this PDF file - Journal of Student Science and Technology

Transcription

Ar
ac
an
my
us
co
Ne
ha
Ne
do
sh
Th
the
eq
rea
inc
gra
int
rai
to
lig
ISSN: 1913-1925 2015 VOL 8 ISSUE 2
Connecting, Investing, Building Our Future. | Reliant, investissant, construisant notre avenir.
"!"
" #" ! $#
!!
!!"""
%!
About the Foundation
À propos de la Fondation
The Foundation for Student Science and
Technology (FSST) is a national not-for-profit
organization dedicated to developing the career
potential of gifted high school, college and university
students for leadership roles in the science community.
La Fondation pour les Étudiants en Technologie
et Sciences (FSST) est une organisation nationale,
sans but lucratif, dévouée à développer les
connaissances nécessaires des étudiants doués du
secondaire, du collège et de l’université afin de faire
progresser leurs carrières et combler les rôles de
leadership dans la communauté scientifique.
The Foundation aims to cultivate tomorrow’s science
leaders by advancing their early knowledge of career
demands and challenges. Our Mission is to Connect
ideas and people across the spectrum of education,
public and private enterprise and science and
technology; Invest in the early career development of
gifted students of science and technology; and Build
programs that emulate real world circumstances and
help improve students’ chances of career success.
Since 2008, the Foundation has helped gifted
students develop leadership potential in the realm of
physical and life sciences, engineering, mathematics
and informatics, biology and environmental studies,
social sciences and humanities, and more.
The Foundation’s structured programs include the
award-winning Journal of Student Science and
Technology, the Student Science and Technology
Online Research Co-op and more.
La Fondation vise à cultiver les leaders scientifiques
de demain par l’avancement des connaissances des
exigences et défis de carrière. Notre mission est de
Relier les idées et les gens à travers le spectre de
l’éducation, des entreprises publiques et privées,
et de la science et la technologie; Investir dans le
développement précoce d’élèves doués en science et
technologie; Construire des programmes qui émulent
les circonstances du monde réel et améliorent les
chances d’une carrière réussite.
Depuis l’année 2008, la Fondation a aidé des élèves
doués à développer leur potentiel de leadership
dans les domaines des sciences physiques et de la
vie, le génie, les mathématiques et l’informatique,
la biologie et les études environnementales, les
sciences sociales et humaines, et bien plus.
Les programmes structurés de la Fondation
comprennent le journal renommé intitulé La revue
pour les étudiants en technologie et sciences, la
Coopérative de recherche en ligne pour étudiants en
science et technologie et autres..
The Foundation for Student Science and Technology gratefully acknowledges the contributions
made by the following professional scientists for mentoring the class of 2015.
Dr. Brad Bass (University of Toronto)
Juan Beltran (Royal Military College of Canada)
Dr. Stephen Brown (University of Guelph)
Becky Cudmore (Fisheries and Oceans Canada)
Dr. Aaron Farnsworth (Health Canada)
Sarah Gagliano (CAMH)
Lora Giangregorio (University of Waterloo)
Subramanian Karthikeyan (Health Canada)
Dr. Jaime Llambías-Wolff (York University)
Amanda MacFarlane (Health Canada)
Terry B. McMahon (University of Waterloo)
Alain Plouffe (NRCAN)
Tatiana Scorza (UQÀM)
Dr. Erik Spence (SciNet)
Errol Thomson (Health Canada)
Aaron Witham (EBPI)
About the Journal
À propos du journal
The award-winning Journal of Student Science
and Technology is a scholarly publication offering
PhD review and citation of high school, university
and college student ideas and research.
Le Journal La revue pour les étudiants en
technologie et sciences est une publication
renommée offrant des revues de doctorat scientifique
et des citations d’idées et de recherches d’étudiants
au niveau secondaire, universitaire et collégial.
The Journal helps prepare emerging scientists,
researchers, managers and leaders for future careers
in science and technology. Reflecting the standards
and practices of some of the world’s foremost science
publishing, the Journal offers students real world
grounding in the requirements of formal scientific
publishing.
The Journal encompasses project reports, case
studies, book reviews and other work relating to the
physical and life sciences, engineering, mathematics
and informatics, biology and environmental studies,
social sciences and humanities, and more.
The Journal is published by a dedicated team of
PhD reviewers and experts representing some of
the most distinguished public and private science
organizations, universities, companies, research
institutes and others.
The Journal is one of several programs offered by the
Foundation for Student Science and Technology
(FSST), a not-for-profit organization dedicated to
developing the career potential of gifted students for
leadership roles in the science community
Le Journal aide à préparer les scientifiques,
chercheurs, gestionnaires, et dirigeants en herbe
pour de futures carrières en science et technologie.
Reflétant les normes et pratiques de publications
reconnues mondialement, le Journal offre aux
étudiants de l’expérience pratique reliée aux
exigences pédagogiques de la rédaction scientifique
formelle.
Le Journal englobe des rapports de projets, des
études de cas, des critiques de livres et d’autres
travaux portant sur les sciences physiques et de la
vie, du génie, des mathématiques et de l’informatique,
des études de biologie et de l’environnement, les
sciences sociales et humaines, et bien plus.
La revue est publiée et révisée par une équipe de
doctorants dédiés et d’experts représentants des
organisations scientifiques distinguées des secteurs
publics et privés, d’universités, d’entreprises,
d’instituts de recherche et autres.
Le Journal est un des nombreux programmes offerts
par la Fondation pour la science et la technologie
aux étudiants (FSST), une organisation nationale,
sans but lucratif, dévouée au développement
du potentiel de carrière des étudiants doués du
secondaire, du collège et de l’université afin.
About the Coop Program
What is it?
The Student Science and Technology Online
Research Coop explores the principles and practices
of independent, inquiry-based research. The Program
matches gifted students with top researchers to
create experiential learning opportunities to work on
research projects and to be immersed in professional
online communications and work environments.
The program matches highly motivated high school
students, in grades 11 and 12, with top researchers
in the fields of science and technology. Students are
offered opportunities to work on research projects, to
be immersed into professional online communication
and work environments, and to gain early exposure to
careers in science and technology. The online format
of the learning makes it accessible to all students,
including those who require more flexible schedules,
and those living in remote areas.
The Coop program is a collaborative development
between the Foundation for Student Science and
Technology (FSST) and the federal Science and
Technology Cluster (Science.gc.ca) to prepare
emerging scientists, researchers, managers and
leaders for future careers in science and technology.
The online format of the learning makes it accessible
to all students, including those who require more
flexible schedules, and those living in remote areas.
The Coop is one of several programs offered by FSST,
a not-for-profit organization dedicated to developing
the career potential of gifted students for leadership
roles in the science community.
Some of the research projects developed during
the program were featured in the Journal of Student
Science and Technology (formerly the Canadian
Young Scientist Journal). High schools can now apply
to offer this opportunity for their students. Their letters
of intent should be coordinated with the program
liaison ([email protected]) and submitted to the
Foundation for Student Science and Technology.
Contacts
If you are a scientist and would like to participate in
this project, please contact [email protected].
If you are a student or teacher who would like to take
part, please contact [email protected].
À propos du programme de la Coopérative
De quoi s’agit-il?
Recherche coop en ligne pour les étudiants en
technologie et sciences explore les principes et
pratiques de recherche indépendante, fondée sur
l’enquête. Le programme jumelle des étudiants
doués avec les meilleurs chercheurs afin de créer des
possibilités d’apprentissage à travers l’expérience
pour travailler sur des projets de recherche et
pour s’immerger dans la communication en ligne
et environnements de travail du point de vue
professionnel.
Le programme COOP de recherche en ligne
vise à jumeler des élèves très motivés de niveau
secondaire, de la 11e et 12e année, avec des
chercheurs émérites du domaine des sciences et
de la technologie. Les élèves ont la possibilité de
travailler à des projets de recherche, d’être immergé
dans un environnement virtuel de travaille et de
communication professionnel, et d’être exposés
tôt à des carrières en sciences et en technologie.
La formule en ligne de l’apprentissage rend cette
expérience accessible à tous les étudiants, y compris
ceux qui ont besoin des horaires plus souples et
ceux qui habitent dans des régions plus isolés.
Le programme de la Coopérative est un développement
collaboratif entre La Fondation pour la étudiants
en technologie et sciences (FSST) et le Réseau
des sciences et de la technologie du gouvernement
fédéral (Science.gc.ca) dans le but de préparer les
scientifiques, chercheurs, gestionnaires et dirigeants
en herbe pour de futures carrières en science et
technologie. Le format en ligne d’apprentissage
permet son accessibilité à tous les étudiants, y
compris ceux qui exigent des horaires plus souples,
et ceux qui vivent dans les régions éloignées.
La Coopérative est un des nombreux programmes
offerts par la FSST, un organisme sans but lucratif
dédié à développer le potentiel de carrière des
étudiants doués pour combler des rôles de leadership
dans la communauté scientifique.
Certains projets de recherche développés pendant
le programme étaient présentés dans La revue
pour les étudiant et sciences (autrefois Revue
canadienne des jeunes scientifique). Les écoles
secondaires ontariennes peuvent actuellement
présenter une demande afin d’offrir cette occasion
aux étudiants. Leurs lettres d’intention doivent être
coordonnées avec le bureau de liaison du programme
([email protected]) et être soumises à le Journal
étudiant de la science et de la technologie.
Nous joindre
Si vous êtes un scientifique et vous souhaitez
participer à ce projet, s’il vous plaît nous joindre
à [email protected]. Si vous êtes
un étudiant ou un enseignant qui souhaiteraient
prendre part, s’il vous plaît nous joindre à
[email protected].
Apply for an individualized virtual
research mentorship in a field of
your choosing.
CHOOSE FROM:
Biology
• Chemistry
• Physics
• STEM
•
Computer Science
Environmental Science
• Health/Medical Sciences
• Social Sciences
• Interdisciplinary Fields
•
•
Our online coop offers:
•
•
•
•
Individualized research mentorship
Innovative experiential learning opportunities
Early exposure to STEM, medical and interdisciplinary careers
Possible publication in the Journal of Student Science and Technology
For more information, visit Science.gc.ca/course or
contact your Guidance or Coop departments.
Faites demande pour un mentorat de
recherche virtuel individualisé dans le
domaine de votre choix.
CHOISISSEZ PARMI :
Biologie
• Chimie
• Physique
• STIM
• Informatique
•
Science
environnementale
• Sciences de la santé
et/ou de la médecine
• Sciences sociales
• Domaines interdisciplinaires
•
Notre programme coop en ligne offre :
• du mentorat de recherche virtuel individualisé ;
• des occasions novatrices d’apprentissage expérientiel ;
• une exposition précoce aux carrières en STIM, en médecine et en domaines
interdisciplinaires ;
• une possibilité de publication dans La Revue pour les étudiants en technologie et
sciences
Pour plus d’information, visitez Science.gc.ca/cours ou
communiquez avec votre conseiller d’orientation ou le
département coop.
Programme Ambassadeur
Ambassador Program
Technology’s Ambassador Program provides
a unique Ambassador
opportunity to bring
together students
Program
passionate about science and research. If you are
a student currently in high school or undergraduate
studies interested in spreading the word about
STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Math)
opportunities to your peers, consider becoming an
ambassador for Foundation for Student Science
and Technology. As an ambassador, you’ll be
helping us promote our publication, and the various
other research-related opportunities we’re presented
with from time to time.
The Ambassador Program brings together students
passionate about science and research to promote
scientific research.
Primary Objectives:
• To help students understand the field of research
and what scientists are doing in labs.
• To help students interested in research find opportunities
where they can gain research experience.
• To help students develop transferable skills such as
teamwork and problem solving by being involved
in research.
• To foster a generation of young people that is
scientifically literate.
Successful applicants must be:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Committed
Self-motivated
Interested in sciences and research
Resourceful
Team oriented
Currently attending high school or be pursuing
undergraduate studies
Ambassadors’ responsibilities include:
• Encouraging young scientists to publish in the
Journal of Student Science and Technology.
• Represent FSST at science based events in your
local communities and educational institution.
• Work with students in your region (province) to
organize events that act as a resource for young
people looking to learn or be involved in the
research field.
Programme
Ambassadeur
• Give presentations
to your peers on the research
field and opportunities for students to be involved;
especially with the Online Research Co-op Program.
• Promote FSST initiatives online (social media) and
offline (posters, word of mouth etc).
• Help build resources for students interested in
scientific research by being involved in project teams
with students all across Canada.
• Help FSST build partnerships with organizations in
the community.
In return, ambassadors can receive:
• Skill and resume building
• Networking with students around Canada and your
community
• Reference letters
• Volunteer/community service hours
• Program completion certification and leadership
awards (i.e. Best Ambassador Award, Best Project
Team Lead, Best Regional Team)
• Experience in marketing and outreach
• Ambassadors are asked to make the following
commitments to the program:
• 1 year term (September - June) with the summer
being optional
• Students will have a minimum of two meetings in
a month
• One meeting will be offline at a location determined
by the regional team
• One meeting will be online with a project team
If you are interested in becoming an Ambassador,
please fill out the online application form
(https://fsst.typeform.com/to/JKIVblmailto:).
Please email the Ambassador Outreach Director
at [email protected] if you have any
questions regarding this program.
Are you an undergraduate or
graduate student in psychology ?
Join the
CANADIAN
PSYCHOLOGICAL
ASSOCIATION
Become a Student Affiliate of Canada’s
Premier National Psychological Association!
CPA offers its Student Affiliates a
variety of benefits, including:
• Reduced membership and annual
convention fees;
• Professional development at
a reduced rate;
• Eligibility for CPA student awards;
• Opportunities to be published in
student publications;
• and access to CPA journals.
Visit www.cpa.ca/membership
to apply today!
Become part of CPA’s
Student Section!
• Join the largest CPA Section – over
1,800 Student Affiliates – at no extra cost
• Receive a complimentary Student
Price Card (SPC)
• Network with professionals
and students
• Receive Section News updates
• Learn about networking, publishing,
and career opportunities
• Help promote psychology in Canada
Academic Editorial Board
Guest Editor in Chief
Dr. Kenneth Franklin, Canadian Nuclear Laboratories
Dr. Joanne Zwinkels, National Research Council of Canada
Section Editors
Science from the Source
Erica Tennenhouse, University of Toronto
Hass AbouZeid, University of Toronto
Shama Bhatia, McMaster University
Caitlin Miron, Queen’s University
Siddharth Nath, McMaster University
Teaching Resources
Aatif Qureshi, University of Toronto
Susie Son, McMaster University
Student Articles
Laura Burns, OpenBiome
Dr. Teresa Chan, McMaster University
Dr. Yaser Dahman, Ryerson University
Benjamin Furman, McMaster University
Dr. Nicolas Gorse, Synopsys Inc.
Dr. Bryan Har, Harvard University
Dr. Bruno Hartmann, Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics
Dr. Valeri Kapoustine, University of Ontario Institute of Technology
Dr. Zain Kassam, OpenBiome
Dr. Dennis McCormac, Hospital for Sick Children
Dr. Cynthia Morin, University of Utrecht
Susan Reed Tanaka, LEAD Canadao
Translation
Julie Dam
Daphnée Dubouchet-Olsheski
Coralea Kappel
Melanie Kappel
Sarina Lalla
Amit Scheer
Supriya Thukral
Student Editorial Board
Editor in Chief
Karren Yang
Renee Cosme
Associate Editors
Adelina Cozma
Matthew Liu
Sinja Novosel
Ria Oommen
Aaron Pan
Nensi Ruzgar
Ksenia Rybkina
Raymond Wang
Rebecca Xu
The Foundation For Student
Science and Technology
Chair
Dariusz Burzynski
Executive Director
Peter D’Amico
Director Outreach
Abeera Shahid
Coop Program Director
Lauren Sykes
Layout
Karen McAteer, The Ottawa Hospital
Cover Art
Ariel Lam
Publisher
The Foundation for Student Science and Technology
Email: [email protected]
Subissions of Journal Articles: [email protected]
www.fsst.ca
Copyright © 2015 The Foundation for Student Science and Technology. All rights reserved.
ISSN: 1913-1925
Congratulations Class of 2014-2015!
Félicitations à nos étudiants de 2014-2015!
Toronto District School Board
Earl Haig Secondary School
Bloor Collegiate Institute
Katherine Lien
Andy Tran
Toronto Catholic District School Board
Bishop Allen Academy
Timothy Doyle
Vanessa Gomes
Computer Science Online Research Co-op Class
Jamy Fu
John Zhong
Durham Catholic District School Board
Archbishop Denis O’Connor Catholic High School
Jasper Kibzey
York Region District School Board
Pierre Elliott Trudeau High School
Raymond Wong
Richmond Hill High School
Halton District School Board
Tracy Qu
Summer 2015
Emily Chu
Emilie Knighton
Fatima Sheikh
Jamaal Stewart
Conseil des écoles catholiques du Centre-Est (CECCE)
Été 2015
Tarek Omaiche
CONTENTS
FOREWORD
ARTICLES (cont.)
15 The Value of the Online
Research Co-Op Program.
by B. Bass
54 Hemagglutinin Compatibility
Between Avian and Human
Influenza A Viruses Using
Human Matrix Protein: Based on
Scholtissek et al.’s (2002) Article
by K. Lien
ARTICLES
Bioscience
17 Comparison of Oragene©
and Mouthwash-Based Saliva
Collection Methods for Genomic
DNA Isolation. by A. Hassan
Economics
23 Simulating Land Use: An
Exploration of the Stability of a
Two-Zone City by A. Tran
Health Sciences &
Medical Education
59 Le potentiel thérapeutique d’un
lipide de l’avocat (avocatin B)
pour le traitement des leucémies
aiguës myéloblastiques
by T. Omaiche
62 A Review of Adult Idiopathic
and Degenerative Scoliosis by
by F. Sheikh
66 How does Caffeine
Supplementation Affect Muscular
Performance in Adolescent
Males? by J. Stewart
33 NGO-isation and the Plight of
Women in Developing Nations
by E. Chu
TEACHING
RESOURCES
39 Using Nanoparticle-Aptamer
Bioconjugates for Imaging and
Treating Prostate Cancer
by T. Doyle
74 Research Proposal Outline:
Template
43 Diabetes Mellitus
Complications in Sub-Saharan
Africa by P. Famiyeh
46 The Connection Between
Vitamin K & Bone Health
by J. Fu
50 The Genetic Markers for
Alzheimer’s Disease
by V. Gomes
INSIGHTS
75 A Letter of Gratitude
by E. Chu
75 Research Co-Op Student
Testimonials
by M. Manning and F. Sheikh
77 Finding Myself Through the
Student Advancement Research
Program and the Student
Mentorship Program
by M. Petit
78 Experiences of an
Aboriginal Youth by T-L Watts
The Student Science and Technology
Online Research Co-op is available at the
following schools across Ontario:
La Recherche COOP en ligne pour les
étudiants en sciences et technologies est
disponible aux écoles ontariennes suivantes
Conseil des écoles publiques de l’Est
de l’Ontario (CÉPEO)
École secondaire publique De la Salle
Lakehead District
Sir Winston Churchill Collegiate
and Vocational Institute
Conseil des écoles catholiques
du Centre-Est (CECCE)
Collège Catholique Samuel-Genest
École Secondaire Catholique Pierre-Savard
Conseil scolaire catholique Franco-Nord
École secondaire catholique Algonquin
Conseil scolaire Viamonde
École Ronald-Marion
École Secondaire Gabriel-Dumont
District School Board of Niagara
Stamford Collegiate
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board
Cardinal Leger S.S.
St. Marcellinus S.S.
Durham Catholic District School Board
Archbishop Denis O’Conor
Catholic High School
Durham District School Board
Dunbarton High School
J. Clarke Richardson Collegiate
Halton District School Board
Garth Webb S.S.
Gary Allan High School
Huron-Perth Catholic District
School Board
St. Michael Catholic S.S.
Ottawa-Carleton District School Board
Lisgar Collegiate Institute
West Carleton S.S.
Peel District School Board
The Woodlands School
Toronto Catholic District School Board
Bishop Allen Academy
Toronto District School Board
Earl Haig S.S.
Northview Heights S.S.
Woburn Collegiate Institute
Trillium Lakelands District School Board
Virtual Learning Centre
Upper Grand District School Board
Centennial Collegiate and
Vocational Institute
Waterloo Region District School Board
Galt Collegiate Institute
York Region District School Board
Pierre Elliott Trudeau High School
Richmond Hill High School
FOREWORD
This special issue of the Foundation for Student Science and Technology Journal is very meaningful to me as I have
been mentoring secondary school and university students for over twenty years. This special issue contains papers
produced by secondary school students who participated in Student Science and Technology Online Research
Co-op Program. Although some secondary school students have always found ways to do research and have
found mentors, the Online Research Co-Op Program provides another avenue into this experience that opens up
this experience to students regardless of their location. Even as I write this, I am preparing to speak with a new coop student, however this time, the student and I will never meet face-to-face.
The Online Research Co-Op is a wonderful opportunity for secondary school students who are planning postsecondary studies in a range of science and social-science disciplines. I speak from experience as I also run a
similar program for second-year students at the University of Toronto. When students reflected on the skills that
they developed as part of the research co-op, these skills included independent study, scientific writing, critical
reading and problem solving. Most of the students felt they were better prepared for post-secondary studies.
They all noted the challenging or difficult nature of the articles that were assigned as part of the research.
My own experience with a research co-op student this year echoes these comments. When we started, we
agreed on a subject area of mutual interest. I assigned some challenging reading material, some of it written
for professional economists and geographers. The student was then able to use my software to produce a
simulation of the material in the readings, which was novel, both in its application of the software and in its ability
to reproduce theoretical results.
I began working with my first secondary school students in 2004. At first I was told not to expect too much, and
not to assign too much. Not surprisingly, the results matched this advice. I was motivated to begin working at
a higher level with secondary school students after attending a few regional science fairs. I was astounded by
the creativity and the quality of the work that I saw, and a few of the students that I met at these fairs became
my own students the following year. This was no longer an “expect little, assign little.” Rather, it was “expect
real contributions to my program and assign the work required for those contributions”. I find, and continue to
find, that secondary school students can participate in university-level research programs and make meaningful
contributions to the research.
The Online Research Co-Op - will increase the scientific literacy of these participants. Prior to the placement,
most of the mentors rated their student’s scientific literacy as average. After the placement, the lowest category
was “somewhat advanced” and most students were rated as advanced in scientific literacy.
The papers in this special issue represent the potential for secondary school students to do research across
a range of areas and communicate it to an academic audience. These papers are the result of a commitment
made by both students and mentors to research. Although they stand on their own merit, if you are in secondary
school, regardless of your career objectives, I hope that you are motivated to participate in a future tranche of
co-op students. The complexity of tomorrow’s challenges will require a scientifically literate population to weigh
the evidence and make the necessary decisions.
Dr. Bass received is PhD in Geography from Penn State University, in 1989. He has been working on green infrastructure research
since 1995, and was one of Canada’s early pioneers in green roof and wall research. Dr. Bass also has a long history in the field
of climate change scenarios, leading the Weather Generator Project - an international scientific research effort to improve climate
change scenarios, managing the Canadian Climate Change Scenarios Network - an on-line source for climate model output
for Canada, and as a member of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) task team that was responsible for
distributing and working with climate model output.
Dr. Bass is an Adjunct Professor at University of Toronto in the School of the Environment and the founder and Director of the
University Research Experience in Complex Systems (URECS). URECS brings secondary school and university students together
to explore the interaction between environmental change and health. and also offers workshops on the simulation of environmental
change and health, green infrastructure, networking and the Prisoner’s Dilemma.
Dr. Bass was the recipient of the Lifetime Achievement Award for Green Roof Research, and was one of the scientists on
the United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize.
Brad Bass, PhD
University of Toronto
Online Research Co-Op Testimonials
Student Testimonials
“Although [the] Online Research Co-op may be tough, and at times, intimidating, it builds up skills that you
wouldn’t normally be able to improve upon. Time management, critical thinking, scientific writing, communication;
the list goes on. All of this, in one placement.” – Katherine Lien
“Overall, it was an incredibly rewarding experience, full of exhilarating challenges and unforgettable memories
that will allow me to progress with confidence in the field of health and wellness.” – Jamaal Stewart
“My name is Jasper Kibzey. I am a grade 11 student at Archbishop Denis O’ Conner Catholic High School. Ever
since I was young, I have always been interested in the natural world. I marveled at its complexity, I adored its
form and I always strived to learn more about it. Upon being given the opportunity to join a Co-Op like this, I
jumped at the chance. It allowed me to flex my brain, test the limits of my knowledge and build upon the areas
that I lacked in. It also gave me a new direction to take to get to the career of my choice. This was a very fun
program. I will never forget it!” – Jasper Kibzey
Mentor Testimonials
“I found the Online Research Co-op to be a rewarding experience. It provided an opportunity to work with a
motivated high-school student who did not know about my work. I particularly enjoyed seeing the student grow in
knowledge, ability and confidence. The work completed by the student exceeded expectations.”
“As an academic administrator, the contact with a bright, enthusiastic student provided real insight into what can
be done to stimulate interest in Science.”
“I really enjoy passing on knowledge, and thus enthusiastically agreed to mentor a student for the co-op when
my thesis supervisor provided me with such an opportunity. I liked the flexibility of the program in the sense that
general assignment guidelines were suggested, but ultimately there was plenty of room for creativity.”
Cover Art
Ariel Lam is a Grade 11 student at Crofton House School in Vancouver,
BC. She is the captain of her school’s robotics team and has a passion for
computer science, physics and digital design. In early 2014, her artwork was
selected as a Regional Winner and National Finalist in Canada’s Google 4
Doodle, and was on exhibit at the Royal Ontario Museum.
In my cover entry, I have used various objects and colours to portray
Newton’s Third Law. I have used the famous Newton’s cradle, dominoes
and the space shuttle to demonstrate this Third Law, as each of these
objects have equal and opposite forces acting upon them. I also
incorporated the white gradually spreading out into the colours of the
rainbow dominoes to represent the visible light spectrum.
ARTICLES
COMPARISON OF ORAGENE® AND MOUTHWASH–BASED
SALIVA COLLECTION METHODS FOR GENOMIC DNA ISOLATION
*Ayesha A. Hassan, Suvin C.M. Tam, Devina M. Ramsaroop, Dr. Trang T. Duong,
Dr. Rae S.M. Yeung *Grade 12, Cardinal Carter Catholic High School, York Catholic District School Board (Richmond Hill, ON)
ABSTRACT
In recent years, saliva has been used as a non-invasive method of obtaining genomic DNA. Two common collection
methods include mouthwash and commercially produced saliva kits. Here, a novel comparison between these two
collection methods, using Scope® mouthwash and the Oragene®-Discover kit (OGR-250) from DNA Genotek Inc.,
was conducted to analyze differences in the quantity and quality of the DNA isolated, and cost effectiveness. The
Oragene® kit yielded greater quantity of DNA, while Scope® mouthwash was more cost effective. The difference
in yield was attributed to the larger volume of saliva obtained from the Oragene® kit. Isolation from both collection
methods resulted in similar DNA quality.
Depuis quelques années, la salive est utilisée comme une méthode non-invasive pour obtenir de l’ADN génomique.
Deux méthodes de collection communes sont par rince-bouche et par des trousses commerciales de collection
de salive. Ici, une comparaison entre ces deux méthodes, utilisant la rince-bouche Scope et la trousse OrageneDiscover (OGR-250) de DNA Genotek Ink, a été conduite afin d’analyser les différences dans la quantité et la
qualité d’ADN isolée ainsi que dans l’efficacité du coût. La trousse Oragene a recueilli plus d’ADN, alors que
Scope était moins cher. La différence en quantité est attribuée au plus grand volume de salive qui est obtenu grâce
à l’Oragene. L’isolation par les deux méthodes résultait en une qualité similaire d’ADN.
INTRODUCTION
Genomic DNA (gDNA) is processed to obtain information
about the body, and to learn more about the genetic
basis of disease. DNA is a hereditary substance found
in almost all organisms, and more specifically, genomic
DNA is found in the nucleus of a cell. It is used to
determine the inherited characteristics of an individual.1
Genomic samples are most commonly obtained from
blood; DNA is extracted from the white blood cells. This
method is invasive, however, and many patients find it
unpleasant to have blood drawn. White blood cells, also
known as leukocytes, are required to maintain proper
health and protect the body from harmful diseases.
They are stored in the blood or lymphatic tissues.2
In recent years, saliva has been used as an
alternative method to obtain DNA. About 0.6 ml
to 1.2 ml of saliva is normally in the mouth at any
given time.3 Saliva contains epithelial cells from the
cheeks, and white blood cells, from which DNA can
be extracted.4 Epithelial cells are a type of cell that
line body surfaces, including the cheeks.5
Saliva collection is non-invasive and more accessible
than drawing blood, as anyone with a collection kit can
give a sample. On the other hand, there is a greater
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-015
amount of contamination in saliva samples as saliva
also contains bacteria and food particles, among other
things.4 It is ideal to minimize bacterial contamination
when collecting a saliva sample as bacteria have DNA
of their own.
Saliva can be collected in multiple ways before DNA is
extracted. Two methods include using mouthwash and
using an Oragene® kit, a commercially available DNA
collection system, which was tested in this study.
Mouthwash is very accessible as it can be found at any
drug store and is not costly. However, DNA degrades
over time, and mouthwash saliva samples can be
kept at room temperature only for a short period of
time (5 days maximum). There is also a higher risk of
bacterial contamination as compared to saliva alone,
as mouthwash is designed to wash bacteria out of your
mouth.6 There are age limitations as well, since children
under 6 are unable to effectively use mouthwash.
Oragene® kits must be specially ordered from the
company DNA Genotek Inc., and cost about $20 per
sample. The kits contain a special liquid that keeps the
DNA in the saliva samples stable at room temperature
without degrading for an extended period of time, and
THE JOURNAL OF STUDENT SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
2015 VOL 8  ISSUE I
17
stops bacterial contamination.6 The kits can be used by
all age groups and younger children can have swabs
taken of their saliva.
RESEARCH QUESTION
Which method of obtaining saliva gDNA is better in
terms of cost, and efficiency (quantity and quality of
DNA produced): Oragene®, or Scope® mouthwash?
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A matched pair design was employed, and all
experimental conditions were matched. Two saliva
samples were collected from each volunteer in the
experiment on consecutive days, at the same time
on each day. Volunteers were instructed not to eat
or drink at least 30 minutes before providing saliva
samples. One saliva sample was collected using the
Oragene®-Discover (OGR-250) kit according to the
manufacturer’s instructions. The other sample was
collected using 10 ml of Scope® mouthwash. Each
volunteer was instructed to ‘swish’ the mouthwash
for 30 seconds, then collect and seal the mouthwash
saliva sample in the 50 ml conical tube provided.
Scope® brand mouthwash was used as it was found
to be the best overall, compared to five tested
mouthwash brands in terms of DNA yield, quality,
stability, and taste (unpublished data).7
Oragene® Procedure
Two 15 ml Falcon® tubes and two 1.5 ml Eppendorf®
tubes were collected per sample and labelled with the
sample ID (Refer to Table 1). The saliva sample in the
Oragene® disk was mixed by inversion at least 5 times,
then transferred to the first set of Falcon® tubes using
5 ml glass pipettes. The sample was incubated for 1 hour
at 50°C, then kept at room temperature (RT) overnight.
The volume of the sample was recorded as the starting
volume. Calculations were done for necessary reagents
including ethanol, TE and Oragene® Purifier. Oragene®
Purifier (1/25th the volume) was added to each tube,
then vortexed for 5 seconds per tube. The samples were
incubated on ice for 10 minutes, then centrifuged at RT
for 20 minutes, at 3500 rpm (2800g) max, with the brakes
off. The supernatant (S/N) was carefully transferred with
a pipette to a clean Falcon® tube (used glass autoclave
5 ml pipettes). The pellet was discarded. A volume of
100% ethanol (EtOH) equivalent to the starting volume
was added to the sample, mixed gently by inversion 10
times, and centrifuged at RT for 20 minutes, at 3500
18
rpm (2800g), with the brakes off. The S/N was carefully
removed with a pipette, ensuring that the pellet was not
disturbed. Then, the tubes were left to sit upside down
with the cap off so EtOH could evaporate (approximately
10 minutes). Sterile swabs were used to wipe the EtOH
off the insides of the tubes and the pellets were left
untouched. The pellets were dissolved in DNA solvent
(TE buffer [Tris EDTA] 1x, pH 8.0), then vortexed for
5 seconds; TE buffer added = 10% of starting volume.
The samples were incubated at 50°C for 1 hour, then
left at RT overnight. Then they were transferred to the
first set of 1.5 ml Eppendorf® tubes and centrifuged at
RT for 15 minutes, at 13,000 rpm (15000g) max. The
S/N of the samples were transferred to the second set
of 1.5 ml Eppendorf® tubes. Samples were read using
the NanoDrop™ 1000.* The concentration of DNA (ng/
μl) and the 260/280 ratio were recorded. The DNA yield
(μg) was calculated using the final volume of the sample.
Scope® Mouthwash Procedure
Samples were centrifuged at 2000g for 10 minutes
(brakes on), and then the S/N was removed. Two
1.5 ml Eppendorf® tubes per sample were collected
and the tubes were labelled with the sample ID.
Next, 500 μl of TRIzol® Reagent (Life Technologies,
Thermo Fisher Scientific) was added to each
sample and samples were vortexed for 5 seconds.
Samples were transferred to the first set of 1.5 ml
Eppendorf® tubes, digested with 10 μl of proteinase
K (10 μg/μl), then incubated for 1 hour at 55°C. The
samples were centrifuged at RT for 10 minutes at
10,000rpm (8000g), and the S/N was transferred to
the second set of 1.5 ml Eppendorf® tubes. Then,
500 μl of 100% EtOH was added to each sample,
the samples were vortexed and centrifuged at RT for
5 minutes at 10,000 rpm. The pellets were washed
twice with 70% EtOH (500 μl of 70% EtOH was
added, then samples were vortexed and centrifuged
for 5 minutes. After centrifugation, the EtOH was
discarded. This step was repeated once again.) After
the last 70% EtOH wash, the tubes were air dried for
5-10 minutes. Sterile swabs were used to wipe the
EtOH off the insides of the tube and the pellets were
left untouched. The pellets were resuspended in 250
μl of TE buffer (pH 8.0) and then vortexed. Samples
were read using the NanoDrop™ 1000.* The
concentration of DNA (ng/μl) and the 260/280 ratio
were recorded. The DNA yield (μg) was calculated
using the final volume of the sample.
LA REVUE POUR LES ÉTUDIANTS EN TECHNOLOGIE ET SCIENCES
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-015
*The NanoDrop™ 1000 is a spectrophotometer from
Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc. that analyzes a 1μl liquid
sample. It sends a beam of light through the sample
and measures the amount of light transmitted, then
calculates and outputs the concentration of solute and
its 260/280 ratio. The 260/280 ratio is a calculation of
how much light is absorbed at a wavelength of 260
nm compared to at 280 nm. It is used to determine the
quality of a sample, and the closer the ratio is to 1.8 (the
optimal value for DNA), the lesser the contamination
and the greater the purity of the sample.
RESULTS
Quantity of DNA (Concentration and Yield)
Extraction using the Oragene® kit produced an average
DNA concentration more than 7x greater than Scope®
mouthwash (Oragene®: 345.380 ng/μl, Scope®: 45.358
ng/μl) though there was a much greater amount of
variability in the Oragene® samples as seen from its
large standard deviation value of 185.135, as compared
to 40.421 for Scope® mouthwash (Table 2). There was
also a marked difference in the average DNA yield
between the two kits (Table 3). Extraction using the
Oragene® kit yielded greater than 10x the amount of
DNA in comparison to Scope® mouthwash (Oragene®:
122.561 μg, Scope®: 11.340 μg), though once again
there was a much greater amount of variability in the
Oragene® samples than in the Scope® mouthwash
samples. This was seen in the standard deviation values
(Oragene®: 74.505, Scope®: 10.105).
Quality of DNA
It was ideal to obtain the greatest quality of DNA
possible so that there would be minimal limitations
to potential downstream applications. The average
260/280 ratio was very similar between the Oragene®
kit and Scope® mouthwash. A difference of only five
points was seen between the two methods (Oragene®:
1.74, Scope®: 1.69); however, the Scope® mouthwash
samples showed more variability, as can be seen from
the larger standard deviation value of 0.188 for Scope®,
as compared to 0.094 for Oragene® (Table 4).
Cost Effectiveness
In terms of consumables, extraction using the Oragene®
kits was consistently more costly compared to Scope®
mouthwash (Table 5). The cost per sample (Oragene®:
$21.15, Scope®: $1.83) and the total cost of all the
samples processed (Oragene®: $423.00, Scope®:
$36.62) was more than 11x greater for the Oragene®
kit in comparison to the Scope® mouthwash samples.
TABLES AND FIGURES
Table 1.
Table 2.
An example of a portion of the chart used for
recording Sample Data. There were a total of
20 volunteers participating (n = 20). The three
digit Sample ID consisted of a first letter (A or S)
representing the experimenter who processed the
sample, a second letter (O or S) representing the
saliva processing method (O for the Oragene® kit,
and S for Scope®), and a number that was unique for
each volunteer (same number as the Sample #).
Average DNA Concentration for Oragene® and
Scope® Samples. Average DNA Concentration
was calculated by taking the average of all DNA
concentration values recorded from the Nanodrop™
1000 for each collection method. Standard Deviation
was calculated using the Excel function ST.DEV
and Standard Error was calculated by dividing the
standard deviation values by Ö(n-1), where n = 20.
Date sample
was done
Date
received
Date
processed
1
07/05/15
07/06/15
07/08/15
1
07/06/15
07/06/15
07/09/15
SO2
2
07/05/15
07/06/15
07/08/15
SS2
2
07/06/15
07/06/15
07/09/15
Sample ID
Sample #
AO1
AS1
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-015
Oragene®
Scope®
Average DNA Concentration (ng/μl)
345.380
45.358
Standard Deviation
185.135
40.421
Standard Error
42.473
9.273
19
Table 3.
Table 6.
Average DNA Yield for Oragene® and Scope®
Samples. Average DNA Yield was calculated in two
steps. The DNA yield for each sample was obtained
by multiplying the DNA concentration recorded from
the Nanodrop™ 1000 by the final volume of the
sample, then dividing by 1000. Next, all the DNA yield
values were averaged for each collection method.
Standard Deviation was calculated using the Excel
function ST.DEV and Standard Error was calculated
by dividing the standard deviation values by Ö(n-1),
where n = 20.
Cost of Reagents. Reagents used in DNA isolation for
the Oragene® protocol were EtOH, Oragene® Purifier,
and TE Buffer. Reagents used in DNA isolation
for the Scope® mouthwash protocol were Scope®
mouthwash, EtOH, TRIzol® Reagent, Proteinase K,
and TE Buffer (n = 20).
Oragene®
Scope®
Average DNA Yield (μg)
122.561
11.340
Standard Deviation
74.505
10.105
Standard Error
17.093
2.318
Average Quality of DNA Extracted. Average 260/280
Ratio was calculated by taking the average of all
260/280 ratio values recorded from the Nanodrop™
1000 for each collection method. Standard Deviation
was calculated using the Excel function ST.DEV
and Standard Error was calculated by dividing the
standard deviation values by Ö(n-1), where n = 20.
Oragene
Scope
®
Average 260/280 Ratio
1.74
1.69
Standard Deviation
0.094
0.188
Standard Error
0.022
0.043
Table 5.
Cost of Consumables. Includes the cost of pipette
tips, Eppendorf ® and Falcon® conical tubes, sterile
swabs, and the Oragene® collection kits (n = 20).
20
Oragene®
Scope®
Cost per sample
$21.15
$1.83
Total Cost for all 20 samples
$423.00
$36.62
Scope®
Cost per sample
$3.37
$1.71
Total Cost for all 20 samples
$67.41
$36.01
Table 7.
Table 4.
®
Oragene®
Cost of Labour (based on the salary of a summer
student, $11.00/hr). The number of hours displayed
in Table 7 was an approximation based on the average
amount of time taken by the authors to perform DNA
isolation according to each of the respective protocols.
It is possible to process a maximum of 10 samples
each time, and since 20 samples were processed for
each collection method (20 for Oragene®, and 20 for
Scope®) the total labour cost of processing each batch
of 10 samples as well as all 20 samples is displayed.
Oragene®
Scope®
Time Required (approx) per batch of
10 samples
5.5 hours
3.5 hours
Labour Cost per batch of 10 samples
$60.50
$38.50
Total Time Required (approx) for all
20 samples
11 hours
7 hours
Total Labour Cost for all 20 samples
$121.00
$77.00
Table 8.
Summary of Costs. The total cost of consumables,
reagents, and labour, taken from Tables 5, 6, and 7,
respectively, were summed to obtain the Total Cost of
all Samples. The Average Cost per sample was then
calculated by dividing the Total Cost by the number of
samples (n = 20).
Oragene®
Scope®
Average Cost per sample
$30.57
$7.48
Total Cost of all 20 samples
$611.40
$149.63
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-015
The cost of the reagents needed for extraction using
both kits differed less, but using the Oragene® kit was
more expensive overall (Table 6). The Oragene® kit
cost a little under 2x as much as Scope® mouthwash
per sample (Oragene®: $3.37, Scope®: $1.71) and in
total for all the samples processed (Oragene®: $67.41,
Scope®: $36.01).
The extraction process for one batch of Oragene®
took approximately two hours more than that of one
batch of Scope® mouthwash (Oragene®: 5.5 hours,
Scope®: 3.5 hours), which caused the labour cost
to be more than 1.5x greater (Oragene®: $60.50,
Scope®: $38.50) (Table 7).
Taking into account the cost of consumables,
reagents, and labour, extraction using the Oragene® kit
still resulted in the greatest cost overall (Table 8). On
average, processing of an Oragene® kit cost 4x more
than Scope® mouthwash per sample (Oragene®: $30.57,
Scope®: $7.48). The total cost of all samples processed
also showed a similar trend, as the Oragene® kit cost 4x
as much as Scope® mouthwash (Oragene®: $611.40,
Scope®: $149.63).
DISCUSSION
After a pilot experiment processing 20 samples
collected using the Oragene® kits and 20 samples
collected using Scope® mouthwash, it was seen that
both methods produced DNA of similar quality. This
suggests that these two methods cause minimal
contamination and can be used to isolate relatively
pure DNA. On average, saliva samples collected
using the Oragene® kit resulted in DNA concentrations
seven times larger than Scope®, and yielded total DNA
amounts ten times larger. This could be due to the
fact that more saliva was obtained from the Oragene®
kit (2.7 ml of saliva, on average), while only a small
amount was obtained from Scope® mouthwash (about
0.6 ml of saliva, according to literature6). When
the Scope® samples were centrifuged after adding
100% EtOH to precipitate the DNA, most times, no
DNA precipitate or pellet was visibly present. This
could be because only small amounts of DNA were
present before the EtOH was added. On the other
hand, in almost all of the Oragene® samples, after the
100% EtOH was added, a DNA precipitate and pellet
were visibly present. This provides evidence that
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-015
the amount of DNA in Oragene® samples was much
greater than that of Scope®.
The Oragene® kits consistently yielded more DNA;
however, it took approximately two hours more to
perform the Oragene® procedure. This was because
Oragene® had two incubation steps lasting one hour
each, while Scope® had only one. This markedly
increased labour costs.
The cost of reagents for Oragene® was greater than
for Scope® as well. Oragene® Purifier, a proprietary
substance required for the isolation of DNA in the
Oragene® procedure, cost $85 for a 5 ml bottle ($17
per mL), and was the most expensive reagent used in
the entire experiment.
The total cost (including the cost of consumables,
reagents, and labour) of processing one Oragene®
sample was four times more than Scope®. This was
due to the greater cost of reagents for Oragene®
and the cost of the Oragene® kit itself ($20 per kit).
Overall, the Oragene® kit was more effective in
obtaining genomic DNA, yet also cost four times as
much as Scope® mouthwash when considering the
total cost of processing all 20 of the samples in this
experiment. This was because multiple Oragene® kits
were used in the experiment, and each kit had to be
paid for individually, whereas only one 750 ml bottle
of Scope® mouthwash ($6.99) was used for all the
mouthwash samples.
Older children and adults may not need to use an
Oragene® kit to provide a saliva sample because they
are able to effectively use mouthwash. Therefore,
if more DNA is required in an experiment involving
older children and/or adults, a patient can provide
more than one mouthwash saliva sample to increase
total DNA yield, while minimally increasing costs.
Processing multiple mouthwash saliva samples would
only affect the cost of reagents and consumables,
and not labour costs, because up to 10 samples can
be processed at once.
In conclusion, the Oragene® kit was a better collection
method in terms of quantity of genomic DNA obtained.
Based on our results, we determined that it was
also the more expensive method, making Scope®
mouthwash a more cost effective collection method.
Both saliva collection methods yielded genomic DNA
of similar quality.
21
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
REFERENCES
More samples should be processed, in order to
obtain more data. Statistical analyses could then be
run using the data obtained, to determine if results
are statistically significant. Downstream applications
such as PCR could also be performed to further test
the quality of DNA isolated from samples.
1. Genetics Home Reference. What is DNA? http://
ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/basics/dna (accessed
Jul 13, 2015).
ABBREVIATION
DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid
gDNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid
RT
Room Temperature
S/N
Supernatant
TE
Tris-EDTA buffer
3. Hand, A.; Frank, M. Fundamentals Of Oral Histology
And Physiology; Wiley-Blackwell, 2015; 236.
4. Navazesh, M. Methods For Collecting Saliva.
Ann NY Acad Sci [Online] 1993, 694, 72-77. DOI:
10.1111/j.1749-6632.1993.tb18343.x
EtOHEthanol
PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction
mlMillilitres
μl
Microlitre
μg
Microgram
ng
Nanogram
nm
Nanometre
KEY WORDS: gDNA; Quantity; Cost effectiveness;
Quality; Saliva
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Yeung Lab, Peter Gilgan Centre for Research and
Learning (PGCRL) [Cancer and Stem Cell Department],
The Hospital for Sick Children (SickKids).
22
2. Urmc.rochester.edu. What Are White Blood
Cells? - Online Medical Encyclopedia University of Rochester Medical Center http://
www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.
aspx?ContentTypeID=160&ContentID=35
(accessed Jul 15, 2015).
5. Mannheim,
J.
Epithelium:
MedlinePlus
Medical Encyclopedia http://www.nlm.nih.gov/
medlineplus/ency/article/002363.htm (accessed
Jul 13, 2015).
6. Smith, B. Rinse, Swab or Spit -- What’s the Real
Source of DNA in Saliva? http://blog.dnagenotek.
com/blogdnagenotekcom/bid/35944/RinseSwab-or-Spit-What-s-the-Real-Source-of-DNAin-Saliva (accessed Jul 14, 2015).
7. Heath, E. M.; Morken, N.W.; Campbell, K.A.;
Tkach, D.; Boyd, E.A.; Strom, D.A. Use Of Buccal
Cells Collected In Mouthwash As A Source Of
DNA For Clinical Testing. Archives of Pathology &
Laboratory Medicine [Online] 2001, 125, 127-133.
DOI:0.1043/0003-9985(2001)125<0127%3AUO
BCCI>2.0.CO%3B2
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-015
ARTICLES
SIMULATING LAND USE: AN EXPLORATION OF THE
STABILITY OF A TWO ZONE CITY
Andy Tran
Grade 12, Bloor Collegiate Institute, Toronto District School Board (Toronto, Ontario), Mentor: Dr. Brad Bass (University of Toronto)
ABSTRACT
This project simulates the Concentric Zone model (Ernest Burgess, 1925) using the agent-based simulation software
COBWEB, which allows comparison of transportation costs in determining the distribution of agents after a set period
of time. The energy an individual uses to move one grid cell is the parameter factor used to represent transportation
costs. It was hypothesized that setting up this experiment to recreate a concentric zone environment will develop a
stable environment with individual agents staying in their respective zones as determined by transportation costs.
However, over a period of time, the agent population would diminish or the zones won’t be as clearly expressed.
In the control experiment, each agent type stayed in their respective zones and the agent count remained consistent
throughout the simulation. Two more experiments were performed to observe their respective effects on the model. By
increasing the number of agents, this experiment had similar averages compared the control experiment, indicating
that there is a carrying capacity in order to maximize the agent’s survival. By changing AI strategies, one of the agents
completely died out, suggesting that the agent’s specific AI strategy for its movement and consumption is important to
consider when performing experiments.
Modelling the distribution of the agents and observing the key factors affecting this distribution is useful for urban
planning and transportation management. Additional research to introduce parameters for housing costs is worth
exploring in future research activities to provide more interesting and detailed results from the simulation.
Ce projet simule le Plan Radiocentrique, un concept qui a été créé par Ernest Burgess, un économiste influencé
par von Thünen (Ernest Burgess, 1925). En particulier, ce projet utilise « COBWEB,  » un logiciel de simulation
à base d’agents qui permet la comparaison entre les coûts de transport et d’autres facteurs essentiels pour
déterminer le résultat. L’énergie qu’un individu utilise pour déplacer une cellule de la grille a été le paramètre
facteur utilisé pour représenter les coûts de transport. L’établissement de cette expérience avec un but de
recréer un environnement de zone concentrique permettra de créer un environnement stable avec des agents
individuels qui restent dans leurs zones respectives telles que déterminées par les coûts de transport. Au fil du
temps, la population des agents diminuera, en affectant la stabilité de la zone.
La modélisation de la distribution des agents et l’observation des facteurs clés qui influencent cette distribution
sont utiles pour la planification urbaine et la gestion des transports. Des recherches supplémentaires pour
introduire des paramètres pour les frais de logement méritent d’être explorées.
INTRODUCTION
Johann Heinrich von Thünen, in his book The Isolated
State, developed the relationship between central
markets, production and distances (Abler et al., 1972;
Krugman, 1995). He determined that the relative
costs of transporting different agricultural products
to a central market and land rent determined the
division of land use around that central market. Thus,
agricultural activities closest to the centre carry higher
transportation costs.
In Von Thünen’s model, he made three assumptions
to reflect agricultural conditions in the early 1800’s:
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-016
•
Isolation: The market being analyzed has no outside
trade interactions.
•
Ubiquitous land characteristics: All lands carry
equal in agricultural fertility.
•
Transportation: Transportation costs depend on the
product’s weight and the distance to the central market.
Many other economists had their own interpretation
of Von Thünen’s early work and created their own
models to explain the population distribution during
their lifetimes. This project aims to model Ernest
Burgess’s concentric model using COBWEB, and to
23
observe the distribution of the population in order to
determine whether urbanization is stable. Burgess’s
model is a starting point to analyze and determine
if the agents will stay in their preassigned zones, or
if there is a benefit and/or not a harsh penalty for
leaving their zones.
homeowner, based on his or her income/transportation
costs. (Yellow-urban, blue-suburban). Agents are
divided into types, to allow for differences in income
or other factors. Each agent type is given a brain/
strategy that controls movement and consumption.
Figure A illustrates a small COBWEB simulation.
Urban land uses consist of two elements: the division
of land use that indicates which activities take
place where, and the level of spatial accumulation,
indicating the intensity and concentration. The three
main factors related to the two elements are transport
systems, spatial interactions and land use. Using
these factors to explain the “real world” has led to
multiple versions of land use models: concentric,
polycentric, and hybrid. This research addresses the
simplest of the three, the concentric model.
The increasing size of cities, industrialization and
a more convenient lifestyle downtown are factors
that contribute to increased urbanization. One of
the major impacts of high transportation costs is the
clustering of activities near areas of high accessibility,
which implies the centre to be densest, thus lowering
transportation costs.
The only factor that is relevant for the agents is
transportation costs – which are modelled using step
energy. It is hypothesized that a recreation of the
concentric zone will start off with a stable environment
with the agents in their own desired zones. However,
over a period of time, the agent population would
either decline or the zones will not be as obvious as
they are at the beginning of the experiment.
METHODS:
COBWEB (Complex Organization and Bifurcation
within Environmental Bounds) is an agent-based
computer simulation program that models each
individual member or agent in the population. On
the simulation grid, the black triangles are agents;
the colour represents their agent type, and the apex
represents the direction of movement for a particular
agent. The solid coloured squares represent energy
or food for the agents. A tick is an arbitrary count,
increasing by one after every agent completes
an action. A tick can represent a real time interval,
modeled in this case to represent one week. Each
type of agent represents a group – in this case,
each coloured agent represents a different type of
24
Figure A: COBWEB Introduction: Agents, Ticks, Food
Energy
To create the simulation using COBWEB, two agent
types with different brains were chosen to represent
different groups of homeowners, either living downtown
or in the suburbs. Agent 1 (Yellow, AI of 67195) located
primarily downtown, and Agent 2 (Blue, AI of 69998)
located primarily in the suburbs. Using a 50x50 grid,
the separation of the zones is imposed by increasing
the energy costs of movement in different parts of the
grid. The urban core was created by assigning to this
zone an energy cost favourable to Agent 1 and vice
versa for Agent 2.
Step energy is the main proxy to represent transportation
costs. Agent 1 has a value of 1 for Step Energy and
Agent 2 has a value of 3, which indicates a higher
transportation cost for Agent 2. Agent 1 was given a
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-016
higher reproduction rate to create a denser population
in the centre of the grid. Two different experiments were
conducted by increasing the original number of agents
and by changing the brain/strategy of both agents.
Figure B: Abiotic Factors with Island (Left), Agent
Parameters (Right)
RESULTS
The Abiotic Features tab in COBWEB, which allows
for the imposition of effects in different zones, was
used to create the concentric island that housed Agent
1(Yellow) in the denser, downtown area, and housed
Agent 2 (Blue) in the larger, suburban area. Figures
1-3 show the distribution of agents and the agent and
food/resource counts for the control experiment at
various stages of time, represented by ticks.
Figure 1: Experiment 1 at approximately 10,000 ticks.
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-016
25
26
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-016
There were 2 parameters that were tested to observe the effects of the zone setup and the effects of urbanization:
Increasing the number of agents and using the artificial intelligence tab to change the selection of the agent strategy.
Increasing the Number of Agents
The purpose of increasing the number of agents in a simulation is to see if the environment is able to accommodate
a larger population that collectively will need more energy in order for them to survive. Figures 4-6 show the
distribution of agents, the agent population and the amount of food after tripling of the agent population (100 to
300 for Agent 1 and 50 to 150 for Agent 2). Compared with the control experiment, the agent count had around the
same averages, indicating that the city has a carrying capacity for growth in order to maximize the agent’s survival.
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-016
27
Changing Strategies
The purpose of testing different strategies for both
agents is to determine if the experimental results that
have been seen so far are due to environmental controls
or strategic choices. It can also be discussed in terms
of whether the environment can accommodate agents
with different strategies. Two new strategies were
selected using COBWEB’s random AI seed function –
(AI seed 80279 and AI seed 5505) shown in figures
7-9. These new strategies produced an interesting
result – Agent 2 survived, but Agent 1’s population
declined and died out. This suggests that the agent’s
strategy and choices for movement and consumption
is an important consideration in testing economic
theory, supporting Gould’s statement that “People can
be bloody minded and purposely choose to ignore the
theory” (Gould, 1983). Another way of viewing this
result is that the parameters used to create the zones
are not inclusive of all agent strategies. However, this
viewpoint requires further testing.
The second experiment on strategies (Agent 1 AI
seed 79519 and Agent 2 AI seed 99030 (Figures
10-12) shows that both agents were surviving well
throughout and that the concentric zone was set up in
a manner similar to the control experiment.
DISCUSSION
Based on the concentric zone model, the different
agents would be attracted to different zones in the
environment based on preferences such as housing/
rent costs, transportation costs, and lifestyle choices.
In this experiment, there were only two different
zones: the denser downtown zone and the larger
suburban area. Both agents will stay in their respective
areas because it’s more costly to move from their
comfortable zone to the other zone. Therefore,
downtown residents prefer the lower transportation
costs and will pay more for housing.. Suburban
residents prefer the opposite. This was seen during
the control experiment where Agent 1 (Yellow) stayed
in the centre of the environment, and Agent 2 (Blue)
was spread throughout the rest of environment. The
control experiment result allowed for easy recognition
of changes when experimenting with more agents,
and with different strategies.
28
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-016
Tripling both agent populations was a test of the
city’s capacity to accommodate more growth. This
is an important policy issue, growth in the core
and existing urban boundaries underlies the Smart
Growth approach to managing urban development
(Ministry of Economic Development, Employment
& Infrastructure). The results suggested that the
city created in COBWEB had no new capacity for
growth, i.e. for increasing population densities. Since
COBWEB is two-dimensional, it cannot accommodate
the high-rise development needed to house a
growing population in the core. Future development
of COBWEB software will help solve this problem.
Changing the strategies for both agents helped
determine if the experimental parameters were
effective for different strategies. After testing two
different sets of randomly selected AI seeds, one
set acted very similarly to the control group while
the other set resulted in the death of Agent 1. The
results indicate that more work is needed in this area
to confirm the general application of the theory.
This experiment provided insight into Burgess’s
Concentric Zone model. The concentric zones were
created, however the agents continued to stay in their
respective zones for the duration of the experiment.
Transportation costs can determine population
density, and land use reflects the impact of differing
transportation costs. The results of this experiment
has real life applications such as with urban growth
planning and management. For example, it illustrates
the need for higher density housing to accommodate
policies such as Smart Growth. Although this is wellknown, it can now be demonstrated experimentally.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
The concentric zone model encompasses more
than just transportation costs, which was the focus
of the experiment. Housing or rent costs are also a
factor, and location decisions should reflect a tradeoff between both costs. Continuing to add different
COBWEB parameters to better attain a land use
model would be a next step. Some possible factors
to look at for mimicking rent would be using favourite
food energy and other food energy. Another addition
would be the introduction of a third zone and third
agent to represent a zone between the core and the
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-016
29
30
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-016
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-016
31
suburbs. Future exploration can also involve using
COBWEB to expand upon this model by adding
preference for groups, different group behaviours
and criminal behaviour using the Prisoner Dilemma
feature of COBWEB.
KEY WORDS COBWEB; Agent-Based Simulation;
Urban Land Use; Concentric Zones, Transportation Costs
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author acknowledges the contributions of Brad
Bass and his research team at the University of
Toronto: Lily Wang, Helena Najm, Max Erenberg,
Milena Cioana, Tony Shi, and Pranavi Cheemakurti.
Their guidance on using COBWEB, interpreting the
results and suggestions for this manuscript were
invaluable. The author would also like to thank the
Gerstein Library at the University of Toronto for the
use of the Second-Floor Instructional Lab.
REFERENCES:
1. Abler, R., Adams, J, and Gould P.R. Spatial
Organization: The Geographer’s View of the
World Prentice Hall, Inc. 1972
2. Gould, P. R. Personal Communication to Brad
Bass. 1983
3. Krugman, P. The Self-Organizing Economy.
Blackwell Publishers. 1972
4. Bass, B and Chan, E. Complex Organization
and Bifurcation Within Environmental Bounds
COBWEB: An agent-based approach to simulating
adaptation. Archives of the International Society
of Environmental Information Sciences. 2004.
5. Ministry of Economic Development, Employment
& Infrastructure. Building Together: Guide for
Municipal Asset Management Plans. http://moi.
gov.on.ca/en/infrastructure/building_together_
mis/part_two.asp. Accessed June 25, 2015
6. Park, Robert, Ernest W. Burgess and Roderick
D. McKenzie. The City. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1925.
32
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-016
ARTICLES
NGO-ISATION AND THE PLIGHT OF WOMEN IN
DEVELOPING NATIONS
Emily Chu
Grade 11, Iroquois Ridge High School, Halton District School Board (Oakville, Ontario), Mentor: Dr. Jaime Llamblas-Wollf (York University)
ABSTRACT
Over the past century, NGOs have been rapidly growing in numbers have become increasingly involved in such
health crises as HIV/Aids and Ebola around the world. Many organizations have also been founded to recognize
and support oppressed groups in certain countries, one of the most important of these being women. It is undeniable
that women of developing nations have been greatly affected by the rise of NGOs, and the ensuing phenomenon of
NGO-isation, from increased opportunities for activism, to unsustainable dependencies on nutritional supplements,.
This article presents a background of both NGOs and the plight of women in developing nations, as well as
attempting to draw a relationship between these two stakeholders in our global society. This article also presents
evidence to support the hypotheses that NGOs allow women to become more politically and socially active through
government-neutral involvement, but also hinder their health and job prospects by failing to employ local workers
and using short-term solutions instead of sustainable ones. Major analysis is conducted on these topics and attempts
to determine the correlation between NGOs and their involvement with women in impoverished communities. The
article concludes with final comments from the author about their overall experience and thoughts on the issue.
Au cours du précédent siècle, les ONG sont rapidement augmentés en nombre et en implication dans plusieurs
pays en développement en conséquence de plusieurs crises de santé telles que VIH / SIDA et Ebola. Plusieurs
organisations ont aussi été créés pour donner reconnaissance à certaines groupes dans des pays oppressifs, un des
plus importants parmi ces groupes étant les femmes. Il est indéniable que les femmes des pays en développement
ont été aidés considérablement par la montée des ONG et le phénomène qui s’ensuit d’ONG-isation. Cet article
présente un contexte d’à la fois les ONG et la situation des femmes dans les pays en développement et décrit une
proposition de recherche pour tenter de déterminer la relation entre ces deux très importantes parties intéressées
dans notre société globale. Cette proposition de recherche décrit ses objectives, buts et hypothèses qui concernent
divers aspects de la vie d’une femme et ensuite ça décrit pourquoi ceci est un problème important et comment
les données vont être obtenues. L’article conclut avec des commentaires finales de l’auteur à propos de leur
expérience générale et leurs pensées concernant le problème.
INTRODUCTION
The topic of this research proposal is the relationship
between NGO-isation and women’s wellbeing in
developing countries. An NGO, or Non-Governmental
Organization, is defined as an organization separate
from government, and is generally non-profit. Some
well-known contemporary NGOs (in the medical/
public health field) are Doctors without Borders, The
Red Cross/Red Crescent Movement, and Partners
in Health. To examine quickly what this type of NGO
does, let’s look at Doctors Without Borders. This NGO
provides emergency health care during things such
as armed conflict and epidemics, to countries where
their local health systems become overwhelmed.
They are a neutral and impartial humanitarian
organization that may also assist people who may
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-017
face discrimination or neglect from their local health
systems. The international component or personality
of NGOs can be attributed to the globalization process
in the 20th century, as many international problems
could not be solved without third party intervention
(Dominelli, 2007). They served as an alternative to
other governments becoming involved in conflict,
as the many wars that took place over the course of
the century proved many consequences for neutral
countries trying to help. Since several governments
were being influenced by international corporations,
NGOs arose as a counterbalance factor, working
mainly in the fields of humanitarian aid and sustainable
development (Bartlett, 2005). The successes of these
organizations have led to the arrival of several other
33
NGOs which have all tried to emulate those of the mid
-20th century. Around the world, organizations were
created to advocate for almost every cause imaginable.
This led to the phenomenon of NGO-isation.
NGO-isation is described as “the transformation
of social movements into organizations and the
increasing dominance of ‘modern’ NGOs which
emphasize issue-specific interventions and pragmatic
strategies with a strong employment focus, rather
than the establishment of a new democratic counterculture” (Stubbs, 1997). In short, this movement has
greatly changed the way developing nations look at
their health systems, and the way citizens receive their
health care. In this proposal, I will be focusing on how
NGO-isation and its effects affect women and their
wellbeing. This research proposal will attempt to look
at women socially, biologically, and economically, and
attempt to create correlations between their health and
the prominence of NGOs in their community. As seen
by the works of Ruth Prince, women in Kenya affected
by HIV/AIDS, who were generally single, unemployed,
or made very little money, depended on NGOs for
food supplements for their families. These individual
rations were shared amongst families, and created
great stress and unsustainability for both the mothers
and their families. The critical role women play in their
family’s lives, from caregiver to main provider, is the
reason they are the focus of this article. Therefore, the
goal of this research proposal is to discover whether
the prominence of NGOs has a positive or negative
effect upon women’s wellbeing.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
These are the objectives of our research: what we
want to accomplish, discover, and analyze.
positive and negative ways. For example, does it
raise or lower the local unemployment rate?
1. Collect data from both primary and secondary
sources. Interviews will be conducted in specific
(affected by both health crises and heavy NGO
presence) areas to find out more about how women
live their daily lives. For example, Freetown, the
capital of Sierra Leone, is a perfect location that
involves NGOs in support of the Ebola crisis. This
is explained further in the Methodology section.
4. Discover
correlations
between
women’s
prosperity and the presence of NGOs in their
communities. Does the increase of NGO presence
or involvement correlate with a similar increase in
women’s employment for example?
2. Draw interesting and relevant conclusions about
the state of women’s wellbeing in impoverished
countries. Do they suffer more than men? Is their
mortality rate higher (especially during childbirth)?
how NGOs affect local communities in both
how NGOs affect women in all aspects in their
life, whether it is positively or negatively. For
example, it may be found that women are offered
opportunities to become employed with NGOs,
allowing income and quality of life to increase.
However, it may also be discovered that women,
who are already hungry in their poor socioeconomic conditions, become dependent on
insufficient/un-nutritional food supplements.
HYPOTHESIS AND QUESTIONS
First, it is important to understand the exact role
that NGOs play in respective situations. We must
clarify their roles in relation to the government and
the community, who they are influenced by, and how
this consequently affects their relationship with the
governments they work with.
•
34
Who are the stakeholders within the organizations?
Who specifically do these organizations affect?
Do they affect locals and workers as well as
governmental organizations?
•
Who are these NGOs primarily funded by?
Does this affect where they put their money and
resources due to their donor’s interests?
•
Are relations with governments neutral or do are
they somewhat influenced by political regimes
within the nation? How does this affect neutrality
and conflict of interests?
There are also many questions surrounding women and
their position in this issue. It is important to examine a
woman’s wellbeing through many perspectives. These
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-017
are the questions that need to be answered through
the lens of different perspectives:
Social/Political
•
Do NGOs give women more power to strive
for change? Do they allow women to voice
their opinions more and be recognized for their
struggles?
•
Does it lead to more female representation in
government and other organizations?
•
Do NGOs enhance or strengthen any present
feminist movements?
Biological
•
Do NGOs adequately support women in terms of
pre-natal and maternal health care?
•
Do women benefit from handouts or do they
become dependent on unsustainable supplements
(in which individual rations are split amongst
families), leading to a decrease in their own quality
of lives?
Economic
•
Does the presence of NGOs enable women to
find jobs more easily? Does the presence of
NGOs within a community lead to more or less
unemployment for women?
•
Do NGOs provide any monetary benefits that could
be used to supplement or replace income?
After researching more into these questions and the
topic in general, these are two hypotheses that were
formulated:
1. NGOs benefit women in poverty in developing
countries in the social and political aspects of their
lives. It enables them to voice their opinions that
would otherwise be unheard, and NGOs allow
them to be protected and become more involved
in their communities.
2. NGOs hinder the physiological and economic
aspects of poor women’s lives in developing nations.
NGOs do not provide women more opportunities
to find jobs, as they do not develop their local
economies. They also do not improve facilitative
conditions or increase knowledge about maternal
health care. Dependency is also a huge factor
in this deterioration and can make new mothers
dependent on unsustainable supplements.
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-017
RATIONALE
In the section above, it is important pose the question
of whether women benefit from NGOs or not. There
issue has tremendous significance. Women, up until
very recently, served a supportive role to men in
almost all aspects of their lives. They were relegated
to childbearing and providing care and comfort to their
partners and their families, forcing them to give up their
jobs and live at home. This has led to sexism in the
workplace and in society in general. In Western society,
much has changed over the past century, as women
have been increasingly involved in the workforce and
increasingly recognized in politics and the media.
While there is still much ground to cover and glaring
inequalities are still present, women of western society
have cemented themselves as a powerful civic group,
and they continue to gain equality in power and
influence. The same cannot be said about women’s
rights in the rest of the world, particularly in developing
countries. Many women in countries like Egypt,
Zimbabwe, and Cambodia are still suffering and are not
considered anywhere close to equal to men. The work
of NGOs, therefore, has the most potential in these
regions. Not only are they third-party organizations
independent from government influence (in theory,
they may be subject to government influence if they
receive monetary donations from government agents,
leading to a position where they may put their donors
interests ahead of the ones they are supposed to
serve), they also provide recognition and support for
women’s groups in places where they generally would
be unheard and neglected (Jacobsson, n.d.). However,
it is unclear if NGOs provide significant aid to women,
or if they actually lessen their quality of lives.
This issue of women and NGOs is extremely pressing
and relevant to today’s society. Women’s issues
deserve special attention, especially in countries
where women themselves have little to no voice.
As seen in Western society, women are crucial to a
thriving democracy and society, so it is important that
women around the world be supported (Roy, 2015).
The involvement of women will pave the way to solving
many other social issues, such as education inequality.
Women are the focus of this proposal because of their
individual roles and offerings. Not only are they the
caregivers and providers for their families, they are
also the people in society most affected by rampant
35
poverty and negative socio-economic conditions. It is
worth noting that NGOs are most prominent in areas of
need; generally areas of extreme poverty. Women living
in these areas are often single mothers, and struggle
to find work due to their heavy responsibility of child
rearing and caring. An example of this is in Kisumu,
Kenya, a community ravaged by HIV/AIDS where
most women are single, unemployed or make very
little money. There are also many NGOs there, which
provide small flour supplements to certain individuals
of desperate need (Prince, 2012). When mothers are
given this supplement, they often share it with their
children and entire families, showcasing how women,
and more specifically mothers, put their own needs at
risk to help others (Prince, 2012). While not unique to
women as a gender, it is more common when most
women in developing nations are relegated to caregiving
roles, while men work more and may have the income
to sustain “middle-class” living (Smith, 2000).
However, NGOs do offer several benefits for women. As
NGOs are generally progressive and allow a medium
of expression that would otherwise be non-existent,
women are given opportunities to participate in activism
and community involvement in countries where it would
be otherwise dangerous to do so (Jad, 2012). Groups
supporting women’s rights or feminist movements
in oppressive countries are made possible through
the existence of NGOs (and are enhanced in nonoppressive but still-developing nations), and this can
allow the fight for women’s rights to grow and become
more recognized within the country (Nazneen, 2009).
The plight of women in developing countries is obvious.
While NGOs are designed to help people in need,
mostly in developing countries, and for some NGOs
specifically women, sometimes the conditions NGOs
create when they get involved in a society can have
negative repercussions. The purpose of this study
is to determine whether the helpful and progressive
intentions of NGOs are realized . The main issues
that affect women and NGOs are poverty, hunger and
malnutrition, sexism, and finally, feminism.
In terms of poverty, many women are single mothers
due to the socioeconomic conditions of impoverished
communities. They are often forced to work separately
from their children in order to provide for them, which
neglects their family life, and as a result, family dynamics
often suffer. However, they may also be forced to
stay at home and care for their families and become
36
unable to pursue a career. Hunger and malnutrition
are also serious issues that greatly affect women.
Due to widespread poverty and hunger, mothers often
sacrifice their rations of food for their children, so in
situations where children are at risk of illness or severe
malnutrition, they will starve themselves to provide for
them. Also, in developing nations, pregnancy care is
not a priority in areas where disease is still rampant,
so many women do not get the pre-natal and maternal
health care and information they need to take care of
themselves. This results in more illnesses in infants,
and a higher risk of miscarriage (Davies, 2014).
In many developing nations, women are still oppressed
and unable to advocate for their rights. NGOs provide
an outlet for this behaviour without repercussions,
which is effective in improving and enhancing
movements supporting women’s rights (Smith, 2000).
However, since NGOs utilize a lot of native resources
and workers, social issues are carried over. As
sexism is an unfortunate part of low socio-economic
communities, there is a presence of sexism within the
NGOs that become a part of that community, and that
is a fundamental issue that will be difficult to change.
Although difficult to change, the basic issues of sexism
and oppression of feminism is still worth being looked
at, as a woman’s basic rights are crucial to this study.
Having considered all of this, we must now look
towards solutions. If the hypotheses are indeed
correct, the way NGOs are run and organized
may need to be re-evaluated, and we may need to
scrutinize our global relief effort as a whole. Perhaps
who they employ, what materials they use, and the
sustainability of their remedies are the focus of this reevaluation. It is important that NGOs continue to allow
for women to serve as their own activists in their own
communities, as sexism is an issue that will continue
to exist for many years. However, on the economic and
physiological side of the issue, NGOs will need to be
reorganized. More focus should be placed on pre-natal
health and wellness, to ensure effective motherhood
and a decreased infant mortality rate. This is extremely
important because this will alleviate some stress from
medical centers, and will allow for healthier conditions
in child care centers and schools (Chahim, 2013).
Mothers will also be less likely to contract potentially
life-threatening diseases. Furthermore, NGOs should
make a conscious effort to either employ local women,
or create opportunities for them, especially in the health
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-017
and humanitarian aid sector. Women often take healer
or doctoral roles in indigenous or rural communities,
and are respected by both locals and outsiders for
their methods, as seen by the works of Alicia Giralt and
the Mayan-Tz’utujil women of Guatemala. NGOs often
take these roles away from women when they integrate
into a community, leaving women more economically
disadvantaged than before. It is important for NGOs to
work with these women, as it will also help them better
connect with the community. Through these layered
facets and pieces, it becomes apparent that women of
impoverished communities and the NGOs that support
them could have a mutually beneficial relationship that
improves and betters communities as a whole. This
is ultimately the goal of our research, and the general
movements of both women and NGOs.
METHODOLOGY
Location is critical to collecting the necessary data for
this proposal. We need to make sure there is a large
enough sample size to accurately study what we are
looking for, enough NGO interaction between the
community and the government, and all the people
affected by the presence of NGOs must be accounted
for. As seen in a place like Kisumu, Kenya which had
become an epicenter of NGOs and health crises is
a good place to collect data. Other examples would
include the countries of Sierra Leone or Liberia, which
have both recently been affected by Ebola. In response,
numerous organizations have become involved in
those regions. Sierra Leone’s capital, Freetown, would
be an effective place to conduct the study due to its
high concentration of NGO headquarters, the urban
poor, and access to resources.
In terms of collecting data, interviews are the most
effective way to do so. Interviewing civilians, the ill,
doctors, and government agents (focusing on women
of course) will capture some of the perspectives
important to this research. Around 20 interviews will
accumulate an adequate amount of data necessary
for drawing conclusions. The interviews will take
place in community centers and will require the
presence of a translator. Interviews will give insight
into people’s perspectives on situations, and will be
extremely valuable in trying to figure out how NGOs
affect different people differently. Subject matter and
questioning will include inquiries on yearly income,
number of people in the household, age, involvement
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-017
in civic groups, etc. Secondary sources of data will
also be used in conjunction with interviews to draw
more specific conclusions about women and NGOs.
For example, HIV and the Moral Economy of Survival
in an East African City by Ruth Prince will be useful
in comparing different areas of Africa and the state
of wellbeing for women in NGO-driven communities.
This text is useful because it contains information
about how NGOs influenced the lives of those who
suffered from HIV/AIDS. It describes how being sick
often reaped benefits from NGOs because they were
recognized by an organization that was able to provide
them with benefits. This created an odd complex as
more people began to identify as HIV positive even
if they did not have the disease to try and collect
benefits from NGOs. This article provides insight into
how NGOs create dependency and unsustainable
remedies in communities that result in the worsening
of quality of life for the members. It is important and
should be looked at when considering the findings
from different communities so they can be compared
and more accurate conclusions can be drawn.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Chahim, Dean, and Aseem Prakash.
“NGOization, Foreign Funding, and the
Nicaraguan Civil Society.” Voluntas VOLUNTAS:
International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit
Organizations (2013): 487-513. Print.
2. Davies, Thomas Richard. NGOs: A New History
of Transnational Civil Society. (2014) Print.
3. Dominelli, Lena. Revitalising Communities in
a Globalising World. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007.
Print.
4. Jacobsson, Kerstin. Beyond NGO-ization: The
Development of Social Movements in Central and
Eastern Europe. Print.
5. Jad, Islah. “The NGO-isation Of Arab Women’s
Movements.” IDS Bulletin (2012): 34-42. Print.
6. Nazneen, Sohela, and Maheen Sultan.
“Struggling for Survival and Autonomy: Impact
of NGO-ization on Women’s Organizations in
Bangladesh.” Development (2009): 193-99. Print.
7. Prince, Ruth. “HIV and the Moral Economy
of Survival in an East African City.” Medical
Anthropology Quarterly 2012: 534-56. Print.
37
8. Roy, S. “The Indian Women’s Movement: Within
and Beyond NGOization.” Journal of South Asian
Development (2015): 96-117. Print.
9. Smith, Bonnie G. Global Feminisms since 1945:
A Survey of Issues and Controversies. London:
Routledge, 2000. Print.
10.Stubbs, Paul. Social Reconstruction and Social
Development in Croatia and Slovenia: The Role
of the NGO Sector. Leeds: International Social
Policy Research Unit, Leeds Metropolitan U,
1997. Print.
FINAL COMMENTS
Over the past four weeks, I have learned a lot about
myself. When I first started this placement I did not
expect it to be such an amazing experience, and it is
one I will definitely not forget. Not only did I further my
skills in research and independent work, I also was
able to figure out what issues I was truly passionate
about, and writing this research proposal allowed me
to delve deep into those topics.
There has never been an experience that has taught me
the value of hard work more than this one. Being on my
own forced me to make hard decisions like deadlines
and deciding which readings to complete first. Of course
school involves some organization, but it was through
this placement that I was able to learn its true value.
I definitely think that this placement has helped me
and my work ethics going into grade 12 and especially
university. It was also a valuable experience working
with Dr. Llambias-Wolff, as he was a university professor
that could offer much more insight into the subjects than
I could. He chose readings that matched well with my
interests, and for that I thank him for making this an
enjoyable month. Through the readings, I was able to
find out what I liked to research. As Dr. Llambias-Wolff
said, it is important to understand the basics of human
life and society in order to become a good business
person. It was through his mentorship that I was able to
thrive and create the research proposal.
Women’s rights are very important to me, and I didn’t
realize this until this placement. Through the readings,
I could see how women were taken advantage of and
oppressed in third world countries, which saddened
me greatly. Although I have experienced some sexism
in my own country of Canada, women have much
greater freedoms here than in developing nations. I
38
believe it has been far too long that women have been
and continue to be treated secondary in society. NGOs
have the power, with their neutrality and influence, to
give women voices in places where they would not
normally be heard. It is unfortunate to see that some
still foster the same sexist sentiments seen throughout
the world, and are not encouraging women to pursue
equality. This is why this research is significant,
because if NGOs today are harming women rather
than fostering their growth, we may need to re-evaluate
how we run organizations in foreign countries if we
want to grow their society.
Of course it is worth noting that I overcame several
obstacles over the course of July. Firstly, it was quite
a challenge choosing something to write a research
proposal about. I was at a stage where I had completed
all the readings, but I struggled to find topics that I
thought would be broad yet specific enough to find
research in. At first I thought simply talking about
women’s rights was too broad, but it was thanks to a
later article which I revisited that I was able to connect
the plight of women to NGO-isation. NGO-isation was a
topic that I found in many articles, and it was something
that was both relevant and interesting to me, so it was
perfect. So by revisiting previous articles and making
connections, I was able to find an appropriate research
topic. Another obstacle I overcame was organizing my
thoughts and actions properly. Towards the end of the
co-op there were many emails and communication
happening between myself and other coordinators. It
was important that I stayed on top of all the work that
had to be done and all the paper that had to be signed.
Unfortunately, because I was working on the research
proposal, I missed a deadline for a reflection for my inclass work. Thankfully, I emailed my teacher right away
and was able to get things cleared up. Now, I keep a
list of everything I have to accomplish in a prioritized
fashion to keep me extra-organized.
This paper has allowed me to become much more
informed and well-versed in the topics of women’s
rights and equality. I am very thankful I took this
opportunity to pursue this program, because it allowed
me to become more introspective on topics that
interested me. I was able to see how it was connected
to me, and also the world as a whole. I have grown my
world sense and view over this summer, and I believe
it has benefitted me greatly.
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-017
ARTICLES
USING NANOPARTICLE-APTAMER BIOCONJUGATES
FOR IMAGING AND TREATING PROSTATE CANCER
Timothy Doyle
Grade 12, Bishop Allen Academy, Toronto Catholic District School Board (Toronto, Ontario), Mentor: Dr. Aaron Witham (EBPI)
ABSTRACT
Prostate cancer diagnoses increase each year, and current treatment strategies cause disturbing levels of serious
side effects. This has necessitated a search for new strategies to employ more targeted treatments for malignant
tissues. One promising alternative therapy is the use of a chemotherapeutic-nanoparticle-aptamer bioconjugate.
This method employs aptamers which target over-expressed proteins on cancerous cell surfaces and bind to
individual prostate tumour cells with incredible affinity. Once bound, the bioconjugate is taken into the cell where
it delivers a toxic payload of chemotherapeutics and destroys the cell by cytotoxic means. The bioconjugate
therapy method is specific for cancerous cells which limits side-effects to non-target tissues. Fluorescent
properties of some chemotherapeutic components and quantum dot nanoparticles can also provide imaging
of these cancerous masses with extreme precision. Successful trials employing aptamers for targeted therapy
demonstrate the promise of this technology for future chemotherapeutic applications. Additionally, aptamer
conjugates are safer, less expensive, and potentially more effective substitutes to antibody-based targeting
methods which are currently being explored as a competing option for this type of treatment.
Les diagnostics de cancer de la prostate augmentent chaque année, et les traitements actuelles qui leurs sont
associés sont responsable d’un niveau inquiétant de graves effets secondaires. Cela a nécessité une recherche
de nouvelles stratégies dans le traitement plus ciblés des tissus malins. Une thérapie alternative prometteuse
se présente dans l’utilisation d’un agent chimiothérapeutique-nanoparticule-aptamer-bioconjugate. Ce procédé
engage des aptamères qui ciblent les protéines surexprimées sur la surface des cellules cancéreuses
et s’attachent à des individuels cellules tumorales de la prostate avec une affinité épatante. Une fois lié, le
bioconjugué s’introduit dans la cellule où il livre une charge toxique de médicaments chimiothérapeutiques ce
qui résulte dans la destruction cytotoxique de la cellule cancéreuse. Le procédé de thérapie bioconjugué se
dirige vers des cellules cancéreuses ainsi épargnant des effets secondaires le tissu non ciblé. Des propriétés
fluorescentes de certains composants chimiothérapeutiques et de nanoparticules de points quantiques aussi
aident à fournir des images de ces masses cancéreuses avec une précision importante. Des essais concluants
employant des aptamères comme thérapie ciblée distinguent comme prometteuse cette technologie dans des
applications chimiothérapeutiques futures. De plus, des conjugués aptamères se sont montrés plus sûrs, moins
coûteux, et potentiellement plus efficaces que leurs compétiteurs en traitement à base d’anticorps qui sont
actuellement explorés comme option.
INTRODUCTION
Of the approximately 100,000 cases of male cancer
diagnoses in Canada each year, 23.9% of these
diagnoses will be for prostate cancer, which makes
it the most prevalent cancer among Canadian
men[1]. Although methods have been developed to
successfully detect and treat prostate cancer initiation
and progression, there are several detrimental sideeffects that occur at high rates when using these
strategies. Some of these effects include impotence,
which occurs in approximately 43% of patients,
urinary retention in 24% and radiation-induced bowel
injury in 1%. Another commonly employed treatment
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-018
strategy is the full removal of the prostate gland which
results in even higher rates of impotence as well as
urinary incontinence[2]. It is therefore highly desirable
to find an alternative which can effectively detect and
treat prostate cancer while limiting the side effects
associated with current strategies.
One promising, less harmful alternative to the
traditional therapeutic strategies, is the use of
aptamer based therapeutic conjugates. Aptamers,
developed in 1990 and named from the Greek
aptus meaning ‘to fit’, are small pieces of DNA or
RNA that can fold into different 3D conformations
39
and bind to a desired target with extreme specificity.
Aptamers have demonstrated the ability to bind with
virtually any target and to trigger responses upon the
occurrence of correct aptamer-target interactions[3].
The intramolecular forces of an aptamer are unique
to each and depend on the sequence of bases and
chain length. These forces permit the aptamer to
fold and twist into shapes that can bind to a variety
molecular targets, including large proteins, cells, metal
ions, and even viruses or parasites[4]. Due to these
applications, aptamers draw many comparisons with
antibodies. However, aptamers can bind with much
higher specificity, are more cost effective, and can be
constructed in vitro, negating animal use.
Aptamers are created using the systematic evolution of
ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) process,
which works by exposing a library of randomly
generated oligonucleotide sequences, typically 1014
to 1018 sequences, to a target and isolating the
ones that interact with some degree of affinity. The
sequences which do not bind are washed away and
discarded. The aptamers that bind are repeatedly
subjected to the target under different conditions
to increase stringency in the selection process.
Alternating elution solvents, changing temperature,
or decreasing target concentrations are all employed
until a few aptamer sequences are isolated that bind
to the target with incredibly high affinity[5].
Aptamer technology showing the greatest promise as
a prostate cancer therapeutic involves a collaborative
strategy in association with a chemotherapeutic drug,
such as doxorubicin or docetaxel and a nanoparticle
like a quantum dot (QD). The end product is called
a bioconjugate, which is simply a compound made
up of different molecules covalently bound together.
Each element of the bioconjugate plays a significant
and independent role. For example, an aptamer can
act as a drug carrying vehicle and target individual
cancerous cells by binding to the prostate specific
membrane antigen (PSMA) protein. PSMA is a
membrane protein which is over-expressed on the
surface epithelial cells of prostate tumours[6]. Once
the bioconjugate is bound, uptake into the cell is
triggered via endocytosis. Depending on other
components of the bioconjugate, it can serve several
purposes once inside the cell including signalling,
imaging and cytotoxicity. Moreover, the therapeutic
40
destroys the cell and the nanoparticle provides
fluorescent light emission and allows the cytotoxic
cargo to be transferred safely by encapsulating it,
thus protecting it from nuclease degradation[5]. The
bioconjugate therefore not only delivers a targeted
dose of chemotherapy but can also be used to image
the tumour mass by utilizing its inherent fluorescent
properties[7]. Aptamer targeting mechanisms and the
wide variety of multipurpose conjugates that can be
constructed using aptamers is showing significant
promise to be one of the safest and most effective
future developments in medicine.
SYNTHESIS
The first step in producing a therapeutic aptamer for
a bioconjugate involves the isolation of a desired
target. For the example presented in this paper, the
desired target was PSMA, as it is found in abundance
almost exclusively on prostate tumour cells. Lupold et
al. (2002) isolated PSMA by identifying and culturing
the cancerous cell lines from prostate tumour
(LNCaP cells), isolating PSMA DNA found within the
cells and preparing recombinant xPSM-expressing
Baculoviruses. The isolated target was subsequently
used for in vitro selection of aptamers that would
bind via the SELEX process for nine rounds. By the
sixth round of selection, 95% of the aptamers were
sequences xPSM-A9 and xPSM-A10. The xPSM-A9
aptamer bound non-competitively to PSMA, and
altered the active site, while the xPSM-A10 aptamer
bound competitively, directly to the PSMA active site,
which made it a more useful option for bioconjugate
delivery. Afterwards the aptamer was selected
and further modified with the addition of 2’-fluoropyrimidines to increase its stability in biological fluids,
through the prevention of nuclease degradation[6].
Because aptamers are made of naturally occurring
molecules, they a have a limited half-life in vivo,
due to nuclease degradation and natural excretion.
Modifications such as oligonucleotide terminal caps,
cholesterol, and non-deoxyribose sugars can be
added in order to protect the aptamer and increase
half-life exponentially within the blood stream[9].
The second major part of the bioconjugate provided
as an example is the quantum dot nanoparticle.
QDs are semiconductor nano crystals that are often
used in biological imaging, as they are fluorescent
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-018
in nature and immune to chemical degradation. The
QD and xPSM-A10 were then amalgamated creating
a QD-aptamer conjugate with the aptamer acting
as an escort for this system. The chemotherapeutic
chemical, doxorubicin, which is also a fluorescent
molecule, was then intercalated between the single
5’-CG-3’ regions of the 57 base pair xPSM-A10
aptamer sequence. When the doxorubicin loaded
aptamer interacts with the quantum dot, it becomes
a chemical beacon to signify the delivery of the
chemotherapeutic payload. The florescence of the QD
is “turned off” from a quenching interaction between
the gold of the QD and the doxorubicin molecule. After
the doxorubicin is released, the quenching interaction
no longer exists and the QD florescence “turns on”[2,5].
APPLICATION
Once administered into the body, the bioconjugate
interacts with PSMA proteins on the cell membrane of
cancerous cells and binds with affinity and specificity.
Upon binding, the entire bioconjugate is absorbed
into the cell via endocytosis. Once inside the cell,
doxorubicin is released from the aptamer through
physical dissociation from the conjugates or from
biodegradation of the aptamer by the cell’s lysosomal
enzymes[7]. After the doxorubicin is released from the
intercalated position in the aptamer, it is now free to
kill the cell by cytotoxic mechanisms. In addition, the
QD’s florescence is turned “on” as the fluorescence
of the bioconjugate is no longer quenched by the
doxorubicin. The light emitted from this nanoparticle
can be captured by biological imaging devices to
enable observation of the tumour with extreme
precision. Tests have demonstrated that by using
this targeted imaging method there is very little
background noise, suggesting that this bioconjugate
is accurate enough to detect cancerous cells at the
single cell level [7].
In a study using a similar bioconjugate (docetaxel
as opposed to doxorubicin), Farokhzad et al. (2006)
measured the cytotoxic effectiveness of adding an
aptamer targeting system to chemotherapeuticnanoparticle bioconjugates. Using nude mice with
a xenograft of cancerous human prostate cells, two
approaches were compared to study aptamer effects
in chemotherapy. One group of mice was administered
a chemotherapeutic-nanoparticle including an aptamer
to target specific cells. This procedure resulted in
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-018
complete survival of all the mice, while 71% exhibited
complete tumour reduction. In contrast, a second
group of mice were administered chemotherapeutic
nanoparticles without a conjugated aptamer guide.
In this case, the mice exhibited complete tumour
reduction in only 29%, with a survival rate of just
57%[2]. This experiment clearly demonstrated the
potential benefits of using aptamers to specifically
target diseased cells and the enhanced therapeutic
efficacy of bioconjugate strategies. Not only is the
aptamer included nanoparticle very effective, but it also
appears to increase safety and decrease side effects.
Regular chemotherapy is non-targeted and will affect
all rapidly dividing cells in other organs and structures
within the body. With a targeting system, only the
desired tissues are subjected to chemotherapeutics,
preventing unnecessary drug exposure[8].
BENEFITS OF USING APTAMERS
Aptamers are a promising new area of study and
many of the patents involving SELEX have only
recently expired. This has alleviated a major obstacle
in aptamer utility for many innovative biomedical and
environmental ventures. As a therapeutic, aptamers
can easily replace antibodies as an inexpensive,
customizable, and more effective option. Antibodies
are time consuming to discover, difficult to generate,
easily contaminated and have a relatively short
half-life. Alternatively, aptamers are extremely
inexpensive, easy to create quickly in large amounts,
and are difficult to contaminate[9].
Due to the many possible applications, low toxicity,
and extensive modification strategies, it is likely that
aptamers will greatly influence the future of medicine.
Research is being done on using aptamer-based
therapeutics to treat “incurable” diseases such as
lupus, cancer, and HIV, and has shown some very
promising results. Aptamer research may also yield
medications that can manage allergies and prevent
migraines[9]. In addition to the biomedical applications
listed above, aptamer technology is also being
explored in the fields of environmental biodetection
and food inspection[9].
CONCLUSION
With aptamers becoming a staple in biochemical
research, the possible applications for this
technology appear to be endless. However, one of
41
the most promising recent applications is their use
as a component of bioconjugates for the treatment
and imaging of prostate cancer. Prostate cancer,
the most prevalent cancer among Canadian men, is
being treated using strategies that result in numerous
side effects. The method of using aptamers is more
effective and may eliminate these undesired effects.
Clinical trials are the next step for this treatment
option, and if the trials yield results as positive as
those in Farokhzad’s mice experiment, the use of
aptamer-nanoparticle bioconjugates could become
the standard of prostate cancer treatment.
With the prevalence of aptamers in biochemical
research increasing, patent restrictions being lifted
and discovery costs decreasing, aptamers may
become a very popular and profitable treatment option
for many diseases while concurrently increasing the
quality of patient experiences.
KEY WORDS Aptamer; Bioconjugate; Quantum
Dots; Prostate Gland; Doxorubicin
ABBREVIATIONS
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid
PSMA Prostate specific membrane antigen
SELEX
Systematic evolution of ligands by
exponential enrichment
QD
Quantum Dot
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I’d like to thank Dr. Aaron Witham
from EBPI for mentoring me for the past semester. He
put a lot of time and effort teaching me about a topic
he is extremely passionate about and helped me gain
a passion for it too. For that and the countless hours
he spent helping me revise and edit my paper, I will
eternally be grateful. I am also very thankful towards
Mrs. Cecelia Danesi, who was my teacher for this co-op
experience. I learned a lot of valuable skills from her,
which I know will steer me towards success for the rest
of my life.
Thank you so much!
42
REFERENCES
1. Canadian Cancer Society. Canadian Cancer
Statistics Publication. 2015, http://www.cancer.
ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-101/canadiancancer-statistics-publication/?region=on.
2. Farokhzad, O.; Cheng, J.; Teply, B.; Sherifi,
I.; Jon, S.; Kantoff, P.; Richie, J.; Langer, R.
Targeted nanoparticle-aptamer bioconjugates for
cancer chemotherapy in vivo. PNAS, 2006, 103,
6315-6320.
3. Gold, L.; Janjic, N.; Jarvis, T.; Schneider, D.;
Walker, J.; Wilcox, S.; Zichi, D. Aptamers and the
RNA World, Past and Present. CSHPB, 2012, 1-9.
4. Famulok, M.; Hartig, J.; Mayer, G. Functional Aptamers
and Aptazymes in Biotechnology, Diagnostics, and
Therapy. ACS, 2007, 107, 3715-3743
5. Özalp, V.; Schäfer, T. Aptamer-Nanoparticle
Bioconjugates for Drug Delivery. The Delivery of
Nanoparticles, 2012, 133-148.
6. Lupold, S.; Hicke, B.; Lin, Y.; Coffey, D. Bind
Human Prostate Cancer Cells via the Prostatespecific Membrane Antigen. Cancer Res, 2002, 62,
4029-4033.
7. Bagalkot, V.; Zhang, L.; Levy-Nissenbaum, E.;
Jon, S.; Kantoff, P.; Langer, R.; Farokhzad, O.
Quantum Dot-Aptamer Conjugates for Synchronous
Cancer Imaging, Therapy, and Sensing of Drug
Delivery Based on Bi-Fluorescence Resonance
Energy Transfer. ACS, 2007, 7, 3065-3070.
8. Kolishetti, N.; Dhar, S.; Valencia, P.; Lin, L.;
Karnik, R.; Lippard, S.; Langer, R.; Farokhzad,
O. Engineering of self-assembled nanoparticle
platform for precisely controlled combination drug
therapy. PNAS, 2010, 107, 17939-17944.
9. Keefe, A.; Pai, S.; Ellington, A. Aptamers as
Therapeutics. Nature, 2010, Vol. 9, 537-550.
10.Witham, A. Structural Analysis of Detrimental
Oxidative Products from Phenolic Carcinogens
and Construction of Nucleotide Tools from
Analogous Processes. Ph.D. Thesis, The
University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, May 2014
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-018
ARTICLES
DIABETES MELLITUS COMPLICATIONS IN
SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
Petra Famiyeh
Grade 12, St. Basil-the-Great College School, Toronto Catholic District School Board (Toronto, Ontario)
ABSTRACT:
Diabetes mellitus, commonly known as diabetes, is a non-communicable disease whereby a person’s pancreas
is either incapable of producing or unable to use insulin in the body. The disease and its complications are
growing in different parts of the world. It has been predicted that by 2035, there will be over 205 million diabetics
in the world. It has been hypothesized that diabetes complications is highly prevalent in many African countries
due to high medication cost, lack of early diagnoses and treatment, low economic standing, and cultureinfluenced beliefs about the disease. To address this hypothesis, a literary review was conducted on peerreviewed articles. PubMed and Google Scholar were searched using the keywords: diabetes, diabetes in
Africa, diabetes complications to retrieve these articles. The articles were read and evaluated by one reviewer
and information was extracted to generate conclusion about the hypothesis. The research found that the high
influx of diabetes complications in Sub-Saharan Africa is correlated with the low economic status of countries
within this region. Also high reliance on traditional medicine leading to delayed treatment also influences the
prevalence of complications.This research also sought to identify the most effective preventative measures for
these complications (e.g. optimal diet, exercise, access to effective medications) and the availability of these
measures in the Sub-Saharan African regions. It was determined that countries in Sub-Saharan Africa lacked
access to optimal medications, which is the most effective preventative measure. Future studies should focus on
ways to improve this preventive measure to optimize diabetes control in these regions.
Le diabète sucré, connu communément sous le nom de diabète, est une maladie non-transmissible qui surgit
lorsque le pancréas d’une personne est incapable de produire de l’insuline ou est incapable d’utiliser l’insuline
produite. Des prévisions montrent qu’à l’an 2035 , il y aura plus de 205 millions de diabétiques dans le monde. Il
y a une hypothèse que la situation économique de pays subsahariens et la culture contribuent aux complications
diabétiques de ces régions. De la recherche a été conduite dans des journaux révisé par des pairs afin de prouver
ou de réfuter cette hypothèse. Il a été découvert qu’il y a une corrélation directe entre le statut économique et
culturel de pays en Afrique subsaharienne et le taux élevé de complications provoqués par le diabète sucré. Cette
recherche a aussi été ciblée pour rechercher les mesures préventatives pour éviter ces complications et pour
augmenter la disponibilité de ces mesures. Il a été déterminé que ces pays manquaient ces mesures préventives
et efficaces. Des études futures devraient se concentrer sur des moyens d’installation de ces mesures afin de
sauver des vies.
INTRODUCUTION:
Diabetes mellitus is a non-communicable disease whereby a person’s pancreas is either incapable of creating
or utilizing the bodily insulin.1 There are different forms of diabetes with type I and II being the most common.
The exact cause of type I diabetes is currently unknown, but it is speculated to be autoimmune associated.
Thus, it cannot be prevented and it is often characterized by the body’s inability to produce insulin.2 The onset
of type II diabetes is caused by the body’s inability to utilize the insulin that is created, and is speculated to be
contributed mostly by obesity. In fact, obesity accounts for 90% of diabetes cases.3 Approximately 90% of the
people in the world with diabetes have type II diabetes.4 Diabetes afflicts 347 million people in the world, with
over 80% of cases affecting individuals in low-income countries.4
People with diabetes are at a higher risk of developing other diseases than non-diabetic individuals. Diabetic
complications can be categorized as micro- and macrovascular.5 Microvascular complications are a result of
small blood vessel damage, and may include retinopathy (damage to the eye potentially leading to blindness),
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-019
43
nephropathy (damage to the kidneys potentially
causing kidney failure), and neuropathy (nerve damage
consequently leading to loss of limbs and/or senses).6
Diabetic neuropathy is the most common of these
complications, leading to the need for amputations
of the limbs of the lower extremity.7 In contrast,
macrovascular complications occur due to damage in
the large blood vessels, and include diseases related
to the cardiovascular system.4 Through a process
called atherosclerosis, hyperglycemia causes the
damage of large blood vessels. This decreases the
inner circumference of arteries preventing blood from
flowing through them easily to the heart, the brain,
and other parts of the body. The end results are heart
attacks and strokes, as well as decreased healing of
infections.4 Complications are not exclusive to any one
type of diabetes, patients with either type I or type II
diabetes experience a variety of these complications.
The focus of this study was to discover if economic
and cultural factors are what increase the likelihood of
diabetes complications in Africa, specifically in SubSaharan countries. It was also hypothesized that SubSaharan African countries do not have the effective
preventive measures available to save the lives of
their diabetics. This research was conducted, due to
a lack of knowledge of the epidemiology of diabetic
complications in Sub-Saharan African countries.
METHOD:
Multiple scientific journal articles from 2008 and
onwards were researched on the databases PubMed
and Google Scholar using the keywords: diabetes,
diabetes in Africa, and diabetes complications to
retrieve these articles. The articles were reviewed
and evaluated based on their content and relevance
to the topic. Articles with just abstracts available were
not considered, only full-text articles were viewed. The
qualitative and quantitative reports of the articles were
noted and compared in order to form a conclusion.
RESULTS:
It was observed that the lowest proportion, less than 1%,
of global health expenditure on diabetes is in Africa.6
•
For every 10,000 people in Africa, there are 2
doctors and 11 midwives or nurses available.4
•
76%of diabetes-related deaths in Sub-Saharan
Africa occurred in people below the age of 60.6
44
•
Africa experiences at least 63% of the world’s
undiagnosed diabetes.6
DISCUSSION
The primary treatment and monitoring device
for diabetes is insulin and the glucose meter
respectively. Due to the high cost of insulin and
glucose meters, many diabetics in Sub-Saharan
Africa are unable to afford these important tools.8
Lack of insulin can lead to poor glycemic control,
which is one of the leading causes for diabetic
complications.8 High costs of medications and
treatment devices drive people to rely on
traditional, less effective medicines for a cure. Many
traditional healers promise a cure at reasonable
costs; however, their knowledge on diabetes may
be limited or out-dated. In the early stages of their
illness, most Africans seek out traditional healers
and only seek hospital care after they had already
developed complications as a result of their
ailments.8
In this study, it was observed that the most
effective
measure
to
prevent
diabetic
complications is good glycemic control through
healthy living and optimal medicine treatments.9
Unfortunately, many people in Sub-Saharan
Africa are unfamiliar with optimal exercise
regimes and healthy eating habits as a remedy
to prevent diabetes, because they (and their health
care workers) are not well informed of these
matters.10 Ultimately, the availability of medication,
constant monitoring, and adopting of good health
habits can either prevent the onset of diabetes or
detect the illness in its early stages, but are often
inaccessible to patients in Africa.
In fact, when patients seek hospital care, they
are often misdiagnosed with other common
diseases such as malaria, due to lack of
knowledge related to diabetes-related illnesses.
By the time a proper diagnosis is made, the
disease has progressed into its late stages and
complications have begun to occur. Due to the
fact that obvious complications and symptoms occur
during the late stages of diabetes, there is little
incentive to fund diabetes-related research and
initiatives in Africa. Thus, diabetes is not viewed
as a widespread epidemic, compared to
communicable diseases such as HIV/AIDS and
tuberculosis, which have plagued the continent for
ages. This lack of acknowledgment makes constant
monitoring of diabetes a challenge because patients
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-019
do not have regular access to doctors. Additionally,
the health care system in many African countries is
quite poor in terms of finances and adequacy, leading
to the unavailability of treatment and adequate
treatment facilities for diabetes.8 Specifically, the
lack of adequate health care and education in SubSaharan Africa hinders the ability of diabetics to attain
good glycemic control and therefore enables the
prevalence of diabetes complications
CONCLUSION
Diabetes afflicts large masses of people around the
world, the majority of which are in Africa, specifically
in the Sub-Saharan regions. Many of these diabetic
cases can cause mortality, because diabetic patients
in Sub-Saharan Africa encounter serious diabetic
complications due to socioeconomicbarriers such
as poverty and cultural barriers such as the belief
in traditional healers. As shown in the literature, the
most effective prevention against type II diabetes
complications is proper glycemic control, which can
be achieved through proper education on lifestyle
changes and improved accessibility to effective
medications. Non-communicable diseases such
as diabetes warrant greater attention from African
governmentsto ensure optimal management
andimproved quality of life in all affected citizens.
Additionally, the reluctance of diabetics in Africa to
see doctors and rely on traditional healers should
be taken into consideration when determining
how to optimally control and prevent diabetes
complications. Thus, it is recommended that the
African governments invest in educating traditional
healers and health care practitioners, in order to
properly inform and diagnose their patients.
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-019
REFERENCE:
1. Canadian Diabetes Association. https://www.
diabetes.ca (accessed July 20, 2015).
2. Atkinson,
Mark.
The
Pathogenis
and
Natural History of Type 1 Diabetes. CSH of
Perspective Medicine[Online]20122DOI:10.1101/
cshperspect.a007641.
3. Center for Disease Control. http://www.cdc.gov
(accessed July 20, 2015)
4. World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/en
(accessed July 20, 2015).
5. Fowler,
Michael.
Microvascular
and
Macrovascular Complications of Diabetes.
Clinical Diabetes [Online]200826 77-82 DOI:
10.2337/diaclin.26.2.77
6. International Diabetes Federation. http://www.idf.
org (accessed July 21, 2015).
7. Amos, McCarty, and Zimmet. The Rising
Global Burden of Diabetes and Its Complications:
Estimates and Projections to the Year 2010.
Diabet Med [Online]2004
8. Azevedo, Alla. Diabetes in Sub-Saharan Africa:
Kenya, Mali, Mozambique, Nigeria, South
Africa and Zambia.IJDC2008 101-08 DOI:
10.4103/0973-3930.45268.
9. Skyler, Jay. Effects of Glycemic Control on
Diabetes Complications and on the Prevention
of Diabetes.Clinical Diabetes 22.4 200422162166DOI: 10.2337/diaclin.22.4.162
10. Unyime, Jasper. Diabetes and Exercise in SubSaharan Africa: Challenges and Way Forward
J Diabetes Metab2014DOI: 10.4172/21556156.1000360
45
ARTICLES
THE CONNECTION BETWEEN VITAMIN K & BONE HEALTH
Jamy Fu
Grade 11, Earl Haig Secondary School, Toronto District School Board (Toronto, Ontario), Mentor: Dr. Lora Giangregorio (University of Waterloo)
ABSTRACT
Vitamin K is essential to the body because it is known to help blood coagulate and activate osteocalcin, a protein
involved in maintaining healthy bones. In this review, one study observing the impact of vitamin K supplementation
on patients’ bone mineral densities and three studies focusing on the effects of vitamin K supplementation on
the incidence of bone fractures are discussed to determine whether the vitamin may be important for maintaining
bone health. While some promising results, such as an increase in bone mineral density of subjects after vitamin K
supplementation arose, the conclusions reached by the four studies were not statistically significant enough
to justify the importance of vitamin K in maintaining bone health. Well-controlled studies that are unbiased,
statistically powerful, and focused on vitamin K’s effects on bone density are required in the future to provide
further insight on whether vitamin K supplementation is a viable method of improving bone health.
La vitamine K est essentielle pour le corps, car il est connu pour assister dans la coagulation du sang ainsi
qu’activer l’ostéocalcine, une protéine impliquée dans le maintien de la santé des os. Ici, une étude dirigé vers les
observations de l’impact de la consommation de suppléments de la vitamine K sur la densité minérale osseuse
de patients, puis trois autres études portant sur les effets de la consommation de suppléments de la vitamine
K sur l’incidence des fractures osseuses sont examinées afin de déterminer si la vitamine soit une facteur
important dans le maintien de la santé des os. Tandis que des résultats sont révélés prometteurs, comme ceux
montrant une augmentation de la densité minérale osseuse des sujets après la consommation des suppléments
de la vitamine K, l’ensemble de conclusions tirées des quatre études ne présente pas suffisamment de données
qui pourraient suggérer une corrélation entre la consommation des suppléments de la vitamine K et la santé des
os. Des études supplémentaires portant sur les effets de la vitamine K sur la densité osseuse, mené dans des
conditions contrôlés, bien conçus, impartiales, qui produiront des résultats persuasifs, sont nécessaires à être
effectuer à l’avenir afin de donner un meilleur aperçu de l’effet de la supplémentation en vitamine K comme une
méthode viable dans l’entretien de la santé des os.
INTRODUCTION
Vitamin K are a group of fat soluble compounds,
and exist in the natural forms of phylloquinone
(vitamin K1) and menaquinones-n (vitamin K2), that
are obtained through consumption of fat-containing
foods or plants. Vitamin K2 takes many forms
expressed as menaquinones-n (MK-n) where n is
the number of repeating 5-carbon units; the vitamin
K humans consume ranges mainly from MK-4 to
MK-10(1, 2, 3). Generally, Vitamin K is known to
help the blood coagulate and help stop bleeding(1).
While dietary vitamin K deficiencies are uncommon
(due to the fact that vitamin K can be easily obtained
from green, leafy vegetables), doctors will prescribe
vitamin K (2.5-25 mg orally or injected for teenagers
and adults) if the patient experiences excessive
bleeding (from their nose, gums, or wounds) or heavy
menstrual bleeding due to vitamin K deficiency(1).
Vitamin K deficiency has also been linked to patients
46
with osteoporosis, which is a disease where bone
tissue is lost (resulting in brittleness of the bones)
due to the fact that bone deterioration is a symptom
of vitamin K deficiency(1).
The potential mechanisms of vitamin K with
respect to maintaining bone health.
Vitamin K activates vitamin K-dependent proteins
such as osteocalcin, through a process known
as
posttranslational
carboxylation,
causing
transformation of their glutamate residues
(Glu) into a gamma-carboxyglutamate (Gla)
structural residue(5). Thus, the now-activated the
vitamin K-dependent proteins can contribute to
hydroxyapatite crystal formation that make up bone
structure, replacing old or damaged bone with new
bone tissue (3). Furthermore, vitamin K is known to
prevent calcification of vascular tissue and may even
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-020
participate in calcium bone integration and bodily
regulation. Thus, it has been suggested that vitamin
K supplementation could increase bone strength
through the previously mentioned mechanisms.
Observational studies done in 1984 with 10 years
of follow-up involving 72,327 women aged 38-63
years old have demonstrated that lower vitamin
K1 and K2 intake combined with high serum levels
of undercarboxylated (inactivated) osteocalcin is
associated with a higher risk of hip fractures (10).
DISCUSSION
What do the research clinical trials say about vitamin
K efficacy to bone health?
Clinical trials conducted to evaluate the effect of vitamin
K2 on fracture incidences and overall patients’ bone
health produced inconclusive results. In 2012, Fang et al.
conducted a meta-analysis in Anhui Medical University,
China, observing 17 clinical trials that evaluated the effect
of vitamin K on bone mineral density (or simply BMD)
in patients eighteen years or older with osteoporosis (a
disease where the incidences of bone fracturing is high
due to bone mass decrease and tissue deterioration)(4).
Each patient were either given vitamin K2 (in ten trials,
eight of them were supplemented with MK-4 15-45 mg/
day and two with MK-7 0.2-3.6 mg.day) or vitamin K1 (in
seven trials 0.2-10 mg/day) supplements(6). After 6 to
36 months of vitamin K supplementation, no significant
increase of BMDs was observed in patients’ femoral
necks, but the average BMDs of the patient’s’ lumbar
spines increased by 1.3%(6). Specifically, patients
given vitamin K2 treatments experienced a significant
1.8% increase in their average lumbar spine BMDs,
while patients treated with vitamin K1 supplements did
not experience the same significant increases in their
average BMDs(6). However, due to possible selection
bias (where each patient may have had different
baseline consumptions of vitamin K before the trials/
treatment), detection bias (where diagnostic methods
used to determine the increase in average BMD may
be inconsistent to favour a higher increase in average
BMD), and publication bias (exclusive presentation of
trials with statistically significant BMD improvements) (6),
the study failed to definitely determine whether vitamin
K supplementation had significant effects on BMD in its
sample population and patients.
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-020
Furthermore, a 2006 review and 2009 study report
describe 8 clinical trials that assessed the effects of
vitamin K2 supplementation on fracture incidence
in osteoporotic Japanese patients(7, 8). Seven trials
conducted in the 2006 study showed significant reduction
in hip, vertebral, and nonvertebral fractures from adults
supplemented with vitamin K2 (MK-4 of 15-45 mg/day)
over 12-24 months(7). However, the 8th ‘outlier trial’ in
2009 demonstrated that vitamin K2 supplementation did
not significantly reduce the incidence of fracturing. This
trial included 4378 Japanese postmenopausal women
aged 50 years or older with varying degrees of vertebral
fractures that received vitamin K2 (MK-4 45 mg/day)
and calcium supplements (oral calcium L-aspartate 1.2
g/day or dibasic calcium phosphate 3 g/day) for three
years (plus a one year follow-up)(8). The results in the
trial showed that simultaneous supplementation of
vitamin K2 and calcium versus calcium alone did not
significantly reduce the incidences of vertebral and all
clinical fractures (all fracture that were reported and
brought to medical attention) , even after 3-4 years (8).
More recently, a 2013 Dutch study compared fracture
incidence between an experimental group of 120 nonosteoporotic postmenopausal women that received
vitamin K2 supplementation (with 0.36 mg/day of
MK-7) and a control group (with 124 postmenopausal
women) that received no supplementation(5).
Unfortunately, the number of fractures was too low
in both groups to definitely prove that vitamin K2
supplementation could decrease fracture incidence,
since only one woman in the experimental group
suffered a vertebral fracture compared to six women
in the control group(5).
Lastly, one study done in Canada provided vitamin
K1 supplements (5 mg/day) to 440 postmenopausal
Canadian women with low BMDs between 2-4
years to observe vitamin K1 supplementation on
bone health (10). The study involved a clinical trial
where the control group was given a placebo and
the experimental group received the vitamin K1
supplementation (the researchers or groups did
not know which patients received the specific
treatments). While the study reported significant
results (9 women experienced 11 fractures in the
experimental group, compared to the control group
where 20 women received 21 fractures), the study
47
failed to conclude that vitamin K1 can decrease
clinical fracture incidence because there are very
few studies that investigate the relationship between
vitamin K1 and clinical fractures and it is unknown
whether more studies done in the future would
support or reject the results of this study(9).
Therefore, the four studies discussed demonstrate
that bone health in patients cannot be definitively
improved with vitamin K2 or K1 supplements due to
the inconsistent results and methodological limitations
of the clinical trials presented in those studies. Thus,
larger and better controlled clinical trials need to be
conducted in the future to provide consistent data to
definitely demonstrate that vitamin K supplementation
has significant benefits on bone quality and health.
Research Gaps & Future Directions
Although the bodily presence of vitamin K can activate
vitamin K-dependent proteins like osteocalcin to
enhance its ability to bind to bone mineral(3, 5), the
clinical trials described in this review demonstrate that
vitamin K supplements may not significantly benefit
bone health, whether through increasing BMDs or
preventing incidences of bone fractures(2, 3). To avoid
this research gap, better controlled research is required
to specifically understand how vitamin K consumption
may prevent bone fractures or what conditions must
be met for vitamin K to improve BMD significantly. For
example, it is possible to hypothesize that vitamin K
increases BMD more prominently in patients with
osteoporosis because osteoporotic patients have a
naturally lower BMD; osteoporosis could possibly be
a condition that must be met for vitamin K to have a
significant effect on BMD.
Ultimately, future research should involve statistically
well-designed, controlled, and transparent studies
that provide consistent treatments of vitamin K
supplementation and maintain baseline vitamin
K intake, focusing on the incidences of fractures
and bone quality (i.e. BMD) as a primary outcome,
specifically observing the effects of vitamin K1
consumption. If these criteria are met, then it may
be possible to avoid inconsistencies that were
encountered in previously mentioned clinical
studies, decreasing the occurrence of selection,
methodological, and publishing biases. Currently
48
however, there is not enough statistically significant
evidence to recommend vitamin K supplements as a
method to improve bone health.
KEY WORDS Vitamin K; fractures; bone mineral
density: bone health; phylloquinone; menaquinones;
carboxylation; osteoporosis.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A special thanks to Dr. Lora Giangregorio, Associate
Professor in the Department of Kinesiology at the
University of Waterloo, for supporting this review article.
REFERENCES
1. Medical News Today. What are vitamins?
What vitamins do I need?. 2014 http://www.
medicalnewstoday.com/articles/195878.php
(accessed May 22, 2015)
2. Hamidi, M.; Gajic-Veljanoski, O.; Cheung, A.
Vitamin K and Bone Health. J. Clin. Densitom.
[Online]. 2013, 16, 409-413
3. Ryan-Harshman, M.; Aldoori, W. Bone health:
New role for vitamin K?. Can. Fam. Physician.
[Online]. 2004, 50, 993-997
4. National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal
and Skin Diseases. Handout on Health:
Osteoporosis. http://www.niams.nih.gov/Health_
Info/Bone/Osteoporosis/osteoporosis_hoh.asp
(accessed May 22, 2015)
5. Knapen, M. H. J.; Drummen, N. E.; Smit, E.;
Vermeer, C.; Theuwissen, E. Three-year Lowdose Menaquinone-7 Supplementation Helps
Decrease Bone Loss in Healthy Postmenopausal
Women. Osteoporos. Int. [Online] 2013, 24,
2499–2507
6. Fang, Y.; Hu, C.; Tao, X.; Wan, Y.; Tao, F. Effect
of Vitamin K on Bone Mineral Density: A Metaanalysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. J.
Bone. Miner. Metab. [Online] 2012, 30, 60-68
7. Cockayne, S.; Adamson, J.; Lanham-New, S.;
Shearer, M. J.; Gilbody, S.; Torgerson, D. J.
Vitamin K and the Prevention of Fractures. JAMA.
Intern. Med. [Online] 2006, 166, 1256-1261
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-020
8. Inoue, T.; Fujita, T.; Kishimoto, H.; Makino,
T.; Nakamura, T.; Nakamura, T.; Sato, T.;
Yamazaki, K. Randomized Controlled Study
on the Prevention of Osteoporotic Fractures
(OF Study): A Phase IV Clinical Study of 15-mg
Menatetrenone Capsules. J. Bone. Miner. Metab.
[Online] 2009, 27, 66–75
10. Feskanich, D.; Weber, P.; Willet, W. C.; Rockett,
H.; Booth, S.L.; Colditz, G. A. Vitamin K Intake
and Hip Fractures in Women: A Prospective
Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. [Online] 1999, 69, 74-79
9. Cheung, A. M.; Tile, L.; Lee, Y.; Tomlinson,
G.; Hawker, G.; Scher, J.; Hu, H.; Vieth, R.;
Thompson, L.; Jamal, S.; Josse, R. Vitamin K
Supplementation in Postmenopausal Women with
Osteopenia (ECKO Trial): A Randomized Controlled
Trial. PLOS. Med. [Online] 2008, 5, e247
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-020
49
ARTICLES
GENETIC MARKERS FOR ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
Vanessa Gomes
Grade 12, Bishop Allen Academy, Toronto Catholic District School Board (Toronto, Ontario), Mentor: Sarah Gagliano (CAMH)
ABSTRACT
This report aims to inform on the progression of research into the genetic factors involved in the development of
Alzheimer’s disease (AD). AD is a life-altering disease that affects millions of individuals from varying races and
ethnic backgrounds1. According to the National Institute on Aging, a faculty of the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, AD has been ranked as the third leading cause of death in the United States, only behind cancer
and heart failure. It is predicted that by 2050, approximately one in 45 Americans will be afflicted with the disease5.
Distinctive physical indications of the onset of AD include neuron loss, amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary
tangles5. Onset is not frequent prior to 60 years of age but can be caused by one of two reasons. The first is
a mutation in the amyloid precursor protein (APP) gene on chromosome 21. This gene is responsible for the
regulation of the production of amyloid beta (Aβ) proteins, which are known to be abundant in the brains of
AD patients. A mutation in the gene leads to an inappropriate regulation of this protein. The second, and more
common cause is a result of an unidentified gene on chromosome 14 in AD patients2. It has been confirmed that
there is involvement of chromosome 19 in late onset AD (LOAD) as well1. Most of the genes that are associated
with the development of AD have yet to be identified, but the research is bringing society closer and closer to
that goal everyday.
Ce rapport vise à fournir de l’information sur la progression de la recherche au sujet des facteurs génétiques
impliqués dans le développement de la maladie d’Alzheimer (MA). La MA est une maladie bouleversant la vie
de la personne et qui affecte des millions d’individus de diverses races et ethnicité1. Selon l’Institut national sur le
vieillissement, un corps professoral du département américain de la santé et des services sociaux, la MA a été
classée comme la troisième cause de décès aux États-Unis, ne cédant le pas qu’au cancer et à l’insuffisance
cardiaque. Il est prévu que d’ici l’an 2050, environ une personne sur 45 Américains sera affligée avec cette maladie5.
Des indications visuelles distinctives de l’apparition de la MA comprennent la perte des neurones, les plaques
amyloïdes et des enchevêtrements neurofibrillaires5. L’apparition précoce n’est pas fréquente avant 60 ans,
mais peut être causée par l’une des deux raisons. La première raison est une mutation dans le gène de la
protéine précurseur de l’amyloïde (PPA) sur le chromosome 21. Ce gène est responsable de la régulation
de la production de protéines bêta-amyloïde (Aß), qui sont connues pour être abondant dans le cerveau des
patients atteints de la MA. Une mutation dans le gène conduit à une régulation inappropriée de cette protéine.
La seconde cause, et celle-là plus communes sont le résultat d’un gène inconnu sur le chromosome 142. Il a
été confirmé qu’il y a aussi une participation du chromosome 19 dans l’apparition tardive de la MA (ATMA)1. La
plupart des gènes qui sont associés avec le développement de la MA n’ont pas encore été identifiés, mais la
recherche rapproche la société de cet objectif de plus en plus tous les jours.
INTRODUCTION
Article 1: Gene Dose of Apoliprotein E Type 4
Allele and the Risk of Alzheimer’s disease in
Late Onset Families1
In a seminal paper in the field of AD genetics,
Corder et al.1, aimed to show that the APOE4 gene
expression is related to an elevated risk as well as
an earlier onset period of AD. The late onset variation
of AD has been associated with the APOE4 allele on
chromosome 191. The first aspect of this study aimed
50
to determine whether or not the aforementioned allele
was in fact responsible for early onset AD. This was
found to be the case.1 Approximately 64% of AD late
onset cases have at least one APOE4 allele.1
The researchers subsequently studied the presence
of this allele, and how expression affected the age
of onset. It was found that each additional APOE4
allele constituted a younger onset age. From no
APOE4 allele to only one, the drop in age was far
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-021
more drastic than that of the difference between
subjects with one APOE4 allele and two.
The allelic association found can be attributed to
genetic linkage disequilibrium; two loci (chromosome
locations) are situated close enough to each other
that recombination is rare1. As a result, these alleles
can be passed through many generations in their
original orientation.1 It was reported that there is a
genetic linkage between late onset AD and the loci
residing near APOE.1 It is important to recognize
that while the presence and dosage of the APOE4
allele plays a role in determining age of onset for AD
patients, it is not the determining factor for whether
a person will develop the disease or not.
Article 2: Integrative Genomics Identifies APOE4
Effectors in AD2
The study by Rhinn et al.2, written a decade after
the Corder et al.1 study describes in more detail
the procedures used to determine that the APOE4
allele is associated with LOAD. In order to determine
the pathways that result in LOAD in an unbiased
fashion, differential co-expression analysis (DCA)
was used. This method aims to differentiate between
causative events (i.e. the events that cause the
LOAD) and secondary changes, which are in fact
a result of the causative events but appear to be
the causative events. DCA can be used to identify
regulatory mechanisms that affect LOAD and
those that affect LOAD risk2. Through this method,
two key points were determined. The first was the
identification of APBA2, ITM2B, FYN, RNF219, and
SV2A as genes, that mediate the transcriptomic
changes observed in APOE4 carriers as well as
LOAD patients. Secondly, genome-wide association
study (GWAS) data showed that common genetic
variants within two of the mentioned genes, FYN
and RNF219, are associated with LOAD. In order
to determine whether the DCA node genes (above)
function as regulators of amyloid precursor protein
(APP), mouse neuroblastoma cells with human APP
transgene were injected with APOE protein variants.
Treatments with human APOE4 (not APOE2 or
APOE3) increased the levels of Aβ plaque present,
build-up of which predicts AD.
Next, this study hypothesized that a SV2A
inhibitor called levetiracetam (used to treat seizure
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-021
disorders) could also be used to correct APOE4
related alteration in APP processing. It was found
that levetiracetam drastically decreased excess Aβ
levels. This determined that SV2a is necessary for
the APOE4-facilitated induction of APP processing.
Since it was determined that DCA genes function as
regulators for APP, it is sound to suggest that variants
at these gene loci may control the association of
APOE4 with LOAD (i.e. risk or age-of-onset)2.
In conclusion, it was established that APOE4 is
linked to heightened Aβ brain accumulation, which
in turn results in accelerated cognitive deterioration.
However, since not all APOE4 carriers develop LOAD,
it is apparent that there are other factors involved
in its development. Additionally, levetiracetam was
demonstrated to rekindle cognition in individuals
with mild cognitive deficiency2. When tested in mice
however, in the absence of human APOE4, the
levetiracetam did not affect APP processing.
Article 3: Cardiovascular disease contributes to
AD: Evidence from large-scale Genome-Wide
Association Studies3
In previous reports, AD risk pathways were
investigated by analyzing individual GWAS datasets
in isolation. In this study, Liu et al. propose that
multiple GWAS be investigated simultaneously in
order to identify new AD risk pathways.
In the analysis, Liu et al.3 replicated previous GWAS
findings, including AD risk genes such as TOMM40,
PVRL2, APOE, CLU, CR1, PICALM, MS4A6A,
MS4A2, ABCA7, and EXOC3L2. Furthermore,
novel AD susceptibility genes were identified with
the most significant belonging to the APOE family
of genes. The latter was to be expected since as
discussed in the previous articles, the APOE gene
has been found to be the most prevalent risk factor
for LOAD. Previous studies have shown that there is
an involvement of pathways related to metabolism,
the immune system, signaling molecules and
interaction, and neurodegenerative diseases in AD
risk. There are four significant pathways linked to
cardiovascular disease (CVD), three of which are
also linked to AD. Although not certain, this study
suggests that the associations between CVD and
AD pathways are related to shared genetic factors.
51
Article 4: Meta-Analysis of 74,046 Individuals
Identifies 11 new Susceptibility Loci for AD4
Lambert et al.4 describe the largest meta-analysis
(combining datasets from previous GWAS) that
currently exists of genetic factors associated with AD
risk. The authors successfully determined 11 new
possible loci that play a role in AD risk. Previously,
there were nine identified loci associated with lateonset AD. The search for additional loci however,
requires a larger sample size in order for metaanalyses to be conducted with apt statistical power.
In this study, the first stage of meta-analysis was
completed using four conglomerates, with quality
control being conducted for the genetic variants.
Those that did not pass the control were excluded
from the analysis.
As aforementioned, the APOE locus is a critical region
in predicted LOAD. In addition to this locus, 14 other
regions had significant associations. Nine of these
were previously identified as susceptibility factors,
but five are representative of newly discovered
associated loci. An example is SORLI. Of these newly
associated loci, it is apparent that these may or may
not be causative genes. In addition to the already
identified genes, the most significant new association
is the HLA-DRB5-DRB1 region. Interestingly, this
is a region commonly associated with two other
neurodegenerative disorders; multiple sclerosis and
Parkinson’s disease. The study was inconclusive on
which gene(s) were responsible for the signal from this
region. The second strongest signal was associated
with the SORLI gene, a critical region related to an
increased risk of autosomal dominant and sporadic
forms of AD4. The third and fourth most significant
loci identified are PTK2B and SLC25A4, respectively.
The latter of the two is commonly involved in iris,
hair, and skin colour variation in humans as well
as neural development. Another significant locus
that was identified was near MEF2C. Mutations
here commonly result in severe mental deficiency,
epilepsy, and cerebral malformation.
This study is a clear example of the ever-developing
research behind AD–oriented genetics. The fact that
through this one study 11 additional potential loci
associated with the development of AD have been
52
identified exemplifies the accelerating world of research,
and moves us closer and closer towards understanding
the genetic factors contributing to AD risk.
CONCLUSION
As humans, we strive to have a clear understanding
of everything we encounter. We are passionately
curious by nature – an excellent quality since it has
enabled our lives to advance farther than any other
species. Our lives consist of a string of experiences,
which aid us in living the remainder of our lives. The
past guides the present. What happens, though,
when there is no past? What happens when there is
no recollection of what you ate for dinner yesterday,
or what you had for breakfast this morning? Life is
no longer simple at that point. This uncertainty is the
reality of individuals living with AD. The key to making
the lives of those afflicted easier, is understanding
what lies beneath the symptoms. This knowledge
comes from ongoing research.
This paper outlined four independently completed
research papers, each assessing various loci that
are potentially responsible for the development
of AD. Conclusively, it is apparent that the single
most important region identified is APOE41-4. The
mutation at this location is present in all patients
with LOAD. However, it is also known that not
all individuals who have a mutation within this
locus develop AD. This incomplete penetrance is
indicative of the fact that there is more than one
cause for this disease. As of 2013, at least 25 critical
loci have been identified that contribute to AD risk.
By identifying the genetic origins of the disease,
prevention can become a reality. The medical world
is developing into one of preventative medicine
rather than curative. This transition is only possible
if we have a clear understanding of what it is we are
trying to prevent, and how to specifically go about it.
The aforementioned research projects, and the likes
of them, move us closer to our goal of being able to
detect and prevent AD.
REFERENCES
1. Corder, E.H.; Saunders, A.M. et al. Gene Dose
of Apoliprotein E Type 4 Allele and the Risk of
Alzheimer’s disease in Late Onset Families.
Science 1993, Vol.261, p. 921-923
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-021
2. Rhinn, H.; Fujita, R.; Qiang. L. et al. Integrative
Genomics Identifies APOE4 Effectors in AD.
Nature 2013, Vol.500, p.45-53
4. Lambert, J.C. et al. Meta-Analysis of 74,046
Individuals Identifies 11 new Susceptibility Loci
for AD. Nat Genet. 2013, Vol.45, p. 1452-1458
3. Liu, G.; Yao, L.; Liu, J. et al. Cardiovascular
disease contributes to AD: Evidence from
large-scale Genome-Wide Association Studies.
Neurobiology of Aging 2013, Vol. 35, p. 786-792
5. Brookmeyer, R.; Gray, S.; Kawas, C. Projection
Of Alzheimer’s Disease in the United States and
the Public Health Impact of Delaying Disease
Onset. American Journal of Public Health 1998,
Vol.88, p. 1337-1341
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-021
53
ARTICLES
HEMAGGLUTININ COMPATIBILITY BETWEEN AVIAN AND
HUMAN INFLUENZA A VIRUSES USING HUMAN MATRIX
PROTEIN: BASED ON SCHOLTISSEK ET AL.’S (2002) ARTICLE
Katherine Lien
Grade 12, Bloor Collegiate Institute, Toronto District School Board (Toronto, Ontario), Mentor: Dr. Aaron Farnsworth (Health Canada)
ABSTACT
Through the review of Scholtissek et al.1, evolution between different strains of influenza A viruses were examined
to enable better preparation for future pandemics. Pandemics are the result of antigenic shifts, cumulative
reassortants between circulating viruses that form novel gene sequences. The process may produce a virus
which a large segment of the population has no immunological memory of, and consequently, are susceptible to
the strain.
The pandemics in 1918, 1967, 1968 and 2009 were caused by influenza A viruses with hemagglutinin (HA)
proteins of 1, 2, or 3 - three out of sixteen known HA subtypes. This raises the question whether pandemics
can contain other HA subtypes. Since influenza viruses have segmented genomes, it may require at least two
different strains to swap their gene segments in order to co-infect a cell; the better viral compatibility between the
parent viruses, the more virulent the reassortant is. A collection of HA subtypes in avian strains and Matrix (M)
protein in human strains were used in the experimental model by Scholtissek et al. to examine the recombinants’
survivability and virulence. Although the results conclude that it is not possible for future pandemics to contain
other HA subtypes, the work of Scholtissek et al. leads to further research on influenza A reservoirs.
Ce document est un résumé au sujet de l’article de Christoph Scholtissek1 publié en 2002. J’examinerai son
modèle expérimental, en mettant en évidence les résultats et donnant un aperçu des recherches plus élaborées.
En étudiant des modèles de la coopération entre les virus, ceci permet d’aider à se préparer face aux futures
pandémies et épidémies. De tels évènements sont causés par des changements antigéniques produits par
l’accumulation de réassortiments entre les virus en circulation et divers éléments. Les virus grippaux A sont en
constante évolution, et nécessitent une surveillance constante en anticipation à une pandémie. Les pandémies
antérieures, soient celles en 1918, 1957, 1968 et 2009, ont démontré à avoir les hémagglutinines (HA) 1, 2 et
3 – trois des seize sous-types HA possibles. Ceci remet en question la possibilité que les pandémies puissent
contenir d’autres sous-types HA. Afin que les virus puissent former des virus réassortis potentiellement nouveaux
ils doivent bien coopérer, ce qui est précisément ce que Scholtissek tente d’enquêter. Son modèle expérimental
implique des réassortiments entre les différents sous-types d’HA dans des souches aviaires et des souches
humaines détenant des M-protéines, afin de déterminer la compatibilité virale. Bien que les résultats concluent
qu’il est très peu probable que de futures pandémies détiennent d’autres sous-types HA, ils fournissent des
indices du potentiel pandémique. En outre, son article incite la recherche plus à fond sur d’autres réservoirs de
la grippe A, les méthodes pour surmonter les barrières entre espèces et le réassortiment efficaces.
INTRODUCTION
When influenza viruses co-infect a cell, genetic
recombination occurs as the new virus obtains
different traits from both parents. Mutation is
important for viruses to be able to replicate efficiently,
as it results in resistance to anti-viral drugs like
amantadine. Amantadine inhibits M2 ion-channels
and its related function in viral replication. In order to
assess recombination, two selection tools were used
54
against avian M genes and human HA genes. The
first, a control and variable virus was used, one being
amantadine-resistant and the latter being amantadine
sensitive. The second selection tool was hyperimmune
antisera, which was used in all the samples.
Currently, there are 16 known HA subtypes in avian
influenza A strains.2 Given the previous occurrences
of 1918 A(H1N1), 1957 A(H2N2) and 1968 A(H3N2),
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-022
it is known that H1, H2, and H3 can be found in
influenza A pandemics. HA is an essential component
in the virus’ genome as it is responsible for viral
replication. Its functions include the binding of the
cells’ sialic acid-containing receptors for infection,
and when the virus undergoes fusion.
The M protein of human influenza A viruses, is split
up between M1 and M21. The proteins keep the core
of the virion and its viral envelope intact while also
being responsible in the viral replication cycle as its
ion channel permits the uncoating of the virus.3
Interactions such as the avian strain recombining
with the human strain require sufficient cooperation,
where the genes reassort to make a new sequence.
Cooperation is determined in the experimental model
when a viable reassortant virus contains the avian HA
gene and the human M gene, meaning that the HA
genes of both parent viruses successfully reassorted.
Studying the compatibility between avian HA and
human M genes is valuable as it provides clues in
pandemic potential.
MATERIALS & METHODS
Preparation Before Conducting the Experiment(1)
In order to conduct the experiments, the viruses
were prepared and plaque-purified in MDCK cells
before being stocked in 10-day embryonated chicken
eggs. The amantadine-resistant (Am+) viruses were
cultured in the presence of 2μg of amantadine before
further plaque-purification. A stock of allantoic fluid
was obtained for each virus strain with the desired
genetic traits required for the experiment.
Scholtissek
Experimental
system
testing
compatibility between Human M-gene and avian
HA(1) The tables attached shows the MDCK cells
either singly or doubly infected. Depending on the
set, either 1:100 or 1:200 ratios were used to dilute
hyperimmune antisera in PBS. There were three sets
of experiments conducted:
1. Two different A/PR/8/34 (H1N1) strains were used
in experimenting with most of the HA subtypes in
avian influenza viruses (Table 1).
2. Sing/57 (H2N2) was used when doubly infecting
the cells with avian influenza viruses. Two
samples of A/Swine/Germany/81 were used, one
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-022
being singly infected, and the other being doubly
infected with Sing/57 (Table 2).
3. A/Nanchang/933/95 (H3N2) was used when
doubly infecting the cells with avian strains.
A/Swine/Germany/81 was used for two samples,
similar to the previous set (Table 3).
Each sample was treated with 1μg/ml of TCPK and
2 ml of 4% bovine serum.1 The viruses were incubated
for 20 hours before they were split into two groups
- selection and no selection. The “selection” groups
were diluted with hyperimmune antisera to isolate
against human HA’s (αH2). The “no selection” group
were used without further treatment (Figure 1).
The infected MDCK cells were treated with 0.9% agar
and 4% bovine serum albumin and 0.5 μg of TCPK/
ml. The “selection” group had 4μg/ml of amantadine
in its agar overlay. After leaving the plaques for 3 days
at 37°C, certain plaques were observed and stained
with 0.1% crystal violet containing 10% formaldehyde.1
Plaques that needed further purification were dissolved
in 1 ml of PBS, until ready for staining and observation.
RESULTS
(Am+ human PR8 strains) X (Am- avian influenza A
viruses)(1)
According to Table 1, the recombinants were able
to produce many, well-distinct plaques. The results
indicated that amantadine-resistant human PR8 strain
and amantadine-sensitive avian influenza A viruses
were able to reassort strains that replicate well.
(Am+ human Singapore strain) X (Am- avian
Influenza A viruses)(1)
Most of the reassortments were produced few
plaques, and were not viable (Table 2). The HA in the
avian-like swine influenza viruses (H1N1) were more
successful in cooperating with the HA in Sing/57 than
the avian strains.
(Am+ human Nanchang strain) X (Am- avian
influenza A viruses)(1)
As presented in Table 3, the recombinants were
unable to replicate efficiently; the overall performance
was worse than the second set with the Singapore
1957(H2N2) strain. Scholtissek et al. tested the
human Nanchang strain with two different avian-like
swine strains with similarly poor results.
55
Figure 1: Experimental design of double infection of
MDCK cells and selection of influenza virus reassortants
that carry the HA gene of the avain virus and the M gene of
the amantadine-resistant variant of the human Singapore
influenza virus. The hyperimmune antiserum (αH2) was
directed against the HA of the human Singapore virus.
Table 2: Plaque yields (PFU) and maximum plaque after
single or dougle infection of MDCK cells with the human
Singapore and avain or swine influenza A viruses.
Figure 1. Scholtissek et al.’s (2002) experimental design to test for
compatibility between human M-gene and avian HA. From Cooperation
between the Hemagglutinin of Avian Viruses and the Matrix Protein of
Human Influenza A Viruses Christoph Scholtissek, Jürgen Stech, Scott
Krauss, and Robert G. Webster J. Virol. February 2002 76:1781-1786;
doi:10.1128/JVI.76.4.1781-1786.2002
Table 1: Plaque yields (PFU) and maximum plaque
diameters after a 20-h single or double infection with
human PR8 and avian influenza A viruses.
a
Anti-H2 antiserum (1:200 dilution in PBS) was used to select against human HA, and amantadine
(4 μg/ml in the agar overlay) was used to select against avian and swine M genes.
b
An amantadine-resistant Singapore variant was used.
Table 2. Table from Scholtissek et al. (2002) to illustrate plaque yields
and diameters for human Singapore strain and avian influenza A. From
Cooperation between the Hemagglutinin of Avian Viruses and the Matrix
Protein of Human Influenza A Viruses Christoph Scholtissek, Jürgen
Stech, Scott Krauss, and Robert G. Webster J. Virol. February 2002
76:1781-1786; doi:10.1128/JVI.76.4.1781-1786.2002
DISCUSSION
If the reassortants produce a great yield in clear plaques,
it implies that the parent viruses successfully exchanged
genomes and that their HA genes are homologous.
Data Interpretation
a
Anti-HI antiserum (1:100 dilution in PBS) was used to select against human HA, and amantadine
(4 μg/ml in the agar overlay) was used to select against avian M genes.
b
The PR8 virus is naturally amantadine resistant (5).
Table 1. Table from Scholtissek et al. (2002) to illustrate plaque yields and
diameters for human strains of PR8 and avian influenza A. From Cooperation
between the Hemagglutinin of Avian Viruses and the Matrix Protein of Human
Influenza A Viruses Christoph Scholtissek, Jürgen Stech, Scott Krauss,
and Robert G. Webster J. Virol. February 2002 76:1781-1786; doi:10.1128/
JVI.76.4.1781-1786.2002
56
It was concluded that in order to produce a
highly virulent strain, the human strain must be
phylogenetically similar to the avian strain. This can be
observed with the PR8 strains, as most reassortants
were able to provide similar-sized plaques as their
parent viruses (no selection). All the reassortants
were sequenced to find that they contained the human
M genes of PR8. The less homologous the parent
viruses, the less compatible the avian and human
HA. Referring to table 3 with the Nanchang/95 strain,
none of the reassortants were able to produce viable
plaques, indicating poor cooperation. By successfully
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-022
Table 3: Plaque yields (PFU) and maximum plaque sizes
after single or double infection of MDCK cells with the
human Nanchang and avain or swine influenza A viruses.
forming a stable virus population within a mammalian
host, the avian influenza virus forms a stable lineage.
It increases the chances of surpassing the species
barrier that prevents it from easily infecting humans.
This finding is illustrated in Table 2, where only a few
avian and avian-like swine strains were successful in
recombination resulting in reasonably-sized plaques.
Errors
a
Anti-H3 antiserum (1:100 dilution in PBS) was used to select against human HA, and amantadine
(4 μg/ml in the agar overlay) was used to select against avian and swine M genes.
b
An amantadine-resistant Nanchang variant was used.
c
The anti-H3 antiserum used did not neutralize the A/Duck/Uktraine/63 (H3N8) virus.
Table 3. Table from Scholtissek et al. (2002) to illustrate plaque yields
and diameters for human Nanchang strain and avian influenza A. From
Cooperation between the Hemagglutinin of Avian Viruses and the Matrix
Protein of Human Influenza A Viruses Christoph Scholtissek, Jürgen
Stech, Scott Krauss, and Robert G. Webster J. Virol. February 2002
76:1781-1786; doi:10.1128/JVI.76.4.1781-1786.2002
Figure 2: Host and lineage origins for the gene segments
of the 2009 A(H1N1) virus: PB2, PB1, PA, HA, NP, NA, M,
NS. Color of gene segment in circle indicates host.
Figure 2. Host and lineage origins for the gene segments of the 2009
A(H1N1) virus: PB2, PB1, PA, HA, NP, NA, M, NS. Colour of the
gene segment indicates the host. From R. J. Garten, C. T. Davis et.
al. SCIENCE. 325, 5937 (2009). Reprinted with permission from the
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS).
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-022
Although experiments were conducted twice to ensure
that the data were reproducible, unexpected results
occurred. For example, the evolution of plaques to
become amantadine-sensitive was possible due to
the lack of amantadine present and the nature of
heterozygotic M-genes which determine the virus’
resistance. Another explanation would be the chance
of spontaneous mutation where a rare amantadineresistant variant of the avian influenza viruses were
to form.1 The experimental model required human
influenza viruses to be (Am+) and therefore, it would
have skewed the survival rate of the cells.
Critical Analysis of Experimental Procedure
It is interesting that the Scholtissek et al. model
assumes that avian HA and human M genes are the
most relevant in determining cooperation between
parent viruses. The influenza virion contains 8 main
segments of viral RNA, two of which are HA and M.
Recent studies on the origin of previous pandemic
strains imply that 1918 A(H1N1), 1957 A(H2N2) and
1968 A(H3N2) were products of complex reassortment.
(3-4)
For instance, the 2009 A(H1N1) pandemic is
believed to have been caused by the recombinant of
at least three different swine viruses that were stable
and circulating in Eurasia and America(4,6) (Figure 2),
and not a simple reassortment between an avian and
a human strain. Amongst the parent viruses, one of the
Eurasian swine viruses’ neuraminidase (NA) and M
genes derived from a wholly-avian influenza virus.4 This
interaction is similar to the second set of experiments
where the avian-like swine viruses were successfully
reassorted with the Sing/57 (H2N2) strain, except with
different genes. This implies that pandemic-planning
should not focus on genetic recombination, but must
consider reservoirs and how easily the virus may infect
and accumulate within the host.
57
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Although the chances of an influenza A pandemic
circulating with HA subtypes other than 1, 2, and 3 is
not possible, it is important to conduct further research
in pandemic planning to prepare for future outbreaks.
It takes series of multiple complex reassortments
between many different stable circulating strains
to form a potentially highly pathogenic novel strain.
Further research needs to be done on influenza A
reservoirs. Examples include swine and Eurasian
swine as they have both “avian” type and “human”
type HA receptors, enabling a low species barrier for
mixing and distribution of different influenza A strains.
Future research will be effective in seeking potential
causes and virulence in pandemics.
ABBREVIATIONS
HAHemagglutinin
M
Matrix
TCPK
Tosylsulfonyl Phenylalanyl Chloromethyl
Ketone-treated Trypsin
PB2
Polymerase Basic 2
PA
Polymerase Acidic
PBS
Phosphate-Buffered Saline
AM+Amantadine-Resistant
AM-Amantadine-Sensitive
MDCK
Madin-Darby Canine Kidney Cells
NA
Neuraminidase
PB1
Polymerase Basic 1
NP
Nucleoprotein
NS
Nonstructural Gene
KEY WORDS Influenza; Pandemic; Hemagglutinin;
Matrix; Reassortant
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thank you to my mentor, Dr. Aaron Farnsworth for his
guidance and patience. I’d like to thank my student
editor, Ksenia Rybkina, for her feedback on my
paper. I would like to acknowledge the authors and
others involved from the Department of Virology and
Pathology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital,
who made the experimental model and the article
58
possible. I also would like to thank Dr. Robert Webster,
the corresponding author of Scholtissek et al. article,
for granting me permission in reviewing it.
REFERENCES
1. Scholtissek, C.; Stech, J.; Krauss, S.; Webster,
R. Cooperation Between The Hemagglutinin Of
Avian Viruses And The Matrix Protein Of Human
Influenza A Viruses. Journal of Virology 2002, 76,
1781-1786.
2. Ma, W.; Vincent, A.; Gramer, M.; Brockwell,
C.; Lager, K.; Janke, B.; Gauger, P.; Patnayak,
D.; Webby, R.; Richt, J. Identification Of H2N3
Influenza A Viruses From Swine In The United
States. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 2007, 104, 20949-20954.
3. Wei, G.; Meng, W.; Guo, H.; Pan, W.; Liu, J.;
Peng, T.; Chen, L.; Chen, C. Potent Neutralization
Of Influenza A Virus By A Single-Domain Antibody
Blocking M2 Ion Channel Protein. PLoS ONE
2011, 6, e28309.
4. Garten, R.; Davis, C.; Russell, C.; Shu, B.;
Lindstrom, S.; Balish, A.; Sessions, W.; Xu,
X.; Skepner, E.; Deyde, V. et al. Antigenic And
Genetic Characteristics Of Swine-Origin 2009
A(H1N1) Influenza Viruses Circulating In Humans.
Science 2009, 325, 197-201.
5. Smith, G.; Bahl, J.; Vijaykrishna, D.; Zhang,
J.; Poon, L.; Chen, H.; Webster, R.; Peiris, J.;
Guan, Y. Dating The Emergence Of Pandemic
Influenza Viruses. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 2009, 106, 11709-11712.
6. Charoenvisal, N.; Keawcharoen, J.; Sreta,
D.; Chaiyawong, S.; Nonthabenjawan, N.;
Tantawet, S.; Jittimanee, S.; Arunorat, J.;
Amonsin, A.; Thanawongnuwech, R. Genetic
Characterization Of Thai Swine Influenza Viruses
After The Introduction O Pandemic H1N1 2009.
Virus Genes 2013, 47, 75-85.
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-022
ARTICLES
LE POTENTIEL THÉRAPEUTIQUE D’UN LIPIDE DE L’AVOCAT
(AVOCATIN B) POUR LE TRAITEMENT DES LEUCÉMIES
AIGUËS MYÉLOBLASTIQUES
Tarek Omaiche
11e année (Grade 11), Collègue catholique Samuel-Genest, Conseil des écoles catholique du Centre-Est (CECCE) (Ottawa, Ontario)
Mentor : Tatiana Scorza (Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM)
ABSTRAIT FRANCAIS
De nos jours, le traitement le plus répandu contre les cancers est la chimiothérapie. C’est une pratique qui se résume
à l’utilisation des médicaments qui tuent les cellules qui se divisent rapidement. Cependant, la chimiothérapie
est inefficace pour le traitement de certains cancers comme la leucémie aigüe myéloblastique(LMA).Ce type du
cancer affecte les cellules souches responsables de la production des plaquettes, des globules rouges et blancs.
Cette approche est souvent trop intense puisqu’elle tue les normales cellulaires qui sont important pour la
fonction du corps. Dans ce contexte, le professeur Paul Spagnuolo et son équipe à l’Université de Waterloo ont
récemment reporté l’existence d’un lipide de l’avocat nommé l’avocatin B, qui peut efficacement tuer les cellules
souches cancéreuses leucémiques sans endommager les cellules souches normales. L’avocatin B affecte
l’oxydation des acides gras et réduit la production de l’NADPH, l’NAD et le GSH, des molécules essentielles pour
le contrôle du stress oxydatif cellulaire. [1] En absence des défenses anti-oxydantes, les cellules cancéreuses
succombent à la mort cellulaire programmée (apoptose).
ENGLISH ABSTRACT
Now a days the most common treatment against cancer is chemotheraphy.This is a practise which uses
medications who kills rapidly diving cells.Chemotheraphy is an ineffective treatment against certain cancers
like acute myelodi leukemia(AML).This type of cancer affects the stem cells respondisble for the production of
platelets,red and white blood cells.This approach is often to much/intense since it kills normal cells which are
mportnat for the function of the body.In this context,Dr.Paul Spagnulo and his team at the University of Waterloo
have recently reported dthe existence of a lipid in avacodo’s called avocatin B,which can effectively kill the
cancer cells without damaging the normal cells.Avocatin B affects the oxidation of fatty acids and reduces(?) the
production of NADPH, NAD and GSH; molecules that are essential for the control of oxidative stress.[1] These
factors eventually lead to a programmed cell death (apoptosis).
INTRODUCTION
Le cycle de vie cellulaire est normalement un processus
précis et régulé par plusieurs points de contrôle. Ces
points s’assurent que la cellule se divise seulement
lorsqu’elle est en santé et lorsque le corps en a
besoin. De cette façon, le corps a toujours la quantité
précise de cellules pour effectuer les tâches de façon
efficace. Un cancer se produit lorsqu’une mutation
dans l’ADN amène aux cellules à se reproduire
rapidement et sans restriction, formant des tumeurs
et des amas cellulaires mobiles et anormaux qui
prennent la place et l’énergie des cellules normales.
Ces mutations peuvent êtres favorisées par des
cancérogènes comme le tabac, l’alcool, la pollution
et la radiation.La leucémie aigüe myéloblastique
(LAM) est un type de cancer qui affecte les cellules
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-023
souches de la moelle osseuse responsables de la
production des globules rouges, des globules blancs
et des plaquettes. Les cellules souches anormales
se divisent rapidement et causent la diminution en
nombre des globules normaux. Le mot aigu signifie
que la maladie se développe rapidement durant une
petite période de temps et le mot myéloblastique
vient de l’origine myéloïde, qui est un type de cellule
précurseur qui peut générer soit des globules rouges,
des granulocytes ou des plaquettes.
En 2010, 1215 Canadiens ont été diagnostiqués
avec la LAM dont 670 étaient des hommes et 545
étaient des femmes. [2] En 2011, 971 Canadiens
sont décédés de cette maladie dont 545 étaient
59
des hommes et 426 étaient des femmes. [2] Les cas
des LAM au Canada sont en augmentation lente.
En 2006, 1053 personnes ont été diagnostiquées,
comparé aux 1215 personnes en 2010. [2] Puisque
la leucémie est beaucoup plus commune chez les
adultes de 60 ans et plus, les cas vont continuer à
augmenter à cause du baby-boom.
Les différences entre les cellules normales et
leucémiques
Comparés aux cellules normales, les cellules
leucémiques myéloblastiques ont plus des
mitochondries. [1] Ces derniers sont des organites
à double membrane qui contiennent leur propre
ADN et dont le rôle principale est de transformer
des molécules nutritifs (substrats) en énergie sous
forme d’ATP, grâce au cycle de Krebs retrouvé dans
la matrice et à la chaine de transport d’électrons
retrouvé sur la membrane interne. [4]
Les mitochondries dans les cellules myéloblastiques
normales et leucémiques ne sont pas responsables de
la production d’ATP, puisque ces cellules obtiennent
leur énergie par glycolyse aérobie. [5] Normalement,
le métabolisme catabolique d’une cellule noncancéreuse est divisé en trois étages : la glycolyse, le
cycle de Krebs et la chaine de transport d’électrons.
La glycolyse se passe dans le cytoplasme de la
cellule et n’a pas besoin d’oxygène pour fonctionner.
Dans le processus, la molécule de glucose est
scindée et oxydée en 2 pyruvates, produisant 2 ATP
et 2 NADH, H+ (molécule qui transporte un électron
et un ion d’hydrogène). Le cycle de Krebs (ou cycle
de l’acide citrique) profite des pyruvates générés lors
de la glycolyse pour générer à son tour 2 molécules
d’ATP, 6 molécules de NADH et 2 molécules de
FADH2 (molécule ayant le même travail que le
NADH). Le cycle de Krebs, qui a lieu dans la matrice
mitochondriale, intervient dans le métabolisme des
glucides, des lipides et protéines mais est surtout
connu pour permette la production d’énergie (GTP)
et des NADH, H+ et FADH2 servant à alimenter la
chaine de transport d’électrons. Cette dernière se
trouve sur la membrane interne de la mitochondrie
et utilise l’oxygène pour fonctionner. Dans cette
chaine constituée de transporteurs d’électrons,
les électrons des NADH, H+ et FADH2 sont attirés
par des complexes de plus en plus électronégatifs,
60
finissant avec l’oxygène, pour produire de l’eau avec
des hydrogènes. Lors du transport, des protons sont
pompés vers l’espace entre les deux membranes
mitochondriales, causant leur accumulation et la
création d’un gradient électrochimique. Pour revenir
à la matrice de la mitochondrie, les protons passent
par un complexe enzymatique, l’ATP synthétase, en
produisant 34 molécules d’ATP. [3] Par contre, même
en présence d’oxygène, les cellules cancéreuses
obtiennent leur énergie par glycolyse seulement, un
phénomène connu sous l’effet Warburg [5].
Le rôle des mitochondries
Pour la majorité des cellules normales, le rôle mieux
connu des mitochondries est la production de l’énergie
chimique dans le processus de la respiration cellulaire.
Par contre, les mitochondries sont aussi impliquées
dans l’apoptose, la différenciation cellulaire et le
cycle cellulaire. Par contre, la raison pour laquelle il
y a beaucoup plus de mitochondries chez les cellules
de LAM (même si elles ne sont pas responsables de
la production d’énergie) n’est pas encore connue.
[1] [6]
Dans une investigation dans le mécanisme
du fonctionnement de l’avocatin B, les recherches
ont démontré que la cytotoxicité de ce lipide était
directement reliée aux mitochondries. [1] En effet,
les cellules avec peu de mitochondries n’étaient pas
sensibles à l’avocatin B.
Les résultats et le fonctionnement de l’avocatin B
De tous les produits naturels ayant des propriétés
anti-leucémiques, l’avocatin B a eu le plus d’effet. [1]
Lorsque les chercheurs ont ajouté une concentration
de 3 micromoles/L de cette molécule sur des cellules
leucémiques et normales, il y a eu le décès évident des
cellules cancéreuses sans affecter les cellules saines.
L’avocatin B a aussi réduit la capacité des cellules
leucémiques à se greffer à la moelle des souris. [1] Avec
ce traitement, la phosphatidylserine, la protéine AIF
(apoptosis Inducing Factor) et le cytochrome c, (qui
fait partie de la chaine de transporteur d’électrons),
retrouvés normalement à l’intérieur des mitochondries,
ont été détectées dans le cytoplasme des cellules.
Lors du traitement des cellules leucémiques avec de
l’avocatin B et avec du palmitate (l’acide gras le plus
commun dans les animaux et qui a 16 carbones),
l’oxydation du palmitate a été diminué. Puisque
l’avocatin B est un lipide de seulement 17 carbones,
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-023
il a pu entrer dans les mitochondries et empêcher
l’oxydation du palmitate. Il semble évident que les
mitochondries ont une plus grande préférence pour
l’avocatin B que pour le palmitate, mais la raison pour
ceci n’est pas encore connue. [1] Lorsque l’oxydation
du palmitate est diminuée, la cellule produit moins
d’énergie et moins de substances essentielles à sa
survie comme le NADPH. Ce dernier est requis pour la
régénération de glutathionne réduit (GSH) à partir de
sa forme oxydée (GSSG), qui sert à contrer le stress
oxydatif cellulaire causé par les espèces.
Ces derniers sont des molécules très réactives contenant
de l’oxygène, comme le peroxyde d’hydrogène. Elles
endommagent les cellules via l’oxydation des lipides
membranaires, des protéines et même de l’ADN.
Ces espèces sont générées naturellement lors de la
production de l’énergie dans la chaine de transport
d’électrons. Dans un corps normal, des antioxydants
comme le GSH sont responsables de réduire les ROS
et les rendre non-dangereux. Le déséquilibre entre les
ROS et les antioxydants est connu comme le stress
oxydatif. Le GSH réduit cède un ou plusieurs électrons
aux ROS pour les réduire. Le glutathion oxydé (GSSG)
redevient le GSH en oxydant le NADPH. Dans des
cellules cancéreuses traités avec de l’avocatin B, le
montant de NADPH diminue, ce qui diminue aussi le
montant de GSH réduit. En conséquence, les ROS
vont alors augmenter et pourront tuer la cellule.
RÉFÉRENCES
1. Lee, Eric. Angka, Leonard. Rota, Sarah-Grace.
Targeting Mitochondria with Avocatin B Induces
Selective Leukemia Cell Death. The Journal of
Cancer Research [Online] 2015.
2. Acute Myelogenous Leukemia. Canadian Cancer
Society [Online] 2014.
3. Rumjanek, Nivea. Valencia, Juan Perez.
Rodrigues, Mariana. How Does the Metabolism
of Tumor Cells Differ From That of Normal Cells.
Bioscience Reports [Online] 2013.
4. Structure of Mitochondria. Experimental Biosciences
[Online] 2005.
5. Vander Heiden, Matthew. Cantley, Lewis.
Thompson, Craig. Understanding the Warburg
Effect: The Metabolic Requirements of Cell
Proliferation. Author Manuscript [Online] 2009.
6. Verschoor, M. Ungard, R. Harbottle, A.
Mitochondria and Cancer: Past, Present, and Future.
Biomed Research International [Online] 2013.
En résumé, l’avocatin B pénètre et s’accumule dans
les mitochondries, affecte l’oxydation des acides gras,
réduit la production de l’NADPH et du GSH et rend la
cellule susceptible à la mort par stress oxydatif. .
CONCLUSION ET DISCUSSION
La découverte de l’avocatin B est prometteuse pour
le traitement de la LAM. Par contre, il reste plusieurs
imprécisions et inconnus sur la fonction particulière
des mitochondries dans les cellules cancéreuses ainsi
que le mécanisme d’action de l’avocatin B. À titre
d’exemple, il reste encore à comprendre pourquoi il y a
plus de mitochondries dans les cellules leucémiques.
Puisque la découverte de l’avocatin B est récente,
d’autres recherches sont nécessaires pour comprendre
pourquoi les mitochondries ont une plus grande affinité
pour l’avocatin B que pour la palmitate, et pourquoi
l’avocatin B agit sur des cellules avec un plus grand
nombre de mitochondries
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-023
61
ARTICLES
A REVIEW OF ADULT IDIOPATHIC AND DEGENERATIVE
SCOLIOSIS
Fatima Sheikh
Grade 11, Garth Webb Secondary School, Halton District School Board (Oakville, Ontario), Mentor: Dr. Stephen Brown (University of Guelph)
ABSTRACT
Adult scoliosis can be classified into two groups, either degenerative scoliosis or idiopathic scoliosis. These
two types of scoliosis vary in patient age, progression, and physical presentation. In adult idiopathic scoliosis,
spurs form as a result of the onset of arthritis in the joints of the spine, resulting in back pain and in many cases
deformity. On the other hand, in adult degenerative scoliosis, the degeneration of discs can lead to numbness
and shooting pains that radiate down the leg. It is for this reason that surgical methods must be carefully weighed
and considered to account for the major symptoms to prevent postoperative complications. With improvements
in surgical treatments, more attention should be paid to improving the patient’s quality of life as a part of the
follow up procedures. Ultimately, once a diagnosis has been reached, based on the symptoms and any other
illnesses, all aspects of the treatment should be considered in order to prevent postoperative complications, to
relieve symptoms and to improve overall quality of life. A variety of papers and studies were thoroughly reviewed
and studied before writing this review paper, including “Evaluation of quality of life and risk factors affecting
quality go life in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis” and “Surgical Treatment of Adult Degenerative Scoliosis”.
La scoliose — plus spécifiquement la scoliose adulte — peut être classée en deux catégories, soit la scoliose
adulte dégénérative ou la scoliose adulte idiopathique. Ces deux types de scoliose varient en fonction de l’âge du
patient, la progression, et la représentation physique. Dans la scoliose adulte idiopathique, la formation d’éperons
survient à cause de l’arthrite dans les articulations de la colonne vertébrale ce qui entraîne des douleurs au dos
et dans de nombreux cas, une difformité. D’autre part, dans la scoliose adulte dégénérative, la dégénérescence
des disques peut engendrer un engourdissement et des douleurs fulgurantes qui irradient jusqu’au bas de la
jambe. C’est pour cela que les méthodes chirurgicales doivent être mûrement réfléchies et dûment évaluées
pour tenir compte des principaux symptômes afin de prévenir les complications postopératoires. Avec le progrès
des traitements chirurgicaux, plus d’attention devrait être accordée à l’amélioration de la qualité de vie du patient
dans les procédures de suivi. En fin de compte, une fois que le diagnostic a été déterminé, les symptômes
et tout autres maladies, ainsi que tous les aspects du traitement doivent être envisagés afin de prévenir les
complications postopératoires, soulager les symptômes et améliorer la qualité de vie globale.
INTRODUCTION
Adult scoliosis is defined as an abnormal curve in the
spine greater than ten degrees in an individual who
is at least eighteen years old, or skeletally mature.1
If the curvature of the spine is mild, then detection
is often difficult without x-ray imaging. However,
moderate and severe scoliosis can be seen due to
an asymmetry of the back, tilted waistline and skin
folds. There are several different types of scoliosis,
but in adults, most fall into two distinct categories:
either adult idiopathic scoliosis or adult degenerative
scoliosis.1 Symptoms associated with adult scoliosis
are due to the degeneration of structures that support
the spine, often referred to as arthritis of the spine.
Arthritis coupled with the narrowing of disc spaces
between each vertebra affects the space available
62
for the nerves, resulting in the potential development
of spinal stenosis or other neurological disorders.
In addition to the low back pain and stiffness, adult
scoliosis is accompanied by sagittal and coronal
imbalance as well.2 As the spine loses its structural
stability and the curvatures increase, symptoms can
be severely painful and include back pain, stooped
posture and radiating pain to the legs. Patients
may also encounter difficulty walking as a result of
the numbness, tingling and weakening in the legs.3
Since adult scoliosis is diverse in characteristics and
presentation, sometimes presenting with more than
one chronic illness, conservative and nonconservative
methods should be considered with regards to the
treatment of the patient.
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-024
ADULT DEGENERATIVE AND IDIOPATHIC SCOLIOSIS
Identification of Adult Scoliosis
Adult scoliosis is commonly classified into two distinct
types, adult degenerative scoliosis and adult idiopathic
scoliosis. Adult degenerative scoliosis, or adult “De
Novo”, begins post-adulthood, commonly after the
age of fifty. As a result of the disc degeneration, disc
spaces begin to collapse, tilting the disc and adding
more pressure on one side of the spine. In addition
to the disc degeneration, the arthritis of the adjacent
facet joints causes back pain, numbness and shooting
pain radiating down the patient’s leg.1
The other category of adult scoliosis is adult idiopathic
scoliosis. Adult idiopathic scoliosis normally begins in
the teenage years and progresses into adulthood.
According to the Scoliosis Research Society (SRS),
curvatures below thirty degrees are unlikely to
progress further into adulthood, but a curve greater
than fifty degrees is likely to increase. Unlike adult
degenerative scoliosis which is only seen in the
lumbar spine, adult idiopathic scoliosis can be present
in the thoracic and lumbar spine.4 As the patient
ages, the curvature can increase as the severity of
disc degeneration increases. Settling of the spinal
segments and discs often causes patients to lean
forward, leading to sagittal imbalance. Similar to
adult degenerative scoliosis, patients with idiopathic
scoliosis can suffer from back pain and, in serious
cases, shooting pain down the legs as a result of
pinched nerves. Both forms of adult scoliosis have
distinct characteristics and symptoms, therefore
different diagnostic methods have been developed.
In 2006, the SRS introduced a method of classifying
adult spinal deformity, in which the form of the
curvature is categorized into six different types,
referencing the Lenke classification for adolescent
idiopathic scoliosis.5 However, this method does not
help to choose a surgical procedure due to the fact
that the patient’s age and symptoms are not taken
into consideration. Another method of classification,
the Aebi method, categorizes adult scoliosis into three
types based on the cause of deformity. This helps
to predict the course of the illness, but once again
does not help to determine the appropriate surgical
method. The final method of classification, the
Schwab method, looks at the correlation between the
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-024
radiological findings and the clinical evaluation.6 This
system is also limited, proving that each method of
classification, although useful in one way or another,
has its limitations. Therefore it is important to consider
all possible factors in order to offer a comprehensive
and viable therapy for adult scoliosis patients.
Conservative Treatment
According to the work of Kyu-Jung Cho and his
colleagues, “conservative treatment does not
effectively improve the diverse symptoms” of adult
scoliosis2. However, most commonly a conservative
approach is often taken first before looking at surgical
options.7 To start, patients undergo a guided back
strengthening program followed by a rehabilitation
program to re-condition the muscles and to improve
support. In some cases, particularly in patients with
severe instability, a brace is used to give additional
support. In general, patients must engage in exercises
on a daily basis and maintain overall healthy lifestyle
in order for the treatments to be successful. The
success of non-surgical methods is based on a case
to case basis.
Non-Conservative Treatment
Surgical treatments become an option after
conservative methods have failed, and radiating pain
and intermittent claudication are present.8 Both the
patient and surgeon need take into consideration the
risk of the surgery, underlying causes and symptoms.
Once surgery has been chosen for a patient, the
overall condition, stiffness of the curve and coronal
and sagittal imbalance should be considered in
order to choose the correct surgical method. For
example, if the patient also had osteoporosis this
can weaken the strength of the fixation and cause
pseudarthrosis. For this reason it is important to not
only consider the symptoms of the scoliosis, but to
also consider other chronic diseases and conditions
that may co-exist with the adult scoliosis in order
to prevent postoperative complications5. Surgical
options for adult scoliosis include: decompression,
decompression and short fusion, or selection of fusion
level for correction of deformity. Decompression alone
is not usually recommended for patients, unless
the primary issue is spinal stenosis. On the other
hand, if spondylolisthesis is present, a patient may
be recommended to undergo decompression and
63
fusion.9 Decompression and short fusion consists of
only fusing a small area, and is used on patients with
moderate scoliosis. Decompression and long fusion
is used when the scoliosis curve larger and can not
be corrected through short fusion.
The goal of surgery is to relieve the patient’s symptoms,
stabilize the spine to avoid future complications and
minimize postoperative complications.
As surgical and non-surgical methods improve and
continue to develop, more focus is being put on the
quality of life (QoL) for individuals with scoliosis.
QoL can be affected by a number of factors, but it
is ultimately an important part of the postoperative
follow up, allowing for early psychological intervention
and overall mental and physical well being for the
patient.10 In adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS),
several surveys, specifically designed for scoliosis,
accounting for the patient’s health status, pain and
satisfaction. Similar methods could be used to
incorporate Qol for patients with adult scoliosis. The
individual’s quality of life is now being considered
a part of the perioperative considerations and
postoperative care.11 QoL along with the other factors,
underlying condition etc, should be of equal emphasis
for patients with scoliosis.
CONCLUSION
Adult scoliosis is a debilitating disease that is
classified into adult idiopathic scoliosis and adult
degenerative scoliosis. Patients with adult scoliosis
present with back pain, one of the most common
symptoms of adult scoliosis. The back pain is present
in up to 80% of patients and is often a result of
degenerative changes in the lumbar disc2. The first
step in treating adult scoliosis is for the patient to
enroll in a back strengthening program followed by
a rehabilitation program to re-condition the muscles.
These methods of treatments can take anywhere
from weeks to months for the patient to experience
any improvements and relief of their symptoms.
Unfortunately, since adult scoliosis is symptomatically
diverse, non-surgical methods are often insufficient in
relieving the patient’s symptoms and correcting the
illness. At this time, once conservative methods have
been attempted and symptoms have progressed
to radiating pain down to the leg(s) and increased
64
deformity, surgical options should be considered.
Once surgery is recommended, everything from the
underlying cause to the symptoms of the patient must
be taken into consideration5. Each step of the surgical
process must be carefully considered to maximize the
success. For example large amounts of blood loss is
common; however can result in complications such as
a pulmonary embolism or respiratory failure, therefore
blood loss should be minimized and other strategies
used to avoid such complications. In addition to the
regular postoperative procedures, such as radiological
studies, QoL of the patient should be included in the
follow-up procedures, especially for patients with
adolescent scoliosis10. In conclusion, adult idiopathic
and degenerative scoliosis have diverse symptoms,
and therefore treatment should consider all factors in
order for the patient to receive maximum relief, and
the highest quality of life possible.
REFERENCES
1. Adult Scoliosis. (n.d.). Retrieved August 10, 2015,
Retrived from: http://www.srs.org/patient_and_
family/scoliosis/idiopathic/adults/
2. Cho, K., Kim, Y., Shin, S., & Suk, S. (2013).
Surgical Treatment of Adult Degenerative
Scoliosis. Asian Spine Journal.
3. Degenerative Adult Scoliosis. (n.d.). Retrieved
August 24, 2015, from http://umm.edu/programs/
spine/health/guides/degenerative-adult-scoliosis
4. Cheung, W., & Luk, K. (n.d.). Classification of
adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Retrieved August
10, 2015.
5. Ellwitz, J., & Gupta, M. (2013). Adult Degenerative
Scoliosis. Spine Surgery Basics, 247-258.
6. S, B., F, S., V, L., Cl, S., & Cp, A. (n.d.).
Classifications for adult spinal deformity and use
of the Scoliosis Research Society-Schwab Adult
Spinal Deformity Classification. Retrieved August 9,
2015, from PubMed.
7. Cunningham, M., Burton, D., Shaffrey, C., &
Shelokov, A. (2009, September 1). Pain and
Disability Determine Treatment Modality for Older
Patients With Adult Scoliosis, While Deformity
Guides Treatment for Younger Patient. Retrieved
August 10, 2015.
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-024
8. Kostuik, J., & Errico, T. (n.d.). Adult Idiopathic
Scoliosis and Degenerative Scoliosis. Surgical
Management of Spinal Deformities, 307-342.
12. Birknes, J., Harrop, J., White, A., Albert, T., &
Shaffrey, C. (n.d.). Adult Degenerative Scoliosis.
Neurosurgery.
9. Kostuik, & John, P. (1983, Jul 1). Spinal Fusions
to the Sacrum in Adults with Scoliosis. : Spine.
Retrieved August 10, 2015.
13. Lee, J., Yang, J., & Kim, K. (n.d.). Surgical
Treatment of Degenerative Lumbar Scoliosis with
Multiple Spinal Stenosis. J Korean Soc Spine
Surg Journal of Korean Society of Spine Surgery,
197-197.
10. Han, J., Xu, Q., Yang, Y., Yao, Z., & Zang,
C. (n.d.). Evaluation of quality of life and risk
factors affecting quality of life in adolescent
idiopathic scoliosis.
14. Lenke. (n.d.). Lenke Classification System for
Scoliosis. Retrieved August 10, 2015.
11. Bradford, D., Tay, B., & Hu, S. (n.d.). Adult
Scoliosis: Surgical Indications, Operative
Management, Complications, and Outcomes.
Spine, 2617-2617.
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-024
65
ARTICLES
HOW DOES CAFFEINE SUPPLEMENTATION AFFECT
MUSCULAR PERFORMANCE IN ADOLESCENT MALES?
Jamaal Stewart
Grade 11, White Oaks Secondary School, Halton District School Board (Oakville, Ontario), Mentor: Amanda MacFarlane (Health Canada)
ABSTRACT
Caffeine consumption has become increasingly popular among children, adolescents, and young adults around
the world 15. Many consumers indicate that they ingest caffeinated beverages to increase their energy and
compensate for insufficient sleep. The most common forms of supplementation include coffee, soda and energy
drinks such as “Monster Energy” and “Red Bull”. Increased caffeinated beverage consumption, especially among
youth, is controversial due to concerns surrounding the safety and effectiveness of caffeine supplementation.
Caffeinated products are often marketed as enhancing physical performance; This review investigates the efficacy
of caffeine supplementation on muscular performance, specifically in terms of muscle strength and endurance.
The results demonstrate a variable response to caffeine, with multiple studies demonstrating an increase in
muscular strength or endurance, while others showed no effect. Overall, studies lacked consistent evidence to
support the hypothesis that caffeine supplementation has beneficial effects on muscular performance, regardless
of the dose administered.
La consomption du caféine est devenue très populaire parmi les enfants, les adolescents, et les adultes autour
du monde. Plusieurs consommateurs indiquent qu’ils boivent les boissons raffinés comme source d’énergie
ou pour remplacer le manque de sommeil. Les formes de caféine plus communes incluent le café, le soda,
et les boissons d’énergie comme “Monster Energy” et “Red Bull”. L’augmentation des boissons cafféinés,
particulièrement parmi les jeunes, est en controverse au sujet de l’efficace et sécurité de sa consomption. On
voit souvent les avertissements des produits cafféinés comme les compléments actifs. Dans cette revue, j’ai
examiné l’efficace de caféine comme complément actif pour la performance musculaire, particulièrement au
sujet de la puissance et endurance. Les résultats démontrent une réponse variée au caféine ou quelques sujets
ont obtenu une amélioration en leur puissance et endurance musculaire, mais autres sujets n’ont pas démontré
des changements. En général, les recherches manquent l’évidence cohérent pour appuyer l’hypothèse que
la consomption du caféine produit les effets avantageux au sujet de la performance musculaire, peu importe
le dosage utilisé.
INTRODUCTION
Caffeine stimulates the central nervous system and
restores alertness. Following ingestion, caffeine
restricts adenosine receptors located throughout
the body, which are responsible for inhibiting the
release of various neurotransmitters2. The caffeine
does not slow down the cell’s activity like adenosine
does, allowing the nerve cells to speed up2. This
leads to heightened blood pressure, and greater
excretion of sodium and water, as well as acid and
pepsin2. Furthermore, caffeine increases reaction
time while also preventing lapses in attention and
improving one’s ability to stay awake2. Caffeine is
most commonly ingested in the form of coffee, soda,
and energy drinks15. In recent years, energy drinks
have achieved widespread popularity with products
66
like “Red Bull” and “Monster Energy” being promoted
as being able to enhance mental and physical
performance due to their high caffeine content
(accompanied by various other vitamins, stimulants).
An energy drink is a beverage used by consumers to
provide an extra boost in energy, containing caffeine
and sugar among other stimulants18. A recent study
concluded that within the United States, as much
as 31% of individuals between the ages of 12 and
17 regularly consume energy drinks, demonstrating
that these drinks are especially marketable towards
adolescents15.
Human anatomy contains two main classes of muscle
fibres, known as slow twitch and fast twitch muscle
fibres. These muscle fibres are controlled by motor
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-025
neurons, which are classified as either large or small
according to their cell body size and axon diameter14.
The larger motor neurons possess a high threshold
for synaptic stimulation and conduct action potentials
at a higher velocity, allowing them to control the fast
twitch muscle fibres14. The smaller motor neurons
have a lower threshold and react more slowly, so
they control the slow twitch muscle fibres. Fast twitch
muscle fibres contract quickly, and provide strength
and power when it is required. Because of this,
they are the fibres used when completing exercises
involving muscular strength, due to the need for an
intense burst of power over a short duration. On
the contrary, as their name suggests, slow twitch
muscle fibres contract slowly to allow for low intensity
repetitive contractions. Because of this unique quality,
slow twitch muscle fibres are essential for exercises
requiring muscular endurance.
This review will investigate the effect caffeine
supplementation has on muscular performance in
adolescent males, in terms of muscular endurance
and strength. More specifically, the review will
examine articles related to muscular enhancement
through the use of caffeine in different vehicles,
such as caffeinated energy drinks or pre-workout
supplements. In addition, the controversial aspects
of caffeine supplementation will be discussed. The
similarities and differences between the methods
used in the studies, composition of the supplements,
and the results have also been examined.
Muscular Endurance
Muscular endurance refers to the ability to move
one’s body or an object repeatedly, without feeling
fatigued. This is a crucial aspect of muscular
performance, and five separate studies attempted to
determine whether caffeine supplementation has a
significant effect on this attribute (Table 1). The first
study, conducted by Kendall KL et al. was a double
blind study that utilized 17 physically active male
participants (mean age 21 ± 4 years).
The participants in the supplement group were instructed
to take 46 g of a pre workout supplement containing 3.5
mg of caffeine per kilogram of body mass, 6 g of branch
chain amino acids (BCAA’s) 11, 5 g of creatine, 4 g of ß alanine, and 1.5 g of citrulline malate per serving9. One
hour after ingesting the supplement, the participants
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-025
performed repetitions until failure (no more repetitions
can be completed) for both the leg and bench press,
at 75% of their predetermined maximum weight. This
procedure was repeated daily for 28 days. The results
showed no significant increase in repetitions until failure
for either exercise, when compared to the placebo
group. The second study by Gallo-Salazar C et al. was
also double blind. The participants of this study were
sixteen male and female junior elite tennis players
(mean age 16 ± 1 years), tested on handgrip-strength,
maximal-velocity serving, and sprinting performance.
The participants selected for the supplement group
were given 3 mg of caffeine per kilogram of body mass,
60 minutes prior to performing the various tests. This
process was completed twice, and the sessions were
separated by a week’s time.
Upon completion of the trials, the results showed
that the supplement group was able to complete a
significantly higher amount of sprints, in comparison to
the placebo group. In a study by Michael J. Duncan et
al., the thirteen subjects were shown how to properly
perform the resistance exercises before participating
in the double blind study (mean age 22.7 ± 6 years).
Participants consumed 2.2 mg of caffeine per kilogram
of body mass 60 minutes prior to exercising. This was
repeated twice and the sessions were separated by
48-72 hours. The participants were required to complete
repetitions until failure for bench press, deadlift, prone
row, and back squat, at 60% of their one repetition
maximum weight. The supplement group produced
significantly better results in terms of repetitions to
failure on the bench press, deadlift, prone row, and
back squat. These results suggest that caffeine can
have a significant effect on muscular performance,
more specifically in terms of muscular endurance. In
a double blind study involving seventeen subjects by
Woolf K et al., the participants (mean age 20 ± 2 years)
in the supplement group ingested 5 mg of caffeine
per kilogram of body mass prior (the exact time is
unspecified) to completing a chest press, leg press,
and Wingate test. A Wingate test is an anaerobic test
that measures peak anaerobic power and capacity17.
The results showed no significant difference between
the groups in regards to muscular performance. Finally,
a double blind study by Astorino T. et al. consisted of
twenty-two male participants (mean age 23.4 ± 3.6 years)
who ingested 6 mg of caffeine per kilogram of body mass
67
60 minutes prior to completing the trials of repetitions
until failure for leg and bench press. This process was
completed twice, and the trials were separated by a
week. This study also showed no significant difference
between the supplement and placebo groups in regards
to muscular endurance. Overall, the results of these
studies vary and do not demonstrate that caffeine has
any effect on muscular endurance.
Muscular Strength
Muscular strength refers to the maximum amount of
force that a group of muscles can produce in order to
perform a task. This is the second aspect of muscular
performance to be examined and five studies set out
to determine if caffeine supplementation would have
any effect on an individual’s strength (Table 2). In the
study carried out by Kendall KL et al. the participants
also completed one repetition maximum for both bench
and leg press in order to determine the effects of the
pre workout supplement on muscular strength. There
was a notable increase in one repetition maximum
weight for the leg press in the supplement group when
contrasted to the placebo group, indicating an increase
in muscular strength as a direct result of the caffeine
supplementation. In the study conducted by GalloSalazar C et al. participants were tested on their hand
grip strength, maximal velocity serve, and instantaneous
running speeds. Hand grip strength was increased
4.2% ± 7.2% in comparison to the placebo group
and maximal running velocity alongside high intensity
running pace were also increased. The study by Glaister
M et al. included only male participants who performed
7 maximal 10 second sprints on an electromagnetically
braked cycle ergometer. In an attempt to determine
dose response effects, participants were given either
2, 4, 6, 8, or 10 mg of caffeine per kilogram of body
mass 60 minutes before completing the sessions. The
results showed no significant differences between any
of the doses for any of the tests and the placebo group
in terms of peak power, mean power, or time required
to reach peak power. Subjects participating in the study
conducted by Woolf K et al. completed a chest press,
leg press, and Wingate test. Greater peak power was
achieved during the Wingate test, and more chest press
weight was lifted in the supplement group than the
placebo group in this trial. In the study by Astorino T et
al. participants completed one repetition maximums for
bench and leg press. The results showed no significant
68
difference between the supplement and placebo groups.
The majority of these studies support the hypothesis that
caffeine has a notable effect on muscular performance,
specifically muscular strength.
There were a variety of similarities and differences
among the studies, in terms of the composition and
amount of supplementation used, methods of collecting
data, and results. Overall, the studies have not yet
clearly determined whether caffeine has a significant
effect on muscular performance in young males.
METHODS
The studies examining caffeine and muscular
performance varied, and the majority of the studies
attempted to determine whether caffeine affects
muscular performance in regards to endurance and
strength in a similar fashion. In most cases, the effect
on muscular endurance was determined by instructing
participants to perform as many repetitions until failure
as possible post supplementation, although there
were variations. For example, in the study organized
by Michael J. Duncan et al. the participants were
told to complete repetitions until failure for bench
press, deadlift, prone row, and back squat at 60% of
their one repetition maximum, whereas in the study
conducted at the US Sports Academy, the participants
were instructed to perform repetitions until failure
for bench press and leg press at 75% of their one
repetition maximum. Similarly, the majority of the
studies on muscular strength gathered data following
completion of their one repetition maximum, also with
some variations. On the other hand, other studies
tested muscular endurance and strength in completely
different ways. For example, the study conducted
by Gallo-Salazar C et al. tested muscular strength
through hand grip strength, maximal velocity serve,
and instantaneous running speeds. Furthermore,
in the study carried out by Glaister M. et al. the men
participated in seven 10 second maximal intensity
sprints in order to collect data on muscular strength.
In general, participants were instructed to ingest
caffeine supplements 60 minutes prior to performing
their corresponding trials. This is an ideal time
frame because it takes roughly 60 to 90 minutes for
caffeine levels to peak in your blood stream following
consumption 10. However, the study performed by
Kendall KL et al. directed the participants to ingest their
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-025
supplements 20 minutes before completing their trials.
This could have been detrimental to the results of the
study, as the caffeine levels would not have peaked
in the participant’s bloodstreams at this point. Lastly,
there was a common trend in regards to the current
physical state of the participants prior to the study. In
every case, the participants were required to be in good
shape physically, and all of them exercised regularly.
Supplementation Used/Levels
Most of the studies pursued a unique approach
regarding the supplementation they used, in terms
of the ingredients involved and the amount of
caffeine administered to the participants. Usually, the
participants ingested an energy drink that contained
a specific dose of caffeine per kilogram of body mass,
but in the trial conducted at the US Sports Academy by
Kendall KL et al. the researchers decided to utilize a pre
workout supplement powder that contained a variety
of different substances including BCAA’s, creatine,
β - alanine, and citrulline. These substances do not
allow the impact of caffeine on muscular performance
to be isolated because the other substances could
mitigate, enhance, or mask its effects. For example,
creatine, a central ingredient in this supplement, is an
organic amino acid that supplies energy to the body
by exchanging phosphate molecules with adenosine
diphosphate in order to produce adenine triphosphate
(ATP) 7. ATP is required for muscle contractions,
and excess amounts of creatine allow the body
to synthesize larger quantities of ATP, providing
a greater supply of energy to the muscles, thus
reducing muscular fatigue. Because the supplement
contains both creatine and caffeine, it cannot be
determined whether an increase in muscular strength
is a direct result of the caffeine and/or creatine in the
powder. This is also the case with β - alanine, which
is converted into carnosine when ingested, and aids
in increasing muscle strength and endurance. The
caffeine supplement “Quick Energy” used in the study
by Michael J Duncan et al. also contained a variety of
different stimulants and vitamins, which would also
have an effect on the results. The study by Glaister
M et al. aimed at determining whether there was a
dose response to caffeine, and the participants were
subjected to varying levels of caffeine. Ultimately
the study concluded that there is no notable dose
response to caffeine.
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-025
The majority of the other studies focused on utilizing
a supplement that lacked various other ingredients
that would be detrimental to isolating the effects of
caffeine on muscular performance. The caffeine
content ranged from as low as 2 mg of caffeine per
kilogram of body mass, to as high as 10 mg of caffeine
per kilogram of body mass. Most commonly, the dose
was set between 3 and 6 mg of caffeine per kilogram
of body mass
In these trials, more specifically the trials in which
the caffeine supplementation improved muscular
performance, a variety of caffeine doses were used.
The lowest amount of caffeine used that still produced
an effect was 2.2 mg per kilogram of body mass 10.
Using these results, the caffeine content used in this
study by Michael J. Duncan et al. can be compared to
that of energy drinks and other caffeinated beverages
sold commercially, and determine if they would
actually improve muscular performance. A standard
8 oz. can of “Red Bull” contains 1 mg of caffeine per
kilogram of body mass, which is less than half of the
2.2 mg per kilogram of body mass. This suggests
that ingesting a can of Red Bull would have little or
no effect on muscular performance, assuming that
caffeine has an effect. “Monster Energy” is sold in a
16 oz. can and contains 2 mg of caffeine per kilogram
of body mass (when using the average body mass of
80 kg) which is relatively close to the amount used
in the study. If you were to ingest this energy drink,
there is a chance that you might see an effect on your
muscular performance. Coffee is the most frequently
ingested caffeinated beverage worldwide 20. It has a
caffeine content that ranges from 1.2 – 2.5 mg per
kilogram of body mass per brewed cup, which shows
that drinking coffee has the potential to produce an
effect on muscular performance, dependant on the
size of the person who drinks it.
RESULTS
The supplement containing caffeine, creatine, and β
- alanine, among other ingredients, boasted results
of increased leg press performance when compared
to that of the placebo group, indicating an increase
in muscular strength. However, this could be a direct
result of the creatine or β - alanine in the supplement,
for the aforementioned reasons (creatine supplying
more energy to the body, and β – alanine increasing
69
Table 1: Muscular Endurance
CAFFEIN
CONTENT
(mg/kg of
body mass)
Michael J. Duncan
et al, 2012
2.2
MEAN AGE
(years)
23
TIMING OF
ADDITIONAL
TREATMENT
INGREDIENTS
(min. prior
IN SUPPLEMENT
to trial)
TYPE
OF STUDY
SIGNIFICANT
EFFECT(S)
60
Vitamin B6,
vitamin B12,
niacin,
phenylalanine,
malic acid,
glucuronolactone
Double-blind
study
More repetitions until
failure completed
for bench press,
deadlift, prone row,
and back squat
in supplement group
than placebo group
Double-blind
study
The supplement group
completed more
total sprints than the
placebo group
Gallo-Salazar C
et al, 2014
3
16
60
Not
specified
Kendall et al, 2014
3.5
21
20
Creatine, BCAA’s,
β-alanine,
citrulline malate
Double-blind
study
No increased muscular
endurance
Woolf K et al, 2008
5
24
Not
specified
Not
specified
Double-blind
study
performance
Astorino TA et al,
2008
6
23
60
Not
specified
Double-blind
study
performance
CAFFEINE
CONTENT
(mg/kg of
body mass)
MEAN AGE
(years)
TIMING OF
TREATMENT
(min. prior
to trial)
ADDITIONAL
INGREDIENTS IN
SUPPLEMENT
TYPE
OF STUDY
SIGNIFICANT
EFFECT(S)
2-10
24
60
Not specified
Double-blind
study
strength at any dose
Double-blind
study
Hand grip strength was
increased by 4.2% ±
7.2% in the supplement
group. Maximal velocity
and high intensity
running pace increased
in the supplement group
Double-blind
study
Significant increase in
leg press one repetition
maximum weight in
supplement group
compared to placebo
group
Table 1: Muscular Strength
Glaister M et al,
2012
Gallo-Salazar C et
al, 2014
Kendall et al, 2014
3
3.5
16
21
60
20
Not specified
Creatine, BCAA’s,
β-alanine,
citrulline malate
Woolf K et al, 2008
5
24
Not
specified
Not
specified
Double-blind
study
Greater peak power
achieved and more
chest press weight lifted
in the supplement group
than the placebo group
Astorino TA et al,
2008
6
23
60
Not
specified
Double-blind
study
No sign of increased
muscular strength
70
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-025
strength and endurance). This supplement showed
no other results pertaining to muscular performance.
The studies by Gallo-Salazar C et al. and Woolf K et
al. also produced results that suggested an increase
in muscular strength, where hand grip strength, peak
power, and weight lifted on the bench press were all
higher than the placebo groups. Aside from those three
instances, no other studies supported the hypothesis
that caffeine supplementation has a significant effect
on muscular strength. The results from the studies
by Gallo-Salazar C et al. and Michael J. Duncan et
al. provide evidence that caffeine increases muscular
endurance. In these cases, participants were able
to complete more sprints and repetitions until failure
on the bench press, deadlift, prone row, and back
squat when compared to the placebo group. The
study conducted by Glaister M et al. demonstrated
no significant effect in terms of muscular strength
or endurance, even though participants were given
varying levels of caffeine. This was the lone study that
tried to identify a dose response effect. In addition, the
trial by Astorino T et al. showed no signs of caffeine
supplementation affecting muscular performance in
terms of either muscular endurance or strength. After
ingesting 6 mg of caffeine per kilogram of body mass,
the subjects were unable to lift more weight during the
one repetition maximum trial, and failed to complete
more repetitions to failure than the placebo group.
DISCUSSION
Energy drinks are one of the most widely used forms
of caffeine supplementation, and although they
are promoted as being able to increase physical
performance and encourage an active lifestyle, in
reality that is not always the case. Taken together,
the data indicates that the benefit, if any, from the
consumption of energy drinks may be outweighed
by its associations with negative behaviours and
increased calorie intake.
The results of the studies reviewed in this paper
do not entirely support or deny that caffeine
supplementation has a beneficial effect, if any, on
muscular performance. Although there is some
evidence indicating that there might be a beneficial
effect on muscular strength but not endurance. An
article by Rico Mora-Rodriguez et al., concluded
that short term high intensity performance (muscular
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-025
strength) could be improved by caffeine in a neutral
environment, but only when a large amount of caffeine
was ingested, although overall the studies examined
in this article regarding muscular strength provided
mixed results. Six of the 13 studies demonstrated
an improvement in muscular strength as a result of
caffeine supplementation, whereas the remaining
studies showed no effect on performance. They also
found that energy drinks would not be beneficial
for muscular endurance in warm environments,
as they are high in carbohydrates but lack salts. In
terms of the studies testing muscular endurance the
results were mixed as well, with only half showing
an improvement in muscular endurance, and one
producing a negative effect. However, there was
more evidence that caffeine had a beneficial effect
on muscular endurance in the study by Rico MoraRodriguez et al. In an article by Judith A. Owens et
al., they concluded that there is a slim chance that
caffeine has an effect on performance, suggesting
that overall caffeine likely has a minimal effect, if any,
on muscle performance.
CONTROVERSY
An area of debate relating to the topic of caffeine
supplementation is whether it is a safe practice
for adolescents when exercise is involved. There
has been a spike in deaths related to exercise and
caffeine ingestion from energy drinks, with 17 deaths
being reported since 20121. This has sparked a
discussion on whether adolescents should even be
drinking these products, as people become more
aware of the potentially harmful effects of caffeine
supplementation. In response to this concern, laws
have been passed limiting energy drinks to 180 mg
per can. Research has concluded that, caffeine
is a safe stimulant when taken in moderation.
Although the laws and recommendations put in
place do not completely minimize the risk, the issue
of public health versus individual health still exists.
Individually, the risk of having a potentially fatal
reaction to a seemingly safe dosage of caffeine is
very low. When analyzing the general population
though, it is impossible to assume that no one will be
affected negatively by the same dosage. A variety of
different underlying conditions can make individuals
more susceptible to harm, as a result of caffeine
71
ingestion, even when the amount is seemingly low.
Because of this, a risk still exists involving caffeine
supplementation with high intensity exercise.
Another issue surrounding caffeine use is the potential
for abuse among children, adolescents and young
adults. A study conducted in New Zealand found
that after consuming a single retail unit of an energy
drink, 70% of children (5-12 years old), and 40% of
adolescents (13-19 years old) most likely exceeded
the adverse effect level of 3 mg of caffeine per
kilogram of body mass per day beyond their baseline
dietary caffeine exposure15. This overconsumption of
caffeine can lead to a variety of different conditions
including liver damage, seizures, nausea and vomiting,
hypertension, and death15. Furthermore, a study
conducted in the United States determined that among
college students, 54% admitted to mixing energy
drinks with alcohol. The caffeine in the energy drinks
can mask the depressant effects of alcohol4, which can
lead to excessive drinking. Individuals who consume
alcohol in conjunction with caffeinated beverages such
as energy drinks are three times more likely to binge
drink, which can result in serious health complications
or death16.
Furthermore, weekly energy drink consumption is
associated with a variety of fruitless and even dangerous
behaviours among young adults12. Men and women
who consumed large amounts of energy drinks were
more likely to have a higher sweetened soda intake,
higher video game use, and binge drink12. In addition,
weekly energy drink consumption was linked to trouble
sleeping, eating breakfast less frequently, cigarette use,
and unhealthy weight control behaviours12. Furthermore,
energy drinks also have a high calorie content. In
conjunction with the dangerous activities associated
with energy drink consumption, this can lead to further
health risks such as obesity, and diabetes.
CONCLUSION
After reviewing the different aspects of these unique
studies, it is evident that there is still a level of uncertainty
in regards to the effects of caffeine supplementation
on muscular performance. The majority of the
studies that were analyzed indicated that caffeine
may have a notable effect on muscular strength, but
not endurance. Half of the studies demonstrated a
notable increase in participant performance when
72
completing a trial related to muscular strength. On the
other hand, only two of the studies produced results
that suggested an increase in muscular endurance as
a result of caffeine supplementation. Finally, two trials
suggested that caffeine had no effect on muscular
performance, regardless of the dosage administered
to the participants.
This data is especially important when applied to
athletics, resistance training, or any other form
of physical activity because it allows us to draw
conclusions on the effect of caffeine on specific
muscle fibres, which are responsible for muscular
endurance and strength. The results of these studies
suggest that caffeine supplementation may have a
greater effect on muscular strength, subsequently
displaying that caffeine may have more of an impact
on the performance of fast twitch muscle fibres and
large motor neurons as they are required for strength
related activities. These results also show that
caffeine is not likely to have any effect on slow twitch
muscle fibres and small motor neurons.
KEY WORDS Caffeine, Supplement, Muscular
Performance
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To begin with, I would like to sincerely thank my mentor
Dr. Amanda Macfarlane for her continued assistance
throughout the process of writing this scientific review.
Without her support, attention to detail, and extensive
knowledge on nutrition, none of this would have been
possible. Furthermore, I would like to thank Adelina
Cozma and Ria Oommen for the edits that they made
to my rough draft. The comments and corrections
that they made allowed me to improve the overall
clarity and eminence of my article. Lastly, I would
also like to thank Lauren Sykes for connecting me
with my fantastic mentor, and keeping me updated
on important documents and forms that I needed to
complete this article.
REFERENCES
1. Author not specified. Documents Link More
Deaths to Energy Drinks. Centre for Science in
the Public Interest. [Online] 2014
2. Andrea M. Spaeth; Namni Goel; David F.
Dinges. Cumulative neurobehavioral and
physiological effects of chronic caffeine intake:
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-025
individual differences and implications for the use
of caffeinated energy products. Nutrition Reviews.
[Online] 2014, 72, 34-47
3. Astorino, T.A.; Rohmann, R.L.; Firth, K. Effect
of caffeine ingestion on one-repetition maximum
muscular strength. Fur J Appl Physiol. [Online]
2008, 102, 127-132
4. Ferreira, S.E.; Tulio de Mello, M.; Pompeia,
S.; Oliveria de Souza-Formigoni, M.L.
Effects of energy drink ingestion on alcohol
intoxication. Alcohol Clin Exp, [Online] 2006, 30,
598-605
5. Gallo-Salazar, C.; Areces, F.; Abián-Vicén, J;
Lara, B.; Salinero, J.J.; Gonzalez-Millán, C.;
Portillo, J.; Muñoz, V.; Juarez, D.; Del Coso,
J. Enhancing physical performance in elite junior
tennis players with a caffeinated energy drink. Int
J Sports Physiol Perform, [Online] 2014, 10, 305
11.Negro, M.; Giardina, S.; Marzani, B; Marzatico,
F. Branched-chain amino acid supplementation
does not enhance athletic performance but affects
muscle recovery and the immune system. J Sports
Med Phys Fitness, [Online] 2008, 3, 347-351
12.Nicole Larson; Melissa N. Laska; Mary
Story; Dianne Neumark-Sztainer. Sports and
energy drink consumption are linked to health
risk behaviours in young adults. Public Health
Nutrition, [Online] 2014, 46, 172
13.Ricardo Mora-Rodriguez; Jesus G Pallares.
Performance outcomes and unwanted side
effects associated with energy drinks. Nutrition
Reviews, [Online] 2014, 72, 108-120
14.Rodney A. Rhoades; David R. Bell. Medical
Physiology: Principles for Clinical Medicine. 3,
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: United States,
2012, 42-46
6. Glaister, M.; Patterson, S.D.; Foley, P.; Pedlar,
C.R.; Pattison, J.R.; McInnes, G. Caffeine and
sprinting performance: dose responses and
efficacy. J Strength Cond Res., [Online] 2012, 26,
1001-1005
15.Sara M. Seifert, B.S.; Judith L. Schaechter,
M.D.; Eugene R. Hershorin, M.D.; Steven E.
Lipshultz, M. Health Effects of Energy Drinks
on Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults.
Pediatrics, [Online] 2012, 3, 511-528
7. Joseph F. Clark. Creatine and Phosphocreatine:
A Review of Their Use in Exercise and Sport. J
Athl Train, [Online] 1997, 32, 45-51
16.Thombs, D.L.; O’Mara, R.J.; Tsukamoto, M;
Rossheim, M.E.; Weiler, R.M.; Merves, M.L.;
Goldberger, B.A. Event-level analyses of energy
drink consumption and alcohol intoxication in bar
patrons, Addictive Behaviors, [Online] 2010, 35,
325-330
8. Judith A. Owens; Jodi Mindell; Alison Baylor.
Effect of energy drink and caffeinated beverage
consumption on sleep, mood, and performance
in children and adolescents. Nutrition Reviews,
[Online] 2014, 72, 65-71
9. Kendall, K.L.; Moon, J.R.; Fairman, C.M.;
Spradley, B.D.; Tai, C.Y.; Falcone, P. H.;
Carson, L.R.; Mosman, M.M.; Joy, J.M.; Kim,
M.P., Serrano, E.R.; Esposito, E.N, Ingesting
a preworkout supplement containing caffeine,
creatine, ß-alanine, amino acids, and B vitamins
for 28 days is both safe and efficacious in
recreationally active men. Nutr Res., 2014, 5,
442-449
10.Michael J. Duncan; Mike Smith; Kathryn Cook;
Rob S. James. The acute effect of a caffeinecontaining energy drink on mood state, readiness
to invest effort, and resistance exercise to failure. J
Strength Cond Res., [Online] 2012, 10, 2858-2865
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-025
17.Vandewalle, H.; Peres, G.; Monod, H. Standard
Anaerobic Exercise Tests. Sports Med, [Online]
1987, 4, 268-289
18.Waguih William Ishak; Chio Ugochukwu; Kara
Bagot; David Khalili; Christine Zaky. Energy
Drinks: Psychological Effects and Impact on Wellbeing and Quality of Life—A Literature Review.
Innov Clin Neurosci, [Online] 2012, 1, 25-34
19.Woolf, K.;, Bidwell, W.K.; Carlson, A.G. The
effect of caffeine as an ergogenic aid in anaerobic
exercise. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab, [Online]
2008, 5, 1363-1369
20.Barone,
J.J.;
Roberts,
H.R.
Caffeine
consumption. Food Chem Toxicol, [Online] 1996,
34, 119-129
73
TEACHING RESOURCES
Research Proposal Outline
PLEASE NOTE: A research proposal is related to one or more, as a critical analysis, demonstrating the need
for future research and investigation in the field of study. It is NOT a research report or essay.
ABSTRACT (~200 WORDS)
A brief summary of your research findings and your
major interpretations. This section is not elaborate,
but provides the reader with enough of an overview to
understand the information to follow and your reasoning.
INTRODUCTION (~500 WORDS)
Research Topic and Goals
This is the key argument you would like to centre your
proposal around. What would you like your Research
Proposal to achieve?
Research Objectives (Purposes & Issues)
Detail the field of work and provide readers with
information regarding recent advances in the field,
as well as major concepts required to understand the
paper. Do not include results/conclusions in this section.
Hypothesis & Questions
Present your hypothesis and discuss its significance.
Here, you can identify relevant sets of questions
related to your topics which you feel need to be
further researched. A hypothesis is a formal research
statement which you will prove to be right or wrong.
BODY (~1000 WORDS)
Explain why you are planning to undertake this
work. Why do you feel this is a valuable topic to be
researched and explored?
Methodology & Materials
Describe how you will do/have done the work necessary
and where you will get your information from. Do not
be general! Indicate any instruments or methods for
collecting data (primary/secondary sources) and the
ways in which research can be explored.
CONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
Results and Conclusions (~1000 words)
This section should be divided into subheadings with
grouped ideas. Provide the reader with your overall
results and findings. What was learned?
Final Discussion and Comments
What was learned from your research and work
experience? Be specific and articulate. Write about
your findings and include any future implications you
feel are important for this field of study.
REFERENCES
Accurate Bibliography
Provide all of your references in ACS format in the
order in which they appear in the manuscript, and
ensure that they are numbered. In-text referencing
is required, and must be completed by placing
a superscripted number corresponding to the
referenced work at the end of the sentence that draws
upon that work. ACS Formatting
Rationale
74
Identify novel interactions and ideas you discovered.
Elaborate on the data presented in your results and
discuss the meaning of the findings. How do they
support or refute the hypothesis? How do they
encourage future research? Do they open any new
venues for research and investigation? Do they
propose any new questions?
Journal Articles:
Author, A. A; Author, B. B; Author, C. C. Title of
Article. Journal Abbreviation (italics) [Online if
online] Year (boldface), Volume (italics), Pagination. Books:
Author, A. A.; Author, B. B. Book Title (italics),
Edition (if any); Publisher: Place of Publication,
Year; Pagination. TABLES & FIGURES
All illustrations, figures, and tables must be submitted
as a separate document, not embedded in the
document. They should be succeeded by a caption
briefly describing their content and referenced
accordingly within the submission text; for example,
(Figure 1).
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-026
INSIGHTS
A LETTER OF GRATITUDE
By Emily Chu (Oakville, Ontario)
DEAR MENTOR, TEACHER, AND
COORDINATOR,
Please accept this letter as a thank you for enrolling
and supporting me for my placement in the On-Line
Research Summer Co-Op at the Foundation for
Student Science and Technology. It has been an
incredible month and I want to express my gratitude
to you and the foundation for allowing me to pursue
such an opportunity.
I have learned many skills while on the job during
my placement. First and foremost, I have become
an exponentially better researcher and analyzer. It
was through all of the readings and research I had
to conduct that I became much better at reading
articles, pulling important ideas and concepts from
them, and relating them to real life. I was also able to
improve my independent work skills as I was tasked
with managing myself and my responsibilities alone,
and that pressure forced me to work and manage
my time effectively. There were also many things I
enjoyed while working at this placement. My favourite
thing was formulating my own research proposal; the
entire process really helped me find out what I was
passionate about. It was through all these lengthy
readings that I could pick and choose what topics I
wanted to research further, and NGOs and women’s
rights were my top two choices. I have always been
someone that had been good at everything but never
amazing at one thing, so to be able to find out a few
things that really interested me and things I wanted to
keep talking about was really an awesome growing
experience for me as a person.
It is hard to believe that my experience at this
placement will not be continuing for another month.
This experience has made this summer my most
valuable yet, and I wish to express how grateful I am
for being presented with this opportunity. Not only
did this placement allow me to hone skills that will be
extremely valuable in my final year of high school and
university, but it also allowed me a chance to reflect
and figure out what I want to with my life. As with every
teenager, career choices at this age change every
day, but this placement has made them much clearer
and put them into perspective for me. Once again I
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-027
would like to thank everyone involved for creating a
great environment to work in. Thank you to my mentor
who provided me with some great material and topic
choices that fit well with me, and thank you to the
co-op coordinator and my co-op teacher for being so
helpful and responsive with any of my questions. It
has been a summer I will never forget.
Thank you so much,
Emily Chu
RESEARCH CO-OP
PROGRAM STUDENT
TESTIMONIALS
By Fatma Sheikh and
Melanie Manning (Oakville, Ontario)
The Online Research Co-op Program has been
an amazing opportunity allowing me to develop
a number of skills that will help me in my future
studies. I initially enrolled in the program in order to
fulfill the requirements of my SHSM, however the
experiences and skills I have learned are far more
than I imagined. I spent the month researching
Biomechanics & Physiology, Spine & Spinal
Musculature, and Injury & Rehabilitation under the
guidance of Dr. Stephen Brown.
Through reading a variety of papers and studies, I was
able to develop skills to further my understanding of
inquiry-based research. In addition, I was able to develop
skills like statistical and data analysis and professional
communication. Each week was an amazing journey,
in this research co-op there is so much to be learned.
If I am being honest, every skill I learned could be used
in my future endeavours. I want to be at the forefront of
medical research and this co-op was just a steppingstone into what I want to do for the rest of my life. This
co-op allowed me to experience the field and more
importantly understand more about the field.
I would recommend this program to high schools
students who are motivated, academically driven
and are eager to learn. If you are in class learning
about a topic, and you think “I really want to learn
more about that,” then I would 100% recommend
this program. You get to work one on one with a
75
mentor, who is experienced in the field. They know
the ins and outs, and they will help you gain valuable
information. I personally was able to learn a whole lot
of information from my mentor, gain some valuable
tools and someone that I know I can contact in the
future for advice and guidance.
My biggest advice to any student who is taking part
in this program is to put your best foot forward. The
more effort and time you put in to this co-op, the more
you will gain. Never be afraid to ask questions or to
try new things because ultimately everything you do
will help you develop critical skills for your future. This
was perhaps one of my favourite courses thus far in
high school, and without a doubt I would encourage
all high school students to participate in this program.
There is so much to learn, and throughout your
journey there are people to help you along the way.
Good luck to everyone who has participated in the
research co-op and to future participants. I hope that
your experience is as good as mine.
Fatima Sheikh
Author of Success for Teens, John Fleming once said,
“Whenever you face a choice, you can take a simple
positive action or you can take a simple negative action.
Simple actions, repeated over time determine the life
you lead.” In our education, simple actions contribute to
our success and determine the overall outcome. I did
not consider sitting in a classroom and not stretching
the boundaries of my learning for four years a positive
action, so I decided to become involved in various cooperative education programs specifically the Summer
Mentorship Program (SMP) at the University of Toronto.
Through this program, I significantly developed my
emotional intelligence and research capabilities,
broadened my community and global perspective,
additionally I unlocked a network of qualified and
capable individuals. At the SMP, I explored every health
science career under the sun and explored numerous
faculties at the university, but nursing was the faculty
that truly grabbed my heart. I went on to shadow Denah
Smith, a nurse practitioner at Taibu Community Health
Center in Malvern and realized the great impact nurses
have in the health care system. After graduating from
the program in 2014, I have become a Student Trustee,
advocating for over 70, 000 students in my region, a
vice president for the SMP Alumni Society, and a paid
76
research intern at SickKids through the StAR program.
It is incredible to believe that my achievements began
with simply applying to the SMP. The small actions
really do make a tremendous impact! Thank you for the
amazing opportunity, hope to hear from you soon and
read the upcoming fall journal!.
Melanie Manning
TRADUCTION PAR SARINA LALLA
Le programme de recherche coopérative en ligne
a été une expérience incroyable qui m’a permis de
développer un nombre d’habiletés qui m’aideront
dans mes études. Je me suis inscrite au programme
afin de remplir les critères de mon SHSM. Cependant,
l’expérience et les habiletés que j’ai acquises par le
biais de ce programme sont dépassé mes attentes.
J’ai passé le mois à rechercher en Biomécanique et
en physiologie, en anatomie et en musculature de la
colonne vertébrale, et fractures et réhabilitation sous le
mentorat de Dr. Stephen Brown.
En lisant une variété de papiers et d’études, j’ai
pu développer des capacités de comprendre de
la recherche basée sur une question scientifique.
En plus, j’ai pu développer mes talents d’analyse
statistique et communication professionnelle. Chaque
semaine était une aventure incroyable, dans cette
recherche coopérative il y a tellement de choses à
apprendre. Honnêtement, chaque qualité que j’ai
développée est utile pour mes futurs exploits. Je veux
être à la tête du monde de la recherche médicale.
Cette expérience coopérative était un début de ce
que je veux faire pour le reste de ma vie. J’ai pu
m’expérimenter dans le domaine et comprendre plus
à propos du monde de la recherche.
Je recommanderai ce programme à des étudiants du
secondaire qui sont motivés, qui travaillent fort à l’école
et qui sont prêts à apprendre. Si vous êtes en se en
train d’apprendre une matière, et tu penses: «Je veux
apprendre davantage sur cela», alors je recommanderai
ce programme. Tu peux travailler individuellement avec
un mentor qui a beaucoup d’expertise dans le domaine.
Ils connaissent les hauts et les bas et vous aideront à
cueillir de l’information extrêmement importante.
Mes conseils aux étudiants qui essaient ce programme
seraient d’essayer votre mieux. Plus vous investissez
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-028
INSIGHTS
de temps et d’effort dans ce programme, plus vous allez
acquérir des connaissances. N’ayez pas peur de poser
des questions ou d’essayer des nouvelles choses, car
ultimement, tout ce que vous ferez vous permettra de
développer des habiletés critiques pour votre avenir.
Ceci a été mon cours préféré du secondaire, et
j’encouragerai sans doute tous les étudiants à y prendre
part. Il y a tant de choses à apprendre, et à travers votre
expérience il y a des outils qui vos serviront. Bonne
chance à tous les participants. Je vous souhaite une
expérience aussi valable que la mienne.
Fatima Sheikh, été 2015
L’auteur pour Success for Teens, John Fleming, a déjà
dit: «Quand on fait face à un choix, on peut faire une
action simple et positive ou on peut faire un action
simple négative. Des action simples, répétées sur une
longue durée de temps, déterminent la vie qu’on mène.»
Dans notre éducation, des actions simples contribuent
à notre succès et déterminent notre sort. Je n’ai jamais
considéré que m’assoir dans une classe et ne pas
étendre mon éducation plus loin pour quatre ans de
temps comme étant une action positive. J’ai donc décidé
de m’impliquer à travers des programmes d’éducation
co-opératives variées, notamment Programme
d’Été de Mentorat (SMP) à l’Université de Toronto. À
travers ce programme, j’ai développé mon intelligence
émotionnelle et mes capacités de recherche et élargi
ma perspective globale et communautaire. De plus, j’ai
découvert un réseau d’individus qualifiés. À la SMP, j’ai
exploré toutes les carrières en sciences de la santé qui
m’étaient disponibles et j’ai exploré plusieurs facultés à
l’université, mais c’est la faculté de soins infirmiers qui a
saisi mon coeur. J’ai pu ensuite suivre Denah Smith en
stage, une superinfirmière au Centre Communautaire
de Santé Taibu à Malvern et j’ai réalisé l’impact que les
infirmières avaient dans le système de santé. Après
avoir gradué du programme en 2014, je suis devenue
une représentante étudiante, défendant les intérêts de
70000 étudiants dans ma région, une vice-présidente
de la Société d’anciens du SMP, et une stagiaire
payée à Sick Kids à travers le programme StAR. C’est
incroyable à croire que mes accomplissements ont
débuté uniquement avec mon admission au SMP. Les
petites actions ont vraiment un énorme impact!
FINDING MYSELF
THROUGH THE STUDENT
ADVANCEMENT RESEARCH
PROGRAM AND THE
STUDENT MENTORSHIP
PROGRAM
By Mylène Petit
As a high school student, being motivated to study
hard was a struggle, and I lacked passion for the
school subjects. I had ambitions about becoming a
doctor, but somehow I lost my direction.
By grade 11, I heard about the Student Mentorship
Program (SMP) at the University of Toronto. I found
out that the program offered minorities and Aboriginal
students an introduction to the Health Sciences
Program, so I invested all my energy toward applying
and was accepted. Suddenly, the success I felt
sparked a passion in me to work harder. My cultural
understanding deepened and I started to believe that
becoming a doctor was achievable. SMP gave me
many opportunities to expand my horizons with the
Student Advancement Research Program (StAR) and
Discovering Public Health (DPH).
Working through the StAR Program opened a wide range
of work and academic activities. I learned the value of
team building and the importance of connecting with my
co-workers in the lab and StAR interns. As a part of the
StAR Program, I worked on a project in the lab that really
helped me to understand how to use Pubmed. All of the
articles I found on PubMed were very interesting and I
learned a lot about Pediatric Tuberculosis, which was my
research project. Incidentally, I also ended up learning
about my own health history; I never understood why
when I was tested for tuberculosis (TB), it would always
return a positive test result. I had no idea that it was
linked back to my birth in Luxembourg. Luxembourg is
a country that vaccinated all babies against TB with the
BCG vaccination. Though the prevention of TB through
BCG is not proven, it explains why I test positive when
I do not have TB. Overall, I have loved my experience
with StAR and will truly miss everyone once I leave.
Thankfully, because of the networking skills I learned at
Melanie Manning, été 2015
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-029
77
SMP I will be able to keep in touch with everyone, and
perhaps be able to assist with research again.
TRADUCTION PAR SARINA LALLA
En tant qu’étudiant du secondaire, c’était difficile de
trouver la motivation pour étudier, et je manquais de
la passion pour mes matières. J’avais des ambitions
pour devenir médecin, mais j’avais perdu ma direction.
En secondaire 5, j’ai entendu parler du Programme
de Mentorat (SP) à l’Université de Toronto. J’ai
découvert que programme offrait aux minorités
et aux étudiants aboriginaux une instroduction au
programme de Sciences de la Santé. J’ai donc investi
toute mon énergie dans mon admission et j’ai été
sélectionnée. Tout à coup, le succès que j’ai ressenti
a déclenché une passion chez moi qui m’a poussé
à travailler fort. Ma compréhension culturelle s’est
approfondie et j’ai commencé à croire que devenir un
médecin était possible. SMP m’a donné beaucoup de
chances d’élargir mes horizons avec le programme
de Recherche et d’Avancement Étudiant (StAR) et
Découvrir la Santé Publique (DPH).
Travailler avec le programme StAR m’a donné la chance
de faire beaucoup d’activités académiques. J’ai appris
la valeur de l’esprit d’équipe et l’importance de me
brancher avec mes coéquipiers dans le laboratoire et
par StAR. À travers le programme StAR, j’ai travaillé un
projet dans le laboratoire qui m’a poussé à apprendre
comment utiliser Pubmed. Tous les articles que j’ai
trouvés avec PubMed étaient très intéressants et j’ai
beaucoup appris à propos de la tuberculose pédiatrique,
ce qui était mon sujet de recherche. J’ai aussi beaucoup
apprès à propos de mon histoire de santé. Je ne
comprenais jamais pourquoi quand je faisais des tests
de tuberculose, ils revenaient positifs. Je n’avais aucune
idée que ceci était relié à ma naissance à Luxembourg.
Luxembourg est un pays qui a vacciné tous ses bébés
contre la tuberculose avec le vaccin de BCG. Même si
ce n’est pas prouvé que le BCG prévient la tuberculose,
ceci explique pourquoi j’avais un résultat positif même si
je n’avais pas de TB. En bref, j’ai adoré mon expérience
avec StAR et je vais vraiment m’ennuyer d’elle quand
je quitte. Heureusement, grâce au réseautage que j’ai
appris à SMP, je vais être capable de rester en contact
avec tous, et peut-être pouvoir aider à faire de la
recherche à nouveau.
78
EXPERIENCES OF AN
ABORIGINAL YOUTH
Tonya-Leah Watts (Peterborough, Ontario)
This article is designed to inspire youth to pursue
their dreams. Spoken from a first person narrative,
Tonya-Leah Watts highlights her time at the Summer
Mentorship Program (SMP) at the University of Toronto,
her experience of being featured in a documentary series,
and her research internship as a part of the Student
Advancement Research (StAR) Program at the Hospital
for Sick Children (SickKids). During her time at SMP in
the summer of 2014, Tonya-Leah participated in various
talks and activities that were designed to prepare her for
post-secondary education. She also had the opportunity
to shadow a dermatologist and write a review paper on
type-2 diabetes mellitus among Aboriginal populations
in Canada. Later that summer she was featured on
a show called Dream Big in which she had another
opportunity to shadow a dermatologist. The research
skills that she acquired from SMP combined with her
newly gained inspiration from the Dream Big experience
helped her get a research internship at SickKids for the
summer of 2015. During her time there, she learned
various techniques and concepts while contributing to
three studies at the hospital. The purpose of this article
is to encourage youth to take control of their future.
TRADUCTION PAR AMIT SCHEER
Cet article est conçu pour inspirer les jeunes
à poursuivre leurs rêves. Écrit à la première
personne, Tonya-Leah Watts souligne son temps
à la Programme de mentorat d’été (SMP, Summer
Mentorship Program) à l’Université de Toronto, son
expérience d’être dans une série documentaire et
son stage de recherche comme partie du Programme
de recherche pour l’avancement des étudiants (StAR,
Student Advancement Research Program) à l’Hôpital
pour les enfants malades (SickKids, Hospital for Sick
Children). Durant son temps à la SMP durant l’été
2014, Tonya-Leah a participé en diverses activités
conçus pour la préparer pour l’éducation postsecondaire. Elle a aussi eu l’occasion de suivre un
dermatologue et d’écrire une revue sur le diabète
sucré de type II parmi les populations aborigènes au
Canada. Plus tard cet été elle a été présentée sur
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-030
INSIGHTS
une émission appelée Dream Big dans laquelle elle
a eu une autre occasion de suivre un dermatologue.
Les habiletés de recherche qu’elle a acquise de SMP,
combiné avec son inspiration récemment acquise de
l’expérience Dream Big, l’a aidé à obtenir un stage
à SickKids pour l’été de 2015. Durant son temps à
SickKids, elle a appris des diverses techniques et
concepts tout en contribuant à trois études à l’hôpital.
L’objet de cet article est d’encourager les jeunes de
prendre contrôle de leur futur.
INTRODUCTION
My name is Tonya-Leah Watts and I am 18 years
old. I am originally from Wikwemikong Unceded
Indian Reserve on Manitoulin Island, but currently
live in Peterborough, Ontario. I recently graduated
from Thomas A. Stewart Secondary School and have
hopes of becoming a physician. With this goal in mind,
I undertook some opportunities to learn about the field
of medicine. Last summer, I attended the Summer
Mentorship Program (SMP) run by the Faculty of
Medicine at the University of Toronto (UofT). After I
completed the program, I was featured on a new show
called Dream Big, which focused on how youth can
take advantage of career opportunities. This summer,
I participated in a six week research internship at
the Hospital for Sick Children (SickKids) in Toronto,
Ontario. I will be attending Trent University for
Biochemistry and Molecular Biology in the fall, where
I hope to further my goals of going into medicine. This
article will detail my experiences in both of the summer
programs and the show, as well as some advice on
taking advantage of the opportunities around you.
MY TIME AT THE SUMMER MENTORSHIP
PROGRAM 2014
In spring 2014, I received an email from a family friend
alerting me of an opportunity at the UofT. The SMP is a
program designed to give students of Indigenous and
African ancestry a chance to explore careers in the
health sciences and receive insight on their preparation
for post-secondary education. The application process
required submission of my transcripts and an application
form, followed by an in-person interview. Since I lived out
of town, they kindly set up a Skype interview with me so
that I didn’t have to travel into Toronto. I was overjoyed
a few weeks later when I was notified of my acceptance
into the program.
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-030
In order to accommodate as many people as possible,
the program offers Aboriginal students a chance to live
on-campus at the UofT. This allowed for many more
Aboriginal students from isolated reserves in Ontario to
be a part of this program. Although I live relatively close
to Toronto, this was still a great opportunity because it
saved a lot of travel costs and allowed me to experience
campus life. I arrived on a Saturday to get settled into
my dorm and to meet with the other students who would
also be living in residence. There were 11 of us and I
quickly made new friends.
I was overwhelmed on the first day of the program the
following Monday. There were 59 students, as well as
numerous coordinators and teachers. Our orientation
provided us with a good idea of what was to come.
When I obtained my schedule, my eyes grew at the
sight of packed month. Each day consisted of various
activities, such as talks by professors from the UofT,
speaking panels with university students, and visits
to different health science faculties like pharmacy,
nursing, and social work.
Some of my most memorable experiences include
shadowing a dermatologist and learning how to write
a research paper. I chose dermatology because I was
intrigued by this branch of medicine. My day started at
9:30 AM, and from the moment the doctor walked in, it was
a whirlwind of patients, information, and documentation.
I had no idea how much went into running a clinic; it
takes a lot of teamwork and coordination. I admired
the doctor’s ability to stay in control, and how she
wouldn’t let anything interfere with the quality of care
that she delivered to each patient. It was an enriching
experience that strengthened my resolve to pursue a
career in dermatology.
We were required to write a research paper on a
topic of our choice. My research experience was
quite limited at that point, but throughout the month
we were given several talks about research methods
to help prepare me for my paper. I learned how to use
PubMed, which is an online peer reviewed research
hub that contained articles that I could use for my
research project. By the end of the program, I was
able to navigate PubMed comfortably and find any
type of article I needed. In doing so, I put together
an insightful review paper entitled Type II Diabetes
Mellitus among Aboriginal Populations in Canada.
The information that I learned really changed my
79
outlook on the issues that Aboriginal people are
facing today. For instance, I learned that during
colonization, Aboriginal people were forced to live on
reserves with insufficient land for growing crops or
hunting, causing a shift in diet high in artificial foods.
This diet change was too abrupt for their bodies to
adapt, so they developed many conditions as a
result of this, including diabetes. To this day, access
to proper nutrition and health information is limited
for those living in isolated reserves, resulting in a
high prevalence of health care issues, particularly
type II diabetes. The statistics for Aboriginal people
in Canada health wise is quite concerning, and the
process of writing this paper really brought this issue
to my attention.
We also had the opportunity to attend workshops on
time management and university preparation, which
gave me useful study tips that I used during my final
year of high school, such as study sectioning and
note summarizing.
At the end of the program, we presented the knowledge
we gained on poster presentation day, where I learned
a very important lesson: don’t chew gum during a
presentation! I would have gotten a perfect score had it
not been for my nerves, which drove me to chew gum
(I forgot to get rid of it once the judge approached me).
I was fortunate enough to be elected Co-President
of SMP 2014 and I am very confident to say that this
experience gave me a better outlook on my future.
My experience at the University of Toronto’s Summer
Mentorship Program was extremely positive, and I’d
recommend the program to anyone looking to pursue
a post secondary education (even if it’s not related
to the health sciences) because it gave me a lot of
valuable skills that I will continue to apply as I continue
to pursue my career dreams.
MY DREAM BIG EXPERIENCE
After SMP, I had the opportunity to further my
interest in dermatology through a TV program called
Dream Big, which a new documentary series on the
Aboriginal Peoples Television Network (APTN) that
inspires youth to pursue their goals. In 2013, I heard
about the show from a friend, who told me to submit a
short video about myself and what I want to be when
I grow up. A few months after I submitted the video, I
80
got a phone call letting me know that I was going to
be featured on one of the episodes!
The film crew met my family and I the day before
shooting. On the first day, they filmed an ordinary day
in my life. It was slightly awkward talking to a camera
and being hooked up to a sound system, but I got
used to it after a while. The following morning, I met
the dermatologist that I would be shadowing for the
day: Dr. Gooderham. She was very kind and ran her
own practice in Peterborough. Once the camera was
on, the day officially commenced, and similar to my
shadowing experience at SMP, we were seeing one
patient after another. The doctor’s patient (excuse
the pun) demeanor was commendable, and she was
able to answer all of my questions about her career
and practice. My day ended around noon once the
camera crew had acquired a sufficient amount of
footage, but my journey did not stop there.
I had a really awesome summer thanks to my time at
SMP and the filming experience for Dream Big. My
inspiration for becoming a dermatologist was what
led me to my next opportunity at SickKids, which
gave me the chance to apply my new research skills
from SMP and continue to explore my interests in the
health sciences.
MY TIME AT THE STAR PROGRAM 2015
The Student Advancement Research (StAR) Program
is a six-week paid internship at the Hospital of Sick
Children (SickKids) in Toronto, designed to give youth
an opportunity to experience research in the health field
and to get a sense of the current research in the hospital.
My experience at the StAR program was possible due
to one of the coordinators from the SMP contacting me
(and for that I am extremely grateful). I went through the
application process, which was similar to the application
process of SMP, with the exception of submitting an
essay discussing the importance of research to me.
This is where I highlighted my passion for learning and
discovery, and that SMP had inspired me to continue
looking into research. A few weeks later, I was invited to
an interview at SickKids, and in March I received my offer.
There were 15 students in the program, and we were all
assigned to our labs on the first day. I was fortunate be
assigned to a neuroscience and mental health lab run
by Dr. Donald Mabbott, a Senior Scientist and Associate
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-030
Chief at the hospital. The lab is currently investigating
the properties and dynamics of white matter in children
treated with radiation for brain tumours. Due to the
complexity of the research going on, I did not take on a
personal project like some of the other StAR students.
Instead, I was given the chance to contribute to three
studies that are currently underway. The majority of
my first week in the lab was dedicated to studying
the protocols of conducting research. This gave me a
strong sense of the importance of patient protection,
confidentiality, and sensitivity, as well as how to assure
maximum efficiency while conducting research.
Study #1: Investigating the development of
U-fibers in healthy children and adolescents
One of the projects that I contributed dealt with shortrange white matter tracts or U-fibers. This was an
undergraduate summer research project looking at
the development of these tracts in healthy children
and adolescents. U-fibers are short white matter tracts
that connect adjacent folds (gyri) in the brain. It is
thought that they are responsible for local information
communication around the brain (Oyefiade et al.,
2015). These structures are called U-fibers because
they form a ‘U’ shape as they connect gyri in the brain
(Figure 1). Results from this project could give insight
on how U-fibers develop in different parts of the brain
as well as their significance. Figures 2 and 3 are graphs
from the project that illustrate how these tracts develop
over time in healthy children and adolescents.
My contribution to the U-fibers project was “skull
stripping” and creating regions of interest (ROIs),
which involve stripping away the skull from magnetic
resonance images (MRI) of the brain. Skull stripping is
necessary to prevent any registration issues in further
steps involved with data extraction of the brain. Creating
ROIs produces a guideline which enables us to map
U-fibers and make observations about them. Figures 4
and 5 illustrate an MRI image of my own brain before
and after it was skull stripped.
Study #2: Studying Neuronal Function and White
Matter in Children with Brain Tumours
Research has shown that children who are treated
with cranial radiation for brain tumours display longterm cognitive deficits (Law et al., 2011). It has also
been shown that there is a relationship between
cognitive deficits and white matter damage in
children with various neurological disorders (Widjaja
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-030
et al., 2013). The goal of this research project was
to understand the ways that the brain–specifically
white matter– is affected by radiation, as well as
its potential correlation with cognitive deficits. To
do this, children who have been treated for brain
tumours and agreed to be a part of this research
undergo a variety of scans, as well as neurological
testing and an autobiographical interview. In order
to compare patients’ brains to typically developing
children’s brains, this study required healthy controls
to be a part of the study too. As it turned out, I met
all of the requirements to be a healthy control for
this project and I took this opportunity to experience
research as a research participant. Figures 6 and 7
are pictures of my experience as a healthy control in
the magnetoencephalogram (MEG) and the magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) machine. An MEG helps us
to use the magnetic fields produced within the brain
to examine brain function. An MRI uses a magnetic
field and radio waves to create detailed images of
organs and tissues, such as the brain. Both were
quite new and exciting experiences, but the MRI was
my favourite to use because I got to watch a movie
while the imaging took place!
Study #3: Testing Metformin for brain repair in
children treated with radiation for brain tumours
The Metformin study was the final project that I was
able to contribute to. Metformin was originally used as
an effective treatment for type II diabetes, but recent
animal testing in mice has led to the discovery of
Metformin’s unique ability to promote stem cell growth
(Wang et al., 2013). The purpose of the research in the
Mabbott lab is to see if Metformin is a good method of
brain repair for children treated with radiation for brain
tumours. This project has the potential to repair the
brain from the damage that radiation has caused in
children with brain tumours, and possibly in children
with other diseases that cause white matter damage.
It was quite a coincidence that last summer at the
SMP at the University of Toronto, my project was on
type II diabetes mellitus among Aboriginal populations
in Canada, and then one of the studies that I helped
out with involved a drug originally intended for people
with diabetes. Testing Metformin for brain repair
in children treated with radiation for brain tumours
requires a lot of data, so my main contribution was
database auditing, a process that entails doublechecking all the data previously entered into the
81
Figure 1.
Figure 5.
The picture illustrates the areas that U-fibers can be found
and the different colours represent the regions of origin of
these U-fibers..
An image of my brain after being skull stripped.
Figure 2.
Figure 6.
Me in a magnetoencephalogram (MEG) machine.
Graph from my project to illustrate how U-fibers develop
Figure 7
Figure 3.
Graph from my project to illustrate how U-fibers develop
Figure 7 is of me going into an MRI machine.
Figure 4.
The red line and arrow indicate how I would use a tool and
manually outline the brain in each image.
database. I would have the original tests for each
subject and I would go through each and every value
entered into the online database to make sure that it
matched the actual scores on the tests.
82
THE TAKE HOME MESSAGE
Through my experiences, I learned a lot of new skills
that will help in the future, such as state-of-the-art
computer processes like FSL and tractography. I made
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-030
a lot of new friends and memories during my time at
SickKids. For instance, I had the chance to see the Pan
American torch carried around the hospital. Additionally,
I was fortunate enough to observe a mouse perfusion
on my 18th birthday, a procedure in which a mouse’s
brain is extracted in order to prepare it for MRI scanning.
Finally, I really appreciated the work that everyone did
to make sure that I got a broad perspective on both the
neuroimaging and psychological research being done in
the Mabbott lab. This opportunity has certainly opened
doors for my future, and I am very grateful for that! The
most valuable concept that I can take away from my
time in the SMP and StAR Program is the importance
of networking; none of these opportunities would have
been possible if I hadn’t met the people that I did.
Through a family friend, I was first informed of SMP
and Dream Big, while the SMP coordinator notified me
of the SickKids’ internship opportunity.
It’s never too early to start pursuing your dreams,
because there are so many opportunities out there
that are just waiting for people like you who want to
take initiative in building their future. The best advice I
can give any student is to do what you love and make
connections everywhere you go, because you never
know where those connections may take you!
REFERENCES
1. Law, N, Bouffet, E, Laughlin, S, Laperriere, N,
Brière, ME, Strother, D, McConnell, D, Hukin,
J, Fryer, C, Rockel, C, Dickson, J, & Mabbott,
DJ: Cerebello-Thalamo-Cerebral Connections
in Pediatric Brain Tumor Patients: Impact on
Working Memory. NeuroImage 2011: 56(4): pp
2238-2248-168. 2. Oyefiade A, Ameis S, Scantlebury N,
Decker
A,
Szulc
K,
Mabbott
DJ. Developmental characterization of subcortical white matter tracts. 23rd International
Society for Magnetic Resonance Imaging in
Medicine, Toronto, ON (June 1, 2015).
3. Wang, J., Gallagher, D.,DeVito, L.M., Cancino,
G.I., Tsui, D., He, L. Keller, G.M., Frankland,
P. W., Kaplan, D.R., & Miller, F.D., Metformin
Activates an Atypical PKC-CBP Pathway to
Promote Neurogenesis and Enhance Spatial
Memory Formation Cell Stem Cell, 2012. 11,
(July6): p. 23–35.
4. Widjaja E, Skocic J, Go C, Snead OC, Mabbott
DJ, Smith ML: Abnormal white matter correlates
with neuropsychological impairment in children
with localization-related epilepsy. Epilepsia 2013
June: 54(6): pp 1065-73.
AUTHOR GUIDELINES
Instructions for Authors
NOTE: THERE ARE NO SUBMISSION, PAGE, OR PUBLICATION CHARGES FOR AUTHORS.
The Journal of Student Science and Technology accepts both original research articles and reviews for publication.
The instructions for original research article submissions are described in detail below. Please read them closely
and use the templates provided, as we will send your paper back without a review if it does not adhere to these
requirements. All text, including titles and headings, should be in 12pt Times New Roman. Headings should be
bolded and subheadings should be italicized.
Detailed submission guidelines visit:
http://journal.fsst.ca/index.php/jsst/pages/view/submissions.
Send submission to:
[email protected], or contact, Karren Yang, Student Editor-in-Chief at [email protected].
DOI: 10.13034 / JSST-2015-030
83
Foundation Student
Volunteers Recipients
of Ontario Volunteer
Service Awards 2015
Posted: 2015-06-13
Ambassador
Program Awards
Posted: 2015-07-06
Technology would like to acknowledge
exceptional ambassadors who have
contributed immensely in the 2014-2015 term.
These students have helped increase the
organization’s reach in their communities and
are committed to encouraging more students to
become involved in science.
Best Ambassador Award: Emma Lu
Emma was a new ambassador who took on
the task of leading the British Columbia team
and organizing a day long Research in Science
Exhibition to promote research opportunities.
Best Project Team Leader: Netra Unni
Congratulations to four of our student
volunteers for being awarded the Ontario
Volunteer Service Awards 2015 for their
service and dedication to the Foundation of
Student Science and Technology.
Karren Yang and Coralea Kappel (pictured
here) for over five years of service. Abeera
Shahid and Adelina Cozma for two to four
years of service.
Technology is grateful for your dedication and
years of service. “Our programs are strong due
to you and your colleagues efforts,” said Peter
D’Amico, Executive Director. “With leaders such
as these four remarkable young scientists our
futures are bright indeed.”
Netra led the Resources team in developing a
guide to help students gain insight into different
research fields including Cancer, Neuroscience
and more.
Best Regional Team Leader: Abeera Shahid
Abeera was in charge of the Greater Toronto
Area team and led the Research in Science
Exhibition hosted at the University of Toronto
in April 2015.
Best Regional Team: British Columbia
As a new team in the Ambassador Program,
they showed initiative by committing to
organizing a Research in Science Exhibition.
They were successful in creating a presence of
the Foundation in BC.
Best Project Team: Cover Art Contest
By bringing together Science and Art, this team
helped youth share their work through the
Journal platform. Look out for covers designed
by the winners of this contest in the fall 2015
The Foundation for Student Science and Technology and spring 2016 issues.
141 Laurier Ave. W., Suite 702, Ottawa, ON, K1P 5J3
Student Leader Represents Foundation at World
Science Conference in Israel
Four hundred science prodigies from
72 countries, 15 Nobel Laureates, 5
days, and 1 extraordinary conference.
Impressive numbers, yes, but they alone
cannot capture the impact of the inaugural
World Science Conference Israel (WSCI)
held in August 2015. The event was like the
passing of a symbolic torch, with our world’s
greatest scientific minds offering words of
encouragement and inspiration for the students
of today—and scientists of tomorrow. You can
read more about the conference at wsci.org.il.
Technology is proud to have been represented
at this prestigious event by one of our section
editors, Brandon Tang. In collaboration with the
WSCI Organizing Team, the Foundation, as well
as the Israeli Embassy in Canada, he arranged
for 400 copies of our Journal of Student
Science and Technology to be distributed at
WSCI, one for each delegate.
An aerial view of WSCI delegates.
Brandon addresses all delegates at WSCI.
Both WSCI and the Foundation strive to
develop the career potential of young scientists,
making this event the perfect opportunity for
synergy. Our Journals were received positively
by an international group of students and
scientists at the conference, reaffirming to us
that the Foundation’s mission is important,
impactful, and one worth pursuing.
FSST Student Leader
Wins National Loran
Scholar
Posted: 2015-02-24
Technology would like to congratulate
Abeera Shahid, Director Outreach, for winning
the Loran Award worth up to $100,000 for
undergraduate studies. Abeera Shahid was
selected from an application list
of 3,800 of the country’s top high
school students.
Every year, the Loran Scholars
Foundation awards students for
their exceptional character,
service and leadership.
Full story in Brampton
Guardian.
FSST Student Leader
Recognized as a 2014
Ontario Junior Citizen
of the Year
Posted: 2015-02-24
Congratulations Abeera Shahid, one of the
twelve winners of the 2014 Ontario Junior.
Citizen of the Year Awards.
For full story see the Ontario
Community Newspaper Association
article.
Pictured above are the graduating students of the Deep River Science Academy Summer Science Immersion Program
for 2015 along with a number of Summer Science Immersion staff at their graduation ceremony on August 8, 2015!
Introducing the Graduating Class of 2015!
Safyya Cissé - Deep River, ON
Harriet Chen - Vancouver, BC
Ryan Cheng - Richmond, BC
Raymond Chong - Vancouver, BC
Arjun Dhaliwal - Richmond Hill, ON
Meghan Domony - Chatham, ON
Owen Fohkens - Kincardine, ON
Betsy Fu - Vancouver, BC
Micah Gay - Vancouver, BC
Nicolas Gnyra - Whitby, ON
Abdullah Haroon - Oakville, ON
Wilson Ho - Toronto, ON
Terry Huang - Toronto, ON
Tao Jin - Burnaby, BC
Patrick Kim - Toronto, ON
Deyang Li - Deep River, ON
Mengfei Liu - Oakville, ON
Kelvin Ng - Toronto, ON
Chance Park- Coquitlam, BC
William Qian - Richmond Hill, ON
Helen Qin - Vineland, ON
Michael Ren - Ajax, ON
Shruthi Sailesh - Markham, ON
Ayni Sharif- Ottawa, ON
Osman Sharif- Ottawa, ON
Alexandra Symonds- Conception Bay South, NL
Zachary Teper- Toronto, ON
Kevin Wang - Unionville, ON
Cecilia Wu - Vancouver, BC
Beini Yin - Richmond, BC
For more information and pictures from Summer Science Immersion 2015 and other programs of the DRSA please visit us at www.drsa.ca
Or follow us on Facebook.com/DeepRiverScienceAcademy and Twitter @DRSA_25
Contact:
613-584-4541
[email protected]
Energizing the
Classroom
The CNS is dedicated to helping students
understand RADIATION: the energy around us,
and within us.
We are a not-for-profit
organization, established
in 1979, dedicated
to open and factual
communication
on nuclear issues.
SO
R
Y
CA
NA
NUCLEAR
ET
CI
AN
DI
T
NU
DI
IÉ
EN
NE
SOC
É
CLÉAIRE CAN
A
The CNS Geiger program provides
teachers with the ability to measure
natural sources of radiation in the classroom
www.cns-snc-ca
email: [email protected]
Thank you to the following organizations and institutions for supporting mentors and
mentorship through the Student Science and Technology Online Research Co-op Program:
Merci aux organisations et établissements suivants d’encourager et de soutenir le
mentorat et les mentors à travers le programme recherche COOP en ligne pour les
étudiants en technologie et sciences:
University of Toronto
University of Ottawa
McMaster University
Western University
Wilfrid Laurier University
University of British Columbia
University of Calgary
University of Saskatchewan
University of Waterloo
University of Guelph
University of Regina
Lethbridge University
Royal Military College of Canada
Carleton University
Laurentian University
Saint Mary’s University
Université du Québec à Montréal
Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières
Université du Québec à Chicoutimi
University of Albera
York University
Perimeter Institute
Ontario Genomics Institute
Baycrest Health Sciences – Rotman Research Institute
Centre for Addiction and Mental Health
Environmental Biodetection Products Incorporated
Amgen Canada
Hamilton Health Sciences
Advanced Medical Research Institute of Canada
Health Canada
Natural Resources Canada
The Journal of Student Science and Technology and our other programs are made possible by the support of our
donors and partners. Please consider becoming one and help us find and develop the next generation of innovators.
VISIONAIRES
MOTIVATORS
PERSUADERS
CANADIAN
PSYCHOLOGICAL
ASSOCIATION
SOCIÉTÉ
CANADIENNE
DE PSYCHOLOGIE
SUPPORTERS
FRIENDS
Alexander Cui
Amy Chen
Aneesah Malik
Anonymous
Anonymous
Arri Ye
Brian Nei
Daniel Kwon
Danny Liu
Eniko Zsoldos
Fiona Murray
Gerardo Luyando-Lopez
Hadiqa Rahman
Hafsaah Mirza
Hugh McCauley
James Nicolas
Jiamin Li
Jiang Wu Ding
Jody Mou
Liza Chong
Malathy Kumaravadivel
Megan Li
Mei Yi Niu
Nehal Thakar
Papiha Joharapurkar
Rajesh Ray
Rebecca Lee
Richard Ren
Rushay Naik
Saisujani Rasiah
Sandy Dai
Sawmmiya Kirupaharan
Sharon Low
Sharlene Goncalves
Sherry Liu
Terry Chen
Umesh Shroff
Utkarsh Kanabar
Vipul Shah
Van Trinh
Winko Chan
Yan Feng
Yem Chen Lin
PREVIOUS SPONSORS
Aventis BioTalent Challenge
(Sanofi-Pasteur);
Canadian Science Publishing;
CISCO Academy Canada;
Enbridge;
Information and Communication
Technology Council;
Youth Science Canada;
Canadian Space Agency;
Western University;
University of Ontario
Institute of Technology;
Dr. Roberta Bondar, the first
Canadian female astronaut;
Nobel Laureates
Dr. Leonard Nurse and
Dr. David Dolly;
Toronto City Council;
Hon. Ken Dryden, MP;
Hon. Lorenzo Berardinetti, MPP
PARTNERS
COMMUNITY SUPPORTERS
ACADEMIC PARTNERS
STUDENT ORGANIZATION PARTNERS
How to contact us:
Foundation for Student Science and Technology
141 Laurier Avenue West, Suite 702
Ottawa, Ontario K1P 5J3
Email:
[email protected]
Subissions of Journal Articles:
[email protected]
www.fsst.ca
Online Donations:
www.canadahelps.org/en/charities/foundation-for-student-science-technology/
Ontario On-Line Research Co-op
for high school students
Recherche COOP en ligne de l’Ontario
pour étudiants de niveau secondaire
The Online Research Co-op experiential education
program has been collaboratively developed by The
Journal of Student Science and Technology and the
federal Science and Technology Cluster (Science.gc.ca)
to help students transition from secondary school into
postsecondary education and introduce them to
knowledge-based professions.
Le programme COOP de recherche en ligne été élaboré
conjointement par La revue pour les étudiants en
technologie et sciences et le Regroupement des sciences et
de la technologie (Science.gc.ca) pour aider les étudiants à
passer de l’école secondaire aux études postsecondaires et
pour les initier aux professions basées sur la connaissance.
The program matches highly motivated high school
students, in grades 11 and 12, with top researchers in
the fields of science and technology. Students are
offered opportunities to work on research projects, to
be immersed into professional online communication
and work environments, and to gain early exposure to
careers in science and technology. The online format
of the learning makes it accessible to all students,
including those who require more flexible schedules,
and those living in remote areas.
Ontario high schools can now apply to offer this
opportunity for their students.
If you are a student or teacher who would like to take
part, please contact [email protected]
Le programme COOP de recherche en ligne vise à jumeler
des élèves très motivés de niveau secondaire, de la 11e et
12e année, avec des chercheurs émérites du domaine des
sciences et de la technologie. Les élèves ont la possibilité de
travailler à des projets de recherche, d’être immergé dans un
environnement virtuel de travaille et de communication
professionnel, et d’être exposés tôt à des carrières en
sciences et en technologie. La formule en ligne de
l’apprentissage rend cette expérience accessible à tous les
étudiants, y compris ceux qui ont besoin des horaires plus
souples et ceux qui habitent dans des régions plus isolés.
Les écoles secondaires ontariennes peuvent actuellement
présenter une demande afin d’offrir cette occasion aux
étudiants.
Si vous êtes un(e) élève ou un(e) enseignant(e) et que vous
désirez participer à ce projet, veuillez communiquer avec
[email protected]
If you are a scientist and would like to participate in
this project, please contact [email protected].
Si vous êtes un(e) scientifique et que vous désirez participer
à ce projet, veuillez communiquer avec
[email protected].
For more information visit science.gc.ca/course
Pour plus d’informations s’il vous plaît visitez
science.gc.ca/cours
141 Laurier Avenue West, Suite 702
Ottawa, Ontario
K1P 5J3

this PDF file - Journal of Student Science and Technology

Transcription

Documents pareils

Revue de presse ANGLAIS Semaine du 24 au 30 octobre 2011

Halton Hills Village, Georgetown - FEB 9-16

master de communication internationale - Univ

4228 Holland Dr Des Moines, IA 50310 | Home for Sale | Real

“What We Stand to Lose” Poster Lesson Plans

mounto daballo – 2014

COUNSELORS IN THE ADOLESCENT DRUG SCENE

Pre-University Grade 12 Short Course Descriptions

Education Outreach Programme – The study of

Jacksonville State University College of Arts and Sciences Updated