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Revue européenne de psychologie appliquée 62 (2012) 29–35
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Original article
Validation of the French version of Brandtstädter and Renner’s Tenacious Goal
Pursuit (TGP) and Flexible Goal Adjustment (FGA) scales
Validation française de l’échelle de ténacité et flexibilité : Tenacious Goal Pursuit (TGP) and
Flexible Goal Adjustment (FGA) scales
N. Bailly ∗ , C. Hervé , M. Joulain , D. Alaphilippe
EA 2114, Department of Psychology, University François-Rabelais, 3, rue des Tanneurs, 37041 Tours cedex, France
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 26 February 2010
Received in revised form
23 September 2011
Accepted 27 September 2011
Keywords:
Assimilative and accommodative processes
Elderly
Flexible Goal Adjustment
Tenacious Goal Pursuit
Validation
a b s t r a c t
Introduction. – Despite the potential usefulness of the TGP/FGA scales (Brandtstädter and Renner, 1990)
for studying the way people adapt with age, there is little psychometric evidence supporting the validity
of the construct of either scale.
Objective. – The aim of the study was to develop a French version of Brandtstädter’s TGP/FGA scales in
order to provide a self-report measure for French people in the field of gerontology.
Method. – Two studies involving 677 participants were conducted to evaluate the construct validity,
reliability and convergence validity of these scales.
Results. – In accordance with Brandtstädter, two factors emerged from the exploratory factorial analysis
(study 1): tenacious goal pursuit and flexible goal adjustment. However, 10 items were removed because
of factorial loadings. A confirmatory factor analysis (study 2) of the 20 remaining items corroborated
a two-factor uncorrelated model of the TGP/FGA scales. The simplified subscales showed good internal
consistency. As expected, higher scores on the TGP/FGA scales were correlated with good life satisfaction,
greater control and less depression. Finally, the TGP scale was negatively related to age, but the FGA was
not.
Conclusion. – The French adaptation of the TGP/FGA scales was shown to possess satisfactory psychometric
properties and may therefore be a valuable instrument for researchers and clinicians who are interested
in exploring adaptive processes in the maintenance and promotion of personal well-being.
© 2011 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
r é s u m é
Mots clés :
Âge
Accommodation-flexibilité
Assimilation-ténacité
Validation
L’objectif de notre étude était de valider en langue française l’échelle de ténacité/flexibilité de
Brandtstädter et Renner (1990) auprès d’une population âgée. Deux études menées auprès de
677 participants ont permis d’évaluer la validité de construit, la fiabilité et la validité de convergence
de l’échelle. L’analyse factorielle exploratoire confirme la structure en deux dimensions (flexibilité et
ténacité) établie par les Brandtstädter (étude 1). Néanmoins, dix items ont été retirés en raison de leurs
faibles poids factoriels. Une analyse confirmatoire (étude 2) des 20 items restants a corroboré un modèle non corrélé à deux facteurs. Quant à la cohérence interne de la flexibilité et de la ténacité, elle est
satisfaisante. Par ailleurs, les deux échelles sont corrélées à une bonne satisfaction de vie, à une plus
forte internalité et à une moindre dépression. Si l’âge est corrélé négativement à la ténacité, il ne l’est
pas en revanche avec la flexibilité. L’échelle de ténacité/flexibilité possède des qualités psychométriques
satisfaisantes et semble être un bon outil d’investigation pour les chercheurs et professionnels intéressés
par le maintien et la promotion du bien-être chez les âgés.
© 2011 Elsevier Masson SAS. Tous droits réservés.
1. Introduction
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (N. Bailly).
1162-9088/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.erap.2011.09.005
Adaptation is an important concept that is of particular interest to many researchers in the field of gerontology. With age,
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N. Bailly et al. / Revue européenne de psychologie appliquée 62 (2012) 29–35
many events require adaptation: uncontrollable and irreversible
events occur (bereavement, death of close friends, role loss, etc.),
and many aspects of mental and physical functioning tend to
decline. However, despite these challenges, the majority of older
adults maintain a positive view of self and life, a phenomenon
referred to as the “paradox of well-being” (Mroczek and Kolarz,
1998) or “satisfaction paradoxes” (Diener et al., 1999). A number
of theories have been proposed to explain this paradox. Within
this framework, theories of “successful aging” emphasize personal
control and the organizing function of the self (Rowe and Kahn,
1997).
Preliminary evidence based on Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984)
model of stress and coping shows that coping is a key factor
in adaptation to aging. However, most studies have aimed to
identify coping patterns that are maladaptive rather than those
that are adaptive. There is a tendency to favour a certain ideal
characterized by active or offensive coping efforts, which can be
inappropriate in the case of age-related functional impairment.
The stress and coping model does not include a developmental view of coping, and yet it is important to understand the
way people adjust to the challenges, constraints, and losses facing them at different periods of their life. One measure used to
examine this issue is based on the life-span theory of control
(Heckhausen, 1997), which was designed to assess control-related
behaviour and the frequency of its use. However, adaptation processes can also be conceptualized as general response tendencies
rather than concrete day-to-day strategies at a behavioural level.
The life-span model that most specifically formulates such general
coping tendencies was developed by Brandtstädter and colleagues
(Brandtstädter and Greve, 1994; Brandtstädter and Rothermund,
2002; Brandtstädter et al., 1993). In the present study, we followed the well-established dual-process model of Brandtstädter
because it addresses the dynamics of goal striving throughout the
life span and thus allows a better understanding of the adaptation processes as people age. Brandtstädter’s theoretical framework
describes coping strategies that enable a person to adjust positively
to the experience of major decline. Brandtstädter and colleagues
believe that two independent coping modes play an important role
in the relationships between functional declines and losses and psychological well-being: the assimilative mode and the accommodative
mode (Brandtstädter and Greve, 1994; Brandtstädter and Renner,
1990).1
The assimilative mode of coping is a persistent effort to
actively adjust life circumstances to one’s preferences. It comprises efforts and intentional activities to modify the actual
situation to attain a closer fit with personal goals and projects.
This assimilative mode allows the individual to maintain his/her
self-esteem and identity as long as there is a realistic chance
of attaining a goal. When assimilative efforts become ineffective
(because the situation appears to be unchangeable), the accommodative mode is activated. Accommodation refers to processes
whereby personal goals and frames of self-evaluation are adjusted
to situational constraints. In the accommodative mode, the individual withdraws from goals that resist goal-directed activities.
This supports a re-evaluation and restructuring of goal hierarchies.
Assimilative and accommodative modes contribute to wellbeing, life satisfaction and low depression (Boerner, 2004; Maes
1
References to Piagetian concepts are obvious but used differently in Brandtstädter’s theory: “In the Piagetian system, however, the concepts of assimilation
and accommodation refer to the application and adjustment of cognitive schemata,
whereas in the present theoretical context, they denote different modes of achieving
congruence between actually perceived and desired circumstances” (Brandtstädter,
2009, p. 53).
and Karoly, 2005). In particular, when goal pursuit exceeds
resources, or aversive circumstances seem irreversible, switching
from assimilative to accommodative modes helps to overcome
feelings of helplessness and depression and to regain an overall
sense of efficacy. With age, the accommodative flexibility mode
tends to increase and the assimilative tenacity mode to decrease
(Brandtstädter et al., 1993; Heckhausen, 1997). This enables individuals to preserve integrity and continuity, even with functional
declines and losses.
In terms of personal disposition to use specific modes, there are
stable individual differences in the basic modes of coping and life
management. It was within this perspective that Brandtstädter and
Renner (1990) developed the Tenacious Goal Pursuit (TGP) and the
Flexible Goal Adjustment (FGA) scales, assessing the constructs of
assimilative tenacity and accommodative flexibility respectively.
Originally, 73 items were created and administered in a preliminary study of 206 German adults aged 18 to 81 years (97 women,
109 men; mean age = 34.4 years). Exploratory factor analyses with
orthogonal rotation revealed two homogeneous groups of 15 items
that corresponded to the constructs of assimilative tenacity (“tendency to tenaciously pursue goals even in the face of obstacles and
under high risk of failure”) and accommodative flexibility (“tendency
to positively reinterpret initially aversive situations and to relinquish
blocked goal perspectives easily”) (Brandtstädter and Renner, 1990,
p. 61).
With regard to the psychometric properties of the scales, the
construct validity of both scales is limited. With the exception
of initial work by Brandtstädter and Renner (1990) (exploratory
factorial analysis), and a more recent study by Mueller and Kim
(2004) (confirmatory factorial analysis), the construct underlying Brandtstädter’s theory is not supported by the literature.
Even for the first validation of Brandtstädter’s scale, the factor
loadings and percentage of explained variance of the EFA are
not available. With regard to internal consistencies, satisfactory
consistencies have been reported for both scales: Brandtstädter
and Renner (1990) reported satisfactory internal consistencies
for the TGP and FGA scales, and more recent studies have also
reported satisfactory consistencies (Heyl et al., 2007; Mueller and
Kim, 2004; Niessen et al., 2009; Slangen-De Kort et al., 2001).
Intercorrelations between the two scales are slightly negative
or close to zero (Brandtstädter and Renner, 1990; Slangen-De
Kort et al., 2001). Convergent and discriminant validity indicate
that scores of both scales correlate positively with life satisfaction, optimism, sense of control and low depression (Boerner,
2004; Brandtstädter and Renner, 1990; Heyl et al., 2007; Mueller
and Kim, 2004). In keeping with theoretical expectations, age
correlates positively with the FGA and negatively with the TGP
(Brandtstädter and Greve, 1994; Heyl et al., 2007; Niessen et al.,
2009). Finally, some results indicate that men score slightly higher
than women on the TGP (Brandtstädter and Renner, 1990; Heyl
et al., 2007).
Despite the potential usefulness of the TGP/FGA scales for studying the way people adapt with age, there is little psychometric
evidence supporting the validity of the construct of either scale.
The purpose of this study was to developing and contributing to the
validation of a French version of the TGP and FGA scale. As there
is no available data about the original validation, we first investigated the French factor structure of the TGP and FGA scales with
an exploratory factorial analysis (EFA). The first study revealed a
number of problematic items and so a second study was conducted
on a new sample. The problematic items were removed and the
construct validity of the modified scale was tested with a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). To assess convergent validity, we
also examined the relationships between Brandtstädter’s scale and
other validated measures, such as depression, life satisfaction and
locus of control.
N. Bailly et al. / Revue européenne de psychologie appliquée 62 (2012) 29–35
2. Study 1: Translation, principal component analysis,
internal consistency
2.1. Method
2.1.1. Participants and procedure
A total of 321 participants, aged 65 and over, were recruited
from local senior centres and through advertisements in specialized
magazines (retirement group). All participants were volunteers.
Twenty-eight participants were excluded because they did not fully
complete the scales, and the final sample thus consisted of 293 participants. Mean age was 73.61 years (SD = 5.36; 65–96). There were
172 women (58.70%, M age = 73.54, SD = 5.19) and 121 men (41.30%,
M age = 73.71, SD = 5.62); 53% were married or had a partner, 38.33%
were widowed, and 8% lived alone). The participants had an average
of 9.95 years (SD = 2.68) of education, which is higher than expected
for people in this age bracket. Finally, they assessed their health on
a scale ranging from “poor” to “excellent” as good (46.88%) or very
good (23.7%). All the participants lived in their own homes.
2.1.2. Instrument
Brandtstädter and Renner’s (1990) 30-item version of the TGP
and FGA scales was used. Each scale contains 15 items. Respondents
indicate to what extent items apply to them on a 5-point Likert
scale, ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree” (1–5).
High scores on the TGP and FGA scales indicate high assimilative
tenacity and high accommodative flexibility respectively.
2.1.3. Translation of the TGP/FGA scales
The scale was translated into French by two independent professional bilingual translators, following the method proposed by
Vallerand (1989). These versions were then translated back into
English by an independent third translator and compared with
the initial English version. A consensus meeting was organized
with one translator and two French researchers to examine equivalence in language structure, and meaning and in reading level.
A particular difficulty concerned the translation of “goal” (“but”
in French) and “objective” (“objectif”). Goals refer to long-term
aims that people want to accomplish, whereas objectives refer to
concrete attainments that can be achieved by following a certain
number of steps. While “objectif” is more commonly used in French,
the concept of “but” is closer to Brandtstädter’s underlying theory, so it was decided to maintain this word in the scale. Finally,
the scale was pilot tested with 10 elderly people. All the participants stated that they had no difficulty understanding the items
and expressed their willingness to complete the scales, which took
about 15–20 min (Table 1).
2.2. Results
First, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy and Bartlett’s test of sphericity indicated that the scale was
psychometrically adequate for factor analysis (KMO = .81; Bartlett’s
␹2 [n = 293] = 2800; p < .0001). The internal consistencies were .73
for the TGP scale and .75 for the FGA scale. Brandtstädter and
Renner (1990) reported slightly higher internal consistencies (TGP:
.80 and FGA: .83). To establish the factor structure of the two
scales, we conducted an exploratory factor analysis using principal component analysis. In view of the independence of the two
scales established by Brandtstädter and Renner (1990), we used
an orthogonal rotation.2 Principal component analysis revealed a
two-factor structure. Both factors had Eigenvalues greater than one
2
We also conducted an exploratory factor analysis with an oblimin rotation.
Results were similar.
31
and the total percentage of explained variance was 33% (22.2% and
10.8%, Table 1). Based on factor loadings of .40. Factor 1 included 10
flexibility goal adjustment items. Five FGA items were not loaded
on any factor (items 1, 13, 19, 26, 30). Factor 2 included 10 tenacious goal pursuit items. Five TGP items were not loaded on any
factor (items 3, 5, 7, 27, 28). While the exploratory factor analysis
supports the two adaptation strategies proposed by Brandtstädter,
10 items seem to be inappropriate (all of these items had loadings
lower than .30). These items were dropped in order to increase the
efficiency and discriminant validity of the scales, and also because
the measure needed to be kept short for use with elderly people.
The Cronbach’s alpha value was .76 for the 10 items retained in the
FGA, and .78 for the 10 items of the TGP scale.
3. Study 2: Confirmatory factor analysis and convergent
validity
3.1. Methods
3.1.1. Participants and procedure
All participants were volunteers living in different places in
France and were contacted via associations for the elderly and
advertisements in specialized magazines (Malakoff Capimmec
group). The completed anonymous (pre-coded) questionnaires
were returned by mail in a prepaid envelope. We received 410 questionnaires out of the 500 sent. One group of respondents (n = 26)
was excluded because they had not completed all the items on
the questionnaire. Thus, our study was based on a final sample of
384 individuals aged 63 and over, mean age 74.34 years (SD = 5.43;
63–97). There were 212 women (55.21%, M age = 73.97, SD = 5.04)
and 172 men (44.79%, M age = 74.81, SD = 5.86); 56.41% were married or had a partner, 30.99% were widowed, and 12.5% lived alone.
The respondents had an average of 9.23 years (SD = 3.26) of education, which is higher than expected for people in this age bracket.
On a scale ranging from “poor” to “excellent”, they assessed their
health as being good (44.03%) or very good (32.42%). All the participants lived in their own homes.
3.1.2. Instruments
All the participants completed the version of the FGA and TGP
scales developed in study 1 (20 items). To assess the convergent
validity of the two scales, measures of life satisfaction, depression and control were evaluated. Life satisfaction was evaluated
using the French version of the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS)
developed by Diener et al. (1985). This is a five-item scale with
a seven-point Likert format, higher scores indicating greater life
satisfaction. The French version (Blais et al., 1989) has good internal consistency and stability over time. The internal consistency of
the SWLS in this study was deemed good (Cronbach’s alpha = .87).
Depression was measured using the Geriatric Depression Scale
(GDS, Yesavage et al., 1983). The French version of the GDS (Bourque
et al., 1990) has good internal consistency and stability over time.
The internal consistency of the GDS in this study was deemed good
(Cronbach’s alpha = .75). Locus of control was assessed using the
French adaptation (Alaphilippe and Chasseigne, 1993) of Rotter’s
scale (1996). This is an 11-item Guttman-type scale (plus three
filler items) with scores ranging from 0 (high externality) to 22
(high internality). The internal consistency was .61 in the present
sample.
3.2. Results
3.2.1. Principal component analysis
The remaining 20 items were again submitted to principal component analysis (with orthogonal rotation). Principal component
32
N. Bailly et al. / Revue européenne de psychologie appliquée 62 (2012) 29–35
Table 1
Principal Components factor analysis of the FGA/TGP.
1
4
8
13
15
16
17
19
21
23
24
25
26
29
30
2
3
5
6
7
9
10
11
12
14
18
20
22
27
28
Percentages of variance (Eigenvalues)
Flexible Goal Adjustment
When I get stuck on something, it’s hard for me to find a new approach
Quand je suis bloqué(e) sur quelque chose, il m’est difficile de trouver une nouvelle façon de faire
I find it easy to see something positive even in a serious mishap
Je trouve souvent quelque chose de positif même dans un grand malheur
When everything seems to be going wrong, I can usually find a bright side to a situation
Même quand tout semble aller mal pour moi, j’arrive malgré tout à voir quelque part une petite
amélioration
I create many problems for myself because of my high demands
Je me crée beaucoup de problèmes à cause de mes trop grandes exigences
In general, I am not upset very long about an opportunity passed up
En général, lorsque j’ai laissé passer une bonne occasion, je n’ai pas de peine très longtemps
I adapt quite easily to changes in plans or circumstances
En général, je m’adapte assez facilement aux changements de circonstances ou de plans
I usually find something positive even about giving up something I cherish
Je trouve habituellement quelque chose de positif même dans le fait de renoncer à quelque chose
que j’aime
I usually have no difficulties in recognizing where my limits are
Je n’ai habituellement pas de difficultés à reconnaître mes limites
After a serious drawback, I soon turn to new tasks
Après une importante déception, je me tourne assez rapidement vers de nouvelles tâches
If I don’t get something I want, I take it with patience
Quand je n’obtiens pas ce que je veux, j’arrive à rester patient et calme
Faced with a disappointment, I usually remind myself that other things in life are just as
important
Lorsque mes désirs ne se réalisent pas, je ne crois pas qu’il faille désespérer : il y a autres choses
dans la vie
I find that even life’s troubles have their bright side
Je trouve que même les problèmes de la vie ont leur bon côté
It is very difficult for me to accept a setback or defeat
Il est très difficile pour moi d’accepter un revers ou une défaite
When I get into serious trouble, I immediately look how to make the best out of the situation
Quand j’ai un problème sérieux, je me demande tout de suite comment tirer le meilleur parti
possible de cette situation
I’m never really satisfied unless things come up to my wishes exactly
Je ne suis vraiment satisfait(e) que lorsque les choses se réalisent exactement comme je le désire
Tenacious Goals Pursuit
The harder a goal is to achieve, the more appeal it has to me
Plus un but est difficile à atteindre, plus il a d’attrait pour moi
I can be very obstinate in pursuing my goals
Je peux être très obstiné(e) dans la poursuite de mes buts
When faced with obstacles, I usually double my efforts
Quand je fais face à des obstacles, je redouble habituellement mes efforts
To avoid disappointments, I don’t set my goals too high
Pour éviter les déceptions, je ne me fixe pas de buts trop élevés
Even when things seem hopeless, I keep on fighting to reach my goals
Même quand les choses semblent désespérées, je continue à me battre pour atteindre mes buts
I tend to lose interest in matters where I cannot keep up with others
J’ai tendance à me désintéresser des domaines dans lesquels les autres sont meilleurs que moi
I find it easy to give up a wish if it seems difficult to fulfill it
Je renonce quelque fois à un souhait s’il me semble difficile à satisfaire
When I run up against insurmountable obstacles, I prefer to look for a new goal
Quand je me heurte à des difficultés insurmontables, je préfère chercher un nouveau but
Life is much more pleasurable when I do not expect too much from it
La vie est beaucoup plus agréable quand je ne me fixe pas de buts trop élevés
When I have tried hard but cannot solve a problem, I find it easy just to leave it unsolved
Quand j’ai travaillé fort mais que je n’ai pu résoudre un problème, j’ai remarqué qu’il m’était facile
de le laisser non résolu
I avoid grappling with problems for which I have no solution
J’évite d’affronter les problèmes pour lesquels je n’ai pas de solution
If I find I cannot reach a goal, I’d prefer to change my goal than to keep struggling
Si je vois que je ne peux pas atteindre un but, je préfère renoncer à celui-ci plutôt que de continuer
à m’acharner
Faced with a serious problem, I sometimes simply pay no attention to it
Confronté(e) à une sérieuse difficulté, je me contente parfois de l’ignorer
Even when a situation seems hopeless, I still try to master it
Même quand une situation semble désespérée, j’essaie de trouver un moyen de la maîtriser
I stick to my goals and projects even in face of great difficulties
Quand mon idée est faite, je m’accroche à mes buts et à mes projets même si je rencontre de
grandes difficultés
Values greater than .40 are in bold.
a
Study 2: principal component analysis was conducted on the remaining 20 items.
Study 1 (n = 293)
Study 2 (n = 384)a
Factor 1
Factor 2
Factor 1
Factor 2
18 (4.69)
15 (2.50)
23 (5.03)
18 (2.45)
.15
.17
.56
.02
.62
.11
.64
.03
.63
.00
.11
−.06
.40
.08
.45
−.04
.51
−.05
.61
.03
.55
−.06
.66
.03
.14
.10
.53
−.13
.52
−.09
.43
−.01
.50
.05
.59
.03
.59
.07
.45
−.02
.53
.18
.10
−.06
.55
−.02
.48
.08
.08
.14
.15
.52
.18
.41
.14
.16
.15
.17
.15
.56
.06
.62
.10
.23
.06
.45
.10
.52
−.02
.65
.05
.71
−.07
.50
.03
.64
.10
.65
.04
.68
.02
.45
.06
.47
−.04
.67
−.02
.72
−.16
.64
.07
.62
.00
.52
.00
.46
.22
.12
18
.16
N. Bailly et al. / Revue européenne de psychologie appliquée 62 (2012) 29–35
Table 2
Model indices of TGP and FGA scales (n = 384).
Model
One-factor
Two-factor uncorrelated
Two-factor correlated
␹2
1476
322
375
df
␹2 /df
RMSEA
GFI
AGFI
170
170
169
8.68
1.89
2.21
.14
.04
.06
.73
.93
.92
.67
.91
.90
analysis revealed a two-factor structure. Both factors had eigenvalues greater than one and the total percentage of explained variance
was 41% (27.2% and 13.8%, Table 1). The proportion of explained
variance was higher with the 20-item version than with the 30item version. All loadings were close to or greater than .40. Factor
1 included the 10 flexible goal adjustment items, and factor 2
included the 10 tenacious goal pursuit items (Table 1). Cronbach’s
alpha value was .76 for the FGA scale and .78 for the TGP scale indicating satisfactory internal consistencies. In line with Brandtstädter
and Renner (1990), our findings thus support a two-factor model.
33
results are consistent with Brandtstädter’s original study (r = .26;
r = −.17/−.24; r = .20, respectively). The FGA scale score correlated
with scores of life satisfaction (r = .29; p < .001), depression (r = −.28;
p < .001) and control (r = .14; p < .001). Participants with higher flexibility had greater life satisfaction, less depression and greater
internality. Although our results are significant, they are below
those of Brandtstädter’s original study (r = .36 – life satisfaction and
r = −.31–.41 – depression).
3.2.4. Relationship with age and sex
In keeping with previous studies, the tenacity scores were significantly correlated with age, with older participants scoring lower
(r = −.14; p < .01), but the flexibility scores were not significantly
correlated with age (r = .05; p = .31). Men had higher tenacity scores
(t(382) = 3.87; p < .01, Cohen’s D = .68) and slightly lower flexibility
scores than women (t(382) = 1.93; p = .05, Cohen’s D = .16).
4. Discussion
3.2.2. Confirmatory factor analysis
First, we examined the distribution of scores with skewness and
Kurtosis values. Skewness values ranged from −.83 to +1.20, and the
Kurtosis values ranged from −.87 to +3.12 and therefore indicate no
strong deviation from normality. To examine the factor structure
of the TGP and FGA scales, a confirmatory analysis was conducted
using the SEPATH program of Statistica software. The fit indices
assessed were: ␹2 /df ratio (a value below 2 is recommended by
conventional standards; Tabachnik and Fidell, 2001), the root mean
square error of approximation index (RMSEA) (values between 0
and 0.05 indicate a good fit, and values between .05 and .08 indicate an acceptable fit; Hu and Bentler, 1999), the goodness-of-fit
index (GFI) (values of > .90 indicate good fit, Tabachnik and Fidell,
2001) and the adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI) (values of > .90
indicate good fit, Tabachnik and Fidell, 2001).
Three alternative models were tested. We first explored the possibility that the TGP and FGA items together measure a single factor
rather than two separate factors. Although assimilative tenacity
and accommodative flexibility are supposed to have little relationship with each other, items in the TGP scale and the FGA scale seem
to have contrasting meanings. If the responses to all items in one
scale are recoded, we could assume that the TGP and FGA scale
items together measure a single factor (Mueller and Kim, 2004).
The second model, supported by theory and previous research by
Brandtstädter, is based on two uncorrelated factors (FGA and TGP).
Finally, because some studies have found correlations between the
FGA and TGP scales (Heyl et al., 2007; Niessen et al., 2009), we
tested a third model with two correlated factors. Results of the
confirmatory factor analysis are presented in Table 2.
The one-factor model is not acceptable according to the conventional standard indices. GFI and AGFI indicated good fit on
the two-factor uncorrelated model and the two-factor correlated
model (GFI = .93/AGFI = .91 and GFI = .92/AGFI = .90, respectively).
The ␹2 /df ratio and RMSEA fit the two-factor uncorrelated
model better than the two-factor correlated model (␹2 /df
ratio = 1.89/RMSEA = .04 and ␹2 /df ratio = 2.21/RMSEA = .06, respectively). The confirmatory factor analysis thus shows that the
adapted French TGP/FGA scales corresponds to the two-factor
uncorrelated model, in line with Brandtstädter’s theory. The latent
variables of the two-dimension model are not significantly correlated (r = .01; p = .75).
3.2.3. Convergent validity
The TGP scale score correlated with scores of life satisfaction (r = .22; p < .001), depression (r = −.19; p < .001) and control
(r = .23; p < .001). Participants with higher tenacity scores had
greater life satisfaction, less depression and greater internality. Our
The aim of the study was to develop a French version of Brandtstädter’s TGP/FGA scales to provide a self-report measure in the
field of gerontology in France. Two studies were conducted with
a sample of 677 participants to evaluate the construct validity,
reliability and convergence validity of these scales.
The construct validity of the scales was analyzed with
exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. The results showed
that the factor structure of the French version is similar to that of
Brandtstädter’s scale. Two factors emerged from the exploratory
factorial analysis (study 1): tenacious goal pursuit and flexible goal
adjustment. However, 10 items were removed due to low factorial loadings. Content analysis of the remaining items did not
reveal any particularities. The English version was developed during earlier cooperation between Brandtstädter’s research group
and projects in the USA (Boerner, 2004), but much of the research
using these scales used the original German-language version. It
is possible therefore that there are slight differences in meaning
between these different versions. In addition, the 20-item version
improves the percentage of total variance, but the percentage is
slightly below the recommended 50% of total variance (Coste et al.,
2005). However, it is difficult to compare our result with the original
validation study as no data are available. Nevertheless, examining
the veracity of construct meaning in the translation process is an
important project for the future. In addition, our decision to shorten
the original TGP/FGA scales is clearly debatable and should thus
be considered as a preliminary step, although we needed a short
measure for use with elderly people. The simplified subscales also
showed good internal consistency. The second study explored the
construct validity of the Brandtstädter scale using confirmatory factor analysis with a new sample of elderly people. Three models were
tested. The two-factor uncorrelated model performed better than
the other two. Our results confirm Brandtstädter’s findings. With
regard to the correlation between the FGA and TGP scales, some
studies have indicated good correlations (Heyl et al., 2007; Niessen
et al., 2009) while others have found a correlation close to zero
or slightly negative (Brandtstädter, 2009; Mueller and Kim, 2004).
Our results confirm that the TGP and FGA scales measure independent dimensions of coping skills. Personal coping tendencies could
be indicated by whether the individual reports one mode rather
than the other, high levels of both, or little use of either. However,
Rothermund (2006) suggests that both tendencies are necessary
for adaptive self-regulation: people who are both tenacious and
flexible are hypothesized to be those who adapt most efficiently to
changing circumstances.
The convergent validity of the TGP/FGA scales was investigated with other well-established measures of mental and physical
34
N. Bailly et al. / Revue européenne de psychologie appliquée 62 (2012) 29–35
health. As expected, higher scores of tenacity and flexibility
were correlated with good life satisfaction, more control and
less depression. Like other results, our study indicated correlations with measures of well-being and mental health (Boerner,
2004; Brandtstädter and Renner, 1990; Heyl et al., 2007; Mueller
and Kim, 2004). The adaptive functions of both modes of coping
are highlighted: accommodation/flexibility mitigates the negative
emotional impact of loss and constraints (Seltzer et al., 2004), while
assimilation/tenacity gives the feeling of control over life, which
positively affects well-being (Heckhausen and Schulz, 1995).
Further investigations are necessary to understand better
whether and how assimilative and accommodative processes are
related to constituents of subjective well-being. In particular, the
question of assimilative and accommodative tendencies cannot be
explained fully by personal disposition. It would also be interesting
to investigate which tendencies are likely to be activated in a given
situation. For example, Slangen-De Kort et al. (2001) used concrete
problem scenarios and showed that flexibility and tenacity depend
on the type of situation. Another interesting study was conducted
by Dubé et al. (2007). These authors developed a programme to help
elderly people through a goal-based learning process. The results
showed that the personal goal management programme was effective in improving the participants’ ability to achieve their goals
by learning how to set, plan, and pursue their projects. The intervention also produced benefits in terms of well-being. Like other
studies and practical experiences, the results indicate that even in
old age it is still possible to compensate for age-related difficulties
(Alaphilippe, 2007).
With regard to the links between age and the two scales, our
results indicate that the TGP scale is negatively correlated with
age, as expected from the literature (Boerner, 2004; Brandtstädter
and Renner, 1990; Heyl et al., 2007). Assimilative efforts are constrained by available action resources such as health, social support
and physical well-being, and by advancing age, when goals and
ambitions no longer match personal capacities and compensatory
resources can lead to lower tenacity. An unexpected result was
that the FGA scale was not correlated with age as most studies
and theoretical assumptions indicate increased flexibility with age
(Brandtstädter, 2009). This result could be explained by our sample; the age range of our participants was 63 to 97 years, which may
have been insufficient to investigate the modifications of coping
strategies throughout the life span. Previous cross-cultural studies have used larger samples to explore the shift from assimilative
to accommodative mode (Brandtstädter et al. (1993): 34–63 years
old; Heckhausen (1997): 20–85 years old). Furthermore, findings
suggest that FGA scores increase gradually over time whereas TGP
scores decrease more abruptly, which could also explain our results
(Brandtstädter et al., 1993). Future studies should be based on a longitudinal study and/or samples with a larger age range. Finally, and
in keeping with Brandtstädter and Renner (1990), our results indicate that men have higher tenacity scores than women and that
women are slightly more flexible than men.
Our study has several limitations. Given the characteristics of
our sample (good perception of health, good level of education,
living independently and few participants living alone), we can
assume that our participants had not yet had to deal with major
health or social problems. A study involving a more representative
sample of the elderly French population would improve understanding of the two ways of coping in old age. In order to validate
Brandtstädter’s scales better, concurrent, discriminant and predictive validity need to be tested. In particular, additional studies are
needed to investigate the construct validity of the short French
scales in greater depth. These should replicate the results obtained
with the original scales. Finally, further research on the psychometric properties of this instrument should involve larger samples
in different groups (clinical, institutional, etc.). Nonetheless, this
study shows that the French adaptation of the TGP/FGA scales has
satisfactory psychometric properties and may therefore be a valuable instrument for researchers and clinicians who are interested
in exploring the role of tenacity and flexibility in the maintenance
and promotion of personal well-being.
Disclosure of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest concerning this article.
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ID
895545
Title
ValidationoftheFrenchversionofBrandtstädterandRenner'sTenaciousGoalPursuit(TGP)andFlexible
GoalAdjustment(FGA)scales
http://fulltext.study/journal/869
http://FullText.Study
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