Encouraging Future Entrepreneurs: The Effect of Entrepreneurship

Transcription

Encouraging Future Entrepreneurs:
The Effect of Entrepreneurship Course Characteristics on
Entrepreneurial Intention
DISSERTATION
of the University of St. Gallen,
Graduate School of Business Administration,
Economics, Law and Social Sciences (HSG)
to obtain the title of
Doctor Oeconomiae
submitted by
Susan Müller
from
Germany
Approved on the application of
Prof. Dr. Thierry Volery
and
Prof. Chris Steyaert, PhD
Dissertation no. 3550
Irchel, Zürich 2008
The University of St. Gallen, Graduate School of Business Administration,
Economics, Law and Social Sciences (HSG) hereby consents to the printing of
the present dissertation, without hereby expressing any opinion on the views
herein expressed.
St. Gallen, October 13, 2008
The President:
Prof. Ernst Mohr, PhD
ABSTRACT
1
Abstract
Entrepreneurship courses can influence the entrepreneurial intention of the
participants. However, if we want to design entrepreneurship courses responsibly
and effectively, simply knowing that we can change entrepreneurial intention is
not sufficient. We also need to understand why the change occurs: Which
educational characteristics are more influential than others? How do they
influence entrepreneurial intention through antecedent cognitive structures? Such
insights can then be used for curriculum development.
The present study combines exploratory and quantitative research methods. The
exploratory part of the study consisted of semi-structured interviews, written
learning reflections, and complementary interviews with experts in pedagogy.
The objective was to derive hypotheses about course characteristics with a
positive influence on the antecedents of entrepreneurial intention.
The hypotheses were tested with a quantitative study which was designed as an
ex ante/ex post measurement. 465 valid pairs of ex ante/ex post questionnaires
were filled out by students participating in entrepreneurship courses at 17
German-speaking universities. Ajzen's model of planned behaviour served as the
underlying theoretical model. The validity of Ajzen’s model was successfully
tested using multivariate regressions. The hypotheses regarding the influence of
course characteristics on attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural
control were tested by calculating bivariate correlations. Seven educational
variables have been identified which can positively influence the antecedents of
entrepreneurial intention: conveying practical knowledge, business planning
activities, the integration of role models, options for building up networks,
student-oriented teaching, explorative elements, and the integration of feedback
processes. Most of the effective identified course elements require actions on the
part of the students and are hence linked to experiential learning.
2
AUTHOR'S PREFACE
Author’s Preface
So what is fascinating about entrepreneurship? Entrepreneurship is interesting for
several reasons: it strengthens a country’s competitive advantage, fosters
innovation and positively influences economic wealth. All of these factors are
even more important for economies whose capital can be found within the brains
of their people rather than in the raw materials of their soil. But there is one more
reason why entrepreneurship is one of my favourite topics: being an entrepreneur
allows people to use their creative potential to create something new - a
challenging and satisfying activity which suits the inventive nature of human
beings much better than most current job situations do.
But why do we need to encourage entrepreneurship when, as is the case in a free
market economy, everybody can start his or her own business? It appears that
entrepreneurs are not born as such. And probably, not everybody can be taught to
become an entrepreneur. But we know that the social environment and previous
entrepreneurial exposure to people such as family, friends, and role models
influence one's attitude towards entrepreneurship. In short, the children of an
entrepreneur are more likely to become entrepreneurs themselves. For a lot of
students who did not grow up in an entrepreneurial environment, becoming
employed is still the predominant picture of their future work life, whereas
becoming an entrepreneur is just not in their range of possible options.
Consequently, it is worth offering entrepreneurship courses to all students in
order to contribute to the "democratisation" of occupational choices. It opens up
one more opportunity for participants who have not encountered the topic so far.
Considering what has been said before, it seems legitimate, and necessary, to
foster entrepreneurship education.
But what is the right way to encourage entrepreneurial behaviour? A lot of
research into entrepreneurship has already been done and research has moved
AUTHOR'S PREFACE
3
forward in an attempt to better understand the factors which play a role in the
process of becoming an entrepreneur. Positive attitudes towards entrepreneurship
increase a person’s intention to become an entrepreneur. So does the perception
of being able to successfully start your own business. Perceived environmental
barriers prevent people from starting their own business. Someone who is
challenged rather than demotivated by setbacks will probably be more successful
as an entrepreneur. And this list is not exhaustive. We also know that
entrepreneurship education has a positive impact on some of the factors
mentioned above. But still, the following question had remained unanswered so
far: How do different class characteristics influence the attitudes, perceptions and
intentions of participants? Only if we have a better understanding of the impact
entrepreneurship classes and their characteristics have on attitudes, perceptions
and intentions we can design and offer effective classes. Moreover, we can do so
in a more responsible way: the ultimate objective is not to increase the
entrepreneurial intention of all students. Rather, the objective is to give more
students the opportunity to discover whether or not being an entrepreneur is the
right occupational choice for them, especially for those who have not come into
contact with entrepreneurship before.
Why foster entrepreneurship at university level? Entrepreneurship classes at
university level are only one component of fostering entrepreneurial activity and
certainly measures in previous education phases are necessary as well. But a
couple of aspects make it an important element: start-ups initiated by academics
tend to employ more people than average start-ups and they play an important
role in the transfer of technical and process innovations from research to business.
Because of all that has been said above, it seemed important to me to invest some
time to better understand how entrepreneurship classes should be designed to be
valuable.
4
AUTHOR'S PREFACE
A lot of people have accompanied this journey into the area of entrepreneurship
education research by giving me the opportunity to gain insights into their
experiences: entrepreneurs, education experts and more than 1,300 students
participated in interviews and surveys. My thanks go to all of them for providing
their time. I owe special thanks to all the lecturers and assistants who patiently
distributed and collected numerous surveys.
Those from whom I have learned most include my doctoral supervisors Prof. Dr.
Thierry Volery and Prof. Chris Steyaert, PhD who provided me with valuable
feedback: it was always to the point and allowed me to progress with my work.
This also applies to Prof. Dr. Urs Füglistaller, Head of the Swiss Research
Institute of Small Business and Entrepreneurship at the University of St. Gallen. I
am grateful to Prof. Dr. Alain Fayolle and Narjisse Lassas-Clerc from EM Lyon
who gave me the opportunity to work together with them during my first steps
into the area of entrepreneurship research.
It was inspiring to talk to several entrepreneurship educators who shared their
extensive experience with me, namely Prof. Dr. Heinz Klandt (European
Business School), Prof. Dr. Christoph Müller (University of Hohenheim), Prof.
Dr. Sven Ripsas (Berlin School of Economics) and Prof. Götz Werner (University
of Karlsruhe). Their former students have helped me to understand what their
entrepreneurship classes could do for participants: these are Daniel Hoffmann,
who chose to become an entrepreneur instead of following a group career, Pascal
Ngyen, who became an entrepreneur before even finishing university (which he
did as well afterwards), Thomas Mann and Daniel Rech, who, I am sure, will
become entrepreneurs at some point in their lives.
I owe special thanks to some experts in education science who gave me insights
into a subject which was completely new to me at the beginning: Prof. Dr. Dieter
Euler (University of St. Gallen), Prof. Dr. Annette Kluge (University of St.
Gallen), and Prof. Dr. Ulrich Braukmann (University of Wuppertal), who showed
AUTHOR'S PREFACE
5
me that there are some researchers who would approach the topic completely
differently.
I count myself lucky to have numerous friends with whom I can exchange ideas
and experiences about entrepreneurship and sustainability. Sincere thanks to all of
them. I want to thank Dr. André Munzinger, who showed me in many discussions
that there are no simple, one-sided answers to complex questions. Thanks also to
Dr. Armin Frey with whom I share the belief that sustainable and responsible
business can make the world a better place. And many thanks to Ralf Tesler, a
good friend of mine, who, in difficult situations, always helps me out with
valuable advice.
Many thanks go to Dr. Michael Rosenbaum and Attila Nagy, partners of the
rosenbaum nagy unternehmensberatung and my employers for more than six
years: They gave me enough flexibility to work on my dissertation project.
During that time Michael Rosenbaum became an important mentor, one who
showed by example how ideas can be realised quite effectively.
And last but not least, my thanks go to my parents, who were always confident
that I would finish the dissertation successfully.
Susan Müller
October 2008
6
TABLE OF CONTENTS - OVERVIEW
Table of Contents – Overview
Abstract .................................................................................................................. 1
Author’s Preface .................................................................................................... 2
Table of Contents – Overview .............................................................................. 6
Table of Contents ................................................................................................... 7
List of Figures ...................................................................................................... 10
List of Tables ........................................................................................................ 11
1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 13
2 Literature Review .......................................................................................... 25
3 Research Process ............................................................................................ 69
4 Exploratory Study.......................................................................................... 81
5 Quantitative Study ....................................................................................... 129
6 Conclusions and Practical Implications..................................................... 159
7 Appendices .................................................................................................... 173
References........................................................................................................... 285
Curriculum Vitae............................................................................................... 291
TABLE OF CONTENTS
7
Table of Contents
Abstract .................................................................................................................. 1
Author’s Preface .................................................................................................... 2
Table of Contents – Overview .............................................................................. 6
Table of Contents ................................................................................................... 7
List of Figures ...................................................................................................... 10
List of Tables ........................................................................................................ 11
1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 13
1.1
Motivation ...........................................................................................................13
1.2
Research Questions and Scope of this Doctoral Thesis ..................................16
1.3
Theoretical and Practical Relevance of the Research Questions...................18
1.4
Structure of the Thesis.......................................................................................22
2 Literature Review .......................................................................................... 25
2.1
Necessity of Interdisciplinary Literature Research ........................................25
2.2
Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurship Education .....................................27
2.2.1
Key Elements of Entrepreneurship ........................................................................................................27
2.2.2
Entrepreneurship Education as a Central Tool to Increase Entrepreneurial Activities .......................32
2.3
2.3.1
Educational Science ...........................................................................................36
Educational Science and Entrepreneurship Education .........................................................................36
2.3.2
Effective Teaching Methods ...................................................................................................................37
2.3.3
Typologies and Paradigms to Classify Educational Practices ..............................................................43
2.4
Social Cognitive Theory ....................................................................................49
2.4.1
Social Cognitive Theory and Entrepreneurship Education Research ...................................................49
2.4.2
Shapero’s Model of the Entrepreneurial Event .....................................................................................51
2.4.3
Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behaviour ...................................................................................................54
2.4.4
Bandura’s Concept of Self-efficacy........................................................................................................56
2.5
Selection of Theoretical Concepts.....................................................................64
8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3 Research Process ............................................................................................ 69
3.1
Overview and Reasoning ...................................................................................69
3.2
Exploratory Study ..............................................................................................71
3.2.1
Purpose of the Study...............................................................................................................................71
3.2.2
Research Method ....................................................................................................................................72
3.2.3
Sample ....................................................................................................................................................76
3.3
3.3.1
Quantitative Study .............................................................................................77
Purpose of the Study...............................................................................................................................77
3.3.2
Research Method ....................................................................................................................................77
3.3.3
Sample ....................................................................................................................................................79
4 Exploratory Study.......................................................................................... 81
4.1
Detailed Results ..................................................................................................81
4.1.1
The Influence of the Antecedents of Entrepreneurial Intention .............................................................81
4.1.2
The Influence of Entrepreneurship Course Characteristics ..................................................................93
4.2
Summary of the Results...................................................................................112
4.3
Hypotheses ........................................................................................................117
4.4
Conceptual Model ............................................................................................127
5 Quantitative Study ....................................................................................... 129
5.1
Measures ...........................................................................................................129
5.1.1
Dependent Variables ............................................................................................................................129
5.1.2
Independent Variables .........................................................................................................................135
5.1.3
Moderating and Control Variables ......................................................................................................139
5.2
Statistical Methods ...........................................................................................142
5.3
Overview of the Data Set .................................................................................144
5.3.1
Overview of the Participants................................................................................................................144
5.3.2
Overview of the Courses ......................................................................................................................146
5.4
Results ...............................................................................................................152
5.4.1
Testing Hypotheses 1 to 3 ....................................................................................................................152
5.4.2
Testing Hypotheses 4 to 13 ..................................................................................................................153
5.4.3
The Influence of Control and Moderating Variables...........................................................................155
6 Conclusions and Practical Implications..................................................... 159
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.1
6.1.1
6.2
9
Summary of the Results...................................................................................159
Designing Effective Entrepreneurship Education Programmes ..........................................................162
Limitations of the Research and Suggestions for Further Research ..........169
7 Appendices .................................................................................................... 173
7.1
Qualitative Study .............................................................................................173
7.1.1
Questionnaire: Guided Interviews with Entrepreneurship Educators – German Version .................173
7.1.2
Questionnaire: Guided Interviews with Entrepreneurship Educators – English Translation ............175
7.1.3
Questionnaire: Guided Interviews with Former Entrepreneurship Students – German Version .......177
7.1.4
Questionnaire: Guided Interviews with Former Entrepreneurship Students – English Translation ..178
7.1.5
Questionnaire: Interviews with Experts in Pedagogy – German Version ...........................................180
7.1.6
Questionnaire: Interviews with Experts in Pedagogy – English Translation .....................................181
7.1.7
Category Scheme and Text Passages: The Influence of Antecedents of Entrepreneurial Intention ...182
7.1.8
Category Scheme and Text Passages: The Influence of Entrepreneurship Course Characteristics ..191
7.2
Quantitative Study ...........................................................................................222
7.2.1
Scales and Items of the Dependent Variable .......................................................................................222
7.2.2
Scales and Items of the Independent Variable .....................................................................................225
7.2.3
Scales and Items of the Moderating Variable ......................................................................................229
7.2.4
Ex Ante Questionnaire – Original German Version ............................................................................231
7.2.5
Ex Ante Questionnaire – English Translation .....................................................................................239
7.2.6
Ex Post Questionnaire – Original German Version ............................................................................247
7.2.7
Ex Post Questionnaire – English Translation .....................................................................................257
7.2.8
Questionnaire for the Lecturers – German Original Version .............................................................267
7.2.9
Questionnaire for the Lecturers – English Translation .......................................................................272
7.2.10
Results of Multivariate Regressions .....................................................................................................277
References........................................................................................................... 285
Curriculum Vitae............................................................................................... 291
LIST OF FIGURES
10
List of Figures
Figure 1: Early Stage Entrepreneurial Activity and GDP per Capita .................................. 19
Figure 2: Structure of the Thesis: Chapters and Main Objectives ....................................... 23
Figure 3: Relevant Research Areas and Topics for the Thesis ............................................ 26
Figure 4: The Key Elements of Entrepreneurship ............................................................... 28
Figure 5: Overview of Learning Contents Offered in German-speaking Countries ........... 35
Figure 6: Dewey’s Model of Experiential Learning ............................................................ 39
Figure 7: Klafki’s Critical-constructive Model for Lesson Planning .................................. 47
Figure 8: Entrepreneurial Event Formation ......................................................................... 53
Figure 9: The Theory of Planned Behaviour ....................................................................... 55
Figure 10: Overview of the Research Process ..................................................................... 70
Figure 11: Different Perspectives on the Research Object .................................................. 71
Figure 12: Analysing Method according to Mühlfeld et al. ................................................ 73
Figure 13: Conceptual Model and Hypotheses .................................................................. 127
Figure 14: Validity of Ajzen’s Model - Hypotheses 1 to 3 ............................................... 142
Figure 15: Theoretical Knowledge - Characteristics of the Courses ................................. 150
Figure 16: Practical Methods - Characteristics of the Courses.......................................... 151
Figure 17: Designing Effective Entrepreneurship Programmes ........................................ 167
11
LIST OF TABLES
List of Tables
Table 1: Fear of Failure and Perceived Capabilities in Different Countries ....................... 21
Table 2: Laurillard’s Recommended Teaching Strategy ..................................................... 45
Table 3: Interviewees of the Semi-structured Interviews .................................................... 76
Table 4: Research Process of the Quantitative Study .......................................................... 78
Table 5: Number of Valid Pairs Sorted by University ........................................................ 79
Table 6: Category Scheme: The Influence of Antecedents of Entrepreneurial Intention .... 81
Table 7: Category Scheme: The Influence of Entrepreneurship Course Characteristics .... 93
Table 8: Cronbach’s Alpha for Independent Variables ..................................................... 129
Table 9: Age of the Participants ........................................................................................ 144
Table 10: Ajzen’s Constructs............................................................................................. 145
Table 11: Overview of the Entrepreneurship Courses in the Sample ................................ 147
Table 12: Educational Goals of the Courses...................................................................... 148
Table 13: Application of Course Contents and Characteristics ......................................... 149
Table 14: Multivariate Regression for Hypotheses 1 to 3 ................................................. 152
Table 15: Correlations for Hypotheses 4 to 13 .................................................................. 154
Table 16: Multivariate Regression for Hypothesis 4 ......................................................... 156
Table 17: Limitations of the Study and Suggested Areas for Future Research ................. 172
Table 18: Category Scheme: Validity of Ajzen’s Model .................................................. 182
Table 19: Category Scheme: The Influence of Entrepreneurship Course Characteristics 191
Table 20: Items of the Attitude Index ................................................................................ 222
Table 21: Items of the Subjective Norm Index .................................................................. 223
Table 22: Items of the Perceived Behavioural Control Index ........................................... 223
Table 23: Items of the Intention Index .............................................................................. 224
Table 24: Item to Measure the Level of Practical Knowledge .......................................... 225
Table 25: Items to Measure the Level of Business Planning Activities ............................ 225
Table 26: Items to Measure the Level of Role Model Elements ....................................... 225
Table 27: Items to Measure the Level of the Established Entrepreneurial Network ......... 226
Table 28: Items to Measure the Level of Student Orientation........................................... 227
Table 29: Item to Measure the Level of Exploratory Elements......................................... 228
Table 30: Item to Measure the Level of Feedback ............................................................ 228
12
LIST OF TABLES
Table 31: Items to Measure the Level of Previous Entrepreneurial Exposure .................. 229
Table 32: Items to Measure Student Expectations ............................................................ 230
Table 36: Multivariate Regression for Hypothesis 10 ....................................................... 280
INTRODUCTION
1
13
Introduction
”Most new jobs won’t come from our biggest employers.
They will come from our smallest. We’ve got to do
everything we can to make entrepreneurial dreams a
reality”.
ROSS PEROT
1.1
Motivation
If people were born as entrepreneurs, providing education in the field of
entrepreneurship would be easier. It would be sufficient to ensure that
entrepreneurs were identified and provided with the best possible environment to
establish new companies, create new jobs and increase a nation’s wealth.
Unfortunately, it is not that easy. However, we can positively influence the
likelihood that somebody will consider becoming an entrepreneur. Research has
shown that there is a significant relationship between entrepreneurial training and
the propensity to become an entrepreneur.1
It is intriguing that entrepreneurship classes can change entrepreneurial intention
if one considers the economic relevance of entrepreneurial activity mentioned by
various authors. Entrepreneurial behaviour, the creative destruction leading to
innovation2, increases the economic wealth of nations and can be one element
which contributes to the improvement of the economic condition of entire
countries.
The necessity of including the promotion of entrepreneurship in education
programmes becomes evident if we consider both the possibility of changing
people’s intentions and the economic relevance. The growing importance of
1
Fayolle, et al., 2005; Kolvereid and Moen, 1997; Noel, 2001; Tkachev and Kolvereid, 1999; Varela
and Jimenez, 2001.
2
Schumpeter, 1997.
14
INTRODUCTION
entrepreneurship classes in research and education3 shows that this thought is
already being taken seriously. This is not only the case for the U.S. but also for
Germany, with more than 60 university chairs related to entrepreneurship4. With
such large resources invested in entrepreneurship education, the importance of
doing so wisely and effectively is growing. So far, empirical studies have mainly
focused on the question of whether or not classes in entrepreneurship have an
influence on the decision to become an entrepreneur – a question which has
already been answered positively. Less attention has, however, been paid to the
question of whether or not the chosen educational variables are effective.5
Therefore, it is necessary to answer on the question of which content should be
taught in which manner to achieve impact on the participant’s entrepreneurial
intention. Thus, this dissertation focuses on the question of which methods or
characteristics of entrepreneurship classes are better than others for increasing
entrepreneurial intention and, more interestingly, why they are more effective.
But why should the focus be on intention and not on the actual behaviour, since
economic impact is obviously not achieved by somebody having the intention to
do something but only by people transforming their intentions into actual
behaviour? Besides practical reasons, intentions have been identified as being the
best predictors of planned behaviour, especially if the behaviour is “rare, hard to
observe, or involves unpredictable time lags”6, characteristics which apply to
entrepreneurship:
entrepreneur
are
Identifying
clearly
business
activities
opportunities
of
planned
and
becoming
behaviour.
an
Therefore,
entrepreneurship can be described as a type of planned behaviour which can be
analysed with the help of intention models.7
3
Katz, 2003: p. 298.
4
Klandt, et al., 2005.
5
Fayolle, et al., 2005: p. 6.
6
Krueger, et al., 2000: p. 411.
7
Bird, 1988; Katz and Gartner, 1988.
INTRODUCTION
15
Another reason for using an intention model is that they consider situational and
personal variables which makes them superior to models focussing on one aspect
only.8
For the reasons stated above, the research object and the research approach seem
to be theoretically promising and practically relevant.
8
Krueger, et al., 2000: p. 425, 426.
16
1.2
INTRODUCTION
Research Questions and Scope of this Doctoral Thesis
The aim to achieve both theoretical advancement and practical relevance has also
been decisive for formulating the research questions. The first question seeks to
advance the theoretical discussion by asking how entrepreneurship courses
influence entrepreneurial intention:
Research question #1: How do specific characteristics of entrepreneurship
courses influence the intention to become an entrepreneur?
Once this question has been answered and the way in which educational variables
affect entrepreneurial intention is understood to a higher degree, the following
question of practical relevance can be answered in a more profound way:
Research question #2: How do entrepreneurship courses need to be designed in
order to increase entrepreneurial intention?
For the purpose of keeping the dissertation manageable, it was necessary to
narrow down the scope of the research project and leave out certain related
research aspects, even though they are worth taking a closer look at in further
research. Thus, the following aspects have not been included in the analysis: The
empirical research was done in German-speaking countries only, namely, Austria,
Germany, Luxemburg, and Switzerland, to reduce possible cultural influences.
Also, the topic of stability of entrepreneurial intention over time has not been
addressed.
Furthermore, the question of the right time for shaping entrepreneurial skills,
attitudes, and perceptions, which is not under consideration here, should be
investigated in the future. Insights from research on learning suggest that the
ability to learn specific things changes over time. Children between the age of one
INTRODUCTION
17
and two, for example, have a certain talent for language acquisition.9 While
entrepreneurship might not be learned like a language and might be concerned
with attitudes and beliefs rather than with knowledge, the fact that humans
acquire information selectively and prefer to take on opinions they already share
might suggest that entrepreneurship should be taught much earlier than at a
university level.
The scope of the research questions has been described; however, the subject
matter requires further explanation to avoid misinterpretation: The research
questions stated above should not imply that it makes sense to increase
entrepreneurial
intention
in
every
person.
Not
everybody
attending
entrepreneurship classes should start his or her own company. A clear intention
might be necessary to start one’s own company, but it does not guarantee success
and it might not be the right career choice for the respective person. As a
consequence, it is not sufficient to provide students with theoretical insights about
what it means to become an entrepreneur or the tools needed to start a company.
Rather, entrepreneurship classes should help participants to assess their personal
skills and entrepreneurial potential.
9
Bednorz and Schuster, 2002: p.19. Some researchers interpret certain studies and observations as
indicating that certain learning experiences are better adopted in so-called sensitive phases during a
person’s lifetime.
18
1.3
INTRODUCTION
Theoretical and Practical Relevance of the Research
Questions
The theoretical relevance of the research questions stated in the previous subchapter can be derived from the following research gaps: Research has shown that
entrepreneurial intention is influenced by entrepreneurship courses. It remains
unclear though why this is the case. Is it because the attitude towards
entrepreneurship, a precursor of entrepreneurial intention, changes after talking to
entrepreneurs? Or is it because students evaluate their capability to start their own
company in a different way after attending an entrepreneurship course which
required them to write a business plan? Knowing the answers to such questions
would help entrepreneurship educators to design well-directed course curricula.
Also, it would alleviate a situation in which there is no agreement among
entrepreneurship educators about which entrepreneurship concepts should be
taught.10
The practical relevance of the question can be drawn from an economic
standpoint. Entrepreneurship is about building new companies, and new
companies increase wealth in developed countries. An illustrative example of the
possible dimension of entrepreneurial activities encouraged through an
organisation which successfully fosters entrepreneurial engagement is provided
by Ayers11: the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge has
documented the number of companies founded by (former) students or MIT
employees at approximately 4,000. These companies provide work for more than
1.1 million people, with annual sales of $232 billion. If these companies
represented an independent nation, it would be the 24th largest economy in the
world. The MIT-example shows that entrepreneurship has an enormous economic
impact and that educational institutions can foster entrepreneurial activities.
10
Gibb, 2002.
11
Ayers, 1997.
INTRODUCTION
19
The relevance of entrepreneurship for the German-speaking countries in focus,
namely, Austria, Germany, Luxemburg, and Switzerland, is emphasised by the
following relationship shown in the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM): a
U-shaped relationship exists between entrepreneurial activity and per capita gross
domestic product (GDP). Countries with a low GDP tend to score high on the
total entrepreneurial activity index (TEA).12 Afterwards, as the GDP increases,
the TEA index initially declines. Countries with a per capita GDP of about
$28,000 tend to have the lowest TEA rate. Beyond this GDP, the TEA rate begins
to rise again. As depicted in Figure 1 Germany is at the bottom of the U-shaped
curve. It can be assumed that an increase in GDP and TEA go hand in hand, thus
suggesting the appropriateness of the objective to increase entrepreneurial
Percentage of population between 18-64 years involved in TEA
intention13 to reach greater economic wealth.
25%
Early-stage Entrepreurial Activity 2006
CO
JA
20%
PH
ID
CN
TH
15%
UY
BR
MY
IN
10%
AU
IS
US
AR
HR
NO
CL
CZ
LV
SA
TR
5%
GR
HU
CA
ES
UK
FI
NL
FR DE
IT
SE
SG
MX RU
SI
JP
IE
DK
AE
BE
0%
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
GDP per Capita 2006, in Power Purchasing Parities
Figure 1: Early Stage Entrepreneurial Activity and GDP per Capita14
12
The Total Entrepreneurial Activity shows the percentage of nascent entrepreneurial activity plus the
percentage of new business owners.
13
14
Acs, et al., 2004: p. 38.
Bosma and Harding, 2006.
20
INTRODUCTION
The GEM reports show that countries such as Germany score low when it comes
to entrepreneurial activities. In the 2005 GEM report, the latest report providing
data for Austria, Germany, and Switzerland, the TEA for each of these countries
was as follows: Austria 5.3%, Germany 5.4%, and Switzerland 6.1%. These
results placed them the 20th, 23rd and 25th respectively among the 35 countries
which participated in the study.15 The entrepreneurial activity in all three
countries is far from satisfactory, and the results clearly indicate the need for
improvement.
Providing entrepreneurship training at the university level is one option to
improve this situation, an option which makes perfect sense if we take a look at
high-income, low-growth countries. Germany, for example, a country with welleducated engineers, has a good record in terms of technical inventions but lacks
entrepreneurs with the technical and commercial skills to exploit these
opportunities.
Entrepreneurship education, however, can do more than convey skills; it can
change attitudes and perceptions, an area which also needs improvement. In
Germany, for example, one powerful obstacle for entrepreneurial activities is the
fear of failure. 51% of Germans agree with the statement that the fear of failure
prevents them from starting a business, a result that has been stable over the last
several years. Among the 35 reference countries in 2005 only three other
countries, Greece, France, and Thailand, had worse results. Also, in Germany the
perception of the necessary capabilities and know-how for starting a business is
assessed as being lower than in other countries. Table 1 shows a comparison
between the data mentioned for Austria, Germany, Switzerland, and the U.S.
15
Minniti, et al., 2006: p. 17.
INTRODUCTION
21
Austria
Germany
Switzerland
U.S.
Fear of failure would
prevent you from starting
a business
46%
51%
35%
23%
You have the knowledge,
skill and experience
required to start a new
business
46%
41%
51%
52%
Table 1: Fear of Failure and Perceived Capabilities in Different Countries16
In particular, perceived capabilities seem to play an important role when it comes
to entrepreneurial activity. The 2007 Executive Report of the GEM shows a high
correlation between perceived capabilities and early-stage entrepreneurial
activities.17 Therefore, besides the general importance of understanding the
impact of entrepreneurship classes on entrepreneurial intention, the practical
relevance of the question seems to apply specifically to the countries in focus.
Along with economic relevance, social relevance can be cited as well.
Entrepreneurship places greater importance on the individual and his or her
ability to be creative. Showing entrepreneurial engagement as a feasible job
opportunity to students who did not have the chance to look into the topic so far
can be an important component in achieving the “democratisation of capitalism”.
16
Volery, et al., 2006: p. 18.
17
Bosma, et al., 2008, p. 37. Correlation = 0.43, significant at the 0.05 level.
22
1.4
INTRODUCTION
Structure of the Thesis
The structure of the thesis is as follows: Chapter 2 shows the results of the
literature research on the fields in which the research object can be located,
namely, entrepreneurship, educational science, and social cognitive theory. It also
provides a discussion of the concepts and definitions chosen for the further steps
in the dissertation.
Chapter 3 provides an overview of the research design of the exploratory and the
quantitative study, describing the purposes, methods and samples of those two
sections.
The results of the exploratory study are provided in Chapter 4. These results are
used to develop the hypotheses and the conceptual model.
The measures and statistical procedures used to test the hypotheses are described
in Chapter 5, where also the results of testing the hypotheses are provided.
The author places value on providing helpful practical implications which can be
used to design actual entrepreneurship classes. Therefore, Chapter 6 provides an
overview of theoretical and practical implications. Also, recommendations for
designing effective entrepreneurship courses are provided.
To ensure the transparency of the empirical analysis, the appendix (Chapter 7)
includes detailed information about the exploratory and quantitative study. Figure
2 provides an overview of the chapters and their main objectives.
INTRODUCTION
23
Chapter 1: Introduction
− Define research focus
− Indicate practical relevance and theoretical advancement
Chapter 2: Literature Review
− Show contributions of relevant
research areas
− Discuss and select theoretical
concepts
Chapter 3: Research Process
Provide an overview of the
research design and methods
Chapter 4: Exploratory Study
− Show the results of the exploratory study
− Derive hypotheses
− Develop the conceptual model
Chapter 5: Quantitative Study
Show the results of the hypotheses tests
Chapter 6: Conclusions and Practical Implications
− Conclusions
− Recommendations for designing entrepreneurship programmes
− Suggestions for further research
Figure 2: Structure of the Thesis: Chapters and Main Objectives
LITERATURE REVIEW
2
25
Literature Review
“Perceptions of desirability and of feasibility are products of
cultural and social environments and help determine which
actions will be seriously considered and subsequently taken.”
ALBERT SHAPERO, LISA SOKOL
2.1
Necessity of Interdisciplinary Literature Research
There are numerous issues entrepreneurship researchers do not agree upon. They
do however agree on one issue: to conduct entrepreneurship research, multiple
facets and disciplines have to be considered. Influences and insights from
economics, sociology, psychology, pedagogy, and other disciplines are used to
better understand the topic.18 An interdisciplinary approach is necessary to answer
the research question at hand as well. This chapter focuses on three research
streams, Entrepreneurship, social cognition and education sciences, to build a
theoretical framework.
“How do specific characteristics of entrepreneurship courses influence the
intention to become an entrepreneur?” The first research question makes it
necessary to ask what we are examining when we talk about entrepreneurial
intent. What do people with an entrepreneurial intention plan to do? What is
entrepreneurship? Therefore, one research area we need to look into is
entrepreneurship itself.
Since we are talking about learning situations which could influence the
participants’ intentions, we are tapping into entrepreneurship education research
and find ourselves at the intersection of entrepreneurship research and educational
science. Educational science, or pedagogy, can help us to shed light on the
18
Uebelacker, 2005: p. 5.
26
LITERATURE REVIEW
following aspects: which teaching methods have proven to be effective? What
typologies and paradigms can be used to classify educational practices?
While looking at relevant insights from entrepreneurship research and educational
science, we touch on the field of social science at various points. Firstly, the
building of an enterprise is a social process taking place within society. Secondly,
a classroom situation is a social process itself. Thirdly, the foundation of a
company requires the clear intention to do so. This means that we are talking
about planned behaviour, a subject which can be approached with models from
social cognitive theory. As the most relevant sciences to approach the first
research question have been identified, we need to look at the second research
question as well. “How do entrepreneurship courses need to be designed in order
to increase entrepreneurial intention?” The recommendations themselves will
result from answering the first research question. Nevertheless, to structure the
implications and proposals it will be appropriate to use insights of educational
science. Therefore, typologies to classify educational practices are explored in
Chapter 2.3.3. The contributions of the research areas are depicted in Figure 3.
Entrepreneurship
research
− Economic relevance
− Scope of entrepreneurship
− Development of the field
Social cognitive
theory
− Intention-based
models: e.g. Theory
of Planned
Behaviour
− Concept of selfefficacy
− Effectiveness of
Education
learning
sciences
− Changing attitudes,
− Teaching methods
perceptions and
intentions
− Measure the
effectiveness of
teaching
− Typologies of learning
situations
Figure 3: Relevant Research Areas and Topics for the Thesis
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.2
27
Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurship Education
2.2.1 Key Elements of Entrepreneurship
The objective of the thesis is to understand how entrepreneurship course elements
influence entrepreneurial intention. To understand what type of intention we are
looking at, it is necessary to clarify what the term entrepreneurship means.
Entrepreneurship comes from the French and means to undertake or start
something. Cantillon was the first to use the expression in an economic setting
when, in the 18th century, he emphasised the risk-bearing role of entrepreneurs
who, in his view, act as arbitrageurs and mobilise resources to establish new
businesses.19 Many other aspects of entrepreneurship have been discussed as well
and even though the concept of entrepreneurship is as old as economics, a
generally accepted definition of entrepreneurship still does not exist.20
One reason for that is that entrepreneurship is a multi-faceted phenomenon and
knowledge from many disciplines is necessary to capture it. In the ‘80s the focus
of entrepreneurship research was the personality of the entrepreneur.21 In the ‘90s
still most researchers tried to define the field mainly in terms of the entrepreneur
and his activities. However, an individual is only one important element of
entrepreneurship. It also requires an opportunity which is exploited by an
individual.22 Hence, definitions focussing on the entrepreneur necessarily fall
short of capturing all dimensions of the phenomenon.
Even though there might not be a consensus on the definition of entrepreneurship,
five factors are commonly regarded as being necessary for entrepreneurship to
19
Cantillon, 1952: p. 28, 29.
20
Breen, 2004: p. 22.
21
Low and MacMillan, 1988.
22
Volery and Shaper, 2007: p.4.
28
LITERATURE REVIEW
happen (Figure 4): the entrepreneur, an opportunity, resources, an organisation
and a supporting environment.23
Opportunity
Environment
Recognises
Evaluates
Exploits
Environment
Focus
Fit
The entrepreneur
Attracts
Combines
Resources
Builds
Manages
Configuration
Organisation
Environment
Figure 4: The Key Elements of Entrepreneurship24
The entrepreneur takes the centre stage in the definition process. He or she is the
one who searches for opportunities. Shaper and Volery mention four factors that
influence the way opportunities are recognised and exploited: the active search
for opportunities, entrepreneurial alertness, prior knowledge and social
networks.25 The active search for opportunities is facilitated by the acquisition of
information which reveals new opportunities. Pure information is not enough
though; it also takes the ability to notice information which indicates new
opportunities, i.e. entrepreneurial alertness. Entrepreneurial alertness is defined as
23
24
25
LITERATURE REVIEW
29
the propensity to notice information, incidents or patterns of behaviour which
indicate unmet needs or possible new combinations of resources.26 People tend to
recognise opportunities which are related to the prior knowledge they have
acquired during their lives. This is the reason why people often found companies
which are related to their previous work experience. Hence, a wide range of
experience is therefore a good basis for recognising business opportunities. Social
networks can serve as a valuable source for new ideas and interesting
opportunities as well. Especially, networks with a large number of loose
connections to individuals outside the network seem to be a valuable source.27
An opportunity makes it possible to profitably offer a new product or service;
thus, the opportunity is the basis of a new venture. Various authors acknowledge
this important role of entrepreneurship. Stevenson and Sahlman, for example,
defined entrepreneurship as a process of a “relentless pursuit of opportunity
without regard to the resources currently controlled.”28 Also, Timmons speaks of
entrepreneurs as those who are obsessed with opportunities and who constantly
look for patterns and trends to eventually connect the “dots to shape and mold a
unique enterprise”.29
One issue discussed among entrepreneurship experts is the question of why these
opportunities occur. For Kirzner entrepreneurial opportunities are to be found in
market imperfections, leading to arbitrage opportunities.30 Shaper and Volery
differentiate between market-pulled and market-pushed opportunities. Marketpulled opportunities arise through customer needs, problems or interests, even
though those needs are not necessarily articulated well. In this case the role of the
26
27
28
Breen, 2004: p. 23.
29
Timmons, 2002: p. 11.
30
Kirzner, 1973.
30
LITERATURE REVIEW
entrepreneur is to recognise those needs and make use of them. Market-pushed
opportunities
arise
through
under-utilised
unemployed
resources,
new
31
technologies or capabilities, which may offer new value for the customer.
It is worth mentioning that the nature of entrepreneurial opportunities is discussed
quite differently by various authors. Kirzner, for example, believes that
opportunities do exist and need to be recognised, whereas other authors regard
opportunities as something which needs to be developed and shaped.
It is also being discussed whether innovation is a central element of
entrepreneurship. The often-cited economist Schumpeter, for example, included
the aspect of innovation, stating that the new combination of production factors,
the so-called creative destruction process, changes markets and industries and
finally leads to new products and business models.32 For Drucker, the conception
of innovation is a constitutive feature of entrepreneurship as well. In his view
“another delicatessen store or another Mexican restaurant in the American
suburb” does not represent entrepreneurship, unless it features special
characteristics which create new markets or customers or upgrade the yield of
resources. According to Drucker’s definition, entrepreneurs are a minority among
start-ups.33 Nevertheless, everyday evidence shows that a lot of new businesses
are successfully launched without an innovative idea.34
An opportunity can only be exploited when an entrepreneur is able of tying
together the necessary resources to start the business. This has been recognised as
a central activity of the entrepreneur very early on. Say mentioned in 1855 that it
is the entrepreneur who takes the risk and brings together the necessary resources
31
32
Schumpeter, 1997.
33
Drucker, 2006: p. 21, 22.
34
Volery and Shaper, 2007: p. 8.
LITERATURE REVIEW
31
to build up a new business.35 A resource can be any useful thing or quality which
helps to pursue the opportunity.36 According to the resource-based view, the
application of certain resources or bundles of resources plays a major role in
determining the competitive advantage of a firm.37 Companies which want to gain
sustained competitive advantages should identify the resources that are valuable,
rare, in-imitable and non-substitutable and protect these key criteria.38
Entrepreneurial activities need some kind of organisation to take place.
Entrepreneurship is mainly associated with the establishment of new companies.
In the late ’60s Cole defined entrepreneurship as the activity to initiate, maintain
and develop profit-oriented businesses.39 The aspect of creating new businesses
was also emphasised by Kourilsky, who regarded new ventures as one part of
entrepreneurship.40
The
same
holds
true
for
Gartner,
41
entrepreneurship as the creation of new organisations.
who
defined
However, recent
descriptions of entrepreneurship seem to favour the choice of broader definitions
which do not necessarily include the establishment of one’s own company.
Entrepreneurship can take place in many more sites and spaces than the ones
currently considered.42 For example, Timmons argues that entrepreneurship can
occur in established as well as in new companies.43 An established company can
be entrepreneurial and develop new products or services or launch a new
business. Joint ventures, licences, franchises or spin-offs represent an opportunity
35
Say, 1855: Book I, chapter XVII.
36
37
Wernerfelt, 1984: p. 172.
38
Barney, 1991: pp. 99-120.
39
Cole, 1968.
40
Kourilsky, 1995.
41
Low and MacMillan, 1988: p. 140, 141.
42
Steyaert and Katz, 2004: p. 180.
43
Timmons, 2002: p. 79.
32
LITERATURE REVIEW
to become an entrepreneur.44 Kent also argues that the definition of
entrepreneurship should be as broad as possible. For him, entrepreneurship is not
limited to building new businesses; rather, it can also manifest itself in already
existing organisations or charities.45
Environments certainly influence entrepreneurial activities. They can be more or
less rich in opportunities depending on available resources, customers and
infrastructure. Also, government actions and political events can influence
entrepreneurial activities.
The five factors described above show the building blocks of entrepreneurship.
They are not to be regarded as separate elements; rather, they need to be tied
together in an entrepreneurial process. Therefore, Shane and Venkataraman
define the field of entrepreneurship as including the sources of opportunities, the
process of discovery, evaluation and exploitation of opportunities, and individuals
who discover, evaluate and exploit those opportunities.46
2.2.2 Entrepreneurship Education as a Central Tool to Increase
Entrepreneurial Activities
The first entrepreneurship course was offered at Harvard University in 1947.
Since then, numerous courses, teaching programmes and endowed chairs have
been organised in the United States47 and in Europe48. The reasons for the great
success of entrepreneurship education were manifold. Enterprises were
reconsidered as the most important institutions of economics, the economic role
44
45
Breen, 2004: p. 23, 24.
46
Shane and Venkataraman, 2000.
47
Katz, 2003.
48
Vesper and Gartner, 1999.
LITERATURE REVIEW
33
of the state was diminishing, and there were changes in cultural domains such as
demands for high psychological and professional rewards, the re-evaluation of
personal merit and the parallel devaluation of egalitarian tendencies49. According
to Katz, “Entrepreneurship stands as part of the new frontier of business
education in the 1990s”. Katz refers in his article to three important ideas
addressed by Porter and McKibbin in their book Management Education and
Development: Drift or Thrust in the 21st Century, in which they explain why this
is the case. Firstly, they describe “the prediction of entrepreneurialism as one of
the driving forces of the twenty-first-century economy”. Secondly, they mention
the identification of cross-functional integration, which is central to
entrepreneurship and small business management, as an important part of future
business education. Thirdly, they stress the necessity for entrepreneurship faculty
who understand “their speciality and the larger system of business”.50 All of these
arguments hold true for the German-speaking countries considered in the study,
where entrepreneurship is an advancing and growing field. The rise of the area of
entrepreneurship education is supported by the recent creation of two journals,
namely, The International Journal of Entrepreneurship Education and The
Academy of Management Learning & Education, both of which can contribute to
the development of research taking place at the interface of entrepreneurship and
education.51
As the paragraph above shows, entrepreneurship as a field of teaching and doing
research is growing. But is it an effective field as well? Does entrepreneurship
education change entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial behaviour? Do
they actually lead to an increase in new companies?
49
Alvarez, 1993.
50
Katz, 1991b.
51
Béchard and Grégoire, 2005.
34
LITERATURE REVIEW
Various studies have been conducted to show whether entrepreneurship classes
have an influence on the entrepreneurial intention or actual entrepreneurial
activities. Kolvereid and Moen showed that students with a major in
entrepreneurship have a higher intention to become entrepreneurs and are more
likely to found companies.52 This observation was confirmed by Noel, who
pointed out that students who graduated in entrepreneurship reached higher scores
in entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial self-efficacy than students who
graduated in other disciplines.53 Along the same line, Varela and Jimenez
revealed that there is a correlation between a university’s investment in the
promotion of entrepreneurship and the percentage of students becoming
entrepreneurs.54 Also, Tkachev and Kolvereid observed that the intentions of
students to become self-employed could be increased through entrepreneurship
classes.55 These results were confirmed by Fayolle et al., who showed that
attitudes and intentions towards becoming an entrepreneur are influenced through
entrepreneurship classes.56 But some questions remain: How do we influence
entrepreneurial intention? Which course characteristics are more effective than
others? This thesis seeks to help answering these questions. Before this endeavour
starts, however, it is worthwhile to have a look at the current entrepreneurship
programmes offered in Germany. Figure 5 provides an overview of the topics
taught in German entrepreneurship programmes.
52
Kolvereid and Moen, 1997.
53
Noel, 2001.
54
Varela and Jimenez, 2001.
55
Tkachev and Kolvereid, 1999.
56
Fayolle, et al., 2005.
LITERATURE REVIEW
35
97%
Entrepreneurship in general
78%
Innovative start-ups
Entrepreneurial finance
67%
Technology entrepreneurship
66%
64%
Acquisition of companies, company succession
62%
Venture capital / Business angels
59%
Marketing
55%
Intrapreneurship
50%
Small and medium-size enterprises
40%
Family business
36%
Entrepreneurship and psychology
29%
Women entrepreneurship
28%
Corporate Venturing
19%
Micro-orientation
Macro-orientation
Multiple answers were permitted
0%
9%
20%
40%
60%
80%
Figure 5: Overview of Learning Contents Offered in German-speaking Countries57
57
Klandt, 2008.
100%
36
2.3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Educational Science
2.3.1 Educational Science and Entrepreneurship Education
In 1770 the first chair of pedagogy was founded at the University of Halle in
Germany. Since then, educational science has developed to continually increase
our understanding of how the objectives of education can be reached in a better
way. In 1951, more than 180 years later, the Coleman Foundation was
established, the first foundation with a major focus on entrepreneurship
education.58 One could argue that education in general is different from
entrepreneurship education. On the other hand, one could argue that both research
fields have too much in common to neglect scientific insights from a research
field which is more than 180 years older than ours. The roots of the Latin word
educare suggest the meaning of “leading out” or “leading forth”, implying that
education is about developing abilities and expanding horizons - something which
is true for both fields of research, educational and entrepreneurship education.
Nevertheless, so far entrepreneurship education researchers have rarely included
knowledge from educational science in their studies. Examining the content of
entrepreneurship education research, Grégoire and Béchard mention that even
though a large number of reviews have been carried out in the field of
entrepreneurial education, none of these reviews look at the philosophical,
theoretical and normative links which could be drawn between entrepreneurial
education research and educational science. In their article Entrepreneurship
Education Research Revisited: The Case of Higher Education59, Grégoire and
Béchard analyse 103 peer-reviewed articles about entrepreneurship education.
For their analysis they use a framework suggested by Bertrand60, which aims to
58
Katz, 2003.
59
Béchard and Grégoire, 2005.
60
Bertrand, 1995.
LITERATURE REVIEW
37
reveal overarching structures of educational research. They conclude that while a
couple of topics predominate (e.g. the social and economic roles of
entrepreneurship education for individuals and society, the systematisation of
entrepreneurship education), three domains of education remain under-addressed,
namely, social-cognitive, psycho-cognitive, and spiritualist or ethical theories. To
overcome this limitation, they suggest that scholars develop expertise in
management and educational research.61
What can be learned from educational science with regard to the thesis?
Educational science or pedagogy has the objective of providing an environment
which supports learning. At the university level this means supporting an
interactive and intentional process through which individuals can grow in
personality and develop competences. Educational science tries to better
understand how these learning processes can be designed so that student-learning
becomes possible. Although there is no ideal solution for arranging effective
learning processes, a great deal of knowledge about successful educational
components does exist in pedagogical literature. Therefore, selected methods for
effective teaching are presented in sub-chapter 2.3.2. Due to the focus of the
thesis, the main emphasis is put on concepts enabling changes in perceptions,
attitudes and behaviour. Another important interface between pedagogy and the
research focus are typologies and paradigms, which help to classify or structure
educational practices. Selected typologies are presented in sub-chapter 2.3.3.
2.3.2 Effective Teaching Methods
Learning is the conscious and unconscious acquisition of intellectual, physical
and social knowledge and skills. Also, it is the process of changing behaviour,
thinking and feelings based on new experiences, insights, and understanding.
61
Béchard and Grégoire, 2005, p. 22.
38
LITERATURE REVIEW
Since the study at hand concentrates on changing intention, the focus lies on
analysing theoretical concepts about how perceptions, attitudes and behaviours
can be changed. In the following paragraphs, works by influential researchers
engaged with these topics are analysed.
David Kolb: Experience as a Source of Learning and Development
People do learn from their experiences, and the results of experiential learning
can be reliably assessed62. In his book Experiential Learning: Experience as the
Source of Learning and Development, David Kolb provides an overview of why
and how experience is a valuable source for learning and development. He
unfolds the foundations of contemporary approaches to experiential learning laid
by educational scientists such as John Dewey, Kurt Lewin and Jean Piaget.
Furthermore, he describes the process of experiential learning and suggests a
model to structure this learning process.63
Experiential learning means that the learner is in direct touch with the
phenomenon. Hence, experiential learning links education, work, and personal
development. In this respect, experiential learning theory offers the foundation for
an approach to education and learning as a lifelong process. This is the reason
why experiential learning reawakened interest within the higher education
community.64
Experiential learning is always linked to personal, subjective experiences.65 These
experiences enable learning in an ongoing process. The idea of conceiving of
learning as a process sets experiential learning apart from traditional education
62
Kolb, 1984: p. 3.
63
Kolb, 1984: p. xi.
64
Kolb, 1984: p: 3-5.
65
Kolb, 1984: p. 11.
LITERATURE REVIEW
39
theories and behavioural theories of learning. Experiential theories agree with the
underlying assumption that ideas are not fixed but that they are formed and
reformed in a process through experiences. Concepts are derived and
continuously modified by experience, as depicted in Dewey’s model of
experiential learning shown in Figure 6.
Purpose
I3
I2
Impulse 1
O3
J3
J2
Observation 1
Judgement 1
O2
K3
Knowledge 1
K2
Figure 6: Dewey’s Model of Experiential Learning
What do we know about the way in which this process of experiential learning
can unfold to its maximum? According to insights from Kurt Lewin and his
colleagues, learning is best facilitated in a setting in which the individual is able
to tie together concrete experiences with analytical detachment in an open
atmosphere.66 This is also included in the Dewey model shown in Figure 6: The
process integrates experiences, concepts, observations, and actions. The impulse
of an experience starts the process. Immediate action should be postponed so that
observation and judgement can intervene. Afterwards, action is necessary to
achieve an objective. Observation and judgement are the necessary components
66
Kolb, 1984: p. 9.
40
LITERATURE REVIEW
for avoiding an action following a blind impulse.67 In entrepreneurship education
this could mean having students “sell” their business plans to the class, receive
feedback, talk and reflect about the feedback and then go to “real” venture
capitalists to gain new experiences but starting from a higher knowledge level.
Another factor which needs to be considered if experiential learning is to be
effective is that learning occurs in the interplay between expectation and
experience. This means that we always build upon ideas which are already there.
In learning processes not only do new ideas arise, but also old ones are modified.
It seems that learning is facilitated when the education process begins with the
consideration of the beliefs and theories of a learner, lets him examine and test
the ideas, and then integrates the new or more refined ideas.
But it is not that easy to integrate old ideas and new experiences. Piaget speaks of
two mechanisms, integration and substitution, which help us to learn. The two
concepts differ in his point of view in their stableness: ideas that evolve through
integration tend to become more stable parts of a person’s conception of the
world, whereas, when the content of a concept changes through substitution, the
possibility of a reversion to the earlier level of conceptualisation and
understanding becomes likely. Also, it is possible that dual theories of the world
develop when the theories learned through substitution cannot be matched with
theories in use. This might actually be a reason why learning new theories is
hampered: The difficulty of learning new theories could stem from a disposition
to protect the old theories in use.
67
Kolb, 1984: p. 22.
LITERATURE REVIEW
41
All experiential learning models suggest that learning is a conflict-filled process
which requires the following modes of experiential learning in order to be
effective68:
Concrete experience abilities, which require the learner to involve himself
fully, openly, and without bias in new experiences
Reflective observation abilities, which require the learner to reflect on and
observe his or her experiences from various perspectives
Abstract conceptualisation abilities, which require the learner to create
concepts that integrate his or her observations into logically sound theories
Active experimentation, which requires the learner to use these theories to
make decisions and solve problems
Thus, in the process of experiential learning, the learner switches between the role
of an actor and an observer.69
Another characteristic of experiential learning theories is that learning is a holistic
process of adaptation to the world. It is an integrated concept which describes the
central process of human adaptation to the social and physical environment by
considering thinking, feeling, perceiving, and behaving.
Different educational formats have been developed to enable the creation of
knowledge through the transformation of experience: internships, work/study
assignments, field placements, structured exercises, role plays, self-directed
learning designs and experience-based simulations. Also, competence-based
methods of education such as assessment, personalised instruction and contract
68
Kolb, 1984: p. 30.
69
Kolb, 1984: p. 31.
42
LITERATURE REVIEW
learning can be applied.70 All of those teaching methods can be used in
entrepreneurship education as well.
Another important thought which should be considered in entrepreneurship
education is the consideration of individuality in learning. Learning processes are
not the same for all individuals. Instead, people tend to prefer specific adaptive
orientations over others. Various tests have been developed to help people to
determine their individual style of learning. Examples are the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator or the Learning Style Inventory, developed by Kolb. Different learning
styles are shaped through individual physical structures and different types of
experiences, such as educational specialisation, professional career choice or a
person’s current job role. Another force which influences the appropriate learning
styles is the task at hand.71 The best thing we could do as educators would be to
allow each student to evaluate his preferences and afterwards help him to choose
the right educational format.
Changing behaviour and attitudes: the work of Jens Uwe Martens
Jens Uwe Martens’ research focuses on changing behaviours and attitudes.72 His
claim is that changes in these two areas can be accomplished by addressing
emotions in a targeted way, which is something we certainly do, when we invite
an inspired entrepreneur to talk to our students. Martens acknowledges that
behaviour is not only governed through intellect; rather, thinking, feeling and
doing influence each other mutually.73 However, learning is often limited to
cognition, whereas feelings, motives, and personal experiences are neglected. To
illustrate his thoughts Martens gives the following example: an American non-
70
Kolb, 1984: p. 8, 9.
71
Kolb, 1984: p. 62-98.
72
Martens, 1998.
73
Martens, 1998: p: 14.
LITERATURE REVIEW
43
smoking campaign targeted at young people had minimal impact on behavioural
change at first. It was based on a brochure and the information in it was
understood and memorised to a great extent. But expenditures were
disproportionate to effect. In contrast, a team of educators and psychologists
achieved surprisingly positive results with the following approach. After talking
to teachers and according to their own observations in the classroom and in the
schoolyard, they selected opinion leaders who were popular with their classmates
and who were considered knowledgeable. Afterwards, the team and the group of
opinion leaders worked through the issue of smoking. Most of the opinion leaders
were able to be convinced to support the anti-smoking-campaign. They argued for
non-smoking in their classes, and many of their classmates changed their
behaviour. The example shows the narrowness of pedagogy, which is limited to
cognition.74
Other researchers also emphasise that complex learning goals can be reached if
cognitive and affective areas are considered in an alternating fashion. Bloom used
the metaphor of two ladders, one for cognitive and one for affective learning
goals. Both ladders have rungs which are too apart to climb the ladder. If you put
both ladders on top of each other so that each rung is located in the middle of the
space between the rungs of the other ladder, one can easily climb them.75 Hence,
education’s goals in entrepreneurship education should always include affective
learning goals.
2.3.3 Typologies and Paradigms to Classify Educational Practices
The literature on educational science was examined for methods to structure,
classify or describe educational practices such as classes or lectures: which
74
Martens, 1998: p. 15, 16.
75
Martens, 1998: p. 32.
44
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aspects are differentiated? Are there didactic models useful in structuring the
independent variable used in the thesis?
In order to do research on this topic and locate appropriate topics, the author
conducted an examination of the literature recommended in the article
Entrepreneurship Education: The Case of Higher Education. Also, literature
recommendations from the interviews with pedagogy experts were examined for
appropriate concepts. The two sources and concepts considered most valuable
were Laurillard’s Rethinking University Teaching76, and Klafki’s Didactic
Analysing Model for Lesson Planning77. The two approaches are discussed in the
following sub-sections.
Laurillard’s framework for university teaching
When examining didactic approaches, we can differentiate between teacher- and
student-centred teaching methods. The teacher-centred approach puts the subject
material, which is selected by the teacher, at centre stage. The student-centred
approach puts the self-directed learning of the students in the middle and regards
the teacher as a supporting function.78 Laurillard developed a student-oriented,
conversational framework which, based on empirical studies, revealed the
following aspects as being essential for enabling student learning: 1) Discursive
elements like the sharing of concepts between teachers and students, 2) Adaptive
elements, which imply that students have the responsibility and the chance to
receive feedback and consider the feedback in their further studies, 3) Interactive
elements, which include teachers’ providing meaningful intrinsic feedback, and
4) Reflective elements, providing students with the chance to reflect on task
76
Laurillard, 2002.
77
Klafki, 1985: p. 213-227.
78
Euler and Hahn, 2004: p. 47.
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45
goals, act accordingly, receive feedback and relate the feedback to their
conception of the topic.79
With those four elements the teaching strategy seeks to achieve an iterative
dialogue between the teacher and the students. It was intriguing to compare the
framework found in Laurillard’s book with the results of the qualitative
interviews. In many instances, interviewees mentioned the relevance of the
aspects worked out by Laurillard. Consequently, the framework was used to
structure an independent variable called student-orientation. In the variable all
four aspects were covered by multiple items which were developed according to
the teaching strategy recommended by Laurillard, which is provided in Table 2.
Discursive
Adaptive
- Teacher and student conceptions should each
- Teachers have the responsibility to use the
be continually accessible to the other
- Teachers and students must agree on
learning goals for the topic
relationship between their own and the
students’ conception to determine the task
focus of the continuing dialogue
- Teachers must provide a discussion
- Students have the responsibility to use the
environment for the topic goal within which
students can generate and receive feedback
on descriptions appropriate to the topic goal
Interactive
Reflective
- Teacher must provide a task environment
- Teachers must support the process in which
within which students can act on, generate
and receive feedback on actions appropriate
to the task goal
- Students must act to achieve the task goal
- Teachers must provide meaningful intrinsic
feedback on their actions that relates to the
nature of the task goal
feedback from their work on the task and
relate it to their conception
students link the feedback on their actions to
the topic goal for every level of description
within the topic structure
- Students must reflect on the task goal, their
action on it, and the feedback they received,
and link this to their description of their
conception of the topic goal
Table 2: Laurillard’s Recommended Teaching Strategy80
79
Laurillard, 2002: p. 77, 78.
80
Laurillard, 2002: p. 77, 78
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Klafki’s critical-constructive didactic model
Didactic models either refer to the structure or the process of a teaching-learningsituation.81 As conceptual frameworks, didactic models help to design complex
didactic arrangements and fulfil various functions. They describe and explain the
structures and processes of learning (structural function), they try to point out the
important factors to be considered for preparing and delivering teaching-learningsituations (planning and steering function), they can help to discover alternative
action patterns and explanations (heuristic function) and they can help to reflect
didactic approaches (critical function).82
Klafki is one of the most important educational theorists of the 20th century. He
explains his use of the term critical-constructive in reference to his approach as
follows. The objective of Didaktik should be to enable every individual to
increase his or her capacity for self-determination, participation and solidarity. In
reality, many educational institutions do not fulfil this objective. His approach
takes this reality seriously and hence is referred to as critical.83 The term
constructive emphasises that the approach does not only seek to criticise but also
to actively shape and change education and make valuable contributions to the
creation of new forms of linking theory and practice.84 Klafki proposes 7 central
questions which need to be answered during education planning (Figure 7).
81
82
83
Klafki, 1985: p. 37,38.
84
Klafki, 1985: p. 38.
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47
Analysis of condition
Context of
justification
Thematic
structure
Pedagogical
methods
Methodological
structure
2.Future
meaning
4.Thematic
structure
6.Accessibility
and
presentability
7.Structure of
Teachinglearning-process
3.Exemplary
value
of the content
5. Assessibility
1.Contemporary
meaning
Figure 7: Klafki’s Critical-constructive Model for Lesson Planning
The first three questions are concerned with the context of justification:
contemporary meaning, future meaning, and exemplary value of the content.
Those first three questions interact with each other and therefore, no compulsory
order should be followed; rather, the questions should be answered in an iterative
manner during the planning process. The first two questions can be answered by
applying the questions to the student’s and the teacher’s situation. What are the
prejudices and interests the students bring with them and how do they influence
the contemporary and future meaning of the topic? The question regarding the
exemplary value of the content tries to capture the general knowledge (structures,
regularities, contradictions) which can be deduced from the course content.85
Question number four, the thematic structure, tries to capture the structure of the
course content which is to be conveyed. What is the overall context of the subject
85
Klafki, 1985: p. 214-221.
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matter? Under which perspective should the topic be worked out? What kind of
structure can be identified for the subject matter? What elements constitute the
subject matter? If these questions are answered, the learning goals can be derived.
Question number five tries to clarify how the learning objectives can be assessed.
Which competencies, knowledge, performances should be used to find out
whether or not the learning process was successful?86
After the lecturer has become clearer about what it is he wants to teach, he must
think about how the learning content should be presented. Therefore, question
number six focuses on the accessibility and presentability of the learning content.
Is it discussion, actions, games or upfront-teaching which suits the subject matter
and is appropriate to the students in the class? The latter might depend on the age,
the backgrounds, and the socialisation of the class participants.87
As a last step, number seven, the previously established topics and learning
methods need to be translated into a teaching-learning-process.88
86
Klafki, 1985: p. 221-225.
87
Klafki, 1985: p. 225-226.
88
Klafki, 1985: p. 226.
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2.4
49
Social Cognitive Theory
2.4.1 Social Cognitive Theory and Entrepreneurship Education Research
Social cognitive theory tries to understand the development of competencies and
the regulation of actions89. Since being a successful entrepreneur requires
competencies, and entrepreneurship is a planned action, social cognitive theory
promises to be relevant for the research at hand. This chapter explores the point
of contact between social cognitive theory and entrepreneurship education
research. Afterwards, social cognitive theories and models and their contributions
to entrepreneurship education research are discussed.
Psychology allows us to study human behaviour and mental processes.
Entrepreneurship, as stated in previous chapters, is about both human behaviour
and mental processes. To be innovative, to create something new, to establish and
grow a new business are certainly types of human behaviour and mental
processes. Also, career choices and career-related decisions in general are
cognitive in nature.90 Hence, psychology can be a helpful science to analyse
entrepreneurial behaviour. The question arising next is which theories or models
used in psychology can be of interest for the thesis.
As stated before, entrepreneurship is clearly an intentional process. Even though
entrepreneurs respond to a certain market opportunity, they still think about
starting a business and do not become entrepreneurs out of a reflex.91 Intentions
include the previously mentioned mental processes, which psychology focuses
on. Additionally, they have proven to be the best predictors of planned behaviour,
especially if the behaviour in question is “rare, hard to observe, or involves
unpredictable time lags”, characteristics, all of which apply to entrepreneurial
89
Bandura, 1997: p. 32.
90
91
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activities.92 A strong intention should eventually result in an attempt to start a
new business, even though immediate circumstance can cause a delay.93
Before intention models emerged, researchers followed two other research
approaches. One research stream focussed on psychological characteristics,
general dispositions, and personality traits, which were assigned to successful and
non-successful entrepreneurs. The other stream focused on demographic factors,
such as gender, age or ethnic groups. Both approaches helped to identify
relationships between certain traits and demographic factors, but they were both
criticised due to methodological and conceptual problems and the lack of
explanatory capacity.94
Intention-based models have proven to be superior to models based on individual
variables.95 Intentions take centre stage in those models. They are shaped by
motivational factors, social environments and perceptions about personal
capabilities.
An important contribution to intention theory came from Shapero, who developed
the theory of the Entrepreneurial Event.96 A similar but more detailed theory was
later developed by Ajzen: the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). Both theories
ascribe importance to someone’s perception of his or her ability to carry out the
specific behaviour in question. In Shapero’s model it is called Perceived
Feasibility; in Ajzen’s model it is Perceived Behavioural Control. Both concepts
are closely related to self-efficacy, a phenomenon analysed in great detail by
Bandura, whose insights are provided in chapter 2.4.4.
92
93
94
Linán and Santos, 2007: p. 444-445.
95
96
Linán and Santos, 2007: p. 445.
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51
2.4.2 Shapero’s Model of the Entrepreneurial Event
An early contribution to intention models was the concept of the Entrepreneurial
Event framed by Shapero and Sokol. In their contribution, The Social Dimensions
of Entrepreneurship, they take the entrepreneurial event and not the entrepreneur
as the unit of analysis. The entrepreneurial event was regarded as the dependent
variable, the individual or the group was treated as the independent variable,
along with social, economic, political, and cultural contexts.97
Shapero and Sokol were driven by the desire to understand two main questions:
what triggers the action of changing one’s life? And why do people choose a
particular path from countless other options?
They cite numerous studies to find answers to the first question and identify
factors which generally cause people to change their life’s direction. Overall, they
found that individuals are more likely to take action on negative information such
as being discharged or angered at the work place, but positive information as well
causes people’s action, e.g. positive impulses from partners or mentors.
According to Shapero and Sokol, together those negative and positive forces
account for most changes in people’s life paths.98
The second question, which tries to find reasons why people decide in favour of a
particular path, was answered by two major drivers: perceptions of desirability
and perceptions of feasibility. Perceived desirability captures the perceived
attractiveness of a specific behaviour, such as becoming an entrepreneur.
Perceived feasibility is the perceived capacity to carry out the respective
behaviour.99 Both concepts are considered to be products of cultural and social
97
Shapero and Sokol, 1982.
98
Shapero and Sokol, 1982: p. 79.
99
Linán and Santos, 2007: p. 445.
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environments, a positive message, since the shaping of cultural and social
environments lies in our hands.
Perceptions of desirability are shaped through culture, family, peers, colleagues
and mentors. Culture forms individual values. For example, individuals living in a
social system that values new venture formation will be more likely to become
entrepreneurs.100 The family seems to play an important role in the process of
establishing desirability, and the authors cite numerous statistical sources which
reveal that the percentage of entrepreneurs is much higher among people whose
parents are entrepreneurs themselves. Entrepreneurs among peers, classmates,
and colleagues can as well shape the perceived desirability. The same holds true
for mentors even if their role is different. Mentees look up to their mentors,
whose role is to support, assure, and guide people in their first entrepreneurial
steps.101
Financial support, demonstration effects, models, mentors, and partners are
mentioned as factors influencing feasibility perceptions. Financial resources are
an obvious necessity. Demonstration effects and models show that the starting of
a business is manageable, a likely reason why people working in small companies
more often start their own businesses. They know what the entrepreneur is doing
and can then conclude for themselves whether they could do that as well. That is
much harder to judge in a huge company, where the organisation structures are
much more complex. Finally, the belief that mentors and partners provide support
during the company’s foundation can increase perceived feasibility. Especially in
high-technology environments strong partners are essential.102
100
101
102
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53
It is important to mention that both concepts, perceived desirability and
feasibility, interact with each other. “If one perceives the formation of a company
is unfeasible, one may conclude it is undesirable. If one perceives the act as
undesirable, one may never consider its feasibility.”103 An overview of the
entrepreneurial event formation is depicted in Figure 8.
Negative
Displacements
Forcefully
emigrated
Fired
Insulted
Angered
Bored
Reaching
middle age
Divorced or
widowed
Between Things
Out of army
Out of school
Out of jail
Perceptions of
Desirability
Culture
Family
Peers
Colleagues
Mentor
Perceptions of
Feasibility
Financial
support
Demonstration
effect
Models
Mentors
Partners
Company
Formation
Positive Pull
From partner
From mentor
From investor
From customer
Figure 8: Entrepreneurial Event Formation104
The paradigm of the entrepreneurial event is important for entrepreneurial
education practices, since it shows that the dominating influential factors for
company creation, i.e. desirability and feasibility, are factors that can be
103
104
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influenced by educational practices. Shapero and Sokol express this as follows:
“It suggests that educational programmes that pride themselves on discouraging
the ‘wrong’ candidates are misguided to ignore the extent to which desirability
and feasibility can be modified”; a truly encouraging statement.
2.4.3 Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behaviour
The notions of desirability and feasibility are also included in Ajzen’s TPB.
Ajzen identifies three antecedents of intentions: attitudes towards the behaviour,
subjective norms and perceived behavioural control. Shapero’s concept of
desirability is related to Ajzen’s concept of attitude, and Shapero’s concept of
feasibility is closely linked to Ajzen’s concept of perceived behavioural control.
According to Ajzen’s theory, the immediate antecedent of behaviour is the
intention to perform a given behaviour.105 Ajzen states that the intention to
perform certain behaviour can be predicted with high accuracy from the three
antecedents. He further maintains that intention together with the perception of
behavioural control explains actual behaviour to a considerable degree106.
Collectively, these factors represent people’s actual control over their behaviour.
If a person has the required opportunities and resources, and intends to perform
the behaviour, he or she should succeed in doing so.107
Attitudes towards the outcomes of the behaviour and social norms reflect the
perceived desirability of performing the behaviour. Behavioural control, as the
105
Ajzen, 2002.
106
Ajzen, 1991: p. 179.
107
Ajzen, 1991: p. 182.
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55
third antecedent, indicates the perceived desirability of performing the behaviour,
a concept related to the perception of situational competence or self-efficacy.108
The relationships among the different elements are shown in Figure 9.
Attitude
toward the
behaviour
Subjective
norm
Intention
Behaviour
Perceived
behavioural
control
Figure 9: The Theory of Planned Behaviour109
The three different elements influencing behaviour through intention can be
briefly described as follows: attitudes towards the behaviour are concerned with
the belief about the likely outcomes of the behaviour and the evaluations of these
outcomes110. Subjective norms refer to a person’s perception of the normative
expectations of others and a person’s motivation to follow these expectations.
Perceived behavioural control refers to someone’s perception of the ease or
108
109
Ajzen, 1991: p.182.
110
Ajzen, 2002: p. 1.
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difficulty of performing the behaviour, a construct which is more important than
the actual control over the behaviour of interest.111
2.4.4 Bandura’s Concept of Self-efficacy
If people do not believe that they have the capability to start their own business,
of course, they will not even try. This is a plausible behavioural pattern. Ajzen
and Shapero capture this notion in the psychological concepts of perceived
behavioural control and perceived feasibility. Both concepts are linked with the
social cognitive model of perceived self-efficacy developed by Bandura. All three
concepts bear resemblance to each other. They consider that not only knowledge
and skills are involved in helping someone to behave in a certain way and
accomplish something. It is also necessary that the individual believes that the
knowledge and skills can successfully be applied under changing circumstances.
This thought is essential for entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship per se is about
risk and uncertainty, and no one can foresee how customers, employees and other
stakeholders will behave and what kind of legal, financial, personal or other
obstacles might arise. Hence, a stable belief in one’s capabilities is important in
two ways: it increases entrepreneurial intention, since it is a prerequisite to start a
business, and it increases the chances of starting a business successfully.
The central idea behind the concept of self-efficacy is that an individual’s belief
about his efficacy influences what that person can accomplish. This means that
the performance of different people with comparable skills, and even the
performance of the same person under different circumstances, will differ
depending on changes in their self-beliefs. A stable sense of efficacy can enable
individuals to use their skills to accomplish extraordinary things and overcome
obstacles, whereas a weak sense of efficacy and self-doubts can override skills
111
Ajzen, 1991: p. 183.
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57
and lead talented individuals to fail.112 In that way, perceived self-efficacy acts as
a generative capability.113
It does not, of course, suffice for someone to simply believe in his own
capabilities; skills are required as well and must be improved continuously. It is
also important to understand that perceived self-efficacy is not a measure of the
skills but of the belief about what one can do under certain conditions.114 These
conditions play an important role in self-efficacy beliefs, since they are linked to
particular domains. Thus, a person’s belief that he or she is able to use
mathematical skills in a technical setting might be lower than his belief in his
ability to use those same skills in a non-technical setting.115
How do efficacy beliefs exert their influence? Bandura shows that efficacy beliefs
affect thinking, motivation, and affective states. Someone with doubts about his
or her capabilities in a particular setting will avoid being confronted with difficult
tasks in that domain. The person will find it hard to motivate himself; he will
exhaust his efforts to perform well and will quickly give up when obstacles arise.
In stressful situations persons with doubts about their self-efficacy will point out
their personal deficiencies and mention the complexity of the task. It is a vicious
circle because it is exactly this thinking, which will further undermine their
efforts and their analytical thinking. Someone whose attention is focused on his
personal deficiencies will have difficulties concentrating on the task. Also, people
with low self-efficacy easily lose faith in their capabilities, since they are inclined
to think that their insufficient performance is based on their inadequate skills.116
112
Bandura, 1997: p. 37.
113
Bandura, 1997: p. 36.
114
Bandura, 1997: p. 37.
115
Bandura, 1997: p. 38.
116
Bandura, 1997: p. 39.
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Their failure seems to be the acknowledgement of what they have believed all
along.
In contrast, a sustainable sense of efficacy will “enhance socio-cognitive
functioning in the relevant domains in many ways”.117 A difficult task will be
approached as a challenge rather than a threat that should be avoided. This fosters
interest and involvement in activities and will lead people to set themselves
challenging goals and maintain commitment to them. They invest effort and even
increase their effort if obstacles arise. Failure will be attributed to insufficient
effort and not to insufficient skills. Threats will be approached with confidence in
their ability to exercise control over them. This behaviour enhances the level of
performance and reduces stress. Their successful mastering of the situation will
again strengthen the self-efficacy belief.118
In sum, both extremes show how beliefs about self-efficacy actively contribute to
human performance.119 Therefore, entrepreneurship education would be well
advised to think about ways in which people’s skills and efficacy beliefs can both
be increased. To find appropriate measures we take a look at the sources of selfefficacy in the following section.
According to Bandura, self-efficacy beliefs are constructed from four principal
sources of information, which will be discussed in the following sections.
Wherever possible, the explanations of the sources for self-efficacy beliefs are
followed by initial considerations about how those sources can be used in
entrepreneurship education.
Enactive mastery experiences: The first and most important source for
strengthening one’s efficacy belief are enactive mastery experiences. Those
117
Bandura, 1997: p. 39.
118
Bandura, 1997: p. 39.
119
Bandura, 1997: p. 39.
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59
experiences serve as an important indicator of capability. Enactive mastery
experience is effective, since it provides the most authentic evidence of whether
one can achieve a certain goal. Successes can build robust self-efficacy beliefs,
whereas failures can undermine them, especially if failure happens before a stable
belief has been built. However, it is not only the question of whether or not the
task was accomplished successfully; it is also a question of how the success was
achieved. If the success was easy to achieve, someone might always expect
success to come easily, which will lead to frustration if obstacles occur. A robust
belief in self-efficacy can be built if successes were reached through sustained
effort or by overcoming obstacles. In this sense, difficulties can be beneficial to
learning, since it becomes clear that successes usually require persistent effort.
Also, difficulties show how failures can be turned into successes when
capabilities are used to take control of events. When someone believes that he or
she has what it takes to be successful, it will be easier for him or her to cope with
difficult situations, and after someone has successfully managed a difficult
situation, he will emerge stronger and more able.120
Enactive mastery was compared with other modes of influence (modelling of
strategies, cognitive simulations of successful performances, tutorial instructions,
etc.) and it turned out to be superior. Enactive mastery establishes stronger and
more generalised beliefs about self-efficacy than vicarious experiences, cognitive
simulations, or verbal instructions.121
How could entrepreneurship education practices be organised in a way that would
be conducive to establishing a stable sense of self-efficacy and developing the
requisite generative skills to be a successful entrepreneur? Bandura mentions the
necessary ingredients. He reports a case in which children with academic
problems were taught how to deal with cognitive tasks, lay out solutions, monitor
120
Bandura, 1997: p. 80.
121
Bandura, 1997: p. 80.
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the adequacy of the solution and make changes if needed. Instruction in strategies
and practice in their application did not increase self-efficacy beliefs and did not
result in better academic performance. Even feedback indicating success did not
help. What helped the children was the reminder that they were exercising better
control over the tasks when they applied the strategy. It helped to make clear to
them that their success was a consequence of the adequate application of the
strategies. With this measure their self-efficacy beliefs and academic performance
were able to be increased.122
It is important to see that changes in efficacy beliefs do not result from the
performance per se but from the cognitive processing of the information that
performances convey about capabilities. It is possible that a small success can
persuade an individual that he or she has everything necessary to succeed on a
much higher level and on a more difficult task than his or her immediate
performance might have suggested to others.123 According to Bandura, the
cognitive processing depends on different variables such as pre-existing selfknowledge structures, task difficulty, effort expenditure, selective selfmonitoring, and reconstruction of enactive experiences or attainment trajectories.
So how could the knowledge about the concept of enactive mastery experiences
in entrepreneurship education be applied? The most plausible approach would be
a programme in which students develop an idea, write a business plan and start a
company. In the best-case scenario, the process would be accompanied by a
senior entrepreneur who would serve as a mentor. Regular meetings and
discussions with the mentor could increase the understanding about how the
actions were related to successes and failures.
122
Bandura, 1997: p. 80, 81.
123
Bandura, 1997: p. 81.
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61
Vicarious experience: The second source to establish self-efficacy beliefs is
vicarious experience. It can alter the perceived efficacy through the “transmission
of competencies and comparison with the attainments of others”. In order to
ascribe somebody else’s attitudes to oneself, it is necessary that one can identify
with the other person. In entrepreneurship education the concept seems to apply
to inviting entrepreneurs who serve as role models. It is important, though, that
the students can identify with these role models.
Role models are clearly an important resource for learning, but Bandura also
acknowledges that learning through social models can be conveyed through
symbols. He mentions that in many situations people align their behaviour
according to models presented to them visually or verbally through television or
other media.124 Therefore, it seems to be legitimate to assume that the use of
video material or case studies presenting entrepreneurs could be effective as well.
Verbal persuasion: The third source is based on verbal persuasion and related
social influence that convinces a person that he or she has certain capabilities. For
entrepreneurship education this concept could be used through different
approaches such as feedback provided during one-on-one coaching sessions
where students receive positive feedback about their capabilities. Of course, that
is only advisable if the teacher knows his students well enough to truly assess
their capabilities.
Physiological and affective states that people use to judge capableness: The
fourth major source comes from physiological and affective states that people use
to judge their capableness.125 Even though all four sources provide information
for judging personal capabilities, they can only have an effect on perceived self-
124
Bandura, 1976: p. 9.
125
Bandura, 1997: p.79.
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efficacy after the information has been processed cognitively.126 The cognitive
processes used to select, judge, and integrate information from the four sources
mentioned depend on two major factors. The types of information used as
indicators and the rules or heuristics people employ to assess and integrate
efficacy information in constructing self-efficacy beliefs.127 This can be explained
with the source of enactive mastery experience mentioned before. As pointed out
earlier, enactive mastery experiences are a highly important sources of efficacy
information. They provide the most authentic evidence of whether one has what it
takes to succeed. However, the degree to which the experience alters self-efficacy
beliefs depends on the various processes governing the selection, interpretation,
and integration of efficacy information into self-efficacy beliefs. This knowledge
is important, since it makes clear how people can get the most out of their
experiences in terms of increased self-efficacy. The following constructs
influence those mental processes: pre-existing self-knowledge structures, task
difficulty and contextual factors, effort expenditure, selective self-monitoring,
and reconstruction of enactive experiences and attainment trajectories.128 Preexisting self-knowledge structures, for example, describe the scheme people
develop over time and which they use to interpret and organise efficacy
information. How people interpret experiences and how much weight they give to
those experiences partly depends on the nature and strength of the existing selfbeliefs into which new experiences will be integrated. This makes efficacy beliefs
both products and constructors of experiences. To give a second example, the task
difficulty is relevant, since people would not use easy successes as strong
indicators of their self-efficacy.
126
127
128
Bandura, 1997: p.80-86.
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63
Successful entrepreneurs need the ability to cope with setbacks. According to
Bandura, self-efficacy does not only influence the course of action but also how
much effort they put forth in given endeavours and how long they will try to
overcome obstacles.129 Also, people who strongly believe in their capabilities are
quick to take advantage of opportunities and manage to overcome institutional
constraints.130 Additionally, self-efficacy means that someone believes that he can
use his knowledge in varying and complex situations.131 Considering all of the
previously mentioned factors, self-efficacy seems to be highly relevant to being a
successful entrepreneur. The consideration of the self-efficacy concept can help
to chart entrepreneurship courses which enable students to be proactive and
behave entrepreneurially in (their own) companies.
129
130
131
Bandura, 1997: p. 37.
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2.5
Selection of Theoretical Concepts
The complexity of theoretical concepts allow for different interpretations and
applications. Hence, this sub-chapter discusses and defines the following terms,
which play an essential role in the two research questions: entrepreneurship
course characteristics and entrepreneurial intention. This subchapter will also
discuss which intention model has been chosen and for which reason.
Entrepreneurship course characteristics: The objective of the thesis is to achieve
a better understanding of the effect of entrepreneurship course characteristics on
entrepreneurial intention. Therefore, the term entrepreneurship course needs to
be defined and differentiated from other entrepreneurship related offers students
can participate in.
Current entrepreneurship courses in major universities include multiple
components. Souitaris et al. suggest that balanced programmes include activities
which can be grouped under four components: a “taught” component, a
“business-planning” component (e.g. business plan competition), an “interaction
with practice” component (e.g. networking event), and a “university support”
component (e.g. market-research resources, seed funding for student teams).132
The “taught” component means that students can enrol for a course offered in
their Bachelor or Master programmes. Courses can be offered in different formats
such as lectures and seminars. The educational practices of these courses differ
widely and often go beyond traditional, teacher-centred instructions. They can,
for example, include group work or simulation games. Also, the courses can
differ in terms of the teaching objective. Some lecturers want to broaden students’
perspectives and encourage entrepreneurial attitudes and behaviour in general.
These courses can be allocated to the broad concept of “education” which refers
132
Souitaris, et al., 2007: p. 568.
LITERATURE REVIEW
65
to various experiences in which students can learn something. Other lecturers
follow a more targeted objective and try to encourage a large number of students
to start their own companies. They try to convey very particular knowledge or
skills (e.g. entrepreneurial marketing) which could be applied immediately with
regard to the foundation of a company. These courses could rather be assigned to
the concept of “training”.
The variety of courses on offer shows that the term “course” includes very
different learning experiences. What they have in common, though, is that
students enrol for the courses and participate for at least one academic term. That
differentiates courses from other entrepreneurship programme components which
can be utilised by the students if required, such as the above-mentioned university
support component or single network events.
Since this research attempts to increase our understanding of what is effective in
entrepreneurship education, the sample covers a wide range of different types of
entrepreneurship courses (i.e. different pedagogical formats, different teaching
objectives). Therefore, entrepreneurship courses and course characteristics are
defined as follows:
Entrepreneurship courses are class units offered in the area of entrepreneurship.
They usually last one academic term and are run by an instructor.
Entrepreneurship courses are part of the academic courses on offer at a university
and students normally receive a grade and academic credits for participating. For
the purpose of comparability the research only focuses on courses provided at
university level.
Entrepreneurship course characteristics refer to the course content and the
instructional methods chosen. The terms “course” and “class” are used
interchangeably.
Entrepreneurial intention: The concept of entrepreneurial intention has been
chosen to capture the effects of entrepreneurship for the following reasons.
66
LITERATURE REVIEW
Empirical research has shown that intentions are the best predictor of planned
behaviour, including entrepreneurship.133 Intentions have been favoured as an
indicator over actual behaviour since the foundation of an actual company might
follow entrepreneurship education practices with a significant time delay. During
that delay numerous other influences could determine whether or not somebody
will start a company, so the impact of the courses would not be measurable
anymore. As discussed in Chapter 2.2.1, some recent definitions of
entrepreneurship are not limited to the creation of a new enterprise but are
broader in concept. These definitions provide the occasion for innovativeness and
creativity for a lot more people and on far more levels. This would be an
opportunity from which both society and the economy would benefit, since
encouraging people to behave in an entrepreneurial way in general can clearly be
regarded as being worth striving for in entrepreneurship education. Nevertheless,
from an economic standpoint it is desirable that the number of successful startups can be increased, especially in the area of academic entrepreneurship. Also,
for the purpose of defining distinctive, measurable intentions, entrepreneurial
intention will be defined in a rather narrow sense. Therefore, similarly to the
definition by Krueger et al134, the following definition for entrepreneurial
intention has been chosen:
Entrepreneurial intention is the intention to start one’s own business within five
years after finishing university.
Entrepreneurial intention will be interpreted as a continuum. Low entrepreneurial
intention implies that the individual does not plan to carry out an entrepreneurial
endeavour, whereas high entrepreneurial intention implies that certain actions
have already been taken.
133
134
Krueger, et al., 2000: p. 421. The authors asked respondents to estimate the probability that they
will start their own business in the next five years.
LITERATURE REVIEW
67
Intention model: In Chapter 2.4.2 and 2.4.3, two different intention models with a
high predictive power are discussed: Shapero’s Model of the Entrepreneurial
Event and Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behaviour. Krueger et al. compared those
two models and showed that both were able to show a “significant opportunity to
predict entrepreneurial activity”135. To decide which one should be used for the
study at hand, the decisive criterion was the question of which model could
provide a more detailed understanding of the influence of course characteristics
on entrepreneurial intention. Ajzen’s model seems to fulfil this requirement in a
better way. According to Shapero the intention to perform a specific behaviour
depends on two perceptions, i.e. perceived desirability and perceived feasibility.
Those two perceptions are included in Ajzen’s model as well. Perceived
desirability can be compared to perceived attitudes and perceived feasibility can
be compared to perceived behavioural control. However, Ajzen identifies one
more influential variable: Perceived subjective norms capture the perceived
expectations from the environment. Especially since empirical studies show a
significant relationship between socialisation and entrepreneurial behaviour, it
seems prudent to include this aspect as a separate variable. Given that the
objective of the thesis is to better understand through which precursors certain
course characteristics influence entrepreneurial intention, it seems reasonable to
choose the model which is more precise. Hence, Ajzen’s model has been used in
the study.
135
Krueger, et al., 2000.
RESEARCH PROCESS
3
69
Research Process
”Try to imagine how the economists would have built their theory if they had
started out with an axiom that all men and women are created equal, that each of
them is endowed with unlimited creativity, and each of them is a potential
entrepreneur."
MUHAMMAD YUNUS
3.1
Overview and Reasoning
One characteristic of empirical social research is that there is no predefined
research method or design guaranteeing the best results. The research design
needs to be newly developed for each research objective after thorough
examination.136 If the objective is, for example, to gain general knowledge in a
relatively young scientific area, exploratory methods are adequate. If research
takes place in a relatively mature area, standardised methods are likely to be the
better choice.137 Both approaches are appropriate for the study at hand. Literature
research and exploratory methods are necessary to find entrepreneurship course
characteristics which might influence entrepreneurial intention. A “closed” or
quantitative approach is used when the hypotheses are tested with an ex ante/ex
post questionnaire.
The literature research helped to identify relevant theoretical concepts and
possible effective course characteristics. The exploratory part of the thesis
includes the conducting and analysis of semi-structured interviews, the analysis
of written learning reflections and expert interviews. All three sources helped to
confirm possible course characteristics from the literature research and find
further characteristics.
136
Kromrey, 1998: p.12.
137
Kromrey, 1998: p.67.
70
RESEARCH PROCESS
Together, the results from the literature research and from the exploratory study
were used to formulate hypotheses and build the conceptual model. The
hypotheses were tested in the quantitative empirical analysis. University students
participating in entrepreneurship courses filled out questionnaires at the
beginning and at the end of a term. Eventually, the results could be used to draw
conclusions and develop suggestions for designing entrepreneurship courses.
Figure 10 provides an overview of the research process.
Output
Research Method
Literature research
Entrepreneurship
Educational
science
Social cognitive
theory
Theoretical
concepts
Identify effective
course
characteristics
Exploratory study
Semi-structured
interviews (n=6)
Learning
reflections (n=15)
Expert
interviews (n=2)
Identify effective
course
characteristics
Hypotheses
Conceptual
model
Quantitative study
Ex ante
questionnaires
(n=465)
Ex post
questionnaires
(n=465)
Course
descriptions
(n=47)
Conclusions and recommendations
for designing effective entrepreneurship programmes
Figure 10: Overview of the Research Process
Hypotheses
testing
RESEARCH PROCESS
3.2
71
Exploratory Study
3.2.1 Purpose of the Study
The exploratory study was conducted for two reasons. First, to better understand
the relevance of attitudes, perceived subjective norms and perceived behavioural
control to entrepreneurial intention. Second, to identify course elements that are
especially well-suited to increase attitudes, perceived subjective norms or
perceived behavioural control with regard to entrepreneurship. Three approaches
were selected to capture different perspectives on the research objective: 1) semistructured interviews, 2) learning reflections, 3) expert interviews. The
approaches are depicted in Figure 11 and described in the following.
1. Semi-structured Interviews
Entrepreneurship students with high
entrepreneurial intention
Entrepreneurship professors
Identify
2. Learning reflections
effective
entrepreneurship
Group of entrepreneurship students
course
characteristics
3. Expert interviews
Professors of pedagogy
Figure 11: Different Perspectives on the Research Object
72
RESEARCH PROCESS
3.2.2 Research Method
The semi-structured interviews with entrepreneurship educators and former
students who had attended entrepreneurship courses held by the respective
educators form the main part of the exploratory study. Both interview groups
provide unique insights. The entrepreneurship educators provide access to their
long-standing experience in entrepreneurship teaching, with numerous occasions
to observe changes in student attitudes, beliefs and behaviours. The students
provide direct access to their own experiences gained during the entrepreneurship
courses.
The semi-structured interviews were designed as “guided interviews”138, which
means that predefined open-ended questions were used as a guideline for the
interviews. This method is especially helpful when the objective of the enquiry is
to gather information about the opinions and experiences of interviewees. The
questions provide a framework for the interview, but the conversation does not
have to follow it strictly.
The questions asked in the interviews centred on two main areas: first, the
relevance of attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control for
shaping the entrepreneurial intention and second, the impact of course
characteristics on attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control.
The questionnaires for the educators and their former students are provided in the
appendix (Chapter 7.1.2 and 7.1.4). After the interviews were transcribed, they
were analysed according to a method suggested by Mühlfeld et. al. 139 This multilevel analysis tries to go beyond the single interview and find patterns,
mutualities and differences which extend across all interviews. The focus of the
text interpretation is on evident and unhidden communication content regarding
138
In German the interview method is called „Leitfadeninterview”.
139
Mühlfeld, et al., 1981.
RESEARCH PROCESS
73
the questions in focus. Therefore, the purpose is not to analyse an interview as
accurately as possible but to identify problem areas which can be allocated to the
questions of the interview. Hence, the approach is quite pragmatic and not as
elaborative as hermeneutic approaches. Figure 12 provides an overview of the
process.
Steps
Activities
1
Highlight text
passages
All text passages containing obvious answers to
the respective questions in the questionnaire are
highlighted.
2
Categorise
text passages
After the text has been read a second time the
passages are categorised.
3
Build an internal
logic
Build an internal logic between the single pieces of
information. Passages with identical or similar
information as well as passages showing
controversial information are considered.
4
Write a text on the
internal logic
The internal logic is transferred into written
language. The allocation of passages is done at
this stage in more detail and more precisely than
in step 3.
5
Write a text and
match citations
The abstract conclusions showing the essence of
various topics covered in the interviews are matched
with illustrating text passages.
Figure 12: Analysing Method according to Mühlfeld et al. 140
140
The procedure is described in German-speaking literature with the different steps named as
follows: 1. Antworten markieren, 2. In Kategorienschema einordnen, 3. Innere Logik herstellen, 4.
Text zur inneren Logik erstellen, 5. Text mit Interviewausschnitten, 6. Bericht. Normally, the
procedure ends with a final report on or presentation of the results, without adding any additional
interpretation. This step was not considered to be necessary in this case. Instead, the analysis was
finalised with the fifth step.
74
RESEARCH PROCESS
After the interviews had been transcribed, all the text passages containing
answers to the interview questions were underlined (step 1). For example, one
interview question was the influence of entrepreneurship classes to change
students’ entrepreneurial intention. All statements providing insights regarding
the topic were underlined, such as the ability of entrepreneurship classes to
motivate or reassure students or to provide insights into the actual activities of an
entrepreneur and therefore make the entrepreneur’s job more concrete and
tangible. Due to their size the transcribed interviews were recorded in a separate
data file. In that file, the first step of the analysis can be retraced.
Afterwards, the text passages were allocated to categories (step 2). The category
schemes were developed according to the pre-defined questions and further
detailed during the analytic process. For example, one interview question was
targeted on the interviewees’ opinion regarding the nature and the influence of
attitudes towards entrepreneurial intention. Among the answers, one of the topics
which turned out to be of importance was the notion of “freedom” and “selfactualisation” which was mentioned as an attitude which positively influences
entrepreneurial intention. Therefore, the “desire for freedom and selfactualisation” was chosen as one item within the category scheme. In steps 3 and
4 the focus is on the internal logic of a single interview while in step 5
conclusions are drawn from all the interviews. The result of this step is a text
presenting the quintessence of the identified topics along with text passages
illustrating the conclusions. For example, to support the conclusion that selfefficacy beliefs are an important antecedent of entrepreneurial intention, six
statements from four different interviewees have been chosen to support the
findings and illustrate different aspects. The results of step 5 are presented in
Chapter 4.1.
Learning reflections: Written learning reflections on entrepreneurship classes
served as a further qualitative source to identify course characteristics with the
RESEARCH PROCESS
potential
power
75
to
change
entrepreneurial
intention.
Students
141
entrepreneurship lecture series at the Berlin School of Economics
of
an
had to
prepare the learning reflections as an assignment at the end of the semester.142
The lecturer asked the students to reflect on the entrepreneurship courses and
learning processes they experienced during the course. The reflections are
valuable to this study, since they provide a new perspective. In contrast to the
semi-structured interviews, where the interviewees were carefully selected and
the conversation centred on chosen topics, the students were not explicitly asked
about educational practices with an influence on entrepreneurial intention.
Therefore, the documents provided the chance to find out what stood out in the
learning process in the students’ perspective. The original versions of the 15
assignments are provided in a separate document. Similarly to the structured
interviews, the learning reflections were analysed to find insights about the
influence of the antecedents on entrepreneurial intention and the influence of
entrepreneurship course characteristics. The learning reflections were analysed
according to the same method as the interviews. Hence, Chapter 4.1 provides
conclusions and text passages which stem from both sources.
Expert interviews with professors of pedagogy: The expert interviews were
conducted to gain a complementary perspective on the topic from educational
sciences and identify further literature sources and theoretical concepts. The
experts were asked about course characteristics relevant to the effectiveness of
lectures in the context of enabling learning processes and changing attitudes.
Also, they were asked about their opinions regarding course elements which had
already been identified as being potentially effective during the literature review
141
142
The students also participated in the quantitative study.
The students participated in the following five lectures: 1) idea generation and evaluation
("Business Idea Jam"), 2) finance and new venture creation, 3) entrepreneurship marketing, 4) legal
issues related to entrepreneurship, 5) sociological aspects of entrepreneurship. The students were
required to develop a business model and write a business plan. Also, all students had to do market
research and actually talk to potential customers or business partners about their product or service.
76
RESEARCH PROCESS
or the interviews of the thesis at hand (e.g. role of feedback, role of emotions).
Additionally, they were asked about educational variables which should generally
be used to describe lectures. These variables were later used in the ex post
questionnaire. The interview questions for the experts are provided in the
appendix (Chapter 7.1.5). The interviews were conducted via telephone with two
professors of pedagogy at the University of St. Gallen.
3.2.3 Sample
Semi-structured interviews: The selected entrepreneurship educators teach a wide
range of course contents and use a wide range of educational practices in their
classes. The interviewed students were identified with the help of the chosen
educators or their assistants, who were asked to name former students who are
now entrepreneurs or who had expressed a high intention to become
entrepreneurs in the near future. With this selection process the author sought to
increase the likelihood of interviewing students who had experienced changes in
attitudes, beliefs or intentions towards entrepreneurship. Four entrepreneurship
educators and four entrepreneurship students were interviewed. Table 3 provides
an overview of the interviewees.
No
Interviewee
(Former) University
1
Prof. Dr. Klandt
European Business School
Professor for Entrepreneurship
Profession
2
Herr Hoffmann
European Business School
Entrepreneur
3
Prof. Werner
University of Karlsruhe
4
Herr Mann
Student with high entrepreneurial
intention
5
Herr Rech
Student with high entrepreneurial
intention
6
Prof. Dr. Müller
University of Hohenheim
7
Herr Ngyen
Student, entrepreneur
8
Prof. Dr. Ripsas
Berlin School of Economics
Table 3: Interviewees of the Semi-structured Interviews
RESEARCH PROCESS
3.3
77
Quantitative Study
3.3.1 Purpose of the Study
Thirteen hypotheses were formulated based on the results from the literature
review and the exploratory study. The first three hypotheses describe the
influence of attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control on
entrepreneurial intention, i.e. the validity of Ajzen’s Model. These hypotheses
were formulated since it was necessary to test the validity of Ajzen’s Model for
the data sets gathered in the ex ante and ex post study.
Ten hypotheses were formulated about the impact of entrepreneurship course
characteristics on the antecedents of entrepreneurial intention. It was the purpose
of the quantitative study to test the validity of these hypotheses and thus answer
the first research question.
3.3.2 Research Method
Two types of information were necessary to test the hypotheses. Information
about the changes in the students’ attitudes, perceived subjective norms and
perceived behavioural control and information about the entrepreneurship courses
they attended. Hence, the following research design was developed.
Entrepreneurship students who participated in entrepreneurship classes filled out
questionnaires at the beginning (ex ante questionnaire) and at the end (ex post
questionnaire) of their entrepreneurship courses. The levels of attitude, perceived
subjective norms, perceived behavioural control and entrepreneurial intention
were measured in both questionnaires to capture the respective delta. Information
about educational variables was collected from the students in the ex post
questionnaire and from the lecturers who were asked to fill in questionnaires for
their entrepreneurship courses. An overview of the steps taken during the
78
RESEARCH PROCESS
quantitative study is provided in Table 4. The measures used and the statistical
methods applied are described in Chapter 5.2.
Steps of research
process
1. Pre-test and revision
of ex ante
questionnaire
Objectives
Procedure
-
Ensure comprehensibility of
the questions
-
21 students answered the
pre-test questionnaire
-
Reduce the initial sets of
items used to measure
Ajzen’s constructs
-
-
Obtain sets of items with a
high internal validity
The internal validity of
Ajzen’s construct was
ensured through inter-itemcorrelations and Cronbach’s
Alpha
-
Select smaller subsets of
items
2. Sampling
-
Select a sample representing a wide range of different
entrepreneurship courses
3. Ex ante
measurement of
entrepreneurial
intention
-
Receive a high number of
responses: 1,365
questionnaires were filled
out by students at 17
universities
-
Sent questionnaires to the
lecturers before the courses
started
4. Ex post
measurement of
entrepreneurial
intention
-
Receive a high number of
responses: 550 students
filled out the ex post
questionnaire. 465
questionnaires could be
matched
-
Distribute questionnaire at
the end of the term
5. Analyse results
-
Test hypotheses
-
Multivariate-regressions
Correlation analyses
Table 4: Research Process of the Quantitative Study
RESEARCH PROCESS
79
3.3.3 Sample
Data was collected from 17 universities in German-speaking countries (Austria,
Germany, Liechtenstein, and Switzerland) in the winter term 2005/2006. All
students participated in at least one entrepreneurship course. The questionnaires
were handed out by a contact person in the respective universities (lecturer of the
course or an assistant).143 465 valid pairs of ex ante/ex post questionnaires could
be matched. The reason for including a high number of different universities was
the objective of covering a wide range of different class characteristics. Table 5
provides an overview of the universities and the number of completed ex ante/ex
post data sets.
No.
University
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Total
Johannes Kepler University Linz
Salzburg University of Applied Sciences
University of Applied Sciences HTW Chur
University of Dresden
Centre for Entrepreneurship, Technische Universität München
Nürtingen-Geislingen University
University of Kassel
Berlin School of Economics
Liechtenstein University of Applied Sciences
University of Wuppertal
BiTS Business and Information Technology School
University of Ilmenau
University of Darmstadt
University of Applied Sciences Gelsenkirchen
Witten/Herdecke University
Table 5: Number of Valid Pairs Sorted by University
143
One university chose to let the students fill in the questionnaire online.
Complete Data
Sets
132
72
61
46
28
22
16
15
14
11
10
10
10
6
6
3
3
465
80
RESEARCH PROCESS
Information about the entrepreneurship courses was provided by the lecturers of
the different courses, who were asked to fill in questionnaires asking for a number
of course characteristics. The number of course descriptions (n=46) exceeds the
number of participating universities since students often attended more than one
entrepreneurship course. The ex ante/ex post questionnaires and the course
descriptions served as the quantitative database. Details about the data sets are
provided in chapter 5.3.
For each student, data records containing the information of the ex ante and ex
post questionnaires were set up. The students’ data records were also furnished
with the information of the corresponding course descriptions. If a student
participated in more than one course, the information was cumulated accordingly.
EXPLORATORY STUDY
4
81
Exploratory Study
“I am not sure I knew what an entrepreneur was when I was ten, but I knew that
starting little businesses and trying to sell greeting cards or newspapers doorto-door or just vending machine kind of thing is … there’s just something very
intriguing to me about that.”
STEVE CASE
4.1
Detailed Results
As described in Chapter 3.2.2 the interviews and the learning reflections were
analysed according to a method suggested by Mühlfeld et. al. Both sources
revealed relevant information about how entrepreneurial intention is shaped. The
findings are described in the following sub-chapters. In Chapter 4.1.1 the
influence of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control on
entrepreneurial intention is laid out, while Chapter 4.1.2 provides the main
findings regarding the influence of specific course characteristics.
4.1.1 The Influence of the Antecedents of Entrepreneurial Intention
The first part of the interviews aimed to identify the influence of the antecedents
of entrepreneurial intention on entrepreneurial intention itself. Table 6 depicts the
category scheme which was developed during the analytic process.
Category Scheme
a) The influence of attitudes on entrepreneurial intention
Perceived attractiveness of entrepreneurship
Desire for freedom and self-actualisation
b) The influence of subjective norms on entrepreneurial intention
Awareness
Role models
Supporting networks
c) The influence of perceived behavioural control on entrepreneurial intention
Perceived behavioural control and self-efficacy beliefs
Table 6: Category Scheme: The Influence of Antecedents of Entrepreneurial Intention
82
EXPLORATORY STUDY
Several interviewees acknowledged the influence of positive attitudes towards
entrepreneurship on entrepreneurial intention. Two major types of positive
attitudes were identified: the perceived attractiveness of entrepreneurship as a
career option and the desire for freedom and self-actualisation, both of which
seem to be tied together with the perceived attractiveness.
Perceived attractiveness of entrepreneurship: Perceived attractiveness is clearly a
pre-condition for becoming an entrepreneur. Entrepreneurship as such has to be
considered something attractive, as one of the interviewed professors put it.
Asked about the role of attitude in relation to entrepreneurial intention, he
mentioned that being an entrepreneur had to be considered attractive, possible and
manageable.
Interview #8, line 3318: I have to perceive the result as something attractive and I
have to regard it as something possible, regard it as manageable, I can accomplish
that.144
Subsequently, he underlined the importance of perceived attractiveness and the
individual’s confidence that he can manage the foundation of a company.
Interview #8, line 3323: If I don’t find it attractive, then I will not found my own
company. If I am not confident in myself, I will not found my own company. At
first, I need to consider it attractive; this is really important.145
Desire for freedom and self-actualisation: But what makes entrepreneurship an
attractive option? The former students mentioned that they associated
entrepreneurship with freedom, independence and self-realisation, all of which
144
Interview #8, Zeile 3318: Ich muss das Ergebnis attraktiv finden, und ich muss es für mich als
möglich, als schaffbar ansehen, ich kann das bewältigen.
145
Interview #8, Zeile 3323: Wenn ich das nicht attraktiv finde, gründe ich auch nicht. Wenn ich es
mir nicht zutraue, gründe ich auch nicht. Zunächst muss ich es attraktiv finden, das ist schon wichtig.
EXPLORATORY STUDY
83
are terms the interviewees doubted could be ascribed to a “normal” employeremployee relationship.
Interview #4, line 1261: […] well, for me, the reason for founding my own
company is to have some sort of freedom, to do as one pleases. To put your ideas
into action, so to speak. I would say that this is basically the way I see it: to reach
a degree of freedom which you would not have in a consulting company or a
“normal” company where you have superiors. […]146
Negative aspects do not appear to play a role, at least in contrast to all of the
perceived positive aspects of entrepreneurship.
Interview #2, line 663: For me that [being an entrepreneur] was always a very
desirable thing, since it means a lot of freedom for me and also a lot of selfrealisation. It was never that I connected it with something unpleasant.147
Also, the chance to implement one’s own ideas and to make a difference were
mentioned as motivating factors.
Interview #4, line 1273: And that I can then make a difference myself.148
In general, internal motivational factors seem to predominate over those that are
external. Nevertheless, one interviewee mentioned recognition as an additional
motivational driver.
146
Interview #4, Zeile 1261: […] Ja gut, also bei mir ist an sich die Einstellung... also der Grund ein
Unternehmen zu gründen, ist an sich für mich, eine gewisse Freiheit zu haben. Tun und lassen was
man kann. Und sozusagen, die Dinge umzusetzen, die einen beschäftigen. Das ist sage ich mal meine
Grundeinstellung, einfach zu sagen, einen Freiheitsgrad zu erreichen, den man in einer
Unternehmensberatung, wo man Vorgesetzte etc. hat oder in einem normalen Unternehmen eben nicht
hätte […]
147
Interview #2, Zeile 663: Für mich war das [Unternehmer zu sein] immer eine sehr erstrebenswerte
Sache, weil es für mich sehr viel Freiheit bedeutet und auch sehr viel Selbstverwirklichung. Das war
nie so, dass ich damit irgendetwas Unangenehmes verbunden habe.
148
Interview #4, Zeile 1273: Und dass ich dann auch selbst etwas bewegen kann.
84
EXPLORATORY STUDY
Interview #4, line 1274: [...] And that I can say then that I have achieved
something and that I then gain recognition somehow, which is something you
maybe wouldn’t get firsthand in a company.149
Especially interesting is the following interview passage, which addresses the
perception of risk. For this interviewee, risk was not something that acted as a
deterrent.
Interview #2, line 665: It was never the case that I linked something unpleasant
with it. Also, the risk, which everybody considers to be the biggest problem, has
never really discouraged me.150
In summary, a positive attitude towards being an entrepreneur appears to be
highly influential to entrepreneurial intention. The interviewees’ positive attitude
mainly results from associating entrepreneurship with freedom, self-actualisation
and the opportunity to realise their own ideas.
The interviews revealed a linkage between a positive attitude and perceived
feasibility. When the interviewees were asked about their attitudes and the
influence of these attitudes on their intention to start a company, they mentioned
perceived feasibility in the same breath. Therefore, whether entrepreneurship is
attractive to the individual or not could also have to do with whether or not he
thinks he could manage the entrepreneurial process. This is in line with Shapero’s
observation that perceived desirability and feasibility interact (chapter 2.4.2).151
149
Interview #4, Zeile 1274: [...] Und dass ich dann auch sagen kann, ich habe etwas erreicht und dass
ich dann auch irgendwie Anerkennung dafür finde, was man eventuell in einem Unternehmen nicht so
direkt kriegen kann.
150
Interview #2, Zeile 665: Das war nie so, dass ich damit irgendetwas Unangenehmes verbunden
habe. Auch das Risiko hat mich, das alle immer als größtes Problem bei der Gründung beschreiben,
hat mich eigentlich relativ wenig abgeschreckt.
151
EXPLORATORY STUDY
85
Subjective norms seem to influence entrepreneurial intention through three
factors: an increased awareness of an entrepreneurial career, role models, and
supporting networks.
Awareness: The interviewees acknowledged the influence of an entrepreneurial
family background or having entrepreneurs in one’s circle of acquaintances. The
interviewees believed that this led to a higher awareness of and openness to
choosing an entrepreneurial career.
Interview #1, line 170: Well, I think what the social environment looks like is very
important. Well, if, let’s say, entrepreneurship lies in their field of vision, well, in
sociology there are analyses about the self-recruitment of entrepreneurs, and they
obviously show that entrepreneurs probably recruit each other from their own
groups.152
Another interviewee, an entrepreneurship professor and a successful entrepreneur
himself, mentioned the importance of learning to be proactive and taking
initiative through socialisation processes.
Interview #3, line 1063: What somebody picks up in his family, his education and
in his previous experiences is very important, and that can influence whether he is
more or less open to it. He may even have learned it at his mother’s knee. That is
again a completely individual thing. Of course, it is good if a person’s entire
schooling and socialisation have taught him to take the initiative, instead of just
standing by and letting things happen, like being impressed by others.153
152
Interview #1, Zeile 170: Also, ich denke, dass es ganz wichtig ist, wie das soziale Umfeld aussieht.
Also, ob, sag mal, überhaupt Unternehmertum im Wahrnehmungsfeld liegt, also, es gibt ja auch in der
Soziologie, über die Selbstrekrutierung der Unternehmerschaft Untersuchungen, die deutlich zeigen,
dass die Unternehmerschaft sich wahrscheinlich aus eigenen Gruppen wieder reproduziert.
153
Interview #3, Zeile 1063: Das ist ganz wichtig, was jemand so in seiner Familie, in seiner
Erziehung, in seinen bisherigen Erfahrungen mitgenommen hat und das kann dazu führen, dass er
dafür dann mehr oder weniger aufgeschlossen ist. Dass er es vielleicht sogar schon mit der
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EXPLORATORY STUDY
Role models: Early exposure to entrepreneurship through friends and family
means that one can learn from role models. According to interviewees, the
discussions about entrepreneurship helped to make the idea tangible, resulting in
entrepreneurship being perceived as something concrete, instead of as an abstract
concept.
Interview #1, line 175: [...] perhaps that means that here you simply have the role
model, you are a person learning with a role model, or that you even think about it
at all, that you are inspired by having to consider the environment you grew up in,
the circles that you know entrepreneurs from, the settings where you are around
entrepreneurs, etc. The question ends up on the table more quickly and is dealt
with more intensively than if it were just an abstract term or you were only around
civil servants so you just wouldn’t think about it at all.154
Also, having entrepreneurs in your circle of acquaintances can cause people to
follow suit. If everybody does it, I want to do it as well.
Interview #1, line 289: By all means it is possible that there are such
environments, yes, if everybody is self-employed, than I am going to be selfemployed as well.155
The formative influence of persons within the individual’s inner circle is certainly
an important factor for many future entrepreneurs. It is interesting, however, that
people selectively choose their persons of reference from a larger circle within
Muttermilch aufgenommen hat. Das ist auch wieder ganz individuell. Gut ist natürlich, wenn jemand
in seiner ganzen Erziehung, in seiner ganzen Sozialisation, wenn er da gelernt hat, Eigeninitiative,
sich selbst auszudrücken und nicht nur sich beeindrucken und berieseln zu lassen.
154
Interview #1, Zeile 175: [...] das heißt also hier ist wahrscheinlich einfach dieses Role-Model, also
das Lernen an der Rolle oder überhaupt, dass man drüber nachdenkt, einfach inspiriert durch die
Frage, in welchem Umfeld wachse ich auf, welches soziale Umfeld, kenne ich Unternehmer, bin ich
mit Unternehmern zusammen usw. die Frage schneller auf den Tisch und intensiver auf den Tisch
[kommt], als wenn das ein Abstraktum ist und mein ganzes Umfeld sind alles Beamte, und ich denke
nicht darüber nach.
155
Interview #1, Zeile 289: Das ist also durchaus denkbar, dass es auch so Umfelder gibt, ja, wenn alle
selbständig sind, dann bin ich auch selbständig.
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87
which there might also be a number of people who are critical of an individual’s
intention to become an entrepreneur. Several interviewees noted that the people in
their circles who were in favour of the idea were those whom they described as
“friends” and persons “who know me better”. Thus, the number of people
expressing support for one’s entrepreneurial ambition may not be as important to
a potential entrepreneur as having the “relevant” people behind him or her.
Interview #2, line 672: At AXA [insurance company] everybody told me that it
would be pretty stupid to found my own company, since AXA had smoothed the
way for me career-wise […] My boss told me that, and several people whose
opinions I valued also told me that, right up to the board member responsible for
HR, who said that my leaving was not appreciated and that he preferred me to
stay. And my personal social circle, the people who knew me a little better, they
liked the idea. My father also somehow liked it; we discussed it for a long time,
156
and he supported the idea.
Along the same lines, another interviewee mentioned that his girlfriend was
sceptical due to the long working hours but that his parents, who are
entrepreneurs themselves, basically had a positive attitude towards his plans to
become an entrepreneur.
Interview #5, line 1564, Interviewer: What do people who are important to you
personally, friends, family, people whose opinion is important to you, think of your
plan to become self-employed? Interviewee: Well, my girl-friend says it will be
much too stressful, since it is too time-consuming. She noticed that my father
sometimes puts in easily 60 hours a week. Interviewer: But in general, they [the
156
Interview #2, Zeile 672: Aus dem AXA-Unternehmen heraus, haben mir alle gesagt, dass das
ziemlich dumm wäre, zu gründen, weil ich doch einen geebneten Pfad hatte bei der AXA […] Mein
Chef hat mir das gesagt, mehrere Leute, die ich da inhaltlich geschätzt habe, haben mir das auch
gesagt, bis hoch zum Personalvorstand, der geäußert hatte, dass er das nicht witzig findet, dass ich
gehe und dass es doch schön wäre, wenn ich bliebe. Und das private Umfeld, die Leute, die mich
irgendwie ein bisschen besser kannten, die fanden das gut. Mein Vater fand das irgendwie gut, wir
haben da lange darüber diskutiert, und er hat das befürwortet.
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EXPLORATORY STUDY
parents] have a positive view of the plan that you could do that [to build your own
company]? Interviewee: Yes.
157
Supporting networks: The social environment seems to be important for one other
reason as well. It can support and encourage one’s own entrepreneurial
aspirations and the realisation of entrepreneurial endeavours, e.g. through existing
networks or financial resources.
Interview #6, line 2026, Interviewer: [...] On a second level, of course, you have
certain advantages, when it comes to realising your ideas. We then have those
students who can call on their parents or acquaintances as business angels. Of
course, students with a different social environment do not have that. They do not
have that support in word and deed or the option of receiving initial funding. You
do have certain starting advantages when the social environment has an
entrepreneurial dimension to it.158
Although the interviewees agreed about the important influence of an
entrepreneurial environment, they did not believe that it would be appropriate to
conclude that entrepreneurial households inevitably turn out successful
entrepreneurs.
Interview #6, line 2012: […] Well, let’s say it is an additional incentive when their
parents or somebody in their circle of acquaintances are entrepreneurs. Then, they
157
Interview #5, Zeile 1564, Interviewer: Was denken Personen, die für Dich wichtig sind, also Deine
Bezugspersonen, Freunde, Familie, Menschen, deren Meinung Dir etwas bedeutet, über das
Vorhaben, sich selbständig zu machen? Interviewee: Also, meine Freundin sagt, das ist viel zu
stressig, weil es viel zu viel Zeitaufwand ist. Sie sieht halt an meinem Vater, dass der doch auch mal
60-Stunden-Wochen hat ohne Probleme. […] Interviewer: Aber grundsätzlich stehen sie [die Eltern]
dem Vorhaben, dass Du das [die Unternehmensgründung] vielleicht mal machen könntest, positiv
gegenüber? Interviewee: Ja.
158
Interview #6, Zeile 2026, Interviewer: […] Es folgt dann sicher auf der zweiten Stufe, dass man
dadurch natürlich gewisse Vorteile hat, wenn es darum geht, die eigenen Ideen zu verwirklichen. Wir
haben dann auch diejenigen Studierenden, die ihre Eltern oder die Bekannten als Business Angels
einsetzen können. Das haben natürlich die Studierenden aus einem anderen sozialen Umfeld
entsprechend nicht, dass sie da Rat und Tat und vielleicht auch noch die Gründungsfinanzierung
entsprechend gestellt bekommen. Da hat man gewisse Anfangsvorteile, wenn das soziale Umfeld
entsprechend unternehmerisch gestaltet ist.
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89
have the practical example right in front of them. […] We also have students
whose parents are not entrepreneurs and who nevertheless have these
entrepreneurial thoughts. At this point I actually […] would not view the theory of
social determination as being that strong. […] On a second level, it certainly
follows that of course you have certain advantages because of this when it comes
to realising your own ideas.159
Interview #8, line 3326, Interviewer: In your point of view: What role does the
social environment play vis-à-vis an individual’s intention to build his own
company? Interviewee: That varies a lot. I think entrepreneurial households do
not inevitably turn out successful entrepreneurs. But role models do definitely play
160
an important role.
Concerning the impact of subjective norms on entrepreneurial intention, it can be
summarised that family background plays an important role, as it exposes people
to the topic of entrepreneurship at an early age. Therefore, the likelihood of
considering an entrepreneurial career should be higher for someone whose
parents are entrepreneurs themselves. At the same time “social determinism”
cannot be concluded. Children of entrepreneurs do not necessarily become
entrepreneurs, and children of non-entrepreneurs can still found a company,
especially if we consider that social contacts and influences are not developed
through the family alone, but also through schools, media and exposure to other
social forces.
159
Interview #3, Zeile 2012: [...] Also, sagen wir es wirkt positiv verstärkend, wenn die Eltern
Unternehmer sind oder im Bekanntenkreis Unternehmer sind. Da haben sie gleich das praktische
Beispiel vor sich. [...] Wir haben auch Studierende, deren Eltern nicht Unternehmer sind und die dann
trotzdem diese unternehmerischen Gedanken haben. Hier würde ich jetzt eigentlich [...] diese Theorie
der sozialen Determiniertheit nicht so stark sehen. [...] Es folgt dann sicher auf der zweiten Stufe, dass
man dadurch natürlich gewisse Vorteile hat, wenn es darum geht, die eigenen Ideen zu verwirklichen.
160
Interview #8, Zeile 3326, Interviewer: Welche Rolle spielt Ihrer Erfahrung nach das soziale
Umfeld der Studenten, im Hinblick auf die Absicht ein eigenes Unternehmen zu gründen?
Interviewee: Sehr unterschiedlich. Es ist glaube ich nicht zwangsläufig so, dass aus
Unternehmerhaushalten erfolgreiche Unternehmer hervorgehen. Aber Vorbilder spielen durchaus eine
wichtige Rolle […].
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EXPLORATORY STUDY
c) The influence of perceived behavioural control on entrepreneurial
intention
Perceived behavioural control and self-efficacy beliefs: Perceived behavioural
control was described as having great influence on entrepreneurial intention.
Strong self-efficacy beliefs seem to be a pre-condition for entrepreneurial
activities. One entrepreneurship educator even used the expression “sine qua
non”, a necessary pre-condition.
Interview #1, line 193: I mean this is a conditio sine qua non. Well, if I am not
convinced that I will manage to do it, I will probably not tackle it […] I would
consider it a conditio sine qua non and not necessarily as dynamic factor […]161
Interview #8, line 3321: If I don’t find it attractive, then I will not found my own
162
company. If I am not confident in myself, I will not found my own company.
This is a thesis which appears to be supported by the (potential) entrepreneurs
interviewed. All of them believed in their (future) success, even though they did
not have a clear picture of what the building of a company would entail.
Interview #7, line 2751: [...] Because of this, we evaluated our chances [to
successfully found our own company] as good, but not as exceptional.
163
Interview #2, line 696: Actually, I was rather optimistic that we would somehow
manage it, but I did not have a really structured picture of how everything would
proceed.164
161
Interview #1, Zeile 193: [...] ich meine, das ist eine conditio sine qua non. Also, wenn ich nicht
davon überzeugt bin, dass ich das schaffe, werde ich es wahrscheinlich nicht anpacken. […]Ich würde
es eben hier als eine condition sine qua non ansehen und nicht unbedingt als ein dynamischer Faktor
[…]
162
Interview #8, Zeile 3321: Wenn ich das nicht attraktiv finde, gründe ich auch nicht. Wenn ich es
mir nicht zutraue, gründe ich auch nicht.
163
Interview #7, Zeile 2751: Von daher, die Chance [erfolgreich zu gründen] haben wir eigentlich
schon relativ gut, aber jetzt nicht überschwänglich gesehen.
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91
Those future entrepreneurs demonstrated a firm conviction that they would be
successful despite lacking knowledge of details and eventualities. That was
confirmed by one of the interviewed entrepreneurs, who realised in retrospect that
he had never asked himself whether he would be able to manage the various
necessary steps, but had simply told himself that he would be able to do it
somehow. That seems to be in line with Bandura’s insight that it is more
important for someone to believe that he can manage a complex issue in general
than learning all of the different necessary subskills.165 The interviewee also
admitted that the most important issues related to starting a company were not in
his field of vision:
Interview #2, line 703: If somebody had asked, I would have probably given
myself very good odds of being successful; otherwise, I would not have done it. But
the things which are really important when you lead a company were not in my
field of vision at that time. Well, back then, I did not ask myself “can I do this, can
I do this, can I do this”, but I just told myself, “Ok, I will manage.”166
An individual’s basic conviction that he can somehow manage the situation and
deal with issues as they arise seems to be highly influential for entrepreneurial
intention. Without such confidence, people will not start businesses. Even if
people have a positive attitude towards entrepreneurship, a lack of confidence
will prevent them from starting their own business.
164
Interview #2, Zeile 696: Ich war eigentlich ziemlich optimistisch, dass wir das schon irgendwie
hinkriegen, aber jetzt eine wirklich strukturierte Vorstellung davon, wie das alles ablaufen würde,
hatte ich nicht.
165
166
Bandura, 1997, p. 40.
Interview #2, Zeile 703: Wenn man mich gefragt hätte, hätte ich mir wahrscheinlich schon eine
große Erfolgswahrscheinlichkeit eingeräumt, sonst hätte ich es ja auch nicht gemacht. Aber die Dinge,
die wirklich wichtig dabei sind, ein Unternehmen zu führen, die hatte ich damals noch nicht im Blick.
Also, ich hab mich damals nicht gefragt „kann ich das, kann ich das, kann ich das“, sondern habe mir
einfach gesagt, „ok, ich krieg das schon hin“.
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EXPLORATORY STUDY
Interview #8, line 3369, Interviewer: And for you, is entrepreneurial intention
strongly influenced by one’s belief in one’s own ability to do something?
Interviewee: I would say that, yes. If I see something, even if I think it is attractive,
but I can’t rely on myself, then, I think, I will not do it. I think a basic confidence in
oneself is necessary.167
Interview #3, line 1083: […] You need to have a certain healthy self-confidence, I
would say. Well, you have to be, I would like to say, brave in the truest sense of the
word.168
It would not be constructive to increase perceived behavioural control without
ensuring that people have the opportunity to assess what it means to start one’s
own business. One educator regarded the aspect of “showing what it means” as a
central learning objective in his entrepreneurship classes.
Interview #8, line 3334, Interviewer: Which role does the valuation of one’s own
chances and abilities to successfully start one’s own business play, in terms of the
entrepreneurial intention? Interviewee: In my opinion an important one. This is
why we try to enable the students in our subject area to anticipate what will come
up if they build their own company. Then they can say “Well, I believe I can do
that”, or “no, that is not for me”. Because, I believe, when they are confident in
169
themselves, it becomes more likely that they will actually found a company.
167
Interview #8, Zeile 3369, Interviewer: Und für Sie ist die unternehmerische Absicht, sehr stark
davon beeinflusst, ob ich es mir zutraue, es aus eigener Kraft zu schaffen? Interviewee: Das würde ich
sagen, ja. Wenn ich etwas sehe, auch wenn ich es attraktiv finde, aber es mir nicht zutraue, dann
glaube ich, werde ich es nicht machen. Ich glaube ein Grundvertrauen in sich selbst ist notwendig.
168
Interview #3, Zeile 1083: […] Man muss schon ein gewisses, gesundes Selbstvertrauen haben,
würde ich sagen. Also, man muss, ich will’s mal sagen, man muss im wahrsten Sinne mutig sein.
169
Interview #8, Zeile 3334, Interviewer: Welche Rolle spielt die Einschätzung der eigenen Chancen
und Fähigkeiten ein Unternehmen erfolgreich zu gründen, im Hinblick auf die Absicht ein eigenes
Unternehmen zu gründen? Interviewee: Meiner Meinung nach eine wichtige. Deshalb versuchen wir
in diesem Themenfeld unsere Studierende in die Lage zu versetzen, abzuschätzen was auf sie zukäme,
wenn sie gründen. Damit sie dann sagen können, „ach das trau’ ich mir zu“ oder „nee, das ist nichts
für mich“. Weil ich glaube, wenn sie es sich zutrauen, wird es wahrscheinlicher, dass sie tatsächlich
gründen.
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93
4.1.2 The Influence of Entrepreneurship Course Characteristics
The second part of the interviews aimed to identify course characteristics with a
positive influence on entrepreneurial intentions. The course characteristics
discovered are depicted in Table 7.
Category Scheme
a) General impact of entrepreneurship courses
b) Course characteristics with influence on attitude
Role models
Practical experiences
c) Course characteristics with influence on perceived subjective norms
Provide a platform to build an entrepreneurial network
d) Course characteristics with influence on perceived behavioural control
Reveal what it takes to be an entrepreneur
Practical knowledge
Business planning
Role models
Entrepreneurial networks
Explorative and interactive Elements
Feedback
Supportive infrastructure
Table 7: Category Scheme: The Influence of Entrepreneurship Course Characteristics
The interviewees, entrepreneurship professors, as well as their former students
expressed
the
opinion
that
entrepreneurship
classes
could
influence
entrepreneurial intention, even though they had differing views about the degree
to which entrepreneurship classes could bring about change in entrepreneurial
intention.
Interview #1, line 227: That is a general question, how can I influence people
through training, through lectures by others, through media in general. There are
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EXPLORATORY STUDY
a lot of possibilities. And it is for sure possible to a certain extent; the question is
170
of course how effective that is.
The interviewee above also mentioned that it was important to repeat practices in
order for them to have an impact, similarly to advertising, which achieves its
goals by repeating sales messages. The interviewees agreed that even though
entrepreneurship classes had an impact, classes alone did not make entrepreneurs.
It seems that multiple pieces of a puzzle have to come together to raise strong
entrepreneurial intention, and entrepreneurship education could be one piece of
this puzzle, along with learning processes, genetic pre-disposition, and
socialisation processes.
Interview #1, line 270: Well, if you only have genetic disposition without a
learning process or without a process of socialisation as a specific learning
process, it does not work, as well as vice versa. […] a number of things have to
come together.171
However, changes in entrepreneurial intention do not necessarily come about. In
some cases entrepreneurship courses may also confirm a previous intention,
whether it may be to start a company or to become organisationally employed.
Learning reflections #15, line 424: I have been pursuing the idea of becoming
self-employed for quite a long time, and the idea of starting a company did, in the
170
Interview #1, Zeile 227: Das ist eine generelle Frage, wie kann ich Menschen beeinflussen durch
Ausbildung, durch Lehrveranstaltungen durch andere, durch Medien generell. Da gibt es ja sehr viele
Möglichkeiten. Und das ist in einem gewissen Umfang sicherlich möglich, die Frage ist natürlich
jetzt, wie wirksam ist es.
171
Interview #1, Zeile 270: Also, nur die genetische Anlage ohne Lernprozess oder ohne auch ein
Sozialisierungsprozess als spezifischen Lernprozess, funktioniert nicht, genau wie umgekehrt. […] Es
müssen mehrere Dinge zusammen kommen.
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95
end, motivate me to study economics. […] and it is still very likely that I will start
a company later on.172
Most of the interviewees thought that entrepreneurship classes did not
fundamentally change people’s intention, but that they were able to encourage
people who were open to the idea of becoming an entrepreneur or who had
already played with the thought of starting a company. In that sense,
entrepreneurship classes were able to provide the necessary momentum to tip the
scales. Also, entrepreneurship classes might positively influence people who have
the potential but are unaware of it, for example, because they have had no
entrepreneurial exposure so far.
Interview #2, line 862: There again: It was really no quantum leap. I think that an
entrepreneurship class is not capable of making an entrepreneur of a person who
is not an entrepreneur. But I believe that people who could generally become
entrepreneurs, that it can help there, that it could be an impulse in the right
direction.173
Interview #3, line 1231: I’ll put it this way, an entrepreneurship course has
reached its objective when a person who has at least the seed of an idea to found
his own company, an idea, so to say, can be encouraged to really implement that
174
[…]
172
Student (Team) #15, Zeile 424: Die Idee mich selbständig zu machen, verfolge ich schon sehr
lange, und die Vorstellung mal ein Unternehmen zu gründen, hatte mich auch letztendlich dazu
bewogen, Wirtschaft zu studieren. […] ist es dennoch sehr wahrscheinlich, dass ich später einmal eine
Firma gründen werde.
173
Interview #2, Zeile 862: Auch da wieder: Ein Quantensprung war es wirklich nicht. Ich glaube,
dass eine Gründungsvorlesung nicht dazu geeignet ist, aus einem Menschen, der kein Gründer ist,
einen zu machen. Aber ich glaube, dass Leuten, die tendenziell Gründer sind oder sein könnten, dass
es da helfen kann, einen Impuls in die richtige Richtung zu geben.
174
Interview #3, Zeile 1231: Ich sag’ es mal so, eine Vorlesung Entrepreneurship hat dann ihr Ziel
erreicht, wenn sie eine Person, die zumindest schon den Keim hatte, ein eigenes Unternehmen zu
gründen und sozusagen die Idee hatte, dazu ermutigt hat, das wirklich auch in die Tat umzusetzen […]
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EXPLORATORY STUDY
Interview #4, line 1311: Well, I will start as follows: in any case the class has
encouraged me to become entrepreneurially active. The class has achieved this in
any case.175
Interview #4, line 2123: On the one hand they [the classes] certainly can motivate
the students to found their own company. It’s more along the lines of encouraging
somebody to have a good look at this alternative [of becoming an entrepreneur]
and follow the path carefully.176
The majority of the interviewees thought that certain entrepreneurship course
characteristics could influence the attitude towards entrepreneurial intention. Role
models and practical experiences seemed to them to be particularly suitable for
influencing attitudes. However, the opinions differed as to how strong that
influence could be, and one of the interviewed former students even mentioned
that entrepreneurship classes had not influenced his attitude towards the topic at
all. Since he had been exposed to entrepreneurial issues before, however, his
statement also confirms the findings from other studies which revealed that
entrepreneurship classes cannot significantly change the attitude of persons with
high entrepreneurial exposure.177
Role models: Role models can change people’s attitudes towards certain
behaviours which is also true for entrepreneurship. In classes teachers have the
opportunity to invite entrepreneurs who serve as role models. The interviewees
confirmed the positive influence of role models:
175
Interview #4, Zeile 1311: Also, ich fange mal so an: Die Vorlesung hat mich auf jeden Fall darin
bestärkt, unternehmerisch tätig zu werden. Das hat sie auf jeden Fall erreicht.
176
Interview #4, Zeile 2123: Zum einen können sie [die Kurse] natürlich motivieren, ein Unternehmen
zu gründen, das geht in Richtung Mut machen, dass man sich mit der Alternative auseinandersetzt,
dass man auch versucht, sie konsequent zu verfolgen.
177
EXPLORATORY STUDY
97
Interview #7, line 3064: […] actually, only positive, so the people, that were there
[invited entrepreneurs during lectures], that has always impressed me. […]
178
The impact of role models within an individual’s own family is doubtless higher,
given the duration and intensity of the exposure. Nonetheless, for students who
have not previously been exposed to role models, it should be an effective course
characteristic.
Practical experiences: Many interviewees reported the positive influence of
practical experience. One of the interviewees, for example, gained experience
during a consulting project in the context of writing of a term paper.
Interview #7, line 2687: […] well, we did two projects for small mechanical
engineering companies. There you have direct [insights] into being self-employed
… because most of the time, we were working directly with the CEO […] and
there, you could see for yourself that people put their heart and soul into it and so
on. Well, that for sure has influenced the attitude a little.179
Provide a platform to build an entrepreneurial network: One option of
influencing subjective norms in a university setting seems to be providing a
platform for building an entrepreneurial network. One interviewee described as
positive a course format where (future) entrepreneurs also had the opportunity to
present their business models and receive feedback to refine them. He sat in on
the course from time to time after he had already begun his career as an
178
Interview #7, Zeile 3064: […] eigentlich nur positiv, also die Leute, die da waren, das hat einem
schon immer ein bisschen imponiert. […]
179
Interview #7, Zeile 2687: […] also wir haben zwei Projekte gemacht für kleine
Maschinenbauunternehmen im Schwarzwald. Da hat man auch noch mal direkt [Einblicke] in die
Selbständigkeit... weil wir hatten direkt mit den Geschäftsführern dann eben meistens zu tun […] und
da hat man dann schon auch noch mal selber gesehen, dass man da schon mit Herz und Seele dabei ist
und so weiter. Also, das hat bestimmt auch schon noch mal die Einstellung ein bisschen geprägt.
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EXPLORATORY STUDY
entrepreneur. Such a format for a course could be useful for building a social
network in an “entrepreneurial direction”.
Interview #2, line 842: Whereas I believe it would be possible [to change the
social environment], when I look at what Professor Faltin is doing with his
“Laboratory for Entrepreneurship” for example. I have been there a couple of
times now. It is possible, while you’re still a student, that social contacts are
directed more strongly towards being entrepreneur; that could be done.180
Interviewees also mentioned that the social environment could be changed by
providing enough leeway for students to meet other students with entrepreneurial
intentions as well as young entrepreneurs.
Interview #6, line 2245: [...] first of all, you get to know students who might be in
the same situation. And you also get to know entrepreneurs.181
Those contacts and experiences can be helpful later on, when the foundation of a
company becomes reality:
Interview #6, line 2255: Therefore, I would say that the social environment plays a
role in the sense that someone establishes new contacts and gains new experiences
that you can go back to later on.
182
Certainly, student organisations which are closely related to business in general or
to entrepreneurship in specific can change the social environment and in that way
180
Interview #2, Zeile 842: Wobei ich glaube, dass man das aber schon könnte, wenn ich mir hier
anschaue was Professor Faltin macht, mit seinem Labor für Entrepreneurship zum Beispiel. Da war
ich jetzt ein paar Mal. Das geht schon, dass in der Studienzeit die sozialen Kontakte stärker Richtung
Gründung ausgerichtet werden, das funktioniert.
181
Interview #6, Zeile 2245: [...] man lernt dadurch erstens Studierende kennen, die vielleicht in der
gleichen Situation sind. Man lernt dadurch auch junge Unternehmerinnen und Unternehmer kennen.
182
Interview #6, Zeile 2255: Deshalb würde ich sagen, dass das soziale Umfeld in die Richtung eine
Rolle spielt, dass man eben neue Kontakte hat und neue Erfahrungen macht, auf die man dann später
ja dann auch zurückgreifen kann.
EXPLORATORY STUDY
99
have an impact on subjective norms. One interviewee, for example, got to know
his business partner in a student-led consultancy.
Based on the interviews, it seems that most options for influencing the
antecedents of entrepreneurial intention lie in the field of perceived behavioural
control. Multiple options were identified: reveal what it takes to be an
entrepreneur,
practical
knowledge,
business
planning,
role
models,
entrepreneurial networks, explorative and interactive elements, feedback, and a
supportive infrastructure.
Reveal what it takes to be an entrepreneur: Bandura’s research showed that
perceived behavioural control is the perception of what an individual can do
under certain circumstances. Self-belief must, however, draw on actual skills and
knowledge. The experiences of the interviewees give further credence to
Bandura’s insights. Many of them emphasised the importance of conveying the
necessary knowledge, practical instruments, methods, or codes of practice, i.e.
everything necessary to understand what an entrepreneur has to accomplish. One
of the entrepreneurship professors compared the effect of unfolding
entrepreneurship knowledge with working in a small company, where it is
obvious what the entrepreneur is doing:
Interview #1, line 310: Well, yes. I mean, of course, the meaning of the
entrepreneurship course is not only the motivation but also the qualification, and
by having more contact with and insights into behaviours, instruments and
methods which can be applied meaningfully, you of course have better access. […]
While in small companies, you see the entrepreneur. And then you think, “well,
100
EXPLORATORY STUDY
yes, I know what he is doing, I also see what he is doing and how he behaves and
183
that is why I have the feeling I can do that as well”.
Entrepreneurship classes can reveal the necessary activities to found a new
company and they can provide knowledge, methods, and techniques. Generally
speaking, they can convince people that entrepreneurship is not rocket science but
a doable activity:
Interview #5, line 1631: Well, [the lecture] has in any case encouraged me to have
184
the intention and just showed that it is possible.
Interview #6, line 2126: A second point is also that you see how diverse these
activities are; that, well, that means that the economic aspects, the legal aspect,
the technical activities are shown to you. Aspects you might not have even thought
of but that need to be considered. Let us say the abilities of an all-rounder; this
will partly become apparent only then.185
When students have a more detailed picture of what it takes to start a company,
they can judge for themselves whether entrepreneurship is a career option they
would like to consider. If they determine that entrepreneurship is not an option,
an entrepreneurship class will nonetheless have made a valuable contribution to
their education.
183
Interview #1, Zeile 310: Ja, gut. Also, ja, ich meine natürlich, der Sinn der Veranstaltung ist ja
nicht nur die Motivierung sondern auch die Qualifizierung, und indem man mehr Kontakt hat und
Einblicke hat in Verhaltensweisen, Instrumentarien und Methoden, die im Zusammenhang sinnvoll
einzusetzen, hat man natürlich auch sozusagen einen stärkeren Zugang. […] Während in kleinen
Unternehmen sieht man den Unternehmer. Und dann denkt man, „ja gut, ich weiß ja, was er macht,
sehe auch, was er tut und wie er sich verhält, und deswegen hab ich das Gefühl, das kann ich auch“.
184
Interview #5, Zeile 1631: Also, [die Vorlesung] hat mich auf alle Fälle bestärkt darin, die Absicht
zu haben und einfach auch mal gezeigt, dass es eben möglich ist.
185
Interview #6, Zeile 2126: Ein zweiter Punkt ist auch, dass man sieht, wie vielfältig diese Aufgaben
sind, also d.h. man bekommt erstens die verschiedenen betriebswirtschaftlichen Aspekte, rechtlichen
Aspekte, technischen Aspekte aufgezeigt, an die man vorher vielleicht gar nicht so gedacht hat, an die
man aber eben noch denken muss. Also sagen wir mal, diese Generalistenfähigkeit, die wird dann
teilweise erst deutlich.
EXPLORATORY STUDY
101
Practical knowledge: If we look at the type of knowledge considered to be
relevant, the following items were mentioned explicitly: knowing the components
of a business plan, financing, knowing the administrative steps to build a
company, being familiar with entrepreneurial support programmes and the control
of risk. Due to the abundance of examples, only a selected few will be mentioned.
Interview #1, line 332: And because of that I think the chances of success are
better yet. Also, if you have learned how to develop a business plan, for example.
And even if you eventually do not write one, you just have, I would say, you have
been shown what you have to think about, where the horizon is, and what should
be included and such. And that makes for a better preparation, also in case the
situation changes, as if you would had never dealt with that before and all at once
you are left to your own devices.186
Interview #7, line 3167, Interviewer: [...] that during the course, for example, it
was explained what “Basel II” means or how you could acquire capital or what
the different phases of raising capital are, or in which phases which investors
finance what, such as business angels or venture capitalists, or then there is the
187
option of a spin-off or whatever… Well, that gave me a better feel […]
Interview #8, line 3361, Interviewer: Especially, when you have learned to control
188
the financial risk, then the positive learning experience prevails in the end.
186
Interview #1, Zeile 332: Und von daher denke ich, sind die Erfolgschancen schon besser. Auch
selbst wenn man gelernt hat, zum Beispiel Businesspläne zu entwickeln. Und selbst, wenn man dann
keinen macht, man hat aber einfach auch mal, ich sag’ mal vorgeführt bekommen, an was man denn
denken muss, wo der Horizont ist, was man alles einbeziehen sollte und so. Und das schafft natürlich
eine bessere Vorbereitung auch auf Veränderungen der Situation, als wenn man sich nie damit
beschäftigt hat und auf einmal sozusagen auf dem linken Fuß irgendwo erwischt wird.
187
Interview #7, Zeile 3167: […] dass in der Vorlesung zum Beispiel dann auch mal gesagt wurde,
was ist Basel II überhaupt oder wie kommt man an Kapital und was sind verschiedene Stufen bei
dieser Kapitalbeschaffung oder in welchen Stufen finanzieren welche Kapitalgeber was, also Business
Angel oder Venture Capital, oder dann gibt es die Möglichkeit aus dem Unternehmen ein Spin-off
oder was auch immer... Also, das hat schon so ein bisschen das Gefühl besser gegeben […]
188
Interview #8, Zeile 3361: Wenn man gerade dieses finanzielle Risiko kontrollieren lernt, dann
überwiegt letztlich doch die positive Lernerfahrung.
102
EXPLORATORY STUDY
Learning reflections #8, line 261: Ultimately, I think I am now in a much better
position to keep the risk of starting a company as low as possible and make it [the
risk] more controllable.189
Since many other students reported in their reflections that they still feared
financial losses, showing students how to control financial risks is a pivotal issue
with regard to increasing the perceived behavioural control. It can prevent
students from suffering actual financial losses if they follow an entrepreneurial
career.
In general students valued the linkage between theory and practice. For example,
one interviewee reported that he appreciated a lecture series which allowed him to
directly apply the theoretical knowledge:
Learning reflections #8, line 258: I particularly appreciated the linkage between
“theoretical” classes and “practical” examinations. I applied the theoretical
knowledge to my business idea and received feedback, on my presentation, when
my work either gained approval or when mistakes where pointed out to me. 190
Practical
knowledge
also
includes
a
thorough
understanding
of
the
entrepreneurial process. Examples of successful and less successful entrepreneurs
can illustrate this process of how one could develop a potential idea into a
complete business model:
Learning reflections #3, line 73: In the course of the term we learned how a
business idea which exists only in the head of the potential founder can be
developed into a complete business model. The examples of successful and less
189
Lernreflexionen #8, Zeile 261: Letztendlich sehe ich mich jetzt sehr viel besser in der Lage, das
Risiko bei einer Unternehmensneugründung so gering wie möglich zu halten und kalkulierbarer zu
machen.
190
Lernreflexionen #8, Zeile 258: Als besonders gelungen habe ich persönlich die Verknüpfung des
„theoretischen“ Unterrichts mit der „praktischen“ Prüfungsleistung empfunden. Ich habe das
theoretisch erworbene Wissen in meine Geschäftsidee einfließen lassen und habe spätestens zu den
Präsentationsterminen ein Feedback bekommen und wurde somit entweder bestätigt oder auf Fehler
hingewiesen.
EXPLORATORY STUDY
103
successful companies and business models were very helpful in this regard and led
to a constant critical analysis of our understanding of entrepreneurship and the
potential risk factors of our own business model.191
Therefore, the continuous linkage between theory and practice appears to be one
success factor for entrepreneurship education. Even though practical knowledge
is crucial, one professor emphasised that it was important not to overload courses
with too many technical details. Instead, he recommended helping students to
develop a healthy “economic self-confidence”. This included the ability to build a
sound business model and a profound knowledge of the essential elements of a
business model and ways to control them.
Interview #8, line 3377: It is important that the economic heart of the business
model is consistent. To some degree, we teach our students too many details which
are not crucial. That acts as something of a deterrent. I think, we should provide
them with economic self-confidence and we should also convey to them “please do
not believe that you can control everything”. You have to control the crucial
things, especially when it comes to the financials and to your competitive situation.
With respect to everything else what counts is that you are an entrepreneur with all
192
your heart.
191
Lernreflexionen #3, Zeile 73: Im Zuge des Semesters wurde uns vermittelt, wie man von einer
lediglich im Kopf des potenziellen Gründers existierenden Idee zu einem vollständigen
Geschäftsmodell kommen kann. Die Beispiele erfolgreicher und weniger erfolgreicher Unternehmen
bzw. Geschäftsmodelle waren da sehr hilfreich und haben dazu geführt, dass man sich selber ständig
mit dem Unternehmerbegriff und potenziellen Risikofaktoren des eigenen Geschäftsmodells kritisch
auseinandergesetzt hat.
192
Interview #8, Zeile 3377: Wichtig ist, dass der ökonomische Kern des Geschäftsmodells stimmt.
Teilweise bringen wir unseren Studenten zu viele nicht entscheidende Details bei. Das wirkt fast
abschreckend. Ich glaube wir sollten ihnen ein gesundes ökonomisches Selbstvertrauen vermitteln,
und wir sollten ihnen auch vermitteln, „bitte glaube nicht, dass Du alles kontrollieren kannst“. Du
musst die entscheidenden Sachen kontrollieren, insbesondere bei den Finanzen und bezüglich deiner
Wettbewerbsposition. Bei allem anderen kommt es darauf an, dass du mit ganzem Herzen
Unternehmerin bist.
104
EXPLORATORY STUDY
Business planning: While the writing of a business plan was considered to be an
essential element of conveying basic entrepreneurial knowledge, the interviewees
also revealed on which part of the business plan emphasis should be placed. A
sound business model seems to be more important than writing out every detail in
the business plan. The writing of the business plan includes the risk that a
student’s main interest is in producing a piece of good writing. This could distract
him from concentrating on the core issue, which is a stable business model, and
the question of whether the business model can operate profitably or not. One
professor mentioned for example, that his students focussed too much on the
technical aspect of business plan writing, i.e. filling in the gaps under the business
plan’s headings. When he and his colleagues noticed that students were focussing
more attention on the production of a business plan than on the development of a
coherent business model, they reduced the weight of the mark for the business
plan from 100% to 25%. At the same time they increased the grade weight for a
consistent business model.193
In the learning reflections a team of students reported that business planning
activities provided them with an overview of the relevant elements to start a
successful business.
Learning reflections #4, line 166: In summary, we came to the conclusion that a
good business idea can only lead to success in combination with a financial
concept, a marketing concept, and a legal foundation paired with entrepreneurial
spirit. Therefore, thorough planning before the start of the business is
indispensible.194
193
194
Interview #8, Zeile 3492.
Lernreflexionen #4, Zeile 166: Zusammenfassend haben wir die Erkenntnis gewonnen, dass eine
gute Geschäftsidee nur in Kombination mit Konzepten der Finanzierung, des Marketings und der
juristischen Grundlagen, gepaart mit dem Unternehmergeist, zum Erfolg geführt wird. Deshalb ist
eine sorgfältige Planung vor Geschäftsbeginn unabdingbar.
EXPLORATORY STUDY
105
Besides writing a business plan, testing important assumptions of the business
model in the market also provides a valuable learning experience. This was a
requirement for the student teams who wrote the learning reflections. They had to
develop a business model and do market research through interviews or surveys
with potential partners or customers. They did not fulfil the requirements of the
course if they only did research on the internet; rather, they also had to go out and
establish contact with people in the relevant markets. This seemed to be an
extremely valuable experience for most of them. It helped them to critically
evaluate their business model, business plan, and the related assumptions. Many
student teams noted that the surveys or talks to customers had made them rethink
the underlying assumptions of their business model and revise it.
Learning reflections #3, line 85: Through the survey we conducted, we came to
the conclusion that we had failed to meet the needs of our customers at some
points. Products for merchandising, for example, were not required by the
customers, and the further review of our assumptions revealed that we had also
miscalculated the costs and the logistic complexity of the products. The review of
this assumption alone will let us avoid making a big mistake in case the business
model is implemented. It shows how important it is to have flexible “model
thinking” and to discard or change assumptions which prove to be false.195
Many students found two aspects as particularly important in their learning
experience: business models cannot be developed in the class room and they need
to be changed if the underlying assumptions about customer needs turn out to be
wrong.
195
Lernreflexionen #3, Zeile 85: Durch die durchgeführte Umfrage sind wir zur Erkenntnis gelangt,
dass wir an einigen Stellen an den Bedürfnissen der Kunden vorbeigeplant hatten. So stellten bspw.
die Merchandising-Produkte keinen vom Kunden gewünschten Bestandteil dar, und die weitere
Überprüfung unserer Annahmen stellte heraus, dass wir uns ebenfalls hinsichtlich der Kosten und des
logistischen Aufwands hinsichtlich der Merchandising-Produkte verkalkuliert hatten. Die
Überprüfung alleine dieser Annahme hat dazu geführt, dass im Falle einer Umsetzung dieses
Geschäftsmodells wir vor wenigstens einem großen Fehler bewahrt werden würden. Hier zeigte sich,
wie wichtig ein flexibles Modelldenken und das Verwerfen bzw. Abändern von falsifizierten
Annahmen ist.
106
EXPLORATORY STUDY
Learning reflections #14, line 374: During work on the business model it became
clear how important it is to include new findings and to challenge decisions
continuously. A business model “lives” and can possibly be turned upside down.196
Students also acknowledged that it was the basic underlying idea which needed to
be sound and good, and that too much detail might even be contra productive in
the planning stage of a business:
Learning reflections #3, line 107: In the lack of information and the lack of a
willingness to critically challenge one’s own assumptions and objectives, we can
see, among other things, the main reasons for the failure of business models.
Therefore, it is important to retain flexibility in thinking about models and not to
pay too much attention to the details and to lose track of the main business
purpose.197
Role models: Another important element influencing perceived behaviour control
appears to be role models, especially when students can identify with the role
model. The effects seem to be twofold: Students see and listen to the person and
might think “if he or she did that, I can do it as well”. Also, students might see
that the guest speaker is saying the same things that were discussed during a
lecture, which increases the credibility and the relevance of the course content.
Interview #4, line 1386: The guest speakers who were there were always
something special and motivating. There was one who has founded his own
company here in Karlsruhe, just because of the entrepreneurship class of that time
with Professor Würth, which had roughly the same content. And when you then see
196
Lernreflexionen #14, Zeile 374: Durch die Arbeit an dem Geschäftsmodell ist klar geworden, wie
wichtig es ist, neue Erkenntnisse mit einzubeziehen und getroffene Entscheidungen immer wieder zu
hinterfragen. Ein Geschäftsmodell lebt und kann unter Umständen auch komplett auf den Kopf
gestellt werden.
197
Lernreflexionen #3, Zeile 107: In dem Fehlen von Informationen bzw. der Bereitschaft, die eigenen
Annahmen und Ziele einer kritischen Überprüfung zu unterwerfen, sehen wir u.a. Hauptgründe für das
Scheitern von Geschäftsmodellen. Daher gilt es, sich ein flexibles Modelldenken zu bewahren, dabei
aber nicht zu detailverliebt zu werden und den eigentlichen Geschäftszweck aus den Augen zu
verlieren.
EXPLORATORY STUDY
107
that this is a student who also was at the University of Karlsruhe four years ago,
who has now founded his own company and now has 100 employees, then […] yes,
then you say to yourself, you really can achieve something after all.198
Interview #5, line 1666: [...] especially, since they had really said the same thing
as in the lecture. Of course, everybody emphasised his own topics a little bit, but in
199
principle it had the same main features, and that has encouraged me.
Entrepreneurial networks were also mentioned as an important supporting factor.
That could be crucial especially for students without an entrepreneurial family
background.
Interview #7, line 3024: […] it has been showed again and again, well, there is
this incubator, which supports you when you want to do something, the price of the
rents are reduced, there are some networks which are on your side.200
Explorative and interactive elements: In terms of interactive elements, working
together in teams seems to be very important because it trains students to assert
themselves in discussions, but also to obtain other opinions and come to common
solutions.
Interview #2, line 788 [the interviewee participated in a simulation game]: And
that has helped me to see that the discussion, the critical debate with a business
198
Interview #3, Zeile 1386: Besonders waren immer die Gastredner, die da waren und haben
motiviert. Der eine, der hier in Karlsruhe ein Unternehmen gegründet hat, eben aufgrund der
Entrepreneurship-Vorlesung von damals, bei Professor Würth, die aber ungefähr die selben Inhalte
hatte. Und wenn man dann sieht, das ist jetzt ein Student, der war vor vier Jahren auch an der Uni
Karlsruhe, hat jetzt sein Unternehmen gegründet und hat jetzt seine 100 Mitarbeiter, dann [...] ja, dann
sagt man sich, man kann doch was erreichen.
199
Interview #5, Zeile 1666: […] vor allem, weil die eigentlich genau das gleiche gesagt haben, wie in
der Vorlesung wieder. Jeder hat natürlich ein bisschen seine Schwerpunkte auf ein anderes Thema
gelegt, aber prinzipiell hatten sie sehr viele gleiche Grundzüge, und das hat mich schon bestärkt, doch.
200
Interview #7, Zeile 3024: [...] aber immer wieder gezeigt wurde, also, es gibt diesen Inkubator der
einen unterstützt, wenn man was machen will, es gibt vergünstigte Mieten, es gibt da irgendwelche
Netzwerke, die einem da zur Seite stehen. [...]
108
EXPLORATORY STUDY
partner we had, we always played in two- or three-party teams, then I saw that this
debate with another person had helped a lot.
201
Feedback: Dealing with others’ opinions and receiving feedback are also critical
elements. One of the entrepreneurship professors mentioned simulation games as
an appropriate alternative, since they provide feedback-supported learning.
Students act out a particular situation and they receive feedback and then change
their action based on the feedback and, in turn, alter their action.
Interview #1, line 360: Therefore, this feedback supported learning: I do
something and see a reaction and take another step, which is again a reaction to
the reaction and such sequence of events and therefore also the idea that
simulation games are especially well-suited, or project seminars, where things are
“hands-on” and you have to interact with someone and have open learning
situations, open learning structures.202
A student who participated in the course given by the above-mentioned professor
took part in a simulation game and mentioned those feedback-structures as being
very effective.
Students also highly valued the feedback and support from fellow students and
experts. Students reported, with an element of pride, that they had received
positive responses to their work. Even though it was not explicitly mentioned, it
is possible that in some cases, this could be an important motivator to continue
being involved in entrepreneurial activities.
201
Interview #1, Zeile 788: Und das hat mir geholfen, dass ich gesehen habe, dass die Diskussion, also
die kritische Auseinandersetzung mit einem Geschäftspartner, den wir da hatten, wir haben das immer
in Zweier- oder Dreier-Teams gespielt, da habe ich gesehen, dass dieses Auseinandersetzen mit einer
weiteren Person sehr viel geholfen hat.
202
Interview #1, Zeile 360: Also dieses Feedback-gestützte Lernen: Ich tue was und sehe eine
Reaktion und habe einen nächsten Handlungsschritt, der wieder eine Reaktion auf die Reaktion ist und
solche Abläufe und daher auch diese Vorstellung, dass Planspiele in besonderer Weise dafür geeignet
sind, oder eben solche Projektseminare, wo man eben „hands-on“ hat und mit Leuten interagiert und
offene Lernsituationen, offene Lernstrukturen dann hat.
EXPLORATORY STUDY
109
Learning reflections #10, line 316: We gained a lot of positive feedback for our
business model the interest was quite high and [someone] even promised us a
partnership in case of a possible implementation.203
Also, the students reported that the quality of their work had increased because of
the feedback and support processes:
Learning reflections #3, line 118: In conclusion, the numerous constructive
conversations with other fellow students and coaching appointments should be
mentioned. Without this good cooperation, the business model in its current form
would not have been conceivable.204
Students reported that feedback from entrepreneurs had not only helped them to
become aware of weaknesses, but also that this would lead them to find
appropriate partners who could help to balance out their weaknesses. If those
students indeed were to start a company and align themselves with strong
partners, this strategy could actually increase the quality of the start-up.
Learning reflections #3, line 114: The conversations and tips from successful
entrepreneurs were also helpful. The external advice helped us to realise our
weaknesses. In the cases of the foundation of a company we would search for
appropriate partners and consultants to balance our weaknesses.205
Generally, feedback is a highly important tool in learning if provided correctly.
Entrepreneurship classes can ensure that such an objective is achieved. For
203
Lernreflexionen #10, Zeile 316: Wir haben zu unserem Geschäftsmodell sehr viel positive
Resonanz erhalten; das Interesse war sehr groß und [man] hat uns sogar bei einer möglichen
Realisierung Partnerschaften in Aussicht gestellt.
204
Lernreflexionen #3, Zeile 118: Abschließend seien auch noch einmal die zahlreichen konstruktiven
Gespräche mit den anderen Kursteilnehmern bzw. Coachingtermine zu nennen. Ohne diese gute
Zusammenarbeit wäre das Geschäftsmodell, wie es heute besteht, nicht denkbar gewesen.
205
Lernreflexionen #3, Zeile 114: Hilfreich waren auch die Gespräche und Tipps von bereits
erfolgreichen Unternehmern. Dieses In-Anspruch-Nehmen externer Hilfe hat dazu geführt, dass wir
uns über unsere Schwächen klar geworden sind und somit im Falle einer Gründung geeignete Partner
bzw. Berater suchen würden, um diese Schwächen ausgleichen zu können.
110
EXPLORATORY STUDY
example, one student reported that he had participated in a competition in which
teams presented their business idea and received feedback. Even though his team
did not win the competition, the feedback was highly relevant, and he and his
team used it to refine the business model of the company they later founded.
In entrepreneurship what is also highly relevant is feedback from the market. One
of the professors interviewed, for example, required his students to do market
research for the writing of their business plans. Every team had to talk to potential
customers or business partners.
In the end, however, writing business plans or participating in simulation games
are not the real world, and one of the interviewees consequently mentioned the
actual foundation of a company as being the ultimate learning tool.
Interview #2, line 911: This is not yet the nonpareil, because I think the non plus
ultra is just really doing something, regardless of how much you earn – just doing
something.206
This was confirmed by a professor who expressed the desire to have the time to
go through the whole process, including the actual foundation of a company as
well as the experiencing of market reaction, a vital type of feedback in
entrepreneurship.
Interview #8, line 3484: It would be really great if we had more time so that we
could really say let’s go through the whole process, including the foundation of the
company and the first market experiences, because then a lot of things have to be
changed, because mostly the market is not as you expected it to be in the business
206
Interview #2, Zeile 911: Das Nonplusultra ist es immer noch nicht, weil ich glaube, das Non-plusultra ist einfach, wirklich etwas zu machen, völlig egal wie viel man da verdient, einfach irgend etwas
zu machen.
EXPLORATORY STUDY
111
plan. Then, the students learn that it is important to permanently question and
change your business model.
207
Clearly, it is not impossible to integrate practical entrepreneurial activity into the
curriculum. Providing course participants the opportunity to work in student-led
consultancies is one option; having students solve real company problems in the
context of an entrepreneurship class is another.
Supportive infrastructure: One last issue that appears to have the potential to
positively influence perceived behavioural control is the provision of a supportive
infrastructure on campus, an issue, which is also supported by empirical
studies.208
Interview Nr. 7, line 3055: Well, there are a couple of support mechanisms, there
also is a university club, but I do not know what it really does. But I think that it
has organised some of the guest speakers and such things. Well, there are a lot of
things, well, if you are interested, then you can learn a lot about it, yes.209
It is interesting to note that even though the student did not seem to know all of
the details about the supporting infrastructure, he did seem to have the basic
belief that there was a supporting infrastructure; and it is always perception that
counts.
207
Interview #8, Zeile 3484: Ganz toll wäre es, wenn wir mehr Zeit hätten, dass wir wirklich sagen,
wir machen diesen ganzen Prozess einmal durch, inklusive des Gründens und der ersten
Markterfahrungen, weil dann wieder ganz viel geändert werden muss, weil doch der Markt meistens
anders ist, als im Businessplan vermutet. Dann lernen die Studierenden, dass es wichtig ist, sein
Geschäftsmodell permanent zu hinterfragen und zu verändern.
208
209
Lüthje and Franke, 2003.
Interview Nr. 7, Zeile 3055: Also, es gibt schon eine Reihe von Unterstützungen, es gibt dann auch,
so einen Univerein noch, wobei was der genau macht, weiß ich nicht. Aber der hat glaube ich dann
einige von diesen Unternehmensvorträgen in der Vorlesung zum Beispiel organisiert und solche
Sachen. Also, es gibt schon viel, also wenn man sich dafür interessiert, dann kann man hier schon viel
drüber erfahren, ja.
112
4.2
EXPLORATORY STUDY
Summary of the Results
Applicability of Ajzen’s Model
A positive attitude towards entrepreneurship seems to have a high influence on
entrepreneurial intention. Entrepreneurship has to be considered an attractive
employment option, as something worth striving for. For the interviewees who
considered an entrepreneurial career, entrepreneurship was an attractive
occupational option linked with attributes such as freedom, independence, selfrealisation and the ability to implement one’s own ideas. Being an entrepreneur
was considered to be something “worth striving for”. Positive attitudes towards
entrepreneurship appear to be mutually dependent with perceived feasibility.
Perceived subjective norms also influence entrepreneurial intention. Several
interviewees believed that an entrepreneurial family background could lead to a
higher consciousness of or openness to choosing an entrepreneurial career. The
topic had a greater presence in the lives of those persons raised in an
entrepreneurial environment where entrepreneurs in the circle of acquaintances
served as role models. For those students, however, it was not necessary to have a
lot of people to be in favour of their choosing of an entrepreneurial career, rather
it was relevant that important others had a positive attitude towards
entrepreneurship. Additionally, an entrepreneurial environment can actively
support entrepreneurial endeavours through potential partners or financial
resources. It can be concluded that an entrepreneurial environment gives people
who develop entrepreneurial aspirations a head start.
Perceived behavioural control was considered a pre-condition to found one’s own
company and had a high influence on entrepreneurial intention. An overall feeling
that one’s capabilities are sufficient to successfully build a business seems to be
more important than knowing all the details.
EXPLORATORY STUDY
113
The influence of course characteristics
The results of the exploratory study show that entrepreneurship courses had an
impact on entrepreneurial intentions and its antecedents. Also, the interviewees
shared a common understanding of what was effective and what was not. Two
issues were mentioned often in this respect: role models and coming as close to
starting a business as possible. While saying this, all interviewees acknowledged
the role of other factors. Course characteristics were regarded as one piece of the
puzzle, along with socialisation and other learning processes. Moreover,
repetition and the duration of exposure were viewed as playing a role.
The interviewees agreed about the encouraging, motivating and supportive
character of entrepreneurship courses. The interviewees did not believe that
entrepreneurship courses could fundamentally change someone’s attitude towards
the topic. A basic interest, certain characteristics or socialisation patterns were
considered to be relevant in order to possess an “entrepreneurial seed” which can
grow into entrepreneurial intention.
It appears to be difficult to fundamentally change a participant’s entrepreneurial
intention if he has had a significant degree of previous entrepreneurial exposure.
However, for students without such experiences, entrepreneurship courses can be
extremely important. They can underline the attractiveness of the option and
convey the necessary knowledge. The following groups of students can be
distinguished regarding entrepreneurial exposure: 1) Students with some
entrepreneurial exposure who are inclined to become an entrepreneur in the
future. For them, entrepreneurship courses can play an encouraging role, for
example, if a low perception of behavioural control may have prevented them
from otherwise actually planning their own business. 2) Students with no
entrepreneurial exposure so far. Entrepreneurship courses can be an opportunity
for them to discover entrepreneurship as an option.
114
EXPLORATORY STUDY
Overall, entrepreneurship courses seem to have the potential to increase the
feasibility and the desirability of entrepreneurship.
Course characteristics with an influence on attitudes: The interviewed educators
seem to believe that attitudes can be changed through entrepreneurship courses.
With respect to the interviewed (potential) entrepreneurs, this can neither be
confirmed nor rejected, since they reported having had a positive attitude towards
entrepreneurship even before they attended an entrepreneurship class. But they
confirmed that participating in entrepreneurship courses had reinforced the
existing positive attitude towards becoming an entrepreneur. In summary, most
interviewees seem to believe that attitudes can be changed. The two main sources
for changing attitudes appear to be role models and providing enough
opportunities for experiential learning.
Course characteristics with impact on subjective norms: The interviewees
believed that subjective norms could be changed, but only to a minor extent.
Changes can be reached by facilitating contacts with entrepreneurs, bringing
together students with entrepreneurial aspirations, meeting alumni who had
become successful entrepreneurs, participate in students’ organisations with a
close relationship to business or getting in touch with professors with an
entrepreneurial spirit.
Course characteristics with influence on perceived behavioural control: There
are various options to positively influence perceived behavioural control. One
important factor, for example, is to help students to increase their understanding
about what an entrepreneur does and learn the key elements such as financing,
business planning, and the relevant support programmes. It seems to be
important, though, that we do not overload students with too detailed knowledge,
but give them a healthy “economic self-confidence”. Especially, since becoming
an entrepreneur involves so many individual activities and unpredictable
incidents, it seems crucial to know what is important and what is not. It seems to
EXPLORATORY STUDY
115
be more important to develop a sound business model than to know all of the
administrative details necessary to found a company.
Besides conveying certain knowledge, it also seems to be important which
methods we use to teach entrepreneurship. Most of the interviewees stated that it
is important to experience what it means to solve entrepreneurial problems in
order to establish a solid perception of behavioural control.
Courses providing insights into what it means to be an entrepreneur together with
examples of entrepreneurs who increase the feeling that this is something
manageable for the student seem to increase entrepreneurial intention as well. The
foundation of a company should be presented as something which can be
managed and which can be done with relatively little (financial) risk.
There are many options for reducing the proximity to real world problems,
ranging from projects carried out during a master’s thesis to actually founding
one’s own company. Generally speaking, the objective should be to move as
close as possible to actually founding a real company, earn some money, receive
feedback and adapt to the market.
Role models could be another effective way to increase perceived behavioural
control. If they provide a high level of identification potential (e.g. the same age
or education), they could trigger a student response of: “if he or she can do it, I
can do it as well”.
In many interviews, feedback processes were mentioned as being extremely
helpful. It is always encouraging when students receive feedback on their
business ideas and models from the market or from sparring partners.
The educators and entrepreneurs interviewed believed that not only the
perception of behavioural control can be changed but also the behavioural control
itself. This would suggest that start-ups by students who have attended
116
EXPLORATORY STUDY
entrepreneurship classes will be more successful. Especially in areas like finance,
marketing or team composition, they believe that the number of mistakes can be
reduced.
EXPLORATORY STUDY
4.3
117
Hypotheses
The impact of attitudes, perceived subjective norms and perceived
behavioural control on entrepreneurial intention
Attitudes towards the behaviour, perceived subjective norms and perceived
behavioural control explain a considerable variance in actual behaviour210.
Multiple authors have successfully applied the Theory of Planned Behaviour to
career choices in general and to entrepreneurial intentions in specific.211
The results of the exploratory study strongly support the influence of attitudes,
subjective norms and perceived behavioural control on entrepreneurial intention:
1) Interviewees reported that the perceived attractiveness of entrepreneurial
activities increased the possibility that entrepreneurship was considered as a
career option. 2) Also, subjective norms seem to influence entrepreneurial
intention. Interviewees with a high intention to start a business repeatedly
mentioned that they were influenced and supported by their social environment,
primarily by family members or close friends. An entrepreneurial social
environment increases the awareness of entrepreneurial issues. 3) Perceived
behavioural control appears to have the greatest influence on entrepreneurial
intention. Without a strong, overall confidence in one’s capabilities, a person will
not start his own business. Given that, perceived behavioural control is an
essential pre-condition for entrepreneurial activity. Future entrepreneurs need to
be equipped with a strong belief in their probability of success.
Thus, the following three hypotheses regarding the applicability of Ajzen’s model
can be formulated:
210
Ajzen 1991.
211
Krueger et al. 2000.; Fayolle et al. 2005; Tkachev and Kolvereid 1999; Varela and Jimenez 2001.
118
EXPLORATORY STUDY
Hypothesis 1: Positive attitudes towards founding one’s own company increase the
level of entrepreneurial intention.
Hypothesis 2: Strong normative beliefs concerning the foundation of one’s own
company combined with a high motivation to comply positively influence the level
of entrepreneurial intention.
Hypothesis 3: Strong perceptions about one’s ability to successfully found one’s
own company positively influence the level of entrepreneurial intention.
The impact of course characteristics on attitudes, perceived subjective norms
and perceived behavioural control
Practical knowledge: The effectiveness of practical knowledge towards perceived
behavioural control was mentioned quite often in the guided interviews. Practical
knowledge helps to reveal what it takes to become an entrepreneur and in that
way helps students to gain confidence about the accomplishment of a certain
task.212 Also, it allows students to see how they can apply their theoretical
knowledge.213 Of course, theoretical course content is important, but it is
necessary that the linkage to practice is established. Entrepreneurship professors
can bridge this gap with different educational practices which range from verbally
referring to practical issues during a class room lecture214 to the assignment of
term papers for which students need to solve entrepreneurship-related problems
of companies.215
The results from the literature review regarding experiential learning and enactive
mastery experience support the findings from the interviews. Therefore, the
following hypothesis can be stated:
212
e.g. interview #1, line 310.
213
214
215
EXPLORATORY STUDY
119
Hypothesis 4: Course characteristics which are highly related to practice
positively influence perceived behavioural control.
Business planning: Quite often activities related to business planning are part of
entrepreneurship courses. These activities can be described as one specification of
practical knowledge. According to the results from the exploratory study,
business planning seems to be an effective tool to increase a person’s capabilities
as well as his perceptions about his own capabilities to start a company.216
The interviewees mentioned various reasons why they considered business
planning to be helpful. Students gain an overview of all relevant areas which need
to be considered when a person wants to start his or her own business.217 Also,
they get an overview of the start-up process and learn to judge whether or not the
business idea could become a profitable business. In addition, business planning
has the potential to help students acquire a good feel for the key elements of
starting and running a business. In this process, starting and running a business
becomes a more tangible issue. This seems to be supported by the analysed
learning reflections in chapter 4.3. Student teams mentioned that seeing how an
initial idea can be developed into a complete business model in a rather short time
period was impressive and provided them with a helpful tool which could be
applied in the future.218 Therefore, the following hypothesis can be stated:
Hypothesis 5: Entrepreneurship classes which include business planning activities
216
e.g. interview #2, line 779; interview #6, line 2305; interview #7, line 2940.
217
e.g. Interview #6, line 2305.
218
e.g. Learning reflections #1, line 10; student (team) #3, line 74; student (team) #11, line 322.
120
EXPLORATORY STUDY
Role models: Role models appear to be another element to increase
entrepreneurial intention. The observation of and interaction with skilled people
encourages learning.219 Bandura captures this note in his concept of vicarious
experience, which posits that people may ascribe somebody else’s attitudes to
themselves if they can identify with that person.220 An effective way to apply this
concept to entrepreneurship seems to be the integration of role models in
entrepreneurship education. In responding to the question of important course
features, many interviewees mentioned entrepreneurs who had been invited as
guest speakers.221 They reported that it had a motivating effect, especially if
entrepreneurs were invited whose age or personal/professional history were such
that the students could identify with them. It made them think that “if they could
do it, I can do it as well”.222 A similar reaction seems to be evoked when students
understood what the entrepreneurs had done and how they had become
successful.223
This understanding helped them to perceive the foundation of a company as a
manageable activity. Also, the credibility of the overall entrepreneurship course
was enhanced when the entrepreneurs confirmed what had been said earlier by
the teacher.224 In addition, interviewees reported being impressed by the
entrepreneurs to the point that they felt motivated to follow suit.225 Based on that,
the following two hypotheses can be stated:
219
Elmore, 1991.
220
Bandura, 1997: p. 87.
221
e.g. Interview #1, line 344; interview #4, line 1384; interview #6, line 2247.
222
e.g. Interview #4, line 1384; interview #6, line 2337.
223
224
225
EXPLORATORY STUDY
121
Hypothesis 6: Courses providing the opportunity to get in touch with role models
students can identify with positively influence the attitude towards founding one’s
own company.
Hypothesis 7: Courses providing the opportunity to get in touch with role models
students can identify with positively influence the perception about one’s ability to
successfully found one’s own company.
Entrepreneurial network: Subjective norms, the perceived expectations from the
environment regarding certain behaviours, are determined by a set of normative
beliefs. A university provides a social environment as well since students get in
touch with other people who might become important others.
To influence normative beliefs about starting one’s own company it appears to be
necessary to provide opportunities which help students to build a network with
peers interested in entrepreneurship and with entrepreneurs. Recommendations
from the interviewees included universities providing opportunities to meet other
students with entrepreneurial intentions as well as young entrepreneurs.226
Also, an awareness of supporting entrepreneurial networks (e.g. incubators) that
an individual can fall back on during the foundation of a company could increase
perceived behavioural control.
227
Thus, the following two hypotheses can be
stated:
Hypothesis 8: Entrepreneurship courses providing the opportunity to build an
entrepreneurial network positively influence perceived subjective norms.
226
227
122
EXPLORATORY STUDY
entrepreneurial network positively influence the perception about one’s ability to
successfully found one’s own company.
Student-orientation: According to Laurillard, the aim of university teaching is to
make student learning possible.228 Laurillard states that an empirically based
teaching strategy recommends an iterative dialogue between the teacher and the
students with a focus on the topic at hand. The iterative dialogue can be grouped
according to discursive, adaptive, interactive and reflective aspects. If all of these
aspects are considered, student-oriented learning becomes possible. All aspects
mentioned by Laurillard were also stated in the qualitative study as having a
positive influence on perceived behavioural control.
Regarding the discursive aspect, Laurillard mentions that teachers have to provide
and should encourage discussions229 as a discursive element to foster learning.
Discussions help students and teachers to make conceptions about the topic at
hand accessible to each other.230 Along the same line, Garvin mentions the
importance of actively involving students in shaping discussions.231 The
relevance of discursive elements was confirmed by the interviewees, who noted
that open discussions helped to shape or change their perception about
entrepreneurs232.
228
Laurillard, 2002, p. 23.
229
Laurillard, 2002: p. 78.
230
231
Garvin, 1991.
232
e.g. Interviews #4, line 1337; interview #2, line 788.
EXPLORATORY STUDY
123
Adaptive aspects summarise course elements that allow students to transfer the
experiences they have gathered throughout the course to the task goal.233 It also
includes the extent to which courses allow students to influence the information
and situations they encounter in order to fulfil their knowledge needs. The
importance of adapting knowledge to actual problems the students encounter is
also stated in the literature. Elmore, for example, says that knowledge only
becomes “usable when it is acquired in situations that entail applications to
concrete problem-solving.”234 This notion is especially relevant for the topic in
question, since entrepreneurial knowledge is supposed to be knowledge which
should be applied (e.g. how to identify business opportunities).235
The interactive aspects mentioned by Laurillard are related to what we know
about the effectiveness of experiences in order to learn. This is supported by
Garvin, who mentions that learning depends on the experiences and interests of
students236. Laurillard also considers feedback processes as being part of
interactive aspects; feedback provides students with the chance to reflect on their
actions and the task goal and again act upon the new insights.237 In order to
receive feedback, students need to act. For entrepreneurship courses this does not
necessarily imply that students start their own company during the
entrepreneurship class. Actions carried out when students solve case studies,
participate in case competitions or carry out market research are also relevant
actions which allow students to experience activities related to entrepreneurship.
The importance of active involvement and feedback processes was not only
mentioned in the literature, but also in the guided interviews and student
233
Laurillard, 2002: p: 78.
234
Elmore, 1991.
235
Enabling students to identify or “see” market opportunities was explicitly mentioned as an
objective in interview #1.
236
Garvin, 1991.
237
Laurillard, 2002.
124
EXPLORATORY STUDY
reflections.238 One interviewee explicitly stated that being active as an
entrepreneur, be it in a simulated or real environment, can show that being an
entrepreneur “is fun” and therefore “something enjoyable”.239 In summary, it
becomes obvious that the interactive aspects are closely linked to course
characteristics covered in other hypotheses, namely, business planning elements
(Hypothesis 5), explorative elements (Hypothesis 12), and feedback elements
(Hypothesis 13).
The adaptive element mentioned by Laurillard includes the teacher’s task of
supporting the process, in which students relate the feedback from their actions
on the topic goal and their conceptions of that topic goal.240
Based on the insights, it seems that the elements of student-oriented learning
should have positive influences on attitudes and perceived behavioural control.
Therefore, the following hypotheses can be formulated:
Hypothesis 10: Student-oriented courses positively influence the attitude towards
founding one’s own company.
Hypothesis 11: Student-oriented courses positively influence the perception about
one’s ability to successfully found one’s own company.
Explorative elements: According to Bandura, enactive mastery experiences,
experiences to successfully accomplish a certain task, are the most powerful
source to strengthen one’s self-beliefs. People take these experiences as authentic
evidence that they can successfully carry out certain behaviour or achieve certain
238
e.g. Interviews #1, #4 and #6.
239
e.g. Interview #1.
240
Laurillard, 2002: p: 78.
EXPLORATORY STUDY
125
goals. Hence, successes can build robust self-efficacy beliefs.241 Learning
elements should therefore offer the opportunity to actively acquire learning
contents in order to increase perceived behavioural control. Bandura’s results go
hand in hand with positive results in the area of experiential learning, where
experiences are identified as a central source for learning and development.242
This was confirmed by the results of the exploratory study. Interviewees
emphasised the importance of gaining entrepreneurial experience. To give one
example: one of the entrepreneurship professors explicitly recommended
elements of action-oriented learning and therefore, developed an entrepreneurship
simulation game with his team.243 A former student of his who was also
interviewed reported about his experiences when he participated in the mentioned
simulation game. He said that he and his fellow student had experienced a sense
of achievement when they recognised that taking the right decisions led to
positive results.244 Hence, explorative course characteristics which require the
students to take an active role in gaining experience should positively influence
perceived behavioural control. This leads to the next hypothesis:
Hypothesis 12: Explorative course characteristics positively influence the
perception about one’s ability to successfully found one’s own company.
Feedback: Feedback seems to be another important element in the learning
process. It is already included in Laurillard’s suggestions about student-centred
learning245 and is mentioned as a central element in experiential learning (Chapter
2.3.2). It is important to note, however, that the feedback needs to fulfil certain
241
Bandura, 1997: p. 37.
242
Kolb, 1984.
243
Interview #1, line 353.
244
Interview #2, line 782.
245
126
EXPLORATORY STUDY
requirements in order to be effective. Laurillard calls for meaningful and intrinsic
feedback that relates to the nature of the task goal.246
Also, it is important that the person who provides feedback is perceived as being
credible and competent. The interviewees confirmed that receiving feedback and
integrating this feedback into further thinking and acting is an essential part of
learning247. For that reason, feedback processes seem to be directly linked to
action, and it can be supposed that feedback processes positively influence
perceived behavioural control, which leads to the final hypothesis:
Hypothesis 13: Entrepreneurship courses which include feedback processes
positively influence the perception about one’s ability to successfully found one’s
own company.
246
247
EXPLORATORY STUDY
4.4
127
Conceptual Model
The conceptual framework was developed using the hypotheses as a basis. The
course characteristics serve as the independent variables; Ajzen’s constructs serve
as the dependent variables. The core elements of the framework are depicted in
Figure 13. Within Ajzen’s model, attitudes, subjective norms and perceived
behavioural control are the independent variables which influence entrepreneurial
intention.
Independent Variables
Moderating Variables
Dependent Variables
Thematic structure
Practical knowledge
H4 +
Business Planning
H5 +
Attitude
toward the
behaviour
H1 +
Accessibility and Presentability
Role Models
H6 +
H7 +
Entrepreneurial network
H8 +
H9 +
Student-orientation
Discursive elements
Adaptive elements
Interactive elements
Reflective elements
Subjective
norm
H2 +
Intention
H3 +
H10 +
H11 +
Explorative elements
H12 +
Feedback
H13 +
Perceived
behavioural
control
Previous entrepreneurial exposure
Student expectations
Figure 13: Conceptual Model and Hypotheses
According to Klafki’s (1985) critical-constructive model for lesson planning, the
course characteristics are grouped into the following categories thematic structure
and accessibility and presentability.
128
EXPLORATORY STUDY
The characteristics subsumed under the term thematic structure are concerned
with the content of learning (practical knowledge and business planning); those
grouped under accessibility and presentability are concerned with the way in
which learning is made possible (e.g. role models, explorative elements,
feedback).
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
5
129
Quantitative Study
”The entrepreneurial mystique? It’s not magic, it’s not mysterious,
and is has nothing to do with the genes. It’s a discipline. And, like
any discipline, it can be learned.”
PETER DRUCKER
5.1
Measures
5.1.1 Dependent Variables
To measure the dependent variables (attitude, subjective norm, perceived
behavioural control, and intention), four indexes were built. Established scales
and Ajzen’s recommendations for constructing questionnaires to apply the
Theory of Planned Behaviour were used to compile initial sets of items. The item
sets were pre-tested with a group of students at a German university of applied
science (n=19). To develop sets of items with a high internal consistency, the
number of items was reduced due to item-total correlation and Cronbach’s
Alpha248 (0 ≤ α ≤ 1), which is an important measure for the internal consistency
of items. Table 8 provides an overview of Cronbach’s Alpha for all dependent
variables (for the ex ante and ex post data set respectively). All values are above
the minimum value of 0.7 which is suggested by Nunnally.249 The final item sets
are provided in the appendix (Chapter 7.2.1).
Measure
Attitude towards the behaviour
Subjective norms
Perceived behavioural control
Entrepreneurial intention
Number of
items
15
5
7
3
Cronbach’s
Alpha ex ante
0.81
0.76
0.81
0.87
Cronbach’s
Alpha ex post
0.83
0.80
0.83
0.88
Table 8: Cronbach’s Alpha for Independent Variables
248
“Cronbach’s Alpha if item is deleted“ was used as an indicator to improve the overall Cronbach’s
Alpha.
249
Nunnally, 1978.
130
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
A statement was formulated for each item, and the respondents were asked to
indicate to which degree they agreed or disagreed with the respective statement
(5-point Likert scale: 1=strongly agree; 5=strongly disagree). Depending on the
wording of the statement, in some cases “strongly agree” meant that someone
indicated a “pro-entrepreneurial” attitude. In other cases, it meant that someone
indicated an attitude which favours becoming organisationally employed.
Therefore, the answers had to be aligned in one direction before statistical tests
were applied. In the final analysis, a score of 5 meant that the respondent’s
answer indicated an attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control or
intention which favours entrepreneurial activities. With the exception of
subjective norm, indexes for the dependent variables were obtained by averaging
all item scores. The index for subjective norms was compiled by multiplying
normative belief strengths with the motivation to comply. The following
paragraphs explain the building of the indexes for the dependent variables in
more details.
Attitude index
An initial set of 39 items was used in a pre-test. 33 of these items were developed
according to a set of items used by Kolvereid to measure the attitude towards
becoming organisationally employed and becoming self-employed.250 These 33
items covered 11 different occupational status choice reasons. Examples:
-
It is important to me to have a secure job. (job security)
-
I want to have freedom during my work. (autonomy/freedom)
Additionally, 6 items were used to cover the respondent’s evaluation of
performing the behaviour in question. According to Ajzen, empirical research has
shown that such an overall evaluation of behaviour often includes two different
250
Kolvereid, 1996.
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
131
components: one with an instrumental character (e.g. the performance of the
behaviour is perceived as valuable/worthless) and one with an experiential
character
(e.g.
the
performance
of
the
behaviour
is
perceived
as
pleasant/unpleasant). Accordingly, the items covered both aspects. Examples:
-
To become an entrepreneur within the first 5 years after finishing my
studies would be useful for me. (instrumental character)
-
I would enjoy becoming an entrepreneur within the first 5 years after
finishing my studies. (experiential character)
After the pre-test the 39 items were reduced to 17 items for the ex ante and ex
post questionnaires. Two more items were taken out when the final data sets were
analysed.
The final attitude measure comprised 15 items with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.81
(ex ante) and 0.83 (ex post) respectively. An overview of the scale and items is
provided in the appendix (Chapter 7.2.1).
Subjective norms index
Items for obtaining a measure for subjective norms were developed following
Ajzen’s recommendations for constructing a Theory of Planned BehaviourQuestionnaire.251 He recommends including direct measures similar to the
following format: “Most people who are important to me think/expect that I
should/should not perform certain behaviour.” Such direct measures are
consistent with the concept of subjective norms but tend to have low variability,
since important others are normally perceived as approving desirable behaviours.
To alleviate this problem, Ajzen suggests including items designed to capture
descriptive norms, which state whether important others themselves carry out the
251
Ajzen, 2002.
132
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
behaviour in question.252
Another important measure of normative beliefs is the motivation to comply,
which can be captured with questions similar to the following format: “Generally
speaking, how much do you want to do what your family thinks you should do?”
The following five items (including two direct measures, one descriptive norm,
and two statements to capture the motivation to comply) were used to receive a
measure for the normative beliefs of the respondents.
-
Item 1: My family thinks that I will become an entrepreneur. (direct
measure of perceived family expectations)
-
Item 2: People who are important to me think that I should become an
entrepreneur. (direct measure of perceived expectations of important
others)
-
Item 3: People whose opinion I value have become entrepreneurs
within the first 5 years after finishing their studies. (description of
actual behaviour of important others)
-
Item 4: The opinion of my family is very important to me. (motivation
to comply with family expectations)
-
Item 5: The opinion of people who are important to me influences me
a lot. (motivation to comply with other people’s opinions)
The index was calculated by adding up the results of the following
multiplications: the perceived family expectations were multiplied by the
motivation to comply with these family expectations (item 1 x item 4). The
perceived expectations of others were multiplied by the motivation to comply
with other people´s opinions (item 2 x item 5). Also, the actual behaviour of
important others was multiplied by the motivation to comply with other people´s
opinions (item 3 x item 5).
252
Ajzen, 2002: p. 6.
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
133
In the final analysis, Cronbach’s alpha for the subjective norms index was 0.76
(ex ante) and 0.80 (ex post) respectively. The two measures used to cover the
motivation to comply with the perceived subjective norms were not included in
Cronbach’s Alpha, since there is no logical inevitability that there is a connection
between the two components. A person can perceive certain expectations without
necessarily being motivated to comply with them. The detailed table is depicted
in the appendix (Chapter 7.2.1).
Perceived behavioural control index
The behavioural control index should measure people’s confidence that they are
capable of performing the behaviour in question. For direct measures, Ajzen
recommends the usage of items which relate to the perceived difficulty of
performing the behaviour or the likelihood that the respondent could do it. Such
items capture the respondent’s sense of self-efficacy with regard to performing
the behaviour.253 For the behaviour under consideration, a question to capture
self-efficacy could be framed as follows:
-
Starting a company within the first 5 years after finishing my studies
would be very easy for me.
For belief-based measures, he recommends the measurement of control belief
strength and control belief power. Examples:
-
Whether I will become an entrepreneur within the first 5 years after
finishing my studies lies completely in my own hands.
-
I know enough to start my own business within the first 5 years after
finishing my studies.
An initial set of nine items was used in the pre-test. Similar to the attitude and
subjective norm indexes, the set of items was reduced due to item-total
253
Ajzen, 2002: p. 6,7.
134
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
correlation and Cronbach’s alpha. The final measure comprises seven items with
a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.81 (ex ante) and 0.83 (ex post) respectively (see Chapter
7.2.1).
Intention index
Items measuring entrepreneurial intention were also established according to
Ajzen’s suggestions for constructing a Theory of Planned Behaviourquestionnaire.254 Ajzen suggests measuring intention directly by having
respondents evaluate the degree to which they will try to perform the behaviour in
question. Example:
-
I will try to start my own business within the first 5 years after
Additionally, the respondents were asked whether they had already taken some
steps regarding the foundation of a company:
-
I have already taken some steps to start my own business (e.g.
gathered information, worked out a business idea with friends, wrote
a business plan).
The initial set of seven items was reduced to three items for the ex ante and ex
post questionnaire. Cronbach’s alpha in the final analysis was 0.87 (ex ante) and
0.88 (ex post) respectively.
The indexes for attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control, and
intention have been tested for normal distribution using P-Plots. The graphical
representation of the relative distributions did not reveal any substantial violations
of the normal distribution, neither for the ex ante nor the ex post data set. Also,
the three antecedents of entrepreneurial behaviour (i.e. attitudes, subjective
254
Ajzen, 2002: p. 4.
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
135
norms, and perceived behavioural control) have been tested for multicollinearity
by calculating correlations between the variables and by running regressions of
each variable on the remaining others to calculate the R2 value. Multicollinearity
would lead to correlations coefficients and R2 values close to 1.255 This was not
the case for any of the calculations.
5.1.2 Independent Variables
Seven types of educational activities were identified as being potentially effective
in changing entrepreneurial behaviour. They served as the independent variables
and were measured as follows.
-
Practical knowledge: The level of practical knowledge conveyed during the
course was assessed by the course lecturers. The lecturers were asked to
assess the degree to which the application of practical methods had been part
of the class on a scale reaching from 1 (essential part of the class) to 5
(marginal part of the class).
-
Business planning: Business planning activities were regarded as a helpful
tool by entrepreneurship lecturers and students. To measure the level of
business planning activities, the entrepreneurship lecturers were asked to
state the degree to which the following aspects were part of the class on a 1
(essential part of the class) to 5 (marginal part of the class) scale:
development of business models (item 1), business plan writing (item 2), and
implementing business ideas (item 3). The index was obtained by
summarising all item scores.
-
Role models: Whether or not an invited entrepreneur serves as a role model
depends on individual perception. Therefore, the students were asked to
255
Backhaus et al., 2006: p. 91.
136
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
indicate to which degree entrepreneurs’ field reports were part of the lecture
(item 1), to which degree they admired them (item 2) and to which degree
they could identify with them (item 3). Then, the students were asked
whether they understood why the entrepreneur was successful (item 4). The
scores were summarised to obtain an index for role models.
-
Entrepreneurial network: An entrepreneurial network can be built from
various intersections, and different students perceived the value of a network
differently. Therefore, the students served as a source to assess the utility of
the network. The following three items were used to measure the perceived
utility of the entrepreneurial network established at the university: during the
class I was able to establish a network which will be helpful when I start my
own company (item 1). During the class I was able to get to know potential
co-founders (item 2). During the class I learned who to refer to when I want
to start my own business (item 3). The students were asked to indicate their
level of agreement on a 1 (essential part of the class) to 5 (marginal part of
the class) scale.The index was created by summarising the three item scores.
-
Student-orientation: The measure was used to reveal the degree to which the
entrepreneurship class is either teacher-centred or student-centred. Teachercentred education regards teaching as conveying information, an objective
which can be disconnected from learning. According to this definition, a
good teacher is someone who can organise and communicate content in an
effective manner without considering whether the students have actually
learned something.256 On the other side, student-centred education focuses on
enabling student learning and on increasing the understanding of how this
goal can be achieved.
256
Elmore, 1991.
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
137
It was intriguing to compare Laurillard’s (2002) framework with the results
of the exploratory qualitative interviews. In many instances, interviewees
mentioned the relevance of the discursive, adaptive, interactive and reflective
elements suggested by Laurillard. Consequently, the framework was used to
structure an independent variable called student-orientation. Indexes to
measure the level of discursive, adaptive, interactive, and reflective were
developed:
-
Discursive elements: The literature reveals that discussions giving
students an active role through participation or through the opportunity
to influence the direction of the discussion can change their mindset. The
concept of discussion and its positive influence on learning is elaborated
in various essays in Christensen’s Education for Judgment.257 Therefore,
elements such as discussions about concepts and perceptions of
entrepreneurship were used to measure the discursive level of the course.
The following items were chosen to measure the level of discursive
aspects. There was an open atmosphere for discussion (item 1). During
the class the lecturer and the participants discussed perceptions and
concepts of “entrepreneurship” (item 2). The participants were able to
influence the objectives of the class and the topics of discussion (item 3).
-
Adaptive elements: Two items were used to measure the degree to which
the entrepreneurship class contains adaptive elements: There was an
open atmosphere for discussion (item 1). The focus of the class was
adapted according to the previous knowledge of the participants
(item 2).
-
Interactive elements: This element captures the degree to which the
entrepreneurship class contains interactive elements such as the
257
Christensen, et al., 1991.
138
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
interaction with sparring partners or receiving feedback on actions from
different sources. Eight questions were asked to capture the level of
interactive elements, for example: “While completing our tasks I or my
working group received continuous support.”
-
Reflective elements: Reflection is necessary to be able to understand the
learning contents conveyed. The students were asked to assess three
statements in order to cover the reflective notion of the courses: During
the class the advantages of being an entrepreneur were emphasised
(item 1). During the class the disadvantages of being an entrepreneur
were emphasised (item 2). The class allowed me to assess whether
starting my own business is something I will consider (item 3).
The mean value of the item scores was calculated for each of the four
elements. The overall measure for student-orientation was calculated using
the mean of these indexes. The items chosen for measuring the level of the
four aspects were mainly taken from Laurillard’s conversational framework.
-
Exploratory elements: The lecturers were asked to assess the usage of
receptive, discursive and explorative elements during their course by
distributing 100% between the three types of teaching methods. The three
teaching methods were shortly explained in the questionnaire:
-
Receptive elements: Degree to which the class was characterised by talks
(by the lecturers, guest speakers, etc.) and thus by students listening.
-
Discursive elements: Degree to which the class was characterised by
discussions involving the participants.
-
Explorative elements. Degree to which the class was characterised by
self-study of the participants.
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
-
139
Feedback: To assess the level and quality of feedback processes within a
course the students were asked to assess the frequency of the provision of
feedback (item 1), the qualifications of the person who provided the feedback
(item 2), and the opportunity to draw on the feedback during the rest of the
course (item 3).
Similar to the antecedents of entrepreneurial behaviour the independent variables
have been tested for multicollinearity by calculating correlations between the
variables and by running regressions of each variable on the remaining variables.
High values of correlation coefficients and R2 values have been found between
“practical knowledge”, “business planning”, and “explorative elements”. The
results of the calculations for the other variables were low and did not indicate
high multicollinearity.
Details about the items of each independent variable are provided in Chapter
7.2.2
5.1.3 Moderating and Control Variables
Two moderating variables were included in the model: previous entrepreneurial
exposure and students expectations. The indexes were measured as follows:
-
Previous entrepreneurial exposure: Studies have revealed that the impact of
entrepreneurship training on entrepreneurial intention varies according to
previous entrepreneurial exposure. Entrepreneurial intention significantly
increases when participants have not had any entrepreneurial exposure,
whereas the intention remains at the same level or even decreases when the
respondents indicate a high level of previous entrepreneurial exposure.258 The
influence of previous knowledge is also acknowledged by Laurillard: "The
258
140
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
knowledge that students bring to a course will necessarily affect how they
deal with the new knowledge being taught".259 Therefore, previous
entrepreneurial exposure needs to be regarded as a moderator (and not as a
mediator), since it “affects the direction and/or strength of the relation
between an independent or predictor variable and a dependent or criterion
variable”.260
The qualitative interviews supported the insights stated above: students
entering classes with an already existing intention to become an entrepreneur
(based on previous entrepreneurial exposure) might encounter an additional
encouragement or motivation to follow an entrepreneurial career, but their
entrepreneurial intention will probably not be raised significantly. In the case
of high previous entrepreneurial exposure, entrepreneurship classes probably
rather take on a confirming role, since they provide transparency over what it
really means to be an entrepreneur; they probably do not take on a
stimulating role.261
The students had to answer eight yes-or-no-questions about previous
exposure (e.g. Are there any entrepreneurs within your family or among your
acquaintances?). Afterwards, the questions which were answered positively
were summed up.
-
Student expectations: Learning cannot take place without the will and the
participation of the learners. The expectations of the students might therefore
influence the impact the courses have on the students. In that case, student
expectations could play a moderating role. The respondents had to select
between four different statements to indicate their expectations. Two
259
Laurillard, D. 2002, p. 25.
260
Baron and Kenny, 1986, p. 1174.
261
e.g. interviews #1 and #5.
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
141
statements were coded as “indifferent/expectant”262 and two as “pro
entrepreneurial”.263
Age, gender, and the field of study were used as control variables.
262
“indifferent/expectant” = item 1: “I attended the class without any precise expectations” / item 2:
“So far, I have had nothing or hardly anything to do with the topic entrepreneurship, so I wanted to
see what entrepreneurship actually is and if becoming an entrepreneur could be an option for me.”
263
“pro entrepreneurial” = item 1: “I could imagine becoming an entrepreneur. Therefore, I wanted to
learn the necessary skills and competences.” / item 2: “I am determined to start my own company. In
order to do so, I hoped that the class would provide me with some precise advice so that I could
progress or get support.”
142
5.2
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
Statistical Methods
The students filled out questionnaires at the beginning (ex ante questionnaire) and
at the end (ex post questionnaire) of their entrepreneurship courses. The levels of
attitude, perceived subjective norms, perceived behavioural control, and
entrepreneurial intention were measured in both questionnaires to capture the
respective delta. Information about educational variables was collected from the
students in the ex post questionnaire and from the lecturers, who were asked to
fill in questionnaires for their entrepreneurship courses. 464 valid pairs of ex
ante/ex post questionnaires and 46 course descriptions from lecturers served as
the quantitative database.
Two different approaches have been chosen to test the hypotheses. As shown in
Figure 14 Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 describe the influence of attitudes, subjective
norms,
and
perceived
behavioural
control
(independent
variables)
on
entrepreneurial intention (dependent variable). The hypotheses were tested using
hierarchical regression analysis. In the first regression model the influence of the
control variables was tested; in the second model the independent variables were
entered. The hypotheses were tested for the ex ante and ex post data set.
Attitude
toward the
behaviour
H1 +
Subjective
norm
H2 +
Intention
H3 +
Perceived
behavioural
control
Figure 14: Validity of Ajzen’s Model - Hypotheses 1 to 3
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
143
The first three hypotheses had been tested in other, previous studies and the item
scales used were in large parts tested before. The objective here was mainly to
show that the relationship does also hold true in the ex ante and ex post data sets
of the study at hand. In contrast, the remaining hypotheses had not been tested
before. Therefore, in an intermediate step, the bivariate correlations for
hypotheses 4 to 13 were calculated first. Afterwards, significant correlations were
tested with regression analyses to analyse the possible influence of control and
moderating variables.
144
5.3
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
Overview of the Data Set
465 valid data records from students hailing from 17 different universities in
Austria, Germany, Liechtenstein, and Switzerland were used in the study.
Complete data records include information from three sources: the ex ante
questionnaire, the ex post questionnaire, and the lecturer’s questionnaires
providing information about the entrepreneurship courses visited. Single
questionnaires (e.g. ex ante questionnaires without matching ex post
questionnaires) were excluded from the study. Also, if a student participated in an
entrepreneurship class for which no course description was available, the
respective questionnaire was excluded from the study.
5.3.1 Overview of the Participants
The students attended one or more entrepreneurship courses during winter term
2005/2006. Most of the students (68.4 %) were between 21 and 25 years old. The
average age was 24. The distribution of the students within different age groups is
provided in Table 9.
Lowest-20
21-25
26-30
31-35
36-Highest
Total
Missing
Total
Frequency
41
303
71
18
10
443
22
465
Table 9: Age of the Participants
Valid Percent
9.3 %
68.4 %
16.0 %
4.1 %
2.3 %
100.0 %
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
145
The participants were enrolled in different majors. 66 % studied social sciences,
23 % engineering and 10 % information technology and mathematics.264 Most of
the respondents were male (61 % male, 39 % female).
The levels of attitude, perceived subjective norms, perceived behavioural control,
and entrepreneurial intention were measured ex ante and ex post. The results are
depicted in Table 10.
Measure
Ex ante
Subjective norms*
Average score
Standard deviation
3.8
2.2
3.0
2.3
0.45
0.68
0.67
1.03
Ex post
3.8
0.50
Subjective norms*
2.4
0.80
3.1
0.71
2.3
1.08
Note: *The measure for subjective norms, i.e. believe strength multiplied with motivation to
comply was adjusted to a 5-point scale in this table
Table 10: Ajzen’s Constructs
The level of entrepreneurial intention and its antecedents (see column “average
score” in the table) did not change significantly when the whole dataset is
considered. Other empirical studies testing the change in entrepreneurial intention
and its antecedents before and after the students’ participation in entrepreneurship
courses concluded with similar results. Note that for the study at hand there were
no hypotheses formulated stating that the antecedents of entrepreneurial intention
or intention itself would increase for all students in the sample. Instead, the
hypotheses tried to capture the influence of effective course characteristics.
264
The remaining respondents could either not be allocated to the three clusters or the statement was
missing.
146
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
5.3.2 Overview of the Courses
The participants in the study attended 46 different entrepreneurship courses. Data
about different aspects of these courses was provided by the lecturers and
gathered through a questionnaire (see appendix chapter 7.2.8). Since the study
aims to measure the influence of different entrepreneurship courses, the student
data sets (ex ante and ex post information) were matched with the information of
the courses attended. In order to match the information, the students were asked
to identify all the courses they attended in the ex post questionnaire. 66 % of the
respondents attended one, 26 % attended two, and the remaining students
attended three to five entrepreneurship courses during the term.
The type of courses ranges from introductory courses focusing on conveying
theoretical knowledge to simulation games trying to provide students with closeto-reality-experiences. Table 11 provides an overview of the courses.
No.
Name of the course
No.
1
Entrepreneurial finance / New
venture creation
24
2
Marketing for start-ups
25
Name of the course
Planning and management for startups
Case studies of start-up management
Shaping of legal aspects with regard
to takeovers and participation
Industrial property rights for
entrepreneurs
3
Law for start-ups
26
4
Sociological aspects of founding a
company
27
5
Business Idea Jam
28
Evolutionary economy
6
Project seminar in business planning
29
Entrepreneurship and market
development
7
Market watch - Market analysis and
observation in selected technological
sectors
30
Business planning seminar
8
Business formation with field trip
31
Business foundation 1
9
Theory of business formation
32
Business planning / Start-up concept
10
Life cycle 1
33
Advancement of business foundation
34
Reputation of the entrepreneur
35
Practice of financing start-ups
11
12
Seminar: Integration and business
foundation
Entrepreneurship 1 - Be
entrepreneurial about yourself
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147
Start-up management / Managerial
business management
Business simulation “Strategies for
business foundation”
13
Entrepreneurship introduction
36
14
Business planning
37
15
38
Strategic business foundation
16
Technology entrepreneurship
39
17
Business administration (with a focus
on entrepreneurship)
40
Business start-up (7th/8th term)
18
Entrepreneurial marketing
41
Business start-up (2nd term)
19
20
Start-up oriented introduction to
marketing
Start-up oriented introduction to
business administration
42
43
21
Paths to self-employment
44
22
Business administration for young
companies II
45
23
Entrepreneurial marketing
46
Business planning and financing
Business foundation 1 - Management
of the foundation phase
Case study seminar: Formulation of a
business concept
Entrepreneurial potential (lecture and
tutorial)
Basic seminar on business planning
Table 11: Overview of the Entrepreneurship Courses in the Sample265
The questionnaire for the lecturers asked for information on four different areas:
educational objectives (Part A), organisational characteristics (Part B), the
content (Part C), and the chosen type of knowledge transfer (Part D).
In Part A of the questionnaire the lecturers were asked to provide information
about the educational goals of the courses. They were given five different choices
and were asked to check all applicable answers. Table 12 depicts the percentage
of courses for which the educators agreed to the respective answer (multiple
answers were permitted).
265
The names of the courses were mostly in German and were translated for the depiction in Table 11.
148
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
Percentage of
courses for which
the answer applied
Edcuational goals
“Which education goals did you mainly have in mind?”
(multiple answers are permitted)
Put participants in the position to successfully found their own company
Teaching business knowledge relevant to founding your own company
Arouse interest for the subject area of “entrepreneurship” and start-ups
Development of social competences
Development of entrepreneurial potential
78%
72%
63%
28%
20%
Table 12: Educational Goals of the Courses
Most of the lecturers stated that they wanted to put the participants in a position
to successfully found their own company (78 %) and teach business knowledge
relevant to founding one’s own company (72 %). Both statements suggest that the
education goal is more than just arousing interest for the subject area (63 % of all
answers). The development of social competences and entrepreneurial potential
were mentioned only for 28 and 20 % of the courses respectively.
Part B of the questionnaire required the lecturers to provide information about the
organisational characteristics such as the number of hours per term (23.9 hours on
average), whether it was obligatory to attend the courses (44 % of the courses
were obligatory) or the number of students who attended the courses on average
(42.5 students).
In Part C the lecturers were asked to assess the extent to which the following
characteristics were part of the course: a) transfer of theoretical knowledge,
b) application of practical methods during the class, c) personal reports of
entrepreneurs, d) measures for personal development, e) evaluation of the
entrepreneurial potential of the participants. The lecturers could assess the
characteristics by using a five point scale ranging from “essential component of
the class” to “marginal component” of the class. If the component was not part of
the course the lecturer could choose the option “no component of the class”.
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
149
Table 13 shows the percentages of courses which considered the respective
characteristics (i.e. the lecturers did not choose the option ”no component of the
class”). The third column of the table shows the extent to which the
characteristics were part of the courses.
Percentage of courses for
which the characteristic was
applied at all
Importance of the
characteristics
within the course
(5=essential
component)
Transfer of theoretical knowledge
100%
3.8
Application of practical methods
during the class
89%
4.0
Personal reports of entrepreneurs
80%
3.3
Measures for personal development
71%
2.2
Evaluation of the entrepreneurial
potential of the participants
56%
2.6
Characteristics
Table 13: Application of Course Contents and Characteristics
In the questionnaire the first two characteristics, the “transfer of theoretical
knowledge” and the “application of practical methods”, were further subdivided
into common components of entrepreneurship courses. The lecturers were also
asked to assess the extent to which these sub-components were part of the course.
The results are depicted in Figure 15. The numbers in parentheses indicate for
how many courses the characteristic was actually part of the courses.
150
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
To which extent were the following characteristics parts of your course?
a) Transf er of theoretical knowledge (45 courses)
3.8
Demands on entrepreneurs (44)
3.7
Tasks of entrepreneurs (41)
3.7
Stages of f ounding a company (40)
3.4
Methods f or generating ideas (35)
3.1
Identif ying market opportunities (41)
3.7
Development & assessment of business model (42)
3.6
Parts of a business plan (38)
3.7
Legal aspects of f ounding a company (38)
2.7
Financing the f oundation of a company (37)
3.4
Marketing/market research (37)
3.4
1.0
marginal component of
the class
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
essential component of
the class
Figure 15: Theoretical Knowledge - Characteristics of the Courses
The figure shows that the components ”demands on entrepreneurs“, ”tasks of
entrepreneurs“, “identifying market opportunities”, and “parts of a business plan”
were the components with the highest relevance (3.7 respectively).
Figure 16 shows the extent to which certain practical methods were applied
during the courses. Again, the numbers in parentheses tell in how many courses
the respective characteristics were applied at all. It appears that “business plan
writing” and the “development of a business model” played a major role in a lot
of courses. The implementation of business ideas only took place in 3 out of the
46 courses.
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
151
To which extent were the following characteristics parts of your course?
b) Application of practical methods during the class (40)
4.0
Development of a business model (40)
3.4
Writing a business plan (37)
Methods of generating ideas (34)
3.6
3.0
Implementation of a business idea (3)
1.0
2.0
marginal component of
the class
3.2
3.0
4.0
5.0
essential component of
the class
Figure 16: Practical Methods - Characteristics of the Courses
Part D of the questionnaire asked the lecturers to assess the percentages of which
receptive, discursive, and explorative elements were used as instruction variables
for knowledge transfer. The questionnaire provided short descriptions for the
three types of elements. The degree of “receptive elements” was described as the
degree to which the class was characterized by talks (by the lecturers, guest
speakers, etc.) and thus by students listening. The degree of “discursive elements”
asked for parts of the course which were characterised by discussions involving
the participants. The degree of “explorative elements” was defined as the degree
to which the class was characterised by participants’ self-study. The analysis
showed that receptive elements accounted for 51 % on average, while explorative
and discursive elements accounted for 28 and 21 % respectively.
152
5.4
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
Results
5.4.1 Testing Hypotheses 1 to 3
First, hypotheses 1 to 3, which state that the three antecedents of entrepreneurial
intention (i.e. attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control)
have a positive impact on intention, were tested for the ex ante and ex post data
set using hierarchical regressions. The results are provided in Table 14.
Ex ante measurement
Model 1
Model 2
Dependent variable
Intention
Control variables
Age
Gender1
Field of Study2
0.178***
-0.081
0.129**
Independent variable
Attitude
Perceived subjective norms
0.082**
0.027
-0.040
Ex post measurement
Model 1
Model 2
0.233***
-0.071
0.091*
0.341***
0.221***
0.376***
R-Square
0.058***
0.615***
Adj. R-Square
0.051
0.610
Notes: *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1
1
Gender: 1 male; 2 female
2
Field of Study, dummy variable: 1 social sciences; 0 others
0.127***
0.008
-0.051
0.267***
0.396***
0.267***
0.074***
0.067
0.616***
0.611
Table 14: Multivariate Regression for Hypotheses 1 to 3
In Model 1 only the control variables were entered. Age and the field of study had
a significant impact on entrepreneurial intention (ex ante/ex post: age
β=0.178/β=0.233, p<0.01 in both cases; field of study β=0.129/0.091, p<0.05 and
p<0.1 respectively). This means that older students and students of social sciences
tend to have a higher entrepreneurial intention. Both relationships confirm other
studies showing that older students and students of business-related fields of
study are more likely to start their own company.
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153
The three independent variables (attitude, subjective norms, and perceived
behavioural control) were included in Model 2. All three variables show a highly
significant impact on entrepreneurial intention in the ex ante and ex post
measurement (ex ante/ex post: attitude β=0.341/0.267, subjective norm
β=0.221/0.396, perceived behavioural control β=0.376/0.267, all significant at
p<0.01). Hence, Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 are supported.
5.4.2 Testing Hypotheses 4 to 13
Hypotheses 4 to 13 describe the influence of certain course characteristics on the
antecedents of entrepreneurial intention. It is important to note that the respective
change or delta of the antecedents served as the dependent variables (e.g. delta of
attitude = attitude ex post - attitude ex ante). The hypotheses were tested using
bivariate correlations. Eight out of ten hypotheses were significant. Two
hypotheses, the supposed positive correlation between role models and change in
perceived behavioural control (Hypothesis 7) and the supposed positive
correlation between entrepreneurial networks and change in perceived
behavioural control (Hypothesis 9) were not significant.
The correlations of the supported hypotheses are significant but not on a very
high level. However, considering that the measurement phase only comprised one
term and considering that we are looking at changes of attitudes, perceived
subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control which were shaped through
socialisation and previous experiences over 24 years on average, the results are
quite satisfying. Table 15 provides an overview of the hypotheses and the
measured values of Kendall’s tau-b.
154
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
H.
Variable 1
Variable 2
Kendall’s
tau-b
n
Hypothesis
confirmed?
4
Practical knowledge
Change in perceived
behavioural control
(pbc)
0.055**
458
yes
5
Business planning
6
Role models
Change in pbc
0.053*
461
yes
Change in attitude
0.107***
402
7
yes
Role models
Change in pbc
0.035
401
no
8
Change in subjective
norms
0.109***
454
yes
9
Change in pbc
0.027
460
no
10
Student-orientation
Change in attitude
0.073**
464
yes
10a
Adaptive elements
Change in attitude
0.043
464
10b
Discursive elements
Change in attitude
0.061**
464
10c
Change in attitude
0.004
464
10d
Reflective elements
Change in attitude
0.101***
464
11
Student-orientation
Change in pbc
0.070**
462
11a
Adaptive elements
Change in pbc
-0.028
462
11b
Discursive elements
Change in pbc
0.064**
462
11c
Change in pbc
.117***
462
11d
Reflective elements
Change in pbc
0.039
462
12
Change in pbc
13
Feedback
Change in pbc
Notes: *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1 (1-tailed)
yes
0.069**
461
yes
0.090***
352
yes
Table 15: Correlations for Hypotheses 4 to 13
The measure of the independent variable student-orientation comprises measures
for adaptive, discursive, interactive, and reflective elements. To see whether the
influence on attitude (Hypothesis 10) and perceived behavioural control
(Hypothesis 11) can be attributed to specific aspects of student-orientation, the
correlations were additionally measured for all aspects separately (see row 10a10d and 11a-10d).
For Hypothesis 10 the results show that the change in attitude can be traced back
mainly to reflective course elements, i.e. providing students with the chance to
reflect on task goals, act accordingly, receive feedback, and relate the feedback to
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
155
their mental conceptions of the topic (β=0.101, p<0.01). This result supports the
idea that for changing attitudes it is necessary to mentally reflect and rethink
concepts which have been established through earlier experiences.
For Hypothesis 11 the results show that the change in perceived behavioural
control is attributed mainly to interactive elements (β=0.117, p<0.01). Insights
from experiential learning and Bandura’s concept of self-efficacy support these
findings by saying that active involvement and enactive mastery are required to
build a robust belief in one’s capabilities to accomplish a certain task.
5.4.3 The Influence of Control and Moderating Variables
Ten hypotheses (Hypotheses 4 to 13) assume a positive relationship between
specific course characteristics and the change in attitude, perceived subjective
norms or perceived behavioural control. Out of these ten hypotheses eight were
confirmed in the previous chapter (see Table 15). In order to test the influence of
the three control variables and the two moderating variables with regard to these
relationships hierarchical regression analyses were conducted for the eight
confirmed hypotheses.
The multivariate regression for Hypothesis 4 (i.e. course characteristics which are
highly related to practice positively influence perceived behavioural control) is
provided in Table 16 while all other regressions can be found in Chapter 7.2.10 of
the appendix.
156
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
Model 1
Model 2
Model 3
Model 4
Dependent variable
Change of Perceived Behavioural
Control
Control variables
Age
Gender1
Field of Study2
0.082
-0.031
0.000
Practical knowledge
Moderators
Previous entrepreneurial exposure3
Student expectations4
0.066
-0.020
-0.012
0.051
-0.002
-0.007
0.051
-0.006
-0.016
0.072
0.072**
-0.228
-0.113** (1)
0.088
-0.144**
-0.026
Moderators as terms
Practical knowledge * Previous
entrepreneurial exposure
Practical knowledge * Student
expectations
R-Square
0.008
0.013
0.024**
Adj. R-Square
0.001
0.004
0.010
Notes: *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1
1
2
3
Previous entrepreneurial exposure: 0 no exposure; 1 low exposure; 2 high exposure
4
Student expectations: 1 indifferent/expectant; 2 pro entrepreneurial
0.057
0.292* (2)
0.032*
0.013
Table 16: Multivariate Regression for Hypothesis 4
The hierarchical regressions were conducted in four steps or models. Model 1
only includes the control variables age, gender, and field of study. Therefore,
Model 1 tests whether the change of the dependent variable might be caused by
the control variables and not (only) by the independent variable. Overall the
results suggest that all three variables do not (or only to a minor degree) influence
the impact of course characteristics on the antecedents of entrepreneurial
intention (see chapter 7.2.10). Only for Hypothesis 8 one of the control variables,
namely “age”, turned out to be significant. Hypothesis 8 states that courses
providing the opportunity to build an entrepreneurial network positively influence
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
157
perceived subjective norms. Therefore, the result suggests that the perceived
subjective norms of older students increased more intensively than this was the
case for younger students. One reason could be that for older students becoming
an entrepreneur might turn out to become a job option they want to pursuit in the
nearer future, while younger students might first want to finish their studies and
gain first experiences in a formally employed position.
In Model 2 the respective independent variables are introduced. For those
hypotheses which have been confirmed with comparatively high correlations in
the previous chapter the regressions confirmed the significance (see regression
results for Hypotheses 6, 8, 10, 11, and 13).
Model 3 introduces the two variables “previous entrepreneurial exposure” and
“student expectations” to see whether they have a direct influence on the
dependent variable. “Previous entrepreneurial exposure” was significant with a
negative prefix in five regression models (Hypotheses 4, 5, 11, 12, and 13). Due
to the coding of the variable (0=no exposure; 1=low exposure; 2=high exposure)
the negative prefix of the β-value states that the change of the independent
variable was higher for students who entered the course with no or with low
previous entrepreneurial exposure. The results are in line with previous studies
which showed that students with less previous entrepreneurial exposure adjust
their attitudes and beliefs to a higher degree than students who were already in
touch with the topic. “Student expectations” showed a significant influence for
Hypotheses 6, 8, 10, and 12. Students who came to the class rather indifferent or
without specific expectations were coded as 1 (=indifferent/expectant), while
students who came to class to acquire the necessary skills and competences since
they could imagine to start their own business or already decided to do so where
coded as 2 (=pro entrepreneurial). Therefore, the results suggest that adjustments
to the antecedents of entrepreneurial intentions do not only depend on
158
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
entrepreneurship courses characteristics but also on the motivation of the
students.
Model 4 introduces the variables “previous entrepreneurial exposure” and
“student expectations” multiplied with the respective independent variable. With
that, the moderating role of these variables can be tested. “Previous
entrepreneurial exposure” did not show any significance in the regressions while
“student expectations” showed significance for Hypotheses 4 and 5. Hypotheses 4
suggests a positive influence of practical knowledge on the change of perceived
behavioural control, while Hypotheses 5 suggests a positive relationship of
business planning on perceived behavioural control. Therefore, the results suggest
that the learning effect on perceived behaviour control is higher for students who
already decided that they want to become entrepreneurs in the future and now
attend the course to acquire the necessary knowledge to do so successfully.
CONCLUSIONS AND PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS
6
159
Conclusions and Practical Implications
”It makes no sense to study business management until you
understand business creation.”
ROGER BABSON
6.1
Summary of the Results
The results of this study suggest that it is possible to promote entrepreneurial
intentions through effectively designed entrepreneurship training. In the
following sections, the most salient results and implications of the study are
presented.
1.
We knew that entrepreneurship courses influence entrepreneurial intention;
now we better understand why this is the case. Previous studies showed that
entrepreneurial intention can be influenced by entrepreneurship courses, but
the role of the course content and the role of teaching methods remained
unclear. The results of this study increase our understanding about the
relationship between course characteristics and changes in attitudes,
perceptions,
and
intentions.
This
knowledge
is
important
for
entrepreneurship educators, who can design their courses in a more targeted
and effective manner.
2.
Entrepreneurship courses fulfil different functions for different student
groups. Depending on the experiences and attitudes students bring with them,
the courses can open up new perspectives, provide encouragement and
convey knowledge crucial to enhancing entrepreneurial skills. The effect of
any course that is offered depends on the prerequisites and the expectations
of the learner. In entrepreneurship education at least three groups of students
with different learning needs can be differentiated: 1) Students without
specific knowledge in entrepreneurship who want to see what the topic is
160
about. Educators should provide a learning environment in which they can
gain an overview of the activities of an entrepreneur and in which they can
assess their own entrepreneurial potential. 2) Students who are undecided
about whether or not entrepreneurship could be a job option for them. They
should be given the opportunity to have contact with entrepreneurs, help to
solve problems in start-up companies, and start working on own ideas (e.g.
development of business models). 3) Students who have decided to become
entrepreneurs in their future career. Primarily, they need the necessary knowhow to improve the quality of their potential future business. Appropriate
tools might be a course in which they help to solve the problems of an
existing start-up or write a business plan which is then presented to a jury or
to potential investors. Also, they should have access to an entrepreneurial
network which goes beyond the duration of the study. This is especially
important, since an individual does not usually found a company
immediately after completing his university education.
3.
As educators, we have multiple possibilities to influence entrepreneurial
intention, especially by means of increasing perceived behavioural control.
The interviews and the quantitative study revealed that perceived behavioural
control can be changed through various course characteristics such as
practical experience, business planning activities, or integrated feedback
processes. Also, two options to influence student attitudes were discovered,
namely, role models and student-oriented classes with a focus on reflective
course elements. The options, however, seem to be more limited.
Additionally, attitudes are not that easy to change when people have reached
a certain age. It also seems even more difficult to change subjective norms.
Probably, changing subjective norms will involve more than merely
providing individual courses, but it is necessary that an entrepreneurial spirit
is fostered at the university as a whole.
4.
161
General knowledge is more important than detailed knowledge. To
successfully launch a company, many different steps need to be taken. Some
of them require creativity; others require problem-solving abilities or
industry knowledge. In any case it is not possible to immediately capture
everything that is necessary in detail, especially since the reaction of the
market cannot be foreseen. It seems to be more important to emphasise what
the most important factors are and give students the chance to develop a
general feeling of self-efficacy with respect to entrepreneurial activities.
5.
Teaching methods might be as important as the course content if we want to
influence entrepreneurial intention. Since entrepreneurial intention is mainly
influenced by attitudes and perceptions, teaching methods which comprise
emotions and experiential learning should come to the fore. Upfront-teaching
can be used when cognitive knowledge needs to be conveyed, but is not
sufficient to change intentions.
6.
If we want to change students’ entrepreneurial intention, explorative teaching
methods should be a core element of entrepreneurship education. Teaching
methods which allow students to explore the subject matter and gain their
own experience seem to be imperative if we want to substantially increase
students’ self-efficacy beliefs. One central element is enactive mastery
experience, the experience of successfully mastering a situation.
7.
Entrepreneurship programmes should not be restricted to entrepreneurship
classes but should follow an integrated approach. If universities want to
position themselves as institutions actively promoting entrepreneurship, they
must establish programmes linking classroom experience with market
experience, student networks with entrepreneur networks, current students
with alumni in business, and student entrepreneurs with experienced
entrepreneurs who serve as mentors.
162
8.
As entrepreneurship educators, we should design entrepreneurship classes
that allow for individuality in learning. The influences of course
characteristics on the antecedents of entrepreneurial intention are manifold.
Previous entrepreneurial exposure, expectations, or student age influence the
relationship. Additionally, literature in educational science emphasises the
different preferences for learning styles. Taken together, these results suggest
that entrepreneurship programmes need to provide enough flexibility for
those different prerequisites. The entrepreneurship educator should take up
the role of a facilitator who provides an environment conducive to gaining
experience, reflecting on it and moving further. Entrepreneurship education
is not only about teaching and training, but also about personal enablement
and about providing an environment where students can discover their own
potential. Thus, the lecturer needs to take on the role of a facilitator who
takes care that the students can gain relevant experience.
6.1.1 Designing Effective Entrepreneurship Education Programmes
What should we teach and how should we teach? The curriculum and its delivery
are essential elements of entrepreneurship education. The results of the study
reveal, though, that effective entrepreneurship education is not about providing
thoughtful lectures inside a classroom. Instead, action-oriented educational
practices inside and outside the classroom are necessary to foster entrepreneurial
thinking and behaviour.
Based on the results of the study, recommendations for designing effective
entrepreneurship programmes have been developed (research question #2). In this
context the term effective means that the course characteristics provide the
potential to increase entrepreneurial intention through changes in attitudes,
subjective norms and perceived behavioural control. This is not to say that
entrepreneurship education programmes should be restricted to effectiveness and
163
performance goals; rather, they should be part of a general university education,
as a concept for enhancing the individual’s capacity for self-determination and
participatory choice.266 Those objectives are not necessarily contradictory. If we
provide more students with an appropriate setting to discover and develop their
entrepreneurial potential, we will probably increase the overall number of future
entrepreneurs. The guidelines have been developed according to Klafki's Didactic
Model for Lesson Planning, which was introduced in Chapter 2.3.3.
Context of justification
The importance of promoting entrepreneurial attitudes and behaviours in
education is widely recognised by now.267 On an economic level, entrepreneurial
activities are important to ensure economic wealth (Chapter 1.3), especially for
developed countries, which compete on innovations and not on labour costs. On
an organisational level the entrepreneurial behaviour of employees provides the
innovative ideas to excel in competitive markets. On an individual level
entrepreneurial behaviour is important to provide individuals with the ability to
turn their ideas into action.
In the future the importance of the topic is likely to increase. Probably, more new
jobs will be provided by entrepreneurial small and medium-sized organisations
and not from established companies. Individuals are likely to work in various
settings during their life time. Students equipped with the skills to develop and
implement their own ideas and students who can shape their career in an
entrepreneurial way will therefore have an advantage.
266
Klafki, 1985: p. 17.
267
Commission, 2008: p. 7.
164
Thematic structure
The learning objectives of entrepreneurship programmes should include fostering
the entrepreneurial mindset and raising awareness of entrepreneurship as a career
option. The students' ability to recognise, develop and exploit opportunities
should be strengthened. Also, students should be provided with a better
understanding of their personal entrepreneurial capacities. A supportive
infrastructure should support those students who decide to implement viable
business ideas through start-ups and spin-offs during or after their studies.
In terms of learning content, students should have the ability to write business
plans which comply with the requirements of venture capitalists. They should
know how to control the key elements of a business (financing, marketing,
organisation, team building, and legal aspects) and they should gain their initial
practical experience in an entrepreneurial setting.
The effectiveness of an entrepreneurial programme should be measured through
longitudinal studies capturing changes in entrepreneurial intentions and actual
start-up activities.
Pedagogical practices
Traditional lectures do not correlate well with positive changes in attitudes and
perceived behavioural control. Student-oriented and experienced-based teaching
practices are needed for that purpose.
Role models should be an essential part of entrepreneurship courses. Their
integration should not be restricted to single presentations; rather, entrepreneurs
should be involved in teaching. That would allow for regular exposure to
entrepreneurial thinking and behaviour. It would bring real-life experiences to the
classroom which can often not be provided by entrepreneurship educators. Oneon-one contact with entrepreneurs after whom students can model their thinking
165
and behaviour should be integrated into the model as well. Students could be
assigned to meet with an entrepreneur of their choice. They could be asked to
interview the entrepreneurs about their career and write about their learning
experience. Leaving the selection of the entrepreneurs to the students would
increase the chances that the students will contact an entrepreneur whose work
they are interested in. Also, if students were to select entrepreneurs themselves in
order to interview them, the likelihood that they would search for someone they
can identify with would be higher. As the study revealed, identification with the
role model makes role-modelling an effective tool. Another learning effect which
can be achieved through working with role models is that students will recognize
patterns of behaviour after getting in touch with entrepreneurs. However, this
requires multiple contacts with entrepreneurs.
Another effective measure for starting entrepreneurship sessions is the integration
of reflective elements into the courses, meaning that the learner reflects on his or
her learning experience. The concept and meaning of entrepreneurship should be
discussed in class. Also, students should have time to reflect on their tasks and
assignments, so that they understand how the work contributes to the learning
objectives.
Interactive and explorative elements are essential to establish self-efficacy beliefs
regarding entrepreneurial actions. Business planning activities, cases, business
simulations and internships in entrepreneurial firms should therefore be among
the pedagogical practices – even though these practices are quite labour intensive
for the educator.
Feedback processes
should be part of the courses. Feedback on a business plan
or business model could be provided by the educators, peers or a jury comprised
of entrepreneurs. Mentoring programmes could include alumni who have become
entrepreneurs and now act as mentors for interested students.
166
Methodological structure
The teaching content should be adapted to different target groups. Freshman
students should attend introductory sessions to increase awareness, understanding
of the concept and opportunity recognition skills. Role-modelling, reflective
course elements and opportunities to build new social networks should be part of
the pedagogical design or the programme in that early phase.
Later on, course offerings should become more individual so that students can
select courses addressing their specific interests. Course assignments should be
targeted at increasing perceived behavioural control and therefore reveal the key
elements an entrepreneur needs to control. Practical knowledge such as business
planning activities could be part of the programme. It is important that students
can bring forward their own ideas while they do the course work. The lecturer
could take the position of a moderator or mentor who accompanies the
development of the idea. Projects with entrepreneurial firms should be offered to
further increase practical experiences in entrepreneurial settings.
Students who are close to graduation or postgraduates are more likely in a
position to start a company. Hence, they should be familiar with supporting
infrastructures like consulting services, incubators and funding agencies. Even
though start-ups from graduates are only one possible outcome of
entrepreneurship courses, universities with a large number of successful start-ups
will probably become known for their entrepreneurial spirit.
Entrepreneurship education is currently mainly targeted at business students, even
though product or technical innovations are likely to happen in non-business
settings.268 Therefore, it is important that the course participants include nonbusiness students as well. They need to be aware of the topic so that they can
consider the entrepreneurial aspects of their ideas. On the other hand, business
268
Commission, 2008: p. 15.
167
students might be happy to team up with students from a technical or creative
background to develop stronger product ideas and business plans. Therefore,
courses open to multiple disciplines should be included in the entrepreneurship
programme.
Context of
justification
Thematic
structure
Pedagogical
methods
Methodological
structure
1. Contemporary
meaning
4. Thematic
structure
6. Accessibility
and presentability
7. Teachinglearning-process
Learning goals
Raise awareness
Idea recognition,
development and
implementation
Assess personal
entrepreneurial
capacities
Student-orientedlearning and
experiencedbased learning
methods instead
of traditional
lectures:
Learning contents
Business
planning
activities
Key elements an
entrepreneur
needs to control
(finance,
marketing etc.)
Reflective
elements
Introductory
sessions for
freshman
students to
increase
awareness,
general
understanding
and opportunity
recognition skills
and build
networks
High relevance of
entrepreneurial
activities on an
economic,
organisational, and
individual level
2. Future
meaning
Developed
countries will
increasingly
compete on
innovations
3. Exemplary
value of the
content
Strengthens the
individual's ability
to turn ideas into
action
5. Assessibility
Longitudinal
studies to measure
changes in
entrepreneurial
intentions and
start-up activities.
Role modeling
Interactive
elements
Feedback
processes
Action-oriented
teaching
including
business
planning, case
studies and
simulation
games
Further courses
allowing students
to follow their
interests and
develop own
business ideas
Provide students
close to
graduation and
postgraduates
with a supportive
environment
Figure 17: Designing Effective Entrepreneurship Programmes
168
Looking at the recommendations stated above, it becomes clear that
entrepreneurship programmes need to be designed in a holistic manner, building
multi-disciplinary collaborations at the university, and integrating entrepreneurs,
alumni and out-of-class activities.
6.2
169
Limitations of the Research and Suggestions for Further
Research
It is hoped that the study has increased the body of knowledge about the
relationship between entrepreneurship courses and entrepreneurial intention.
However, the dissertation has limitations and a number of aspects remain
unaddressed. For example, issues related to time, quality, and methodology might
open up new perspectives in entrepreneurship education research.
The consideration of time aspects seems to be an important factor in multiple
ways. The thesis used an ex ante/ex post approach to measure the change in
attitudes, perceptions, and intentions with respect to educational variables. But
the thesis did not analyse the stability of these changes over time. Do we need
repetition to achieve lasting changes? Only longitudinal studies could alleviate
the research gap in this area.
Another aspect related to time is the question of when entrepreneurship education
should start. The current study focuses on entrepreneurship education at
university level but it is quite possible that the impact of educational measures is
higher at high school level. Attitudes and perceptions might be more difficult to
change when the participants have reached a certain age; thus, entrepreneurial
training might be more effective in earlier years. Also, offering courses at school
level would give a broader range of people the chance to get acquainted with the
topic. Therefore, research that aims to understand the impact of educational
measures at an earlier age is of importance.
The third time aspect which should be considered in further research has to do
with the time span between intention and actual behaviour. Many things happen
between the development of an entrepreneurial intention and the actualisation of
that intention. Hence, for the present study, which attempts to understand the
170
influence of entrepreneurship courses, it made sense to limit the scope and look at
entrepreneurial intention only. In most cases starting one’s own company does
not take place during or immediately after university, and the effects of
entrepreneurship education would be diluted through other influences. But from a
research perspective there are a lot of questions which remain unanswered. What
elements determine whether or not entrepreneurial intention results in actual
behaviour? Knowledge in this area followed by targeted political measures taken
by universities and government institutions fostering entrepreneurship could
increase the number of start-ups. Universities could play a role in this process as
well – if they manage to establish life-long relationships with their alumni.
Two aspects regarding quality are also not addressed in this study.
Entrepreneurship education should increase the overall number of start-up
companies. But certainly the objective should not be to increase the number of
start-ups without looking at the quality aspects of the new ventures. Hence, we
should improve our understanding of the impact of entrepreneurship education on
the quality of start-ups. Do former entrepreneurship students found more
successful companies? Can some failures be avoided? Do such companies show
higher growth rates? Are they more innovative?
The quality aspect also plays a role on an individual level. Some students might
be able to self-assess their entrepreneurial potential, and educators simply need to
provide the right environment so that they can test their own abilities. But it can
be assumed that some students will be encouraged to consider entrepreneurship as
an occupational option even though they might not be eligible candidates.
Therefore, the assessment of entrepreneurial potential might be a helpful tool to
complement entrepreneurship education. Assessments could also be introduced to
support decisions regarding which educational practices are appropriate.
Another quality aspect concerns the type of start-up that entrepreneurship
programmes might encourage. Many technical inventions are developed in
171
German-speaking countries, but they are often exploited economically by startups in other countries. Therefore, it might make sense to target entrepreneurial
programmes at students with a technical background or increase efforts to bring
together students with a business background and those with a technical
background.
The third area dealing with the limitations of the study and with further research
suggestions is concerned with the methodology used. To test the hypotheses,
bivariate analyses and multivariate regressions have been applied. Further studies
based on the data set generated for the thesis should also use structural equation
modelling since it allows to test and estimate the relationships of the whole
conceptual model at the same time. Another limitation of the study is that the
independent variables partly overlap which leads to the problem of
multicollinearity. This is, true for the following three variables: “practical
knowledge”, “business planning”, and “explorative elements”.
Another aspect of methodology has to do with the method of data collection. The
study at hand and many other studies in entrepreneurship education are based on
surveys. For some research questions this method might not be adequate.
Observations and visitations of classes combined with in-depth interviews might
be necessary to increase our understanding of the influence of educational
practices.
Table 17 indicates possible future research perspectives and areas which could
arise through the consideration of different time and quality aspects and the use of
different methodological approaches.
172
Time
- Stability of changes in
-
attitudes, perceptions, and
intentions
The timing of
entrepreneurship education
The relationship between
entrepreneurial intention
and behaviour
Quality
- The influence of
-
on the quality of start-ups
The use of assessments in
Supporting technology
entrepreneurship
Methodology
- Using structural equation
modelling
- Observations instead of
surveys and interviews
Table 17: Limitations of the Study and Suggested Areas for Future Research
APPENDICES
7
Appendices
7.1
Qualitative Study
173
7.1.1 Questionnaire: Guided Interviews with Entrepreneurship Educators –
German Version
Einführende Fragen
1.
Wie lange unterrichten Sie bereits im Bereich Entrepreneurship?
2.
Welche Art von Entrepreneurship-Vorlesungen halten Sie?
3.
In welchen Semestern werden die Veranstaltungen angeboten?
1.
Thema: Mögliche relevante Faktoren, die die Absicht ein Unternehmen zu
gründen, beeinflussen
a)
Welche Rolle spielt Ihrer Meinung nach die Einstellung der Studenten zu den
Themen „Unternehmensgründung“ und „Selbständigkeit“, im Hinblick auf
die Absicht ein eigenes Unternehmen zu gründen? (attitude)
b) Welche Rolle spielt Ihrer Erfahrung nach das soziale Umfeld der Studenten,
im Hinblick auf die Absicht ein eigenes Unternehmen zu gründen?
(subjective norm)
c)
Welche Rolle spielt die Einschätzung der eigenen Chancen und Fähigkeiten
ein Unternehmen erfolgreich zu gründen, im Hinblick auf die Absicht ein
eigenes Unternehmen zu gründen? (perceived behavioural control)
174
2.
APPENDICES
Thema: Mögliche Veränderung der unternehmerischen Absicht durch die
Teilnahme an einer Veranstaltung in Entrepreneurship
a)
Inwiefern können Entrepreneurship Veranstaltungen die Absicht ein eigenes
Unternehmen zu gründen verändern?
b) Inwiefern kann sich der „soziale Druck“ ein eigenes Unternehmen zu
gründen, durch eine Entrepreneurship Veranstaltung ändern?
c)
Inwiefern können Entrepreneurship Veranstaltungen, die Einschätzung über
die Chancen und Fähigkeiten ein Unternehmen erfolgreich zu gründen,
verändern?
d) Inwiefern können Entrepreneurship Veranstaltungen die tatsächlichen
Chancen und Fähigkeiten ein Unternehmen erfolgreich zu gründen,
verändern?
e)
Welche Inhalte sind besonders geeignet, die Absicht ein Unternehmen zu
gründen, zu erhöhen?
f)
Haben Sie die Kurse in der Vergangenheit verändert? Wenn ja, welche
Anpassungen haben Sie mit welchem Ziel vorgenommen?
APPENDICES
175
7.1.2 Questionnaire: Guided Interviews with Entrepreneurship Educators –
English Translation
English Translation
Introductory questions
1.
How long have you been teaching entrepreneurship?
2.
What kind of entrepreneurship classes do you teach?
3.
In which semesters are the entrepreneurship classes offered?
1.
Topic: Possible relevant factors influencing the intention to found a company
a)
In your opinion, what role does the attitude of the students to
"entrepreneurship" and "being self-employed" play with regard to the
intention to found their own company? (attitude)
b) In your experience, what role does the social environment of the students
play when it comes to founding their own company? (subjective norm)
c)
What role does the perception of one’s own chances and capability to
successfully start one’s own company play? (perceived behavioural control)
176
2.
APPENDICES
Topic: Possible changes in entrepreneurial intention through attending
entrepreneurship classes
a)
To what extent can entrepreneurship classes change students’ intention to
start their own company?
b) To what extent can an entrepreneurship class change the "peer-group
pressure" to found one’s own company?
c)
To what extent can entrepreneurship classes change the perception of one’s
chances and capability to successfully start one’s own business?
d) To what extent can entrepreneurship classes change the actual chances and
capability to successfully start one’s own business?
e)
Which type of course content is particularly suited to increasing the intention
to found your own company?
f)
Have you changed your courses in the past? If so, which changes were made
and why?
APPENDICES
177
7.1.3 Questionnaire: Guided Interviews with Former Entrepreneurship
Students – German Version
1.
Thema: Einstellung gegenüber dem Vorhaben, ein eigenes Unternehmen zu
gründen
a)
Welche Einstellung hatten Sie zum Zeitpunkt der Unternehmensgründung
zum Thema Selbständigkeit?
b) Was dachten Personen, die Ihnen wichtig sind, zum Zeitpunkt der
Unternehmensgründung über ihr Vorhaben ein eigenes Unternehmen zu
gründen? (subjective norm)
c)
Wie dachten Sie zum Zeitpunkt der Unternehmensgründung über die
Chancen und Fähigkeiten ein Unternehmen erfolgreich zu gründen?
2.
Thema: Mögliche Veränderung der unternehmerischen Absicht durch die
Teilnahme an einer Veranstaltung in Entrepreneurship
a)
Inwiefern veränderte der besuchte Kurs Ihre Intention, kurz nach
Studienabschluss ein eigenes Unternehmen zu gründen? (intention)
b) Können Sie sich an Kursinhalte erinnern, die die Entscheidung ein
Unternehmen zu gründen, besonders beeinflusst haben? (intention)
c)
Inwiefern veränderte der Besuch der Veranstaltung Ihre Einstellung zum
Thema Selbständigkeit? (attitude to the behaviour)
d) Inwiefern veränderte der Besuch der Veranstaltung ihre Wahrnehmung
davon, was andere relevante Personen über das Vorhaben ein Unternehmen
zu gründen, denken (subjective norm)
178
e)
APPENDICES
Inwiefern veränderte sich durch den Kurs die Einschätzung über Ihre
Chancen und Fähigkeiten, ein Unternehmen erfolgreich zu gründen?
(perceived behavioural control)
7.1.4 Questionnaire: Guided Interviews with Former Entrepreneurship
Students – English Translation
1.
Topic: Attitude towards the intention to build your own business.
a)
What attitude did you have towards being an entrepreneur when you founded
the company? (corresponds with "Attitude to the behaviour")
b) What did the people most important to you think about your intention to
become an entrepreneur at the time when you founded your own company?
(subjective norm)
c)
What did you think about your chances and ability to successfully start a
company at the time when you founded the company? (perceived behavioural
control)
2.
Topic: Possible changes in entrepreneurial intention due to attending
entrepreneurship classes
a)
To what extent did the course you attended change your intention to found
your own company after finishing your studies? (intention)
b) Do you remember any aspects of the courses which influenced your decision
to found your own company in particular? (intention)
c)
To what extent did attending the class change your attitude to being an
entrepreneur? (attitude to the behaviour)
APPENDICES
179
d) To what extent did attending the class change your perception of what other
people think about the intention to build their own company? (subjective
norm)
e)
To what extent did the course change your perception about your chances
and ability to successfully start your own company? (perceived behavioural
control)
180
APPENDICES
7.1.5 Questionnaire: Interviews with Experts in Pedagogy – German Version
German Original Version
1.
Welche Elemente/Charakteristika sind Ihrer Meinung nach für die
Effektivität von Vorlesungen im Sinne von „Lernprozesse ermöglichen" und
„Einstellungen verändern" relevant?
2.
Welche Rolle spielen Ihrer Erfahrung nach folgende Elemente im Bezug auf
Lernen/ Einstellungen verändern:
-
Rolle des Professors (Facilitator, Role Model (da selbst
Unternehmer) etc.)
3.
-
Rolle von Feedback
-
Experimentelles Lernen - “Learning by doing”
-
Sozialwissenschaftliche Aspekte
-
Emotionen
Welche Elemente sollten generell abgefragt werden, wenn es um die
Beschreibung von Vorlesungen geht, um später Rückschlüsse auf deren
Effektivität ziehen zu können? z.B.
4.
-
Dauer des Kurses (Anzahl Wochenstunden)
-
Kursart (Case study, Unternehmervorträge, Theorie...)
-
Klassengröße
Haben Sie Literaturempfehlungen für folgende Fragestellungen?
-
Wie lernen wir?
-
Welche Trainingsmethoden ermöglichen Lernen?
-
Welche Trainingsmethoden können Einstellungen verändern?
APPENDICES
181
7.1.6 Questionnaire: Interviews with Experts in Pedagogy – English
Translation
1.
In your opinion, what elements/characteristics are relevant for the
effectiveness of classes when it comes to "enabling learning processes" and
"changing attitudes"?
2.
What role do the following elements play with regard to learning/changing
attitudes:
-
Role of the professor (facilitator, role model (e.g., whether he
himself is an entrepreneur), etc.)
3.
-
Role of feedback
-
Experimental learning – "learning by doing"
-
Aspects of social sciences
-
Emotions
What class characteristics should generally be considered in order to be able
later on to draw conclusions about their effectiveness? e.g.
4.
-
Duration of the class (number of hours per week)
-
Type of class (case study, speeches from entrepreneurs, theory…)
-
Class size
Can you recommend any literature on the following questions?
-
How do we learn?
-
What training methods enable learning?
-
What training methods can change attitudes?
182
APPENDICES
7.1.7 Category Scheme and Text Passages: The Influence of Antecedents of
Entrepreneurial Intention
The first part of the interviews aimed to identify the influence of the antecedents
of entrepreneurial intention. Table 18 depicts the category scheme which was
developed during the analytic process. The text passages are sorted in Chapter 4.2
accordingly.
Category
Subcategory
Awareness
Role models
Supporting networks
c) The influence of perceived behavioural control on entrepreneurial intention
Perceived behavioural control as a pre-condition
Self-efficacy
Table 18: Category Scheme: Validity of Ajzen’s Model
a) The Influence of Attitudes on Entrepreneurial Intention
Interview #8, Zeile 3315, Interviewer: Welche Rolle spielt Ihrer Meinung nach die
Einstellung
der
Studenten
zu
den
Themen
„Unternehmensgründung“
und
„Selbständigkeit“ im Hinblick auf die Absicht ein eigenes Unternehmen zu gründen?
Interviewee: Ich muss das Ergebnis attraktiv finden, und ich muss es für mich als möglich,
als schaffbar ansehen, ich kann das bewältigen. Insofern spielt das eine Rolle, natürlich.
Interview #8, Zeile 3321, Interviewer: Und welche Rolle spielt die Einstellung darüber,
welches Unternehmerbild ich beispielsweise habe? Interviewee: Wenn ich das nicht
attraktiv finde, gründe ich auch nicht. Wenn ich es mir nicht zutraue, gründe ich auch
nicht. Zunächst muss ich es attraktiv finden, das ist schon wichtig.
APPENDICES
183
Interview #2, Zeile 660: Ich habe das eigentlich immer als erstrebenswertes Ziel gesehen,
zu gründen. Das war jetzt nicht eine Notlösung für mich. Ich glaube auch nicht, dass es
funktionieren kann aus einer Not heraus zu gründen, oder mit dem Gefühl, dass das
eigentlich nichts ist, was man wirklich machen will. Für mich war das immer eine sehr
erstrebenswerte Sache, weil es für mich sehr viel Freiheit bedeutet und auch sehr viel
Selbstverwirklichung. Das war nie so, dass ich damit irgend etwas Unangenehmes
verbunden habe. Auch das Risiko hat mich, das alle immer als größtes Problem bei der
Gründung beschreiben, hat mich eigentlich relativ wenig abgeschreckt.
Interview #4, Zeile 1261: Ja gut, also bei mir ist an sich die Einstellung ..., also der Grund
ein Unternehmen zu gründen, ist an sich für mich, eine gewisse Freiheit zu haben. Tun und
lassen was man kann. Und sozusagen, die Dinge umzusetzen, die einen beschäftigen. Das
ist sage ich mal meine Grundeinstellung, einfach zu sagen, einen Freiheitsgrad zu
erreichen, den man in einer Unternehmensberatung, wo man Vorgesetzte etc. hat oder in
einem normalen Unternehmen eben nicht hätte, […] Und dass ich dann auch selbst etwas
bewegen kann, und dass ich dann auch sagen kann, ich habe etwas erreicht, und dass ich
dann auch irgendwie Anerkennung dafür finde, was man eventuell in einem Unternehmen
nicht so direkt kriegen kann.
b) The Influence of Subjective Norms on Entrepreneurial Intention
Awareness
Interview #1, Zeile 170: Also, ich denke, dass es ganz wichtig ist, wie das soziale Umfeld
aussieht. Also, ob, sag mal, überhaupt Unternehmertum im Wahrnehmungsfeld liegt, also,
es gibt ja auch in der Soziologie, über die Selbstrekrutierung der Unternehmerschaft
Untersuchungen, die deutlich zeigen, dass die Unternehmerschaft sich wahrscheinlich aus
eigenen Gruppen wieder reproduziert, das heißt also, hier ist wahrscheinlich einfach dieses
Role-Model, also das Lernen an der Rolle oder überhaupt, dass man drüber nachdenkt,
einfach inspiriert durch die Frage, in welchem Umfeld wachse ich auf, welches soziale
Umfeld, kenne ich Unternehmer, bin ich mit Unternehmern zusammen usw. [Und damit]
die Frage schneller auf den Tisch und intensiver auf den Tisch [kommt] als wenn das ein
184
APPENDICES
Abstraktum ist und mein ganzes Umfeld sind alles Beamte, und ich denke nicht darüber
nach.
Interview #2, Zeile 771: Ich glaube auch, das wird meistens im Elternhaus geprägt.
Interview #3, Zeile 1063: Das ist ganz wichtig, was jemand so in seiner Familie, in seiner
Erziehung, in seinen bisherigen Erfahrungen mitgenommen hat und das kann dazu führen,
dass er dafür dann mehr oder weniger aufgeschlossen ist. Dass er es vielleicht sogar schon
mit der Muttermilch aufgenommen hat. Das ist auch wieder ganz individuell. Gut ist
natürlich, wenn jemand in seiner ganzen Erziehung, in seiner ganzen Sozialisation, wenn
er da gelernt hat, Eigeninitiative, sich selbst auszudrücken und nicht nur sich beeindrucken
und berieseln zu lassen.
Interview #4, Zeile 1288, Interviewer: Was glaubst Du, was hast Du für ein
Unternehmerbild? Ist Selbständigkeit etwas, das mit positiven Dingen belegt ist in Deinem
Umfeld? Interviewee: Ja, auf jeden Fall. Ja, klar.
Interview #5, Zeile 1547, Interviewer: Welche Einstellung hast Du derzeit zum Thema
Selbständigkeit? Was für ein Bild hast Du von Selbständigkeit? Was für Assoziationen?
Interviewee: Also, geprägt bin ich wahrscheinlich dadurch, dass mein Vater selbständig
ist. Vielleicht kam daher auch ein bisschen das Interesse für die Thematik. Und da habe ich
einfach gesehen, dass es sehr interessant ist, dass man da einfach sehr viele Möglichkeiten
hat, irgendwie Sachen zu verwirklichen, die einen da interessieren oder irgendwelche
Themen zu bearbeiten, halt mehr Möglichkeiten als jetzt irgendwo dann als abhängig
Angestellter. Also, im Vergleich zu den Praktika, die ich vorher gemacht habe, bei
Siemens oder so was, hatte ich da wesentlich mehr Möglichkeiten. Das hat mir einfach
gefallen.
Interview #6, Zeile 1965: Dann betrachte ich am besten mal diejenigen von uns, die
ausgegründet haben. Da sind zum einen diejenigen dabei, die eben schon familiäre
Erfahrungen mit der Selbständigkeit haben, also deren Eltern bereits selbständig sind und
die von daher auch Vor- und Nachteile dieses Weges entsprechend kennen und das dann
einschätzen können.
APPENDICES
185
Interview #7, Zeile 2671: Mein Vater hat auch immer einen Traum gehabt, sich mal
selbständig zu machen. Das hat bestimmt auch irgendwie einen bestimmten Einfluss
gehabt und ist jetzt sogar dabei, sich selbständig zu machen, vielleicht war ich da sogar
noch der, nachdem ich es vor ihm geschafft hatte dann ...
Role models
Interview #1, Zeile 289: Das ist also durchaus denkbar, dass es auch so Umfelder gibt, ja,
wenn alle selbständig sind, dann bin ich auch selbständig.
Interview #2, Zeile 672: Aus dem AXA-Unternehmen heraus, haben mir alle gesagt, dass
das ziemlich dumm wäre, zu gründen, weil ich doch einen geebneten Pfad hatte bei der
AXA. Ich habe auch ein Angebot gehabt mit einer Abteilungsleiterstelle und einer
Bereichsleiterstelle in Aussicht und so weiter. Das war alles perspektivisch ziemlich toll,
und die Wahrscheinlichkeit war auch hoch, dass ich finanziell mindestens genau das
gleiche gehabt hätte, wie ich das bei der Gründung gehabt hätte. Mein Chef hat mir das
gesagt, mehrere Leute, die ich da inhaltlich geschätzt habe, haben mir das auch gesagt, bis
hoch zum Personalvorstand, der geäußert hatte, dass er das nicht witzig findet, dass ich
gehe und dass es doch schön wäre, wenn ich bliebe. Und das private Umfeld, die Leute,
die mich irgendwie ein bisschen besser kannten, die fanden das gut. Mein Vater fand das
irgendwie gut, wir haben da lange darüber diskutiert, und er hat das befürwortet. Und
ansonsten: Freunde, denen ich davon erzählt habe, weil ich ja denen auch immer über die
Motivation und den Hintergrund berichtet habe, dass mir das eben Spaß macht und so
weiter, die fanden das alle gut. Und meine Freundin zu der Zeit, die hat einfach gesagt,
„mach’ was Dir gefällt“, und als sie gemerkt hat, dass mir die Gründung Spaß macht,
wahrscheinlich mehr Spaß als ich bei AXA hatte, da hat sie dann auch gesagt, dass ich
gründen soll.
Interview #2, Zeile 818: Aber grundsätzlich hat die Vorlesung zum Bild des
Unternehmertums nicht beigetragen. Das Bild, glaube ich, entsteht früher und ist im
Elternhaus entstanden, weil mein Vater Unternehmer ist, selbständig ist.
Interview #5, Zeile 1564, Interviewer: Was denken Personen, die für Dich wichtig sind,
also Deine Bezugspersonen, Freunde, Familie, Menschen, deren Meinung Dir etwas
186
APPENDICES
bedeutet, über das Vorhaben, sich selbständig zu machen? Interviewee: Also, meine
Freundin sagt, das ist viel zu stressig, weil es viel zu viel Zeitaufwand ist. Sie sieht halt an
meinem Vater, dass der doch auch mal 60-Stunden-Wochen hat ohne Probleme.
Interviewer: Waren das Freunde oder Freundin? Interviewee: Meine Freundin, und
deshalb ist die eher negativ demgegenüber eingestellt, aber ja, das ist mir eigentlich egal.
Ja, Freunde, die befassen sich eigentlich eher weniger mit dem Thema, also das ist, glaube
ich ..., die sind mehr damit zufrieden, wenn sie irgendwie einen Job haben und dann halt,
ja wahrscheinlich immer das Gleiche machen, das reicht ihnen dann auch. Also, die haben,
glaube ich, auch noch nicht so die Vorstellung davon, was sie machen wollen dann.
Interviewer: Und Eltern? Also, Papa ist ja selbständig ... Interviewee: Meine Mutter ist
auch Gesellschafter. Interviewer: Die sehen das eher positiv oder denken sie, „ach, dem
würde ich auch ein ruhigeres Leben gönnen“? Interviewee: Also, sie sehen natürlich, dass
es Vorteile hat, aber auch, dass es Nachteile hat, dass man einfach weniger Zeit hat oder
dass man, also jetzt in dem Falle ist es so, dass man weniger abschalten kann dann von der
Arbeit. Es ist vielleicht auch der Extremfall, dass beide in der gleichen Firma tätig sind
und dass dann Privatleben und Geschäftliches oft vermischt werden. Das ist nicht so
schön. Interviewer: Aber grundsätzlich stehen sie dem Vorhaben, dass Du das vielleicht
mal machen könntest, positiv gegenüber? Interviewee: Ja.
Interview #7, Zeile 2981: Das habe ich vorher noch ganz vergessen gehabt, fällt mir jetzt
gerade erst ein. Also, ein Freund von mir zu Abizeiten schon, der hat auch angefangen so
was zu machen. Und das war vielleicht auch schon für mich die erste, auch ja,
anschauliche ... oder Beispiel von so was. Der hat, ich weiß gar nicht, wahrscheinlich mit
17, 18 rum, hat der angefangen so Playstation-Zubehör zu verkaufen. Und hat dann so
einen Internetshop gemacht, und damals war das ja noch relativ neu, so Internetshop, und
hat dann natürlich Preise, relativ günstige Preise anbieten können, hat dann irgendwie,
irgendwelche Kontakte nach Hongkong aufgebaut und irgendwann flog er dann das erste
Mal nach Hongkong, hat da seine Geschäftspartner getroffen und hat jetzt vor, ich glaube
schon vor zwei Jahren, eine GmbH gegründet und fährt einen Porsche in meinem Alter.
[...] Und ich habe auch einen Bekannten in Köln, der auch, was hat der, mit 17 oder so
seine Ausbildung abgebrochen und wurde dann zum Kölner Internet-Millionär, weil er da
seine Internet-SOS-Firma eröffnet hat. Also, da habe ich schon immer so ein bisschen
Input gekriegt oder gesehen, wie andere Leute es geschafft haben.
APPENDICES
187
Interview #8, Zeile 3326, Interviewer: Welche Rolle spielt Ihrer Erfahrung nach das
soziale Umfeld der Studenten, im Hinblick auf die Absicht ein eigenes Unternehmen zu
gründen? Interviewee: Sehr unterschiedlich. Es ist glaube ich nicht zwangsläufig so, dass
aus Unternehmerhaushalten erfolgreiche Unternehmer hervorgehen. Aber Vorbilder
spielen durchaus eine wichtige Rolle: Wenn meine Eltern, wenn ein Onkel, wenn eine
Bekannte von mir das vorlebt und ich das merke und auch mitkriege, dann, glaube ich,
steigert sich die Wahrscheinlichkeit oder die Absicht, dass ich auch gründe.
Lernreflexionen #3, Zeile 73: Im Zuge des Semesters wurde uns vermittelt, wie man von
einer lediglich im Kopf des potenziellen Gründers existierenden Idee zu einem
vollständigen Geschäftsmodell kommen kann. Die Beispiele erfolgreicher und weniger
erfolgreicher Unternehmen bzw. Geschäftsmodelle waren da sehr hilfreich und haben dazu
geführt, dass man sich selber ständig mit dem Unternehmerbegriff und potenziellen
Risikofaktoren des eigenen Geschäftsmodells kritisch auseinandergesetzt hat.
Supporting networks
Interview #6, Zeile 2010, Interviewer: Ja, genau. Inwiefern spielen die Personen, die für
mich relevant sind, oder deren Meinungen für mich relevant sind, eine Rolle? Interviewee:
Also sagen wir, es wirkt positiv verstärkend, wenn die Eltern Unternehmer sind oder im
Bekanntenkreis Unternehmer sind. Da haben sie gleich das praktische Beispiel vor sich.
Andererseits würde ich jetzt nicht sagen, dass Studierende, die nicht aus diesem Umfeld
kommen, deswegen in irgendeiner Weise benachteiligt sind oder das etwa nicht sehen. Wir
haben auch Studierende, deren Eltern nicht Unternehmer sind und die dann trotzdem diese
unternehmerischen Gedanken haben. Also hier würde ich jetzt eigentlich, ohne dass das
jetzt empirisch irgendwie sinnvoll bestätigt wäre, diese Theorie der sozialen
Determiniertheit nicht so stark sehen. [...] Es folgt dann sicher auf der zweiten Stufe, dass
man dadurch natürlich gewisse Vorteile hat, wenn es darum geht, die eigenen Ideen zu
verwirklichen. Wir haben dann auch diejenigen Studierenden, die ihre Eltern oder die
Bekannten als Business Angels einsetzen können. Das haben natürlich die Studierenden
aus einem anderen sozialen Umfeld entsprechend nicht, dass sie da Rat und Tat und
vielleicht auch noch die Gründungsfinanzierung entsprechend gestellt bekommen. Da hat
188
APPENDICES
man gewisse Anfangsvorteile, wenn das soziale Umfeld entsprechend unternehmerisch
gestaltet ist.
Interview #7, Zeile 2697, Interviewer: Was dachten Personen, die Ihnen wichtig sind zum
Zeitpunkt der Unternehmensgründung über Ihr Vorhaben, ein eigenes Unternehmen zu
gründen? Interviewee: Also, meine Mutter hat natürlich gemeint, hat sich natürlich Sorgen
gemacht, dass ich mich mal wieder übernehme und dass es natürlich viel Arbeit ist und so
weiter. Mein Vater hat es natürlich toll gefunden, hat ... Also, er ist in Vorruhestand
gegangen und hat dann in dem Vorruhestand, weil er nicht still sitzen kann, hat er noch
mal studiert jetzt, um dann, wenn der Vorruhestand endlich abläuft, sich dann selbständig
machen zu können. Also, so war jetzt seine Idee. Und da saß er auch hier in der Bib die
ganze Zeit und hat gelernt, für sein Studium und hat dann natürlich auch immer mal wieder
so ein bisschen Input gegeben und auch Hilfe angeboten, uns bei irgendwelchen Sachen zu
helfen usw., und von da [gab es] auf jeden Fall Unterstützung. Von meiner Mutter
natürlich auch, aber die [war] dann natürlich ein bisschen vorsichtiger und hat gemeint:
Wie hoch ist denn das Risiko, und wie viel Zeit brauchst Du da usw.? Und ansonsten, gut,
mein Bruder fand es gut, der studiert auch BWL in Mannheim, hat natürlich, also mit dem
war auch schon davor die Idee, was anderes zu machen auch, wir hatten schon immer mal
wieder so gedacht, wollen wir nicht irgendwo was versuchen oder so, und gut dadurch,
dass der Hättich und ich schon viel Sachen zusammen gemacht hatten, also Projekte usw.,
wussten wir ja schon, dass wir gut zusammenarbeiten können und dass das eigentlich ganz
gut passt ... [Es] war eigentlich von den meisten das Feedback relativ positiv.
c) The Influence of Perceived Behavioural Control on Entrepreneurial
Intention
Perceived behavioural control as a pre-condition
Interview #1, Zeile 192: Ja, gut, also das ist so, [das] misst man im Allgemeinen mit Locus
of Control von [dem] Prinzip von Rotter, und ja, ich meine, dass ist eine conditio sine qua
non. Also, wenn ich nicht davon überzeugt bin, dass ich das schaffe, werde ich es
wahrscheinlich nicht anpacken. Also, insofern denke ich, dass man davon ausgehen kann,
dass das auch ein bisschen mitspielt. Ich meine, die Frage ist natürlich immer: Welche
APPENDICES
189
Funktion hat also ein solcher Faktor? Ist er sozusagen nur Randbedingung, ist er eine
conditio sine qua non oder ist er treibender Faktor? Ich würde es eben hier als eine
condition sine qua non ansehen und nicht unbedingt als einen dynamischer Faktor, der den
Prozess sozusagen ... Das ist eine Voraussetzung.
Self-efficacy
Interview #2, Zeile 696: Ich war eigentlich ziemlich optimistisch, dass wir das schon
irgendwie hinkriegen, aber jetzt eine wirklich strukturierte Vorstellung davon, wie das
alles ablaufen würde, hatte ich nicht.
Interview #2, Zeile 703: Wenn man mich gefragt hätte, hätte ich mir wahrscheinlich schon
eine große Erfolgswahrscheinlichkeit eingeräumt, sonst hätte ich es ja auch nicht gemacht.
Aber die Dinge, die wirklich wichtig dabei sind, ein Unternehmen zu führen, die hatte ich
damals noch nicht im Blick. Also, ich hab mich damals nicht gefragt „kann ich das, kann
ich das, kann ich das“, sondern habe mir einfach gesagt, „o.k., ich krieg das schon hin“.
Und das Team ist gut, also mit Axel, das lief auch gut, und dann habe ich mir gesagt „o.k.,
dann wird das schon passen“.
Interview #3, Zeile 1083: Ja, schon klar. Man muss schon ein gewisses, gesundes
Selbstvertrauen haben, würde ich sagen. Also, man muss, ich will’s mal sagen, man muss
im wahrsten Sinne mutig sein.
Interview #4, Zeile 1299: Ich sage es mal so, ein Ein-Mann-Unternehmen zu gründen und
erfolgreich zu leiten, ist denke ich mal sehr aussichtsreich. Wenn es darüber hinausgeht,
dass man dann irgendwie noch 5-10 Angestellte hat oder sozusagen das Unternehmen
wächst, kommen sozusagen die normalen Risiken. Ich würde mir problemlos zutrauen,
meine Arbeitszeit gut zu verkaufen und sie auch gut einzusetzen. Inwiefern da bei einem
größeren Unternehmen auch die Mitarbeiter mitspielen und inwiefern da auch die Leitung
durch mich möglich ist, ist einfach noch fraglich, hängt auch von den Angestellten etc. ab.
Interview #7, Zeile 2751: Von daher, die Chance haben wir eigentlich schon relativ gut,
aber jetzt nicht überschwänglich, gesehen, aber wir wussten eben, selbst wenn es schief
geht, dann haben wir halt ein paar Hundert Euro in den Sand gesetzt, weil wir uns jetzt ein
190
APPENDICES
neues Telefon und was weiß ich was kaufen mussten, aber es ist nicht so, dass wir jetzt mit
Schulden dasitzen, wenn es eben in einem halben Jahr nicht funktioniert hat.
Interview #8, Zeile 3321, Interviewer: Und welche Rolle spielt die Einstellung darüber,
welches Unternehmerbild ich beispielsweise habe? Interviewee: Wenn ich das nicht
attraktiv finde, gründe ich auch nicht. Wenn ich es mir nicht zutraue, gründe ich auch
nicht. Zunächst muss ich es attraktiv finden, das ist schon wichtig.
Interview #8, Zeile 3369, Interviewer: Und für Sie ist die unternehmerische Absicht sehr
stark davon beeinflusst, ob ich es mir zutraue, es aus eigener Kraft zu schaffen?
Interviewee: Das würde ich sagen, ja, Wenn ich etwas sehe, auch wenn ich es attraktiv
finde, aber es mir nicht zutraue, dann glaube ich, werde ich es nicht machen. Ich glaube,
ein Grundvertrauen in sich selbst ist notwendig.
APPENDICES
191
7.1.8 Category Scheme and Text Passages: The Influence of
Entrepreneurship Course Characteristics
The second part of the interviews aimed to identify course characteristics with a
positive influence on entrepreneurial intentions. The course characteristics
discovered are depicted in Table 19. The text passages are provided in the
following chapters.
Category
Subcategory
Role models
Practical experiences
Practical knowledge
Business planning
Role models
Explorative and interactive elements
Feedback
Table 19: Category Scheme: The Influence of Entrepreneurship Course Characteristics
a) General Impact of Entrepreneurship Courses
Interview #1, Zeile 211: Ja, es gibt also wissenschaftshistorisch diese berühmte Studie von
McLellan in Indien, der Seminare zum „Need of Achievement“ gemacht hat, also zur
Leistungsmotivation, er hat ja dieses Achieving Society-Buch geschrieben usw., eine
ganze Riesenforschungswelle losgetreten, und der zumindest dann da exemplarisch
nachweist, dass man also Leistungsmotivationen verändern kann, und dass man also dann
von da aus auch die Absicht sich selbständig zu machen, verändern kann und aber auch
tatsächliches Verhalten.
192
APPENDICES
Interview #1, Zeile 227: Das ist eine generelle Frage: Wie kann ich Menschen
beeinflussen durch Ausbildung, durch Lehrveranstaltungen durch andere, durch Medien
generell? Da gibt es ja sehr viele Möglichkeiten. Und das ist in einem gewissen Umfang
sicherlich möglich, die Frage ist natürlich jetzt, wie wirksam ist es? Also, wenn Sie an
Werbebotschaften denken, ist es so, wenn man da Verhaltensbeeinflussung haben will, die
Erfahrung hat, dass man also wiederholt eine Werbebotschaft losschicken muss. Es reicht
nicht, einmal das zu machen, auch nicht, wenn es besonders intensiv ist, sondern man hat
so eine gewisse Wiederholungsnotwendigkeit dabei [...]
Interview #1, Zeile 270: Also, nur die genetische Anlage ohne Lernprozess oder ohne auch
einen Sozialisierungsprozess, als spezifischen Lernprozess, funktioniert nicht, genau wie
umgekehrt. Das ist einfach ... Es müssen mehrere Dinge zusammen kommen. Man muss
sich hinterher fragen, wenn man eine gesamte Verhaltensvarianz hat, wie differenziert sich
das, wie teilt sich das auf in Teileinflüsse?
Interview #2, Zeile 803, Interviewer: Inwiefern veränderte der Besuch der Veranstaltung
die Einstellung zum Thema Selbständigkeit, das Bild davon, selbständig zu sein oder
Unternehmer zu sein? Interviewee: Überhaupt nicht. Gar nicht.
Interview #7, Zeile 2870, Interviewer: Inwiefern veränderte der besuchte Kurs oder die
Kurse Ihre Intention kurz nach Studienabschluss oder schon während des Studiums ein
eigenes Unternehmen zu gründen? War das eine verstärkende Wirkung lediglich oder …?
Interviewee: Ja, also, [es] war in jedem Fall verstärkend. Also, je nach Veranstaltung auch
mal mehr und mal weniger.
Interview #7, Zeile 3061, Interviewer: Inwiefern veränderte der Besuch der Veranstaltung
Ihre Einstellung zum Thema Selbständigkeit? Also, wiederum, Bild von Unternehmern:
Was denke ich über Selbständigkeit an sich? Interviewee: Eigentlich auch, eigentlich nur
positiv, also die Leute, die da waren, das hat einem schon immer ein bisschen imponiert,
weil die schon immer erzählt haben, also es waren auch Leute da, die dann natürlich
erzählt haben, wie sie eben durch irgendwelche Durststrecken gehen mussten, und das war
natürlich auch was, was in der Vorlesung dann, also es war insgesamt keine Schönmalerei
von wegen Selbständigkeit alles toll, jeder ist sein eigener Chef, sondern es wurde schon
auch deutlich, dass man auch Pflichten hat, und wenn man irgendwelche Leute einstellt,
APPENDICES
193
dann natürlich auch entsprechend Verantwortung hat, das Risiko da ist, und dass es
natürlich Zeiten gibt, wo es mal gut läuft oder auch mal schlecht läuft.
Interview #2, Zeile 862: Auch da wieder: Ein Quantensprung war es wirklich nicht. Ich
glaube, dass eine Gründungsvorlesung nicht dazu geeignet ist, aus einem Menschen, der
kein Gründer ist, einen zu machen. Aber ich glaube, dass Leuten, die tendenziell Gründer
sind oder sein könnten, dass es da helfen kann, einen Impuls in die richtige Richtung zu
geben.
Interview #3, Zeile 1090 Interviewer: Was glauben Sie, inwiefern EntrepreneurshipVeranstaltungen, die Absicht ein eigenes Unternehmen zu gründen, verändern können?
Interviewee: Ja, ich kann eigentlich nur positiv wirken. Weil, also positiv in doppelter
Hinsicht. Positiv, dass man auf diese Weise den Mut fasst, aber natürlich auch positiv, in
dem Sinne, dass man sagt, halt einmal, das ist, und das wäre ja auch positiv, das ist für
mich nicht die Sache, das habe ich nicht drauf. Dass man dadurch lernt, so würde ich es
jetzt ausdrücken, so was an sich und auch sich selbst zutreffender einzuschätzen.
Interview #3, Zeile 1231: Ich sag’ es mal so, eine Vorlesung Entrepreneurship hat dann ihr
Ziel erreicht, wenn sie eine Person, die zumindest schon den Keim hatte, ein eigenes
Unternehmen zu gründen und sozusagen die Idee hatte, dazu ermutigt hat, das wirklich
auch in die Tat umzusetzen und ihm entsprechend auch das Wissen mitgegeben hat oder
auch die möglichen Ansätze oder die möglichen Arten und Weisen oder Vorgänge. [...]
Also es muss zumindest ein Keim da sein, und wenn man den dann ausbauen kann, ist das
Ziel erreicht.
Interview #4, Zeile 1311: Also, ich fange mal so an: Die Vorlesung hat mich auf jeden
Fall darin bestärkt, unternehmerisch tätig zu werden. Das hat sie auf jeden Fall erreicht.
Interview #6, Zeile 2398, Interviewee: Neu ist jetzt dieses Thema des kulturellen
Entrepreneurship, das wir mit aufgenommen haben. Interviewer: Hatten Sie schon
Gründungen aus dem Bereich, die durch die Vorlesung motiviert wurden? Interviewee: Ja,
wir hatten eine Studentin, die hat über die Kulturförderung, Kultursponsoring,
Mäzenatentum von mittelständischen Unternehmern eine empirische Diplomarbeit
geschrieben. Sie hat sich jetzt auch in dem Bereich selbständig gemacht, irgendwo in
194
APPENDICES
dieser Schnittstelle Kulturberatung, Kulturprojekte auf die Beine stellen. Wir haben jetzt
eine zweite Studentin, die in die Richtung gehen möchte, und wir hatten auch einen
Studenten, der hat eine eigene Firma gegründet, die zwar mehr in dem Bereich Webseiten
und Marketing für Politiker tätig ist, aber der unterstützt aufgrund dieser Aktivitäten dann
auch solche Kulturprojekte, die eher einen Wohltätigkeitszweck verfolgen. Er begleitet
dann auch solche Projekte. Also haben wir schon einzelne Projekte.
Interview #2, Zeile 728: Es hat es vielleicht ein bisschen plastischer gemacht, dadurch
dass man viele Sachen im Studium kennen gelernt hat, die gründungsrelevant sind: Wie
schreibt man einen Businessplan oder worauf muss man achten? Was ist eigentlich mit
Bankgesprächen? Auch wenn das bei uns nicht relevant war, aber diese ganzen Sachen hat
man irgendwie kennen gelernt oder schon mal gesehen. Insofern die Angst oder die Scheu
davor, das einfach zu tun, ist schon ein bisschen gesunken. [...]
Interview #5, Zeile 1628, Interviewer: Inwiefern veränderte der besuchte Kurs, Deine
Intention, kurz nach Studienabschluss ein eigenes Unternehmen zu gründen? Oder hat er
Dich bestärkt darin, die Absicht zu haben? Interviewee: Also, hat mich auf alle Fälle
bestärkt darin, die Absicht zu haben und einfach auch mal gezeigt, dass es eben möglich
ist. Wenn man sonst immer in den Nachrichten nur Negatives hört und alles Mögliche, ist
das einfach so ein Lichtblick. Also, ich finde das einfach schön das zu hören, und diese
Erfolgsgeschichte, finde ich sehr interessant.
Interview
#6,
Zeile
2120,
Interviewer:
Inwiefern
können
Entrepreneurship-
Veranstaltungen die Absicht, ein eigens Unternehmen zu gründen, verändern?
Interviewee: Zum einen können sie natürlich motivieren, ein Unternehmen zu gründen,
das geht in Richtung Mut machen, dass man sich mit der Alternative auseinandersetzt, dass
man auch versucht, sie konsequent zu verfolgen. Das ist sicherlich ein wichtiger Punkt.
Ein zweiter Punkt ist auch, dass man sieht, wie vielfältig diese Aufgaben sind, also d.h.,
man bekommt erstens die verschiedenen betriebswirtschaftlichen Aspekte, rechtlichen
Aspekte, technischen Aspekte aufgezeigt, an die man vorher vielleicht gar nicht so gedacht
hat, an die man aber eben noch denken muss. Also sagen wir mal, diese
Generalistenfähigkeit, die wird dann teilweise erst deutlich.
APPENDICES
195
Interview #8, Zeile 3334, Interviewer: Welche Rolle spielt die Einschätzung der eigenen
Chancen und Fähigkeiten ein Unternehmen erfolgreich zu gründen im Hinblick auf die
Absicht ein eigenes Unternehmen zu gründen? Interviewee: Meiner Meinung nach eine
wichtige. Deshalb versuchen wir in diesem Themenfeld unsere Studierenden in die Lage
zu versetzen, abzuschätzen, was auf sie zukäme, wenn sie gründen. Damit sie dann sagen
können, „ach das trau’ ich mir zu“ oder „nee, das ist nichts für mich“. Weil ich glaube,
wenn sie es sich zutrauen, wird es wahrscheinlicher, dass sie tatsächlich gründen.
Interview
#3,
Zeile
1136,
Interviewer:
Inwiefern
können
Entrepreneurship-
Veranstaltungen die Einschätzung über die Chancen und Fähigkeiten ein Unternehmen
erfolgreich zu gründen, verändern? Traut man sich es danach eher zu? Interviewee: Je
nachdem. Man ist wahrscheinlich, ganz sicher sogar, eher in der Lage, seine eigenen
Möglichkeiten und Begrenzungen besser beurteilen zu können. Und das kann dann so oder
so ausgehen.
Interview #4, Zeile 1429, Interviewer: Inwiefern veränderte sich durch den Kurs die
Einschätzung über Deine Chancen und Fähigkeiten, ein Unternehmen erfolgreich zu
gründen? Interviewee: Also, ich denke mal, [die] hat sich auf jeden Fall verändert, und ich
denke mal die Chancen oder die Einschätzung sind gewachsen, dass es möglich ist.
Interview
#8,
Zeile
3353,
Interviewer:
Inwiefern
können
Entrepreneurship-
Veranstaltungen, die Absicht ein eigenes Unternehmen zu gründen, verändern?
Interviewee: Ich glaube, dass sie die Absicht verändern und zwar insbesondere hoffe ich
positiv. Die Veranstaltungen sollen die Attraktivität der Handlung, perceived desirability,
und die Machbarkeitsüberzeugung, perceived feasibility, steigern. Die Studierenden sollen
lernen, das Risiko zu kontrollieren. Viele haben Angst vor dem Scheitern und hohen
Schulden. Wir versuchen immer relativ deutlich zu machen, dass die ersten Gründungen
schief gehen können. Wenn man gerade dieses finanzielle Risiko kontrollieren lernt, dann
überwiegt letztlich doch die positive Lernerfahrung.
Interview
#8,
Zeile
3407,
Interviewer:
Inwiefern
können
Entrepreneurship-
Veranstaltungen die Einschätzung über die Chancen und Fähigkeiten, ein Unternehmen
erfolgreich zu gründen, verändern? Interviewee: Wo Sie das so formulieren, wäre es
natürlich toll, wenn Sie sozusagen die Veranstaltung von uns begleitet hätten. Meine
196
APPENDICES
Hypothese wäre „ja“, sonst würden wir die Veranstaltung nicht so machen, wie wir sie
machen.
Lernreflexionen #7, Zeile 213: Meine persönliche Lernerfahrung aus diesem Projekt ist
insbesondere die Bestätigung einer Aussage, die, klischeehaft betrachtet, ein bisschen an
die klassische American-Dream-Philosophie erinnert: Ist man wirklich überzeugt von einer
Idee, lässt sie sich auch verwirklichen.
Lernreflexionen #8, Zeile 263: Die Angst vor dem Scheitern konnte mir jedoch nicht
genommen werden.
Lernreflexionen #14, Zeile 380: Bisher habe ich eine Selbstständigkeit nicht in Erwägung
gezogen, denn die Angst vor zu vielen Unbekannten war zu groß. Die Teilnahme an dem
Seminar hat mir diese Angst genommen, den Respekt vor bestimmten Entscheidungen
aber gelassen.
Lernreflexionen #14, Zeile 286: Ich habe bisher nie ernsthaft mit dem Gedanken gespielt,
mich selbständig zu machen. Die Arbeit am Geschäftsmodell war sehr spannend, hat aber
meine bisherige Meinung nicht geändert. Dieses Geschäftsmodell birgt doch viele
Unsicherheiten und ist mit einem relativ hohen finanziellen Aufwand verbunden, der mich
vor der Selbständigkeit mit diesem Projekt abschrecken lässt. Dennoch finde ich die Idee
gut und werde auch als nächsten Schritt die Teilnahme am Businessplan-Wettbewerb
Berlin/Brandenburg vorbereiten und begleiten. Ich bin gespannt, wie sich das Projekt dann
entwickelt und ob sich danach meine Einstellung zur Selbständigkeit ändern wird.
Lernreflexionen #15, Zeile 424: Die Idee mich selbständig zu machen, verfolge ich schon
sehr lange, und die Vorstellung mal ein Unternehmen zu gründen, hatte mich auch
letztendlich dazu bewogen, Wirtschaft zu studieren. Obwohl das Themenfeld
Entrepreneurship durch die vielen Treffen, Überlegungen und Recherchen sehr viel Zeit in
Anspruch genommen hat, habe ich das nie als große Belastung empfunden. Ich habe
gemerkt, dass die Entwicklung eines Geschäftsmodells ein Thema ist, das ich als sehr
spannend empfinde und mir Spaß macht. […] Auch wenn xxx und ich vielleicht nicht
zusammen „xxx" machen, ist es dennoch sehr wahrscheinlich, dass ich später einmal eine
Firma gründen werde.
APPENDICES
197
b) Course Characteristics with Influence on Attitude
Role models
Interview #7, 3064: Eigentlich auch, eigentlich nur positiv, also die Leute, die da waren,
das hat einem schon immer ein bisschen imponiert [...]
Interview #1, Zeile 170: Also, ich denke, dass es ganz wichtig ist, wie das soziale Umfeld
aussieht. Also, ob, sag mal, überhaupt Unternehmertum im Wahrnehmungsfeld liegt, also,
es gibt ja auch in der Soziologie, über die Selbstrekrutierung der Unternehmerschaft
Untersuchungen, die deutlich zeigen, dass die Unternehmerschaft sich wahrscheinlich aus
eigenen Gruppen wieder reproduziert, das heißt also, hier ist wahrscheinlich einfach dieses
Role-Model, also das Lernen an der Rolle oder überhaupt, dass man drüber nachdenkt,
einfach inspiriert durch die Frage, in welchem Umfeld wachse ich auf, welches soziale
Umfeld, kenne ich Unternehmer, bin ich mit Unternehmern zusammen usw. [Und damit]
die Frage schneller auf den Tisch und intensiver auf den Tisch [kommt] als wenn das ein
Abstraktum ist und mein ganzes Umfeld sind alles Beamte, und ich denke nicht darüber
nach.
Practical Experiences
Interview #7, Zeile 2681: Also, ich hatte schon mitgekriegt, dass vor allem diese
Seminararbeiten halt sehr interessant sind, weil sie mal nicht nur die Theorie beleuchten,
wie halt in den meisten Lehrveranstaltungen, sondern dass man halt auch wirklich in der
Seminararbeit zwar auch einen fundierten theoretischen Teil halt haben muss, aber eben
auch dann tatsächlich wie im Beratungsprojekt ran muss. Und da hat man dann natürlich
auch noch mehr Einblick in, weil es eben, also wir haben zwei Projekte gemacht für kleine
Maschinenbauunternehmen im Schwarzwald. Da hat man auch noch mal direkt in die
Selbständigkeit ... weil wir hatten direkt mit den Geschäftsführern dann eben meistens zu
tun. Der das dann einmal von seinem Vater übernommen hatte, im anderen Fall mit seiner
Frau zusammen geführt hat, und da hat man dann schon auch noch mal selber gesehen,
dass man da schon mit Herz und Seele dabei ist und so weiter. Also, das hat bestimmt auch
schon noch mal die Einstellung ein bisschen geprägt.
198
APPENDICES
Lernreflexionen # 8, Zeile 258: Als besonders gelungen habe ich persönlich die
Verknüpfung des „theoretischen" Unterrichts mit der „praktischen" Prüfungsleistung
empfunden. Ich habe das theoretisch erworbene Wissen in meine Geschäftsidee einfließen
lassen und habe spätestens zu den Präsentationsterminen ein Feedback bekommen und
wurde somit entweder bestätigt oder auf Fehler hingewiesen.
Lernreflexionen #331: Für uns war es die richtige Entscheidung, dieses Themenfeld zu
wählen, denn sonst bekommt man während des Studiums keine solche Möglichkeit, die
theoretisch erworbenen Kenntnisse und Fertigkeiten anzuwenden.
c) Course Characteristics with Influence on Perceived Subjective Norms
Interview #2, Zeile 840: Alles in allem war es überschaubar. Es war jetzt nicht so, dass ich
sagen würde, ich habe da einen deutlichen Effekt verspürt. Wobei ich glaube, dass man das
aber schon könnte, wenn ich mir hier anschaue, was Professor Faltin macht, mit seinem
Labor für Entrepreneurship zum Beispiel. Da war ich jetzt ein paar Mal. Das geht schon,
dass in der Studienzeit die sozialen Kontakte stärker Richtung Gründung ausgerichtet
werden, das funktioniert.
Interview #6, Zeile 2245: Ja, Umfeld würde dann besser zutreffen, man lernt dadurch
erstens Studierende kennen, die vielleicht in der gleichen Situation sind. Man lernt dadurch
auch junge Unternehmerinnen und Unternehmer kennen. Wir hatten das letzte Mal vier
eingeladen, die eben aus dem Studium heraus gegründet haben, d.h., die waren so ein, zwei
Jahre nach der Gründung. Da war dann auch noch der Bezug da, das ist jetzt nicht ein 60jähriger, der bereits ein internationales Unternehmen leitet. Da ist der Bezug dann doch
nicht so direkt da, sondern es sind solche, die eben noch von der Uni kommen und jetzt
gerade begonnen haben, die ersten Kunden zu suchen. Einige sind dann auch schon weiter,
haben dann auch schon internationalisiert. Aber da ist dann der Bezug einfach noch stärker
da. Deshalb würde ich sagen, dass das soziale Umfeld in die Richtung eine Rolle spielt,
dass man eben neue Kontakte hat und neue Erfahrungen macht, auf die man dann später ja
dann auch zurückgreifen kann.
APPENDICES
199
Interview #7, Zeile 2544, Interviewer: Haben Sie dort Ihren jetzigen Geschäftspartner
kennen gelernt? Oder kannten Sie sich schon? Interviewee: Wir kannten uns schon seit
dem ersten Semester eigentlich hier an der Uni, und sind dann beide über eine
Informationsveranstaltung auf dieses JBT, Junior Business Team, aufmerksam geworden.
d) Course Characteristics with Influence on Perceived Behavioural Control
Interview #1, Zeile 310: Ja, gut. Also, ja, ich meine natürlich, der Sinn der Veranstaltung
ist ja nicht nur die Motivierung sondern auch die Qualifizierung, und indem man mehr
Kontakt hat und Einblicke hat in Verhaltensweisen, Instrumentarien und Methoden, die im
Zusammenhang sinnvoll einzusetzen, hat man natürlich auch sozusagen einen stärkeren
Zugang. Oder, wenn man auch jetzt einmal Beispiele von Unternehmern da hat und sieht,
„ach, der hat's geschafft, der ist jetzt 10 Jahre erfolgreich selbständig“, so dass man sagt,
„wenn der es schafft, schaff ich's auch“. Es gibt ja auch dieses Phänomen, dass
Unternehmer eher also aus kleinen Unternehmen heraus gegründet werden als aus großen.
In großen Unternehmen ist der Unternehmer irgendwo so ein Abstraktum, zu dem man
keine Kontakte hat, wo man nicht weiß, wie er funktioniert, was er tut, was er nicht tut.
Während in kleinen Unternehmen sieht man den Unternehmer. Und dann denkt man, „ja
gut, ich weiß ja, was er macht, sehe auch, was er tut und wie er sich verhält, und deswegen
hab ich das Gefühl, das kann ich auch".
Interview #1, Zeile 327: Ja also, da gibt's bisher noch keine Untersuchung, die ich kenne.
Aber
es
ist
natürlich
davon
auszugehen,
dass
einfach
hier
eine
gewisse
Professionalisierung erfolgt, indem genau, gut wie auf andere Jobs vorbereitet wird,
dadurch, dass man bestimmte Methoden, bestimmte Instrumente kennen lernt, dass man
einfach einen besseren Zugang hat, ja, und einen gewissen Wissensvorsprung vor
Unternehmern oder anderen, die das nicht haben. Und von daher denke ich, sind die
Erfolgschancen schon besser. Auch selbst, wenn man gelernt hat, zum Beispiel
Businesspläne zu entwickeln. Und selbst, wenn man dann keinen macht, man hat aber
einfach auch mal, ich sag’ mal vorgeführt bekommen, an was man denn denken muss, wo
der Horizont ist, was man alles einbeziehen sollte und so. Und das schafft natürlich eine
200
APPENDICES
bessere Vorbereitung auch auf Veränderungen der Situation, als wenn man sich nie damit
beschäftigt hat und auf einmal sozusagen auf dem linken Fuß irgendwo erwischt wird.
Interview #5, Zeile 1600, Interviewer: Und wenn Du eine Idee hättest? Würdest Du Dir
dann zutrauen, so etwas aufzubauen, Mitarbeiter zu führen? Oder hättest Du dann
vielleicht die Vorstellung, Du holst Dir jemand an Bord, der bestimmte Sachen kann, wo
Du vielleicht noch nicht so stark bist? Interviewee: Ja, ich denke schon, dass ich mir das
zutrauen würde. Also, da muss ich sagen, dass die Vorlesung auch sehr wichtig ist, weil,
da gibt es so einen Leitfaden, oder zumindest so einen, also durch den Herrn Werner, das
ist so ein bisschen so ein Leitbild, also, das finde ich interessant einfach zu hören, was er
so erzählt vom Selbständig-Sein und diese Denkensweise und, worauf wollte ich jetzt
hinaus? Interviewer: Also, es geht ja darum, ob man sich's zutraut, ein Unternehmen zu
gründen und Du meintest der Leitfaden und Professor Werner würden einem da etwas an
die Hand geben ... Interviewee: Genau, also, das ist, das finde ich schon, das hilft mir dann
schon. Durch die Vorlesung glaube ich schon, dass ich da so eine gewisse ... bisschen
Ahnung hätte, was zu tun wäre, in welche Richtung ich gehen müsste und so. Ich glaube,
ich würde es mir schon zutrauen.
ist.
Interview #6, Zeile 1746, Interviewer: Hat der Kurs die Einschätzung darüber verändert,
dass Du, also, Deine Einschätzung über Deine Chancen und Fähigkeiten, ein
Unternehmen erfolgreich zu gründen? Traust Du Dir das jetzt eher zu, das zu machen?
Interviewee: Ja, würde ich schon sagen.
Interview #6, Zeile 2272, Interviewer: Und die Chancen und Fähigkeiten ein
Unternehmen zu gründen, gehen die raus und sagen, „ja jetzt habe ich Handwerkszeug
mitbekommen, das meine Chancen tatsächlich erhöht“? Interviewee: Das wäre schon das
Ziel. Ja, das ist schon das Ziel. Interviewer: Und glauben Sie, dass sie tatsächlich
erfolgreicher sind? Glauben Sie, dass Unternehmen, die von Menschen gegründet werden,
APPENDICES
201
die solche Veranstaltungen gehört haben, tatsächlich erfolgreicher sind? Interviewee:
Also es gibt ja schon einige Untersuchungen, die das ja bestätigen, aus der Empirie heraus,
und ich würde es aus den Erfahrungen heraus jetzt auch bestätigen, dass diejenigen, die
sich dann wirklich mit allen Fragen des Businessplans, allen Fragen, die man sonst in der
Vorlesung behandelt, die sich damit auseinandersetzen, dass die mit Sicherheit
erfolgreicher sind. Einerseits weil sie es vielleicht von Beginn an richtig machen können,
und zum anderen, weil sie dann vielleicht auch auf bestimmte Fallstricke schon mal
hingewiesen werden, die vielleicht andere erst mal erlernen müssen, weil sie diese Fehler
machen. Hier kann man dann wirklich diese Fehler vermeiden. Einige wird man, muss
man vielleicht auch, selber machen, um daraus zu lernen. Aber man kann einige vielleicht
schon mal verhindern.
Interview #7, Zeile 3162, Interviewer: Und zur letzten Frage, inwiefern veränderte sich
durch den Kurs die Einschätzung über Ihre Chancen und Fähigkeiten, ein Unternehmen
erfolgreich zu gründen? Haben Sie es sich eher zugetraut oder haben Sie eher vielleicht
auch Risiken gesehen? Interviewee: Also, beides glaube ich. Also, wie gesagt, es wurde in
der Vorlesung schon immer auf beides aufmerksam gemacht und gut, es war zum Beispiel
auch, alleine so Sachen, dass in der Vorlesung zum Beispiel dann auch mal gesagt wurde:
Was ist Basel II überhaupt oder wie kommt man an Kapital und was sind verschiedene
Stufen bei dieser Kapitalbeschaffung oder in welchen Stufen finanzieren welche
Kapitalgeber was? Also Business Angel oder Venture Capital, oder dann gibt es die
Möglichkeit aus dem Unternehmen ein Spin-off oder was auch immer ... Also, das hat
schon so ein bisschen das Gefühl besser gegeben [...]
Interview #7, Zeile 3263: Genau, genau. Was weiß ich, wenn es nur über eBay ist, dass
man irgendwann zum Powerseller wird und daheim seine Sachen lagert und wieder raus
gibt, genau. Und bei uns waren es eben die Beratungsprojekte, wo wir auch gesagt haben,
wir wissen schon mal diese GbR-Anmeldung usw. [...] wir wussten zum Beispiel auch,
dass es die Möglichkeit gibt, diese Steuerberater- und Rechtsanwaltssachen – zu 50% wird
das ja gefördert, also, das ist dann zum Beispiel auch etwas, was man dann erfährt durch
die Vorlesung, und was andere Existenzgründer ja gar nicht wissen, [...] aber wir wussten
zum Beispiel über die Verträge vom Junior Business Team schon, wie so ein Vertrag
aussieht, wie sieht ein Angebot aus, und wie kann man die Haftung dann auf die
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APPENDICES
Projektsumme, also wir haben zum Beispiel jetzt immer die Haftung auf die Projektsumme
begrenzt gehabt.
Interview #8, Zeile 3356: Ich glaube, dass sie die Absicht verändern und zwar
insbesondere hoffe ich positiv. Die Veranstaltungen sollen die Attraktivität der Handlung,
perceived desirability, und die Machbarkeitsüberzeugung, perceived feasibility, steigern.
Die Studierenden sollen lernen, das Risiko zu kontrollieren. Viele haben Angst vor dem
Scheitern und hohen Schulden. Wir versuchen immer relativ deutlich zu machen, dass die
ersten Gründungen schief gehen können. Wenn man gerade dieses finanzielle Risiko
kontrollieren lernt, dann überwiegt letztlich doch die positive Lernerfahrung. Dies hat
insbesondere
Auswirkungen
darauf,
wie
ich
die
Finanzierung
für
eine
Unternehmensgründung gestalte. Und wenn wir das alles zusammen addieren, sollen die
Studierenden sich das eher zutrauen, weil sie das Risiko bewusst reduzieren können und
die Erfolgswahrscheinlichkeiten steigern können. Und ein paar werden am Ende auch
sagen, „das will ich überhaupt nicht“.
Practical knowledge
Interview #6, Zeile 2177: Und ein Drittel, wenn Sie noch die Diplomarbeit mit dazu
nehmen, dann vielleicht bis zur Hälfte, ist dann die Bearbeitung von realen
Fragestellungen, mit Hilfe des theoretischen Wissens. Und das ist eben auch ein wichtiger
Punkt:
theoretisches
Wissen
zu
vermitteln,
aber
andererseits
auch
den
Anwendungszusammenhang entsprechend zu verdeutlichen, so dass dann auch reale
Fragestellungen systematisch und fundiert gelöst werden können.
Interview #6, Zeile 2196: Hier die Laborarbeit ist wichtig, unsere Theoriearbeit ist
wichtig, aber man muss dann irgendwann auch mal den Bezug schaffen zu den Objekten
und Subjekten, die man da eigentlich untersucht. Und von daher versuchen wir dann auch,
relativ eng mit Unternehmen zu kooperieren. Das sind pro Semester circa 35
Seminararbeiten mit Firmen. Pro Jahr haben wir circa 50 Diplomarbeiten aus dem Bereich.
Das sind schon mal 120, 130 Arbeiten, die in die Richtung gehen. Und letztendlich sagen
die Studenten dann auch in den Evaluationen, die man durchführt, letzten Endes gebracht
haben ihnen dann diese Arbeiten etwas. Weil sie dann mal gesehen haben, das, was sie
APPENDICES
203
gelernt haben, wie ist das vor dem Hintergrund der Realität zu beurteilen, zu bewerten, wie
kann man das dann einsetzen?
Interview #6, Zeile 2345: Und zum anderen sprechen die ja die Unternehmer auch gezielt
an und machen dann mit denen beispielsweise Seminararbeiten, d.h., die erstellen dann für
diese Firma die Marktanalyse, überlegen sich Weiterentwicklungen zum Produkt, zu den
Dienstleistungen und können von daher auch an einem echten Praxisfall so eine
Unternehmensgründung durchtesten. Und die Erfahrung können sie ja wieder auf ihre
eigene entsprechend übertragen. Oder sie haben vielleicht die Idee, sie möchten da mit
einsteigen. Diese Möglichkeit besteht natürlich auch.
Interview #7, Zeile 2919: Aber andere Sachen zum Beispiel gab es, also ich habe
Marketing noch vertieft, und da gab es auch Entrepreneurship-Marketing, und da dann ein
bisschen noch mehr zu sehen, was jetzt auch kleinere Unternehmen oder auch
Existenzgründer für Marketing-Sachen haben oder wie sie ein Businessplan auch solche
Sachen aufbauen ... Also, das war auf jeden Fall auch wieder interessant, wo man dann
auch seine Idee schon so ein bisschen durch die Vorlesungsinhalte konkretisieren konnte.
Und natürlich am wichtigsten: der Businessplan.
Interview #7, Zeile 3012, Interviewer: [...] ob Sie sich eben an Kursinhalte erinnern, die
die Entscheidung, ein Unternehmen zu gründen, besonders beeinflusst haben? [...]
Interviewee: [...] Halt auch, dass in der Vorlesung schon immer von beiden Seiten auch
gezeigt wird ... also, auf der einen Seite wird gezeigt, wie haben es welche gemacht und
dann auch, wo liegen Risiken vielleicht, wo hätte man was wie besser machen können?
Also, da waren auf jeden Fall auch Sachen, wo man da ein bisschen hellhöriger wurde, und
gesagt hat, ja, da muss man dann vielleicht mal darauf achten oder das oder das.
Interview #7, Zeile 3263: Genau, genau. Was weiß ich, wenn es nur über eBay ist, dass
man irgendwann zum Powerseller wird und daheim seine Sachen lagert und wieder raus
gibt, genau. Und bei uns waren es eben die Beratungsprojekte, wo wir auch gesagt haben,
wir wissen schon mal diese GbR-Anmeldung usw. [...] wir wussten zum Beispiel auch,
dass es die Möglichkeit gibt, diese Steuerberater- und Rechtsanwaltssachen – zu 50% wird
das ja gefördert, also, das ist dann zum Beispiel auch etwas, was man dann erfährt durch
die Vorlesung, und was andere Existenzgründer ja gar nicht wissen, [...] aber wir wussten
204
APPENDICES
zum Beispiel über die Verträge vom Junior Business Team schon, wie so ein Vertrag
aussieht, wie sieht ein Angebot aus, und wie kann man die Haftung dann auf die
Projektsumme, also wir haben zum Beispiel jetzt immer die Haftung auf die Projektsumme
begrenzt gehabt. [...]
Interview #8, Zeile 3373: Eine Konsequenz aus den letzten drei Jahren ist für mich: Ich
darf gar nicht zu viele Gedanke über Details machen, weil ich glaube eine gesunde
Naivität muss bewahrt bleiben. Weil viele Gründer auch sagen "wenn ich das gewusst
hätte, würde ich das nicht machen". Wichtig ist, dass der ökonomische Kern des
Geschäftsmodells stimmt. Teilweisebringen wir unseren Studenten zu viele nicht
entscheidende Details bei. Das wirkt fast abschreckend. Ich glaube wir sollten ihnen ein
gesundes ökonomischen Selbstvertrauen vermitteln, und wir sollten ihnen auch vermitteln,
„bitte glaube nicht, dass Du alles kontrollieren kannst“. Du musst die entscheidenden
Sachen
kontrollieren,
insbesondere
bei
den
Finanzen
und
bezüglich
deiner
Wettbewerbsposition. Bei allem anderen kommt es darauf an, dass du mit ganzem Herzen
Unternehmerin bist. Es muss Dir Spaß machen, Gewinne zu machen, „buy low, sell high",
das ist wichtig, und du musst ein kaufmännisches Grundgespür entwickeln und musst
wissen, „ok, hier kann ich Geld ausgeben, weil es bringt dem Unternehmen was und hier
nicht, weil es bringt nichts“. Und wenn wir das machen, dann glaube ich steigern wir die
Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass sie gründen.
Interview #8, Zeile 3451: Glauben Sie, es gibt bestimmte Bereiche, in denen die
Studierenden weniger Fehler machen? Interviewee: Der Bereich Finanzierung ist hier zu
nennen. Wichtig ist dabei, sich nicht allein um die externe Kapitalbeschaffung zu
kümmern. Finanzierung hat ja auch sehr viel damit zu tun, dass die einzelne Einheit
profitabel ist, dass das Unternehmen aus der Selbstfinanzierung heraus wachsen kann. Ich
kann also Finanzierung nicht separat von meinem Produkt betrachten. Deswegen ist dieses
Geschäftsmodelldenken was jetzt aufkommt, sehr hilfreich, weil es die Themen
Innovation, Finanzierung und die Kostenseite, die Produktionsseite miteinander verzahnt.
Business planning
Interview #2, Zeile: 779: Also eine Sache waren die Businesspläne. Das war ein
Vorlesungsblock. Zu sehen, „da habe ich jetzt eine Idee, und da schaue ich mir jetzt mal
APPENDICES
205
den Markt an und komme dann irgendwie zu einem Businessplan mit einer konkreteren
Idee“. Das hat geholfen.
Interview #6, Zeile 2307, Interviewer: Welche Vorlesungsinhalte sind besonders geeignet,
die Absicht ein Unternehmen zu gründen, zu erhöhen? Interviewee: Also es hört sich jetzt
vielleicht langweilig an, aber das Thema mit dem Businessplan ist nach wie vor aktuell.
[…]Und dann auch das Verfassen eines Businessplans, und dann kommen sie eben
teilweise auch schon zu dem Ergebnis „es lohnt sich“ oder „es lohnt sich nicht“. […] Aber
sie haben dadurch natürlich die Fähigkeit solche möglichen Objekte, die man angehen
kann, auch durchzurechnen. Die ganzen Fragen der Investitionsrechnung, rechtliche,
technische Fragen, die damit einhergehen, die sind ihnen im Zuge der Erarbeitung klar
geworden.
Interview #6, Zeile 2356: Was wir jetzt noch ausgedehnt haben, ist tatsächlich der Bereich
des Businessplans. Wir betrachten weniger die einzelnen Funktionen, sondern mehr den
gesamten Businessplan.
Interview #7, Zeile 2919: Aber andere Sachen zum Beispiel gab es, also ich habe
Marketing noch vertieft, und da gab es auch Entrepreneurship-Marketing, und da dann ein
bisschen noch mehr zu sehen, was jetzt auch kleinere Unternehmen oder auch
Existenzgründer für Marketing-Sachen haben oder wie sie ein Businessplan auch solche
Sachen aufbauen... Also, das war auf jeden Fall auch wieder interessant, wo man dann
auch seine Idee schon so ein bisschen durch die Vorlesungsinhalte konkretisieren konnte.
Und natürlich am wichtigsten: der Businessplan.
Interview #7, Zeile 2942: Wir haben de facto keinen Businessplan geschrieben, aber das
war auf jeden Fall dann ein ganz zentraler Punkt, wo dann schon auch konkreter wird, ich
meine, man schreibt ja dann keinen Businessplan so nur zum Witz aber, ja, aber da zu
wissen, worauf es ankommt, was reinkommt und allein durch die Struktur weiß man ja
auch schon, ja, worauf man Acht geben muss, von der Rechtsform über wer hat welche
Kompetenzen, hat man die Kompetenzen überhaupt. Oder läuft man Gefahr nur die
spezifischen Kenntnisse zu haben aber von der Verwaltung nichts zu wissen, oder nicht zu
wissen, wie man die Steuern macht oder irgendwie so was. Und solche Sachen haben wir
dann natürlich schon auch konkret angewandt und haben uns überlegt, brauchen wir eine
206
APPENDICES
Sekretärin oder so was, oder brauchen wir ein Büro mit so einer gemeinsamen Sekretärin
oder können wir alles selber machen. Und solche Sachen waren dann schon auch direktes
Feedback so zwischen Vorlesung und...
Interview #8, Zeile 3490, Interviewer: Haben Sie die Kurse in der Vergangenheit
verändert? Wenn ja, welche Anpassungen wurden mit welchem Ziel vorgenommen?
Interviewee: Haben wir gemacht. Wir haben zum Wintersemester 2005/2006 die
dominante Stellung des Businessplans zugunsten der Betonung des Planungsprozesses
reduziert: Die Planungserfahrung ist wichtiger als das Ergebnis. Wir haben vier
Lehrveranstaltungen, die gemeinsam geprüft wurden durch einen Businessplan, und wir
haben festgestellt, dass die Studierenden alle ihre Aufmerksamkeit auf das technische
Produzieren
des
Businessplans
(Beantworten
von
Fragekatalogen
aus
Musterbusinessplänen) konzentrieren und nicht so sehr auf die Innovation und die
Ganzheitlichkeit
im
Geschäftsmodell
und
die
eigentlich
betriebswirtschaftliche
erfolgreiche Idee. Deshalb haben wir gesagt, dass dieser Businessplan [in der Bewertung]
von 100% auf nur noch 25% reduziert wird. Teilelemente, die wir für essentiell halten,
werden deutlich stärker gewichtet. So zum Beispiel ein in sich konsistentes
Geschäftsmodel, und da reicht aber eine mündliche Präsentation. Und ein Drittes, was wir
sehr wichtig finden: Um ein erfolgreiches Geschäftsmodell zu kreieren, sollte man die
Branche sehr gut kennen, insofern werden wir eine Branchenanalyse vorschalten. Das wird
eine eigenständige Prüfung sein. Also, wir haben es sehr stark verändert, in dem Sinne,
dass wir sagen, nicht alles auf den Businessplan fokussieren, sondern stärker auf Wissen
über Branche und innovative Geschäftsmodelle.
Lernreflexionen #1, Zeile 8: Absolut positiv zu beurteilen ist u. E., dass wir durch den
anfänglichen
Workshop
„Business
Idea
Jam“
und
während
des
späteren
Unterrichtsverlaufs wesentliche Ansätze (Geschäftsmodell nach Gary Hamel) hinsichtlich
des methodischen Vorgehens im Gründungsprozess kennen gelernt haben. Spätestens im
zweiten Semesterabschnitt wurde zunehmend deutlich, dass dieser vorgegebene
methodische Rahmen bei der Erarbeitung und Prüfung von Geschäftsmodellen auf ihre
Umsetzbarkeit eine maßgebliche Hilfe darstellt. Daher sind wir bereits jetzt davon
überzeugt, dass insbesondere das erlernte Vorgehensmodell für uns auch künftig ein sehr
APPENDICES
207
hilfreiches und zweckmäßiges Instrument bei der Betrachtung von Geschäftsmodellen und
der eventuellen Umsetzung eigener Ideen sein wird.
Lernreflexionen #1, Zeile 17: Darüber hinaus wurde uns durch die notwendige
Herstellung von Außenkontakten zu Unternehmen gleichsam verdeutlicht, dass sich die
Überwindung von – zum Teil auch eigenen inneren – Widerständen durchaus lohnt.
Regelmäßig hat die Ansprache potenzieller Unternehmenspartner zu sehr wichtigen
Erkenntnissen und interessanten Fach- und Branchengesprächen geführt, so dass die
erfolgte Hilfestellung durch die entsprechenden Firmen, deren Leistungen wir zur
Umsetzung unserer eigenen Idee in Anspruch nehmen wollen, als durchgängig positiv zu
beurteilen ist. Diesbezüglich haben sich aus einzelnen Expertengesprächen auch
intensivere Kontakte bzw. Mehrfachkontakte entwickelt, die einer Prozessbegleitung in
bestimmten Fachfragen nahe kam.
Diese Erkenntnis ist aus heutiger Sicht umso bedeutender, als dass gerade diese
Weitergabe von hochwertigem Expertenwissen erst eine reale Einschätzung eines
Geschäftsmodells bzw. der Wettbewerbssituation bestimmter Branchen – jenseits eigener
Annahmen und Zahlenwerke – ermöglicht.
Lernreflexionen #2, Zeile 69: Es ist wichtig, diese Annahmen und das gesamte
Geschäftsmodell stetig zu überprüfen, um nicht nach der Investition feststellen zu müssen,
dass sich alles ganz anders entwickelt als angenommen.
Lernreflexionen #3, Zeile 73: Im Zuge des Semesters wurde uns vermittelt, wie man von
einer lediglich im Kopf des potenziellen Gründers existierenden Idee zu einem
vollständigen Geschäftsmodell kommen kann. Die Beispiele erfolgreicher und weniger
erfolgreicher Unternehmen bzw. Geschäftsmodelle waren da sehr hilfreich und haben dazu
geführt, dass man sich selber ständig mit dem Unternehmerbegriff und potenziellen
Risikofaktoren des eigenen Geschäftsmodells kritisch auseinandergesetzt hat.
Lernreflexionen #3, Zeile 80:
Ferner haben sich das explizite Formulieren von
Annahmen und die ständige Überprüfung dieser – durch Gespräche mit potenziellen
Kunden oder anderweitige Recherchen – als essentiell herausgestellt. Ein potenzieller
Gründer ist oftmals von seiner eigenen Begeisterung für die Geschäftsidee getrieben, und
208
APPENDICES
vergisst dabei, dass jede Geschäftsidee nicht etwa seinen eigenen Bedürfnissen und
Wünschen entsprechen muss, sondern vielmehr denen der jeweiligen Zielgruppe. Durch
die durchgeführte Umfrage sind wir zur Erkenntnis gelangt, dass wir an einigen Stellen an
den Bedürfnissen der Kunden vorbeigeplant hatten. So stellten bspw. die MerchandisingProdukte keinen vom Kunden gewünschten Bestandteil dar, und die weitere Überprüfung
unserer Annahmen stellte heraus, dass wir uns ebenfalls hinsichtlich der Kosten und des
logistischen Aufwands hinsichtlich der Merchandising-Produkte verkalkuliert hatten.
Die Überprüfung alleine dieser Annahme hat dazu geführt, dass im Falle einer Umsetzung
dieses Geschäftsmodells wir vor wenigstens einem großen Fehler bewahrt werden würden.
Hier zeigte sich, wie wichtig ein flexibles Modelldenken und das Verwerfen bzw.
Abändern von falsifizierten Annahmen ist.
Lernreflexionen #3, Zeile 97: Das Motto sollte daher sein, am Anfang ein einfaches und
glaubwürdiges Modell zu entwerfen, welches grundsätzlich Aussichten auf Erfolg hat, und
dieses dann langsam – während des laufenden Geschäftsbetriebes –anzupassen.
Lernreflexionen #3, Zeile 107: In dem Fehlen von Informationen bzw. der Bereitschaft,
die eigenen Annahmen und Ziele einer kritischen Überprüfung zu unterwerfen, sehen wir
u.a. Hauptgründe für das Scheitern von Geschäftsmodellen. Daher gilt es, sich ein flexibles
Modelldenken zu bewahren, dabei aber nicht zu detailverliebt zu werden und den
eigentlichen Geschäftszweck aus den Augen zu verlieren.
Lernreflexionen #4, Zeile 123: Die strukturierte Herangehensweise aus dem Business Idea
Jam hat gezeigt, dass nicht die erste Idee unbedingt die beste ist. Insbesondere führte der
Einsatz von Werkzeugen zur Ideenfindung zu neuen Erkenntnissen.
Lernreflexionen #3, Zeile 147: Die Formulierung einer Strategie ohne ausreichende
Kontrolle der dabei getätigten Annahmen kann für ein Geschäftmodell von Beginn an das
Scheitern bedeuten. So haben wir erkennen müssen, dass von uns getätigte Annahmen das
Geschäftsmodell häufig neu in Frage stellten und immer wieder neu angepasst werden
mussten.
Lernreflexionen #4, Zeile 166: Zusammenfassend haben wir die Erkenntnis gewonnen,
dass eine gute Geschäftsidee nur in Kombination mit Konzepten der Finanzierung, des
APPENDICES
209
Marketings und der juristischen Grundlagen, gepaart mit dem Unternehmergeist, zum
Erfolg geführt wird. Deshalb ist eine sorgfältige Planung vor Geschäftsbeginn
unabdingbar.
Lernreflexionen #5, Zeile 171: Anfänglich hat unsere Geschäftsidee etwas anders
ausgesehen. Der USP des Bio-Supermarkts hatte zwar auch mit Erlebnis zu tun, aber in
einer anderen Form. Wir wollten durch Attraktivität in Form von Kochkursen,
Sommelierkursen, Kindertagen, Schulungen usw. den Kunden anziehen. Für uns stand
Spaß immer im Vordergrund, das Einkaufen sollte nie langweilig werden.
Dann aber haben wir festgestellt, dass dieses Nebenangebot, so wie wir es uns gedacht
hatten, gar nicht so nebensächlich ist, sondern sich auch alleine hätte tragen können.
Lernreflexionen #5, Zeile 179: Euphorisch dachten wir das Richtige gefunden zu haben,
aber die Marktforschung hat uns eines Besseren belehrt.
Lernreflexionen #5, Zeile 184: Uns ist bewusst geworden, wie wichtig es ist, einen
Businessplan zu erstellen. Nur so kann man Stärken, Schwächen, Chancen und Gefahren
erkennen. Dabei sollte man ehrlich zu sich selbst sein und nichts beschönigen. Schließlich
und endlich geht es um eingesetztes Kapital und um die eigene Existenz.
Lernreflexionen #5, Zeile 204: Besonders aufgefallen ist mir durch den Kurs, dass
Analysen, die für ein Geschäftsmodell notwendig sind, kaum oder nur schwer
durchzuführen sind, wenn man nicht vor Ort ist oder die Sprache des Zielmarktes nicht
beherrscht. Mein Teampartner spricht zwar fließend Türkisch, jedoch habe ich die Arbeit
für den Kurs alleine durchgeführt und stieß daher häufig an meine Grenzen.
Lernreflexionen #8, Zeile 232: Die wichtigste Lernerfahrung für mich war, dass die
Abklärung aller relevanten Daten und Fakten absolut notwendig ist, um über die
Machbarkeit einer Geschäftsidee auch wirklich entscheiden zu können. In meinem
speziellen Fall hat die Vernachlässigung dieser Tatsache dazu geführt, dass ich meine
Geschäftsidee noch einmal grundlegend überarbeiten musste, da von mir getroffene
Annahmen sich nicht bestätigt haben oder bestimmte Daten gar nicht vorlagen.
210
APPENDICES
Lernreflexionen #11, Zeile 320: Für uns war es spannend zu sehen, wie aus einer Idee in
so kurzer Zeit ein fast vollständiges Geschäftsmodell werden kann.
Lernreflexionen #4, Zeile 321: Bereits der Business Idea Jam stellte eine wichtige
Anfangserfahrung dar. Zu sehen, wie man Ideen kreieren kann und erste Überlegungen zur
Machbarkeit in Form von Discovery-Driven-Planning formuliert, regte [es] mich direkt an,
erste Gedanken zu den "xxx" [Name des geplanten Unternehmens] noch zum Business
Idea Jam auszuarbeiten.
Lernreflexionen #14, Zeile 374: Durch die Arbeit an dem Geschäftsmodell ist klar
geworden, wie wichtig es ist, neue Erkenntnisse mit einzubeziehen und getroffene
Entscheidungen immer wieder zu hinterfragen. Ein Geschäftsmodell lebt und kann unter
Umständen auch komplett auf den Kopf gestellt werden.
Lernreflexionen #8, Zeile 261: Letztendlich sehe ich mich jetzt sehr viel besser in der
Lage, das Risiko bei einer Unternehmensneugründung so gering wie möglich zu halten
und kalkulierbarer zu machen.
Lernreflexionen #12, Zeile 335: Beim Entwickeln der Geschäftsidee habe ich mir einen
tieferen Einblick in das Funktionieren der Branche, vor allem auf Marketingaspekte,
verschafft als in den 11 Jahren meiner Branchenzugehörigkeit zuvor.
Lernreflexionen #15, Zeile 400: Trotz meines BWL-Studiums standen bei mir die
Kreativität und der Ideenreichtum immer im Vordergrund, und ich habe weniger darüber
nachgedacht, dass man mit der Idee auch Geld verdienen muss, bzw. habe ich nicht
darüber nachgedacht, inwiefern das Durchführen eines Akzeptanztests wichtig sein könnte,
um am Ende nicht plötzlich vor einer großen Pleite zu stehen. Ich war mir sicher, dass
wenn ich von meiner eigenen Idee überzeugt bin, dann werde ich auch andere überzeugen
können — egal was irgendwelche Experten darüber sagen oder denken und egal, ob es der
Branche nun gut geht oder schlecht.
Lernreflexionen #15, Zeile 407: Während xxx [Name eines Teammitglieds] und ich an
dem Geschäftsmodell gearbeitet haben, ist mir aufgefallen, dass wir zu Beginn der
Veranstaltung teilweise andere Vorstellungen hatten, als sie nun tatsächlich ausgefallen
sind.
APPENDICES
211
Lernreflexionen #15, Zeile 409: Zwischenzeitlich war ich der Meinung, dass wir ein Shirt
locker für fünfzig oder sechzig Euro verkaufen können. Unsere Umfrage unter den
Hotelgästen hat uns allerdings gezeigt, dass wir falsch liegen und ein niedrigerer Preis für
unser Produkt viel eher akzeptiert werden würde. Des Weiteren war ich der Meinung, dass
unsere Produkte für die Hoteliers sowohl als Marketinginstrument als auch als zweite
Einnahmequelle interessant sein würden. Der Zuverdienst scheint den Hoteliers zwar nicht
unrecht zu sein, dennoch würden sie mit unseren Produkten zu Beginn aus reinen
Marketingzwecken arbeiten.
Lernreflexionen #15, Zeile 434: Für meinen Teil habe ich gelernt, welche Bedeutung
Marktforschung und Expertengespräche haben, um zu überprüfen, ob die eigene Meinung
auch von der Masse geteilt wird.
Lernreflexionen #15, Zeile 436: Der Ansatz von Hamel, ein Geschäftsmodell in kleine
Teile zu zerlegen und zu überlegen, ob man nicht hier und da etwas innovativer und besser
machen kann, als es bisher gemacht wird, hat mir sehr gefallen und wird mir bei der
Entwicklung neuer Geschäftsideen im Hinterkopf bleiben.
Role models
Interview #1, Zeile 344: Gut, Veranstaltungen, in denen sie Kontakte auch mit
Unternehmern haben, wo sie dann, ja, einfach von Unternehmern hören, wo sie einfach
mitbekommen, was da so läuft, und was der Charme und der Reiz dieser Veranstaltung
dann sein kann.
Interview #4, Zeile 1497, Interviewer: Gibt es noch irgend etwas anderes zum Thema, was
Du loswerden möchtest, was die Absicht steigern könnte, ein Unternehmen zu gründen?
Interviewee: Also, ich sag es mal so, wenn man vielleicht die Personen erreichen will, die
eben keinen „Keim“ haben, dann sollte man vielleicht in den Basis-Vorlesungen wie
Rechnungswesen oder so auch vielleicht ab und zu Persönlichkeiten, erfolgreiche
Persönlichkeiten einladen, wenn die Uni das Ziel verfolgt, möglichst viele Unternehmer
hervorzubringen, wenn die Uni das wollen würde, was wahrscheinlich in Karlsruhe
unwahrscheinlich ist, weil die ja zu groß sind.
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APPENDICES
Interview #4, Zeile 1386: Besonders waren immer die Gastredner, die da waren und haben
motiviert. Der eine, der hier in Karlsruhe ein Unternehmen gegründet hat, eben aufgrund
der Entrepreneurship-Vorlesung von damals, bei Professor Würth, die aber ungefähr die
selben Inhalte hatte. Und wenn man dann sieht, das ist jetzt ein Student, der war vor vier
Jahren auch an der Uni Karlsruhe, hat jetzt sein Unternehmen gegründet und hat jetzt seine
100 Mitarbeiter, dann [...] ja, dann sagt man sich, man kann doch was erreichen.
ist. Wenn man sonst immer in den Nachrichten nur Negatives hört und alles mögliche, ist
das einfach so ein Lichtblick. Also, ich finde das einfach, schön das zu hören, und diese
Erfolgsgeschichte, finde ich sehr interessant.
Interview #5, Zeile 1665, Interviewer: Und hat das was verändert. Helfen solche positiven
Beispiele? Interviewee: Ja, es hat schon bestärkt, vor allem, weil die eigentlich genau das
gleiche gesagt haben, wie in der Vorlesung wieder. Jeder hat natürlich ein bisschen seine
Schwerpunkte auf ein anderes Thema gelegt, aber prinzipiell hatten sie sehr viele gleiche
Grundzüge, und das hat mich schon bestärkt, doch.
Interview #6, Zeile 1974: Oder wir haben diejenigen, die auch durch Veranstaltungen oder
Auftritte von Unternehmern an der Universität dazu motiviert werden, sich eigene
Gedanken zu machen und dann den Weg einschlagen.
Interview #6, Zeile 2246: Man lernt dadurch auch junge Unternehmerinnen und
Unternehmer kennen. Wir hatten das letzte Mal vier eingeladen, die eben aus dem Studium
heraus gegründet haben, d.h. die waren so ein, zwei Jahre nach der Gründung. Da war
dann auch noch der Bezug da, das ist jetzt nicht ein 60-jähriger, der bereits ein
internationales Unternehmen leitet.
Interview #6, Zeile 2339, Interviewer: Was ist mit Kontakten zu Unternehmern? Was ist
mit Gründern, die in ihre Vorlesung kommen, vielleicht selbst noch Studierende sind oder
erst kürzlich gegründet haben, ist das auch etwas, was sehr motivierend wirkt? Oder ist es
eher die Beschäftigung mit der eigenen Idee? Interviewee: In der Regel wirkt das schon
APPENDICES
213
mal motivierend, dass man sagt, „die schaffen dass, dann scheint das ja doch keine Hexerei
zu sein“. Dann kann man das also auch versuchen.
Interview #6, Zeile 2358: Wir haben auch verstärkt studentische Gründer mit eingeladen.
Wir hatten früher auch Unternehmer, die teilweise 50 oder 55 waren. Wir wollten ganz
einfach diesen Bezug zur eigenen Lebenserfahrung etwas stärker herstellen, deswegen
haben wir da Veränderungen vorgenommen.
Interview #7, Zeile 2897: Aber es waren eben auch oft Leute dar, die dann aus der Praxis
kamen, also es waren auch Studenten in der Vorlesung teilweise, die wie wir jetzt auch
schon gegründet hatten und dann eben gezeigt hatten, wie sie aus Hohenheim raus
gegründet hatten. Das hat auf jeden Fall einen bestimmten Schub gegeben, zu sehen, dass
haben schon andere gemacht oder es gab dann eben auch viele, ich glaube es war auch ein
ehemaliger Berater, ich weiß nicht mehr von welcher Gesellschaft, der sich dann eben da
auch ausgeklinkt hat und was aufgebaut hat oder es gibt auch aus unserem Junior Business
Team eben Alumnis, die sich selbständig gemacht haben und da war glaube ich, sind auch
immer mal wieder welche beim Professor Müller. Also das war, das war auf jeden Fall ein
großer Anstoß da immer mal wieder Leute zu sehen, die das dann gemacht haben, die dann
auch erzählt haben, wo ihre Lessons learned waren oder so, was sie falsch gemacht haben,
was sie besser gemacht haben, was schwerläufig war, oder ob die Bürokratie wirklich so
schlimm ist wie man sagt, oder wo sie sich informiert haben und wie sie ihre
Gesellschaftsform gewählt haben, und wie sie gewachsen sind, und was sie sich eigentlich
vorgestellt hatten und so was. Also, das war auf jeden Fall interessant und hat auf jeden
Fall auch einen Ansporn gegeben.
Interview #7, Zeile 3001: Da waren dann schon, in der Vorlesung jetzt wieder, die Leute,
die das aus der Uni direkt gemacht haben, das war schon ein Ansporn zu sagen, das
können wir auch. Vor allem, weil wir, teilweise, bei ein, zwei Ideen habe ich auch gedacht,
mit der Idee kann man wirklich Geld machen, oder das funktioniert wirklich. Ich meine,
ich weiß nicht, inwiefern das wirklich gut funktioniert oder wie man jetzt auch „gut“
definiert, ich meine, als Student reicht’s einem ja auch wenn man ein bisschen sein
Studium finanzieren kann, aber das hat uns dann schon auch angespornt, wo wir gedacht
haben, also wenn der mit der Idee sich da über Wasser halten kann dann, und wir wissen
214
APPENDICES
eigentlich, dass da Bedarf da ist, dann müsste es eigentlich auch klappen. Also, das auf
jeden Fall.
Interview #7, Zeile 3090: […] aber insgesamt hat einen schon dieser Macher, ja diese
Macherart schon beeindruckt, es waren dann Leute, also da hat dann beides beeindruckt,
also nicht nur die Studenten, die dann aus dem Studium raus was gemacht haben, sondern
auch die, die aus einer Firma gesagt haben, so, ich habe jetzt die Idee, und ich gründe mich
aus der Firma aus oder ich gründe mich aus der Beratung aus. Ich steige da jetzt aus und
gehe in mein Spezialgebiet oder so was und das waren schon, schon auf beiden Seiten
dann auf jeden Fall positiv verändernde Einstellungen […]
Interview #7, Zeile 3024: […] aber immer wieder gezeigt wurde, also, es gibt diesen
Inkubator der einen unterstützt, wenn man was machen will, es gibt vergünstigte Mieten,
es gibt da irgendwelche Netzwerke, die einem da zur Seite stehen. Also das, waren dann
vielleicht keine theoretischen Kursinhalte direkt, aber das waren so Sachen, die schon
immer mal wieder in der Vorlesung natürlich auch propagiert wurden oder bekannt
gemacht wurden, die auf jeden Fall auch mitgeholfen haben.
Interview #7, Zeile 3157: Also, bestimmt, also ich könnte bestimmt jetzt fünf, sechs Leute
aus dem Junior Business Team aufzählen, deren Eltern direkt selbständig sind. Und wo ich
die Eltern teilweise auch kenne oder eben, ja also, ja, war das Umfeld schon relativ
unternehmerisch oder unternehmer- oder selbstständigfreudig oder wie auch immer.
Explorative and interactive elements
Interview #1, Zeile 353: Und deswegen haben wir natürlich eine gewisse Präferenz für
Didaktik, die mit konkreten Aktionsmöglichkeiten verbunden ist. Und deswegen haben wir
ja auch dieses Planspiel dann da entwickelt, um einfach ja, handlungsgetriebene
Situationen dann auch zu haben. Also, nicht nur Situationen, die klassische Vorlesung, wo
der eine spricht und der andere zuhört, sondern etwas, wo man also dann auch das, was
man hört und wahrnimmt, umsetzt in konkrete Verhaltensweisen und dann auch
Rückmeldungen aus der Realität bekommt. Also dieses Feedback-gestützte Lernen: Ich tue
APPENDICES
215
was und sehe eine Reaktion und habe einen nächsten Handlungsschritt, der wieder eine
Reaktion auf die Reaktion ist und solche Abläufe und daher auch diese Vorstellung, dass
Planspiele in besonderer Weise dafür geeignet sind, oder eben solche Projektseminare, wo
man eben "hands-on" hat und mit Leuten interagiert und offene Lernsituationen, offene
Lernstrukturen dann hat. Und vor allem auch problemgetrieben Lernen kann. Nicht, also
die Schule verspricht ja, dass sie Lösungen für Probleme anbietet, die man später mal
kriegen wird. Ob das so ist, dass weiß man ja dann nicht, und deswegen ist die Motivation
natürlich schwieriger. Aber ein Unternehmer lernt ja eher andersrum, indem er in einer
Problemsituation ist und dann anfängt aus der Problemsituation motivational getrieben
heraus, sich Dinge zu erschließen. Und das versuchen wir natürlich auch so ein bisschen,
zum Beispiel mit dem Planspiel und mit anderen Dingen zu machen. Indem wir Leute bei
dem Planspiel auch erst mal ins kalte Wasser schmeißen und mal gucken, ob sie
schwimmen können. Wenn sie Pech haben, machen sie pleite.
Interview #1, Zeile 611: Ja, gut, da gibt's natürlich, da müssten sie gucken, also so in
Richtung aktivitätsorientierte, also aktions- oder verhaltensorientierte Veranstaltungen. Da
gibt's also auch immer mal wieder Beiträge, die in diese Richtung gehen, also das betonen.
Das ist eigentlich so ein Tenor, der sich seit auch 10, 15 Jahren so einigermaßen hält. In
den Reflektionen über didaktische Möglichkeiten.
Interview #2, Zeile 782: Und das Zweite war ein Unternehmensplanspiel, bei dem man
dann irgendwie Personalentscheidungen treffen musste, Budgetentscheidungen treffen
musste, Kaufentscheidungen treffen musste, Finanzierungsentscheidungen treffen musste.
Wo wir einfach gemerkt haben, dass wir, wenn wir uns ein bisschen Zeit genommen haben
und die relevanten Entscheidungen richtig getroffen haben, dass wir in den Spielrunden
einfach auch Erfolg hatten.
Interview #4, Zeile 1448, Interviewer: Hast Du noch andere Ideen, bei denen Du sagst,
„das hätte ich noch gerne gesehen, das hätte mir geholfen“? Interviewee: Ja, die
Vorlesung hat parallel dazu noch Planspiele angeboten. Da hat man sozusagen die
Möglichkeit, Unternehmen in einer Gruppe zu leiten und zu sehen, wie der Markt reagiert.
Das gab es dazu parallel. Das ist denke ich mal auch eine gute Möglichkeit, um so etwas
auszuprobieren.
216
APPENDICES
Interviewer #6, Zeile 2207: Und was dann natürlich auch noch mit dazu kommt ist der,
sagen wir mal, mehr soziale Kompetenzeffekt, d.h. sie müssen versuchen innerhalb eines
Teams, das arbeitet, in dem Fall das Unternehmen, entsprechend ihre Meinungen zu
vertreten, ihre Positionen durchzusetzen, deren Meinungen einzuholen, und das ist ja auch
eine Erfahrung, die man so, im Rahmen einer rein theoretischen Seminararbeit, die man zu
zweit, zu dritt durchführt, natürlich auch nicht macht.
Interview #2, Zeile 769: Und auch die Erfahrung des Gefühls schon einmal gemacht zu
haben, von der Idee, zur Umsetzung mit einem Ergebnis zu gelangen.
Interview #2, Zeile 857: Es wurde vielleicht ein bisschen plastischer, also die Gedanken
was brauche ich, um zu gründen. Ein bisschen hat es sicherlich auch einen Einfluss gehabt,
hatte ich ja eben schon gesagt, dieses „ein Erfolgserlebnis mal gehabt zu haben“ oder den
Businessplan gemeinsam an der EBS mit Axel, in Katz mit Dir zu schreiben. Und dann
auch, was wir ja dann auch gemacht haben, mit einer Firma die Idee zu konkretisieren. Das
hat schon ein Stück geholfen.
Interview #2, Zeile 868, Interviewer: Und du hattest jetzt schon ein paar Mal erwähnt, Du
könntest Dir schon vorstellen, dass manche Veranstaltungen, manche Formen von
Veranstaltungen dies und jenes verändern könnten, die Intention verändern könnten. Was
schwebt Dir da vor? Was hättest Du jetzt aus Deiner Sicht für sinnvoll erachtet?
Interviewee: Ein Unternehmen zu gründen im Studium. Den Kurs zu nennen „Wir
gründen ein Unternehmen“ und dann irgendeinen bullshit und sei es „wir verkaufen Hand
beschriebene Klopapierrollen“, ist völlig egal, aber irgend etwas, eine Idee zu haben, etwas
zu gründen, mit dem Ziel am Ende von zwei Semestern mit einem bisschen mehr Geld
herauszukommen, als man gestartet ist. Und dann vielleicht im nächsten Semester zu
gucken, „ok, was haben wir jetzt in den letzten beiden Semestern gemacht? Wir haben ein
ganz kleines bisschen Geld damit verdient, und jetzt überlegen wir mal, wie wir das
Geschäftsmodell, das wir da hatten, irgendwie noch mal umbauen könnten, um noch ein
bisschen mehr Geld damit zu verdienen.“ Dass die Leute diesen Geschmack vom Gründen
und Unternehmertum und „ich nehme was in die Hand“, „mache mir Gedanken und es
kommt ein Ergebnis dabei raus“, dass sie das mitkriegen. Das glaube ich, hat einen
vielfach höheren Effekt, als immer kurz vorher aufzuhören, bevor es ernst wird. Und es ist,
glaube ich, wirklich total egal, ob man sich in eine Einkaufspassage stellt und frisch
APPENDICES
217
gepressten Orangensaft für 3 Euro verkauft, für den man interne Kosten von 2,50 Euro
hatte, alles eingerechnet. Es ist total egal. Sondern es geht einfach wirklich nur darum, zu
sehen, „ok, ich hatte eine Idee, einen Gedanken, habe ihn irgendwie umgesetzt, und es
kommen 3,20 Euro dabei rum“.
Interview #2, Zeile 910: Und da kommt man dann in Kontakt mit Leuten, die wirklich
Unternehmer sind. Und das finde ich ganz interessant. Das Nonplusultra ist es immer noch
nicht, weil ich glaube, das Nonplusultra ist einfach, wirklich etwas zu machen, völlig egal
wie viel man da verdient, einfach irgend etwas zu machen.
Interview #4, Zeile 1458: Ich bin ja jetzt bei einer studentischen Unternehmensberatung,
wenn man irgendwie das Engagement oder die Aktivität in so einer studentischen
Unternehmensberatung mit einer Vorlesung verknüpfen könnte, dass man vielleicht dazu
animiert wird, zu der Unternehmensberatung hinzugehen und auch vielleicht ein internes
Projekt durchzuführen oder vielleicht noch ein externes Projekt, dass man, wenn man die
Möglichkeit bekommt, praktisch gesehen sozusagen, sein kleines Mini-Unternehmer mal
zu versuchen anzugehen, mit den Kunden zu diskutieren, vielleicht ein Produkt zu
verkaufen... Das ist wahrscheinlich [etwas], was einen am meisten motivieren würde, weil
man eben sieht, man kann es schaffen, man kriegt auch Geld dafür und die Kunden sind
dann auch zufrieden. Und dann ist sozusagen der Schritt von der Aktivität in einer
studentischen Unternehmensberatung zu einem eigenen Unternehmen wirklich kein so
großer, weil man dann einfach die praktische Art und Weise mal kennen lernt. Es ist dann
nicht wirklich so theoretisch wie ein Planspiel zum Beispiel, wo man einfach irgendwelche
Zahlen sieht.
Interview #6, Zeile 1861, Interviewer: Und sie begleiten auch Unternehmen oder
potenzielle Start-ups? Sie sagten, es gibt einen Inkubator hier? Interviewee: Ja. Im Jahr
2004 wurden in Hohenheim 25 Unternehmen aus der Universität ausgegründet, und die
meisten davon werden im Inkubator der Innovation Bildung Hohenheim GmbH im
Wollgrasweg untergebracht. Deswegen sind auch unsere Büros dort drüben. Die
Unternehmen werden dann entsprechend begleitet, d.h. sie können dort von der Stadt
vergünstigte Räume anmieten, sie bekommen entsprechende Beratung und Unterstützung,
wenn es um Finanzierungsanträge, Fördermöglichkeiten geht, und man versucht auch,
Stichwort Netzwerk zur Unterstützung, ihnen entsprechende Kontakte zu vermitteln. Und
218
APPENDICES
wir versuchen dann auch mit ihnen Projekte durchzuführen, d.h. im Rahmen von Seminaroder Diplomarbeiten werden dann betriebswirtschaftliche Probleme dieser Start-up
Unternehmen gelöst.
Interview #7, Zeile 2524: Also, es läuft so: Jedes Projektteam wird engagiert von einem
externen Unternehmen und jedes Projektteam gründet eine eigene GbR für das einzelne
Projekt. Das ist mit dem Finanzamt abgeklärt, dass das Ok geht, weil das eben nur für
studentische Unternehmensberatungsprojekte pro Projekt ist, weil es jedes mal eine andere
Zusammenstellung von Teams ist, deshalb wussten wir zum Beispiel schon wie so ein
GbR-Vertrag abläuft, was man mit dem Finanzamt abklären muss und so weiter. Es wurde
dann natürlich ein bisschen anders, dadurch dass es jetzt eine GbR ist, die konstant läuft
und nicht nur für ein Projekt ist, aber dadurch hatten wir schon relativ, bisschen das
Gespür wie das alles abläuft.
Interview #8, Zeile 3475, Interviewer: Welche Inhalte glauben Sie sind besonders
geeignet, die Absicht ein Unternehmen zu gründen, zu erhöhen? Interviewee: Drei Sachen.
Der Businessplan ist wichtig. Aber nicht so wichtig, wie er in den letzten Jahren - auch
von uns - dargestellt wurde. Das Allerwichtigste ist der Prozess, also das Selbsterfahren
der Studierenden, wie aus der ersten Idee für ein neues Unternehmen, für ein neues
Produkt, für eine neue Dienstleistung etwas entsteht - durch das Machen. Bei uns ist es in
erster Linie recherchieren, also dass sie tatsächlich Kundenbefragungen machen. Jedes
Team bei uns muss zwischen 50 und 100 Kundenbefragungen machen, dann merken die
auf einmal, wo tatsächlich die Haken sind, und sie müssen für ihre Kostenseite die
Branchenstrukturen untersuchen, Angebote einholen. Aber Sie gründen noch nicht. Ganz
toll wäre es, wenn wir mehr Zeit hätten, dass wir wirklich sagen, wir machen diesen
ganzen Prozess einmal durch, inklusive des Gründens und der ersten Markterfahrungen,
weil dann wieder ganz viel geändert werden muss, weil doch der Markt meistens anders
ist, als im Businessplan vermutet. Dann lernen die Studierenden, dass es ist wichtig ist,
sein Geschäftsmodell permanent zu hinterfragen und zu verändern.
Feedback
Interview #2, Zeile: 788: Und das hat mir geholfen, dass ich gesehen habe, dass die
Diskussion, also die kritische Auseinandersetzung mit einem Geschäftspartner, den wir da
APPENDICES
219
hatten, wir haben das immer in Zweier- oder Dreier-Teams gespielt, da habe ich gesehen,
dass dieses Auseinandersetzen mit einer weiteren Person, sehr viel geholfen hat.
Interview #7, Zeile 2624: […] es gibt so einen „Test your Idea“-Wettbewerb hier und
nachdem wir die Idee schon lange im Hinterkopf hatten, mehr oder weniger, das war ganz
lustig, weil der Herr Hättich, also mein Partner, war zu der Zeit in Bosten, er hat da
studiert, ich war in Singapur habe ein Praktikum gemacht und dann war der Wettbewerb
hier in Stuttgart und nachdem die Idee aber schon da war und wir einfach mal auch testen
wollten, wie das ankommt oder wie die Experten das jetzt einschätzen, haben wir dann da
mit noch einem Hohenheimer und über Boston, Singapur, haben wir das zusammen
geschrieben, und haben dann zwar keinen ersten Platz belegt, aber wir haben ganz
wertvolles Feedback eigentlich gekriegt, haben das Geschäftsmodell dann noch mal ein
bisschen abgestimmt und haben dann einfach mal angefangen. Und dann lief es viel
besser, als wir erwartet hatten und ja, so hatten wir dass dann weitergemacht.
Interview #7, Zeile 3214: Aber, die Einschätzung, gut, was auch gut war wiederum, dieser
„Test your Idea-Wettbewerb“, da kriegt man ja auch so einen Feedbackbogen dann mit.
Und da war die Einschätzung, schon insgesamt ermunternd oder positiv […] aber wir
haben eigentlich versucht, das als konstruktive Kritik aufzunehmen und haben dann auch
noch mal mit dem Professor Müller und den Leuten geredet, und ich denke im Endeffekt
ist dann tatsächlich, das Entscheidende war, dass wir es einfach gemacht haben. Und wir
haben das Feedback dann eingearbeitet und haben dann schon noch mal ein paar Sachen
verändert […]
Interview #8, Zeile 3484: Ganz toll wäre es, wenn wir mehr Zeit hätten, dass wir wirklich
sagen, wir machen diesen ganzen Prozess einmal durch, inklusive des Gründens und der
ersten Markterfahrungen, weil dann wieder ganz viel geändert werden muss, weil doch der
Markt meistens anders ist, als im Businessplan vermutet. Dann lernen die Studierenden,
dass es wichtig ist, sein Geschäftsmodell permanent zu hinterfragen und zu verändern.
Lernreflexionen #1, Zeile 35: Eine weitere wichtige Erkenntnis, die uns vor allem im
Rahmen unserer Marktforschungsaktivitäten deutlich wurde, ist, dass wir mit unserem
Gründungsprojekt
auch
Unterstützungsangeboten
ein
–
bis
hohes
hin
Maß
zur
an
Fürsprache
angetragenen
und
Partnerschaft
fachlichen
–
durch
220
APPENDICES
Kommilitoninnen und Kommilitonen erhalten haben. Diese Erfahrung haben wir in
dieser Art und Weise im Rahmen unseres Studiums erstmalig gemacht, und sie
ermutigt auf jeden Fall, sich auch künftig bei dem entstandenen studentischen
Know-how-Netzwerk
zu
bedienen
bzw.
das
eigene
Know-how
oder
Erfahrungswissen anderen Mitstreitern zur Verfügung zu stellen.
Lernreflexionen #3, Zeile 114: Hilfreich waren auch die Gespräche und Tipps von bereits
erfolgreichen Unternehmern. Dieses In–Anspruch-Nehmen externer Hilfe hat dazu geführt,
dass wir uns über unsere Schwächen klar geworden sind und somit im Falle einer
Gründung geeignete Partner bzw. Berater suchen würden, um diese Schwächen
ausgleichen zu können.
Lernreflexionen #3, Zeile 118: Abschließend seien auch noch einmal die zahlreichen
konstruktiven Gespräche mit den anderen Kursteilnehmern bzw. Coachingtermine zu
nennen. Ohne diese gute Zusammenarbeit wäre das Geschäftsmodell, wie es heute besteht,
nicht denkbar gewesen.
Lernreflexionen #3, Zeile 193: Sehr positiv überrascht waren wir von der kontinuierlichen
Unterstützung vor allem in Form von Inputs und sonstigen Informationen unserer
Kommilitonen.
Lernreflexionen #4, Zeile 310: Insgesamt muss ich gestehen, dass es schwerer als gedacht
ist, einem möglichen Kunden etwas Begeisterung zu entlocken. Und dies, obwohl ich auf
ganz konkrete Kundenanfragen hin agiert habe. Ich denke, dass man darin sehr gut die
unterschiedliche Nutzenwahrnehmung erkennen kann. Für „Excitement" muss dem
Kunden doch noch mehr geboten werden als nur das Erwartete und dafür reicht das Modell
des Baukastensystems offensichtlich nicht aus.
Lernreflexionen #10, Zeile 316: Der persönliche Austausch mit Branchenexperten, z. B.
xxx und xxx [Name von Branchenexperten], hat uns sehr geholfen, aus einer weiteren
Perspektive auf unser Geschäftsmodell zu schauen. Die Erkenntnisse haben in starkem
Maße zur Lösung beigetragen.
APPENDICES
221
Lernreflexionen #10, Zeile 328: Wir haben zu unserem Geschäftsmodell sehr viel positive
Resonanz erhalten; das Interesse war sehr groß und [man] hat uns sogar bei einer
möglichen Realisierung Partnerschaften in Aussicht gestellt.
Lernreflexionen #11, Zeile 330: Die umfangreiche Hilfestellung von den Dozenten und
des Businessplan-Wettbewerbs erleichterten die Arbeit am Projekt.
Interview #7, Zeile 2837, Interviewee: Also, wie gesagt, die Einstellung, die positive
Einstellung sich mal selbständig zu machen, war eigentlich schon immer da. Oder der
Reiz, auch das mal zu machen und mal zu sehen wie das läuft. Interviewer: Auch vor der
Vorlesung? Interviewee: Auch vor der Vorlesung. Also gut, die Vorlesung hat dann so
bisschen die Perspektive aufgezeigt, man kann's wirklich machen. Davor war's eher so ein
bisschen, ja Spinnerei oder Idee von wegen, irgendwann mal selber was zu machen, oder
so was. Dadurch, dass man im Bekanntenkreis halt doch viele gehabt hat, wo die Eltern
irgendwie selber was gemacht haben oder so. Aber über die ganzen Institutionen an der
Uni und mit dieser Unternehmensberatung kam dann erst die Idee, dass man's ja
tatsächlich machen könnten […]
Interview Nr. 7, Zeile 3047, Interviewee talking about the "Hohenheimer Modell"
which provides facilities to students building their own company: Und hier kommt man
rein, wenn man will kann man sogar einen Tisch von denen mieten, man muss sich sein
Büromaterial nicht mal unbedingt kaufen. Wir haben uns die Stühle gekauft, aber Schränke
und Schreibtische haben wir erst mal nur gemietet, weil wir auch nicht wussten, wie lange
und was und wie, Internet ist da, Telefon ist da, alles gleich frei geschalten, es wird einem
schon relativ leicht gemacht, wobei wir die Leute eben, das war eben auch unser Vorteil,
schon kannten. […] Also, es gibt schon eine Reihe von Unterstützungen, es gibt dann
auch, so einen Univerein noch, wobei was der genau macht, weiß ich nicht. Aber der hat
glaube ich dann einige von diesen Unternehmensvorträgen in der Vorlesung zum Beispiel
organisiert und solche Sachen. Also, es gibt schon viel, also wenn man sich dafür
interessiert, dann kann man hier schon viel drüber erfahren, ja.
222
7.2
APPENDICES
Quantitative Study
7.2.1 Scales and Items of the Dependent Variable
Attitude index
Corrected itemtotal correlation
ex ante/ex post
Scales and indicators
Cronbach’s Alpha ex ante/ex post: 0.81 / 0.83
Reasons for becoming organisationally employed
1. Job security: "It is important to me to have a secure job."
2. Work load: "It is important to me not to work overtime."
3. Avoid responsibility: "I want to avoid taking over responsibility
during my work."
Reasons for becoming self-employed
4. Use Economic opportunities: "I want to use market opportunities to
have economic success."
5. Challenge/To have an exciting job: "I want to have an exciting work."
6. Challenge/To have a challenging job: "I want to have a challenging
work."
7. Autonomy/Freedom: "I want to have freedom during my work."
8. Autonomy/To be your own boss: "I want to be my own boss."
9. Authority/Have power to make decisions: "I want to take decisions on
my own."
10. Authority/Have authority: "I want to have authority at work."
11. Self-actualization: "Self-actualization is important to me."
12. To participate in the whole process: "I would like to take part in the
whole working process."
Direct measures: Evaluation of performing the behaviour in question
Instrumental component
13. Usefulness: "Becoming an entrepreneur within the first 5 years after
finishing my studies would be useful for me."
14. Advance career: "Becoming an entrepreneur within the first 5 years
after finishing my studies would advance my career."
Experiential component
15. Enjoyment: "I would enjoy becoming an entrepreneur within the first
5 years after finishing my studies."
Table 20: Items of the Attitude Index
0.23 / 0.24
0.18 / 0.33
0.24 / 0.24
0.47 / 0.60
0.23 / 0.25
0.32 / 0.44
0.43 / 0.51
0.65 / 0.66
0.58 / 0.58
0.30 / 0.25
0.47 / 0.44
0.34 / 0.36
0.64 / 0.65
0.61 / 0.56
0.65 / 0.67
APPENDICES
223
Subjective norm index
Scales (indicators, literature sources)
Corrected item-total
correlation
ex ante/ex post
Cronbach’s Alpha ex ante/ex post 0.76 / 0.80 (first three items)
Normative belief strength
1. Perceived family expectations: "My family thinks that I will
0.66 / 0.71
become an entrepreneur."
2. Perceived expectations of important others: "People who are
0.71 / 0.74
important to me think that I should become an entrepreneur."
Descriptive item
3. Actual behaviour of important others: "People whose opinion I
value have become entrepreneurs within the first 5 years after
0.42 / 0.51
finishing their studies."
Motivation to comply
4. Motivation to comply with family expectations: The opinion of my family is very important to
me.
5. Motivation to comply with other people’s opinions: The opinion of people who are important to
me influences me a lot.
Note: The respondents were asked to state whether they "strongly agree" (1) or "strongly
disagree" (5) with the statements.
Table 21: Items of the Subjective Norm Index
Perceived behavioural control index
Self-efficacy items
1. "Starting a company within the first 5 years after finishing my studies
would be very easy for me."
2. "I am sure that I would be successful if starting my own company
within the first 5 years of my study."
3. "I have enough self-confidence to start my own business within the
first 5 years after finishing my studies."
4. If I started my own business, I would be more successful than most
of my fellow students.
Controllability items
5. "Whether I will become an entrepreneur within the first 5 years after
finishing my studies is entirely up to me."
6. "I know enough to start my own business within the first 5 years after
finishing my studies."
7. "If I became an entrepreneur, it would be very likely that my
company would be successful after 2 years."
Table 22: Items of the Perceived Behavioural Control Index
ex ante/ex post
0.67 / 0.70
0.63 / 0.71
0.66 / 0.66
0.46 / 0.51
0.31 / 0.19
0.60 / 0.61
0.60 / 0.63
224
APPENDICES
Intention index
Self-efficacy items
1. "I will try to start my own business within the first 5 years after
finishing my studies."
2. "I have already taken some steps to start my own business (e.g.,
gathered information, worked out a business idea with friends,
written a business plan)."
3. "I strongly believe that I will start my own business within the first 5
years after finishing my studies."
Table 23: Items of the Intention Index
ex ante/ex post
0.78 / 0.82
0.65 / 0.66
0.82 / 0.83
APPENDICES
225
7.2.2 Scales and Items of the Independent Variable
Practical knowledge
Source of items: Questionnaire for the lecturers, Part C, b
Items
To what degree were the following aspects part of the class?
Application of practical methods during the class
Scale
1 (essential part of the class) to 5
(marginal part of the class) /
6 = no part of the class
Table 24: Item to Measure the Level of Practical Knowledge
Business planning
Source: Questionnaire for the lecturers, Part C, b
Note: The index was obtained by summarising all item scores.
Items
To what degree were the following aspects parts of the class?
Development of a business model
Business plan writing
Implementation of a business idea
Scale
1 (essential part of the class) to
5 (marginal part of the class) /
1 to 5
1 to 5
Table 25: Items to Measure the Level of Business Planning Activities
Role Models
Source: Ex post questionnaire, Part B, nos. 9, 9a, 9b and 19
Items
9. During the class I had the chance to listen to entrepreneurs’
field reports (e.g., entrepreneurs’ speeches, lecturer’s reports).
9. a) Among these entrepreneurs was at least one whose work
I appreciate and admire.
9. b) I understood and it was discussed extensively why the
entrepreneur and the company have been successful.
19. During the class I heard about entrepreneurs or got to
know entrepreneurs with whom I could identify.
Scale
1 to 5
1 to 5
1 to 5
Table 26: Items to Measure the Level of Role Model Elements
226
APPENDICES
Entrepreneurial Network
Source: Ex post questionnaire, Part B, nos. 11, 12, 13
Items
11. During the class I was able to establish a network which
will be helpful when I start an own company.
12. During the class I was able to get to know potential cofounders.
13. During the class I learned who to refer to when I want to
start my own business.
Scale
1 to 5
1 to 5
Table 27: Items to Measure the Level of the Established Entrepreneurial Network
APPENDICES
227
Student Orientation
Source: Ex post questionnaire, Part B, discursive elements: nos. 1, 2 and 3; adaptive
elements: nos. 1 and 4; interactive elements: nos. 5, 5a, 7, 8, 10, 20, 23, and 24; reflective
elements: nos. 14, 15, 17
Note: The mean value of the item scores was calculated for each of the four elements. The
overall measure for student-orientation was calculated using the mean of these indexes.
Items
Discursive elements
1. There was an open atmosphere for discussion.
2. During the class the lecturer and the participants discussed
perceptions and ideas of "entrepreneurship".
3. The participants could actively influence the objectives of
the class and the topics that were going to be discussed.
Adaptive elements
1. There was an open atmosphere for discussion.
4. The focus of the class was adapted according to the previous
knowledge of the participants.
5. During the class I frequently received feedback on my
ideas, contributions to the discussion and/or on my work (e.g.
written business plan).
5.a) If you received feedback, please evaluate the following
statement: The feedback was given by a qualified person.
7. During the class I realised a business idea.
8. Within the scope of the course I could work on my own
ideas.
10. During the class I was encouraged to pursue my own
ideas.
20. While completing our tasks I or my working group
received continuous support.
23. During the class I or my working group was able to work
autonomously on our task.
24. During the class I or my working group worked on a
practical task.
Reflective elements
14. During the class the advantages of being an entrepreneur
were emphasised.
15. During the class the disadvantages of being an
entrepreneur were emphasised.
17. The class allowed me to assess whether starting my own
business is something I will consider.
Scale
1 (essential part of the class) to
5 (marginal part of the class)
1 to 5
1 to 5
1 to 5
1 to 5
1 to 5 / 6 = no part of the class
1 to 5
1 to 5
1 to 5
1 to 5
1 to 5
1 to 5
1 to 5
1 to 5
Table 28: Items to Measure the Level of Student Orientation
228
APPENDICES
Explorative Elements
Source: Questionnaire for the lecturers
Note: The lecturers were asked to assess the use of receptive, discursive, and explorative
elements during their course by distributing 100% between the three types of teaching
methods: explorative elements, receptive elements, and discursive elements.
Items
Receptive elements
To what degree was the class characterised by talks (by the
lecturers, guest speakers, etc.) and thus by students listening?
Assessment
Percentage
Table 29: Item to Measure the Level of Exploratory Elements
Feedback
Source: Ex post questionnaire, Part B, 5, 5a, 5b
Items
During the class I frequently received feedback on my ideas,
contributions to the discussion and/or on my work (e.g.
If you received feedback, please evaluate the following
statement: The feedback was given by a qualified person.
If you received feedback, please evaluate the following
statement: I was able to draw on the feedback during the rest
of the course.
Scale
(marginal part of the class)
1 to 5 / 6 = no part the class
1 to 5 / 6 = no part the class
Table 30: Item to Measure the Level of Feedback
APPENDICES
229
7.2.3 Scales and Items of the Moderating Variable
Previous Entrepreneurial Exposure
Source: Ex ante questionnaire, Part B
Note: To obtain an index, the questions which were answered positively were summed up.
Item (sources)
Are there any entrepreneurs within your family or
among your acquaintances?
Do your parents (or one of your parents) work in a
small enterprise (<25 employees) or in a start-up
company?
Have you ever worked in a small company
(<25 employees)?
Have your parents (or one of your parents) ever
started a company?
Have you already started your own business?
Have you ever considered starting your own
business? (e.g. gathered information, written a
business plan)
Do you frequently have contact with
entrepreneurs?
Have you ever attended any courses, seminars or
informative meetings about entrepreneurship?
Answer
If you have answered
"yes", please specify
whether you experienced
the situation (rather) in a
positive or in a negative
way. Please choose one
option.
yes / no
positive / negative
yes / no
positive / negative
yes / no
positive / negative
yes / no
positive / negative
yes / no
positive / negative
yes / no
positive / negative
yes / no
positive / negative
yes / no
positive / negative
Table 31: Items to Measure the Level of Previous Entrepreneurial Exposure
230
APPENDICES
Student Expectations
Source: Ex post questionnaire, Part A
Note: The students were asked to pick the relevant answer to indicate which answer they
agreed with the most. Two statements were coded as “indifferent/expectant” and two as
“pro entrepreneurial” (see table below).
Items
So far, I have had nothing or hardly anything to do with the
topic entrepreneurship, so I wanted to see what
entrepreneurship actually is and if becoming an entrepreneur
could be an option for me.
I could imagine becoming an entrepreneur. Therefore, I
wanted to learn the necessary skills and competences.
I am determined to start my own company. In order to do so,
I hoped that the class would provide me with some precise
advice so that I make could progress or get support.
I attended the class without any precise expectations.
Coding
indifferent/has expectations
pro entrepreneurial
pro entrepreneurial
indifferent/has expectations
Table 32: Items to Measure Student Expectations
APPENDICES
231
7.2.4 Ex Ante Questionnaire – Original German Version
Fragebogen zur unternehmerischen Intention
Liebe Teilnehmerin, lieber Teilnehmer,
herzlichen Dank, dass Sie sich Zeit nehmen, mich bei der Datenerhebung für
meine Dissertation zu unterstützen. Die Datenerhebung findet am Beginn und am
Ende des Wintersemesters 2005/2006 statt.
Ihre Angaben sind sehr wichtig für mich. Damit ich die Daten auswerten kann,
bitte ich Sie folgendes zu beachten:
Bitte ermöglichen Sie es mir, dass ich diesen Fragebogen und den Fragebogen,
den Sie am Ende des Semesters ausfüllen, einander zuordnen kann: Bitte geben
Sie Ihren Namen an bzw. verwenden Sie beides mal das gleiche Pseudonym.
1.
Beantworten Sie bitte jede Frage bzw. geben Sie zu jeder Aussage Ihre
Zustimmung oder Ablehnung an.
2.
Bitte nutzen Sie ausschließlich die vorgegebenen Antwortmöglichkeiten.
Bilden Sie keine Zwischenwerte.
3.
Ansonsten kann ich Teile Ihrer Angaben oder den kompletten Fragebogen
bei der Auswertung nicht berücksichtigen.
Vielen Dank für Ihre Zeit,
Susan Müller
[email protected]
232
APPENDICES
Teil A
Datum:
________________________
Vorname, Name
bzw. Pseudonym:
________________________
Alter:
________________________
Geschlecht:
weiblich
männlich
Nationalität:
___________________________________________________
Universität:
___________________________________________________
Studienrichtung: ___________________________________________________
Im wievielten Semester sind Sie: __________________________
Name der Entrepreneurship Veranstaltung: _____________________________
Name der Dozentin/ des Dozenten: ___________________________________
Vorherige Ausbildung und/ oder Studium: _____________________________
Für weitere Forschungen würde ich eventuell gerne erneut Kontakt mit Ihnen
aufnehmen.
Wären Sie damit einverstanden?
Nein Ja per Telefon ________________________
Ja per E-Mail ________________________
APPENDICES
233
Teil B
Bitte beantworten Sie zunächst jede Frage mit "ja" oder "nein". Bitte geben Sie
für jede Frage, die Sie mit "ja" beantwortet haben an, ob Sie diese Situation
"positiv" oder "negativ" erlebt haben. Falls Sie sowohl positive als auch negative
Erfahrungen gemacht haben, überlegen Sie sich bitte, welche Erfahrung
überwogen hat und entscheiden Sie sich für eine Richtung.
Falls Sie "ja" angegeben haben,
geben Sie bitte an, ob Sie diese
Situation (eher) positiv oder
(eher) negativ erlebt haben.
Bitte entscheiden Sie sich für
eine Auswahlmöglichkeit.
1.
2.
3.
Gibt es in Ihrer Familie oder Ihrem
Bekanntenkreis Unternehmer?
Arbeiten Ihre Eltern in einem kleinen
Unternehmen (< 25 Mitarbeiter) oder
in einem Start-up Unternehmen?
Haben Sie schon mal in einem
kleinen Unternehmen (< 25
Mitarbeiter) gearbeitet?
ja
nein
positiv
negativ
ja
nein
positiv
negativ
ja
nein
positiv
negativ
4.
Haben Ihre Eltern bereits ein
Unternehmen gegründet?
ja
nein
positiv
negativ
5.
Haben Sie bereits ein Unternehmen
gegründet?
ja
nein
positiv
negativ
6.
Haben Sie sich bereits mit der Idee
beschäftigt, ein eigenes Unternehmen zu gründen? (z.B.
Informationen eingeholt,
Businessplan geschrieben)
ja
nein
positiv
negativ
7.
Haben Sie häufig Kontakt zu
Unternehmern?
ja
nein
positiv
negativ
8.
Haben Sie bereits Kurse, Seminare
oder Informationsveranstaltungen
zum Thema Unternehmensgründung
besucht?
ja
nein
positiv
negativ
234
APPENDICES
Teil C
Bitte geben Sie für jede Aussage an, inwiefern Sie dieser zustimmen bzw. diese
ablehnen. Markieren Sie dafür die zutreffende Antwortmöglichkeit. Bitte
markieren Sie nur eine der vorgegebenen Auswahlmöglichkeiten. Bilden Sie
5 = lehne
vollständig
ab
3 = teils/ teils
1 = stimme voll
zu
keine Zwischenwerte.
1.
Mich in den ersten 5 Jahren nach dem
Studium selbständig zu machen, wäre
nützlich für mich.
1
2
3
4
5
2.
Es ist mir wichtig, einen sicheren
Arbeitsplatz zu haben.
1
2
3
4
5
3.
Ich möchte eigene Entscheidungen treffen
können.
1
2
3
4
5
4.
Es würde mir Spaß machen, mich in den
ersten 5 Jahren nach dem Studium
selbständig zu machen.
1
2
3
4
5
5.
In meiner Arbeit möchte ich Freiheiten
haben.
1
2
3
4
5
6.
Ich möchte eine spannende Arbeit machen.
1
2
3
4
5
7.
Es ist mir wichtig, durch meine Arbeit
soziale Kontakte zu knüpfen. (Kollegen,
Freunde kennen zu lernen)
1
2
3
4
5
8.
Ich möchte Marktchancen nutzen, um
wirtschaftlichen Erfolg zu haben.
1
2
3
4
5
9.
Ich möchte es vermeiden, im Rahmen
meiner Arbeit Verantwortung zu
übernehmen.
1
2
3
4
5
10.
Ich möchte mein eigener Boss sein.
1
2
3
4
5
11.
Es ist mir wichtig, befördert zu werden und
Karriere zu machen.
1
2
3
4
5
12.
Es würde mich in meiner Karriere
weiterbringen, mich in den ersten 5 Jahren
nach dem Studium selbständig zu machen.
1
2
3
4
5
APPENDICES
235
13.
Ich möchte am gesamten Arbeitsprozess
teilhaben.
1
2
3
4
5
14.
Ich möchte eine herausfordernde Arbeit
machen.
1
2
3
4
5
15.
Es ist mir wichtig, keine Überstunden
machen zu müssen.
1
2
3
4
5
16.
An meinem Arbeitsplatz möchte ich
Autorität haben.
1
2
3
4
5
17.
Ich möchte mich selbst verwirklichen
können.
1
2
3
4
5
236
APPENDICES
Teil D
1 = trifft voll
zu
3 = teils/ teils
5 = trifft
vollständig zu
1.
Meine Familie denkt, dass ich mich selbständig
machen werde.
1
2
3
4
5
2.
Personen, deren Meinung ich schätze, haben sich
innerhalb der ersten 5 Jahre nach ihrem Studium
selbständig gemacht.
1
2
3
4
5
3.
Personen, die mir wichtig sind, denken, dass ich
mich selbständig machen sollte.
1
2
3
4
5
4.
Die Meinung meiner Familie ist sehr wichtig für
mich.
1
2
3
4
5
5.
Die Meinung von Personen, die mir wichtig sind,
hat großen Einfluss auf mich.
1
2
3
4
5
APPENDICES
237
Teil E
5 = lehne
vollständig
ab
3 = teils/ teils
1 = stimme voll
zu
1.
Ob ich ein Unternehmen innerhalb von 5 Jahren
nach Beendigung des Studiums gründe, liegt
ausschließlich in meiner Hand.
1
2
3
4
5
2.
Ich verfüge über genug Wissen, um ein
Unternehmen innerhalb der ersten 5 Jahre nach
dem Studium zu gründen.
1
2
3
4
5
3.
Ich verfüge über genug Selbstvertrauen, ein
1
2
3
4
5
4.
Eine Unternehmensgründung würde dazu führen,
dass ich mich überarbeite.
1
2
3
4
5
5.
Ich bin mir sicher, dass die Gründung eines
Unternehmens innerhalb der ersten 5 Jahre nach
dem Studium erfolgreich verlaufen würde.
1
2
3
4
5
6.
Ein Unternehmen in den ersten 5 Jahren nach
dem Studium zu gründen, wäre für mich sehr
einfach.
1
2
3
4
5
238
APPENDICES
Teil F
5 = lehne
vollständig
ab
3 = teils/ teils
1 = stimme voll zu
1.
Wenn ich mich selbständig machen würde,
hätte ich mehr Erfolg als die meisten
meiner Mitstudenten.
1
2
3
4
5
2.
Ich werde versuchen, ein Unternehmen
innerhalb der nächsten 5 Jahre nach dem
Studium zu gründen.
1
2
3
4
5
3.
Ich habe bereits konkrete Schritte für eine
Unternehmensgründung unternommen
(z.B. Informationen eingeholt, eine
Geschäftsidee mit Freunden ausgearbeitet,
einen Businessplan geschrieben).
1
2
3
4
5
4.
wäre mein Unternehmen nach 2 Jahren mit
hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit erfolgreich.
1
2
3
4
5
5.
Ich glaube fest daran, dass ich innerhalb
der ersten 5 Jahre nach dem Studium ein
Unternehmen gründen werde.
1
2
3
4
5
APPENDICES
239
7.2.5 Ex Ante Questionnaire – English Translation
Questionnaire about entrepreneurial intention
Dear Participant,
Many thanks for taking the time to support the data collection for my dissertation.
The data collection will take place at the beginning and at the end of the winter
term 2005/2006.
The data you provide is very important for me. Please consider the following
information so that I can analyse your data:
1.
Please make sure that I can match this questionnaire with the one you will
answer at the end of the term. Please provide your name or the same
pseudonym both times.
2.
Please answer every question or indicate your agreement or disagreement.
3.
Please exclusively use the possible answers provided. Do not use interim
values, otherwise, I might not be able to consider parts of your data or the
complete questionnaire in the analysis.
Many thanks for your time,
Susan Müller
[email protected]
240
APPENDICES
Part A
Date:
________________________
First name, last name
or pseudonym:
________________________
Age:
________________________
Gender:
female
Nationality:
________________________
University:
________________________
Field of study:
________________________
male
For how many terms have you been studying in this field of study? ___________
Name of the entrepreneurship course:
______________________________
Name of the lecturer:
______________________________
Previous education and/or study:
______________________________
For further studies I might want to contact you again.
Would you agree to that?
No Yes, via telephone
_____________________________
Yes, via E-mail
_____________________________
APPENDICES
241
Part B
First, please answer every question with "yes" or "no". For every question you
answer with "yes", please state whether this experience was "positive" or
"negative". If you had both positive and negative experiences, please decide
which experience prevailed and choose one direction.
If you have answered "yes",
please specify whether you
experienced the situation (rather)
in a positive or in a negative way.
Please choose one option.
1.
2.
Are there any entrepreneurs
within your family or among your
acquaintances?
Do your parents (or one of your
parents) work in a small
enterprise (<25 employees) or in
a start-up company?
yes
no
positive
negative
yes
no
positive
negative
3.
Have you ever worked in a small
company (<25 employees)?
yes
no
positive
negative
4.
Have your parents (or one of your
parents) ever started a company?
yes
no
positive
negative
5.
Have you already started your
own business?
yes
no
positive
negative
6.
Have you ever considered starting
your own business? (e.g. gathered
information, written a business
plan)
yes
no
positive
negative
7.
Do you frequently have contact
with entrepreneurs?
yes
no
positive
negative
8.
Have you ever attended any
courses, seminars or informative
meetings about entrepreneurship?
yes
no
positive
negative
242
APPENDICES
Part C
Please specify for each statement whether you agree or disagree. Select the
respective response option. Please select only one response option. Please do not
5 = strongly
disagree
1 = strongly agree
3 = neither agree or
disagree
use interim values.
1.
To become an entrepreneur within the first 5
years after finishing my studies would be
useful for me.
1
2
3
4
5
2.
It is important to me to have a secure job.
1
2
3
4
5
3.
I want to take decisions on my own.
1
2
3
4
5
4.
I would enjoy becoming an entrepreneur
within the first 5 years after finishing my
studies.
1
2
3
4
5
5.
I want to have freedom during my work.
1
2
3
4
5
6.
I want to have a stimulating job.
1
2
3
4
5
7.
It is important to me to have social contacts
during my work. (get to know new
colleagues and friends).
1
2
3
4
5
8.
I want to use market opportunities to have
economic success.
1
2
3
4
5
9.
I want to avoid taking responsibility during
my work.
1
2
3
4
5
10.
I want to be my own boss.
1
2
3
4
5
11.
It is important to me to get promoted and to
advance my career.
1
2
3
4
5
APPENDICES
12.
13.
Becoming an entrepreneur within the first 5
years after finishing my studies would
advance my career.
I would like to take part in the whole
working process.
243
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
14.
I want to have challenging work.
1
2
3
4
5
15.
It is important to me not to work overtime.
1
2
3
4
5
16.
I want to have authority at work.
1
2
3
4
5
17.
Self-actualization is important to me.
1
2
3
4
5
244
APPENDICES
Part D
5 = strongly
disagree
1 = strongly agree
disagree
use interim values.
1.
My family thinks that I will become an
entrepreneur.
1
2
3
4
5
2.
People whose opinion I value have become
entrepreneurs within the first 5 years after
finishing their studies.
1
2
3
4
5
3.
People who are important to me think that I
should become an entrepreneur.
1
2
3
4
5
4.
The opinion of my family is very important to
me.
1
2
3
4
5
5.
The opinions of people who are important to
me influence me a lot.
1
2
3
4
5
APPENDICES
245
Part E
5 = strongly
disagree
1 = strongly agree
disagree
use interim values.
1.
Whether I will become an entrepreneur within
the first 5 years after finishing my studies is
entirely up to me.
1
2
3
4
5
2.
I know enough to start my own business within
the first 5 years after finishing my studies.
1
2
3
4
5
3.
I have enough self-confidence to start my own
business within the first 5 years after finishing
my studies.
1
2
3
4
5
4.
If I started my own business I would be
overworked.
1
2
3
4
5
5.
I am sure that I would be successful if starting
my own company within the first 5 years after
my studies.
1
2
3
4
5
6.
To start a company within the first 5 years after
finishing my studies would be very easy for me.
1
2
3
4
5
246
APPENDICES
Part F
5 = strongly
disagree
1 = strongly agree
disagree
use interim values.
1.
If I started my own business, I would be
more successful than most of my fellow
students.
1
2
3
4
5
2.
I will try to start my own business within
1
2
3
4
5
3.
I have already taken some steps to start my
own business (e.g. gathered information,
worked out a business idea with friends,
written a business plan).
1
2
3
4
5
4.
If I became an entrepreneur, it would be
very likely that my company would be
successful after 2 years.
1
2
3
4
5
5.
I strongly believe that I will start my own
business within the first 5 years after
1
2
3
4
5
APPENDICES
247
7.2.6 Ex Post Questionnaire – Original German Version
Zweiter Fragebogen zur unternehmerischen Intention
Liebe Teilnehmerin, lieber Teilnehmer,
herzlichen Dank, dass Sie sich Zeit nehmen, auch den zweiten Fragebogen
auszufüllen.
Ihre Angaben kann ich nur dann für meine Dissertation verwenden, wenn Sie
beide Fragebögen korrekt ausgefüllt haben. Daher möchte ich Sie bitten,
folgendes zu beachten:
1.
Geben Sie wiederum Ihren Namen bzw. das von Ihnen verwendete
Pseudonym an. Ich muss beide von ihnen ausgefüllte Fragebögen einander
zuordnen können.
2.
Beantworten bzw. bewerten Sie bitte jede Frage bzw. jede Aussage.
3.
Bitte nutzen Sie ausschließlich die vorgegebenen Antwortmöglichkeiten.
Bilden Sie keine Zwischenwerte.
4.
Bitte nehmen Sie sich Zeit, die Fragen präzise und ehrlich zu beantworten.
5.
Wichtig:
Falls
Sie
an
mehreren
Veranstaltungen
zum
Thema
Unternehmensgründung teilgenommen haben: Bewerten Sie die Fragen zu
den Veranstaltungen in Teil B so, als hätte es sich um eine große
Unternehmensgründungs-Veranstaltung gehandelt.
Ansonsten kann ich Teile Ihrer Angaben oder den kompletten Fragebogen bei der
Auswertung nicht berücksichtigen bzw. erhalte ein verzerrtes Ergebnis.
Herzlichen Dank und alles Gute für Ihre weiteren Studien,
Susan Müller
[email protected]
248
APPENDICES
Teil A - Allgemeine Angaben
Datum:
________________________
Vorname, Name
bzw. Pseudonym:
________________________
Bitte nennen Sie alle von Ihnen besuchte Veranstaltungen, die Fachwissen oder
Kompetenzen im Themenbereich „Unternehmensgründung“ vermittelt haben.
Genaue Bezeichnungen der besuchten
Name des jeweiligen Dozenten
Entrepreneurship-Veranstaltungen
1.
2.
Mit welchen Erwartungen sind Sie in die Veranstaltung(en) gegangen? Bitte kreuzen Sie die
Aussage an, der Sie am ehesten zustimmen würden.
Bitte nur eine Antwort markieren!
Bisher bin ich kaum oder gar nicht mit dem Themenbereich „Unternehmensgründung“ in
Berührung gekommen. Ich wollte daher sehen, was „Unternehmensgründung“ bedeutet und ob die
Selbständigkeit eventuell eine Option für mich darstellen könnte.
Ich könnte mir vorstellen, ein Unternehmen zu gründen. Hierfür wollte ich mir die notwendigen
Kenntnisse und Kompetenzen aneignen.
Ich bin entschlossen, mein eigenes Unternehmen zu gründen. Hierfür erhoffte ich mir konkrete
Hinweise, Fortschritte oder Unterstützung durch die Veranstaltung.
Ich bin ohne konkrete Erwartungen in die Veranstaltung gegangen.
Anmerkungen:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
APPENDICES
249
Teil B
Geben Sie bitte für jede Aussage an, inwiefern Sie dieser zustimmen bzw. diese
ablehnen. Markieren Sie dafür eine zutreffende Antwortmöglichkeit. Bilden Sie
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
5.a)
5.b)
6.
7.
Es herrschte eine offene
Gesprächsatmosphäre.
Im Rahmen der Veranstaltung diskutierten
Dozenten und Teilnehmer über
Wahrnehmungen und Vorstellungen von
„Unternehmensgründung“.
Die Teilnehmer der Veranstaltung
konnten die Ziele der Veranstaltung und
die Gesprächsinhalte aktiv mitgestalten.
Die Schwerpunkte der Veranstaltung
wurden dem Wissensstand der
Teilnehmer angepasst.
Während der Veranstaltung habe ich
häufig Feedback zu meinen Ideen,
Diskussionsbeiträgen und/ oder zu meiner
Arbeit (z.B. erstellter Businessplan)
erhalten.
Falls Sie Feedback erhalten haben,
bewerten Sie bitte folgende Aussage: Das
Feedback wurde von einer kompetenten
Person gegeben.
Falls Sie Feedback erhalten haben,
bewerten Sie bitte folgende Aussage: Das
Feedback konnte ich im weiteren
Kursverlauf berücksichtigen.
Im Rahmen der Veranstaltung habe ich
eine Geschäftsidee theoretisch
ausgearbeitet.
eine Geschäftsidee in die Realität
umgesetzt.
Passt nicht (nur
nutzen, falls Feld
vorhanden)
5 = lehne
vollständig ab
3 = teils/teils
1 = stimme voll
zuzu
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
Aussage
passt
nicht
1
2
3
4
5
Aussage
passt
nicht
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
250
8.
9.
9.a)
9.b)
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
APPENDICES
Im Rahmen der Veranstaltung konnte ich
an eigenen Ideen arbeiten.
Erfahrungsberichte von
Unternehmensgründern hören (z.B.
Vorträge durch Gründer, Berichte des
Dozenten).
Darunter gab es mindestens einen
Unternehmensgründer, dessen Arbeit ich
anerkenne und schätze.
Mir wurde klar bzw. es wurde ausführlich
diskutiert, weshalb dieser
Unternehmensgründer bzw. die
Unternehmensgründer, erfolgreich sind.
Im Rahmen der Veranstaltung wurde ich
darin bestärkt, meine eigenen Ideen
weiter zu verfolgen.
ein Netzwerk aufbauen, das im Falle
einer Unternehmensgründung hilfreich
sein wird.
Im Laufe der Veranstaltung konnte ich
hilfreiche Kontakte zu potenziellen
Mitgründern knüpfen.
Im Laufe der Veranstaltung habe ich
konkret erfahren, an wen ich mich
wenden kann, wenn ich ein Unternehmen
gründen möchte.
Im Rahmen der Veranstaltung wurden die
Vorteile der Selbständigkeit
hervorgehoben.
Im Rahmen der Veranstaltung wurden die
Nachteile der Selbständigkeit
hervorgehoben.
Durch die Veranstaltung habe ich das
notwendige Handwerkszeug für eine
erfolgreiche Unternehmensgründung
erlernt.
Durch die Veranstaltung wurde ich in die
Lage versetzt, einzuschätzen, ob eine
Unternehmensgründung für mich in
Frage kommt.
von Geschäftsideen gehört, die ich selbst
erfolgreich hätte umsetzen können.
von Unternehmensgründern gehört bzw.
Unternehmensgründer kennen gelernt, mit
denen ich mich identifizieren konnte.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
Aussage
passt
nicht
1
2
3
4
5
Aussage
passt
nicht
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
APPENDICES
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
251
Bei der Erledigung unserer Aufgaben
habe ich bzw. hat unsere Arbeitsgruppe
1
2
3
4
5
kontinuierlich Unterstützung erhalten.
Die anderen Teilnehmer der
Veranstaltung standen der Thematik
1
2
3
4
5
Selbständigkeit positiv gegenüber.
Nahezu alle Kursteilnehmer haben durch
die Veranstaltung eine sehr positive
1
2
3
4
5
Einstellung gegenüber dem Thema
Unternehmensgründung entwickelt.
bzw. eine Arbeitsgruppe, in der ich
1
2
3
4
5
gearbeitet habe, selbständig an einer
Aufgabenstellung arbeiten.
bzw. eine Arbeitsgruppe, in der ich
gearbeitet habe, an einer
1
2
3
4
5
Aufgabenstellung aus der Praxis
gearbeitet
Gab es ein zentrales Ereignis während der
Veranstaltung, das Ihre Einstellung zur
ja
nein
Unternehmensgründung positiv verändert
hat?
Falls ja, bitte erläutern Sie dies kurz: ___________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
252
APPENDICES
Teil C
5 = lehne
vollständig
ab
3 = teils/ teils
1 = stimme voll
zu
1.
Mich in den ersten 5 Jahren nach dem
Studium selbständig zu machen, wäre
nützlich für mich.
1
2
3
4
5
2.
Es ist mir wichtig, einen sicheren
Arbeitsplatz zu haben.
1
2
3
4
5
3.
Ich möchte eigene Entscheidungen treffen
können.
1
2
3
4
5
4.
Es würde mir Spaß machen, mich in den
ersten 5 Jahren nach dem Studium
selbständig zu machen.
1
2
3
4
5
5.
In meiner Arbeit möchte ich Freiheiten
haben.
1
2
3
4
5
6.
Ich möchte eine spannende Arbeit machen.
1
2
3
4
5
7.
Es ist mir wichtig, durch meine Arbeit
soziale Kontakte zu knüpfen. (Kollegen,
Freunde kennen zu lernen)
1
2
3
4
5
8.
Ich möchte Marktchancen nutzen, um
wirtschaftlichen Erfolg zu haben.
1
2
3
4
5
9.
Ich möchte es vermeiden, im Rahmen
meiner Arbeit Verantwortung zu
übernehmen.
1
2
3
4
5
10.
Ich möchte mein eigener Boss sein.
1
2
3
4
5
11.
Es ist mir wichtig, befördert zu werden und
Karriere zu machen.
1
2
3
4
5
12.
Es würde mich in meiner Karriere
weiterbringen, mich in den ersten 5 Jahren
nach dem Studium selbständig zu machen.
1
2
3
4
5
APPENDICES
253
13.
Ich möchte am gesamten Arbeitsprozess
teilhaben.
1
2
3
4
5
14.
Ich möchte eine herausfordernde Arbeit
machen.
1
2
3
4
5
15.
Es ist mir wichtig, keine Überstunden
machen zu müssen.
1
2
3
4
5
16.
An meinem Arbeitsplatz möchte ich
Autorität haben.
1
2
3
4
5
17.
Ich möchte mich selbst verwirklichen
können.
1
2
3
4
5
254
APPENDICES
Teil D
1 = trifft voll
zu
3 = teils/ teils
5 = trifft
vollständig zu
1.
Meine Familie denkt, dass ich mich selbständig
machen werde.
1
2
3
4
5
2.
Personen, deren Meinung ich schätze, haben sich
innerhalb der ersten 5 Jahre nach ihrem Studium
selbständig gemacht.
1
2
3
4
5
3.
Personen, die mir wichtig sind, denken, dass ich
mich selbständig machen sollte.
1
2
3
4
5
4.
Die Meinung meiner Familie ist sehr wichtig für
mich.
1
2
3
4
5
5.
Die Meinung von Personen, die mir wichtig sind,
hat großen Einfluss auf mich.
1
2
3
4
5
APPENDICES
255
Teil E
5 = lehne
vollständig
ab
3 = teils/ teils
1 = stimme voll
zu
1.
Ob ich ein Unternehmen innerhalb von 5 Jahren
nach Beendigung des Studiums gründe, liegt
ausschließlich in meiner Hand.
1
2
3
4
5
2.
Ich verfüge über genug Wissen, um ein
1
2
3
4
5
3.
Ich verfüge über genug Selbstvertrauen, ein
1
2
3
4
5
4.
Eine Unternehmensgründung würde dazu führen,
dass ich mich überarbeite.
1
2
3
4
5
5.
Ich bin mir sicher, dass die Gründung eines
Unternehmens innerhalb der ersten 5 Jahre nach
dem Studium erfolgreich verlaufen würde.
1
2
3
4
5
6.
Ein Unternehmen in den ersten 5 Jahren nach dem
Studium zu gründen, wäre für mich sehr einfach.
1
2
3
4
5
256
APPENDICES
Teil F
5 = lehne
vollständig
ab
3 = teils/ teils
1 = stimme voll zu
1.
hätte ich mehr Erfolg als die meisten
meiner Mitstudenten.
1
2
3
4
5
2.
Ich werde versuchen, ein Unternehmen
innerhalb der nächsten 5 Jahre nach dem
Studium zu gründen.
1
2
3
4
5
3.
Ich habe bereits konkrete Schritte für eine
Unternehmensgründung unternommen
(z.B. Informationen eingeholt, eine
Geschäftsidee mit Freunden ausgearbeitet,
einen Businessplan geschrieben).
1
2
3
4
5
4.
wäre mein Unternehmen nach 2 Jahren mit
hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit erfolgreich.
1
2
3
4
5
5.
Ich glaube fest daran, dass ich innerhalb
der ersten 5 Jahre nach dem Studium ein
Unternehmen gründen werde.
1
2
3
4
5
APPENDICES
257
7.2.7 Ex Post Questionnaire – English Translation
Second questionnaire about entrepreneurial intention
Dear Participant,
Many thanks for taking the time to fill in the second questionnaire as well.
I can only use your information if you fill in both questionnaires correctly.
Therefore, I would appreciate it if you could consider the following:
1.
Please provide your name or the pseudonym that you used in the first
questionnaire again. I have to be able to match both of your questionnaires.
2.
Please answer every question or indicate your agreement or disagreement.
3.
Please exclusively use the possible answers provided. Do not use interim
values.
4.
Please take your time to answer the questions precisely and honestly,
otherwise, I might not be able to consider parts of your data or the complete
questionnaire in the analysis or I might receive distorted results.
Many thanks for your time.
Susan Müller
[email protected]
258
APPENDICES
Part A – General information
Data:
________________________
First name, last name
or pseudonym:
1.
Please list all of the courses you have attended which have imparted knowledge or
competencies in the area of "entrepreneurship".
Exact name of the entrepreneurship classes
2.
________________________
Name of the respective lecturer
What kind of expectations did you have at the beginning of the class(es)? Please pick the
relevant box to indicate which answer you agree with the most.
Please select only one answer!
So far, I have had nothing or hardly anything to do with the topic entrepreneurship, so I wanted
to see what entrepreneurship actually is and if becoming an entrepreneur could be an option for
me.
I could imagine becoming an entrepreneur. Therefore, I wanted to learn the necessary skills and
competences.
I am determined to start my own company. In order to do so, I hoped that the class would
provide me with some precise advice so that I make could progress or get support.
I attended the class without any precise expectations.
Notes:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
APPENDICES
259
Part B
Please specify for each statement whether you agree or disagree. Please select
2.
3.
4.
5.
5.a)
5.b)
There was an open atmosphere for
discussion.
During the class the lecturer and the
participants discussed perceptions and
ideas of "entrepreneurship".
The participants could actively influence
the objectives of the class and the topics
that were going to be discussed.
The focus of the class was adapted
according to the previous knowledge of
the participants.
During the class I frequently received
feedback on my ideas, contributions to
the discussion and/or on my work (e.g.
If you received feedback, please evaluate
the following statement: The feedback
was given by a qualified person.
If you received feedback, please evaluate
the following statement: I was able to
draw on the feedback during the rest of
the course.
Does not apply (only
select if the field is
available)
disagree
1 = strongly agree
1.
5 = strongly disagree
only one response option. Please do not use interim values.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
not
applicable
1
2
3
4
5
not
applicable
6.
During the course I worked out a
business idea in theory.
1
2
3
4
5
7.
During the class I realised a business
idea.
1
2
3
4
5
8.
Within the scope of the course I could
work on my own ideas.
1
2
3
4
5
260
9.
9.a)
9.b)
APPENDICES
During the class I had the chance to listen
to entrepreneurs’ field reports (e.g.,
entrepreneurs’ speeches, lecturer’s
reports).
Among these entrepreneurs was at least
one whose work I appreciate and
admire.
I understood and it was discussed
extensively why the entrepreneur and the
company have been successful.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
not
applicable
1
2
3
4
5
not
applicable
10.
During the class I was encouraged to
pursue my own ideas.
1
2
3
4
5
11.
During the class I was able to establish a
network which will be helpful when I
start an own company.
1
2
3
4
5
12.
During the class I was able to get to
know potential co-founders.
1
2
3
4
5
13.
During the class I learned who to refer to
when I want to start my own business.
1
2
3
4
5
14.
During the class the advantages of being
an entrepreneur were emphasised.
1
2
3
4
5
15.
During the class the disadvantages of
being an entrepreneur were emphasised.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
In the class I learned the necessary
professional skills for successfully
starting a business.
The class allowed me to assess whether
starting my own business is something I
will consider.
During the class I learned about business
ideas that I would be able to realise
successfully myself.
During the class I heard about
entrepreneurs or got to know
entrepreneurs with whom I could
identify.
While completing our tasks I or my
working group received continuous
support.
21.
The other participants in the class liked
the idea of entrepreneurship.
1
2
3
4
5
22.
Almost all participants developed a very
positive attitude towards
entrepreneurship during the class.
1
2
3
4
5
23.
During the class I or my working group was
able to work autonomously on our task.
1
2
3
4
5
not
applicable
APPENDICES
24.
25.
261
During the class I or my working group
1
2
3
4
5
worked on a practical task.
Was there a special incident during the
class which positively influenced your
yes
no
attitude towards entrepreneurship?
If yes, please comment briefly: ______________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
262
APPENDICES
Part C
Please specify for each statement whether you agree or disagree. Please select
5 = strongly
disagree
1 = strongly agree
disagree
only one response option. Please do not use interim values.
1.
years after finishing my studies would be
useful for me.
1
2
3
4
5
2.
It is important to me to have a secure job.
1
2
3
4
5
3.
I want to take decisions on my own.
1
2
3
4
5
4.
I would enjoy becoming an entrepreneur
within the first 5 years after finishing my
studies.
1
2
3
4
5
5.
I want to have freedom during my work.
1
2
3
4
5
6.
I want to have a stimulating job.
1
2
3
4
5
7.
It is important to me to have social contacts
during my work. (get to know new
colleagues and friends).
1
2
3
4
5
8.
I want to use market opportunities to have
economic success.
1
2
3
4
5
9.
I want to avoid taking responsibility during
my work.
1
2
3
4
5
10.
I want to be my own boss.
1
2
3
4
5
11.
It is important to me to get promoted and to
advance my career.
1
2
3
4
5
12.
years after finishing my studies would
advance my career.
1
2
3
4
5
13.
I would like to take part in the whole
working process.
1
2
3
4
5
APPENDICES
263
14.
I want to have a challenging job.
1
2
3
4
5
15.
It is important to me not to work overtime.
1
2
3
4
5
16.
I want to have authority at work.
1
2
3
4
5
17.
Self-actualization is important to me.
1
2
3
4
5
264
APPENDICES
Part D
Please specify for each statement, whether you agree or disagree. Select only one
5 = strongly
disagree
1 = strongly agree
disagree
response option. Please do not use interim values.
1.
My family thinks that I will become an
entrepreneur.
1
2
3
4
5
2.
People whose opinion I value have become
entrepreneurs within the first 5 years after
finishing their studies.
1
2
3
4
5
3.
People who are important to me think that I
should become an entrepreneur.
1
2
3
4
5
4.
The opinion of my family is very important to
me.
1
2
3
4
5
5.
The opinions of people who are important to
me influence me a lot.
1
2
3
4
5
APPENDICES
265
Part E
5 = strongly
disagree
1 = strongly agree
disagree
1.
Whether I will become an entrepreneur within
the first 5 years after finishing my studies is
entirely up to me.
1
2
3
4
5
2.
I know enough to start my own business within
1
2
3
4
5
3.
I have enough self-confidence to start my own
business within the first 5 years after finishing
my studies.
1
2
3
4
5
4.
overworked.
1
2
3
4
5
5.
I am sure that I would be successful if starting
my own company within the first 5 years after
my studies.
1
2
3
4
5
6.
Starting a company within the first 5 years after
finishing my studies would be very easy for me.
1
2
3
4
5
266
APPENDICES
Part F
5 = strongly
disagree
1 = strongly agree
disagree
1.
more successful than most of my fellow
students.
1
2
3
4
5
2.
I will try to start my own business within
1
2
3
4
5
3.
I have already taken some steps to start my
own business (e.g. gathered information,
worked out a business idea with friends,
written a business plan).
1
2
3
4
5
4.
If I became an entrepreneur, it would be
very likely that my company would be
successful after 2 years.
1
2
3
4
5
5.
I strongly believe that I will start my own
business within the first 5 years after
1
2
3
4
5
APPENDICES
267
7.2.8 Questionnaire for the Lecturers – German Original Version
Charakterisierung der Veranstaltung
Liebe Dozenten,
um die Wirkung der Veranstaltungsinhalte und der Unterrichtsmethoden auf die
unternehmerische
Absicht
analysieren
zu
können,
benötige
ich
eine
Charakterisierung der Veranstaltung.
Bitte füllen Sie daher für jede Veranstaltung, in der Studierende Fragebögen
ausgefüllt haben, den beiliegenden Fragebogen aus.
Herzlichen Dank für Ihre Mithilfe!
Susan Müller
P.S. Kontaktaufnahme unter: [email protected] bzw. 01 73 / 2 69 10 95
268
APPENDICES
Datum:
_______________
Erster Vorlesungstermin:
_______________
Name, Vorname:
_______________
Letzter Vorlesungstermin:
_______________
Veranstaltungstitel:
_________________________________________________________
Teil A - Veranstaltungsziele
1) Welche Lernziele haben Sie mit der Veranstaltung hauptsächlich verfolgt?
(Mehrfachnennungen möglich)
Vermittlung gründungsrelevanter betriebswirtschaftlicher (Grund-)Kenntnisse
Interesse für den Themenbereich „Unternehmensgründung“ bzw. für
Gründungsvorhaben wecken
Teilnehmer in die Lage versetzen, eine Unternehmensgründung erfolgreich zu
gestalten
Entwicklung von Sozialkompetenzen
Ermittlung des Gründerpotenzials
Anmerkungen: _____________________________________________________
APPENDICES
269
Teil B - Organisationsmerkmale
1) Wie viele Semesterwochenstunden hatte
die Veranstaltung?
2) Wie verteilten sich die
Semesterwochenstunden über das Semester?
3) Bestand für die Veranstaltung
Anwesenheitspflicht?
4) In welcher Art von Räumlichkeiten fand
die Veranstaltung statt?
5) Wie viele Studierende nahmen
durchschnittlich an der Veranstaltung teil?
6) Wie häufig erarbeiteten die
TeilnehmerInnen Arbeitsinhalte als
Einzelperson oder in Gruppen?
7) Falls Gruppenarbeiten durchgeführt
wurden: Welche Größe hatten die
Lernergruppen meistens?
____________ Semesterwochenstunden
Gleichmäßige Verteilung über Semesterwochen
Blockveranstaltungen
Sonstiges:
___________________________________
ja
nein
Klassischer Hörsaal (fest eingebauten
Sitzreihen)
Seminarraum mit flexiblen Stühlen und Tischen
Sonstiges:
___________________________________
____________ Studierende
Einzelarbeit: ca. _____ % der Veranstaltungszeit
Gruppenarbeit: ca. _____ % der Veranstaltungszeit
Sonstiges/ Anmerkungen:
________________________
________________________
Partnerarbeit
Gruppen mit 3 bis 8 Teilnehmer
Es fand keine Gruppenarbeit statt
Sonstiges/ Anmerkungen:
_____________________
270
APPENDICES
Teil C - Instruktionsvariablen - Inhalte
1 = wesentlicher
Bestandteil der
Veranstaltung
5 = unwesentlicher
Bestandteil der
Veranstaltung
Bitte jeweils eine Antwort auswählen!
In welchem Maße waren die folgenden Inhalte
Bestandteil Ihrer Veranstaltung?
a) Vermittlung theoretischer Kenntnisse
(Bitte auch diese Ebene bewerten!)
Anforderungen an Gründer/ Unternehmer
Aufgaben eines Gründers/ Unternehmers
Phasen der Unternehmensgründung
Methoden zur Ideenfindung
Marktchancen erkennen
Entwicklung, Bewertung von Geschäftsmodellen
Aufbau eines Businessplans
Rechtliche Aspekte der Unternehmensgründung
Finanzierung von Unternehmensgründungen
Marketing/ Marktforschung
Andere theoretische Inhalte: _______________
b) Anwendung praktischer Methoden im Rahmen
der Veranstaltung (Bitte auch diese Ebene
bewerten!)
Geschäftsmodellentwicklung
Businessplan Erstellung
Methoden zur Ideenfindung
Umsetzung einer Geschäftsidee
Andere praktische Methoden: ______________
c) Erfahrungsberichte von Gründern/
Unternehmern
d) Maßnahmen zur Persönlichkeitsentwicklung
e) Ermittlung des Gründerpotenzials bzw. des
unternehmerischen Potenzials der Teilnehmer
f) Andere Inhalte: ________________________
g) Andere Inhalte: ________________________
1
2
3
4
5
Kein
Bestandteil
der
Veranstaltung
APPENDICES
271
Teil D - Instruktionsvariablen – Vermittlung
Prozentangabe
Rezeptive Elemente
Zu welchem Anteil war die Veranstaltung geprägt durch Vorträge (des
Dozenten, Vortragsredner etc.) und damit durch Zuhörern durch die
Studierenden?
Diskursive Elemente
Zu welchem Anteil war die Veranstaltung geprägt durch Diskussionen,
an denen die Veranstaltungsteilnehmer beteiligt waren?
Explorative Elemente
Zu welchem Anteil war die Veranstaltung geprägt durch eigenes
Erschließen von Lerninhalten durch die Veranstaltungsteilnehmer?
ca. _________ %
ca. _________ %
ca. _________ %
100 %
272
APPENDICES
7.2.9 Questionnaire for the Lecturers – English Translation
Characterisation of the Entrepreneurship Class
Dear lecturer,
In order to analyse the impact of course content and teaching methods on
entrepreneurial intention, I need a characterisation of the entrepreneurship class.
Please fill in the enclosed questionnaire for each class in which students filled out
questionnaires.
Many thanks for your help!
Susan Müller
P.S. Contact: [email protected] or 01 73 / 2 69 10 95
APPENDICES
273
Date:
_____________
Date of the first lesson:
_______________
Last name, First name
_____________
Date of the last lesson:
_______________
Name of the class:
_________________________________________________________
Part A - Educational goals of the entrepreneurship classes
1) Which education goals did you mainly have in mind?
(Multiple answers are permitted)
Teaching business knowledge relevant to founding your own company
Arouse interest for the subject area of "entrepreneurship" and start-ups
Put participants in the position to successfully found their own company.
Development of social competences
Development of entrepreneurial potential
Notes:___________________________________________________________
274
APPENDICES
Part B - Organisational characteristics
1) How many hours per week did the class
take place?
2) How were the hours distributed during
the term?
____________ hours per week
Regular distribution
Block
Others: _______________________________
3) Was it obligatory to attend?
Yes
No
4) In what kind of classroom did the class
take place?
Classic lecture hall (fixed rows)
Seminar room (flexible seating and table
arrangement)
Others: ________________________________
5) How many students attended the class on
average?
6) How often did the participants work on
topics individually or in groups?
____________ Students
Percentage of individual work: about _____ %
Percentage of group work: about _____ %
Others / Notes: ________________________
7) If the students worked in groups, what
was the size of the study groups in general?
Partner work
Groups with 3 to 8 participants
There was no group work
Others/Notes: _____________________
APPENDICES
275
Part C – Instruction Variables - Contents
1 = essential component
of the class
5 = marginal
component of the class
Please select one answer!
To which extent were the following
characteristics parts of your course?
a) Transfer of theoretical knowledge (Please also
assess this level!)
Demands on entrepreneurs
Tasks of entrepreneurs
Stages of founding a company
Methods for generating ideas
Identifying market opportunities
Development and assessment of business model
Composition of a business plan
Legal aspects of founding a company
Financing the foundation of a company
Marketing/market research
Other theoretical aspects: _________________
b) Application of practical methods during the
class (Please also assess this level!)
Development of a business model
Writing a business plan
Methods of generating ideas
Implementation of a business idea
Other practical methods: ___________________
c) Personal reports of entrepreneurs
d) Measures for personal development
e) Evaluation of the entrepreneurial potential of
the participants
f) Other aspects: __________________________
g) Other aspects: _________________________
1
2
3
4
5
No component
of the class
276
APPENDICES
Part D - Instruction variables – Knowledge transfer
Percentage
Receptive elements
To what degree was the class characterised by talks (by the lecturers,
guest speakers, etc.) and thus by students listening?
Discursive elements
To what degree was the class characterised by discussions involving
the participants?
Explorative Elements
To what degree was the class characterised by self-study of the
participants?
about _________ %
about _________ %
about _________ %
100 %
APPENDICES
277
7.2.10 Results of Multivariate Regressions
Note: The results of the multivariate regression for Hypotheses 1 to 4 are provided within
the main text of the study. Please refer to Table 14 (Hypotheses 1 to 3) and Table 16.
Multivariate regression for Hypothesis 5
Hypothesis 5: Entrepreneurship classes which include business planning activities
Independent variable: Business planning
Dependent variable: Change of perceived behavioural control (perceived behavioural
control ex post - perceived behavioural control ex ante)
Model 1
Control variables
Age
Gender1
Field of Study2
0.082
-0.031
0.000
Business planning
Moderators
Model 2
Model 3
Model 4
0.068
-0.023
-0.008
0.050
-0.004
-0.004
0.051
-0.005
-0.051
0.060
0.067
-0.226
-0.116** (1)
0.096
-0.139*
-0.027
Moderators as terms
Business planning * Previous
Business planning * Student
expectations
0.036
0.304*(2)
R-Square
0.008
0.11
0.025
0.033*
Adj. R-Square
0.001
0.002
0.011
0.014
Notes: *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1
1
2
3
4
Comments about the results
(1) Influence of previous entrepreneurial exposure is significant in Model 3.
(2) Moderating effect of student expectations is significant in Model 4.
278
APPENDICES
Hypothesis 6: Courses providing the opportunity to get in touch with role models students
can identify with positively influence the attitude towards founding one’s own company.
Independent variable: Role models
Dependent variable: Change of attitude (mean attitude ex post - mean attitude ex ante)
Model 1
Control variables
Age
Gender1
Field of Study2
0.044
0.013
-0.044
Role models
Model 2
Model 3
Model 4
0.046
0.037
-0.105*
0.015
0.066
-0.116**
0.015
0.070
-0.122**
0.163***(1)
0.122**
0.154
0.020
-0.079
0.197*** (2)
0.271*
Moderators
Previous entrepreneurial
exposure3
Moderators as terms
Role models * Previous
Role models * Student
expectations
0.172
-0.179
R-Square
0.003
0.030**
0.068***
0.075***
Adj. R-Square
-.004
0.020
0.053
0.054
Notes: *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1
1
2
3
4
(1) Hypothesis 6 is confirmed in Model 2.
(2) Influence student expectations is significant in Model 3.
APPENDICES
279
not carried out since Hypothesis 7 was not confirmed by the correlation analysis
entrepreneurial network positively influence perceived subjective norms.
Independent variable: Entrepreneurial network
Dependent variable: Change of subjective norms (subjective norm ex post - subjective
norm ex ante)
Model 1
Control variables
Age
Gender1
Field of Study2
0.129***(1)
0.001
0.079
Model 2
Model 3
Model 4
0.118*
-0.005
0.056
0.137***
0.017
0.021
0.138***
0.016
0.017
0.117**(2)
0.096*
0.220
0.029
0.157***(3)
0.022
0.279*
Moderators
4
3
Moderators as terms
Entrepreneurial network *
Entrepreneurial network *
0.014
-0.201
R-Square
0.027***
0.038***
0.071***
0.073***
Adj. R-Square
0.020
0.029
0.057
0.054
Notes: *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1
1
2
3
4
(1) The control variable age is significant in Model 1.
(2) Hypotheses 8 is confirmed in Model 2.
(3) Influence of student expectations is significant in Model 3.
280
APPENDICES
not carried out since Hypothesis 9 was not confirmed by the correlation analysis
Hypothesis 10: Student-oriented courses positively influence the attitude towards
founding one’s own company.
Independent variable: Student-orientation, reflective elements
Dependent variable: Change of attitude (attitude ex post - attitude ex ante)
Model 1
Control variables
Age
Gender1
Field of Study2
0.044
0.013
-0.044
Student-orientation, reflective
elements
Model 2
0.052
0.006
-0.098*
0.180***(1)
Moderators
Model 3
Model 4
0.002
0.028
-0.101*
-0.001
0.029
-0.104*
0.139***
0.120
0.015
0.214***(2)
-0.037
0.219
Moderators as terms
elements * Previous entrepreneurial
exposure
elements * Student expectations
0.079
-0.021
R-Square
0.003
0.032***
0.071***
0.073***
Adj. R-Square
-0.004
0.023
0.058
0.055
Notes: *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1
1
2
3
4
APPENDICES
281
Hypothesis 11: Student-oriented courses positively influence the perception about one’s
ability to successfully found one’s own company.
Independent variable: Student-orientation, interactive elements
Model 1
Control variables
Age
Gender1
Field of Study2
0.082
-0.031
0.000
Student orientation - interactive
elements
Model 2
0.054
-0.015
-0.004
0.146***(1)
Moderators
exposure3
Model 3
Model 4
0.042
0.003
0.003
0.045
-0.005
0.012
0.157***
0.423***
-0.129*** (2)
0.052
0.077
0.251
Moderators as terms
elements * Previous
elements *Expectations of
students
-0.233
-0.249
R-Square
0.008
0.028**
0.044***
0.051***
Adj. R-Square
0.001
0.019
0.030
0.033
Notes: *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1
1
2
3
4
(2) Impact of student expectations is significant in Model 3.
282
APPENDICES
Hypothesis 12: Explorative course characteristics positively influence the perception
about one’s ability to successfully found one’s own company.
Independent variable: Explorative elements
Model 1
Control variables
Age
Gender1
Field of Study2
0.082
-0.031
0.000
Moderators
Model 2
Model 3
Model 4
0.074
-0.027
-0.005
0.054
-0.008
-0.002
0.056
-0.010
-0.004
0.027
0.042
-0.163
-0.118** (1)
0.095*
-0.133**
0.048
Moderators as terms
Explorative elements * Previous
Explorative elements *Expectations
of students
0.029
0.194
R-Square
0.080
0.009
0.022
0.026
Adj. R-Square
0.001
0.000
0.008
0.007
Notes: *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1
1
2
3
4
APPENDICES
283
Hypothesis 13: Entrepreneurship courses which include feedback processes positively
influence the perception about one’s ability to successfully found one’s own company.
Independent variable: Feedback elements
Model 1
Control variables
Age
Gender
Field of Study
0.082
-0.031
0.000
Feedback
Moderators
Previous entrepreneurial exposure
Model 2
Model 3
Model 4
0.055
-0.004
-0.020
0.039
0.003
0.006
0.038
-0.003
0.012
0.115**(1)
0.116**
0.229*
-0.140**(2)
0.030
-0.071
0.084
Moderators as terms
Feedback * Previous
Feedback * Expectations of
students
R-Square
0.008
0.019
0.031
Adj. R-Square
0.001
0.006
0.012
Notes: *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1
1
2
3
4
(2) Impact of previous entrepreneurial exposure is significant in Model 3.
-0.095
-0.088
0.032
0.007
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291
CURRICULUM VITAE
Curriculum Vitae
Personal Data
Name
Susan Müller
Date of Birth
18.01.1976
Place of Birth
Bühl, Baden (Deutschland)
Education
1995
1995-1998
Abitur, Wirtschaftsgymnasium Bühl, Baden (Deutschland)
Dipl. Betriebswirtin (BA), Berufsakademie Karlsruhe, Fachrichtung
Wirtschaftsinformatik (Deutschland)
1998 - 2000
Master of Business Administration, University of Pittsburgh, Katz
Graduate School of Business (USA)
Master of Business Administration, University of Applied Sciences
Pforzheim (Germany)
2003 - 2008
Doctoral Student, University of St. Gallen (Switzerland)
Work Experience
Since 2007
Swiss Research Institute of Small Business and Entrepreneurship,
Senior Research Associate, St. Gallen (Switzerland)
2001 – 2007
rosenbaum nagy unternehmensberatung, Cologne, Senior Consultant,
Cologne (Germany)
2001
Arthur
Andersen
Business
Consulting,
Knowledge
manager,
Düsseldorf (Germany)
2000
Bioropa GmbH, Customer Relationship Manager, Cologne (Germany)

Encouraging Future Entrepreneurs: The Effect of Entrepreneurship

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