use of these chemicals.
By agreement between States and the Commonwealth, new agricultural and veterinary chemicals are not considered for registration
by State authorities until cleared by C o m m o n w e a l t h / S t a t e Technical
Committees. This arrangement provides some uniformity previously
missing from regulatory control.
Meat inspectors collect meat samples for pesticide, heavy metal
and biological residue analysis as part of a national monitoring program involving all foods. Violative samples are traced back to their
— 247 —
originating farm for corrective action by veterinary authorities,
which, in some States, m a y include long term quarantine.
The need for effective animal identification systems to trace-back
slaughtered animals to their farm of origin is receiving considerable
attention from public health veterinarians. Such systems are vital to
the success of the national Tuberculosis and Brucellosis eradication
campaign. In the future, they should provide data useful to animal
production enterprises.
Animal welfare is an issue of increasing importance in Australia.
The veterinarian is being placed under greater public scrutiny t o
ensure that the welfare of farm animals, particularly intensively reared animals, receives proper attention. Prominent animal welfare
issues include housing, h u s b a n d r y , transport and methods of
slaughter. The welfare of animals used in scientific experiments is
also an issue of concern.
2. E D U C A T I O N , R E S E A R C H A N D L A B O R A T O R Y
S U P P O R T SERVICES
2.1.
Education.
Undergraduate courses in Veterinary Science are offered at the
Universities of Queensland, Sydney, Melbourne and M u r d o c h (Western Australia). All provide formal instruction in veterinary public
health including food hygiene and inspection.
Post-graduate courses in veterinary public health and public health
practice are available in Australian universities. A course of particular relevance is the Master of Veterinary Studies in meat hygiene and
veterinary public health offered by the University of Queensland.
The demand for post-graduate education is increasing with the
growing complexity of veterinary public health services. The Australian College of Veterinary Scientists offers, by examination, membership in its Chapter of Veterinary Public Health.
In-service training courses in meat hygiene and inspection are conducted by the A B A H and some States for their veterinary and lay
inspection staff.
2.2.
Research.
The universities are conducting research in areas important to
veterinary public health, notably in epidemiology, pathology, micro-
— 248 —
biology and parasitology. Research funds are provided by the Commonwealth and State governments, and by producer levies. The latter are administered as trust funds and research projects are a p p r o ved by appropriate research committees.
The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) Meat Research Laboratory, located at C a n n o n Hill in
Queensland, has an international reputation in applied meat
research.
2.3. Laboratory
support
services.
Laboratory support for veterinary public health activities in Australia is provided by several organisations.
Regional veterinary diagnostic laboratories of State Departments
of Agriculture are strategically located throughout Australia and
provide microbiological, pathological and toxicological diagnostic
services.
Laboratories administered by Commonwealth and State Departments of Health provide microbiological and toxicological services,
particularly in water quality assurance and food analysis.
Australian Government Analytical Laboratories (AGAL) provide
services in food analysis and pesticide and other chemical residue
analysis.
At its Canberra laboratory, the A B A H maintains a national animal serum b a n k . The b a n k provides valuable epidemiological data
t h r o u g h retrospective serological studies.
3. A U S T R A L I A N A D V I S O R Y B O D I E S
There are two main bodies providing expert advice to State and
Commonwealth governments in veterinary public health matters.
They are the Sub-Committee on Veterinary Public Health (SCVPH)
of the Animal Health Committee (a committee of Commonwealth
and State Chief Veterinary Officers) and the Veterinary Public
Health (Standing) Committee ( V P H C ) of the National Health and
Medical Research Council ( N H & M R C ) .
The membership of S C V P H comprises nominees from C o m m o n wealth and State meat inspection services, the C S I R O Meat
Research Laboratory and the Commonwealth Department of
—
249
—
Health. S C V P H is essentially concerned with meat hygiene, inspection and production.
The membership of V P H C comprises invited experts in zoonotic
diseases. They are drawn from Commonwealth and State government departments and the Universities. V P H C advises the
N H & M R C o n animal diseases and animal products which m a y
directly or indirectly affect h u m a n health. It provides a valuable
forum for the medical and veterinary professions and has funds to
finance research on zoonotic disease.
4.
CONCLUSION
The Australian public increasingly demands higher food standards
and improved environmental hygiene. This is reflected in continuing
demands for a wide range of veterinary public health services.
In the long term there is confidence that the status of veterinary
public health in Australia will be enhanced as governments react to
the demands of consumers, the livestock industries and the requirements of overseas m a r k e t s .
*
* *
REFERENCES
Australian Bureau of Animal H e a l t h . — Bovine Tuberculosis and
Brucellosis Eradication in Australia 1 9 7 8 - 7 9 . Progress Report
N o . 5 . Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra,
A . C . T . , 1 9 8 0 (a).
Australian Bureau of Animal Health. — Australian Bureau of Animal Health 1 9 7 8 - 7 9 . Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, A . C . T . , 1 9 8 0 (b).
BEARD
(T.C.). — Hydatids in Australia — the present position in
m a n . Aust.
vet. J.,
1 9 7 9 , 55, 1 3 1 - 1 3 5 .
(W.I.B.). — The need for closer collaboration between
the medical and veterinary professions. Bull. Wld. Hlth. Org.,
BEVERIDGE
1 9 7 8 , 56,
849-858.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 251-265.
The Veterinary Public Health status
in Indonesia
by
R. ROSO S O E J O E D O N O
(*)
INTRODUCTION
Although their involvement in h u m a n welfare has been a long
tradition, organized veterinary participation in public health is a
relatively recent development and has increased considerably with
the general recognition, especially since the end of World War II,
of public health as a multidisciplinary field (1).
The public health veterinarians are responsible for that field of
activity which protects and advances the health of m a n by utilizing
the knowledge and resources concerned with the interrelationship
of animals and h u m a n health. This includes the planning, conducting, supervising, and coordinating of community efforts for the
improvement of health and well-being of m a n . The public health
veterinarian's efforts are directed towards the improvement of
public health by application of his professional knowledge in coordination with other public health competencies (2, 3).
Started with a few major zoonoses and food hygiene, the public
health service of veterinarians in Indonesia began as early as 1911,
when the municipal towns of Surabaya, J a k a r t a and Semarang
established a veterinary hygiene service which was followed by the
town of Bandung in 1917. The aims and objectives of these services
are outlined in Decree N o . 432, 1912 of the former Dutch Government, which is also referred to as Government Veterinary Interference (4).
(*) School of Veterinary Medicine, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor.
—
252
V E T E R I N A R Y PUBLIC H E A L T H IN INDONESIA
R E S S A N G ( 4 ) summarized the activities of municipal veterinarians
as : meat and milk hygiene in all of their aspects, canning industry
and environmental hygiene supervision, and the control and eradication of zoonoses in some towns i.e. in Semarang, Malang and
J a k a r t a . Furthermore he stated that in other towns such as Bogor,
the control of zoonoses is taken care of by the district veterinarian.
The major activities of public health veterinarians in Indonesia
can be summarized as follows :
A . Food
1. Meat
hygiene.
hygiene.
According to the latest survey ( 5 ) m a d e by the Directorate of Animal Health Service, Directorate General of Livestock Production,
only 2 1 % of sampled slaughterhouses are in a good condition i.e.
fulfil the basic requirements of modern meat handling. Most of
these good slaughterhouses are municipal abattoirs which have an
adequate meat inspection service, separation of the clean and
unclean operations, the dressing of carcases is done in hanging position on overhead rails and movable h o o k s , the effluent disposal is
adequate, etc. The other abattoirs are mostly located in small municipalities and outside the island of Java.
The problem of meat transportation and marketing still exists
nowadays ( 4 , 5 ) . Even though the municipal abattoir provides specially equipped transportation vehicles, because of the lack of cleanliness habits, most of the meat owners attend to their meat by going
inside the meat boxes, bare-footed and bringing their dirty belongings with them. Besides these afore-mentioned vehicles, the meat
traders carry their meat in open carriages, in crates, in cages and
other unsanitary means which permits the meat being exposed to
outer temperature, flies, dust, etc. In displaying meat for retail, the
sanitary conditions are sometimes questionable, even when meat is
sold in wire-gauzed, fly-proof premises. These mentioned conditions
are the more to be regretted as the local meat regulations permit
transportation and marketing of meat only in dust- and fly-proof
vehicles, cages and shops.
To render more service to the public, the government has built
several new abattoirs i.e. the modern pig slaughterhouse in Kapuk
— 253 —
(Jakarta), cattle abattoirs in Bekasi (West Java) and Surabaya, and
will build in the coming years cattle slaughterhouses in M e d a n
(North Sumatra) and J a k a r t a . These efforts are being m a d e through
the aid of foreign grants and we hope that m a n y of our old abattoirs, most of which were built more than 40 years ago, will be
replaced by new ones.
2. Milk
hygiene.
Each municipal t o w n has its own local regulations based on the
Milk Codex, a kind of m a n u a l , which contains analytical procedures, minimum requirements for milk, stable requisites, etc. (4). This
Codex, which was enacted in 1914, is however not a milk act, nor
has it any legislative power.
Because of lack of equipment and funds, most of the municipal
authorities rarely enforce their own regulations on milk. Sanitary
conditions in most of the milk-producing barns are poor and milk
goes to the market uninspected; the consumers are complaining of
adulteration of milk by water, coco-nut milk, etc., and of the delivery of a sour milk.
These conditions m a k e the consumers change their habits from
buying raw and fresh milk into buying canned milk products, which
they believe to be m o r e reliable and safer. This made the milk
industry in Indonesia, most of which is run on a small scale, to
decline and some have already went into bankruptcy.
3. Food poisoning
and
intoxication.
The most important factor contributing to food poisoning in
Indonesia is the antiquated methods of food handling (6). Most of
the food is retailed in an open market without the benefit of refrigeration, screens, or protective covering. F o o d inspection is poorly
enforced or non-existent, so that food which may have been entirely
wholesome at its point of origin (which it rarely is) is often contaminated through its long exposure to tropical weather conditions, dust,
flies, and the hands of consumers.
The limited data on such poisoning always means that the cases
are unreported or misdiagnosed as other gastrointestinal disorders,
since conditions for food poisoning are favourable here.
— 254 —
B.
Zoonoses.
The zoonoses selected for discussion are only the major zoonoses
in Indonesia, the c o m m o n and important ones will be discussed
first :
1.
Rabies.
Rabies is still considered the most important zoonosis in Indonesia. Its significance is measured not by the h u m a n deaths it causes,
but by its psychological effects on exposed individuals, by the inconvenience and danger associated with Pasteur treatment, and its
potential as a cause of mortality in heavily populated areas such as
in this country (4, 6).
R E S S A N G and T I T K E M E Y E R (4, 6) reported that during a 12-year
period, more t h a n 33,000 persons received the Pasteur treatment.
They stated that it was impossible to measure the panic, anxiety,
and worry experienced by these people or the pain, inconvenience,
and time loss caused by the inoculations. The annual death rate in
h u m a n s attributed to Rabies is 10 (7).
U p to n o w , the main vectors of Rabies in Indonesia proved to be
dogs, cats and monkeys and Rabies cases in domesticated animals
are observed occasionally. A m o n g wild animals, one palm-civet has
been confirmed as infected and several rats have been suspected
after biting an individual.
The campaign against Rabies in Indonesia possibly accomplished
good results locally, but it will not eradicate Rabies from Indonesia.
Rabies in Indonesia will not decrease, it has even become more
widespread in spite of the Rabies Ordinance established in 1926 (7).
Not to be ignored is the potential of Rabies as a cause of mortality,
especially in certain areas. The Island of Bali, a world famous tourist attraction, has a very large population of susceptible stray dogs.
At the present time, it is Rabies-free. One rabid dog, stated T I T K E M E Y E R and R E S S A N G (6), could change this paradise into a major
disaster area.
2.
Anthrax.
M A N S J O E R (8) reported that the incidence of A n t h r a x in m a n in
Indonesia is mostly in correlation to outbreaks of A n t h r a x in animals. H e extensively mentioned the outbreaks in R. Sulawesi, Java
and the Island of Roti since 1922 up to 1956. In some parts of Sula-
—
255
—
wesi, people like to eat the meat of animals which have died from
Anthrax infection. Furthermore he stated that this habit should be
held responsible for the several outbreaks of Anthrax in m a n in
Makale-Rantepao and Kolaka-Kendari.
Outbreaks of A n t h r a x in h u m a n beings have been still reported
from the above-mentioned foci until recently and M A N S J O E R ( 8 ) stated that the disease mostly takes the form of malignant pustules, the
septic form and the gastro-intestinal form.
3.
Cysticercosis.
R E S S A N G and U M B O H stated earlier that C. bovis and C. cellulosae were frequently found in cattle, buffaloes and pigs raised in the
Island of Bali and West L o m b o k . Present data collected by the
Directorate of Animal Health ( 9 ) revealed that besides those mentioned parts of Indonesia, Cysticercosis has spread even to East Java
and Madura cattle. Even T U M A D A and M A R G O N O ( 1 0 ) reported that
13 cases of Cysticercosis in m a n were diagnosed at Enarotali Hospital, a remote place in Irian Jaya, during 1 9 7 2 and J a n u a r y 1 9 7 3 .
Evaluation of the fecal examination results of newly admitted
patients over the last 1 2 m o n t h s (on 1 7 0 persons) showed that Taenia ova were found in 9 per cent of those patients. The adult worms
were identified as Taenia solium. Furthermore G U N A W A N et al. ( 1 1 )
stated that after the finding of Cysticercosis in m a n in Paniai areas,
the cases went on undisturbed and in 1 9 7 5 , 6 0 to 1 0 0 Cysticercosis
patients per m o n t h were observed in the out-patients section of Enarotali Hospital. In 1 9 7 9 S U B I A N T O and S U R J A D I ( 1 2 ) reported that
the disease h a d spread to the neighbouring districts of Jayawijaya.
In Bali and L o m b o k , m a n contracts Taeniasis by consuming dishes called lawar, which mainly contain uncooked meat and locally
prepared sausages. Infection of cattle, buffaloes and pigs is caused
by the poor hygienic conditions with unsanitary fecal disposal (4). In
Irian Jaya, people contracted Taeniasis through consumption of
stone-grilled p o r k , a traditional way of cooking pork; and then
because of auto-infection, regurgitation a n d / o r ingestion of Taenia
eggs, Cysticercus developed in their bodies and even sometimes in
their brains which caused epileptic fits.
In their recent survey, the Directorate of Animal Health Service
(9) found that the rates per 1 0 , 0 0 0 head of slaughtered animals were
2 . 3 for pigs in Kapuk slaughterhouse, J a k a r t a , 1 7 . 2 for cattle and
1 8 . 2 for pigs in Surabaya. The smaller rate in pigs in J a k a r t a is due
—
256
—
to the fact that Balinese pigs are only a small portion of the total
slaughtered animals, and most of the time, Cysticercosis is found
only in Balinese pigs.
4.
Salmonellosis.
The presence of Salmonellae in domestic animals was reported by
who isolated these germs from autopsy materials
consisting of organs, blood and feces of a n u m b e r of species. The
isolated species of Salmonellae were : S. choleraesuis, S. enteritidis,
S. joviana, S. Stanley, S. typhimurium,
and S. weltefreden
from
dogs, bulls, cats, elephants and calves. Recently the Disease Investigation Centre of M e d a n , North Sumatra reported a drug-resistant
species of Salmonellae found in a herd of pigs in the surrounding
area.
SOERATNO (13),
5.
Leptospirosis.
After J a p a n , Indonesia is the most often mentioned Asian
country in the history of Leptospirosis. A lot of work h a d been done
in this country on the disease before World War II. But after the
end of the war when she got her independence, because of lack of
continuous medical publications, only a few recorded researches on
this disease have been m a d e .
After the isolation of strain Rachmat by B A E R M A N N in 1 9 3 2 (cited
by V A N T H I E L , 1 5 ) from a patient in P e t u m b u k a n , a lot of work has
been done by prominent researchers i.e. M O C H T A R and B A H D E R
DJOHAN
(15),
WALCH-SORGDRAGER
(16)
and
ESSEVELD
(16)
in
J a k a r t a , Kalimantan, Sumatra (Medan) and Irian Jaya ( 1 7 ) . The
overall incidence of Leptospirosis in Indonesia seems to have decreased recently, and L I G H T et al. ( 1 8 ) stated that this m a y be due to the
fact that not all of the mild cases are seen by the physician and not
all of the physicians have reported their findings.
The role of rats as a source of h u m a n infection in Indonesia was
first studied by S A R D J I T O , M O C H T A R and W I R A S M O , later on by
M O C H T A R and C O L L I E R by the isolation of the agent from field rats
in A m b a r a w a , J a k a r t a and Surabaya (Java) and Ujung P a n d a n g
(Sulawesi) ( 1 5 ) . Recent studies of field rats were also m a d e by
F R E S H , T S A I and S A R O S O ( 1 9 ) in South Sumatra and in Bangka
Island. The study of V A N P E E N E N et al. ( 2 0 ) confirms that Leptospirosis remains widespread in wild animals in Indonesia. Furthermore
W I L L I S and W A N N A N ( 2 1 ) incriminated the close relationship of the
—
257
—
people of Irian Jaya with their domestic animals as a reasonable
assumption that dogs and pigs m a y be responsible for a large p r o portion of h u m a n infection.
The correlation between water and rats has been discussed by
who stated that water, which is contaminated by rats, is almost always the main source of infection in
Indonesia. This theory was substantiated by the fact that in most of
the reports given, the same strain of Leptospira was found in both
humans and rats. A brief s u m m a r y of the rat's role in the dissemination of Leptospirosis to h u m a n s is presented in Table 1.
WALCH-SORGDRAGER (16),
The role of domestic animals as a source of h u m a n Leptospirosis
was studied by V A N P E E N E N et al. ( 2 3 ) , P A R T O D I H A R D J O et al. ( 2 4 )
and S C O T T - O R R and D A R O D J A T ( 2 5 ) . The latter found that at least
2 0 per cent of slaughtered cattle which come from East and Central
Java are positive to serogroup hebdomadis;
this m a y indicate a
reservoir of infection in cattle there, which can cause considerable
economic loss to individual cattle owners, as well as to the growth
rate of the national cattle herd. Cattle owners m a y also be at risk :
L. hardjo can cause unpleasant disease in m a n , though rarely fatal.
6.
Trichinosis.
Trichinosis in pigs was first reported by V I S S E R a n d M A N A P in
1 9 3 0 in Batak pigs slaughtered in the abattoir of Medan ( 2 6 ) . Apart
from pigs, Trichinella spiralis larvae in Tapanuli were also found in
dogs, rats and cats. A recent study by N A T S I R ( 2 7 ) in the same
region revealed that two out of 5 7 8 h u m a n sera were mildly positive
to indirect fluorescent antibody technique and 3 out of 2 7 pigs examined microscopically were positive. Cases from other parts of
Indonesia have never been reported.
7.
Brucellosis.
Brucellosis in cattle a n d pigs is an established disease especially in
East Java with its focus in towns like Surabaya ( 4 ) . Though the existence of Br. melitensis has not been proved yet, R E S S A N G and
U M B O H ( 4 ) reported evidence that the agent also occurs in goats in
West Java. A vast survey in Java and Bali carried out by P A R T O D I H A R D J O et al. ( 2 4 ) revealed that out of 8 7 7 samples, only one was
positive in sheep and 4 in swine. These negative results were mostly
caused by technical faults in handling the sera.
— 258 —
TABLE 1.
Natural vectors of various Leptospira serotypes
among wild animals in South-East Asia
(*)
Host species
Leptospira serotype
Geographic distribution
Order : Rodentia
Family : Muridae
Sub. Fam. : Murinae
1. Genus : Rattus
L. icterohaemorrhagiae All countries
a. Rattus norvegicus
Indonesia
(common rat; brown rat; L. bataviae
Indonesia
L. javanica
sewer rat)
b. Rattus rattus rattus
L. icterohaemorrhagiae All countries
Malaysia
(black rat; house rat)
L. autumnalis
L. icterohaemorrhagiae All countries
c. R. r. alexandricus
All countries
L. autumnalis
(roof rat)
Indonesia
L. javanica
d. R. r. diardi
Indonesia
L. autumnalis
(Indonesian house rat)
L. bataviae
Malaysia
Indonesia
L. javanica
e. R. r. culmorum
(Australian field rat)
Indonesia
L. bataviae
f. R. r. brevicaudus
Indonesia
L. javanica
(Indonesian field rat)
Indonesia
L. pyrogenes
Indonesia
L. semaranga
Malaysia
L. autumnalis
L. javanica
Indonesia (Makasar)
g. R. exulans concolor
(small rat)
L. australis A and B
All countries
h. R. r. conatus
L. icterohaemorrhagiae Malaysia (North Borneo)
i. R. musschenbrock
L. mankarso
Malaysia (North Borneo)
whiteheadi
L. naam
Indonesia
2. Genus : Mus
Indonesian(?)
a. Mus musculus spicilegens L. saxkoebing
(gleaner mouse)
3. Genus : Apodemus
Indonesian),- Malaysia(?)
a. A. s. sylvaticus
L. bataviae
All countries
b. A. s. agrarius
L. sejroe
4. Genus : Bandicota
Thailand, Malaysia
a. B. indica
L. autumnalis
5. Genus : Microtus
Indonesia
a. M. montebelli
L. autumnalis
Order : Chiroptera
Family : Pteropidae
Indonesia
Genus : Cynopterus
L. schüffneri
(**)
(*)
(*) modified from V A N D E R H O E D E N (22), only South-East Asian countries listed here with their present
name.
(**) listed by V A N D E R H O E D E N (22) as all continents or as A s i a .
—
259
—
8. Q Fever.
A survey of Q Fever antibodies carried out in slaughtered cattle
by W . H . O . ( 4 ) and in slaughtered cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats and
pigs by R U M A W A S and S A N J A Y A ( 2 8 ) did not reveal any prevalence
of this disease in Indonesia.
9.
Tuberculosis.
The incidence rate of Tuberculosis in h u m a n beings in this
country is quite high, however the dominant type isolated from individuals and animals at autopsy is the h u m a n type. R E S S A N G and
U M B O H ( 4 ) substantiated that this was due to. the fact that milk is
usually well cooked before being consumed, so that contact or alimentary infection with bovine Tuberculosis is extremely rare.
This condition is still prevailing nowadays, due to the fact that
less and less persons buy fresh milk from the farm due to the unsanitary status of the farms.
10.
Toxoplasmosis.
Toxoplasmosis is a cosmopolitan infection that has only recently
been shown to be a zoonosis, but because of its wide distribution in
the animal kingdom, it has long been included in the zoonosis programmes of F . A . O . and W . H . O . ( 1 ) . In spite of a large amount of
laboratory work, the n a t u r e , the taxonomy, and especially the m o d e
of transmission of the parasite remained obscure until recently.
P A R T O N O and C R O S S ( 2 9 ) summarized the results of serological
surveys of Toxoplasmosis a m o n g the h u m a n population in some
parts of this country and stated that the prevalence rates are ranging
from 2 to 5 1 per cent. A m o n g slaughtered animals surveys on the
prevalence rate were m a d e by Y A M A M O T O et al. (cited by C R O S S et
al., 3 0 ) on goats and orang-outang in Surabaya, K O E S H A R J O N O et
al. ( 3 1 ) on pigs ( 7 per cent in Central Java and 2 8 per cent in West
Java), V A N P E E N E N et al. ( 2 3 ) on cows in J a k a r t a ( 9 per cent). Furthermore D U R F E E et al. ( 3 2 ) reported that 4 1 per cent of the cats and
61 per cent of the goats surveyed in South Kalimantan also had positive titers; and then C R O S S et al. ( 3 0 ) revealed that out of 4 6 5 goats
from several Indonesian Islands, 2 4 per cent h a d titers equal to or
greater than 1 : 1 6 and approximately 1 1 per cent h a d titers equal to
or greater than 1 : 2 5 6 .
The role of domesticated animals as a source of h u m a n Toxoplasmosis has been discussed by some of the above-mentioned authors.
— 260 —
et al. stated that in spite of the presence of m a n y infected
cats in the villages, the epidemiologic study indicated that goat meat
was a significant source of Toxoplasma infection for m a n in South
Kalimantan. Working in Lindu Valley, South Sulawesi, C L A R K E et
al. (33) substantiated that m o r e families with cats had
Toxoplasma
gondii antibody titers than families without cats.
DURFEE
DISCUSSION
Organized veterinary participation in public health in Indonesia is
a relatively recent development, although their involvement in
h u m a n welfare has been a long tradition, such as in the control of
Rabies and the preparation of wholesome food for m a n . The service
of veterinarians started as early as the beginning of this century
when some municipal towns established a veterinary hygiene service.
The municipal veterinarians, who are mainly concerned with veterinary public health practices, have hardly any technical or administrative relation to the Veterinary Service which belongs to the
Department of Agriculture. Since the Animal Health Service, a part
of the Veterinary Service, has as its main objective the control or
eradication of infectious diseases of animals, also including the zoonoses, discrepancies sometimes occur in the activities of those agencies in controlling zoonoses.
Furthermore, most of the regulations governing the veterinary
public health activities were enacted m o r e than 60 years ago, and
every municipality has its own local regulation based on the Government Decree N o . 432, 1912. One of the locally adapted regulations,
the Milk Codex, however, is not a milk act, nor has it any legislative
power. It merely provides the basic requirements in milk judgement
(4).
In spite of the Rabies Ordinance enacted in 1926, Rabies in Indonesia has even become more widespread.
The conditions of the slaughterhouses have worsened as the local
authorities never think of the real role of the slaughterhouse as a
public service establishment. The building of several new abattoirs
in some cities is one of the actions undertaken for improving the
veterinary public health services in Indonesia.
Knowing that the demand for improved veterinary public health
service is increasing, in the late 60's the Directorate of Animal
— 261 —
Health Service established the Veterinary Public Health Division.
Meanwhile, the Communicable Disease Control of the Department
of Health set u p the Zoonotic Disease Branch.
After that, much effort was done by those two agencies and
others following this formal establishment of veterinary public
health activities i.e. workshops o n veterinary public health and zoonosis, inter-agency meetings, seminars, regulation proposals, etc. to
improve the veterinary service. The improvement of food hygiene
control was looked after by the Directorate General of Food and
Drug Administration of the last mentioned Department, starting by
inventory action and consolidation.
The veterinary public health p r o g r a m m e and status in Indonesia
can be summarized as follows :
1. Administration
and
consultation.
The veterinarians in V P H section of the Directorate of Animal
Health Service direct and supervise the activities of all persons
employed in the field of veterinary public health. The ones
employed by the Department of Health are technical advisors and
consultants to the public health administrators on prevention of
diseases, food hygiene, legislation and health education related t o
zoonoses.
2. Disease
control.
The outbreaks of Cysticercosis in Irian Jaya, Rabies in East Kalimantan and A n t h r a x in West Nusatenggara, require the participation of veterinarians in developing appropriate methods to prevent
the spread of disease and if possible in eradicating the diseases. This
work is carried out in conjunction with the Department of Health
and other agencies.
3. Food hygiene
programme.
Even though most of the slaughterhouses and milk plants are not
in good condition, efforts towards developing food acts and a veterinary public health act, recent building of new modern abattoirs in
three of the largest cities in Indonesia, training the husbandrymen
on how to keep the milk wholesome, etc., are some of the efforts
made to improve the veterinary public health service.
— 262 —
4. Disease investigation
and
research.
A lot of work has been done recently in collecting information
about the prevalence of some important zoonotic diseases in animals
and m a n . This research was mostly performed by the staff of the
Health Department with the help of N A M R U - 2 of the U . S . Navy.
This work revealed the occurrence in Indonesia of one of the important zoonoses e.g. Toxoplasmosis.
The veterinarians in the Biopharma (formerly Pasteur Institute,
Bandung) are doing their best for the betterment of h u m a n health
by carrying out researches and producing Rabies and Tuberculosis
vaccines, anti-Tetanus and anti-venom sera, etc.
5. Public health
education.
This was mostly done in the outbreak areas e.g. the dissemination
of knowledge on all the aspects of A n t h r a x to the local paramedical
workers in South Sulawesi and West Nusatenggara, conducting a
multidisciplinary seminar on Cysticercosis and zoonotic pig diseases
in J a y a p u r a , Irian Jaya, etc.
The training of meat retailers in J a k a r t a , dairy husbandrymen in
Lembang and in the coming days meat inspectors, are among the
efforts m a d e in this area.
6. Inter-agency
liaison.
Close liaison and cooperation exist between the staff of the
Department of Health (Zoonotic Branch, Food and Drug Administration, Pasteur Institute, etc.) and those in the Department of Agriculture (veterinary practitioners, local veterinary officials, municipal
veterinarians, etc.) and even with those in the veterinary schools, in
resolving animal disease problems of public health significance.
The development of the afore-mentioned Zoonotic Disease
Branch and the Veterinary Public Health Section which was accompanied by meetings, workshops and seminars between agencies and
the veterinary schools, showed that the inter-agency liaison is running well in Indonesia.
*
* *
— 263 —
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3.
KAPLAN
(Martin M . ) . — The Concept of Veterinary Public
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RESSANG
5.
SOEJOEDONO
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TITKEMEYER
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RESSANG
(A.A.) and U M B O H ( T h . F . W . ) . — The Concept of
Veterinarian Public Health in Indonesia. Comm. Vet., 1962,
6, 1, 1-11.
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Utuh di Indonesia. Seminar on Higher Education and the
Basic H u m a n Need for F o o d . Cibogo, May, 1980.
(C.W.) a n d R E S S A N G ( A . A . ) . — Communicable
Diseases and their Effects on Public Health in Indonesia.
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8.
( A . A . ) . — Rabies, the Incurable Indonesian W o u n d .
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MANSJOER
Comm.
(M.). — A n t h r a x in Men and Animals in Indonesia.
Vet., 1961, 5, 2, 61-79.
9. Direktorat Kesehatan H e w a n . L a p o r a n Survey Cysticercosis di
Pulau Jawa (in press).
10.
TUMADA
(L.R.) and S R I M A R G O N O . — Thirteen Cases of Cysticercosis cellulosae in the Wissel Lakes. J. Indon.
Med.
Assoc., 1973, 7-8, 103.
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GUNAWAN
12.
SUBIANTO
13.
SOERATNO.
(S.), S U B I A N T O (B.) and T U M A D A (L.R.). — Taeniasis and Cysticercosis in the Paniai Lakes Area of Irian Jaya.
Trop. Geogr. Med., 1978, Sept., 275-9.
(B.) and S U R J A D I . — Masalah Taeniasis Solium dan
Cysticercosis di Pegunungan Jayawijaya. Seminar Pengamatan Penyakit Babi dan Zoonosis di Kabupaten Paniai dan
Jayawijaya. J a y a p u r a , 27-30 Maret 1979.
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1 4 . Report of t h e Disease Investigation Centre of M e d a n , 1 9 8 0 .
( P . H . ) . — T h e Leptospirosis. Universitaire Press,
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V A N THIEL
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WALCH-SORGDRAGER.
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— Leptospirosis.
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( P . H . ) , V A N D E R H O E V E N (J.A.) a n d C O N V E E
( L . M . J . ) . — Leptospirosis in the Highland of West New
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V A N THIEL
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( L . H . ) , N A S U T I O N (R.) a n d V A N P E E N E N ( P . F . D . ) . —
Leptospirosis in Febrile Patients in D j a k a r t a .
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Asian J. Trop. Med. Pub. Hlth., 1 9 7 1 , 2 , 4 9 3 - 5 .
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LIGHT
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FRESH
( J . W . ) , T S A I (Che-Chung) a n d S A R O S O (Sulianti). — A
Leptospirosis Study in South Sumatra a n d Bangka Island,
Indonesia. South-East
Asian J. Trop. Med. Pub.
Hlth.,
1971, 2, 22-4.
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( P . F . D . ) , L I G H T (R.H.) a n d S A R O S O (Sulianti). —
Leptospirosis in Wild M a m m a l s in Indonesia - Recent Survey. South-East Asian J. Trop. Med. Pub. Hlth., 1 9 7 1 , 2 ,
VAN PEENEN
496-502.
21.
(M.F.) a n d W A N N A N (J.S.). — Some Aspects of the
Epidemiology of Leptospirosis in New Guinea. Med. J.
WILLIS
Aust.,
22.
1966, 1, 129-36.
( J . ) . — Epidemiology of Leptospirosis.
Advances in Veterinary Science IV. Academic Press, 1 9 5 8 .
V A N DER HOEDEN
( P . F . D . ) , K O E H A R J O N O ( C ) , J O S E P H (S.W.),
(J.S.) a n d I R V I N G (G.S.). — Serological Survey of
Cattle from a Slaughterhouse in J a k a r t a , Indonesia. Bull.
Penelitian Kesehatan, 1 9 7 4 , 1 , 1 - 8 .
23. V A N PEENEN
SAROSO
24.
PARTODIHARDJO
(S.),
NURDIN
(M.),
SOEROSO,
DARODJAT
(M.), S O E G I A N T O (R.) a n d D J O J O S O E D A R M O (S.). — Survai
Serologik terhadap Brucellosis dan Leptospirosis p a d a Tern a k P o t o n g di Jawa Tengah, Jawa Timur d a n Bali. Media
Veteriner, 1 9 7 9 , 1 , 3 0 - 4 .
25.
a n d D A R O D J A T (M.). — Leptospirosis in Ruminants in Indonesia, W o r k in Progress at L P P H . Media Veteriner, 1 9 7 8 , 3 ( 3 ) , 1 - 5 .
SCOTT-ORR
— 265 —
26.
RESSANG
(A.A.), F I S C H E R (H.) and M U C H L I S (A.). — The
Indonesian Veterinarian. Comm. Vet., 1959, 3, 2, 55-99.
27.
NATSIR
28.
RUMAWAS
29.
PARTONO
30.
CROSS
(M.). — Trichinosis di Indonesia : Tinjauan Masalah
serta Penanggulangannya. Seminar Nasional Parasitologi I,
Bogor, 1977.
(I.) and S A N J A Y A (Winny). — Kemungkinan
A d a n y a Q Fever di Indonesia. Media Veteriner, 1977, M a r . ,
22-9.
(Felix) and C R O S S (John H . ) . — Toxoplasma Antibodies in Indonesian and Chinese Medical Students in J a k a r t a .
South-East Asian J. Trop. Med. Pub. Hlth., 1975, 6, 472-6.
(J.H.),
H s u (Nora H . M . ) , K O E S (G.M.) and A M D A N I (Sri
Kusuma). — Toxoplasma
gondii Haemagglutinating Antibody Titers in Indonesia Goats. Trop. Geogr. Med., 1976,
28, 355-8.
HARJONO
31.
V A N PEENEN (P.F.D.),
(C),
SIMANDJUNTAK
( C ) , V A N P E E N E N ( P . F . D . ) , J O S E P H (S.W.),
(J.S.), I R V I N G (G.S.) and D U R F E E ( P . T . ) . — Serological Survey of Pigs from a Slaughterhouse in J a k a r t a .
Bull. Penelitian Kesehatan, 1974, 1 , 8-10.
KOESHARJONO
SAROSO
32.
DURFEE
( P . T . ) , C R O S S (John H . ) , R U S T A M and SUSANTO. —
Toxoplasmosis in M a n and Animals in South Kalimantan
(Borneo), Indonesia. Amer. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 1976, 25
(1), 42-7.
33.
CLARKE
( M . D . ) , C R O S S (John H . ) , C A R N E Y ( W . P . ) , H A D I D ( P . ) , A R B A I N (Joesoef), P U T R A L I (J.) and O E M I J A T I
(Sri). — Serological Study of Amebiasis and Toxoplasmosis
in the Lindu Valley, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Trop.
Geogr. Med., 1975, 2 7 , 274-8.
JAJA
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 267-269.
Present situation
of Veterinary Public Health in Japan
by
Ko N A M B A
(*)
The activities of veterinarians in J a p a n cover a broad area comprising food hygiene, abattoir inspection, Rabies prevention, disposal of dead animals, drinking water hygiene, sanitary management
of live environment, etc., and about 6,000 veterinarians are engaged
in the guidance, control, research and investigation in these areas
throughout the country. Their major activities are explained in the
following :
1. Food
hygiene.
Manufacture, distribution, sale and import of food are controlled
by the Food Hygiene Law. A b o u t 6,600 qualified personnel such as
medical doctors, veterinarians, and pharmacists who are employed
by the Ministry of Health and Welfare, prefectural and municipal
(specific large cities) governments are engaged, as food hygiene inspectors, in the surveillance of about 3.4 million food-related facilities and inspection of the foods handled at these facilities to maintain food hygiene, such as discovery and elimination of inferior
foods, prevention of food poisoning, etc. They are also engaged in
the surveillance and inspection of the imported foods at 15 major
ports.
Out of 6,600 food hygiene inspectors in J a p a n , about 3,300 or
half of them are veterinarians who are playing a major role in the
food hygiene p r o g r a m s of the country, inspecting not only milk,
meat, eggs, fish and shell-fish but also their processed foods and
other general foods.
(*) Deputy Director of Veterinary Sanitation Division, Environmental Health
Bureau, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Tokyo.
— 268 —
Besides food hygiene inspection and surveillance, a n u m b e r of
other veterinarians are involved in food inspection, investigation
and research to secure safety of foods at other inspection, investigation and research agencies of the Ministry of Health and Welfare
and prefectural governments.
2. Inspection
of slaughtered
animals.
Legal control over the hygiene of meat for food such as slaughter
of animals for food was first implemented in 1906. The Law was
revised in 1953 under the new Constitution and the Abattoir Law
was enacted, under which the hygiene of meat for food is currently
maintained. The major points of the Abattoir Law include the following :
(1) Standards are established for the structure and facilities of the
abattoir, and the abattoir is established by permission of the prefectural governor.
(2) Requirements are stipulated for the maintenance of the
hygiene at the abattoir and the hygiene measures to be taken by the
slaughterers.
(3) Slaughter and dismemberment of cattle, horses, pigs, sheep
and goats at places other than abattoirs is prohibited.
(4) Meat is not allowed to be taken out of the abattoir without
inspection by the inspector (veterinarian) appointed by the prefecture. T h e inspector can issue an order t o prohibit the slaughter or
dismemberment of certain animals and their disposal.
There are 500 abattoirs in J a p a n and about 20 million animals are
slaughtered and dismembered.
A b o u t 2,500 veterinarians are engaged in abattoir inspection
throughout the country and some of them are simultaneously involved in food hygiene surveillance and Rabies prevention.
In recent years, the number of slaughtered animals has been
increasing as the demand for meat increases. But, the n u m b e r of
abattoirs is decreasing every year as the abattoirs are being modernized, better equipped and m a d e larger by amalgamation.
In the inspection of slaughtered animals, m o r e scientific and precise examinations are required because of the changes in the type of
animal diseases due to changes in the method of raising animals and
to the progress in techniques for the prevention and treatment of
— 269 —
diseases. Therefore, p r o m o t i o n is m a d e to establish hygienic inspection centers for meat for food which are equipped to conduct the
required examinations.
3. Prevention
of
Rabies.
No outbreak of Rabies has taken place in recent years. But, on the
basis of the Rabies Prevention Law, inoculation and quarantine are
being continued and efforts are m a d e t o prevent invasion from
abroad.
The preventive programs are carried out by a number of veterinarians who are employed by the central or local governments or by
private veterinary practitioners.
270
271
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 271-272,
The status
of Veterinary Public Health
in Malaysia
(*)
Introduction.
Until recent year's, meat inspection h a d been the complete r e s p o n sibility of the Ministry of Health a n d abattoirs were managed by t h e
Town Councils. T h e abattoirs were built decades ago a n d lacked
facilities for sanitary handling of meat. T h e standards of meat i n s pection, meat hygiene a n d sanitation were low.
In the past, t h e handling and marketing of milk h a d been c o n f i n e d
to the small holder dairy farmers in the peri-urban a r e a s . Milking
was by hand a n d unhygienic a n d the milk was sold w i t h o u t q u a l i t y
control.
Organisation
of the Veterinary
Public Health
Service.
The Veterinary Public Health Service was established a s a b r a n c h
of the Animal Health of the Veterinary Services in t h e early 1 9 7 0 ' s .
The Service consists of veterinarians, meat a n d m i l k inspectors a n d
laboratory technicians. A working g r o u p w a s also e s t a b l i s h e d in 1 9 7 4
to look into veterinary public health matters and to m a k e r e c o m m e n dations for its improvement.
Re-organisation
of the abattoir
system.
In 1972 t h e National Livestock D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n was
established a n d o n e o f its functions w a s t o r e - o r g a n i s e t h e a b a t t o i r
system in the country. T h e p r o g r a m m e e n t a i l s the re-organisation of
about 3 0 0 small abattoirs in t h e country i n t o about 30 modern r e g i o nal abattoirs a n d t h e establishment o f p o u l t r y - p r o c e s s i n g c e n t r e s i n
producing a r e a s . I n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f r e g i o n a l
abattoirs t h e Veterinary Services w o u l d p r o v i d e veterinarians a n d
(*) Report presented by the Malaysian Delegation.
— 272 —
meat inspectors to carry out meat inspection and hygiene. The first
regional abattoir was established in 1974. There are n o w 7 regional
abattoirs and 2 poultry-processing plants managed by the National
Livestock Development C o r p o r a t i o n . It is hoped t h a t , by 1985, there
would be a total of 30 regional abattoirs where meat inspection services are provided.
Draft Meat Inspection Rules are currently under consideration by
the G o v e r n m e n t .
Re-organisation
of the local dairy
industry.
The Veterinary Services is in the process of establishing regional
milk collecting centres in the country with the responsibility of collection, testing, processing and marketing of milk produced by small
holders. These centres have proper chilling, storage, handling and
transporting facilities.
Hygiene and quality control laboratory for livestock
ducts.
and fishery
pro-
A hygiene and quality control laboratory for livestock and fishery
products is to be set u p in the near future. A laboratory manual
incorporating several testing procedures for meat, milk, fish and
their products is currently being prepared.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 273-284.
The status
of Veterinary Public Health
in New Zealand
by
B.E.T.
LORD
( * )
The definition of veterinary public health ( V . P . H . ) is described by
W . H . O . (1975) « as a component of public health activities devoted
to the application of professional veterinary skills, knowledge and
resources to the protection and improvement of h u m a n health ».
This definition covers the full range of veterinary endeavour. The
veterinarian working within the sphere of animal production is
obviously making a major contribution to public health albeit an
indirect one. By his efforts the quantity, quality and efficiency of
production of animal protein are improved.
It is usual, however, in discussion such as this, to consider only
those direct activities of V . P . H . , that is, those veterinary activities
which are primarily designed to protect, define or improve h u m a n
health and would include four major activities :
1. Control of zoonoses because of their effect on h u m a n health
rather t h a n o n animal p r o d u c t i o n .
2. Control of food hygiene p r o g r a m m e s .
3. Epidemiological investigations of diseases occurring in both
human and animal populations.
4. Establishment of close liaison between medical and veterinary
expertise to best utilise available skills and resources.
Veterinary public health as a separate and distinct component of
veterinary endeavour has only become apparent in New Zealand
(*) Veterinary Officer, Animal Health Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Auckland, New Zealand.
— 274 —
(N.Z.) over the last decade. Even now there is n o statutory V . P . H .
organisation within government, however veterinarians with an interest in public health have formed a V . P . H . specialist branch within
the N . Z . Veterinary Association. This has established a marshalling
point for ideas, a forum for discussion and led to the recognition of
V . P . H . as a distinct veterinary discipline. However, the functions
and activities of V . P . H . have been well established within the N . Z .
veterinary framework since the earliest days, although without the
formal title. Indeed a government veterinarian was appointed to the
post of joint Sanitary Commissioner, when the Department of
Health was first established at the turn of the century, in the face of
a threat of plague accompanying migrant gold prospectors.
The current status of V . P . H . in N . Z . will be considered under
three main headings :
I. Deployment of N . Z . Veterinary Profession.
I I . Specific V . P . H . functions and activities as listed above.
III. Training.
I. — D E P L O Y M E N T O F N . Z . V E T E R I N A R I A N S
There are 900 registered veterinarians in N . Z . of w h o m :
— 560 are in clinical practice,
— 200 are in government service,
— 140 are in teaching, industry, overseas, or not practising.
Direct V . P . H . activity is essentially confined t o those in government service together with a small n u m b e r in university postings
who have established V . P . H . as their specialist field.
The 200 government veterinarians are employed within the
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MAF), and mainly in two
divisions, the Animal Health Division ( A H D ) and the Meat Division
(MD). These Divisions are closely involved with at least one of the
three major activities of V . P . H .
Animal Health Division veterinarians have a responsibility for the
control of several important zoonoses, an epidemiological function
in at least the animal component of all zoonoses and a close liaison
role with the medical profession. They also have a role in general
rural hygiene.
— 275 —
Meat Division veterinarians have a responsibility for food hygiene
programmes largely confined to the processing, storage and packaging of meat and meat products of domestic and game animals,
poultry and fish.
Additionally a few veterinarians are employed in other Divisions
of the M A F with direct V . P . H . responsibilities. In the Research
Division, veterinarians are involved with the monitoring of foods of
animal origin for residues detrimental to public health.
The demand for this direct veterinary involvement and the impetus to develop these activities has been largely the result of N . Z . ' s
economic dependence on an export trade in animal products. The
necessity to provide health certification and guarantees of wholesomeness for meat and other animal products has been a greater
influence in bringing veterinarians into the public health field than
has the Department of Health.
V . P . H . activities have therefore developed within M A F rather
than within the Health Department. This is seen as « unsatisfactory » by W . H . O . who quote, « V . P . H . carried out by Agricultural
Services isolates it to an undesirable degree from the mainstream of
public health effort ». It is believed however that in a country such
as N . Z . with such a strong economic dependence on agricultural
exports it is essential that the two major components of V . P . H . activity, zoonoses control and meat hygiene be under Ministry of Agriculture control. Veterinary certifications are required t o guarantee
the export quality and freedom from disease of animals and animal
products and in m a n y markets this position is recognized to be rightfully within the agricultural sphere.
II. — S P E C I F I C F U N C T I O N S A N D A C T I V I T I E S
(1) Zoonoses
control.
Veterinary involvement in this field is largely confined to Government officers in the Animal Health Division of the M A F .
This Division has as its
improvement of health in
which makes no mention
component aims result in
stated aims the definition, protection and
the domestic animals in N . Z . A statement
of a V . P . H . role. However each of these
a considerable public health benefit.
— 276 —
Improvement
of animal health :
The Division's major effort at the present time in terms of both
financial expenditure and m a n p o w e r is in the improvement of both
animal health and the quality of animal products t h r o u g h Hydatid,
Tuberculosis and Brucellosis control p r o g r a m m e s . Each of these
programmes is making a direct contribution to h u m a n health as well
as accomplishing the primary objective of maintaining export acceptability and improving animal health.
Hydatid
control
:
The Hydatid Control Scheme was historically the first to be established although not as a national scheme until 1959. This campaign
can be truly said to be a public health effort although its origins cannot be claimed by the veterinary profession but rather by the medical fraternity. The p r o g r a m m e was initiated as an educational campaign at the Otago Medical School in 1934. These extension activities were taken u p in 1947 by the Department of Health. This
department encouraged the formation of voluntary control schemes
amongst farmers and developed extension programmes advocating
the boiling of offal fed to dogs and the testing every three m o n t h s of
arecoline induced faecal purges from dogs.
By 1958 Government accepted the need to establish a national
control scheme and legislation was introduced establishing a National Hydatid Council with responsibilities to treat, control, prevent
and eradicate hydatids. The new p r o g r a m m e established in 1959 is
administered by local authorities but has b o t h medical and veterinary representation at national level.
In 1975 the National Hydatid Council merged its administrative
and technical services with the A H D and thus firmly established
Hydatid control within the veterinary field.
The p r o g r a m m e has evolved over the years but its major thrust
has always been and still is in the extension area. Reinforcement by
legislation has provided for compulsory testing and treatment of
dogs and also provided penalties for infringement. Progress of the
scheme can be assessed from Tables 1 and 2.
Tuberculosis
Eradication
Scheme
:
Bovine Tuberculosis control was commenced in 1956 as a test and
slaughter p r o g r a m m e . The initial emphasis was placed on the public
— 277 —
TABLE 1.
Human Hydatidosis, new cases.
Years
New cases
Rate/10
1950-53
1954-57
1958-61
1962-65
1966-69
1970-73
1974-76
377
321
299
216
150
102
72
47.6
37.1
31.7
21.0
13.7
8.8
7.8
6
TABLE 2.
Percentage of dog faecal samples found to be infected
with Echinococcus granulosis.
Years
No. of samples examined
% infected
1969
1970
1973
1976
1979
317,000
315,000
351,000
246,000
160,000
1.11
0.84
0.35
0.10
0.07
health aspects of this scheme in that the first group of cattle to come
under compulsory testing were those cattle which provided whole
milk for the general public. Compulsory testing extended to dairy
cattle supplying milk for manufacture in 1961 and to all cattle including beef breeds in 1970. By 1977 all breeding cattle both dairy and
beef were under compulsory tuberculin testing.
The p r o g r a m m e has always been under direct veterinary control
and while the main impetus for its extension to beef breeds was largely a need for export certification it can be seen that the initial
motivation came from a public health consideration.
The effects on public health are difficult to assess as an accurate
breakdown of all h u m a n cases into their mycobacterial types is not
readily available. H u m a n isolates referred to the Animal Health
Division's Reference L a b o r a t o r y tend to be only those classified by
the referring laboratory not M. tuberculosis. Table 3 summarizes the
human isolates typed by the Reference Laboratory since 1974 and
includes for comparison the new cases of Tuberculosis in m a n for
each year. M. bovis isolates in the Table include B.C.G. isolates.
Most of the M. avium complex isolates are M.
intracellulare.
— 278 —
Table 4 documents the progress of Tuberculosis control within the
cattle population.
TABLE 3.
Isolates of mycobacteria from man.
No. of isolates
Species
1974
M. tuberculosis
M. bovis
Runyon Gp I
Gp II
M. avium complex
Other Gp II
Gp IV
New cases of human
Tuberculosis
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
9
14
2
5
6
8
4
32
18
7
8
2
1
3
3
4
1
4
1
1
1
7
3
8
3
8
2
9
10
3
5
2
10
1
4
8
613
663
611
606
595
542
9
5
TABLE 4.
Progress of Tuberculosis control
within the cattle population.
1976
1977
1979
1980
Brucellosis
Herds under test
Herds infected
with Tuberculosis
%
38,700
41,288
40,000
40,000
1,321
1,335
782
533
3.41
3.2
1.9
1.3
Eradication
Scheme
:
The third and most recent control p r o g r a m m e is the Brucellosis
Eradication Scheme which began in 1966 as a compulsory Strain 19
vaccination policy for all female beef and dairy calves.
A high proportion of calves were vaccinated under voluntary programmes prior to the introduction of compulsory vaccination. The
p r o g r a m m e was extended in 1971 to a compulsory test and slaughter
policy for all breeding cattle. The p r o g r a m m e achieved its aim of
having all eligible cattle under test by the end of 1977.
Table 5 gives h u m a n cases of undulant fever by year and Table 6
documents progress of the scheme in the cattle population.
— 279 —
TABLE 5.
New cases of undulant fever in man.
Year
New cases
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
120
105
103
119
72
55
36
45
TABLE 6.
Progress of Brucellosis eradication
in cattle herds.
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
Protection
No. of herds under test
No. of herds infected
%
17,400
27,820
35,069
37,963
39,400
39,106
40,000
40,000
3,217
4,639
4,235
4,526
2,669
2,007
605
285
18.5
16.7
12.1
11.9
6.8
5.1
1.5
0.7
of animal health :
The second stated aim of the A H D is to protect the health of animals in N . Z . Import control is an essential tool for the achievement
of this aim and powers provided by law are applied equally to the
protection of public health, by a consideration of zoonotic implications of imported animals and animal products as well as to the protection of animal health. A strict import embargo is maintained
against animal imports from countries where such serious exotic
zoonoses as Rabies and M a r b u r g Disease exist. The risk of other
important zoonoses such as Tuberculosis, Brucellosis, Leptospirosis
and Anthrax are minimized by certification requirements and the
testing of prospective animal imports in the country of origin. A
close liaison has been established, with the Department of Health in
respect of some animal i m p o r t s . For example, when pet turtles and
tortoises which are exotic to N . Z . were found to be a potential
source of Salmonellosis for h u m a n s , the further introduction of
— 280 —
these animals to private importers was prohibited by the A H D at the
request of the Department of Health.
Another activity primarily aimed at protecting the health of animals in N . Z . but with consequential benefits to h u m a n health is the
regulatory controls covering the feeding of garbage to pigs. These
regulations, which require that garbage be cooked before being fed,
are primarily designed t o protect our livestock from such exotic
diseases as F M D and the Swine Fevers. They also, however, ensure
that the prevalence of Trichinosis in both pigs and m a n remains at
insignificant levels.
(2) Epidemiological
investigations.
The Division's third aim of defining animal health involves epidemiology and surveillance with the study of disease control in populations rather t h a n in individual animals.
This broader consideration of disease recognition and control is
going t h r o u g h a phase of fairly rapid development t h r o u g h the need
for cost/benefit studies to determine the feasibility of disease control p r o g r a m m e s .
T h e epidemiological investigation of zoonoses is a minor although
developing component of the A H D veterinarians activities. Medical
officers are increasingly seeking our assistance in controlling such
diseases as Psittacosis, Listeriosis and Leptospirosis. T h e latter
having become a serious zoonosis, especially amongst dairy farmers,
a n d is presently the topic of a joint veterinary and medical investigation. The aim of this project is to assess whether the vaccination of
dairy cattle with a leptospiral bacterin will lower the incidence of
Leptospirosis in people associated with these animals.
H u m a n Brucellosis is also causing concern, and is the subject of
epidemiological study by both veterinary and medical teams. Over
recent years the pattern has changed from an occupational disease
of mainly veterinarians and farmers to one which includes workers
in the meat processing industries. To ensure the acceptance of Brucellosis reactor cattle at slaughterhouses, the M A F contributes
financially to any compensation payments m a d e to workers in the
meat industry who contract Brucellosis.
In rural areas other non-infectious problems of rural hygiene are
likely to arise which require skilled epidemiological investigation.
Veterinary involvement in such investigations is developing slowly.
— 281 —
Examples of this are found in N . Z . close to large industrial developments such as aluminium smelters or coal fired electricity generating
plants, all of which can result in pasture contamination by toxic
waste with potential harmful effects on both animal and h u m a n
health. It is obvious that public health veterinarians could play an
increasing role in these areas. In the meantime the epidemiological
implications of such ventures are handled by animal health veterinarians.
(3) Food
protection.
Food protection embraces all the measures necessary for ensuring
the safety, wholesomeness and soundness of food at all stages from
its production to its final consumption.
In N . Z . the A H D veterinarian is responsible for the animal p r o duction stages and the Meat Division veterinarian for the slaughter,
processing and transport phases of meat production. The final phase
of marketing at the retail outlet is controlled by the Department of
Health. A veterinary role then is complete in the meat industry at
least until the final marketing stage.
In N . Z . there has been a rapid development of veterinary involvement in the meat hygiene field over the last decade. This has largely
been the result of pressure from overseas consumer organisations
and competition in our export markets rather than from the
demands of our own Department of Health.
The Meat Division is responsible for the supervision of all food
protection aspects during the processing phases of meat production.
Specific activities are the ante and post-mortem inspection of livestock at the slaughterhouses and the supervision of hygiene standards
of both plant and p r o d u c t . These activities are demanded by the
importing countries a n d are deemed essential for the satisfactory
transport over larger distances to the market place. There are similar
responsibilities for the post m o r t e m inspection of game, notably
deer, but also feral pigs, goats and fish, and the hygiene standards
and management of game packing houses where these animals are
processed.
In the international sphere N . Z . has been closely involved with
legislation by participating in the Joint F . A . O . / W . H . O . food standards programme to produce a « Codex Alimentarius ». N . Z . in
fact hosted the sub-committee on meat hygiene.
— 282 —
While most of this effort has been export-orientated, the incorporation of internationally required food standards into national regulations has favoured the development of a well organized a n d comprehensive local food control system.
Veterinarians in the Meat Division also play an important role in
the epidemiological surveillance programmes for zoonoses and environmental hazards as well as livestock diseases generally. There are
specific programmes for Trichinosis and Tuberculosis surveillance
and the monitoring of meat for dangerous additives, pesticide residues, antibiotics and heavy metals.
Related activities administered by the A H D and having an important V . P . H . function are the control of drugs and remedies for use
in animals and the control of animal feed additives. In N . Z . these
two areas are controlled by a Statutory Board, the Animal Remedies
Board which has a veterinarian as its Registrar and which must consider V . P . H . implications such as residues in the animal produce
before licensing any animal remedy.
(4) Health Department/Ministry
of
Agriculture.
V . P . H . is by definition directly associated with h u m a n health and
must therefore depend on close medical and veterinary cooperation.
In N . Z . as in m a n y parts of the world, further development of
V . P . H . will require the acceptance by the medical authorities of the
contribution which the veterinary profession can m a k e . Formal lines
of communication have been established between veterinary and
medical personnel for the reciprocal notification of cases of specific
notifiable zoonoses, Hydatid Disease, Tuberculosis, Brucellosis,
Leptospirosis and Salmonellosis. Additional joint epidemiological
and surveillance studies for Salmonellosis, Tuberculosis, Brucellosis
and Leptospirosis are being carried o u t . It is clear that the medical
profession are becoming aware of the contribution that veterinary
officers, trained in public health, can m a k e . Such veterinarians are
being consulted on disease control and prevention of zoonoses, e.g.
Psittacosis and Listeriosis. This joint involvement will hopefully
develop further since the vast majority of zoonoses have animals as
the major source or reservoir of infection for m a n . In N . Z . four of
the eight most c o m m o n infectious notifiable diseases of m a n are
zoonoses or a component of the cases are zoonoses. These h u m a n
cases have in the past been investigated by the Health Department
— 283 —
which does not at present employ a single veterinarian in the Public
Health Division.
III. — T R A I N I N G
Undergraduate training in V . P . H . is firmly established into the
curriculum of N . Z . ' s only Veterinary School, with a sub-department
headed by a professor. The Public Health course is covered in the
final professional year and involves one paper on « Meat Hygiene
and Public Health ». The course places emphasis on the study of
zoonoses, introduces students to food hygiene, a topic rarely considered by students in a course with such a strong clinical bias and
also emphasizes an epidemiological approach t o public health p r o blems.
Post-graduate training has also received recognition with a D V P H
course of one year's duration having specific options in meat
hygiene or public health. In recent years several post-graduate students have completed M . V . S c . and P h . D . studies within the public
health sphere.
*
**
SUMMARY
The involvement of veterinarians in public health in New Zealand
has grown more from the d e m a n d to supply health certification and
guarantees of wholesomeness of exported animals and animal products than from a need to provide a national service. As a consequence, veterinary public health activities have grown within the
agricultural rather t h a n the medical sphere.
In spite of this apparent dichotomy, there is substantial cooperation between veterinarians and their medical colleagues in combating the major zoonoses with the result that Hydatid Disease, Brucellosis and Tuberculosis in both h u m a n and animal populations
have been significantly reduced.
The high standards of meat hygiene demanded by the international market place ensures that the N . Z . consumer enjoys a very high
standard of product.
— 284 —
Further development of the involvement of veterinarians in public
health activities will require a greater acceptance by the medical profession of the roles which veterinarians can fill. This recognition is
developing only slowly. Since four of the most c o m m o n notifiable
diseases of m a n in New Zealand are zoonoses, it is clear that there is
r o o m for closer cooperation of medical and veterinary authorities.
*
* *
REFERENCE
W . H . O . — The Veterinary Contribution to Public Health Practice.
Technical Report Series 573, Geneva, 1975.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 285-289.
The status
of Veterinary Public Health
in Taiwan, ROC
by
Robert C.T. LEE , Tracy T.C. L I N
(*)
(**)
, and Chao-chien
HO
(**)
Meat inspection was probably a good example by which our elder
veterinary workers demonstrated their contribution t o public health.
It was not until recent years that veterinarians started facing broader
problems of public health concern. There have been questions of
drug residues in animal tissues or products, microbial or metabolite
contaminations of food materials, zoonoses, animal pollutions, etc.
Thus, the scope of veterinary activity in public health aspects has
become more important a n d m o r e complex. At schools, courses
have been designed to m a k e veterinary students better prepared for
the growing challenges in public health. As veterinary scientists, we
all like to see that the health of both m a n and animals is well preserved through our m u t u a l endeavour.
The current status of veterinary public health in Taiwan is as follows :
1. Administrative
(1) Governmental
and technical
aspects.
organs.
Some of our veterinarians employed in the following parenthesized areas are engaged in public health aspects of veterinary services
(*) Chairman, Council for Agricultural Planning and Development (CAPD),
Executive Yuan, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.
(**) Senior Specialist, Animal Industry Division, CAPD.
(***) Professor, Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.
— 286 —
with either an administrative. or a technical responsibility. Their
major technical function is to inspect h u m a n food of animal origin
for various agents known as harmful to h u m a n health.
(a) Central G o v e r n m e n t : N a t i o n a l Health Administration
(Bureau of F o o d - a n d - D r u g A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and Inspection,
Research Institute of Preventive Medicine), Council for Agricultural
Planning and Development (Animal Industry Division) and the
Ministry of Economic Affairs (Department of Agriculture, Bureau
of C o m m o d i t y Inspection and Quarantine).
(b) Taipei City Government and Kaohsiung City Government :
Bureau of Hygiene (Animal Products Inspection) and Bureau of
Construction (Fishery and Animal Industry Section, Livestock
Disease Control Center or L D C C ) .
(c) Taiwan Provincial Government : Department of Hygiene
(Animal Products Inspection) and Department of Agriculture and
Forestry (Animal Industry Division, Provincial Research Institute
for Animal Health).
(d) Hsien/Provincial-City Governments : Bureau of Hygiene
(Animal Products Inspection) and Division of Agriculture and
Forestry (Animal Industry Section, L D C C ) .
(e) Township Offices (Hygiene Section, Veterinary Section).
(2) Inspection
at
slaughterhouses.
Based on the Law of Food Hygiene Management (promulgated in
J a n u a r y 1975), the Meat (Slaughter Sanitary) Inspection Regulation
was decreed in July 1976 by the National Health Administration of
the Executive Yuan (Cabinet). The regulation has been enforced to
maintain the quality and hygiene of animals slaughtered for public
consumption and to prevent the spread of pathogenic agents among
the livestock. According to this regulation, only qualified veterinarians are assigned to conduct pre- and post-slaughter inspection of
animals at slaughterhouses. In recent years, meat inspection at
slaughterhouses has been upgraded and a great a m o u n t of inspected
meat has been processed for export purposes.
2. Important
(1)
zoonoses
and related
researches.
Rabies.
Taiwan has remained Rabies-free for nearly 20 years. A breakthrough in quarantine is deemed impossible if the enforcement of
laws and regulations is scrupulously maintained.
— 287 —
(2) Swine
Trichinosis.
Trichinosis has never been recorded in m a n and animals in Taiwan. In 1972, in southern Taiwan, 2,967 slaughtered pigs and
143 rats were examined for Trichinosis but all turned out to b e negative. In order to protect the health of our consumers and to pave the
way for expanded exportation of our pig products, it was felt that
the status of swine Trichinosis in Taiwan should be carefully reexamined. Therefore, a large-scale investigation was conducted i n ,
1976. A total of 72,210 slaughtered pigs, coming from various farms
over the island and representing 1.4% of the total pigs slaughtered
in that year, were sampled and examined by Z i m m e r m a n n ' s pooled
sample method. None of the samples examined contained any encysted Trichinella larvae. As m a n and animal hygiene has not been
neglected in the slightest degree in recent years, it is believed that
Taiwan is still Trichinosis free.
(3) Swine Japanese
Encephalitis.
In Taiwan, pigs have been regarded as an important source of
Japanese Encephalitis in children. To prevent abortion and stillbirth
in young sows caused by Japanese Encephalitis virus and t o protect
the h u m a n population against indirect infection, the live-virus vaccine prepared from the M strain virus continued to be imported
from J a p a n . In 1979, a total of 25,802 young sows which had not
passed any summer period were vaccinated in the pre-emergence season, i.e., during M a r c h - M a y , under the Government-supported p r o gramme. T h e commercial pig farms were encouraged to vaccinate
their young sows themselves.
(4) Swine
Toxoplasmosis.
No h u m a n Toxoplasmosis cases have been ever documented in
Taiwan. In swine, as in preceding years, sporadic occurrences were
recorded in 1979. For its diagnosis, in addition to the use of toxoplasmomin, the fluorescein-labelled antibody technique was applied.
Sows raised at the intensive pig farming villages were subjected to
tests using toxoplasmomin and BDB antigen, and positive sows were
destroyed by pig owners.
(5) Swine Aujeszky's
Disease (Pseudorabies
or PR).
Since its first occurrence in southern Taiwan in July 1971 killing
about 2,700 piglets, Aujeszky's Disease has seemed to be restricted
—
288
—
to the contaminated southern part of Taiwan affecting smaller numbers of pigs each year. Studies on prospective vaccines have been
continued for years but n o conclusion has been reached as yet.
( 6 ) Bovine
Tuberculosis.
The eradication p r o g r a m m e by the test-and-slaughter method for
dairy cows was continued in 1 9 7 9 . Calves aged 3 m o n t h s or older
were tested with tuberculin twice a year and those on contaminated
farms were tested once every 3 m o n t h s . A total of 3 4 , 1 5 5 dairy cows
were tested last year and 6 2 ( 0 . 1 8 % ) were found positive. All positive reactors were slaughtered and 2 7 of them h a d TB lesions.
C H E N et al. ( 1 9 7 7 ) conducted a study on pathogen isolation and
identification and claimed that all of their 2 8 isolates from 6 8 positive reactors belonged to bovine type tubercle bacilli. As to the
tuberculin test m e t h o d , W u et al. ( 1 9 7 9 ) reported that the intradermal test at cervical area in conjunction with E u r o p e a n reading standard was far superior t o the conventional caudal fold technique in
the detection of positive TB reactors.
( 7 ) Bovine
Brucellosis.
The test-and-slaughter m e t h o d for eradication was also continued
for dairy cows in 1 9 7 9 . A total of 2 5 , 9 6 7 dairy cows 1 2 m o n t h s old
or older were tested and 1 0 ( 0 . 0 3 8 % ) positive reactors were found.
All positive cows were slaughtered. Besides, 5 1 9 calves 4 - 8 months
old were vaccinated with St. 1 9 vaccine.
C H E N et al. ( 1 9 7 9 ) after having attempted an etiological study
reported that their isolates ( 8 3 / 1 0 9 ) from the milk samples of
Brucellosis-positive cows in 1 9 7 6 - 1 9 7 8 were all Brucella
abortus.
( 8 ) Bovine
Mastitis.
As a result of the control p r o g r a m m e started in 1 9 7 2 , this disease
has been gradually brought under control. In 1 9 7 9 , the milk samples
of 1 6 , 6 9 5 dairy cows were tested by the C M T method and samples
of 4 8 9 cows ( 2 . 9 2 % ) showed positive reactions. It was a great
improvement as compared with the records of previous years.
F U H and C H A N G ( 1 9 6 7 ) and C H I U et al. ( 1 9 7 2 ) reported that
about 1 5 - 2 0 % of bovine Mastitis cases in Taiwan were caused by
staphylococci. W A N G et al. ( 1 9 7 9 ) isolated 9 8 coagulase-positive
strains of staphylococci and found 1 6 randomly picked up strains
— 289 —
were all typable by using N . C . T . C . (National Collection of Type
Cultures) phage set. They therefore suggested that these isolates are
of public health significance.
3. Other public
health
problems.
In recent years, there have been problems of equal public health
importance challenging our veterinary colleagues in various fields of
specialities. Examples are :
(1) Unfavourable residues of antibiotics, chemo-therapeutic preparations, growth-promoting agents and mycotic metabolites in animals (including aquatic species) and animal products.
(2) Pollutions of animal origin.
7. Q u e s t i o n s
diverses.
Miscellaneous.
Cuestiones
varias.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 293-294.
Afghanistan - Outlines
of epizootiological situation in
1980
(*)
1. Rabies.
Epizootiology
:
No mass outbreaks reported. Only sporadic cases in Kabul area
recorded (2 dogs and 1 cow). In Kabul zoo, cases among wild animals
kept in captivity for several years (1 hyena, 1 wolf), transmitting vector unknown. In the field, there are difficulties in obtaining proper
reports about cases. The traditional approach of the population is to
kill immediately every Rabies-suspected dog. This is limiting the
number of samples being sent to veterinary diagnostic laboratories.
Diagnosis
:
Negri bodies and mice inoculation tests are carried out by five p r o vincial diagnostic laboratories and the Central Veterinary Diagnostic
Laboratory (CVDL) in Kabul. C V D L is also performing the direct
fluorescent antibody test with Czechoslovak anti-Rabies conjugate
produced by « Bioveta », Ivanovice.
Vaccination
:
There is no mass vaccination p r o g r a m m e , only sporadically performed vaccinations for selected dogs using locally produced (10%
sheep brain live vaccine) and imported (different types) anti-Rabies
vaccines.
The production of Afghan anti-Rabies vaccines, both for h u m a n
and animal use, is supervised by the Ministry of Public Health and
performed in the Pasteur Serum and Vaccine Institute, Kabul.
Training of medical and veterinary staff in diagnostic and epizootiological methods has been carried out with the assistance of the
F.A.O. Animal Health Project.
(*) Report presented by the Delegation of Afghanistan.
— 294 —
2. Foot-and-Mouth
Disease.
Virus types A and O are present in a stationary m a n n e r . Type Asia
1 has been reported in one place. No mass outbreaks have been
reported.
Vaccinations are carried out with monovalent (A, O , C, Asia 1)
and trivalent O-A-C vaccines produced in U . S . S . R . Mass vaccination
campaigns are performed by the anti-epizootic team organized by the
Ministry of Agriculture with the assistance of F . A . O . and by staff
from local clinics.
A country-wide anti-epizootic scheme is the base for all relevant
actions.
3. Clostridial
diseases of
sheep.
Due to the specific n o m a d i c system of animal breeding, reporting
of disease outbreaks is very difficult. The main epizootiological problem is Enterotoxaemia, mainly during spring and a u t u m n seasons,
and during the winter season in eastern and southern provinces.
Vaccinations : a mass vaccination p r o g r a m m e is in operation
according to the country-wide scheme ; blanket vaccinations are
applied.
Vaccines against Blackleg, Enterotoxaemia (about 4 million doses
per year) are produced by the Veterinary Vaccine Production Laboratory, Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reform, Kabul.
4.
Myiasis.
Reported only in two locations (East and North provinces). There
are no statistical data available, and n o plans for eradication.
5. Intra-regional
reporting
of
diseases.
Annual data are reported to F . A . O . (Animal Health Yearbook)
by the Veterinary Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Land
Reform.
Epizootiological data are exchanged with the U.S.S.R. according
to the Veterinary Convention between the two countries.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 295-314.
Present position
of Veterinary Drug Administration
(supplying sound animal protein foods
through proper use of animal drugs)
by
Muneo O G A T A
(*)
I. — B A C K G R O U N D O F A N I M A L D R U G P R A C T I C E
Development
of livestock
industry.
The position of animal husbandry in agriculture is rather low in
Japan, as compared with that in European and American countries.
However the total production of livestock in value now reaches one
quarter of the total agricultural production, next only to rice p r o duction.
This significant growth has resulted from the increasing demand
for food of animal origin in the country together with a number of
development programmes introduced by the central and local
governments as well as private sectors.
Table 1 shows the recent trend of livestock farming in J a p a n . It is
to be noted that the n u m b e r of farms raising livestock has been
decreasing regardless of the species of animals, however, the numbers of animals particularly pigs and broilers have been steadily
increasing year by year.
Disease
problems.
Animal diseases (infectious diseases designated by law) are very
rare owing to continuous efforts of the Veterinary Services. Vacci-
(*) Director of Veterinary Drug Administration, Bureau of Animal Industry,
MAFF, Tokyo.
— 296 —
nation and inspection against major infectious diseases have been
routinely conducted by the Veterinary Services as well as private sectors.
However, as m o r e animals are kept in limited spaces, parasitic,
respiratory and digestive diseases that hinder the productivity of animal husbandry have become i m p o r t a n t . However, there were no
accurate statistics on the incidence of such animal diseases in the
field. Only since the cattle a n d breeding swine were subjected to the
Animal Insurance P r o g r a m m e , statistics o n the insured animals
have become available. As shown in Table 2, the percentage of
diseased or injured animals and that of deaths or the disused vary
according to animals and to years. There is an increasing trend of
mortality and morbidity in each species of animals. Thus the importance of veterinary drugs a n d feed additives has been increasing not
only for therapeutic purposes but also as general preventive measures.
Fish culture is another growing industry in J a p a n . A considerable
a m o u n t of fish drugs is used in the hatcheries and fish p o n d s for the
purpose of disease control and treatment. The importance of this
field is fully recognized.
II. — A D M I N I S T R A T I V E O R G A N I Z A T I O N
OF VETERINARY DRUG CONTROL
The laws and regulations which are directly concerned with veterinary drug control are the Pharmaceutical Affairs Law and the Law
Concerning Safety Assurance and Quality Improvement of Feed,
a n d relevant regulations. The Veterinary Licensing Law and the
F o o d Sanitation Law are also related to some extent.
Regulatory affairs o n veterinary drug control are under the responsibility of the Division of Veterinary Drug
Administration,
Bureau of Animal Industry, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries. The Division consists of 3 subdivisions :
Subdivision I : Regulatory affairs on veterinary biologicals, drugs
other t h a n antibacterials, pesticides and veterinary devices.
Subdivision II : Regulatory affairs on antibacterial preparations
and feed additives.
Subdivision III : Surveillance, inspection and guidance on veterinary pharmaceutical affairs.
— 297
The Research Division of Fisheries Agency also deals with regulatory affairs on fish drugs in close collaboration with the Veterinary
Drug Administration.
There are three institutions that are associated with the Ministry :
1. National Veterinary Assay Laboratory - certification of biologicals and antibiotics, examination and control of marketed drugs,
etc.
2. Fertilizer and Feed Inspection Office - control of animal feeds
and certification of feed additives.
3. National Institute of Animal Health - research and investigation of animal health. Particularly the Feed Safety Division deals
with feed microbiology, toxico-pathology, chronic toxicity and toxicopharmacology on feed a n d feed additives. The Biological P r o ducts Division is engaged in the production of vaccines and antigens
as well as research and investigation for further development of the
products.
Furthermore, there are two related councils provided by the law
concerned.
1. Agricultural
Materials
Council.
Committee of Feed - under the Committee, there is a Subcommittee of Safety consisting of 4 study groups, i.e. groups on feed, feed
guidelines, feed additive standards and feed additive efficacy.
2. Central Pharmaceutical
Affairs
Council.
Special Committee of Animal Drugs consisting of the following
subcommittees :
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Veterinary biologicals.
Antibacterial preparations.
General animal drugs.
Drugs for animal reproduction.
Re-evaluation of animal drugs.
Drug residue problems.
Fish drugs.
At the prefectural level, there are about 2,000 pharmaceutical inspectors dealing with spot inspection, sampling of drugs and other
regulatory business. The pharmaceutical inspectors are appointed
from among the Government officials (mostly veterinary officers)
by the Prefectural Governors.
— 298
III. — LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ASPECTS
ON FEED ADDITIVES
Since the Law Concerning Safety Assurance and Quality Improvement of Feed was enacted in 1976, the feed additives, which had
previously been approved and controlled by the Pharmaceutical
Affairs Law, have been subjected to the control of this Law. Prior
to 1976, feed had been controlled from the viewpoint of feed quality
such as nutrition of animals by the law entitled the Law Concerning
Quality Improvement of Feed, and usage of feed additives in concentrated feeds h a d been regulated only by the administrative rules
(guidelines) issued by the Minister.
The scope and the purposes of this new law are not only t o ensure
the quality of feed but also to regulate manufacturing of feed and
feed additives, and to establish official standards for feed, thereby
to contribute to the security of public health by supplying sound animal products such as meat, milk and eggs.
Designation
of feed
additives.
T h e Law provides that any feed additive should be designated by
the Minister of Agriculture, and only feed medicated with the designated feed additives can be introduced for commercial use.
Before a feed additive is designated, the Minister makes an
inquiry to the Agricultural Materials Council (Committee of Feed
and its Subcommittee of Safety) as to effectiveness, residue and
safety of the feed additive in question, and the Council brings these
subjects under deliberation.
There are three categories of feed additives designated by the
Minister :
Category I : feed preservatives, such as antimolds, antioxidants
3 ingredients designated.
Category II : nutritional supplements, such as vitamins, minerals,
amino-acids
65 ingredients designated.
Category III : p r o m o t a n t s of feed efficacy, such as antibiotics,
antibacterials, anticoccidials, anthelmintics ...32 ingredients designated.
Target animals, level of usage in feed and standards of composition for each feed additive are also designated by the Minister
(Tables 3 and 4).
— 299 —
Re-evaluation
of feed
additives.
The Law Concerning Safety Assurance and Quality Improvement
of Feed became effective on April 1, 1976 and some of the ingredients which h a d been used customarily as feed additives were designated by the Minister as a temporary measure.
Afterwards, two regulatory rules were established, that is, the
Standards for Evaluation of Feed Additives o n April 5, 1977 and the
Guidelines for Studies on the basis of Standard for Evaluation of
Feed Additives o n February 4, 1980.
Consequently, the available feed additives which were designated
temporarily were subjected t o the re-evaluation based on the new
standard and guidelines. The manufacturers of the substances in
question were requested to submit the necessary data. The Ministry
undertakes the responsibility t o develop the data on effectiveness
and residue.
Application
for new feed
additives.
Application is to be m a d e with the documents which are provided
in the Guidelines for Studies o n the basis of Standard for Evaluation
of Feed Additives. T h e Veterinary Drug Administration will conduct examination a n d assessment of on these documents and then
submit t h e m t o the Subcommittee a n d Committee of Agricultural
Materials Council for necessary investigation and deliberation.
Upon their recommendation, the Minister will designate a new feed
additive by a Ministerial Ordinance.
The data and documents necessary for the deliberation are supposed to be collected and prepared by the applicant himself, however,
the Ministry also conducts basic a n d important tests and studies by
entrusting them t o some outside competent, non-profit research institutions such as the Research Institute for Animal Science in Biochemistry and Toxicology, the Nippon Institute for Biological
Science, etc.
In the deliberation of a new candidate feed additive, the emphasis
is placed on the possible influence on h u m a n health as well as the
effectiveness in animals. For this reason, a concept of usefulness of
a feed additive has recently been developed. Generally speaking, the
use of feed additives should be minimized wherever possible since
they might have some physical and environmental influence on animals and humans from food sanitation a n d public health view-
— 300 —
points. Therefore, consideration should be given not only to its efficacy but also to its usefulness, i.e. necessity to the public, balance
between efficacy and its possible adverse effects. A substance having
a significant carcinogenicity, for example, should not be designated
as a feed additive even if it is confirmed free of residue.
The main documents requested for the designation of a feed additive are as follows :
1. Effectiveness - Pharmacological data and field investigations.
2. Residue - Metabolism studies and residue studies in target animals.
3. Safety :
(1)
(2)
for 6
(3)
more
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
ded.
(8)
(9)
Acute toxicity.
Short-term toxicity - 1 rodent for 3 m o n t h s and 1 non-rodent
months.
Long-term toxicity - 2 species of animals, 2 years for rodents,
t h a n 2 years for non-rodents.
Multigeneration test - 1 species, m o r e t h a n 2 generations.
Teratology - 2 species.
Carcinogenicity - 1 species, lifespan.
Mutagenicity - screening test, and sophisticated tests if neeResistant strains development - in vitro and in target animals.
Safety in target animals.
IV. — C O N T R O L O F V E T E R I N A R Y D R U G S , E T C .
Drugs, quasi-drugs, and medical devices are controlled by the
Pharmaceutical Affairs Law and related regulation. However, those
drugs and devices which are intended for exclusive use in animals
are under the jurisdiction of the Minister of Agriculture, Forestry
and Fisheries.
Licensing
of manufacturers
and
importers.
Each manufacturer and importer of the drugs and devices stated
above has t o be licensed by the Minister. The following requirements are provided for licensing and the license is renewed every
three years by examining the fulfilment of the requirements including spot inspection by the pharmaceutical inspector. The numbers
of the licensed manufacturers and importers are shown in Table 5.
— 301 —
Requirements for licensing primarily concern the following :
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
structure and equipment;
managing staff;
production administrator and production expert;
good manufacturing practice.
Approval
of veterinary
drugs,
etc.
Animal drugs a n d devices are to be approved by the Minister for
manufacturing a n d / o r importation. The application should be filed
by the manufacturer a n d / o r importer concerned specifying name,
ingredients, quantity, usage, efficacy and effect, etc. The application is examined and deliberated by the Pharmaceutical Affairs
Council.
The standard of judgement for approval was drastically revised in
December 1972 and much attention has now been paid to efficacy,
effectiveness (usefulness) and safety such as residual property, oncogenicity and teratogenicity. The criterion for disapproval was legally
provided in March 1980; such as (1) n o practical value due to significant residual property, (2) improper character a n d / o r quality for
public health concerns. The monitoring system for adverse effects
on marketed drugs has been also intensified.
The number of licensed drugs is shown in Table 6.
Licensing
of
drug-sellers.
All types of drug-sellers including pharmacy have to be licensed
by the Prefectural Governor.
1. Pharmacy : the structure, the equipment and the number of
pharmacists are regulated. A n y drugs can be handled, and they can
be dispensed in accordance with prescriptions.
2. General drug-sellers : the same requirements applied for pharmacy are applied except dispensing of drugs.
3. Limited drug-sellers :
Type A can sell any drugs other t h a n the drugs designated by the
Minister (the drugs having poisonous, powerful properties, adverse
effects and difficult usage, etc.).
Type B can sell only the drugs designated by the Governor in compliance with the standard of the Ministry such as insecticides, proprietary drugs, and other drugs having temperate actions.
— 302 —
Type C can sell only the drugs designated by the Governor such as
the drugs having temperate action, high stability, simple usage, etc.
The drug-sellers are regularly inspected by the pharmaceutical inspectors and the numbers of veterinary drug-sellers are shown in
Table 7.
Quality control
of
drugs.
The manufacturers and the importers are primarily responsible
for maintaining the quality of the drug to fulfil the conditions provided in the approval. Furthermore the Ministry establishes the standard for biological products o n the m e t h o d of manufacturing, property, quality, storage, etc. The National Veterinary Assay Laboratory conducts necessary tests and examinations for each lot of biologicals and antibiotic p r o d u c t s . Inspection and analysis on sampled
drugs from markets are also conducted by the National Veterinary
Assay Laboratory for 200 t o 300 products every year.
Re-evaluation
of veterinary
drugs.
In order to ensure the quality of the veterinary drugs, the Standards of Judgement for the approval of veterinary drugs were drastically revised in December 7, 1972 from efficacy, effectiveness and
safety viewpoints.
All the drugs which h a d been approved for manufacturing or
importation before that date were subjected to the re-evaluation.
U p o n establishing the Standards of Judgement for the Reevaluation by the Central Pharmaceutical Affairs Council on
August 1, 1975, a total of 341 ingredients of single preparations and
m o r e combination drugs are designated to be subjected t o the reevaluation.
Necessary data which were prepared by the manufacturers or
importers for each ingredient were closely examined and evaluated
by the Study G r o u p on the Re-evaluation of Veterinary Drugs and
the Special Committee of Drugs for Animal Use under the Central
Pharmaceutical Affairs Council.
O n March 30, 1978, a part of the results were released for public.
Out of 4 antibiotics (30 products) and all anticoccidial preparations
(37 products), 2 substances and 7 products were judged as nonefficacious, and certain limitations for application were recommended on the rest of the drugs.
— 303 —
The second release was m a d e on September 30, 1980 on antibiotics and sulfonamide preparations. Out of 28 substances in 40 forms
of preparations, 34 forms of preparations were approved, and limitations for application were also recommended.
Proper utilization
of veterinary
drugs.
Sales of certain drugs require direction of veterinarians. At present, 89 substances such as antibiotics, antibacterial drugs, h o r m o nes, etc. are designated by the Ministerial regulations for the requirement of the direction of veterinarians.
Moreover, the Pharmaceutical Affairs Law amended in 1979 provides that the Minister of Agriculture is empowered to set a regulation on the animal drug usage. T h e purpose of the new regulation is
to assure the public health safety in relation to the use of veterinary
drugs. The new regulation was promulgated on September 30, 1980
controlling the following drugs and animals.
Ingredients to be controlled :
Antibiotics
10
Nitrofurans
2
Sulfa drugs
2
Pyrimethamine
1
Target animals :
1. Cattle, horses a n d swine.
2. Chickens and Japanese quail.
3. Honey bee.
4. Yellowtail, red seabream, carp, eel, rainbow trout and sweetfish.
Standards of usage are given in Table 8.
V. — M A R K E T I N G O F V E T E R I N A R Y D R U G S , E T C .
The production a n d the a m o u n t of sales of veterinary drugs have
increased in parallel with the development of animal husbandry.
However, the growth rate of livestock in the country is rather slow
due to the overall stagnation of consumption of food originating
from animals particularly eggs and pork in recent years.
The marketing of veterinary drugs and feed additives has also
been greatly influenced by this situation as well as by the more strin-
— 304 —
gent control for use of drugs. As shown in Table 9, the growth rate
for the last three years was relatively low and the drugs against
microbial infections including feed additives account for the majority.
VI. — S U M M A R Y A N D C O N C L U S I O N
The control of veterinary drugs and feed additives in J a p a n is
under t h e responsibility of the Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries. The development of veterinary drugs has contributed
towards treatment and prevention of animal diseases as well as to
maintain the productivity of livestock. The drugs become one of the
essential tools for a sound m a n a g e m e n t of livestock h u s b a n d r y .
The manufacture, import and sale of the drugs are controlled by
the laws and great attention has been given to public health as well
as the safety and efficacy in animals. For this purpose, reevaluation, standard of approval, and the standards and restriction
of usage, etc. have been newly introduced. These measures will
increase the cost of development of new drugs a n d also bring about
significant inconveniences for veterinary practitioners in treating
animals as well as for livestock farmers.
It is, however, the responsibility of all the personnel who are concerned with animal husbandry to produce and supply sound and
proper animal protein food for m a n by observing these rules and
**
— 305
TABLE
1.
Animal population in Japan.
As of Feb. 1
1970
1977
307,600
No. of cattle
1,804,000
Farm size (Av.)
5.9
Beef cattle
No. of farms
901,600
No. of cattle
1,789,000
Farm size (Av.)
2.0
Pigs
No. of farms
444,500
6,335,000
Farm size (Av.)
Layers
No. of farms
1979
*
Dairy cattle
No. of farms
No. of pigs
1978
14.3
1,703,000
No. of chickens
169,227,000
No. of layers
118,201,000
Farm size (layers)
70.0
Broilers
No. of farms
17,630
No. of broilers
53,742,000
Farm size (Av.)
3,049
* Index as expressed previous year =
100.
136,500
(92.8)
1,811,000
(101.3)
13.8
(112.2)
126,400
(92.6)
1,979,000
(104.4)
15.3
(110.9)
123,300
(97.5)
2,067,000
(104.4)
16.8
(109.8)
424,200
(94.4)
1,987,000
(103.9)
4.7
(109.3)
401,600
(94.7)
2,030,000
(102.2)
5.1
(108.5)
380,800
(94.8)
2,083,000
(102.6)
5.5
(107.8)
178,900
(91.5)
8,132,000
(109.0)
45.4
(119.2)
165,200
(92.3)
8,780,000
(108.0)
53.1
(117.0)
156,300
(94.6)
9,491,000
(108.1)
60.7
(114.3)
328,700
(85.1)
160,550,000
(102.6)
120,812,000
(102.6)
369.0
(120.2)
278,500
(84.7)
165,675,000
(110.0)
123,818,000
(102.5)
450.0
(122.0)
248,300
(89.2)
166,222,000
(100.3)
123,720,000
(99.9)
500.0
(111.1)
10,221
(95.2)
103,332,000
(111.2)
10,110
(116.8)
10,190
(99.7)
115,573,000
(111.8)
11,361
(112.4)
9,904
(97.2)
125,623,000
(108.7)
12,700
(111.8)
— 306 —
TABLE 2.
Incidence of animal diseases.
Years
No. of animals
participating
Diseased
and injured
Dead and
disused
Remarks
thousands
%
%
Cattle (Dairy)
1976
1977
1978
1,315
1,401
1,493
95.1
96.8
97.2
4.62
5.05
5.15
Mastitis. Infertility
Digestive diseases
Disorders of
pregnancy and
parturition
Beef Cattle
1976
1977
1978
1,176
1,216
1,234
46.0
48.2
46.6
2.4
2.4
2.6
Digestive diseases
Respiratory diseases
Diseases of
urogenital organs
Breeding Swine
1976
1977
1978
146.2
186.8
235.8
37.6
42.3
42.2
10.0
10.2
10.8
Disorders of
pregnancy and
parturition.
Diseases of
urogenital organs.
Respiratory diseases
Abstracted from the Statistics of Animal Insurance.
— 307 —
TABLE 3.
Feed additives designated under the Law Concerning Safety Assurance
and Quality Improvement of Feed.
Notice No. 750, July 24, 1976
No. 210, Sept. 5, 1978
No. 1640, Nov. 19, 1979
Category
I. Prevention for the deterioration of feed quality, such as anti-mold
substances
3 ingredients
Category II. Supplements for the composition of feed nutrients, such as vitamins,
minerals and amino-acids, etc
65 ingredients
Category III. Effective utilization for the composition of feeds, such as antibacterial and anti-parasitic substances
32 ingredients
Remarks :
1. All of the ingredients of Category I and 9 ingredients of Category III are subjected to the official assay at the Fertilizer and Feed Inspection Offices of MAFF.
2. The kinds of feeds and the amount of feed additives in each feed are limited by
the Regulation concerning the Composition and the Standard of Feed and the
Feed Additives.
3. Designated ingredients as Category III.
Zinc bacitracin
Amprolium ethopabate sulfaquinoxaline
Chlortetracycline hydrochloride
Enramycine
Oleandomycin
Caprylohydroxamic acid
Kitasamycin (Leucomycin)
Quebemycin sodium
Dinitolmide
Thiopeptin
Destomycin A
Hygromycin B
Flavophospholipol (Bambermycin)
Manganese bacitracin
Kanamycin sulfate
Fradiomycin sulfate (Neomycin)
Amprolium ethopabate
Oxytetracycline hydrochloride
Robenidine hydrochloride
Oxytetracycline quaternary ammonium salt
Kasugamycin
Carbadox
Clopidol
Salinomycin sodium
Spiramycin embOnate
Decoquinate
Nicarbazin
Virginiamycin
Macarbomycin
Monensin sodium
Colistin sulfate
Tylosin phosphate
g
IU,000
For Group 2 (Anthelmintics)
Aminoglycosides
Destomycin - A
Hygromycin - B
For Group 3 & 4
Tetracyclines
Chlortetracycline Hydrochloride
Oxytetracycline Hydrochloride
Oxytetracycline Quaternary
Ammonium
Macrolides
Kitasamycin (Leucomycin)
Oleandomycin
Spiramycin Embónate
Tylocin Phosphate
Aminoglycosides
Fradiomycin (Neomycin) Sulfate
Kanamycin Sulfate
Kasugamycin
Peptides
Bacitracin Manganese Salt
Bacitracin Zinc Salt
Enramycin (Enduracidin)
Thiopeptin
Virginiamycin
Colistin Sulfate
Phosphorylated Polysaccharide
Flavophospholipol (Flavomycin)
Macarbomycin
Quebemycin Sodium Salt
Synthetics
Caprylohydroxamic Acid
Carbadox
g
g
g
g
g
100
5
60
80-250
20-40
100-200
33
40-125
40-250
2.56-16
80
50
Starter
100
5
60
80-250
20-40
100-200
33
40-125
40-250
2.56-16
80
50
Grower
25-100
—
5.6-11.1
1-5
5-20
4.4-22
0.5-5
2-30
1-10
25-100
—
5-6-11.1
1-5
5-20
4.4-22
10-35
15-30
10-40
168-1,680
168-1,680
1-10
0.6-10
2-5
2-20
0.5-5
2-30
1-10
25-100
—
act
act
act
act
g act
g act
g act
IU.000
IU,000
g act
g act
g act
g act
g act
g act
g act
g
g
168-1,680
168-1,680
1-10
0.6-10
2-5
2-20
10-35
15-30
10-40
5-55
5-55
0.5-5
2-30
1-10
168-1,680
168-1,680
1-10
0.6-10
2-5
2-20
10-40
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
g act
—
10-55
5-55
10-55
5-55
g
g
g
g
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
-
—
—
Starter
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
Grower
Swine feed
25-100
20-50
5-20
2-30
2-20
420-4,200
420-4,200
2.5-20
1-20
10-20
2-40 '
10-100
15-60
10-20
5.6-100
0.8-40
5-100
22-88
5-100
10-100
5-100
—
—
—
—
—
—
25-100
1-10
2-30
2-20
168-1,680
168-1,680
2.5-20
1-20
10-20
2-20
10-40
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
5-40
—
—
168-1,680
168-1,680
—
—
10-70
—
—
—
—
5-55
10-50
5-50
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
Grower
—
—
—
420-4,200
420-4,200
—
10-100
45-60
5-55
—
—
—
—
10-50
5-50
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
Starter
Cattle feed
—
—
5-10
5-10
5-10
5-10
5-10
6,600-13,200 6,600-13,200 6,600-13,200 6,600-13,200 6,600-13,200
100
5
60
80-250
20-40
100-200
33
44-125
40-250
2.56-16
80
50
Phase I
Broiler feed
g act
g act
g
g
g act
g act
For Group 1 (Anticoccidials)
Polyethers
Monensin Sodium Salt
Salinomycin Sodium Salt
Synthetics
Amprolium - Ethopabate
Amprolium
Ethopabate
Amprolium - Ethopabate
Sulfaquinoxaline
Amprolium
Ethopabate
Sulfaquinozaline
Clopidol
Decoquinate
Nicarbazin
Robenidine Hydrochloride
Dinitolmide (Zoalene)
Unit
g l U W^l
starter and
Layer feed
TABLE 4.
Allowable use level of feed additives in ton of feed.
— 310 —
TABLE 5.
Number of licensed manufacturers and importers.
Manufacturers
Vet. drugs
Quasi-drugs
Vet. devices
Total
Importers
1974
1978
1974
1978
398
88
37
523
311
72
43
426
94
6
20
120
67
4
22
99
TABLE 6.
Number of licensed drugs, quasi-drugs and devices.
Domestic production
Vet. drugs
Quasi-drugs
Vet. devices
Total
Imported
1974
1978
1974
1978
6,869
270
1,162
8,301
6,046
191
1,014
7,251
1,070
105
135
1,310
587
17
126
730
TABLE 7.
Number of veterinary drug-sellers
(as of March 1979).
Total number
General sellers
Limited sellers
Type A
Type B
Type C
Total
Selling vet. drugs only
1,838
337
925
12
9,300
12,075
254
4
6,556
7,151
— 311 —
TABLE 8.
Standard and restriction of usage of veterinary drugs
(under Article 83-2 of the Pharmaceutical Affairs Law).
Ingredients and
form of dosing
Oxytetracycline
(in feed)
Hydroxytetracycline
(in feed)
Hydroxytetracycline
(in drinking water)
Hydroxytetracycline
(dipping)
Oxytetracycline
(injection)
Hydroxytetracycline
(insertion)
Kanamycin sulfate
(in feed)
Kanamycin sulfate
(in drinking water)
Kanamycin sulfate
(gavage)
Kanamycin sulfate
(injection)
Kitasamycin
(in feed)
Chloramphenicol
(every forms
except external use)
Animal
Cattle (excl.
over 6-month-age)
Swine
Chicken (excl. layer)
Yellow-tail
Dosage
Restriction
400 g/ton feed
5 days
400 g/ton
400 g/ton
50 mg/kg
day
50 mg/kg
50 mg/kg
50 mg/kg
50 mg/kg
50 mg/kg
20 mg/kg
5 days
5 days
feed
feed
body weight/
Read sea-bream
b.w./day
Carp
b.w./day
Eel
b.w./day
Rainbow trout
b.w./day
Sweetfish
b.w./day
Cattle
b.w./day
(excl. milking cow)
Swine
11 mg/kg b.w./day
Chicken (excl. layer) 500 mg/kg liter
Carp
50 mg/liter
Cattle
10 mg/kg b.w./day
Swine
Chicken
10 mg/kg b.w./day
50 mg/kg b.w./day
Cattle
1,000 mg/head
Swine
Swine
Chicken (excl. layer)
Chicken (excl. layer)
500 mg/head
60 mg/ton feed
90 mg/ton feed
100 mg/kg b.w./day
Cattle
(excl. milking cow)
Swine
Cattle
15 mg/kg b.w./day
15 mg/kg b.w./day
10 mg/kg b.w./day
Swine
Chicken
20 mg/kg b.w./day
50 mg/kg b.w./day
Swine
Chicken (excl. layer)
Yellow-tail
Carp
Eel
Rainbow trout
110 g/ton
500 g/ton
50 mg/kg
50 mg/kg
50 mg/kg
50 mg/kg
feed
feed
b.w./day
b.w./day
b.w./day
b.w./day
10 days
10 days
10 days
30 days
30 days
10 days
7 days
7 days
7 days
10 days
14 days
72 hrs (milk)
10 days
5 days
4 days (egg)
14 days
60 hrs (milk)
14 days
14 days
7 days
7 days
5 days
10 days
30 days
36 hrs (milk)
30 days
14 days
10 days (egg)
10 days
10 days
15 days
10 days
20 days
10 days
— 312 —
TABLE 8 (continued).
Ingredients and
form of dosing
Chlortetracycline
hydrochlorate
(in feed)
Chlortetracycline
hydrochlorate
(in drinking water)
Animal
Dosage
Cattle
20 mg/kg b.w./day
Swine
Chicken (excl. layer)
Yellow-tail
Eel
Sweetfish
Cattle
(excl. milking cow)
Swine
Chicken (excl. layer)
Swine (excl.
above 1-month age)
440 g/ton
440 g/ton
50 mg/kg
50 mg/kg
50 mg/kg
20 mg/kg
Chlortetracycline
hydrochlorate
(gavage)
Chlortetracycline
Eel
(dipping)
Chlortetracycline
Cattle
(insertion)
Dìhydrostreptomycin Cattle
(injection)
Horse
Swine
Chicken (excl. layer)
Difurazone
Swine (excl.
(in feed)
above 4-month age)
Yellow-tail
Difurazone
Horse
(gavage)
Swine (excl.
above 2-month age)
Spiramycin
Swine
embónate (in feed)
Chicken (excl. layer)
Spiramycin adipate Cattle (excl.
(injection)
milking cow)
Swine
Sulfadimethoxine
Swine
(in feed)
Chicken (excl. layer)
Yellow-tail
Eel
Sulfadimethoxine
Swine
(in drinking water)
Chicken (excl. layer)
Sulfadimethoxine
Cattle
(injection)
Horse
Swine
Sulfadimethoxine
Swine
(in feed)
Chicken (excl. layer)
feed
feed
b.w./day
b.w./day
b.w./day b.w./day
Restriction
10 days
48 hrs (milk)
15 days
7 days
10 days
15 days
15 days
10 days
30 mg/kg b.w./day
220 mg/liter .
25 mg/kg b.w./day
15 days
7 days
15 days
30 mg/liter
10 days
500 mg/head/day
25 mg/kg b.w./day
(10 mg for milking cow)
25 mg/kg b.w./day
100 mg/kg b.w./day
100 mg/kg b.w./day
500 g/ton feed
18 days
72 hrs (milk)
30 days
72 hrs (milk)
30 days
30 days
14 days
14 days
200 g/ton feed
5 mg/kg b.w./day
25 mg/kg b.w./day
5 days
21 days
14 days
200 g/ton feed
500 g/ton feed
10 mg/kg b.w./day
14 days
14 days
28 days
30 mg/kg b.w./day
2,000 g/ton feed
1,000 g/ton feed
200 mg/kg b.w./day
200 mg/kg b.w./day
100 mg/kg b.w./day
1,000 mg/liter
50 mg/kg b.w./day
30 mg/kg b.w./day
100 mg/kg b.w./day
2,000 g/ton feed
1,000 g/ton feed
28 days
7 days
7 days
15 days
30 days
7 days
7 days
5 days
120 hrs (milk)
7 days
7 days
7 days
7 days
— 313 —
TABLE 8 (continued).
Ingredients and
form of dosing
Animal
Yellow-tail
Eel
Rainbow trout
Sweet fish
Sulfamonomethoxine Swine
(in drinking water)
Sulfamonomethoxine Cattle
(injection)
Horse
Swine
Tylosin phosphate
Swine
(in feed)
Chicken (excl. layer)
Tylosin tartrate
Chicken (excl. layer)
(in drinking water)
Tylosin
Cattle
(injection)
Swine
Tylosin tartrate
Chicken
(injection)
Swine
Pyrimethamine
(in feed)
Chicken (excl. layer)
Pyrimethamine
Swine
(injection)
Fradiomycin sulfate Cattle (excl.
(in feed)
milking cow)
Swine
Chicken
Furazolidone
(in feed)
Benzyle penicilline
(injection)
Swine
(excl. 4-month age)
Yellow-tail
Red sea-bream
Carp
Eel
Sweet fish
Cattle
Horse
Swine
Dosage
Restriction
200 mg/kg b.w./day
200 mg/kg b.w./day
200 mg/kg b.w./day
200 mg/kg b.w./day
60 mg/kg b.w./day
15 days
30 days
15 days
15 days
7 days
30 mg/kg b.w./day
7
72
10
7
3
3
3
50 mg/kg b.w./day
100 mg/kg b.w./day
110 g/ton feed
550 g/ton feed
500 mg/liter
10 mg/kg b.w./day
10 mg/kg b.w./day
25 mg/kg b.w./day
150 g/ton feed
1 g/ton feed
4 mg/kg b.w./day
20 mg/kg b.w./day
under 1,000 mg/head
200 g/ton feed
200 g/ton feed
70 g/ton feed for layer
400 g/ton feed
days
hrs (milk)
days
days
days
days
days
28 days
96 hrs (milk)
28 days
14 days
8 days (egg)
7 days
7 days
14 days
5 days
10 days
5 days
14 days
200 g/ton feed
7 days
200 g/ton feed
7 days
200 g/ton feed
7 days
200 g/ton feed
7 days
200 g/ton feed
7 days
15,000 units/kg b.w./day 14 days
96 hrs (milk)
5,000 units/kg b.w./day 14 days
50,000 units/kg b.w./day 14 days
Remarks :
1. The drugs listed in the left column of the Table above shall only be used in animals
in the second column and at the dosage provided in the third column.
2. The drugs mentioned above shall not be used for the restriction period (suspended
period for slaughtering).
3. Layer means hen laying eggs for food.
— 314 —
TABLE 9.
Marketing of veterinary drugs.
(Unit : thousand yen).
Amount c)f selling
Year and
classification
Totail
Produced
Imported
1977
45,231,090
7,792,970
53,024,060
1978
48,137,896
7,848,425
55,986,321 (105.6)*
1979
51,403,093
(91.0)
5,063,856
(9.0)
56,466,949 (100.9)
(100)
For nervous system
and antiallergy
362,831
46,023
408,854
(0.7)**
For circulatory,
respiratory
and urinary organs
372,872
372,872
(0.7)
For digestive organs
1,497,412
50,666
1,548,078
(2.7)
For reproduction
1,601,135
36,280
1,637,415
(2.9)
For external use
831,395
68,904
900,299
(1.6)
For metabolism
4,536,993
793,144
5,330,137
(9.4)
For pathogenic
micro-organisms
and parasites
(except biologies
and disinfectants)
25,957,382
2,723,294
28,680,676 (50.8)
Biologies
8,102,762
791,362
8,894,124 (15.8)
Non-therapeutic use
8,140,311
654,183
8,694,494 (15.4)
* Index as expressed previous year =
100.
** Percentage for total a m o u n t .
Remarks : Feed additives are not included in this table but estimated at 27,000 million yen in 1979.
Bull. Off. int. Epiz., 1981, 93 (1-2), 315-320.
Prevention of Rabies,
Foot-and-Mouth Disease
and other major exotic epizootics
in Taiwan, ROC
by
Robert C.T. LEE , Tracy T.C. LIN
(*)
(**)
and Chao-chlen
HO
(***)
Though Rabies has not been recorded in both m a n and animals in
Taiwan since 1961, its position of being regarded as the most important zoonosis of public health concern has not changed a bit and
strenuous efforts have been made in preventing it from invading
Taiwan by the relevant public health authorities. A m o n g those
serious epizootics which have been exotic to Taiwan for a number of
decades or have never occurred there, Foot-and-Mouth Disease,
Rinderpest, Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia and African
Swine Fever have been considered most important to the steadily
growing animal industry of Taiwan. The rapidly developing international trade in animals and related products, however, has u n d o u b tedly raised the risk of introducing dreadful epizootics thus far exotic to Taiwan.
In order to check the introduction of such malignant exotic animal diseases, all existing quarantine and inspection measures have
been enforced and strengthened in recent years. The following are
the highlights of our Government-oriented campaign against the
invasion of these most feared epizootics.
(*) Chairman, Council for Agricultural Planning and Development (CAPD),
Executive Yuan, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.
(**) Senior Specialist, Animal Industry Division, CAPD.
(***) Professor, Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.
— 316 —
1. R A B I E S
Rabies cases in both m a n and animals were recorded in Taiwan
before World War II. After the war, the disease was once quite prevalent for a period of about 10 years with the largest n u m b e r of
h u m a n victims (238) being reported in 1951. In order to eliminate
this deadly zoonosis from Taiwan, an island-wide vaccination p r o g r a m m e initiated by the Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction
( J C R R ) and the Taiwan Provincial Department of Health was intensively carried out to vaccinate all the dogs with the Flury strain livevirus vaccine of chicken embryo origin (CEO). During the vaccination campaign period of 1957-1959, a total of 102,203 dogs, i.e.
9 4 % of the entire registered dog population, received inoculation
a n d , in the meantime, m a n y stray dogs were apprehended. The joint
endeavour brought about a historical achievement and cases of
Rabies in m a n and animals in Taiwan were last recorded in 1958 and
1960, respectively.
The World Health Organization ( W . H . O . ) declared Taiwan as a
Rabies-free country in 1961 and since then neither h u m a n nor animal Rabies has been reported. In addition t o the rigid quarantine
a n d inspection measures practised at the ports of entry, the following are deemed likewise attributable to this effect :
(1) Promulgation in August 1966 of the new Rabies Prevention
Law which stipulates : 1) registration of house dogs, 2) regular vaccination p r o g r a m m e for dogs, 3) destruction of stray dogs, a n d 4)
steps to be taken in case of an outbreak of Rabies.
(2) Banning of the importation of small animals from Rabies prevalent countries or districts since February 1974 in compliance with
the Quarantine Requirements for Importation of Animals and Animal Products into Taiwan.
(3) Routine vaccination of small animals against Rabies using phenolized killed virus vaccine manufactured by the Taiwan Provincial
Research Institute for Animal Health ( T P R I A H ) in T a m s u i , Taiwan.
A few private companies have imported a limited quantity of modified live-virus (MLV) vaccine of either porcine tissue culture origin
( E R A strain) or Flury strain virus for some specified circumstances.
(4) Competent laboratory facilities t o perform Negri's b o d y identification, mouse inoculation and fluorescent antibody test (on frozen
sections).
— 317 —
2. F O O T - A N D - M O U T H DISEASE (FMD)
Early in August 1910, two cases of F M D were discovered in cattle
imported from Nagasaki, J a p a n during their detention in quarantine
at the Keelung Livestock Isolation Quarters in the northern tip of
Taiwan. Due to appropriate control measures, the disease was
promptly extirpated. This marked the first F M D being diagnosed on
the island of Taiwan.
According to the documentation, F M D occurred as a severe epizootic twice in Taiwan. The first outbreak was in 1913-1916 affecting
14,888 cattle and 4 pigs. It spread from Hengchun Livestock Breeding Farm in the southern tip of this island and rapidly involved the
southern and eastern regions of Taiwan. The outbreak was suspected
to be connected with the importation of Kankrej cattle from India by
the animal farm in the preceding year. After 8 years' freedom from
F M D , it recurred in 1924-1925 involving only the east of Taiwan with
2,020 cattle contracting the disease. Through the drastic slaughtering
of affected animals, rigid quarantine, control of cattle movement,
strict police measures, etc., the disease was completely checked by
the end of April 1925. In these two outbreaks, the mortality was low
and the type of viral agents was not reported.
For m o r e t h a n five decades, no cases of this economically important animal disease have ever been reported in Taiwan. Strict law
enforcement and rigid quarantine measures have been undertaken to
protect this country from its invasion from abroad. In case of any
breakthrough in the future, vaccination will not be considered and
the test-and-slaughter eradication method will be rigorously executed.
3. O T H E R M A J O R E X O T I C E P I Z O O T I C S
(1)
Rinderpest.
This dreadful animal epidemic once posed a serious threat to our
cattle production. It was first eradicated in Taiwan in 1920 but was
re-introduced into the northern part of Taiwan by virus-carrying
hogs imported from H a i n a n island in October 1949. P r o m p t and
drastic control measures were taken by the Taiwan Provincial
Department of Agriculture and Forestry (TPDAF) and the J C R R
— 318 —
including emergency slaughtering and incineration of sick cattle, vaccination of the cattle in surrounding districts with lapinized Rinderpest virus vaccine (developed by the late Dr J. N A K A M U R A ) , disinfection and quarantine of contaminated areas, control of cattle movement, etc. As a result of the joint effort rendered by the concerned
government agencies, this epizootic was stamped out in the following
year and since then n o recurrence has been recorded in Taiwan.
The T P R I A H has kept both lapinized and lapino-avianized strains
of Rinderpest virus for an emergency prophylaxis whenever it is indicated. Test-and-slaughter m e t h o d will also be practised as one of the
eradication measures.
(2) African
Swine Fever
(3) Contagious
(ASF).
Bovine Pleuropneumonia
(CBPP).
A S F and C B P P have never occurred in Taiwan, and they should
never be allowed t o attack this country's food animal industry. In the
early 1970's, a great n u m b e r of breeder cattle were imported from
the United States, New Zealand and Australia for the purpose of
accelerating the development of dairy and beef industries in this
country. In order to provide sufficient protection to our dairy, beef
as well as draft cattle, C B P P C F test was conducted in 1973 for beef
cattle imported in the same year. A total of 3,423 head were tested
and fortunately all showed negative results.
*
**
Taiwan is surrounded by sea which, to some extent in the past,
might have provided her natural protection against the introduction
of foreign infectious diseases of m a n and animals. However, the
complexity of present-day transportation and trade structures has
greatly increased the possibility of introducing some fearful exotic
diseases to threaten the h u m a n life or to jeopardize the animal
industry. It has been our firm belief that the best way t o tackle with
an exotic disease is to check its infiltration. T o achieve this objective,
our efforts have been focused o n a constant, rigid enforcement of the
following laws or regulations : 1) the Livestock Infectious Disease
Prevention and Control Law, 2) the Law of Commodity Inspection
and Quarantine, and 3) the Quarantine Requirements for Importa-
— 319 —
tion of Animals and Animal Products into Taiwan. As we are aware
of the serious consequence of an epizootic breakthrough, since
February 1974, n o domestic animals (including cattle, buffaloes,
camels, swine, sheep, goats and rabbits), deer or artiodactyla animals
as well as fresh or frozen meat (including beef, veal, m u t t o n , hogget
meat, l a m b , pork and rabbit meat) have been permitted to be imported from countries or districts where Rinderpest, F M D , C B P P and
A S F exist, except animals for experimental and research purposes
under a permit granted by the Ministry of Economic Affairs.
The organization in charge of the quarantine for importation and
exportation of animals and animal products is the Bureau of Commodity Inspection and Quarantine (BCIQ) belonging to the Ministry
of Economic Affairs. Under its administration, there are three quarantine stations, one each at the seaports of Keelung and Kaohsiung
and one at CKS Airport in Taoyuan. In order to be able to meet the
actual needs, the B C I Q , in 1975, completed the construction of the
new permanent animal quarantine station near Kaohsiung harbour in
southern Taiwan. With modernized quarantine and inspection facilities, the station is now capable of handling 1,200 cattle and 500 hogs
at a time.
In June 1979, at the Kaohsiung Animal Quarantine Station, a total
of 298 breeding pigs imported from Sweden via Hong Kong by the
Taiwan Sugar Corporation were found to suffer from Vesicular Stomatitis which is clinically indistinguishable from F M D . The animals
were all destroyed and this marked the most drastic quarantine measure ever taken by our Government authority in thirty years. Such a
rigorous action is indispensable in counteracting epizootic invasion if
we want to expand our animal industry.
Should there be a leakage of an exotic epizootic through the existing quarantine network, the Livestock Disease Control Centers
(LDCCs) will then swiftly become involved in defeating such epizootic breakthrough. The L D C C s were established in 1956 based on the
motivation and assistance of the J C R R . In each county or national
city, there is one L D C C responsible for disease survey, diagnosis and
control within its own county or national city. Each of these LDCCs
has three major sections, viz., swine diseases, cattle and poultry
diseases, and laboratory, and in recent years its laboratory facilities
have been strengthened and disease diagnostic techniques improved.
In the past few years, the field veterinarians and their assistants
employed by the L D C C s and Township Offices have been trained,
— 320 —
t h r o u g h audio-visual aids, on the subjects of recognition a n d control
of those previously described exotic epizootics. For a continuous teaching and training purpose, nine movies concerning important malignant epizootics were purchased recently from the Plum Island Animal Disease Center, U S D A . With technical and scientific assistances
of T P R I A H standing by, these L D C C s have been expected to play
major roles in combating animal diseases of economic importance.
In March 1980, emergency control and eradication measures
against a malignant exotic epizootic were exercised for a period of
two days at a sizable pig farm in the Tainan county, southern Taiw a n . With 156 county veterinary employees participating in, and
another 76 representing other counties, cities and quarantine stations
watching the actions, the planned exercises were seriously executed
by the local and adjacent L D C C s and aided by the T P R I A H under
the supervision of T P D A F . African Swine Fever was presumed as a
target invader in the maneuvers which consisted of immediate disease
recognition, p r o m p t diagnosis and swift eradication. The project was
successfully carried out and it was felt that our field animal health
workers had gained considerable experience and in the meantime the
animal producers as well as the general public h a d become aware of
the seriousness of such an exotic disease.
B. -
RAPPORT FINAL
LISTE DES P A R T I C I P A N T S
DISCOURS D'OUVERTURE
C O N C L U S I O N S ET R E C O M M A N D A T I O N S
FINAL REPORT
LIST OF P A R T I C I P A N T S
OPENING ADDRESSES
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
INFORME FINAL
LISTA DE PARTICIPANTES
DISCURSOS DE APERTURA
CONCLUSIONES Y RECOMENDACIONES
Rapport final
e
La X I I Conférence de la Comission Régionale de l'Office International des Epizooties pour l'Asie, l'Extrême-Orient et l'Océanie
s'est tenue du 10 au 14 novembre 1980 à Djakarta, à l'hôtel
Indonesia-Sheraton, sous la présidence du Professeur, Dr. J . H .
H U T A S O I T , Directeur Général des Services de l'Élevage auprès du
Ministère de l'Agriculture.
Ont assisté à la Conférence, soixante-huit participants délégués et
experts d'Afghanistan, d'Australie, de Corée, des États-Unis, de
Grande-Bretagne, d'Indonésie, du J a p o n , de Malaisie, de NouvelleZélande, du Pakistan, du Sri L a n k a , de Taïwan R O C , de Thaïlande
et de l ' U . R . S . S . (*).
I. C É R É M O N I E D ' O U V E R T U R E
La Conférence a été officiellement ouverte le 10 novembre 1980
par S. Exc. M. A d a m M A L I K , Vice-Président de la République
d'Indonésie. Dans son discours d'ouverture, M. M A L I K a souhaité la
bienvenue la plus cordiale à tous les participants venus de divers
pays, ainsi q u ' a u x représentants des Organisations régionales et
internationales. Il ajouta aussi que l ' O . I . E . , tout au long de son
existence, avait fait un effort particulièrement important pour créer
une coopération plus étroite, dans le domaine de la lutte contre les
maladies contagieuses des animaux, de ses Pays-Membres. Conscient des avantages offerts par l ' O . I . E . , le Gouvernement indonésien en est devenu membre en 1954. La lutte contre les maladies animales contagieuses nécessite le renforcement de la coopération internationale. C'est p o u r q u o i , il est important que les Pays-Membres de
l ' O . I . E . échangent leur expérience et le résultat de leurs recherches
afin que puissent être définies les mesures les plus appropriées pour
le succès de la lutte contre les maladies des animaux. A cet égard,
l ' O . I . E . a déjà j o u é un rôle positif.
(*) Voir liste des participants p. 357.
— 324
S. Exc. a de plus souligné l'importance des mesures de prophylaxie qui permettent de réduire la mortalité du bétail, en s'appuyant
sur :
a) la prévention de l'introduction des maladies par la mise en
place d'installations quarantenaires ;
b) la prévention de l'apparition des maladies contagieuses par la
pratique régulière des vaccinations ;
c) l'éradication des maladies animales qui ont une grande importance économique en pratiquant une vaccination généralisée (par
exemple la fièvre aphteuse) ;
d) une surveillance épizootiologique continue, avec l'aide de centres de recherches sur les maladies animales, et
e) les activités menées dans le domaine de la santé publique vétérinaire.
Avant le discours d'inauguration de M . le Vice-Président de la
République, S. Exc. M . le Ministre de l'Agriculture avait déclaré que
les maladies animales ne connaissent pas de frontières et que pour
venir à bout des problèmes qu'elles posent, la coopération entre pays
est indispensable sous la forme d ' u n e Organisation à même de fixer
les règles applicables en matière de prophylaxie des maladies des anim a u x . Dans ce sens, l'existence de l ' O . I . E . revêt une très grande
importance.
S. Exc. M . le Ministre de l'Agriculture a souligné l'importance de
l'éradication de la fièvre aphteuse et de la rage. Dans le cas de la fièvre aphteuse, l'Indonésie a remporté un grand succès en éliminant la
maladie en 1978 dans les îles de Bali et de M a d u r a , avec l'assistance
technique du Gouvernement australien. On peut espérer q u ' à la fin
de 1980, le Gouvernement aura réussi à éradiquer la fièvre aphteuse
de l'est de Java et en 1981 du sud de Sulawesi.
II. S É A N C E S T E C H N I Q U E S
Le Professeur J . H . H U T A S O I T , Président de la Commission Régionale de l ' O . I . E . pour l'Asie, l'Extrême-Orient et l'Océanie, a chaleureusement souhaité la bienvenue aux délégués de la Conférence
Régionale de l ' O . I . E . organisée en Indonésie. Il a évoqué les problèmes soulevés p a r les maladies épizootiques dans la région et expliqué
que le problème le plus important relève de la communication qui est
insuffisante. Il a également souligné les avantages qu'il y a à s'occu-
— 325
per de ces maladies compte tenu de la configuration géographique de
beaucoup de pays de la région qui sont des archipels et aussi de la
mise en c o m m u n des efforts pour la réalisation des programmes sous
l'égide d'Organisations telles que l'Association des Nations de l'Asie
du Sud-Est.
Des problèmes se posent encore en matière de santé et de production animale dans la plupart des pays de la région. Une des raisons
avancées a été le peu d'intérêt porté à la production animale par différents gouvernements.
Les programmes de développement ont été orientés vers la satisfaction des besoins alimentaires en glucides plutôt que vers ceux en protéines animales. Un bon exemple de la contribution positive de la
lutte contre la maladie à la production animale a été le succès de la
campagne anti-aphteuse en Indonésie. La prophylaxie de la rage, a
indiqué le Professeur H U T A S O I T , pose dans l'ensemble du Sud-Est
asiatique le problème de la coopération absolument nécessaire entre
départements de la Santé publique et Services vétérinaires.
Dans son discours, le Dr. A . L A A B E R K I , Président du Comité de
l ' O . I . E . , a remercié le Professeur J . H . H U T A S O I T et le Gouvernement d'Indonésie pour avoir accueilli la X I I Conférence de la Commission Régionale de l ' O . I . E . dans le Sud-Est asiatique, rappelant les
nombreux pays et personnalités qui avaient participé au succès de
l ' O . I . E . dans la région. Le Dr. A . L A A B E R K I a également passé en
revue les sujets abordés lors de la précédente X I Conférence pour
l'Asie.
e
e
Le Dr. L. B L A J A N , Directeur Général de l ' O . I . E . , a remercié
ensuite l'Indonésie, pays hôte de la Conférence et les personnalités
officielles qui ont rendu possible la tenue de la X I I Conférence
régionale. Après avoir fait l'historique de l ' O . I . E . dans la région du
Sud-Est asiatique, il a souligné les raisons du choix des sujets retenus
pour la présente Conférence, à savoir la rage, la fièvre aphteuse, les
maladies clostridiales des ovins, la myiase et les systèmes de notification intra-régionaux. Il a mis l'accent tout particulièrement sur les
systèmes de notification et de collecte des informations de l ' O . I . E . et
indiqué que le système actuel de notification des maladies serait revu
et amélioré.
e
Thème 1 : Rage
Des rapports de l'Australie, de l'Indonésie, du J a p o n , de Thaïlande, de Taïwan R O C , de l ' U . R . S . S . et des États-Unis ont été présentés.
— 326 —
L'Australie est indemne de rage depuis de nombreuses années. Le
dernier foyer est a p p a r u en Tasmanie en 1866. Afin de maintenir
cette situation favorable, les règlements quarantenaires ont été renforcés pour limiter l'importation des chiens et empêcher leur introduction frauduleuse.
La rage est largement présente en Indonésie mais sur 27 Provinces,
5 en sont exemptes. En 1977-1978, on a d é n o m b r é 2.384 cas chez les
animaux et 142 cas h u m a i n s . L'incidence la plus élevée se rencontre
dans le nord de S u m a t r a , l'ouest de J a v a , l'ouest de S u m a t r a et le
n o r d de Sulawesi. Les programmes de prophylaxie mis en œ u v r e
reposent sur le contrôle des déplacements de chiens entre les îles, la
vaccination des chiens et la destruction des chiens errants.
Le Japon est actuellement indemne de rage. Le dernier cas humain
a été enregistré en 1954 et le dernier cas animal en 1956. De rigoureux
règlements quarantenaires sont appliqués aux chiens importés.
La Malaisie avait été déclarée indemne de rage en 1955, mais des
foyers sporadiques sont apparus le long de la ceinture de protection
vaccinale à la frontière de Thaïlande. Les règlements quarantenaires
sont strictement imposés aux chiens importés. Il n'existe pas de réservoir sauvage.
En Corée, on a noté une diminution importante du n o m b r e des cas
de rage depuis 1950 après l'intensification de la vaccination. Aucun
cas n ' a été signalé en 1979. Cependant, deux cas ont été enregistrés en
1980 dans la zone démilitarisée entre la Corée du Nord et la Corée du
Sud, vraisemblablement dus aux loups et renards, encore que cette
hypothèse n'ait pas été confirmée.
Thaïlande. L'incidence des cas humains s'est située à une moyenne
de 290 par an au cours des dix dernières années. Les mesures n o r m a les de prophylaxie comprennent la vaccination, l'isolement des anim a u x suspects et l'élimination des chiens errants. Depuis peu a été
instauré u n système d'autorisation pour les propriétaires de chiens.
Taïwan ROC est actuellement indemne de rage. Le dernier cas est
a p p a r u chez l ' h o m m e en 1958 et chez le chien en 1960. La prophylaxie repose sur la vaccination systématique et la destruction des
chiens errants. Les programmes sont maintenant orientés vers la prévention de la réintroduction de la maladie, par l'interdiction de
l'importation des chiens en provenance des zones infectées. Par ailleurs, tous les chiens sont enregistrés et régulièrement vaccinés avec
un vaccin phénolé.
— 327 —
U.R.S.S. La vaccination des chiens, qui est très importante, doit
être appliquée sur une plus large échelle afin de tenir compte du développement des moyens modernes de transport et de la propagation de
la rage selvatique. L'application d ' u n programme de mesures générales de prophylaxie pour lutter contre la rage urbaine est également
d ' u n e grande importance.
États-Unis. La rage est endémique dans la partie continentale des
États-Unis mais n'existe pas à Hawaï. Le problème de la maladie est
compliqué par la présence d'hôtes réservoirs dans la faune sauvage
comme les renards, les skunks et les ratons laveurs ce qui rend difficile l'éradication totale de la maladie. La prophylaxie de la maladie
est orientée vers la vaccination des populations canines et félines.
Une discussion a suivi la présentation des rapports. En Malaisie, le
vaccin L E P Flury est utilisé pour la vaccination annuelle dans la ceinture de protection vaccinale ; bien que l'immunité persiste en fait
plus de 2 ans, on s'en tient à la vaccination annuelle pour avoir la certitude que tous les chiens qui sont nombreux dans cette zone sont
bien vaccinés. Les chiens importés en provenance de pays infectés
sont vaccinés au cours de la période de quarantaine de 30 j o u r s , tandis que les chiens venant d'autres pays ne le sont pas.
A Taïwan R O C , la faune sauvage a été considérablement détruite
après la guerre et c'est peut-être la raison pour laquelle elle ne j o u e
pas un rôle important dans l'épidémiologie de la rage.
Le sentiment de tous les participants a été qu'il n ' y avait pas lieu
d'être satisfait de la situation, même si la région compte le plus grand
n o m b r e de pays indemnes de rage. La Conférence a estimé que les
pays devraient :
1) avoir des règlements quarantenaires plus rigoureux ;
2) lorsqu'ils sont infectés de rage, mettre l'accent sur la vaccination
des animaux ;
3) confier à la profession vétérinaire la responsabilité générale de la
prophylaxie de cette maladie chez les animaux.
Thème 2 : Fièvre
aphteuse
Des rapports ont été présentés par les délégués d'Indonésie, de
Malaisie, de Thaïlande, des États-Unis, d ' U . R . S . S . et de Taïwan
ROC.
— 328 —
Indonésie. La fièvre aphteuse est un problème continu depuis 1887
date à laquelle elle a été introduite d ' E u r o p e pour la première fois.
La perte annuelle, avant le début de l'application du p r o g r a m m e de
prophylaxie, était estimée à 9 milliards de roupies (*). Le p r o g r a m m e
actuel mis en oeuvre avec l'aide du Gouvernement australien a parfaitement réussi et a permis d'éradiquer la maladie de la plupart des
zones et l'éradication totale est prévue dans les quatre années à venir.
La Malaisie a été indemne de fièvre aphteuse de 1939 à 1973. Des
foyers sont apparus en 1973, 1978 et 1980. Le foyer de 1973 a été
jugulé par l'abattage des animaux malades. Le foyer de 1978 a été
maîtrisé par l'abattage complété par la vaccination. En août 1980, un
foyer important est a p p a r u dans le nord de la Malaisie sur des
bovins, des porcs et des chèvres. L'atteinte des porcs a compliqué le
problème. Les efforts tendent actuellement à empêcher l'extension de
la maladie vers le sud par la vaccination en anneau et sur tout le territoire de plusieurs États, le contrôle des déplacements de bétail et le
renforcement de la surveillance.
Thaïlande. La fièvre aphteuse est endémique et les trois sérotypes
O , A et Asia 1 sont reconnus. On tente de lutter contre la maladie par
la vaccination mais la principale contrainte est l'absence de disponibilités en vaccin approprié.
États-Unis. La fièvre aphteuse est absente des États-Unis depuis
1929. Avant 1929, sont apparus des foyers sporadiques dus à l'utilisation pour l'alimentation des porcs, de produits carnés contaminés.
La réglementation adoptée en 1929, interdisant l'importation de
viandes et de produits carnés frais ou réfrigérés en provenance de
pays infectés de fièvre aphteuse, a permis aux États-Unis de rester
indemnes de la maladie. Un exercice pratique a été effectué en 1980,
et a m o n t r é que si la maladie venait à être introduite, elle s'étendrait
très rapidement du fait des systèmes actuels de commercialisation et
de transport du bétail. Un p r o g r a m m e de vaccination a donc dû être
envisagé. U n e b a n q u e c o m p o r t a n t tous les sérotypes du virus aphteux qui pourraient être utilisés p o u r la production de vaccin en cas
d'urgence est à l'étude.
U.R.S.S. Une panzootie due à la souche A a été observée en
1965. En 1968 on dénombrait 1.816 foyers, mais en 1979, leur n o m bre est t o m b é à 11. Cette diminution spectaculaire a été obtenue par
un strict contrôle des déplacements de bovins, la prévention de tout
22
(*) Le taux de change de la roupie au cours de la semaine 10-15 novembre 1980
était de 1 dollar U.S. = 620 roupies.
— 329 —
contact entre bovins et animaux sauvages, un programme de vaccination et l'abattage des animaux infectés et contaminés. Il apparaît que
la maladie peut être éradiquée du pays.
Taïwan ROC.
1925.
La fièvre aphteuse n'existe plus à Taïwan depuis
A u cours de la discussion, les points suivants ont été soulignés :
a) L'Autriche et le Danemark ont arrêté la vaccination régulière
des bovins et la maladie n'est pas réapparue.
b) En U . R . S . S . , les animaux guéris peuvent dans certains cas être
porteurs de virus j u s q u ' à 480 j o u r s . L'état de porteur peut également
être observé sur des animaux vaccinés qui sont exposés au virus sauvage. Les observations faites aux États-Unis (Plum Island) confirment également ce phénomène. L'importance des porteurs de virus
peut avoir été surestimée, mais l'état de porteur chez les buffles sauvages d'Afrique peut, toutefois, constituer un facteur important
dans l'origine des foyers de la maladie.
c) En Malaisie, bovins et chèvres sont élevés ensemble et le résultat
en est que les chèvres contractent aussi la maladie, mais sous une
forme bénigne. P a r conséquent, les chèvres sont également vaccinées ; selon les observations faites en Indonésie, les chèvres et les
moutons ne jouent pas un rôle important dans l'épidémiologie de la
fièvre aphteuse.
d) Des vaccins à adjuvant huileux (doses de 2 ml) ont été utilisés
chez les porcs en Malaisie.
e) Des ruptures vaccinales sont apparues chez les bovins en Malaisie mais on ne peut les imputer à aucune cause bien définie.
f) En Indonésie, les ruptures de vaccination ont été rares ; pour les
porcs, les doses vaccinales étaient de 6 ml. Le type O était le seul type
utilisé. L'existence de variations antigéniques au sein même de cette
souche n ' a pas eu d'incidence sur le programme de vaccination.
g) Il est important de vérifier périodiquement que la souche de
virus sauvage ne subit pas de modification antigénique comme cela
s'est produit en Amérique du Sud.
h) L'efficacité du vaccin doit être vérifiée régulièrement. Les contrôles doivent également porter sur l'inactivation qui doit être suffisante. Certains foyers, apparus en Europe, ont en effet été imputés à
une mauvaise inactivation du vaccin.
— 330 —
i) Il est conseillé de disposer de petits laboratoires de diagnostic
capables de confirmer le diagnostic de la fièvre aphteuse plutôt que
de laboratoires régionaux de référence, très coûteux et sophistiqués.
Les facilités offertes par le Laboratoire Mondial de Référence de Pirbright, Royaume-Uni, devraient être mieux utilisées.
j) Un groupe d'étude de la fièvre aphteuse devrait être constitué au
sein de la Commission Régionale de l ' O . I . E . afin de faciliter
l'échange des connaissances acquises dans ce d o m a i n e .
L'éradication globale de la fièvre aphteuse est plus difficile que
celle de maladies comme la variole ou comme la peste bovine. Toutefois la technologie existe et si les préalables du financement, de la
motivation, et de la détermination du personnel, ainsi que des
moyens nécessaires sont réunis, l'éradication est possible.
Thème 3 : Maladies
clostridiales
des
ovins
Des rapports sur ce point ont été présentés par les délégués de la
Nouvelle-Zélande, de l'Indonésie, des États-Unis, de Malaisie et
d'Australie.
Nouvelle-Zélande.
Le charbon symptomatique, les œdèmes
malins, l'entérotoxémie et le tétanos ont été en Nouvelle-Zélande les
principaux problèmes dans ce domaine. Malgré l'existence de bons
vaccins, des mortalités sont observées sur des ovins non vaccinés par
négligence. Les cas dénommés « empoisonnement du sang » peuvent
être des cas de charbon symptomatique ou d ' œ d è m e s malins ou
d'hépatite nécrosante. Les m o u t o n s atteints sont trouvés morts et
leur carcasse se décompose rapidement. Des examens histopathologiques et bactériologiques sont nécessaires pour faire le diagnostic différentiel. Une enquête de portée limitée, réalisée en 1972, a révélé que
I'« empoisonnement du sang » avait entraîné la m o r t de 3,2o/oo
ovins.
Les éleveurs ne signalent pas ces maladies aux autorités sauf en cas
de mortalité i m p o r t a n t e . Des vaccins purifiés, actifs contre cinq
maladies ont été mis au point au début des années 1960, mais la vaccination n'élimine pas la nécessité d ' u n e bonne hygiène.
Indonésie. Il y a en Indonésie 3,3 millions d'ovins dont 9 0 % sont à
Java. On ne dispose que de peu de données, mais o n sait que les
maladies clostridiales existent. Il semblerait qu'elles ne soient pas une
cause importante de mortalité chez les ovins, mais il est possible
qu'elles posent un problème avec l'intensification de l'élevage.
États-Unis.
Les maladies clostridiales n ' o n t q u ' u n e importance
réduite. De bons produits biologiques, une bonne hygiène et une
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bonne gestion du troupeau permettent de contrôler ces maladies des
moutons.
Malaisie. Les maladies clostridiales des ovins ne sont pas considérées comme très importantes en Malaisie puisqu'il n ' y a que 52.000
ovins dont la plupart sont la propriété de petits éleveurs.
Australie.
La population ovine s'élève à environ 135 millions
d ' a n i m a u x et les maladies clostridiales sont répandues. Les pertes
économiques sont toutefois limitées au minimum par une b o n n e gestion de l'élevage et le recours aux vaccins. L'entérotoxémie, le tétanos, l'hépatite nécrosante, le charbon symptomatique et le botulisme
sont des maladies économiquement importantes, alors que les œ d è mes malins, l ' œ d è m e de la tête des béliers et le bradsot le sont moins.
La dysenterie des agneaux et l'entérotoxémie à Cl. perfringens C sont
rarement observées. La principale méthode de prophylaxie est la vaccination. La vaccination comporte, pour une primo-immunisation,
l'administration de deux doses à quatre semaines d'intervalle, administrées avant le sevrage. Des injections de rappel annuelles peuvent
se justifier. La vaccination de rappel des brebis avant l'agnelage, en
renforçant l'immunité maternelle, constitue un moyen efficace de
protection des jeunes agneaux.
Dans la discussion qui suivit, les points suivants ont été examinés :
a) La taille des troupeaux est importante et c'est peut-être la raison
pour laquelle ces maladies ne sont pas courantes en Indonésie.
C'était également vrai en Nouvelle-Zélande, dans l'ancien temps : les
ovins étant alors moins n o m b r e u x et les pâturages non améliorés, les
maladies clostridiales avaient une faible incidence.
b) L'émergence de l'entérotoxémie chez les bovins de boucherie
pose un problème en Australie.
c) Le succès du p r o g r a m m e de vaccination en Nouvelle-Zélande
tient à plusieurs raisons : l'autorisation donnée aux éleveurs d'utiliser
les vaccins, leur éducation et l'amélioration des pratiques d'élevage.
d) En Grande-Bretagne, il existe un système de prévision qui avertit les éleveurs 6 mois à l'avance en ce qui concerne l'infestation par
les douves. Ce système a vraisemblablement permis de réduire l'incidence de l'hépatite nécrosante.
Thème 4 : Myiase
Des rapports sur ce point ont été présentés par l'Australie, l ' I n d o nésie, la Malaisie, les États-Unis et la Nouvelle-Zélande.
— 332 —
Australie.
Il existe deux formes de myiase. Causée par Lucilia
cuprina elle peut se localiser au p o u r t o u r de l'anus ou envahir le
corps. Les plaies qui en résultent sont infectées par
Pseudomonas
aeruginosa. Les mesures de prophylaxie appliquées comportent la
pulvérisation d'insecticides mais il s'agit d ' u n e méthode très coûteuse. Une méthode en cours d'expérimentation actuellement, repose
sur l'emploi de mouches porteuses de multiples défauts génétiques
induits qui se révèlent dans les générations suivantes de la descendance.
Indonésie. La myiase n'est pas un problème important p o u r le
m o m e n t . Deux types de myiase sont observés : la myiase des sabots
causée par Booponus intonsus, Aldrich et la myiase due à la larve de
Chrysomyia bezziana Villeneuve. Les races locales (bovins de race
Bali et croisement Ongole) sont bien moins sensibles à cette dernière
que la race B r a h m a n , a p p a r e m m e n t du fait de leur plus grande résistance à l'infestation par les tiques qui constitue un facteur prédisposant important.
Malaisie. La myiase n'est pas un problème car les méthodes d'élevage ne lui sont pas favorables. Quelques cas ont été observés sur des
bovins importés élevés en grands troupeaux mais ils ont été maîtrisés.
États-Unis. Le « ver en vis du Nouveau M o n d e »,
Cochliomyia
hominivorax,
Cocquerel y est un problème grave. La m o r t peut résulter d'une grave infestation. Le succès du p r o g r a m m e de prophylaxie
est dû au lâcher de mâles stériles dans les zones infestées et à l'emploi
de pesticides en a p p â t . Certains pays d'Amérique Centrale ont m o n tré u n grand intérêt pour la lutte contre la maladie. Les principales
difficultés tiennent à l'insuffisance des moyens financiers disponibles
et à la coopération internationale pour une prophylaxie au niveau
régional.
Nouvelle-Zélande.
Il existe six mouches principales, cause de myiases, qui affectent les ovins : on observe une perte de poids rapide, des
plaies cutanées et, dans les cas graves, la m o r t . Chaque espèce de
m o u c h e a sa propre biologie, ses habitudes et son activité saisonnière.
Les mesures de prophylaxie reposent sur l'intégration des m é t h o des de conduite de l'élevage et des mesures de prophylaxie nonchimiques. Des informations doivent en premier lieu être obtenues
sur l'alimentation des larves et des adultes, l'attraction de l'hôte, les
produits chimiques adaptés ainsi que les méthodes de prophylaxie,
biologiques et autres. L'expérience a m o n t r é que les animaux de couleur sombre semblaient plus sensibles à l'attaque des mouches. Cer-
— 333 —
tains types de broussailles attirent les mouches par les fleurs, ce qui
fait que les m o u t o n s élevés dans ces zones sont plus exposés à leur
attaque.
De la discussion qui suivit la présentation des rapports on peut
retenir les points suivants :
a) Dans l'ouest de S u m a t r a , les éleveurs utilisent le jus de tabac
pour traiter les cas de myiase.
b) Bien que la myiase ne soit pas un problème grave en U . R . S . S . ,
un insecticide est appliqué sur la plaie, sous forme de mousse.
L'application de ce produit détruit les larves et favorise la cicatrisation de la plaie.
c) En Malaisie, les bovins importés sont plus sensibles, peut-être
parce que leur peau est plus fragile que celle des bovins indigènes.
d) Au J a p o n , seul existe le problème du varron. Celui-ci se manifeste surtout chez les animaux importés qui sont traités à la station de
quarantaine.
e) Les recherches sur les défauts génétiques multiples sont encore
en cours d'expérimentation par le C S I R O en Australie. Dans l'avenir
il est possible que cette technique soit utilisée dans un p r o g r a m m e de
prophylaxie de la myiase.
Thème 5 : Notification
intra-régionale
des maladies
animales
Le Rapporteur a souligné l'importance de la notification des maladies animales et a fait référence aux remarques émanant du Directeur
Général de l ' O . I . E . dans son discours d'ouverture. Des rapports sur
ce point ont été présentés par les délégués de Malaisie, des ÉtatsUnis, de Taïwan R O C , de Nouvelle-Zélande, du J a p o n , d'Indonésie
et d'Australie.
Malaisie. L'accent a été mis sur la nécessité d'une étude et d'une
programmation prudente avant la mise en œuvre effective d ' u n
système de surveillance et d'information sur les maladies animales.
Certains des points à prendre en considération ont été soulignés. La
standardisation des systèmes nationaux de collecte et de notification
des informations a été jugée nécessaire avant que puisse être mis en
place un véritable système régional. Le système devrait fournir des
indications davantage orientées vers l'épidémiologie que simplement
présentées sous forme de tableaux quantitatifs. Ces points ont été
— 334 —
discutés en relation avec le projet de Centre d ' I n f o r m a t i o n sur les
Maladies des A n i m a u x de l'Association des Nations de l'Asie du
Sud-Est.
États-Unis. Les questions importantes à considérer dans le développement d ' u n système de notification sont les suivantes : Quel est
le but de ce système ? A quoi serviront les données ? et : Sommesnous à m ê m e d'utiliser ce système ? Quelques exemples de problèmes
qui peuvent se présenter dans un système de notification des maladies
ont été présentés à partir de l'expérience de ce pays. La collecte de
données sur toutes les maladies s'est avérée coûteuse et généralement
inutile. L'utilité des données est fonction des critères de diagnostic et
de l'intérêt porté à une maladie particulière. La rapidité de la notification de la maladie est considérée comme vitale pour l'efficacité et
l'utilité de tout système. Un système de collecte des données est plus
utile pour les maladies pour lesquelles un p r o g r a m m e de prophylaxie
ou d'éradication est en cours de réalisation.
Taïwan ROC. Les maladies qui doivent être notifiées, le format
pour la collecte et la notification des données, l'emplacement et les
fonctions assignées à un système de notification des maladies ont été
indiqués.
Nouvelle-Zélande.
Le délégué a suggéré que le m o t inter-régional
soit remplacé par intra-régional pour le titre du point 5, ce qui fut
accepté par tous les participants. Les avantages et inconvénients des
systèmes existants de notification internationale des informations ont
été résumés. Le m a n q u e de rapidité et la nature incomplète des notifications ont été soulignés. L'amélioration du système actuellement en
vigueur devrait satisfaire les besoins actuels et le rôle et l'emplacement du Bureau Régional de l ' O . I . E . devraient être reconsidérés.
Japon. L a description d ' u n système régional de notification a été
présentée. Les problèmes de standardisation des rapports et des
délais pour la notification ainsi que la nécessité d'informations significatives du point de vue épidémiologique ont été soulignés. Le
système de notification en vigueur au J a p o n a été décrit.
Indonésie. L'attention a été attirée sur les difficultés rencontrées
par les pays en développement pour obtenir rapidement des informations sur les maladies. L'insuffisance de la communication et la
méconnaissance q u ' o n t les éleveurs de l'importance de la déclaration
rapide des maladies sont quelques-uns des problèmes rencontrés. Le
système de notification actuellement existant pour la région
— 335 —
( A P H C A ) pâtit de la participation limitée à quatre pays membres
seulement sur douze. Les raisons de cet échec devraient être recherchées.
Australie. Le système sophistiqué d'information et de surveillance
zoo-sanitaire australien et ses développements actuels ont été décrits.
Ce type de système est sans doute inapproprié pour les pays actuellement en développement. La présentation a été faite d'un système
international de surveillance modifié qui a été décrit par ailleurs.
L'insuffisance du système actuel de notification régionale et la nécessité de son amélioration ont été soulignées. La mise au point d ' u n
système régional d'information sur les maladies devrait se faire par
étapes sur une période de 3 à 5 ans. La région Asie, Extrême-Orient,
Océanie pourrait être la première à mettre en place un système de surveillance des maladies mieux adapté et de plus grande efficacité.
Le Rapporteur a souhaité recueillir les commentaires des autres
délégués qui n'avaient pas présenté de rapports. Le délégué du
Royaume-Uni a indiqué que, d'après l'expérience de son pays, la
qualité des données est plus importante que la quantité et que la précision et la rapidité de la notification étaient d'une importance vitale
pour l'efficacité d ' u n système d'information.
A u cours de la discussion qui suivit, les commentaires suivants ont
été présentés :
1. La nature et le tableau épidémiologique de la maladie doivent
être clairement définis dans les données transmises.
2. Le système de notification des maladies de l ' A P H C A a été interrompu.
3. Dans un système de notification des maladies, la standardisation
des épreuves diagnostiques est nécessaire.
4. Il est nécessaire de changer les systèmes actuels reconnus inadaptés aux besoins actuels.
Le Directeur Général de l ' O . I . E . souligna une fois de plus l'importance des systèmes régionaux de notification des maladies animales et
rappela que le système actuel de l ' O . I . E . avait été utile vu sa simplicité. Il reconnut la nécessité de l'adapter aux besoins nouveaux et à la
technologie nouvelle. Il fit observer q u ' u n e difficulté importante
découlait de la crainte ressentie par certains pays que la notification
de foyers de maladie ne pénalise leur commerce de bétail. Des encouragements positifs sont indispensables si l'on veut que les maladies
soient déclarées.
— 336 —
Thème 6 : L'état
de la santé publique
vétérinaire
dans la région
Des rapports ont été présentés sur ce point par les délégués de Taïwan R O C , de Nouvelle-Zélande, de Malaisie, d'Indonésie, d'Australie et du J a p o n .
Taïwan ROC. Le délégué a reconnu que le c h a m p des activités
vétérinaires dans la santé publique était devenu plus important et
plus complexe. La discussion a porté principalement sur trois aspects
de la santé publique vétérinaire : les aspects administratifs et techniques, les zoonoses et les autres problèmes de santé publique (résidus
d'antibiotiques et pollution causée par les effluents animaux).
Nouvelle-Zélande.
Il n'existe en Nouvelle-Zélande aucune organisation officielle séparée pour la santé publique vétérinaire bien que la
contribution vétérinaire à la santé publique se fasse par différentes
voies. Les zoonoses importantes que l'on observe en NouvelleZélande sont l'hydatidose, la tuberculose et la brucellose. Le développement de la part prise par les Services vétérinaires dans l'hygiène
des viandes est p o u r beaucoup due à la pression des organisations de
consommateurs étrangères. Les activités de santé publique vétérinaire se sont donc développées au sein de la sphère agricole plutôt
que médicale.
Malaisie. Le délégué a indiqué qu'il y avait encore une certaine
marge p o u r l'amélioration de l'inspection et de l'hygiène des viandes.
La santé publique vétérinaire a été érigée au rang de Division de la
santé animale des Services vétérinaires au début des années 1970. La
réorganisation du réseau d'abattage s'est faite en 1972 et il en est
résulté la construction de nouveaux abattoirs, dotés de vétérinaires et
d'inspecteurs des viandes. Une réorganisation a également porté sur
les industries laitières locales.
Indonésie. Les activités organisées de santé publique vétérinaire
sont une création récente, m ê m e si la participation vétérinaire dans ce
domaine date du début du siècle. Afin d'améliorer les conditions
d'hygiène, le Gouvernement a bâti de n o m b r e u x abattoirs modernes,
des centres de collecte de lait et une usine d'emballage des volailles.
La formation du personnel de l'industrie carnée et de l'industrie laitière est u n exemple entre autres des activités poursuivies dans le
domaine de l'éducation touchant la santé publique vétérinaire.
La rage est fréquente dans les régions qui en étaient antérieurement
indemnes, malgré le décret pris sur la rage en 1926. La plupart des
— 337 —
réglementations concernant la santé publique vétérinaire remontent à
plus de 60 ans.
Australie. Les exigences de la population australienne sont chaque
jour plus grandes en matière de normes alimentaires et d'amélioration de l'hygiène de l'environnement. Ce souci se reflète dans les
demandes ininterrompues p o r t a n t sur une large gamme de services
relevant de la santé publique vétérinaire. A long terme, il est certain
que la position de la santé publique vétérinaire en Australie sera renforcée car le gouvernement réagit aux demandes des consommateurs
et des industries de l'élevage ainsi q u ' a u x impératifs des marchés
extérieurs.
Japon. Les activités des vétérinaires en matière de santé publique
couvrent l'hygiène alimentaire, l'inspection des abattoirs, la prévention de la rage, l'équarrissage, la salubrité de l'eau, l'hygiène de
l'environnement, etc. La plupart des 6.000 vétérinaires s'occupent de
conseils, de prophylaxie, de recherches et d'enquêtes dans toutes les
régions du J a p o n .
La discussion peut se résumer comme suit :
a) En Malaisie, l'implantation des abattoirs est décidée par la
Commission nationale de l'Élevage et n ' i m p o r t e qui peut abattre
dans ces abattoirs.
b) L'espèce de Brucella que l'on observe dans les abattoirs en
Nouvelle-Zélande est B. abortus, contrairement aux États-Unis, où
B. suis semble être i m p o r t a n t .
c) Aux États-Unis, une politique d'élimination des animaux a été
pratiquée pour l'éradication de la tuberculose bovine. Beaucoup
d'animaux n o n réagissants présentaient des lésions de tuberculose
importantes. En Grande-Bretagne, on n ' a pas rencontré ce problème.
d) Le délégué australien a indiqué q u ' a u c u n cas d'hydatidose
n'avait été enregistré en Tasmanie au cours des 2 à 3 dernières
années.
e) En Nouvelle-Zélande, les chiens ne sont pas régulièrement vaccinés contre la leptospirose car L. canicola n'existe pas dans le pays.
Les chiens entrant dans le pays doivent présenter une sérologie négative pour la leptospirose.
f) Un délégué d'Indonésie a proposé une définition plus simple de
la santé publique vétérinaire pour remplacer la définition actuelle de
l ' O . M . S . La définition proposée est la suivante : « La santé publique
— 338 —
vétérinaire concerne toute activité qui protège la santé ou la vie de
l ' h o m m e de tout risque émanant directement ou indirectement des
animaux et des produits animaux. »
Thème
A. Administration
7 : Rapports
chargée des produits
spéciaux
vétérinaires
au
Japon.
Le délégué du J a p o n a présenté un rapport spécial sur l'administration chargée des produits vétérinaires au J a p o n , dont nous présentons ci-après le résumé : avec l'intensification de la production animale au J a p o n , les problèmes zoo-sanitaires ont pris de l'ampleur et
parallèlement l'utilisation de médicaments et de produits biologiques
s'est accrue. Il en est résulté un renforcement nécessaire de leur contrôle. Les aspects légaux, administratifs et techniques du contrôle des
produits vétérinaires pour la protection de la santé de l ' h o m m e et des
animaux ont été décrits.
Les points suivants ont été soulevés au cours de la discussion :
a) L'Institut national au J a p o n ne s'occupera dans les premiers
temps que de la production d'antigènes ; production qui sera par la
suite confiée à l'industrie.
b) Il est difficile de maîtriser les problèmes de résistance des bactéries aux médicaments, dès lors que cette résistance est a p p a r u e .
c) Un virus-vaccin vivant modifié produit industriellement contre
le virus A k a b a n e sera exporté par le J a p o n l'année prochaine.
d) Les pesticides sont contrôlés au Japon de la même manière que
les médicaments et les produits biologiques.
B. Discussion
spéciale sur la maladie vésiculeuse
du porc
(Professeur
BAIN).
La maladie vésiculeuse du porc est une maladie qui peut se confondre facilement avec la fièvre aphteuse. Il est donc important d'en
conserver la région indemne. La maladie a été observée il y a quelque
temps à Hong-Kong et dans beaucoup de pays européens.
Les mesures de prophylaxie de la maladie comportent la destruction des déchets dans les ports et aéroports. Des dispositions concernant l'importation des produits carnés (en particulier les saucisses, le
j a m b o n , etc.) en provenance de pays infectés devraient être envisagées. Elles devraient comporter l'obligation pour ces produits d'être
— 339 —
cuits j u s q u ' à ébullition. Le virus de la maladie vésiculeuse du porc est
vraisemblablement le plus résistant de tous les virus animaux actuellement connus.
III. C É R É M O N I E D E C L Ô T U R E
Après les dernières modifications apportées aux recommandations
finales de la Conférence, le Président mit fin aux débats techniques.
1. Le Dr. A. L A A B E R K I , Président de l ' O . I . E . , a remercié les PaysMembres de leur participation. Il a souligné le niveau élevé des discussions et des débats et exprimé sa conviction que la bonne volonté
générale qui s'est manifestée pendant la Réunion serait le point
d'appui pour les activités futures de la Commission Régionale. Il est
heureux, a-t-il indiqué, que les Pays-Membres témoignent d'un
regain d'intérêt pour l ' O . I . E .
2. Le Dr. L. B L A J A N , Directeur Général de l ' O . I . E . , a fait remarquer que le bilan des discussions qui ont eu lieu pendant la Réunion
avait été très positif. La Conférence de Djakarta devrait marquer une
date importante dans l'histoire de la Commission. Il dit avoir noté le
souhait exprimé par les participants de voir l ' O . I . E . développer plus
d'activité dans les différents domaines. Le Dr. L. B L A J A N a remercié
le pays hôte, et en particulier le Professeur J . H . H U T A S O I T , le Dr.
T E K E N et le Comité d'organisation qui ont fait de cette Conférence
un succès, ainsi que les Indonésiens pour leur chaleureuse hospitalité.
3. Le Dr. H j . K A R D I N B I N S H U K O R (Malaisie), au n o m des pays
participants, a remercié aussi le pays hôte et en particulier le Professeur J . H . H U T A S O I T , le Dr. I . G . N . T E K E N T E M A D J A et leur personnel pour leur amitié et leur hospitalité et a exprimé l'espoir que les
délégués de tous les Pays-Membres se rencontrent de nouveau lors de
la prochaine Conférence Régionale de l ' O . I . E .
4. Le Professeur J . H . H U T A S O I T , Président de la Commission
Régionale de l ' O . I . E . , a présenté les derniers commentaires avant la
clôture, indiquant que la Conférence avait été un grand succès, et
soulignant que de nombreuses idées y avaient été échangées et des
conclusions utiles dégagées. Le Professeur J . H . H U T A S O I T a remer-
— 340 —
cié les participants pour leur présence et les a invités à rester plus
longtemps afin de profiter de la culture et de l'hospitalité indonésiennes.
La Conférence a été déclarée officiellement close le 13 novembre à
15 h .
Final Report
The Twelfth Conference of the Office International des Epizooties Regional Commission for Asia, the Far East and Oceania was
held from 1 0 to 1 4 November 1 9 8 0 in J a k a r t a and t o o k place at the
Hotel Indonesia Sheraton under the chairmanship of Professor Dr.
J . H . H U T A S O I T , Director General of Livestock Services in the
Ministry of Agriculture.
The Conference was attended by sixty-eight participants including
delegates and experts from Afghanistan, Australia, Great Britain,
Indonesia, J a p a n , Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Sri
L a n k a , Taiwan R O C , Thailand, U . S . A . and U.S.S.R.
(*)
I. O P E N I N G C E R E M O N Y
The Conference was officially opened on 1 0 November 1 9 8 0 by
the Right H o n o u r a b l e Vice-President of the Republic of Indonesia,
M r . A d a m M A L I K . In his opening address, M r , M A L I K extended a
cordial welcome to all participants at the Conference who h a d come
from various countries, as well as to those representing regional and
international Organisations. H e also said that during the m a n y years
of its existence, the O . I . E . has m a d e a particular effort to create
greater cooperation in the field of contagious animal disease control, especially a m o n g its Member Countries. Appreciative and
aware of the advantages offered by the O . I . E . , the Indonesian
Government became a m e m b e r in 1 9 5 4 . The problem of contagious
animal diseases calls for a major effort to be m a d e in order to create
closer cooperation in controlling these diseases. Therefore, O . I . E .
Member Countries are expected to exchange experience gained and
results achieved from research so that effective measures can be
adopted for the successful and efficient control of animal diseases.
In this respect, the O . I . E . has indeed played a positive role.
(*) See list of participants on page 357.
— 342 —
The Right H o n o u r a b l e Vice-President further elaborated on the
importance of animal disease control in order to reduce livestock
mortality through :
a) preventing the introduction of animal diseases by establishing
quarantine facilities;
b) preventing the occurrence of contagious diseases by vaccinating
on a regular basis;
c) eradicating animal diseases of great economic importance by
carrying out mass vaccination (e.g. F M D ) ;
d) maintaining continuous epizootiological surveillance by establishing disease investigation centres; and
e) carrying out activities in the field of veterinary public health.
Prior to the Vice-President's inaugural speech the Right H o n o u r a ble Minister of Agriculture stated that animal diseases do not recognise country boundaries and therefore to overcome this problem,
cooperation between countries is necessary in the form of an organisation which is able to regulate the procedures of animal disease
control. To this end the existence of the O . I . E . is of great importance.
The Right H o n o u r a b l e Minister of Agriculture noted the importance of eradicating F o o t - a n d - M o u t h Disease as well as Rabies. In
the case of Foot-and-Mouth Disease, Indonesia had been most successful in freeing the Bali and M a d u r a Islands from F M D in 1978
with the technical assistance of the Australian Government. It was
hoped that by the end of 1980 the Government would be able t o eradicate F M D in East Java and in 1981 in South Sulawesi.
II. T E C H N I C A L SESSIONS
Professor J . H . H U T A S O I T , President of the Regional Commission
of the O . I . E . for Asia, the Far East and Oceania, warmly welcomed
delegates to this Regional Conference of the O . I . E . held in Indonesia. He described the problems of dealing with epizootic diseases in
the region and explained that the most important problem was poor
communication. Positive advantages in dealing with diseases in the
region were also noted, namely the fact that m a n y of the countries
were archipelagic and secondly that cooperative efforts to deal with
programmes were being m a d e through various Organisations such
as A S E A N .
— 343
P r o b l e m s of disease control and animal production still existed
throughout most of the region. One of the reasons given was the low
priority given to animal production by different national governments.
Development programmes were oriented towards fulfilling the
needs of carbohydrate food rather than those of animal protein. A
positive example of success that could be achieved in animal production by controlling disease was the successful F M D campaign in
Indonesia. Rabies control was cited as a currently widespread p r o blem in South-East Asia in which cooperation between public health
Departments and Veterinary Services was required.
In his address, Dr. A . L A A B E R K I , President of the O . I . E . Committee, thanked Professor J. H . H U T A S O I T and the Government of
Indonesia for hosting the X I I t h O . I . E . Regional Commission Conference. He then went on to review the 30-year history of the O . I . E .
in South-East Asia, recalling the many countries and personalities
that had m a d e the O . I . E . a success in the region. The topics discussed at the previous XIth Meeting were also reviewed.
Dr. L . B L A J A N , Director-General of the O . I . E . , then thanked the
host country, Indonesia, and its officials for making the XIIth
Regional Conference possible. The history of the O . I . E . in the
South-East Asian Region was reviewed. Dr. B L A J A N outlined the
reasons for the choice of topics for this year's Conference, namely :
Rabies, F o o t - a n d - M o u t h Disease, clostridial diseases of sheep,
Myiasis and intra-regional reporting systems. Particular emphasis
was placed on O . I . E . information collection and reporting systems.
He emphasised that the current system of disease reporting should
be reviewed and improved.
Topic 1 : Rabies
Reports from Australia, Indonesia, J a p a n , Thailand,
R O C , U . S . S . R . and U . S . A . were presented.
Taiwan
Australia has been free from Rabies for many years. The last outbreak occurred in Tasmania in 1866. In order to maintain the
Rabies-free status, the quarantine regulations have been strengthened to restrict importing dogs and to prevent dog smuggling.
Indonesia has a widespread Rabies occurrence but 5 out of the 27
Provinces are Rabies-free. In 1977-1978 there were 2,384 cases
— 344
r e p o r t e d among animals and 142 cases among h u m a n s . The highest
incidence is in N o r t h Sumatra, West Java, West Sumatra and North
Sulawesi. Current control programmes are based on the movement
control of dogs between islands, the vaccination of dogs and the destruction of stray dogs.
Japan is at present free from Rabies. The last h u m a n case was in
1954 and the last animal case in 1956. Strict quarantine regulations
are enforced regarding the importation of dogs.
Malaysia was declared free from Rabies in 1955 but sporadic outbreaks have occurred along the i m m u n e belt o n the T h a i / M a l a y s i a
border. Quarantine regulations on the importation of dogs are
strictly imposed. N o wildlife reservoir is present.
Korea. A significant reduction in the incidence of Rabies has taken
place since 1950 with an intensification of vaccination. No cases were
reported in 1979. However, two cases were reported in 1980 in the
demilitarized zone between North and South Korea possibly due to
the presence of wolves and foxes, although this has not been confirmed.
Thailand. The incidence of cases in h u m a n s has averaged 290 per
year for the past 10 years. Current control measures include vaccination, isolation of suspect animals and elimination of stray dogs.
Licensing of dogs has been introduced recently.
Taiwan ROC is currently free from Rabies. T h e last case in m a n
occurred in 1958 and in dogs in 1960. Control was achieved by mass
vaccination and destruction of stray dogs. Current programmes are
directed towards preventing the re-introduction of the disease by prohibiting the importation of dogs from infected areas. Furthermore all
dogs are registered and are regularly vaccinated with phenolized vaccines.
U.S.S.R. The importance of prophylactic immunisation of dogs is
emphasised. It must be performed on a larger scale taking into
account the development of the modern means of transport and the
spreading of natural Rabies. The importance of carrying out a p r o g r a m m e of general prophylactic measures in the control of u r b a n
Rabies is stressed.
U.S.A. Rabies is endemic in continental U . S . but absent in
Hawaii. The disease situation is complicated by the presence of wildlife reservoirs such as foxes, skunks and raccoons and this prevents
— 345 —
the total eradication of the disease. Disease control is oriented
towards the vaccination of the dog and cat populations.
A discussion followed the presentation of reports. In Malaysia,
Flury L E P vaccine is used annually in the immune belt even though
the effective immunity lasts m o r e t h a n 2 years. The number of dogs
in the i m m u n e belt is high a n d in order to ensure that all are vaccinated this conservative approach is maintained. Dogs imported from
infected countries are vaccinated during the 30-day quarantine
period but dogs from other countries are n o t .
In Taiwan R O C , wildlife destruction was extensive after the war
and this m a y be why wildlife was not important in the epidemiology
of Rabies.
All participants agreed that there should be no complacency about
the situation although the Region h a d the greatest number of Rabiesfree countries. It was felt that the countries should :
i) have stricter quarantine regulations ;
ii) increase the emphasis on vaccination of animals in affected
countries ; and
iii) place the overall responsibility on the veterinary profession for
control of this disease a m o n g animals.
Topic 2 : Foot-and-Mouth
Disease
Reports were presented by delegates from Indonesia, Malaysia,
Thailand, U . S . A . , U . S . S . R . and Taiwan R O C .
Indonesia. F M D has been a persistent problem since 1887 when it
was first introduced from E u r o p e . The estimated annual loss prior to
the commencement of a control p r o g r a m m e was 9 billion rupiahs (*).
The current control p r o g r a m m e carried out with the support of the
Australian Government has been quite successful and has eradicated
the disease from most areas and complete eradication is foreseen in
the next four years.
Malaysia was free from F M D between 1939 and 1973. However,
outbreaks occurred in 1973, 1978 and 1980. The 1973 outbreak was
controlled by slaughtering affected animals. The 1978 outbreak was
(*) Exchange rate of the rupiah during the week 10-15 November 1980 was :
1 U.S. $ = 620 rupiahs.
— 346
controlled by slaughter and later by vaccination. In August 1980 a
major outbreak occurred in N o r t h Malaysia involving cattle, pigs
and goats. The infection a m o n g pigs has complicated the problem.
Current efforts are being directed to preventing the spread of the
disease southwards by state-wide and ring vaccination, control of
movement of livestock and increased surveillance.
Thailand. F M D is endemic and the three serotypes O, A and Asia 1
are recognised. Control of the disease by vaccination is being attempted but the main limitation is the absence of adequate vaccine supplies.
U.S.A. F M D has been absent from U . S . A . since 1929. Prior to
1929 sporadic outbreaks were due to the importation of contaminated meat products which h a d been fed to pigs. Regulations introduced in 1929 preventing the import of fresh or chilled meat or meat
products from infected countries have kept the U . S . A . free from the
disease. A test exercise carried out in 1980 indicated that if the
disease were introduced, it would become widespread in a short time
because of the current marketing and transport systems of livestock.
Hence a vaccination p r o g r a m m e has h a d to be considered. A b a n k of
F M D immunogens of all serotypes which could be utilized for emergency vaccine production is envisaged.
U.S.S.R. A panzootic involving strain A occurred in 1965. In
1968 there were 1,816 outbreaks but in 1979 there were only 11 outbreaks. This dramatic reduction was due to the careful control of
cattle movement, the prevention of contact between cattle and wild
animals, a vaccination p r o g r a m m e and the slaughter of infected and
exposed animals. There are indications that the disease can be eradicated from the country.
2 2
Taiwan ROC.
F M D has not been present in Taiwan since 1925.
In the discussion the following points were highlighted :
a) Austria and Denmark have stopped routine vaccination of
cattle and there has been n o re-appearance of the disease.
b) In the U . S . S . R . , recovered animals occasionally carry the virus
for u p to 480 days. A carrier state may also arise when vaccinated
animals are exposed to virulent virus. Findings in U . S . (Plum
Island) also support this. T h e importance of carrier animals may
have been overestimated but the carrier state in wild water buffalo
in Africa m a y , however, be an important factor in causing outbreaks of disease.
— 347
c) In Malaysia cattle and goats are kept in close association and,
as a result, goats also contract the disease but in a mild form. Hence
goats are also vaccinated. Indonesia's experience is that goats and
sheep do not play an important part in F M D epidemiology.
d) Oil adjuvant vaccines (2 ml doses) were used in pigs in Malaysia.
e) Breakdowns of vaccination in cattle in Malaysia are occurring
but no definite cause can be found.
f) In Indonesia's experience, breakdowns of vaccination were
rare ; in pigs 6 ml of vaccine were used. Type O was the only type.
Although there are antigenic variations within the strain, this has
not affected the control p r o g r a m m e .
g) It is important to check the strain periodically for antigenic
drift as happened in South America.
h) The vaccine potency must be monitored regulary. It should also
be checked to ensure that proper inactivation has been carried out.
Some outbreaks in E u r o p e have been attributed to poor inactivation
of the vaccine.
i) It is advisable to have m a n y small diagnostic laboratories which
can confirm the diagnosis of F M D rather than use the very expensive and sophisticated regional reference laboratories. Better use
should be m a d e of facilities provided by the World Reference Laboratory at Pirbright, U.K.
j) A working group on F M D within the framework of the O . I . E .
Regional Commission should be established to facilitate the
exchange of experience gained.
Global eradication of F M D is more difficult than that of such
diseases as small pox or Rinderpest. However the technology is available and if the prerequisites of money, motivation and commitment
of personnel as well as resources are met, eradication will be feasible.
Topic 3 : Clostridial
diseases of
sheep
Reports were presented by delegates from New Zealand, Indonesia, U . S . A . , Malaysia a n d Australia.
New Zealand. Blackleg, Malignant Oedema, Enterotoxaemia and
Tetanus have been the main problems in New Zealand. Although
good vaccines are available, losses are experienced in unvaccinated
sheep due to a lack of interest. The so-called « blood poisoning »
— 348 —
m a y either be Blackleg, Malignant Oedema or Black Disease. Affected sheep are found dead and the carcass deteriorates rapidly. Histopathology and bacteriological examinations are required for differential diagnosis. A limited survey carried out in 1972 showed that
« blood poisoning » caused mortality of 3.2 per 1,000 sheep.
Individual farmers do not notify authorities unless they experience heavy mortality. Highly purified polyvalent vaccines against
five diseases were developed in the early 60's, but vaccination does
not eliminate the need for good hygiene.
Indonesia. There are 3.3 million sheep in Indonesia and 9 0 % of
t h e m are in Java. Limited data is available but clostridial diseases
are identified. It would appear that clostridial diseases are not an
important cause of mortality in sheep, but the problem could arise
with the intensification of management.
U.S.A. Clostridial diseases are of limited importance. G o o d biological products and proper hygiene and management have been
adequate to control diseases in sheep.
Malaysia. Clostridial diseases in sheep are not considered very
important in Malaysia since there are only 52,000 sheep, most of
which are owned by small farmers.
Australia. The sheep population is about 135 million and clostridial diseases are prevalent. Economic losses are kept to a m i n i m u m
by good management and the use of vaccines. Enterotoxaemia,
Tetanus, Black Disease, Blackleg, and Botulism are all economically
important diseases while Malignant Oedema, swelled head of rams
and Braxy are less significant. L a m b Dysentery and Struck rarely
occur. The main method of control is vaccination. The vaccination
required is for a primary immunization course of 2 doses administered four weeks apart. They are given at or before weaning. A n n u a l
booster doses may be warranted. Booster vaccination of ewes before
lambing to enhance maternally derived immunity has been an effective way of protecting young lambs.
In the subsequent discussion, the following points were examined :
a) The size of flocks is large and that may be why these diseases
are not so c o m m o n in Indonesia. Even in New Zealand in the early
— 349 —
days when sheep were less numerous and pastures had not been
improved, clostridial diseases were of low incidence.
b) Enterotoxaemia is n o w emerging as a problem in beef cattle
in Australia.
c) The success of the New Zealand vaccination p r o g r a m m e was
due t o allowing farmers to use the vaccines and to the education of
farmers and improved management practices.
d) In Great Britain, a forecasting system is present which gives farmers 6 m o n t h s notice regarding liver fluke infestation. This probably
reduces the incidence of Black Disease.
Topic 4 : Myiasis
Papers were presented by Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia, U . S . A .
and New Zealand.
Australia. There are two forms of Myiasis. One is blowfly strike
caused by Lucilia cuprina. It can be breech strike or body strike.
Resultant wounds become infected with Pseudomonas
aeruginosa.
Control measures applied involve insecticidal sprays but these are
very costly. A n experimental method under investigation is the use of
flies with induced multiple genetic defects which show u p in subsequent generations of the progeny.
Indonesia. Myiasis is presently not a major problem. Two types of
Myiasis occur : hoof Myiasis caused by Booponus intonsus, Aldrich
and the screw-worm Myiasis caused by Chrysomyia bezziana Villeneuve. Local breeds (Bali and Ongole-cross cattle) are far less susceptible t o screw-worm t h a n the B r a h m a n , apparently due to their higher resistance to tick infestation which is an important predisposing
factor.
Malaysia. Myiasis has not been a problem as the husbandry practices do not favour it. Some cases h a d been observed in imported cattle
kept in large numbers but these were under control.
U.S.A. The « New World screw-worm », Cochliomyia
hominivorax Cocquerel is a serious problem. Death m a y occur from severe
infestation. The success of the control p r o g r a m m e is due to the adequate supply of sterile males for release into infested areas, and to
the use of a bait-pesticide. Considerable interest has been shown
recently by countries in Central America in controlling the disease.
The main difficulties are the availability of finances and international cooperation for regional control.
— 350 —
New Zealand. There are six main Myiasis-producing flies affecting
sheep, causing rapid loss of body weight, wool loss and staining, skin
damage and in severe cases, death. Each species has its own biology,
habit, and seasonal activity.
Control measures are based o n the integration of management
procedures and non-chemical control measures. Information must
first be obtained o n the food sources of the larvae and adults, host
attractiveness, suitable chemicals, and biological and other methods
of control. Experience indicated that dark coloured animals appeared to be more susceptible to fly attack. Certain types of shrubs
attract flies when in flower and hence sheep in such areas are m o r e
p r o n e t o attack.
The following information is taken from the discussion which t o o k
place after the presentation of the papers :
a) In West Sumatra, farmers use tobacco juice to treat Myiasis
cases.
b) Although it is not a serious problem in the U.S.S.R. an insecticidal drug is applied as a foam to the w o u n d . The application destroys
the larvae and promotes healing of the w o u n d .
c) In Malaysia imported cattle are more susceptible perhaps
because their skin is more sensitive than that of the indigenous cattle.
d) In J a p a n only the warble fly problem exists. This is mostly in
imported animals and is controlled by treatment at the quarantine
station.
e) Multiple genetic defect research work is still under experimentation by C S I R O in Australia. In the future, this technique could be
used in a control p r o g r a m m e for Myiasis.
Topic 5 : Intra-regional
reporting
of animal
diseases
The Rapporteur stressed the importance of animal disease reporting and referred to the remarks m a d e by the Director-General of the
O . I . E . in his opening speech. Papers were presented by delegates
from Malaysia, U . S . A . , Taiwan R O C , New Zealand, J a p a n , Indonesia and Australia.
Malaysia. Emphasis was placed on the need for careful consideration and planning prior to the actual development of an animal
disease surveillance and information system. Some of the considerations were outlined. Standardisation of existing national information
collection and reporting systems was required before an effective
regional system could be established. Reports from the system should
— 351 —
be epidemiologically orientated rather than being merely tabulated
quantitative data. These points were discussed in relation to the proposed A S E A N Animal Disease Information Centre.
U.S.A. The important questions to be considered in the development of a reporting system were : What is the system supposed to
do ? W h a t is the data for ? a n d , Can we afford it ? Examples of
some problems in a disease reporting system were quoted from American experience. Collection of d a t a on all diseases was expensive and
usually not useful. The diagnostic criteria and the interest in a particular disease could affect the usefulness of the data. Promptness of
disease reports was considered to be vital for the effectiveness and
usefulness of any system. A data collection system was most valuable
for the diseases for which a control or eradication p r o g r a m m e was
under way.
Taiwan ROC. The diseases to be reported, the format for the collection and reporting of data, and the location and responsibilities of
a disease reporting system were outlined.
New Zealand. The delegate suggested that the word « interregional » be replaced by « intra-regional » for the title of the topic ;
this was accepted by all participants. The advantages and disadvantages of current international information reporting systems were summarised. The lack of promptness and the incomplete nature of
reports were pointed o u t . A call was m a d e for an improvement in the
existing system to meet the current requirements, and for a reappraisal of the role and location of the O . I . E . Regional Bureau Office.
Japan. A description of a regional reporting system was presented.
The problems of standardisation of reports and delays in reporting
and the need for reports to be epidemiologically significant were
emphasised. The internal reporting system in Japan was described.
Indonesia. Attention was drawn to the difficulties experienced by
developing countries in obtaining disease information rapidly. P o o r
communication and lack of farmers' awareness of the importance of
prompt reporting of diseases were some of the problems experienced.
The existing reporting system for the region ( A P H C A ) suffered
because only 4 out of 12 countries bothered to participate. Reasons
for this failure should be obtained.
Australia. The sophisticated Australian animal disease monitoring
and information system and its current developments were described.
This type of system was thought to be inappropriate for developing
countries at present. A modified international surveillance system
that has been outlined elsewhere was presented for consideration.
— 352 —
T h e marked limitation of the current regional reporting system was
pointed out and the need for improvement emphasised. A gradual
approach t o the development of a regional disease information
system over a period of 3-5 years should be a d o p t e d . This region
could be in the forefront in the development of a better a n d m o r e
efficient disease surveillance system.
The Rapporteur then invited comments from other delegates who
h a d not presented papers. The delegate from the U.K. stressed t h a t ,
from British experience, quality of the data is m o r e important t h a n
quantity and that accuracy and promptness of reporting were vital to
the efficiency of an information system.
In the subsequent discussion, the following comments were m a d e :
1. The nature a n d the epidemiological pattern of the disease must
be clearly defined in the data reported.
2. T h e A P H C A disease reporting system had been terminated.
3. Standardisation of diagnostic tests in a disease reporting system
was necessary.
4. The necessity to change the present systems which were recognised to be inadequate for current needs, was re-emphasised.
T h e Director-General of the O . I . E . again stressed the importance
of regional animal disease reporting systems and commented that the
existing O . I . E . system has been useful because of its simplicity. H e
recognised the need to adapt it t o new requirements a n d new technology. H e pointed out that one problem was the fear that the reporting
of disease outbreaks may incur a penalty for the country concerned
which could affect its livestock t r a d e . Positive incentives for reporting diseases were needed.
Topic 6 : The status of veterinary public health in the
region
Papers were presented by delegates from Taiwan R O C , New Zealand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Australia and J a p a n .
Taiwan ROC. The delegate recognised that the scope of veterinary
medicine in public health had become more important and complex.
Discussion mainly concerned three aspects of veterinary public
health, i.e. the administrative and technical aspects, zoonoses and
other public health problems, i.e. : residues of antibiotics and pollution caused by animal effluents.
— 353 —
New Zealand. N o separate Government organisation for veterinary public health exists in New Zealand, although veterinary contribution to public health continues through different channels. The
major zoonotic diseases found in New Zealand are : Hydatid
Disease, Tuberculosis and Brucellosis. The development of veterinary involvement in meat hygiene has largely been the result of pressure from overseas consumer organisations. Consequently, veterinary public health activities have increased within the agricultural
rather t h a n the medical sphere.
Malaysia. The delegate reported that there is some r o o m for
improvement in meat inspection and hygiene. Veterinary public
health was established as a branch of Animal Health of Veterinary
Services in the early 1970's. Reorganisation of the abattoir system
was carried out in 1972, which resulted in the building of new abattoirs and providing veterinarians and meat inspectors. Reorganisation also occurred in the local dairy industries.
Indonesia. Organised veterinary public health activities is a recent
development, although veterinary involvement started as early as the
beginning of this century. T o improve the hygiene conditions, the
Government has built m a n y modern abattoirs, milk collecting centres and a poultry packing plant. Training of meat handlers and
dairymen provide an example of some activities carried out in the
field of veterinary public health education.
Rabies is widespread in previous free regions in spite of the Rabies
Order enacted in 1926. Most of the regulations concerning veterinary
public health were enacted m o r e t h a n 60 years ago.
Australia. The Australian public increasingly demands higher food
standards and improved environmental hygiene. This is reflected in
continuous demands for a wide range of veterinary public health services. In the long term, there is confidence that the veterinary public
health status in Australia will be enhanced as Government reacts to
the demands of consumers, the livestock industries and the requirements of overseas markets.
Japan. The activities of veterinarians in public health cover food
hygiene, abattoir inspection, Rabies prevention, disposal of dead
animals, water sanitation, environmental hygiene, etc. Most of the
6,000 veterinarians are engaged in advice, control, research and
investigation in areas t h r o u g h o u t J a p a n .
The following is a s u m m a r y of the discussion :
a) The abattoirs in Malaysia are established by the National Livestock Commission and anybody can slaughter animals there.
— 354 —
b) The Brucella sp. found in New Zealand packing houses was B.
abortus in contrast to U . S . A . where B. suis appeared to be important.
c) In U . S . A . a depopulation policy was practised for the eradication of Bovine Tuberculosis. M a n y of the negative reactors had significant Tuberculosis lesions. In Great Britain this problem had not
arisen.
d) T h e Australian delegate said that n o cases of Hydatidosis in
Tasmania h a d been recorded in the last 2-3 years.
e) In New Zealand, dogs are not routinely vaccinated for Leptospirosis as L. canicola is not present in the country. Dogs coming into
the country must be sero-negative for Leptospirosis.
f) A n Indonesian delegate proposed a more simple definition of
veterinary public health to replace the existing W . H . O . definition.
The definition proposed was as follows : « Veterinary public health
is any activity that protects h u m a n health or h u m a n life from any disturbances arising directly or indirectly from animals and their p r o ducts. »
Item 7 : Special
A . Veterinary Drug Administration
in
reports
Japan.
The delegate from J a p a n presented a special report on Veterinary
Drug Administration in J a p a n , the summary of which appears
below :
With the intensification of livestock production in J a p a n , disease
problems and the simultaneous use of drugs a n d biologicals have
increased. This has resulted in a greater need for their control in
J a p a n . The legal, administrative and technical aspects of controlling
the drugs in order to protect the welfare of m a n and animals alike
were described.
The following points were raised in the discussion :
a) The National Institute in J a p a n will only be involved in antigen
production in the early stages ; it will subsequently be turned over to
commercial industry.
b) The control of drug resistant bacteria after they had developed
was difficult.
c) Commercialy available modified live virus vaccine against A k a b a n e virus will be exported by J a p a n next year.
— 355 —
d) Pesticides are controlled in a similar manner to drugs and biologicals in J a p a n .
B . Special discussion
on Swine Vesicular Disease (Professor
BAIN).
Swine Vesicular Disease is a disease that could readily be confused
with F o o t - a n d - M o u t h Disease. It is therefore important to keep the
region free from this disease. The disease has been observed previously in H o n g Kong and in m a n y European countries.
Measures to control the disease include the destruction of garbage
at airports and seaports. Regulations regarding the importation of
swine products (particularly sausages, h a m , etc.) from infected countries needed consideration. This included heating these products to
boiling point. Swine Vesicular Disease virus is probably the most
resistant of any of the animal viruses currently known.
III. CLOSING
CEREMONY
After the amendments to the final recommendations of the Conference had been m a d e , the Chairman adjourned the Meeting.
1. Dr. A . L A A B E R K I , President of the O . I . E . , thanked Member
Countries for their participation. H e stated that the quality of discussion and debate h a d been at a high level and he believed that the joint
goodwill expressed at the Meeting would bolster up the future activity of the Regional Commission. Fortunately Members were now
expressing renewed interest in the O . I . E .
2. Dr L . B L A J A N , Director-General of the O.I.E., remarked that
the balance of the discussion at the Meeting had been very positive.
The J a k a r t a Conference was to become a landmark in the Commission's history. H e noted that participants had expressed interest in
seeing the O . I . E . becoming more active in the various fields. Dr. L .
B L A J A N thanked the host country and in particular Professor J . H .
H U T A S O I T , D r . T E K E N and the Organising Committee for making
the Conference a success as well as for the kind hospitality offered by
the Indonesians.
3. Dr. H j . K A R D I N B I N S H U K O R (Malaysia), on behalf of the participating countries, also thanked the host country and particularly
Professor J . H . H U T A S O I T , Dr. I . G . N . T E K E N T E M A J D A and their
staff for their friendship and hospitality and expressed the hope that
— 356 —
delegates of all Member Countries would meet again at the next
O . I . E . Regional Conference.
4. Professor J . H . H U T A S O I T , President of the O . I . E . Regional
Commission, m a d e the closing comments. The Meeting had been a
great success with m a n y ideas exchanged and useful conclusions
d r a w n . Professor J . H . H U T A S O I T thanked the participants for attending and invited them to stay longer to enjoy Indonesian culture and
hospitality.
The Conference was officially closed on 13 November at 3 p . m .
Liste des Participants
Afghanistan.
— D r . M o h a m m e d T A H E R K A K A L , Président des Services Vétérinaires, Ministère de l'Agriculture, Kaboul.
— Dr. M o h a m m e d A R E F S A L I M I , Directeur Général des Maladies
contagieuses, Services Vétérinaires, Ministère de l'Agriculture,
Kaboul.
Australie.
— D r . R . W . G E E , Director, Australian Bureau of Animal Health,
Department of Primary Industry, Canberra A . C . T . 2600.
— Dr. Roger S. M O R R I S , Assistant Director, Australian Bureau
of Animal Health, Department of Primary Industry, Canberra
A . C . T . 2600.
— Dr. G r a h a m e R O C H F O R D F A L L O N , Chief, Department of Primary P r o d u c t i o n , P . O . Box 5160, Darwin, N . T .
Corée.
— Dr. C H A N G - K O O L E E , Director, National Veterinary Research,
Institute of Veterinary Research, Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries, A n y a n g .
— Dr. B O M R A E K I M , Chief of Veterinary Services, Veterinary
Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, Ministry of Agriculture
and Fisheries, Seoul.
Grande-Bretagne.
— Dr. W . H . G . R E E S , Chief Veterinary Officer, M . A . F . F . ,
Government Buildings, Block B, H o o k Rise South, Tolworth,
Surbiton, Surrey K T 6 7 N F .
Indonésie.
— Prof. D r .
J.H.
HUTASOIT,
Director General,
Directorate
— 358
General of Livestock Services, Department of Agriculture,
Salemba Raya 16, J a k a r t a .
— Dr. I . G . N . TEKEN T E M A D J A , Director of Animal Health,
Directorate General of Livestock Services, Department of
Agriculture, Salemba Raya 16, J a k a r t a .
— Dr. SOEGONDO, Secretary, Directorate General of Livestock
Services, Department of Agriculture, Salemba Raya 16,
Jakarta.
— Dr. SUHADJI, Director (Livestock P r o g r a m m i n g ) , Directorate
General of Livestock Services, Department of Agriculture,
Salemba Raya 16, J a k a r t a .
— Dr. Sukobagyo POEDJOMARTONO, Head of Veterinary Services, Sub-Directorate of Animal Disease Surveillance, Directorate General of Livestock Services, Department of Agriculture,
Salemba Raya 16, J a k a r t a .
— Dr. A R T O W O SASTROSEMITO, H e a d of Veterinary Services,
Sub-Directorate of Veterinary Public Health, Directorate of
Animal Health, Directorate General of Livestock Services,
Department of Agriculture, Salemba Raya 16, J a k a r t a .
— Dr. Masri H A N A F I , H e a d of Veterinary Services, SubDirectorate of Animal Disease Prevention and Eradication,
Directorate of Animal Health, Directorate General of Livestock Services, Department of Agriculture, Salemba Raya 16,
Jakarta.
— D r . Sofyan SUDARDJAT, Sub-Directorate of Epidemic Control,
Directorate of Animal Health, Directorate General of Livestock Services, Department of Agriculture, Salemba Raya 16,
Jakarta.
— Dr. SOETRISNO, Director, Centre for Veterinary Biologics, Jl.
Jenderal A . Yani 68-70, Surabaya.
— Dr. H . M . G . SIREGAR, H e a d of Veterinary Services, Disease
Investigation Centre, Region VII, P . O . Box 198, Ujung P a n dang.
— Dr. Kuwat KETAREN, Disease Investigation Centre, Region
VII, P . O . Box 198, Ujung P a n d a n g
— Dr. SOBARI, M . S c . , Disease Investigation Centre, Region VII,
P . O . Box 198, Ujung P a n d a n g .
— Dr. SUHARSONO, D T V S , Disease Investigation Centre, Region
VI, P . O . Box 322, Denpasar.
— 359 —
— Dr. Sri Marfiatiningsih H A R D J O N O , Disease Investigation Centre, Region III, P . O . Box 11, Tanjung Karang.
— Dr. Samrosi P A K P A H A N , Disease Investigation Centre, Region
II, Jl. L a m b a u Kotak Pos 35, Bukittinggi.
— Dr. Ronny MUDIGDO, Disease Investigation Centre, Region I,
Jl. Binjai Km 7, M e d a n .
— Dr. A . SADIK, Centre for Veterinary Biologics, Jl. Jenderal A.
Yani 68-70, Surabaya.
— Dr. B.E. H U T A G A L U N G , Chief of Veterinary Services, Head
Animal Quarantine, Regional Office Region I, Sei Asahan 11,
Medan.
— Dr. Tagor H A R A H A P , Chief of Veterinary Services, Head Animal Quarantine, Regional Office Region II, Jl. Pondasi 6,
J a k a r t a Timur.
— Dr. A . Agung Y U D H A N T A R A , Head of Veterinary Services,
Animal Quarantine, Regional Office Region III, Tegalsari 22,
Surabaya.
— Dr. M o h a m m a d A N G S A R , Chief, Head Animal Quarantine,
Regional Office Region V, Jl. Kalimantan 145, Ujung Pandang.
— Dr. Soehardjo H A R D J O S W O R O , H e a d (Virus Laboratory),
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bogor Agricultural Institute,
T a m a n Kencana 1, Bogor.
— Dr. Singgih H . SIGIT, H e a d (Dept. Animal Diseases and Veterinary Public Health), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bogor
Agricultural Institute, T a m a n Kencana 1, Bogor.
— Dr. R. R o s o SOEJOEDONO, M . P h . , Lecturer, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bogor Agricultural Institute, T a m a n Kencana
1, Bogor.
— Dr. SUTIYONO PARTOUTOMO, Bogor Animal Disease Research
Institute, Jl. M a r t a d i n a t a 32 A , Bogor.
— Dr. Suprodjo H A R D J O U T O M O , Bogor Animal
Research Institute, Jl. Martadinata 32 A, Bogor.
Disease
— D r . Bambang W A R U D J U , M . S c . , Lecturer, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Gajah M a d a University, Sekip Unit II, Yogyakarta.
— Dr. N y o m a n Ayu RATMINI, Lecturer, Faculty of Veterinary
Medicine, Airlangga University, Jl. Airlangga 6, Surabaya.
— 360 —
— D r . I. Gusti M A D E G E D E , Lecturer, Faculty of Veterinary
Science and Animal H u s b a n d r y , Udayana University, Denpasar, Bali.
— D r . M . Idris LUBIS, Lecturer, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
and Animal H u s b a n d r y , Syiahkuala University, B a n d a Aceh,
Daerah Istimewa, Aceh.
— Dr. S U B A R K A H , Director, Varia F a r m a Ltd., W o n o k r o m o ,
Surabaya.
— M r . Alexander P A A T , Project Leader, P3T-Ciawi, Bogor.
— Dr. R . H .
— Dr. J.A.
— Dr.
WHARTON,
ROBERTS,
HOFFMAN,
Project Manager, P3T-Ciawi, Bogor.
Expert, P3T-Ciawi, Bogor.
Expert, P3T-Ciawi, Bogor.
Japon.
— D r . M u n e o O G A T A , Director (Veterinary Drug Administration), Bureau of Animal Industry, M . A . F . F . , 1-1 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, T o k y o .
— D r . Masayoshi M A E D A , Japanese Association of Veterinary
Biologics, 12 Kanda, M i k u r a I k o , Miyoda-ku, T o k y o .
— M r . M A T S U Z A W A , Nippon Institute for Biological Science,
Tokyo.
— D r . M a s a n o b u E T O , The Chemo-serotherapeutic Research Institute, 668 O k u b o Shimizu, K u m a m o t o .
— M r . H i r o n o b u M O R I S A K I , Kitasato Pharmaceutical Industry
C o . , Osaka Branch Office, 26-1 C h o m e , Koraibashi Higashi
Ku, Osaka.
— D r . Tadashi H I R A H A R A , Division of Microbiology Kyoto,
Biken Laboratories I n c . , Uji-shi, Kyoto.
— D r . R. I S H I T A N I , J I C A Expert, Disease Investigation Centre,
Region III, P . O . Box 11, Tanjung Karang (Indonesia).
— Dr. O B A R A , J I C A Expert, Disease Investigation Centre,
Region III, P . O . Box 11, Tanjung Karang (Indonesia).
Malaisie.
— D a t o Dr. H j . K A R D I N B I N S H U K O R , Assistant Director General
(Health), Veterinary Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Jalan
Swettenham, Kuala L u m p u r .
— 361 —
— Dr. M r s . L E E K O O Y O O N K I N , Veterinary Officer, Malaysian
Veterinary Services, Jalan Swettenham, Kuala L u m p u r .
— D r . N A D Z R I B I N S A L I M , Lecturer, Veterinarian, Dept. of Veterinary Clinical Studies, University Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor.
Nouvelle-Zélande.
— Dr. G . H . A D L A M , Director, Animal Health Division, Ministry
of Agriculture and Fisheries, Box 2 2 9 8 , Wellington.
Pakistan.
— M r . M . Naseem Q U R E S H I , Pakistan Embassy, Jl. Teuku U m a r
5 , J a k a r t a (Indonesia).
Sri
Lanka.
— Dr. Sapumal B a n d a r a D H A N A P A L A , Director, Department of
Animal Health and P r o d u c t i o n , 1 5 Old Galaha Road, Peradeniya.
Taiwan
ROC.
— Dr. Tracy Tsai-Chun L I N , Senior Specialist, Animal Industry
Division, Council for Agricultural Planning and Development
( C A P D ) , Executive Yuan, 3 7 Nan Hai Road, Taipei, Taiwan
107.
— Professor Chao-chien H o , Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Taiwan University, 1 4 2 Chou-Shan R o a d , Taipei, Taiwan 1 0 7 .
Thaïlande.
— Dr. Pinit S U P P A V I L A I , Government Officer, Department of
Livestock Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative, P h y a Thai R o a d , Bangkok 4 .
U.R.S.S.
— D r . Pavel R A K H M A N I N E , Chef Adjoint de la Direction Générale Vétérinaire, Ministère de l'Agriculture de l ' U . R . S . S . , Orlikov per. 1 / 1 1 , Moscou.
— 362 —
U.S.A.
— Dr. Pierre A. C H A L O U X , Deputy Administrator, Veterinary
Services, Animal a n d Plant Health Inspection Service, U . S .
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D . C . 20250.
F.A.O.
— Dr. J . G . R U M E A U , F . A . O . Representative in Indonesia, Jl.
M . H . Thamri 14, P . O . Box 2338, J a k a r t a (Indonesia).
O.I.E.
— Dr. A . L A A B E R K I , Président de l ' O . I . E . , 16 bis, avenue Ibn
Sina, Rabat (Maroc).
— Dr. L . B L A J A N , Directeur Général de l ' O . I . E . , 12, rue de
P r o n y , 75017 Paris (France).
Observateur.
— Prof. R . V . S . B A I N , Consultant A D A B , C a n b e r r a (Australia),
University of Sydney, B12 2006 N . S . W . (Australia).
Secrétariat
de la
Conférence.
— Dr. H A R R H A R A N , F . A . O . Expert, Disease Investigation Cent r e , Region VII, P . O . Box 198, Ujung P a n d a n g (Indonesia).
— D r . D . H . A . U N R U H , F . A . O . Expert, Disease Investigation
Centre, Region VI, P . O . Box 322, Denpasar (Indonesia).
Opening address by
the Right Honourable Vice-President
of the Republic of Indonesia,
Mr. Adam M a l i k
H o n o u r a b l e President of the O . I . E . ,
H o n o u r a b l e Director General of the O . I . E . ,
Distinguished Delegates,
Ladies and gentlemen,
It is indeed an h o n o u r to witness the convening of the XIIth O . I . E .
Regional Conference on Epizootics for Asia, the Far East and Oceania here in J a k a r t a , the capital of the Republic of Indonesia.
On this occasion, on behalf of the Government and People of
Indonesia I wish to extend a cordial welcome to all the participants
from various countries as well as to those representing regional and
international Organisations. I wish also to extend my sincere gratitude t o the O . I . E . Organisation for having given Indonesia an
opportunity to host this XIIth Conference. Hopefully apart from
the seriousness in discussing topics of the Conference, the participants could also feel the cordial friendliness of the Indonesian people who are nowadays actively carrying out development in all fields
aimed at achieving a brighter life in the future.
The O . I . E . Organisation has been in existence for a long time,
namely since 1924. I am sure that in such a mature age, the O . I . E .
has done m a n y efforts in the light of stepping up cooperation in the
field of contagious animal disease control especially among her
Member Countries. It is indeed a noble effort even though sometimes it is full with impediments because of the different situation and
conditions of her Member Countries. Being confident in the great
advantage of the Organisation Indonesia has become a member of
the O . I . E . since 1954.
We realize that the technological advancement gives rise as a consequence to more tight communication among countries and
— 364 —
nations. A p a r t from its great advantage which all of us have
enjoyed, on the other h a n d the problem of contagious animal diseases calls for our serious attention for creating a more tight cooperation in controlling it. Therefore, Member Countries of the O . I . E .
are expected to share an exchange of experience and results of
research so that an effective technology could be applied for
carrying out an effective and efficient animal disease control. In this
respect the O . I . E . is expected to play a positive role.
On this h a p p y occasion I would like to give you the picture of the
situation and condition of Indonesia which is n o w carrying out a
planned development p r o g r a m m e on a five-yearly scheme. I am sure
there are m a n y similarities being faced by developing countries in
improving the welfare of their peoples and in equalizing the justice
and prosperity as a whole.
Since 1969 the Government and people of Indonesia have been
launching a planned development p r o g r a m m e on a five-yearly
scheme. The emphasis of the long-term development has been laid
on the economical development, the main target being t o achieve a
balance between the agricultural and industrial sectors and fulfilling
the people's basic needs. It means that the main target which is to be
achieved in the long-term economical development is a balanced
economic structure with an advanced industrial capability and
strength supported by a sound agricultural capability and strength.
In this context the agricultural development plays an important role
in which the development of animal breeding is included as an integral part.
Learning from the past experience that the government services to
farmers in rural areas have not entirely been done effectively and
efficiently, in the third phase of the Five-Year Development Plan
(1979/1980-1983/1984) the agricultural development in Indonesia is
adopting a three-dimension integrated effort namely the integrated
farming managements, the integrated commodities, and the integrated regional policies.
We are sure that in the agricultural development there are three
basic components which should be taken into consideration, namely
the farmers and the producers, the agricultural commodities and the
area where the agricultural activities take place. T h e development of
the farmers should be directed in such a way that whatever c o m m o dities they produce their farming efforts should be capable of
increasing their income, increasing the consumption and increasing
— 365 —
the capital investment. The development of agricultural commodities should be directed to be capable in producing sufficient foodstuff, commodities for export and raw materials for industry.
Meanwhile the development of the agricultural regions should be
directed to whatever efforts the farmers undertake with which they
could support the regional development as a whole in order that a
balanced progress in rural areas of Indonesia could be achieved.
Ladies and gentlemen,
That is all about some matters and basic fundamentals of the development in Indonesia especially in the field of agricultural development in which is included the development in the field of animal
husbandry which constitutes an integral part of the agricultural
development in a b r o a d sense.
Talking about the situation of animal husbandry in Indonesia we
could say here that there are still m a n y problems which need our
serious attention. Take for example the animal population. With its
animal units of at least 11 million A U apparently Indonesia has
risen in the population of some livestock species annually, such as
milk cows by 2 . 7 % , sheep by 5 . 1 % , indigenous poultry by 5 % , exotic poultry breeds by 1 7 % , and ducks by 6 . 5 % . On the other hand
there is a decreasing trend in the population of large animals such as
beef cattle and buffalo.
It can be further observed that one cause among others of the
decrease in the livestock population as mentioned above is the high
slaughtering rate as a consequence of the rising consumption
demand of meat. The projection of the total consumptive growth of
meat in the third Five-Year Development Plan (1979/19801983/1984) indicates an increase of 6 . 1 % annually. This increasing
meat consumption is apparently a result of the increasing economic
growth in Indonesia and the increasing purchasing power of the
public as a further result of the development as a whole.
On the other h a n d the rising demand of meat as mentioned above
has not as yet been entirely equalized by the rise of production. This
can be observed in the development of cattle and buffalo population
in 1979, which still indicates a decrease, namely 0.6% in cattle and
0 . 3 % in buffaloes.
The main causes of the decrease of the cattle and buffalo population are among others :
— 366 —
(i) the low birth rate;
(ii) the high mortality rate;
(iii) the high slaughtering rate;
(iv) other causal elements such as the inequitable distribution of
livestock population so that the provision of animal fodder becomes
unbalanced besides the existence of high slaughtering of still productive females.
There are a lot of things we have done but on the contrary there
are a lot of things which impede our efforts which need to be coped
with seriously. For example in the field of animal health. Indonesia
is projecting to reduce the livestock mortality in cattle from 2 . 8 % to
1.6% per year and in buffaloes from 7 . 3 % to 2 . 1 % per year. Activities carried out in the field of animal health are among others :
— to prevent the introduction of animal diseases by establishing
quarantine facilities;
— to prevent the occurrence of contagious diseases by performing
vaccination continuously;
— to eradicate animal diseases of great economic importance by
carrying out mass vaccination (e.g. F M D ) ;
— to conduct continuous surveillance by establishing disease
investigation centers;
— to conduct activities in the field of veterinary public health.
Ladies and gentlemen,
By putting forward some matters in the field of animal health
being currently faced by Indonesia we intend t o give supporting
material for this O . I . E . Conference, namely a sight that there are
still m a n y problems in the field of animal health in various countries
which need to be tackled. I consider this Conference of great importance because an exchange of information will take place o n activities carried out by various countries. Besides we could learn from
each other concerning the advancement achieved by the respective
countries. We all have to realize that one of the characteristics of
this twentieth century is the growing interdependence a m o n g nations
and world problems which results in m o r e close cooperation. In the
field of animal disease control as an example, this cooperation is of
great importance. In this context, in line with the theme of this Conference « Animal Diseases Control for the Betterment of H u m a n
— 367 —
Life », I do h o p e that this O . I . E . Regional Conference could discuss
and yield matters of m u t u a l benefit for all of us.
Finally in the n a m e of God the Merciful I declare this XIIth
O . I . E . Regional Conference on Epizootics for Asia, the Far East
and Oceania officially opened.
May God bless our efforts.
Opening address
by the Right Honourable Minister
of Agriculture
of the Republic of Indonesia,
Prof. Ir. S o e d a r s o n o H a d i s a p o e t r o
Your Excellency the Vice-President of the Republic of Indonesia,
Honourable President of the O.I.E.,
Distinguished Delegates,
Ladies and gentlemen,
Thanks to God the Almighty that today we are able to gather here
at the opening ceremony of the XIIth O . I . E . Regional Conference
on Epizootics for Asia, the Far East and Oceania.
May I extend a cordial welcome to all the participants, those
representing countries as well as those representing regional and
international Organizations.
Mister Vice-President,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
The Office International des Epizooties (O.I.E.) is an international
Organization dealing with problems of animal diseases, especially of
animal contagious diseases. It was founded in 1924 and since then its
Headquarters is in Paris where the annual General Session takes
place, attended by Member Countries from all over the world. This
Organization is divided into four Regional Commissions, namely the
Regional Commissions for the Americas, for Africa, for Europe and
for Asia, the Far East and Oceania. At this regional level a regional
Conference is held every three years. Indonesia belongs to the Regional Commission for Asia, the Far East and Oceania and gets its turn
now to host this XIIth Regional Conference which will be officially
opened today.
— 370 —
Mister Vice-President,
Ladies and gentlemen,
Being a host country and guided by the O . I . E . Headquarters we
have sent invitations to either Member Countries or n o n - m e m b e r
countries as well as regional and international Organizations to
attend this Conference as participants and observers. A m o n g those
invited are delegates from the U . S . A . , Australia, Great Britain,
Iran, J a p a n , the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the
U . S . S . R . , Western Samoa, New Zealand, Thailand, the Republic of
China, and international Organizations such as the A P H C A ,
F . A . O . and W . H . O . Three countries have informed they were unable t o attend : Singapore, C a n a d a and New Caledonia; others gave
n o response although second invitations h a d been sent.
Mister Vice-President,
Ladies and gentlemen,
Talking about countries we recognize country boundaries, but on
the contrary about animal diseases, we do not recognize any frontier
at all, which means that an animal disease in one country m a y spread
over to another country. To solve this problem a cooperation a m o n g
countries is highly needed in the form of an organization which is
able to regulate the procedures of animal disease control. T h a t is why
the O . I . E . Organization is a must and we should have meetings either
general or regional, where exchange of information concerning animal diseases and control p r o g r a m m e s could be m a d e , so that M e m ber Countries might be well informed and can take the necessary
steps. Anyway, a lot of profit and advantage either t h r o u g h research
or exchange might be taken by the Member Countries.
This XIIth Regional Conference makes Indonesia feel h a p p y
because there will be discussions concerning animal diseases which
remain of great importance for Indonesia, namely F o o t - a n d - M o u t h
Disease and Rabies. Concerning F o o t - a n d - M o u t h Disease, Indonesia will present a country paper, exposing her experience in controlling it, intensively carried out since 1974 with the assistance of the
Government of Australia, which has successfully freed Bali and
M a d u r a islands from the disease in 1978 and hopefully by the end of
1980 also East Java and South Sulawesi, meanwhile the eradication
campaign is still carried out in Central Java, Jogyakarta a n d West
Java.
—
371
—
Your Excellency,
Ladies and gentlemen,
Concluding my introductory remarks, I wish to extend my sincere
gratitude to everyone for helping this Conference to achieve success
in spite of the shortcomings which might cause inconvenience during
the Conference.
Finally, m a y I ask Your Excellency the Vice-President to declare
this XIIth Office International des Epizooties Regional Conference
open.
T h a n k you.
Conclusions et Recommandations
I
RAGE
La Conférence,
Considérant
que :
a) la rage est l'une des zoonoses les plus graves, en raison non seulement du grand n o m b r e des cas apparaissant dans certains pays,
mais aussi de son évolution fatale chez l ' h o m m e ;
b) les aspects vétérinaires de cette maladie sont importants parce
qu'elle affecte aussi bien les animaux de ferme que les chiens et
chats ;
c) le chien est le principal agent de transmission de la rage dans la
région ;
d) les différents pays ont confié la responsabilité de la lutte antirabique à divers organismes, tantôt le Ministère de la Santé, tantôt le
Ministère de l'Agriculture, ou les deux conjointement ;
e) la région a une situation favorable à l'égard de la rage par comparaison à d'autres régions du m o n d e ,
Recommande
que :
1. Les pays ou zones qui sont indemnes de rage limitent l'entrée des
carnivores dans leurs territoires et appliquent de rigoureuses mesures
de quarantaine à ceux dont l'entrée est autorisée.
2. Lorsque des vaccins sont utilisés pour la lutte antirabique, ils
soient en conformité avec les conclusions du Comité O . M . S .
d'experts de la rage.
Étant donné les méthodes récemment mises au point pour la production de vaccins tués de meilleure qualité, il est en outre recomm a n d é que si la vaccination est effectuée dans des pays ou zones où
l'incidence de la maladie est faible, seuls les vaccins à base de virus
tué soient utilisés.
3. Des programmes de vaccination systématique soient mis en
œuvre de façon à assurer aux chiens un haut niveau d'immunité.
— 374 —
4. Ces programmes soient organisés de façon à renforcer la coopération entre organismes et disciplines divers concernés p a r la lutte
antirabique.
5. Les campagnes de lutte, pour réussir, comportent un volet traitant du problème des chiens errants ; et que si, p o u r des raisons culturelles ou religieuses, les chiens errants ne peuvent être éliminés, ils
soient identifiés et vaccinés systématiquement.
6. Les pays qui n ' o n t pas encore entrepris de campagne de lutte
antirabique, s'inspirent de l'exemple de tous ceux qui, à la suite
d ' u n e campagne de lutte bien conduite, ont réussi à éradiquer la
maladie. Il convient de noter qu'il n ' y a pas de preuve, dans de n o m breux pays de la région, que la faune sauvage soit un important réservoir de rage.
II
FIÈVRE APHTEUSE
La Conférence,
Considérant le succès des campagnes de lutte/éradication de la fièvre aphteuse en Indonésie ;
Réaffirme un certain n o m b r e d e principes et d e conditions préalables pour assurer le succès de tout p r o g r a m m e :
a) ferme soutien gouvernemental, administratif, vétérinaire et
technique et appui des professions participant aux productions animales ;
b) diagnostic de laboratoire sûr et rapide ;
c) délimitation physique ou géographique adéquate des zones
d'éradication ;
d) systèmes de contrôle et de surveillance précis et permanents ;
e) préprogrammation des interventions vaccinales sur le terrain
afin de tenir compte des caractéristiques des mouvements du bétail et
des produits animaux ;
f) épreuves d'innocuité et d'efficacité pour les vaccins dont les p r o priétés antigéniques doivent correspondre aux types de virus aphteux
susceptibles d'apparaître ;
g) personnel et équipement, y compris facilités de stockage du vaccin et moyens de livraison ;
— 375 —
h) support logistique indispensable comportant l'organisation
sociale, para-vétérinaire, administrative ainsi que les systèmes
d'information ;
Renouvelle son soutien à l'établissement de liaisons étroites avec la
Commission de la Fièvre Aphteuse de l ' O . I . E . , la F . A . O . et la Commission de la P r o d u c t i o n et de la Santé Animales pour l'Asie et à
l'intensification des consultations bilatérales ainsi que des programmes d'actions conjointes entre pays ayant des frontières communes et
procédant à des échanges de bétail.
Recommande
que :
La mise en œ u v r e d ' u n p r o g r a m m e de coopération soit le préliminaire à tout p r o g r a m m e régional éventuel de lutte et d'éradication.
Le personnel engagé dans les programmes de lutte/éradication de
la fièvre aphteuse connaisse bien la maladie vésiculeuse du porc (cliniquement identique à la fièvre aphteuse) ainsi que les autres maladies éruptives comme la maladie des muqueuses et l'ecthyma contagieux, et que les laboratoires de diagnostic soient à même d'identifier
ces infections.
La production de vaccin antiaphteux dans la région, par des laboratoires privés ou officiels, soit encouragée.
Le personnel des laboratoires nationaux reçoive la formation lui
permettant de pratiquer les épreuves sérologiques pour la fièvre aphteuse, et que les instituts compétents pour la réalisation de ces épreuves soient en mesure d'assurer la formation du personnel des autres
pays, désireux d'acquérir cette compétence.
Les récentes mises au point de vaccins antiaphteux avec adjuvant
huileux pour les ruminants en Amérique du Sud soient prises en
compte.
La Commission permanente de l ' O . I . E . pour l'étude de la Fièvre
Aphteuse continue à stimuler les recherches et mises au point — tant
au plan privé que gouvernemental — tendant à l'amélioration du
vaccin antiaphteux pour les porcs.
Un laboratoire régional, doté d'experts de la fièvre aphteuse, soit
désigné pour effectuer le diagnostic rapide de la maladie.
En ce qui concerne l'élaboration d ' u n accord régional sur le contrôle et l'éradication de la fièvre aphteuse, la Conférence recomm a n d e q u ' u n groupe de travail soit institué dans le cadre de la Commission Régionale, afin d'étudier ce problème et d'envoyer un représentant à la réunion de la Commission permanente de l ' O . I . E . pour
— 376 —
l'étude de la Fièvre Aphteuse, en vue d'établir une liaison plus étroite
avec celle-ci. Cet expert devrait être conduit à collaborer à la création
d ' u n organe de conseil et d'information au sein de la région.
III
MALADIES CLOSTRIDIALES DES OVINS
1. La Conférence a pris note que la région comprend la majorité
des principaux pays d'élevage ovin du m o n d e , bien que certains
autres pays de la région n'aient q u ' u n cheptel ovin très limité.
2. A mesure que les élevages ovins se développent dans la région et
que les méthodes d'élevage deviennent plus intensives et industrielles,
les maladies clostridiales revêtent une importance économique plus
grande ainsi q u ' e n témoigne l'évolution observée dans les principaux
pays d'élevage du m o u t o n .
3. Le diagnostic des maladies clostridiales est souvent difficile.
La mort survient fréquemment avant que les symptômes cliniques
n'aient pu être observés. De plus, dans les pays de climat tropical, la
putréfaction des cadavres se produit plus rapidement, ce qui rend
extrêmement difficile tout diagnostic définitif. En outre, le tableau
épidémiologique caractéristique de ces maladies peut ne pas être évident lorsque les m o u t o n s sont élevés en petits troupeaux.
4. P a r ailleurs, de grands succès ont été obtenus ces dernières
décennies dans la mise au point de vaccins pour la protection des anim a u x (y compris des m o u t o n s ) contre les maladies clostridiales.
5. La combinaison de l'hygiène appliquée à la conduite du troupeau et d'une vaccination convenable assure une protection totale
des m o u t o n s contre ces maladies.
6. C o m m e le traitement est rarement avantageux dans ces conditions et que la prévention est donc la seule approche pratique, il en
résulte que la priorité devrait être donnée aux programmes de vulgarisation dans les zones affectées par ces maladies pour convaincre les
éleveurs de la nécessité d ' a d o p t e r des méthodes d'hygiène et de
recourir effectivement à la vaccination.
— 377
IV
MYIASES
Les mouches qui provoquent les myiases sont une cause importante de diminution de la productivité du bétail et donc de pertes économiques dans de n o m b r e u x pays.
Les principes de lutte devraient comporter la collecte du maximum
d'informations sur les espèces en cause. L'accent devrait être placé
sur l'accumulation des données sur l'écologie et la biologie des insectes nuisibles pour que. les mesures de lutte puissent être appliquées
aux phases biologiquement critiques de leur cycle.
Les facteurs prédisposant les animaux à leur attaque par les mouches, tels que l'infestation par les tiques, devraient être pris en considération dans l'élaboration des programmes de lutte.
La connaissance de la biogéographie et des caractéristiques saisonnières des mouches est indispensable pour la programmation des
mesures de lutte qui devraient prendre en considération les sites de
reproduction et d'alimentation des parasites ainsi que l'effet
d'attraction de l'hôte.
L'utilisation répétée en un point déterminé de composés renfermant des insecticides est une méthode de lutte importante, mais coûteuse et qui exige beaucoup de travail dans les zones d'élevage extensif des bovins et des ovins.
Des méthodes standard pour l'évaluation des insecticides, à la fois
in vitro et in vivo, devraient être appliquées de façon à identifier les
produits les plus efficaces et à pouvoir contrôler le développement de
la résistance aux insecticides.
L'élevage intensif et le lâcher des mouches stériles ont permis le
succès des campagnes d'éradication dans une région au moins ; ils
peuvent constituer la solution la plus pratique lorsque les pertes chez
les bovins et les ovins élevés en intensif menacent de ruiner l'élevage.
Lorsqu'apparaissent des pathogènes, parasites et prédateurs des
insectes nuisibles, ils devraient être mis en évidence et identifiés et
leur action devrait être soutenue ou même favorisée.
Des systèmes de surveillance devraient être mis au point de façon à
déterminer l'incidence dans les zones incultes aussi bien que dans les
zones cultivées.
— 378
Y
SYSTÈMES D E N O T I F I C A T I O N R É G I O N A L E D E S
MALADIES ANIMALES
La Conférence,
Considérant
que :
la notification internationale des maladies a un rôle clé p o u r faciliter les échanges internationaux d ' a n i m a u x et de produits animaux
tout en évitant la propagation des épizooties importantes ;
l ' O . I . E . a eu u n rôle essentiel dans ce domaine depuis plus de cinquante ans qu'il a très bien rempli jusqu'ici ;
au cours des dernières années, la définition précise des maladies et
des agents des maladies est devenue plus difficile et plus complexe et
la notification internationale doit évoluer dans le sens des nouvelles
connaissances scientifiques ;
il y a eu d'importants progrès dans les méthodes de collecte et de
diffusion des informations d o n t l ' O . I . E . pourrait tirer parti ;
1. Appuie fortement l'initiative q u ' a prise le Directeur Général de
l ' O . I . E . en procédant d ' a b o r d à u n examen approfondi des systèmes
d'information actuels de l ' O . I . E . et des améliorations qui pourraient
y être apportées par l'utilisation de celle des méthodes modernes de
traitement de l'information qui, avec l'expérience, se révélerait correspondre le mieux aux besoins spécifiques de l'Organisation et de ses
Pays-Membres.
2. Souligne que les informations échangées entre les pays n ' o n t de
valeur que si elles reposent sur une documentation valable au niveau
national, ce qui à son tour suppose que les méthodes nationales de
surveillance sanitaire soient fondées sur de bons principes épidémiologiques et qu'elles conviennent aux besoins et circonstances particuliers du pays.
Certains pays de la région ont une compétence particulière dans la
mise en place et l'utilisation de tels systèmes de surveillance sanitaire,
conçue pour leur situation particulière, et leur expérience pourrait
être étendue à tous par le biais de la coopération régionale.
3. Recommande
que :
a) L'Asie du Sud-Est soit considérée par l ' O . I . E . comme une zone
pilote pour la mise au point et l'évaluation d ' u n centre régional
d'échanges d'informations sanitaires.
— 379
Si cette suggestion est retenue, il conviendrait de prendre en considération les réalisations déjà existantes au sein de la région, notamment le système d'échanges d'informations institué par le groupe des
pays appartenant à l'Alliance du Sud-Est asiatique (ASEAN).
b) L ' O . I . E . s'assure que l'expérience acquise dans cette région sera
utilisée pour contribuer à l'amélioration des systèmes de surveillance
sanitaire des Pays-Membres de l ' O . I . E . dans le m o n d e .
c) Afin d'aider au traitement de l'information sanitaire au niveau
régional, le Comité de l ' O . I . E . examine le rôle et l'emplacement
futurs de son Bureau régional.
VI
SANTÉ PUBLIQUE VÉTÉRINAIRE
La Conférence,
Considérant
que :
a) le c h a m p des activités de santé publique vétérinaire est très vaste
et que les Pays-Membres ont accordé plus ou moins d'importance
aux différents aspects de ce domaine ;
b) la prise de conscience du danger de pollution de l'environnement résultant des effluents d'origine animale est plus claire ;
c) le risque représenté p a r les résidus des médicaments et autres
produits nocifs dans les produits animaux va en augmentant ;
d) il est nécessaire de satisfaire la demande croissante de la population humaine en protéines animales de bonne qualité ;
e) les risques de zoonoses transmissibles à l'homme existent dans la
région,
Recommande
que :
1. Soit accordée une place plus importante aux activités de santé
publique vétérinaire dans la région et que les Pays-Membres prennent
les dispositions nécessaires afin de renforcer leurs organisations respectives de santé publique vétérinaire.
2. Les vétérinaires jouent dans ce domaine un rôle plus important
que dans le passé.
3. Les Pays-Membres accordent l'attention et la place qu'ils méritent aux aspects de la santé publique vétérinaire qui n ' o n t pas eu
j u s q u ' à maintenant la priorité voulue.
— 380 —
4. Les pays de la région qui sont plus avancés en matière de santé
publique vétérinaire fassent bénéficier les autres pays de la région de
leur compétence.
5. Des mesures soient prises, dans les pays où elles sont nécessaires,
afin d'améliorer les installations destinées à la manipulation des p r o duits animaux selon les règles de l'hygiène.
6. Des dispositions soient prises pour limiter l'emploi abusif des
antibiotiques, des produits stimulateurs de croissance, des h o r m o n e s ,
des pesticides et autres produits chimiques utilisés chez les animaux
d'élevage, ceci afin d'éviter la possibilité de résidus de ces substances
dans le produit final.
Les Pays-Membres devraient procéder eux-mêmes à des enquêtes
afin de déterminer l'étendue de ce problème.
7. Les Pays-Membres concertent leurs efforts en vue de lutter contre les zoonoses ainsi que cela a été fait avec succès dans certains
Pays-Membres de la région.
8. L ' O . I . E . renforce sa collaboration avec l ' O . M . S . dans le contrôle régulier de la situation de la santé publique vétérinaire dans les
Pays-Membres et p o r t e à la connaissance de la Commission Régionale tous les progrès qui sont jugés nécessaires.
Conclusions and Recommendations
I
RABIES
The Conference,
Considering
that :
a) Rabies is one of the most serious zoonotic diseases. It is serious
not only because of the large number of cases that have occurred and
continue to occur in some countries, but also because of the fatal
course the diseases takes in m a n ;
b) the veterinary aspects of this disease are important as it affects
livestock as well as dogs and cats ;
c) the dog is the main transmitter of Rabies in this region ;
d) different countries have placed responsibility for Rabies control
on various bodies such as the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of
Agriculture or a combination of the two ; and
e) this region is in a favourable position with regard to Rabies as
compared with other regions of the world,
Recommends
that :
1. Countries or zones that are free from Rabies should restrict the
entry of carnivores into their territories and apply strict quarantine
procedures for those that are allowed entry.
2. When vaccines are used to control Rabies, they should conform
with the conclusions of the W . H . O . Expert Committee.
In view of the newly developed methods for production of improved killed virus vaccines, it is further recommended that when vaccination is carried out in countries or zones with low disease incidence,
only killed virus products should be used.
3. Systematic vaccination programmes should be developed, thereby attaining a high level of immunity among the dog population.
4. Such programmes should be organised in a manner that will foster cooperation a m o n g the various bodies and disciplines with an
interest in Rabies control.
— 382 —
5 . In order that control campaigns are successful, they must
include a system for dealing with the problem of stray dogs. If, for
cultural or religious reasons, stray dogs cannot be eliminated they
should be systematically identified and vaccinated.
6. In m a n y countries of the region there is n o evidence that an
important wildlife reservoir for Rabies exists. It should be noted that
all such countries that have undertaken a serious control campaign
have been successful in eradicating the disease. This should serve as a
model for those countries that have not yet undertaken such a campaign.
II
FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE
T h e Conference,
Considering
the successful F o o t - a n d - M o u t h
control/eradication campaigns in Indonesia ;
Disease
Endorses a number of principles and prerequisites for an effective
programme :
a) strong governmental, administrative, veterinary, technical and
livestock industry support ;
b) accurate and rapid laboratory diagnosis ;
c) satisfactory physical or geographical boundaries of eradication
areas ;
d) t h o r o u g h and continued monitoring and surveillance systems ;
e) preplanning of field vaccination programmes t o take
account of movement patterns of livestock products ;
full
f) safety and potency-tested vaccines, antigenically satisfactory for
expected F o o t - a n d - M o u t h Disease types ;
g) staff and equipment including vaccine storage and delivery
systems ; and
h) essential organizational support including social,
veterinary, administrative and information systems ;
para-
Continues
to support close liaison with the F o o t - a n d - M o u t h
Disease Commission of the O . I . E . , with the F . A . O . and A P H C A
and the intensification of bilateral consultation and joint programmes between countries sharing c o m m o n frontiers a n d livestock
movements.
— 383 —
Recommends
:
The development of a cooperative programme as a prelude to an
eventual regional control and eradication programme.
Staff engaged in a F o o t - a n d - M o u t h Disease control/eradication
p r o g r a m m e should be well informed on other diseases such as Swine
Vesicular Disease (clinically indistinguishable from Foot-and-Mouth
Disease) and other pustular erosive diseases, such as Mucosal Disease
and Contagious E c t h y m a . Diagnostic laboratories should be able to
identify these infections.
The production of F o o t - a n d - M o u t h Disease vaccine within the
region, either commercially or in government laboratories, should be
encouraged.
Staff of national laboratories should be trained in the changing
serological tests for F o o t - a n d - M o u t h Disease. Those institutes which
have become competent in tests should be able to give training to personnel from other countries wishing to use them.
Notice should be taken of recent developments in Foot-and-Mouth
Disease oil adjuvant vaccines for ruminants in South America.
The O . I . E . P e r m a n e n t Commission on Foot-and-Mouth Disease
could continue to stimulate government and commercial research
and development to improve the Foot-and-Mouth Disease vaccine
for pigs.
A regional laboratory, provided with experts on Foot-and-Mouth
Disease for the rapid diagnosis of the disease, should be recognised.
With regard to developing a regional agreement on the control and
eventual eradication of Foot-and-Mouth Disease, the Conference
recommends that a special working group be set up within the framework of the Regional Commission, to study the problem and to send
a representative to meetings of the O . I . E . Permanent Commission on
Foot-and-Mouth Disease, for the purpose of establishing a closer
liaison and t o encourage the expert to assist the region in establishing
workable information and a advisory body within the region.
III
C L O S T R I D I A L DISEASES O F S H E E P
1. The Conference noted that the region includes most of the
world's leading sheep-raising nations, although some other countries
in the region have only a few sheep.
— 384 —
2. As sheep enterprises develop within the region and become more
intensive, clostridial diseases m a y become economically m o r e significant, as has been experienced in the major sheep-raising countries of
the world.
3. Diagnosis of clostridial diseases is often difficult.
Deaths commonly occur before clinical signs are observed. Furthermore, in tropical climates post-mortem decomposition is more
rapid, making it extremely difficult to obtain a definitive diagnosis.
In addition, the characteristic epidemiological pattern of these diseases may not be obvious when sheep are kept only in small flocks.
4. On the other h a n d , great success has been achieved recently in
the development of vaccines for the protection of animals (including
sheep) against the clostridial diseases.
5. The combination of correct vaccination and hygienic management procedures provides complete protection for sheep against
these diseases.
6. Since treatment is seldom of value in these conditions, prevention is therefore the only practical approach. T h u s , it is concluded
that extension programmes should be given priority in areas affected
by these diseases to convince farmers of the need to adopt effective
vaccination and hygiene procedures.
IV
MYIASIS
Myiasis-producing flies are a serious cause of economic and production losses in livestock in m a n y countries.
Principles of control should include the collection of comprehensive information about the target species. Emphasis should be given
to accumulating data on the ecology and biology of the pests so that
the control measures can be applied at biologically critical times in
their life cycles.
Factors predisposing animals to fly strike such as tick infestation
should be considered in developing control p r o g r a m m e s .
Knowledge about the biogeography and seasonality of flies is
essential for the timing of control measures which should take into
— 385 —
consideration the breeding and feeding sites of the parasites as well as
host attractiveness.
Repeated topical application of compounds containing insecticides
is an important control m e t h o d , but is costly and necessitates substantial labour where cattle and sheep are raised extensively.
Standard methods for testing insecticides both in vitro and in vivo
should be followed in order to identify the most effective ones and so
that the development of insecticide resistance can be monitored.
Mass rearing and release of sterile flies has been successful in eradication campaigns in at least one region and may be the most practical solution where losses in intensively-raised cattle and sheep threaten to overwhelm the farming industry.
Where pathogens, parasites, and predators of the pests occur, they
should be sought out, identified and their action maintained or
enhanced.
Surveillance systems should be developed in such a way as to determine the incidence in uncultivated as well as in farming areas.
V
R E G I O N A L R E P O R T I N G SYSTEMS F O R A N I M A L DISEASES
The Conference,
Considering
that :
international disease reporting plays a key role in facilitating international movement of livestock and livestock products while avoiding the spread of major epidemic animal diseases ;
the O . I . E . has fulfilled the principal role in this field for over 50
years and the Meeting noted the success which has been achieved so
far ;
over recent years the precise definition of diseases and disease
agents has become more difficult and complex, and international
reporting must evolve to fit in with new scientific knowledge ;
there have been major advances in methods of information collection and dissemination of which the O.I.E. could make good use ;
1. Strongly supports the initiative taken by the Director-General of
the O . I . E . to commence a detailed examination of existing O . I . E .
— 386
information systems and improvements which could be m a d e thereto, using whatever m o d e r n methods of information handling are
found by experience to be suited to the particular needs of the Organisation and its Member Countries.
2. Emphasizes that information exchanged between countries is
only of value if it is based on valid evidence at the national level. This
in turn requires that national disease surveillance procedures must be
based on sound epidemiological principles and must be suited to the
particular needs and circumstances of the country concerned.
Some countries in the region have special expertise in developing
and using disease surveillance systems designed for their particular
situation, and this experience could be extended through regional
cooperation.
3. Recommends
that :
a) South-East Asia be considered by the O . I . E . as a model area for
the development and evaluation of a regional disease information
exchange centre.
In considering this, full account should be taken of related developments within the region, notably the information exchange system
being initiated by the group of A S E A N countries ;
b) the O . I . E . should ensure that experience gained in this region be
used to assist the improvement of disease surveillance systems of
O . I . E . Member-Countries throughout the world ; and
c) in order to assist the handling of disease information at the
regional level, the O . I . E . Committee should examine the future role
and location of its regional Office.
VI
VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH
The Conference,
Considering
:
a) that the scope of veterinary public health activities is very wide
and Member-Countries place varied emphasis on different aspects in
this field ;
b) the greater awareness of the danger of environmental pollution
caused by effluents of animal origin ;
— 387 —
c) the increasing risk of drug and other harmful residues in animal
products ;
d) the need for meeting the increasing demand by the h u m a n p o p u lation for animal protein of wholesome quality ; and
e) the hazards of zoonotic diseases to h u m a n beings in the region,
Recommends
that :
1. Greater emphasis be placed on veterinary public health activities
in the region and Member-Countries take positive steps to strengthen
their respective veterinary public health organisations.
2. Veterinarians play a m o r e important role in this field than they
have done in the past.
3. Member-Countries upgrade and strengthen those aspects of
veterinary public health which have not been given sufficient priority
and bring them u p to acceptable levels.
4. Countries of the region which are more advanced in veterinary
public health m a k e their expertise available to other countries in the
region.
5. Steps be taken in some countries to improve the facilities for the
sanitary handling and hygiene of animal products.
6. Steps be taken to control the indiscriminate use of antibiotics,
growth promoting agents, h o r m o n e s , pesticides and chemicals on
farm animals in order to eliminate the residues of such substances in
the final animal products ; and, Member-Countries carry out their
own investigations to determine the seriousness of the problem.
7. Concerted efforts be m a d e by Member-Countries to control
zoonotic diseases as has been successfully achieved by some MemberCountries of the region.
8. The O . I . E . strengthen its collaboration with W . H . O . in regularly monitoring the status of veterinary public health in MemberCountries and notify the Regional Commission of any improvements
that are considered necessary.
Conclusiones y Recomendaciones
I
RABIA
La Conferencia,
Considerando
que :
a) la rabia constituye u n a de las más graves zoonosis, debido n o
sólo al gran n ú m e r o de casos que aparecen en algunos países, sino
también a su evolución fatal en el h o m b r e ;
b) los aspectos veterinarios de la enfermedad son relevantes por
afectar t a n t o a los animales de granja como a perros y gatos;
c) el perro es el principal agente de transmisión de la rabia en la
región;
d) los distintos países confiaron la responsabilidad de la lucha
antirrábica a diversos organismos, unas veces al Ministerio de Sanidad, otras al Ministerio de Agricultura, o a ambos conjuntamente;
e) la región tiene u n a situación favorable con respecto a la rabia
en comparación con otras regiones del m u n d o ,
Recomienda
que :
1. Los países o zonas que están libres de rabia limiten la introducción de carnívoros en sus territorios y apliquen rigurosas medidas de
cuarentena a aquellos cuya entrada esté autorizada.
2. C u a n d o se empleen vacunas p a r a la lucha antirrábica, sean de
conformidad con las conclusiones del Comité O . M . S . de expertos de
la rabia.
Contemplando los métodos recién elaborados para la producción
de vacunas muertas de mejor calidad, se recomienda además que de
efectuarse la vacunación en países o zonas donde la frecuencia de la
enfermedad es escasa, únicamente se empleen vacunas a base de
virus muertos.
3. Se apliquen programas de vacunación sistemática con objeto de
asegurar a los perros alto nivel de inmunidad.
— 390 —
4. Se organicen estos programas con objeto de reforzar la cooperación entre organismos y disciplinas diversos involucrados en la
lucha antirrábica.
5. Las campañas de lucha, p a r a tener éxito, incluyan u n a sección
en la que se trate del p r o b l e m a de los perros vagabundos; y que si,
por motivos culturales o religiosos, no se pueden eliminar los perros
vagabundos, se los identifique y vacune sistemáticamente.
6. Los países que no han emprendido aún c a m p a ñ a de lucha
antirrábica, se inspiren en el ejemplo de cuantos, tras u n a c a m p a ñ a
de lucha correctamente manejada, han logrado erradicar la enfermedad. Procede observar que no existe prueba, en muchos países de la
región, de que la fauna silvestre sea un importante reservorio de
rabia.
II
FIEBRE AFTOSA
L a Conferencia,
Considerando el éxito de las campañas de lucha y erradicación de
la fiebre aftosa en Indonesia;
Reafirma cierto número de principios y de condiciones previas
p a r a asegurar el éxito de cualquier p r o g r a m a :
a) firme sostén gubernamental, administrativo, veterinario y
técnico y apoyo de las profesiones que participan en las producciones pecuarias;
b) diagnóstico de laboratorio seguro y r á p i d o ;
c) delimitación física o geográfica adecuada de las zonas de erradicación;
d) sistemas de control y vigilancia concretos y permanentes;
e) preprogramación de las intervenciones vacunales de c a m p o con
objeto de tener en cuenta las características de los movimientos del
ganado y de los productos animales;
f) pruebas de inocuidad y eficacia p a r a las vacunas cuyas propiedades antigénicas hayan de corresponder a los tipos de virus aftosos
que pueden aparecer;
g) personal y equipo, incluidas facilidades de almacenamiento de
la vacuna y medios de entrega;
— 391 —
h) soporte logístico indispensable que incluya la organización
social, paraveterinaria, administrativa, así como los sistemas de
información;
Reitera su sostén al establecimiento de estrechos enlaces con la
Comisión de la Fiebre Aftosa de la O . I . E . , la F . A . O . y la Comisión
de Producción y de Salud Animales p a r a Asia y a la intensificación
de las consultas bilaterales así como de los programas de las actividades conjuntas entre países que tengan fronteras comunes y procedan a intercambios de g a n a d o s .
Recomienda
que :
La aplicación de u n p r o g r a m a de cooperación sea preliminar a
cualquier p r o g r a m a regional eventual de lucha y erradicación.
El personal c o n t r a t a d o en los programas de lucha y erradicación
de la fiebre aftosa conozca perfectamente la enfermedad vesicular
del cerdo (clínicamente idéntica a la fiebre aftosa), así como las
demás enfermedades eruptivas como la enfermedad de las mucosas y
el ectima contagioso, y los laboratorios de diagnóstico estén en condiciones de identificar las referidas infecciones.
Se incentive la producción de vacuna antiaftosa en la región, por
laboratorios privados u oficiales.
El personal de los laboratorios nacionales reciba la capacitación
que le permita practicar las pruebas serológicas p a r a la fiebre aftosa
y los institutos competentes p a r a la realización de las pruebas, estén
en condiciones de asegurar la capacitación del personal de los demás
países, que desee adquirir esa competencia.
Se tomen en consideración los recientes progresos de vacunas
antiaftosas con coadyuvante oleoso p a r a los rumiantes en Sudamérica.
La Comisión permanente de la O . I . E . p a r a estudio de la Fiebre
Aftosa siga estimulando las investigaciones y puntualizaciones,
tanto en el ámbito privado como gubernamental, en orden a mejorar la vacuna antiaftosa p a r a los cerdos.
Se designe u n laboratorio regional, dotado de expertos de la fiebre
aftosa, p a r a efectuar el diagnóstico rápido de la enfermedad.
En cuanto se refiere a la elaboración de un acuerdo regional sobre
el control y erradicación final de la fiebre aftosa, la Conferencia
recomienda que se instituya u n grupo de trabajo en el ámbito de la
Comisión Regional, con objeto de estudiar el problema y enviar un
representante a la reunión de la Comisión permanente de la O . I . E .
— 392 —
p a r a estudio de la Fiebre Aftosa, en orden a establecer un enlace
más estrecho con la misma. El experto debería poder colaborar en la
creación de un órgano de asesoramiento e información en el seno de
la región.
III
E N F E R M E D A D E S C L O S T R I D I A L E S D E LOS O V I N O S
1. L a Conferencia t o m ó debida n o t a de que la región incluye la
mayoría de los principales países de ganado lanar del m u n d o , aunque algunos otros países de la región tan sólo tengan u n a población
ovina m u y limitada.
2. A medida que se van desarrollando las crías ovinas en la región
y se hacen más intensivos e industriales los métodos de las mismas
crías, las enfermedades clostridiales revisten mayor importancia económica como lo pone de manifiesto la evolución observada en los
principales países de g a n a d o lanar.
3. A m e n u d o resulta difícil el diagnóstico de las enfermedades
clostridiales.
L a muerte sobreviene muchas veces antes de que se hayan podido
observar los síntomas clínicos. A d e m á s , en los países de clima tropical, se produce con mayor rapidez la putrefacción de los cadáveres,
lo que hace sumamente dificultoso el diagnóstico definitivo. Además el cuadro epidemiológico característico de las referidas enfermedades puede n o ser obvio c u a n d o se crían los carneros en
pequeños rebaños.
4. P o r otro lado, se h a n conseguido grandes éxitos en las últimas
décadas en la producción de vacunas p a r a la protección de animales
(incluidos los carneros) contra las enfermedades clostridiales.
5. La combinación de la higiene aplicada al manejo del rebaño y
de u n a vacunación adecuada asegura la total protección de los carneros contra esas enfermedades.
6. Ya que el tratamiento es pocas veces ventajoso en estas condiciones y p o r consiguiente la prevención constituye la única aproximación práctica, se infiere que se debería conceder la prioridad a los
programas de divulgación en las zonas afectadas por estas enfermedades p a r a convencer a los ganaderos acerca de la necesidad de
adoptar métodos de higiene y recurrir efectivamente a la vacunación.
— 393 —
IV
MIASIS
Las moscas que provocan las miasis son una causa importante de
disminución de la productividad del ganado y por consiguiente de
pérdidas económicas en muchos países.
Los principios de lucha deberían incluir la recogida de las máximas informaciones sobre las especies en causa. Se debería hacer hincapié en la acumulación de los datos sobre la ecología y biología de
los insectos nocivos p a r a que se pudieran aplicar las correspondientes medidas de lucha en las fases biológicamente críticas de su ciclo.
Se deberían t o m a r en consideración en la elaboración de los p r o gramas de lucha los factores que predisponen a los animales a su
ataque por las moscas, tales como la infestación por las garrapatas.
El conocimiento de la biogeografía y de las características estacionales de las moscas resulta indispensable p a r a la programación de
las medidas de lucha que deberían t o m a r en consideración los lugares de reproducción y de alimentación de los parásitos así como el
efecto de atracción del huésped.
El empleo repetido en u n p u n t o determinado de compuestos que
contengan insecticidas constituye un método de lucha importante,
aunque costoso y que requiere mucho trabajo en las zonas de ganadería extensiva de vacunos y ovinos.
Se deberían aplicar métodos standard p a r a la evaluación de los
insecticidas, a la vez in vitro e in vivo, con objeto de identificar los
productos más eficaces y poder controlar el desarrollo de la resistencia a los insecticidas.
La cría intensiva y la
éxito de las c a m p a ñ a s de
pueden constituir la más
los vacunos y ovinos de
cabana ganadera.
suelta de moscas estériles permitieron el
erradicación en u n a región por lo menos;
práctica solución cuando las pérdidas en
cría intensiva amenazan con arruinar la
C u a n d o aparecen patógenos, parásitos y depredadores de los
insectos nocivos, se los debería poner de manifiesto e identificarlos y
su acción debería ser sostenida o incluso potenciada.
Se deberían elaborar sistemas de vigilancia con objeto de determinar
la incidencia en las zonas incultas así como en las zonas cultivadas.
— 394 —
V
SISTEMAS DE NOTIFICACIÓN REGIONAL
DE LAS ENFERMEDADES ANIMALES
La Conferencia,
Considerando
que :
la notificación internacional de las enfermedades tiene un cometido clave p a r a facilitar los intercambios internacionales de animales
y de productos animales al mismo tiempo que se evita la propagación de importantes epizootias;
la O . I . E . tuvo u n fundamental cometido en este ámbito desde
hace más de cincuenta años que cumplió correctamente hasta a h o r a ;
en los últimos años, se h a hecho más dificultosa y compleja la
definición concreta de las enfermedades y de los agentes de las
enfermedades y h a de evolucionar la notificación internacional en el
sentido de los nuevos conocimientos científicos;
existieron importantes progresos en los métodos de recogida y
difusión de los datos de los que la O . I . E . podría aprovecharse;
1. Apoya con fuerza la iniciativa que a d o p t ó el Director General
de la O . I . E . procediendo p a r a empezar a un examen exhaustivo de
los actuales sistemas de información de la O . I . E . y de las mejoras
que podrían introducirse en los mismos utilizando aquel m é t o d o
m o d e r n o de proceso de datos que, con la experiencia, habría de corresponder mejor a las necesidades específicas de la Organización y
de sus Países Miembros.
2. Destaca que las informaciones canjeadas entre los países tan
sólo tienen valor si descansan en u n a documentación válida a nivel
nacional, lo que a su vez supone que los métodos nacionales de vigilancia sanitaria se funden en correctos principios epidemiológicos y
convengan a las necesidades y circumstancias peculiares del país.
Algunos países de la región tienen u n a competencia especial en la
instalación y utilización de tales sistemas de vigilancia sanitaria, concebida p a r a su situación especial, pudiendo ampliarse su experiencia
a todos por mediación de la cooperación regional.
3. Recomienda
que :
a) La O . I . E . considere a Asia del Sudeste como u n a z o n a piloto
p a r a la instalación y evaluación de u n centro regional de canjes de
informaciones sanitarias.
— 395 —
De adoptarse esta sugerencia, convendría que se tomasen en consideración las realizaciones ya existentes en el seno de la región,
especialmente el sistema de intercambios de informaciones instituido
por el grupo de países que pertenecen a la Alianza del Sudeste Asiático (ASEAN).
b) Se asegure la O . I . E . que la experiencia adquirida en esta región
sea utilizada p a r a contribuir al mejoramiento de los sistemas de vigilancia sanitaria de los Países Miembros de la O.I.E. por el m u n d o .
c) C o n objeto de ayudar al proceso de datos sanitarios a nivel
regional, el Comité de la O . I . E . examine el cometido y la localización futuros de su Oficina regional.
VI
SANIDAD PÚBLICA VETERINARIA
La Conferencia,
Considerando
que :
a) es m u y amplio el campo de actividades de sanidad pública veterinaria y los Países Miembros han concedido u n a importancia mayor
o menor a los distintos aspectos de este ámbito;
b) es más clara la concienciación del peligro de contaminación del
medio ambiente que resulta de los efluentes de origen pecuario;
c) está a u m e n t a n d o el riesgo representado por los residuos de los
medicamentos y otros productos nocivos en los productos animales;
d) es preciso satisfacer la creciente d e m a n d a de la población
h u m a n a de proteínas animales de buena calidad;
e) existen en la región los riesgos de zoonosis transmisibles al
hombre,
Recomienda
que :
1. Se otorgue u n lugar más importante a las actividades de sanidad pública veterinaria en la región y los Países Miembros adopten
las correspondientes disposiciones con objeto de reforzar sus respectivas organizaciones de sanidad pública veterinaria.
2. Los veterinarios desempeñen en este ámbito un
mayor que en el p a s a d o .
cometido
3. Los Países Miembros concedan atención y el lugar que merecen
a los aspectos de la sanidad pública veterinaria que hasta ahora no
han tenido la prioridad deseada.
— 396 —
4. Los países de la región que estén más adelantados en materia
de sanidad pública veterinaria hagan que se beneficien los demás
países de la región de su competencia.
5. Se adopten medidas en los países en donde sean precisas, con
objeto de mejorar las instalaciones destinadas al manejo de los p r o ductos animales según las n o r m a s de higiene.
6. Se adopten disposiciones p a r a limitar el empleo abusivo de
antibióticos, productos estimuladores de crecimiento, h o r m o n a s ,
pesticidas y otros productos químicos empleados en los animales de
cría con objeto de evitar la posibilidad de residuos de esas substancias en el producto final.
Los Países Miembros deberían proceder por su parte a encuestas
con objeto de determinar la amplitud del problema.
7. Los Países Miembros concierten sus esfuerzos en orden a
luchar contra las zoonosis así como se hizo con éxito en algunos Países Miembros de la región.
8. La O . I . E . refuerce su colaboración con la O . M . S . en el control
regular de la situación de la sanidad pública veterinaria en los Países
Miembros y eleve a conocimiento de la Comisión Regional todos los
progresos que estime necesarios.