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Public Authorities and the Training of Religious Personnel in Europe
La formation des cadres religieux en Europe
Proceedings of the XXVth Annual Conference
Strasbourg/Klingenthal, 21-24 November 2013
Actes du XXVème colloque annuel
Strasbourg/Klingenthal, 21-24 novembre 2013
Francis Messner (ed.)
Public Authorities and the Training
of Religious Personnel in Europe
La formation des cadres
religieux en Europe
Proceedings of the XXVth Annual Conference
Strasbourg/Klingenthal, 21-24 November 2013
Actes du XXVème colloque annuel
Strasbourg/Klingenthal, 21-24 novembre 2013
Granada, 2015
Ces actes du colloque du Consortium européen pour l’étude
des relations Eglises/Etat sont dédiés au professeur
Francesco Margiotta-Broglio membre fondateur
et premier président du Consortium.
© Los autores
Editorial Comares, S.L.
Polígono Juncaril
C/ Baza, parcela 208
18220 Albolote (Granada)
Tlf.: 958 465 382
E-mail: [email protected]
http://www.editorialcomares.com
http://www.comares.com
ISBN: … • Depósito legal: Gr. …
Fotocomposición, impresión y encuadernación: comares
Professor Norman Doe is very grateful for assistance with refinement
of the English texts from the following Cardiff Law School
undergraduates: Joshua Atkins, Conor Bisson, Charlotte Brett,
Ella Carroll, Jessica Etheridge, Bethany Fensome,
Chloe Halloran, Elinor Hughes, Thomas Jaynes, Lauren Quinn,
Olivia Samuel, Becky Rogers, Nia Webb, Sadie White,
Sarah White, and Kimberley Williams.
Francis Messner tient également à remercier
Lucie Veyretout pour son travail de relecture.
TABLE DES MATIÈRES
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Francis Messner
La formation des cadres religieux en Europe – Toile de fonds historique . . . . . . . . . .9
Brigitte Basdevant
L es pouvoirs publics et la formation des cadres religieux en E urope . L e cadre
politico-normatif italien . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Roberto Mazzola
La formation des cadres religieux en France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Pierre-Henri Prélot
«Not by bread alone». The teaching of theology in Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
Jónatas E.M. Machado
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Miguel Rodríguez Blanco
The training of ministers of religion in Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
Celia G. Kenny
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . .97
Balázs Schanda
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Europe. A report from
Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Michał Rynkowski
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Europe. The German
perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Matthias Pulte
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Europe. A report from
Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
Lina Papadopoulou
X
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Romania . . . . . . . . . . . .147
Emanuel Tăvală
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
Richard Potz
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Cyprus . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
Achilles C. Emilianides
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Europe. Report Czech
Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
Jiří Rajmund Tretera and Záboj Horák
Public authorities and the training of religious staff in Lithuania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
Andrius Sprindziunas
Public Authorities And The Training Of Religious Personnel In Slovenia . . . . . . . . . .205
Blaž Ivanc
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel. Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
Lars Friedner
The training of ministers of religion in the United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
Norman Doe
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Estonia . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
Merilin Kiviorg
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Latvia . . . . . . . . . . . . . .251
Edvins Danovskis
From State-Church to non-denominationalism public authorities and theological
education in Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
Ilkka Huhta
Liste des auteurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
INTRODUCTION
Francis Messner
Le colloque annuel du Consortium qui s’est tenu à Strasbourg/Klingenthal en
novembre 2013 a traité de l’implication des pouvoirs publics en Europe dans la formation des cadres religieux au sens large du terme (autorités religieuses, ecclésiastiques, laïcs exerçant une charge pastorale pour les institutions de l’Eglise catholique,
professeurs de religion dans les établissements d’enseignement publics ou privés,
aumôniers, ministres de la religion). Cette approche a privilégié trois volets, l’évolution historique des modes de formation des cadres religieux, le statut actuel de cette
formation et enfin les politiques publiques développées aux fins de relever les défis
générés par le développement de religions d’implantation récente dont l’encadrement
cultuel est souvent assuré par des ministres envoyés par des Etats étrangers.
I. Evolutions historiques
La formation du personnel ecclésiastique en Occident des premiers siècles au bas
Moyen-âge, a été du moins pour le pléthorique «bas clergé», quasi inexistante. Seuls
quelques clercs destinés à de hautes fonctions fréquentaient les écoles cathédrales,
les écoles monastiques et les facultés de théologie des universités médiévales qui
étaient institutionnellement liées à la papauté. Les Lumières, le juridictionnalisme
et la Réforme protestante ont relevé les imperfections de ce système. En réaction, le
Concile de Trente (1542-1563) fait obligation aux évêques de créer des séminaires
en vue de la formation des prêtres. Il s’agit d’internats de type monastique assorti
d’un contrôle du mode de vie et de la pensée intellectuelle sensés prendre le contre
pied du laxisme pré-tridentin. Le monde orthodoxe s’est inspiré du modèle catholique des séminaires alors que les minorités juives au statut précaire formaient leurs
rabbins dans des Yechivas, écoles supérieures où sont étudiés le talmud et la thora.
Les pasteurs du protestantisme historique luthériens et réformés, sont quant à eux
systématiquement formés dans les universités.
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Francis Messner
Mais l’Eglise catholique difficile à réformer, peine à mettre en place les séminaires et nombre de diocèses en Europe en sont toujours privés à la fin du 18e siècle.
Les chefs d’Etat soucieux de contrôler les ministres de la religion prennent souvent
l’initiative de créer eux mêmes des établissements de formation théologique. Ainsi
en France, suite à la Révolution, la Constitution civile du clergé du 12 juillet 1790
ordonne l’établissement dans chaque diocèse d’un séminaire pour la préparation
aux ordres. Par la suite, les textes réorganisant les cultes en France au début du 19e
siècle prévoient la création de séminaires et d’académies de niveau supérieur aux
séminaires pour les prêtres catholiques et instaurent des académies pour l’instruction
des ministres des cultes protestants. L’Université impériale créée en 1808 comprend
à cet effet des facultés de théologie catholique et des facultés de théologie protestante. Le financement par les pouvoirs publics, d’un établissement de théologie pour
les ministres de la religion juive a été plus tardif. Une Ecole rabbinique a été érigée
1829 et financée par l’Etat en 1831. Le subventionnement des ces établissements a
été supprimé dès 1885 pour les facultés de théologie catholique et en 1905 pour les
facultés de théologie protestante et l’Ecole rabbinique.
La volonté de faire de la formation des ministres du culte un mécanisme au
service de l’intégration des confessions religieuses dans la Nation et parfois au service des intérêts de l’Etat ou dans le pire des cas un instrumentum regni au service
du Prince s’impose partout en Europe à partir du 18e siècle. Ainsi, au Portugal, la
charte de la faculté de théologie de l’Université de Coimbra au 18e siècle insiste sur
l’importance pour les clercs de disposer d’une formation morale de haut niveau. Elle
pourrait faciliter la réforme de l’Eglise et ainsi accroitre son rôle bénéfique au profit
de la société. Plus tard au début du 20e siècle, la réforme des facultés de théologie
des universités publiques de 1901 prône une formation en vue de la constitution d’un
clergé portugais ouvert, moderne et éclairé et cela peu avant leur suppression par la loi
de séparation de 1911. De même en Autriche, dès le 18e siècle la formation des prêtres
et dans une moindre mesure celle des pasteurs et des rabbins est, sous l’influence du
joséphisme, sévèrement encadrée. Les membres du clergé catholique sont tenus de
faire six années d’études dans des séminaires généraux contrôlés par l’administration
publique avant d’entrer en fonction. A partir de 1850 l’ensemble des établissements
de théologie (facultés de théologie, séminaires diocésains et collèges monastiques)
est placé sous la tutelle des pouvoirs publics. Au Royaume-Uni, les futurs prêtres
anglicans de l’Eglise établie auraient en principe du suivre des enseignements dans
les universités de Cambridge et d’Oxford qui comportent des facultés de théologie
(Divinity School). L’Eglise établie avait pour ambition au 18/19e siècle de former
l’ensemble des prêtres anglicans à l’Université. Cet objectif n’a jamais été atteint
et nombre de candidats étudiaient dans des «cathedral colleges» qui ont un statut
intellectuel comparable aux séminaires catholiques. L’objectif des autorités publiques
aux 18/19e siècle était de favoriser l’éducation d’un clergé tolérant, éclairé, ouvert sur
la modernité acceptant l’existence d’autres traditions religieuses ou d’autres formes
Introduction
3
de pensée, en bref un clergé apte à maintenir la paix religieuse et plus largement la
paix sociale.
II. Statut actuel de la formation des cadres religieux
Les modes actuels de formation des cadres religieux en Europe (système d’accréditation des diplômes, instauration d’établissements publics de théologie, participation des pouvoirs publics au financement de la formation des cadres religieux)
dépendent du statut fixé par les droits nationaux des cultes. Les religions majoritaires
ou minoritaires implantées en Europe sur le long terme (catholiques, protestants,
juifs, orthodoxes) bénéficient d’un réseau bien structuré d’établissements de formation théologique qui se sont développés au cours de l’histoire. Chaque Eglise ou
religion fixe, parfois après une négociation avec les autorités publiques, le niveau
académique requis pour l’accès aux différentes fonctions cultuelles, pastorales ou
religieuses: en règle générale diplôme universitaire de théologie public ou privé pour
les pasteurs protestants luthériens et réformés et pour les prêtres anglicans, cursus
dans un séminaire ou une faculté de théologie publique ou privée pour les prêtres
catholiques et orthodoxes en fonction des traditions nationales et selon l’importance
des responsabilités exercées, séminaire ou institut universitaire pour les rabbins.
Ces modèles nationaux d’éducation des cadres des religions majoritaires forgés par
l’histoire pèsent lourdement sur l’élaboration des formations mises en place pour les
religions d’implantation récente.
Au regard de la situation actuelle, il est possible de distinguer trois types de
formation des cadres religieux en Europe. Dans le premier cas, les Eglises et religions créent librement leurs établissements d’enseignement dont les diplômes sont
le plus souvent reconnus par une instance d’accréditation (Italie, Espagne, France,
Portugal, Irlande, Hongrie, Pologne). Dans le second cas, l’éducation des ministres
de la religion et assimilés est totalement ou partiellement intégrée dans les universités
publiques (Allemagne, Grèce, Roumanie, Autriche, Chypre, Tchèquie, Lithuanie,
Slovénie). Dans le troisième cas, les futurs agents cultuels qui sont envoyés dans des
facultés non confessionnelles de théologie, bénéficient souvent d’un complément
de formation professionnelle dispensé sous la responsabilité des Eglises concernées
(Suède, Royaume Uni, Estonie, Lettonie, Finlande).
Dans le sud de l’Europe, la théologie ne fait plus partie, sauf exception, depuis la
fin du 19ième siècle et le début du 20ième siècle des programmes de l’université publique.
Au Portugal, les prêtres catholiques sont désormais formés dans des séminaires, des
Instituts supérieurs de sciences religieuses et à la faculté de théologie de l’Université
catholique de Lisbonne. Mais les diplômes délivrés par ces Instituts et par l’Université
catholique sont reconnus par l’Etat en application des dispositions du concordat de
2004. Les étudiants titulaires de ces diplômes peuvent notamment accéder aux fonctions de professeurs d’enseignement religieux catholique dans les écoles publiques.
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Francis Messner
Certaines minorités religieuses ont établi des centres de formation théologique dont
les diplômes ne sont pas reconnus par l’Etat à l’instar du Collège islamique de Palmela créé par la communauté islamique du Portugal. Leurs cadres religieux sont
essentiellement formés à l’étranger. Les minorités religieuses portugaises sont des
micro minorités dont le poids social est limité, ce qui pourrait expliquer le manque
d’intérêt des pouvoirs publics à agir en ce domaine
L’Eglise catholique italienne forme ses prêtres dans des séminaires, à la faculté
de théologie de l’Université catholique de Milan qui est équiparée aux universités
publiques, dans les facultés de théologie diocésaines et interdiocésaines et enfin dans
les universités pontificales qui délivrent des diplômes du Saint-Siège. Les diplômes
des Universités pontificales (Italie) sont reconnus par l’Etat conformément à l’Accord
de Villa Madame du 18 février 1984. La reconnaissance par l’Etat des diplômes de
théologie a également été étendue à l’Institut adventiste de culture biblique (loi 22 novembre 1988, article 14) et aux formations dispensées par d’autres religions conventionnées. Les diplômes reconnus par les conventions précitées doivent cependant être
habilités par décret du ministre de l’Education, de la Recherche et de l’Université
qui est tenu de recueillir, avant de prendre sa décision, un avis conforme auprès du
«conseil national universitaire». Les diplômes de sciences islamiques délivrés par
l’Institut de la communauté islamique italienne pourraient à terme être reconnus et
habilités. C’est du moins ce que prévoit le projet actuel d’accord entre la Communauté
islamique italienne et l’Etat italien. La proposition d’accord déposée par l’Union des
communautés et des organisations islamiques en Italie en 1993 ne comprenait aucune
disposition relative à une faculté de théologie musulmane. La formation des cadres
religieux ne semblait pas avoir à l’époque un caractère d’urgence.
En Belgique, les futurs cadres religieux de l’Eglise catholique sont essentiellement formés au Séminaire et Studium Notre Dame de Namur et dans les facultés
de théologie de l’Université de Louvain et de l’Université de Leuven qui sont des
universités privées dont les diplômes sont accrédités par l’Etat. Les futurs pasteurs
protestants suivent les cours de la faculté de théologie protestante de Bruxelles qui est
un établissement privé reconnu et soutenu économiquement par l’Etat mais sans faire
partie d’une université. Les autres cultes et groupements philosophiques reconnus
juifs, anglicans, orthodoxes et humanistes ne dispensent pas de formation initiale pour
leurs cadres et ministres en Belgique. L’Exécutif des musulmans de Belgique – le
culte musulman est reconnu depuis 1974 – a proposé en 2006 de créer un statut des
ministres du culte musulman et de mettre en place une formation à l’imamat de 4 à 5
ans comprenant à la fois une formation théologique et une formation civile et civique.
Le contenu de cette formation serait fixé par un conseil des théologiens qui reste à
créer et des Universités associées au projet. Ce projet, qui n’a pas encore vu le jour,
a été relancé en juillet 2013 par le ministre socialiste de l’Enseignement supérieur
de la Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles quelques jours après l’annonce par le gouvernement flamand de créer un institut public d’études islamiques. Cet institut aurait
Introduction
5
selon les déclarations du Ministre Marcourt, pour mission de développer un Islam de
Belgique par opposition à un Islam importé en Belgique. Il serait destiné aux imams
et aux professeurs de religion. La religion musulmane est enseignée dans les écoles
publiques en Belgique. Les programmes de théologie seraient articulés autour d’une
formation religieuse intégrant les critères de scientificité qui «ne céderait pas sur les
valeurs d’égalité, de démocratie et de liberté» (Belga, 16 juillet 2013). La faculté de
théologie et de sciences religieuses de l’université de Leuven a depuis la rentrée 2014
complété son master de sciences des religions par une option théologie musulmane.
En Allemagne, les cadres des religions majoritaires ou historiques (catholiques,
protestants, juifs, vieux-catholiques, orthodoxes) sont essentiellement formés dans
les facultés de théologie des universités publiques (19 facultés publiques de théologie
protestante, 11 de théologie catholique, 2 facultés pour la formation des rabbins, un
département de théologie orthodoxe à Münich et un séminaire de théologie vieille-catholique à Bonn). Leur financement est pris en charge par le ministère de l’Enseignement supérieur et de la Recherche des Etats fédérés concernés (Laender). 12 facultés
privées de théologie (7 pour l’Eglise catholique, 4 pour les protestants et 1 pour les
juifs) soutenues économiquement par les pouvoirs publics et dont les diplômes sont
reconnus par l’Etat complètent cet ensemble impressionnant.
Suite à un rapport sur le développement de la théologie et des sciences de la religion dans les universités publiques allemandes (2010), le Ministère fédéral de l’Enseignement supérieur s’est engagé à financer pendant cinq ans des supports de postes
de professeurs des départements de théologie et de pédagogie religieuse islamique.
Les universités de Tübingen, Munster, Osnabrück, Francfort-sur-le-Main et Giessen
qui ont récemment créé des Instituts de théologie islamique, bénéficient de ce soutien
spécifique depuis 2011. Dans l’hypothèse d’une évolution favorable de ces instituts
en termes d’intégration dans l’université publique et d’acceptation de ces formations
par les communautés musulmanes, les Etats fédérés prendraient le relais de ce financement. Les pouvoirs publics allemands ne souhaitent pas la création de faculté libre
de théologie musulmane. Le Conseil des sciences (Wissenschaftsrat) qui conseille
l’Etat fédéral et les Etats fédérés pour toutes les questions relatives à la recherche
et à l’enseignement supérieur estime que l’établissement de facultés de théologie
musulmane dans les universités publiques: garantit la qualité de l’enseignement et
de la recherche; permet la confrontation avec d’autres formes de pensée; fournit les
bases conceptuelles pour le dialogue interreligieux (Rapport sur le développement de
la théologie et des sciences de la religion dans les universités publiques, 2010). Les
facultés de théologie en Allemagne forment les ministres du culte et les personnels
assimilés qui sont des employés de leur religion et les professeurs d’enseignement
religieux des écoles, collèges et lycées publics qui sont des fonctionnaires des Etats
fédérés (Laender).
L’Autriche dispose d’un système de formation théologique comparable à l’Allemagne. Les futurs prêtres et pasteurs fréquentent l’Université publique. Pour l’Islam
6
Francis Messner
cependant, qui est un culte reconnu par l’Etat (loi du 15 juillet 1912) et organisé dans
le cadre du droit public, c’est un Institut privé de pédagogie religieuse financé par
l’Etat qui est en charge de la formation des enseignants de religion musulmane des
écoles privées et publiques. La création d’une faculté de théologie musulmane au
sein d’une université publique (Vienne) est très fortement souhaitée par les autorités
publiques. Elles craignent qu’une faculté de théologie musulmane ne soit imposée
par des puissances étrangères ou par une communauté religieuse sous la forme d’un
établissement privé non conventionné avec l’Etat.
En Suède, les pasteurs de l’Eglise luthérienne d’Etat sont formés dans les facultés de théologie des Universités d’Uppsala et de Lund. Ces deux facultés dispensent
depuis les années 1970 un enseignement théologique certes axé sur le protestantisme
mais avec une approche non confessionnelle. L’université neutre enseigne la science
et non des croyances et des dogmes. La formation pratique des pasteurs complémentaire à leur formation théologique est depuis les années 1980 prise en charge
par l’Eglise luthérienne. Elle conclut depuis 2007 des accords avec les universités
publiques pour mettre en place cette formation pratique en utilisant les instruments
instaurés par les politiques gouvernementales d’insertion professionnelle des étudiants. In fine les pasteurs luthériens de l’ancienne Eglise d’Etat aujourd’hui Eglise
nationale suite à la «séparation» de 2000 continuent d’être éduqués au sein de l’Université publique dans des facultés de théologie non confessionnelles et par le biais
de formations professionnelles négociées entre l’Eglise nationale et les universités
publiques. L’Université d’Uppsala a créé en 2012 une licence en théologie musulmane (Bachelor of divinity) non confessionnelle (sans intervention des autorités
religieuses), tout en précisant qu’elle n’a pas pour objectif la formation des imams.
III. Nouvelles politiques publiques. L’exemple des formations à l’intégration
Les efforts des pouvoirs publics européens en matière de formation des cadres
religieux visent à faciliter l’intégration de l’Islam et des religions d’implantation
récente dans les droits nationaux des cultes. Les Etats dont le cadre juridique favorise la création de facultés de théologie dans l’Université publique ou le cas échéant
dans des universités privées accréditées par l’Etat, n’ont qu’un intérêt limité pour les
formations civiles et civiques à destination des cadres religieux. Par contre en France
où l’Etat peut difficilement intervenir dans le domaine de la formation théologique
six DU de formation «civile et civique» ont été créés depuis 2008 (Paris, Strasbourg,
Lyon, Montpellier.Aix en Provence, Bordeaux). Ces Diplômes d’Université (DU) de
«formation civile et civique» ont un triple objectif: transmettre des connaissances
relatives au contexte socio-historique, au droit et aux institutions de la France, fournir
des instruments aux étudiants concernés en vue de faciliter la gestion des institutions
cultuelles, proposer une approche universitaire du fait religieux. Cette offre de for-
Introduction
7
mation s’adresse en priorité aux cadres religieux musulmans, mais également aux
ministres d’autres religions arrivés récemment sur le territoire français.
De même en Italie, le Forum international démocratie et religion (FIDR) a développé avec le soutien du Ministère de l’intérieur et du Ministère de la coopération et
de l’intégration nationale un projet intitulé «Nouvelle présence religieuse en Italie.
Une voie de l’intégration» dont l’objectif est de former les responsables de la communauté musulmane à l’histoire et au droit italien.
Faisant suite à une étude financée par la Fondation du roi Baudoin (2007) qui
attirait l’attention sur le «pouvoir d’influence exercé par les imams au sein de leurs
communautés», l’Université catholique de Louvain a créé une formation universitaire
en «sciences islamiques» la même année. Il s’agissait en réalité de promouvoir une
éducation à la laïcité et à l’inter-culturalité sanctionnée par un certificat d’université,
c’est-à-dire l’équivalent des «DU laïcité» délivrés par les universités françaises.
Depuis un nouveau programme a été mis en place en 2012 par l’Université catholique de Louvain et les facultés St Louis de Bruxelles avec le soutien de la Fondation
Bernheim. Il s’intitule «Sciences religieuses: Islam» et vise «à placer les étudiants
dans une démarche de compréhension et de réappropriation pratique des discours
musulmans contemporains dans un contexte ou l’histoire des idées se complexifie sans
cesse». Contrairement à sa première mouture axée sur la formation civile et civique, le
projet néo-louvaniste de 2012 privilégie une présentation des approches scientifiques
et critiques de l’Islam avec un accent mis sur la méthodologie.
Parallèlement aux initiatives des pouvoirs publics centrées sur l’intégration, des
personnalités proches du monde religieux ont développé des projets articulés autour
du dialogue interreligieux. Ainsi au Portugal, des catholiques et des protestants ont
pris l’initiative de créer une formation en sciences des religions au sein de l’Universidade Lusofonio de Humanidades e Tecnologias en vue de créer une plate-forme pour
le dialogue interreligieux. Elle permet aux étudiants intéressés de se familiariser avec
une approche non confessionnelle de la théologie. Il est intéressant de noter que des
Eglises ont passé des conventions avec cette université et envoient des étudiants au
titre d’une formation complémentaire axée sur la connaissance des différentes religions. De même, l’Irish School of Oecumenics fondée en 1970 par le Trinity College
de Dublin en Irlande promeut la théologie comparative et la théologie interculturelle.
Cette école dispense également des cours sur la connaissance des religions mondiales
et plus particulièrement de l’Islam.
LA FORMATION DES CADRES RELIGIEUX
EN EUROPE – TOILE DE FONDS HISTORIQUE
Brigitte Basdevant
Les différentes contributions à cet ouvrage collectif insistent sur la formation
contemporaine des cadres religieux dans les États européens mais elles comportent
cependant des développements consacrés à l’histoire des modalités de cette formation.
Il m’incombe de présenter une synthèse de ces histoires nationales. Les contributions ici rassemblées permettent de constater qu’un peu partout, trois catégories de
formations sont évoquées. On s’attache, premier aspect, à la formation des ministres
du culte afin que ceux-ci exercent au mieux leurs fonctions pastorales, auprès des
populations de fidèles; c’est le pasteur du troupeau qu’il faut former. Un second volet
qui retient l’attention, concerne certains ministres du culte, peu nombreux, appelés à
des fonctions de responsabilité religieuse qui requièrent une formation intellectuelle
spécifique et de haut niveau. Il faut aussi, troisième aspect, dispenser un enseignement adapté auprès des professeurs de religion qui interviendront dans les écoles, du
moins dans les pays – nombreux – où un enseignement des religions est organisé. Il
s’agit là d’ une préoccupation récente, contemporaine, qui n’intéressait guère au cours
des siècles car les maîtres en charge des diverses disciplines étant bien souvent des
religieux, l’enseignement de la religion se faisait de concert avec les autres enseignements. Dans les siècles passés, la question de la formation des professeurs de religion
des écoles ne se posait donc pas en termes comparables à ce que nous connaissons
actuellement et n’a pas à être traitée dans ce travail historique. Dans chacune de ces
hypothèses, la (ou les) religion(s) se préoccupe(nt) des modalités de formation de ses
(leurs) propres ministres; elle est le premier acteur concerné. Néanmoins la puissance
publique souhaite également se faire entendre. De fait, le ministre du culte parle aux
fidèles, mais dans le cadre d’un État et aux citoyens de cet État et l’autorité publique
souhaite connaître le contenu des propos. Le sujet intéresse donc au plus haut point
les relations entre religions et État, dans les siècles passés tout comme aujourd’hui.
Je ne m’étendrai pas sur la période, pourtant riche et passionnante, de l’essor des
universités à travers la chrétienté de l’Occident médiévale. Ces universités étaient des
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Brigitte Basdevant
établissements de l’Église. Les maîtres étaient des clercs et dans plusieurs de ces universités – parmi les plus fameuses – les étudiants étaient aussi tous des clercs, les laïcs
n’étant pas toujours admis. On voulait assurer l’instruction des hommes d’Église sans
se soucier de l’ensemble de la population, ni même d’une élite si celle-ci ne s’identifiait
pas au monde des clercs. Une université médiévale comptait en principe quatre facultés:
des arts, de médecine, de théologie et de droit, ces dernières étant souvent des facultés
de Décret, envisageant le droit canonique. La prééminence des sciences religieuses
était incontestable. Parmi les quatre facultés constituant une université médiévale, la
faculté de théologie était généralement la plus prestigieuse, celle jouissant de la plus
grande renommée et de la plus grande autorité. L’opinion de la faculté de théologie et
de ses maîtres servait couramment de base à une décision d’un évêque, d’un roi, d’un
prince, ou d’une ville. Dans de nombreux débats, on admettait que l’avis de faculté de
théologie terminait la discussion. Au niveau inférieur, des écoles et collèges de diverses
natures existaient, qui s’adressaient aux clercs. Ainsi, lorsque l’historien scrute le système éducatif dans sa splendeur médiévale, il constate la présence de clercs, maîtres
ou écoliers, étudiant les sciences religieuses. Cette étude sera consacrée aux Temps
modernes (XVI°-XX° siècles) adossés au legs médiéval qui va être bouleversé tout en
conservant sa marque. Évoquer un bref panorama d’ensemble de l’évolution historique
(I), permettra de mieux comprendre quelques enjeux de ces recherches d’équilibre,
toujours mouvant, entre les autorités religieuses et la puissance publique (II) 1.
I. Le panorama historique
Le panorama historique fait apparaître une profonde mutation dûe à une éventuelle prise en compte de religions minoritaires, phénomène qui se produit à des dates
diverses, même si, sur ce point comme sur bien d’autres, l’extrême fin du XVIII°
siècle marque dans plusieurs pays des changements ou parfois de vrais bouleversements. Les établissements d’enseignement se multiplient (A) et certains sont consacrés aux religions minoritaires (B).
A. Les établissements de formation des ministres des cultes connaissent un
essor réel
Cet essor est notable du XVI° à la fin du XVIII° siècle. Une nouvelle catégorie
d’établissement apparaît, à côté des universités médiévales: les séminaires. Ceux-ci
1
Ce travail repose essentiellement sur les rapports nationaux reproduits dans la suite de ce volume. Nous ne détaillons pas ce que nous empruntons à chacun. Cette contribution est complétée par un
autre de nos articles, «Les enjeux de l’enseignement de la théologie en Europe, aux Temps modernes», à
paraître dans les Mélanges en hommage au Professeur Jacques Bouveresse et qui retrace dans un cadre
plus large l’histoire de l’enseignement théologique.
11
vont, à partir du XVI° siècle, occuper une place déterminante dans ces mécanismes
de formation du clergé. Luther, et à ses côtés tous ceux qui contribuent au mouvement de la Réforme protestante, veulent créer et développer ces établissements
spécifiques répondant aux conceptions protestantes: le pasteur doit posséder un haut
degré d’instruction, pour lui-même mais aussi pour guider chacun dans l’étude de
la Bible et le retour à l’Écriture. Au sein de l’Église catholique, le concile de Trente
(1545-1564), soucieux de répondre aux protestants, prend de très nombreuses dispositions relatives à la formation du clergé. La plus célèbre est le canon 18 de la
23° session (1563), souvent présenté comme ordonnant la création des séminaires
diocésains. Cette affirmation nécessite de préciser que, par ce terme de séminaire, les
pères visaient des établissements prenant en charge les enfants dès le plus jeune âge
parmi lesquels l’évêque distinguerait, au cours des années, ceux qui, pour le bien de
l’Église, seraient dirigés vers les charges ecclésiastiques. Le séminaire tridentin n’est
pas, comme il l’est devenu aujourd’hui, réservé au futur prêtre; il est plus largement
ouvert afin que celui qui est à la tête du diocèse puisse déceler les meilleures vocations. Deux idées fortes apparaissent dans l’ensemble de cette législation tridentine.
De nombreuses dispositions sont prises tout au long du concile; elles sont fermes et
exigeantes, signe de l’importance accordée à la question. D’autre part, pour chacun
des divers mécanismes qu’ils envisagent, les pères tridentins confient ces formations
aux évêques; cette constatation n’a rien de surprenant et s’inscrit bien logiquement
dans la volonté de l’assemblée réunie à Trente de renforcer l’autorité épiscopale
en faisant de l’ordinaire du diocèse le pilier de la réforme religieuse, sous tous ses
aspects. La législation prise à Trente ne mentionne pratiquement pas les universités.
Tout juste est-il dit que ceux qui sont recrutés pour assurer un enseignement dans
les séminaires, dans la cathédrale ou dans d’autres établissements, doivent être pris
parmi les gradués des universités; simple allusion aux universités, témoignage de la
considération que l’assemblée leur porte. Mais la formation de l’ensemble du monde
ecclésiastique ne leur est pas confiée. Ce silence s’impose d’ailleurs car l’assemblée
conciliaire n’a aucune compétence pour organiser ou réformer les universités qui
obéissent à des statuts spécifiques, négociés selon les cas par un roi, une ville, un
prince, un évêque, le pape ou d’autres encore. Toute disposition générale émanant
d’un concile est vouée à rester lettre morte. Les pères se sont abstenus.
Les deux niveaux d’enseignement ainsi clairement identifiés demeureront par la
suite. Une première catégorie d’établissements est constituée de ceux s’adressant à
un assez large public, dès le jeune âge; il s’agit des écoles, des collèges et surtout des
séminaires. Les écoles dépendent parfois des paroisses et donc du curé de la paroisse;
elles dispensent une instruction sommaire, destinée en principe à un grand nombre
d’enfants de la localité, centrée sur l’apprentissage de la lecture et surtout sur la Vérité
et la morale chrétienne. Elles ne concernent guère les ministres du culte. Des collèges
sont administrés par une ville, un prince, le curé d’une grande paroisse, l’évêque ou
encore un monastère. Leur fonction première n’est pas la prise en charge des futurs
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Brigitte Basdevant
prêtres ou des pasteurs réformés, mais l’autorité se montre attentive pour découvrir
d’éventuelles vocations à un ministère ecclésial. Les séminaires doivent eux aussi être
répertoriés parmi ces établissements largement ouverts. Leur essor ne date que de la
fin du XVI° siècle et plus souvent du XVII°. Les pères tridentins les voulaient accueillant tous les enfants; néanmoins, ils deviendront progressivement le lieu rassemblant
les futurs prêtres, destinés à l’exercice des charges pastorales dans les paroisses. Ces
institutions sont en lien étroit avec les structures diocésaines et l’autorité religieuse
locale. Cette première catégorie d’établissement dépend essentiellement des autorités religieuses, catholiques ou protestantes. Par un biais ou un autre, elles sont sous
l’autorité de l’ordinaire catholique pour les unes, ou sous l’autorité du responsable
réformé et du prince s’il intervient comme chef de l’Église réformée ou luthérienne
pour les autres. À côté de ce premier ensemble, à un niveau supérieur, certains clercs,
prêtres, pasteurs, peuvent – ou doivent – prendre des grades, en théologie ou en droit
canonique ce qui se fait au sein des universités ou académies.
Dans ce dualisme des Temps modernes entre écoles ou séminaires d’un côté et
universités de l’autre, la balance penche parfois en faveur des écoles et séminaires,
et parfois en faveur des universités. Diverses constatations s’imposent qui ne permettent pas de dégager une évolution rectiligne. Souvent, dans le contexte intellectuel
général des XVI°-XVIII° siècles, les universités déclinent, même si elles conservent
presque partout leur faculté de théologie. Beaucoup ne savent pas mettre à profit le
mouvement de l’humanisme et de la renaissance et leur splendeur se ternit alors que
les séminaires se développent. D’un autre point de vue, il est souvent plus facile pour
un prince ou un roi de mettre la main sur l’institution universitaire, liée à la ville ou
à l’État, que sur les établissements d’un niveau inférieur dont l’organisation dépend
naturellement de l’autorité religieuse locale et échappe au prince. Si la qualité scientifique des universités stagne parfois, ce lien entre université et puissance séculière peut
néanmoins permettre de donner force à une université, dès lors qu’elle agit en accord
avec l’autorité princière qui en fait un élément de son prestige et de son autorité.
Sur toutes ces questions, il importe de souligner que les considérations que nous
venons de mentionner concernent davantage les instances de l’Église catholique
que celles mises en place dans les pays gagnés à la réforme. De fait, c’est au sein de
l’Église catholique, et non pas dans les pays protestants, que cette distinction entre
pouvoir religieux et pouvoir étatique prend tout son sens. Le prince protestant occupe,
au sein de la communauté protestante du pays qu’il dirige, une posture de surplomb
qui ne laisse pas place pour des querelles semblables à celles qui, dans l’Église
catholique, conduisent à s’interroger sur les prérogatives repectives de l’Église ou
du prince.
À la fin du XVIII° siècle et au cours du XIX°, tout n’est pas bouleversé mais
des modifications significatives interviennent parfois. Les profonds changements
politiques conduisent au déclin ou à la fermeture de plusieurs facultés de théologie
ou de droit canonique, mais aussi de séminaires et collèges religieux. Pourtant, paral-
13
lèlement, de nouvelles créations s’imposent. Dans l’ensemble de l’Europe, continuent
à coexister d’une part des collèges, séminaires, écoles dispensant un enseignement
destiné au clergé paroissial présent auprès des fidèles et d’autre part des facultés de
théologie, catholiques, protestantes ou orthodoxes, permettant l’acquisition des grades
universitaires. Par la suite au XIX° siècle, d’importantes universités catholiques ou
protestantes ouvriront leurs portes, dans de nombreux pays; l’essor se poursuit.
Outre les changements constatés dans l’accroissement du nombre d’établissements d’une catégorie ou d’une autre, un phénomène nouveau apparaît au cours de
l’époque étudiée: ces institutions adoptent souvent une orientation scientifique, voire
doctrinale marquée et se trouvent parfois en désaccord avec d’autres. Si nous nous
étonnons de la faible prise en considération de l’humanisme ou de la renaissance
au XVI° siècle, force est de constater la présence de divers courants d’opinion, au
cours du XIX° siècle, ce qui constitue une importante donnée nouvelle. Dans toutes
les religions, apparaît une opposition, plus ou moins marquée mais fréquente, entre
deux tendances. Les uns préconisent une continuité traditionnelle, souvent tournée
vers le passé, apprenant au ministre du culte l’obéissance et la piété. D’autres se
montrent plus novateurs, acceptant les évolutions sociales et souhaitant des ministres
du culte capables de les accompagner. Ces deux courants existent au sein de l’Église
catholique et se retrouvent dans les textes du magistère romain. Ainsi, dans l’encyclique Rerum novarum de 1891, la position de Léon XIII tranche par rapport à celle
de ses prédécesseurs; le pape se montre novateur. En revanche, par l’encyclique
Pascendi Dominici Gregis de 1907, Pie X condamne à nouveau le modernisme. En
conséquence, les prêtres qui font leurs études entre 1891 et 1907 font preuve d’une
certaine curiosité d’esprit alors que ceux formés après 1907 seront plus réservés en
présence de toute nouveauté. Ce second modèle, voulu par Rome, va perdurer dans
les universités ecclésiastiques jusqu’aux années 1930. Il est néanmoins parfois contré,
notamment par ceux qui, sans se situer en novateurs et sans non plus se montrer particulièrement attachés à la tradition, sont animés d’un certain esprit «anti-romain».
Des évêques, plus ou moins nombreux selon les périodes, souhaitent garder les prêtres
sous leur autorité, en ne leur accordant qu’une indépendance limitée et en veillant à ce
que le clergé diocésain tire ses instructions de l’ordinaire plus que du pontife romain.
B. La situation consentie aux religions minoritaires
Parallèlement à cet essor des établissements d’enseignement, une question spécifique
apparaît aux Temps modernes, ignorée auparavant, celle de l’acceptation d’un pluralisme religieux dans l’État et, ce qui va plus loin, de la formation de ministres du culte
appartenant à ces nouvelles confessions. La tolérance religieuse fait son apparition dans
certains pays dès le XVI° siècle. Elle est plus répandue vers la fin du XVIII° siècle et
va largement s’imposer au XIX°. Ces mutations ne s’effectuent pas partout aux mêmes
dates; elles sont propres aux changements politiques, sociaux, religieux de chaque pays
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Brigitte Basdevant
et dans toutes les hypothèses les alliances, les guerres et autres facteurs diplomatiques ou
militaires ont une influence déterminante. Ajoutons que ces évolutions, qui interviennent
à des dates différentes, ne sont nullement linéaires. Bien des pays ou régions connaissent
des périodes de relative tolérance à l’égard de la diversité religieuse, bienveillance qui se
trouve subitement remplacée par une intolérance, lors d’un changement politique. Dans
les hypothèses où plusieurs confessions coexistent, rassemblant chacune un nombre
important de fidèles, faut-il former les ministres des religions minoritaires ? Les autorités
religieuses s’en soucient naturellement, mais la puissance publique se sent, elle aussi très
fortement concernée. De fait, il existe habituellement une relative entente entre l’État et
la religion majoritaire. En conséquence, savoir qui, de l’État ou de la religion, détient la
réalité de l’autorité sur une religion majoritaire se limite à une lutte de pouvoir. Sur le
fond, l’enjeu est faible car l’État et la confession dominante s’accordent sur le contenu
de l’instruction dispensée et sur la mission confiée à ces ministres du culte. En revanche,
pour les religions dissidentes, la question est cruciale: si la religion obtient toute liberté
pour donner la formation de son choix, va-t-elle servir les intérêts de la puissance
publique? L’interrogation existe dans la mesure où la puissance publique se montre
attachée à une autre religion. Les luttes entre religions et pouvoirs publics prennent ici
un autre sens, plus fondamental et bien souvent l’autorité publique limite l’indépendance
accordée aux religions dissidentes pour assurer les formations qu’elles souhaitent. Les
tensions entre les deux pouvoirs sont fréquentes.
Les contributions contenues dans cet ouvrage collectif fournissent de nombreux
exemples de prises en considération de ce pluralisme et de créations d’institutions
destinées aux ministres des religions minoritaires. Cette prise en compte intervient à
des époques très diverses, sans attendre le XIX° siècle. Quelques exemples suffisent:
— En Hongrie, dès le XVI° siècle, protestants et catholiques ont chacun leurs
écoles. Pour les catholiques, il s’agit surtout de collèges jésuites, particulièrement
prestigieux. Pour les calvinistes, un collège de théologie calviniste est fondé à Debrecen en 1538. Il deviendra plus tard faculté de théologie réformée dans le cadre de
l’Université de Debrecen, elle-même fondée en 1912. D’autres instituts de théologie
luthérienne furent créés dès le XVI° siècle 2. En 1877 un séminaire juif voit le jour à
Budapest, à l’initiative du gouvernement.
— Dans une autre région d’Europe, la Lituanie connaît une histoire politique
complexe et constitue un carrefour des religions, qu’il s’agisse des diverses confessions chrétiennes mais aussi de l’Islam car d’importantes populations musulmanes
étaient venues de l’empire ottoman. Les jésuites y sont appelés par les autorités
séculières dans le mouvement de contre-réforme catholique; de fait, en 1569, six
jésuites créent un collège jésuite en s’inspirant du modèle de la Sorbonne. Une loi
2
Par exemple en 1557 à Sopron.
15
de tolérance est promulguée en 1573, qui abolit les discriminations pour raisons
religieuses et opère une sorte de partage des postes de responsabilité dans l’État,
entre catholiques et protestants. En outre, depuis le XVI° siècle, Vilnius est aussi un
haut lieu de l’enseignement rabbinique. À la même époque les musulmans tartares
sont eux aussi bien intégrés dans la société. Cette coexistence sereine est mise à mal
pendant tout le XIX° siècle, le territoire de la Lituanie étant intégré à l’empire russe;
les tsars mènent une politique autoritaire et ferment la plupart des établissements
d’enseignement catholiques ou protestants, afin de contraindre les populations à
rejoindre la religion orthodoxe.
— La Finlande est un autre exemple de carrefour religieux et d’influences
politiques changeantes. Au XVII° et au XVIII° siècles, le pays est étroitement lié
à l’Église luthérienne ce qui fragilise la condition des autres religions, notamment
celle des orthodoxes. Puis, à la suite des guerres de Napoléon, la Finlande se trouve
rattachée à l’empire russe. Le tsar Alexandre Ier garantit en principe l’autonomie de
l’Église luthérienne mais organise en pratique le déclin des institutions luthériennes.
Après l’incendie des bâtiments de l’académie luthérienne de Turku en 1828, cette
académie est transférée à Helsinki ce qui a comme conséquence de modifier son
lien à l’Église. De fait, auparavant, les chanoines de Turku étaient en même temps
professeurs à la faculté de théologie luthérienne de la ville. Le changement de lieu
met fin à ce cumul. À Helsinki, la faculté passe en fait sous l’autorité de la puissance
publique et ses liens avec l’Église se distendent. Parallèlement, le tsar reconnaît une
place officielle à l’Église orthodoxe. À la fin du XIX° siècle, l’Église luthérienne
prend conscience de la nécessité dans laquelle elle se trouve de pouvoir s’appuyer sur
une faculté de théologie lui permettant de maintenir, voire de rehausser sa position.
En 1886, elle modifie en ce sens les statuts de sa faculté. En 1919, le gouvernement
de la République de Finlande confirme la place de l’Église luthérienne; pourtant la
Finlande ne devient pas un État confessionnel; l’Église orthodoxe continue à y être
pleinement reconnue et les séminaires orthodoxes sont financés par l’État. On voit à
quel point les réalités religieuses et plus encore la vie des institutions d’enseignement
religieux sont dépendantes des réalités politiques d’un moment.
— Un autre exemple intéressant est celui de l’Irlande où le Trinity College est
fondé en 1592 à Dublin (TCD) pour assurer une formation morale rigoureuse au
clergé anglican. En 1795, le Parlement ratifie la création du collège Saint Patrick de
Maynooth, destiné aux ministres du culte catholique. St Patrick’s College persiste
par la suite et, en 1895, il recevra de Rome l’autorisation de conférer les grades
canoniques en philosophie, théologie et droit canonique. Le College sera érigé en
université pontificale l’année suivante, en 1896. Toujours en Irlande, en 1853, est
établi un collège de l’Église presbytérienne d’Irlande et en 1865 la création d’un
collège méthodiste est envisagée. Il prend forme en 1926.
Si des évolutions notables se font dès le XVI° siècle, d’autres s’affirment au XIX°
siècle et parfois vers la fin de ce siècle. Donnons quelques exemples:
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Brigitte Basdevant
— L’Autriche, pays profondément catholique, possède de nombreux établissements catholiques réputés, qu’il s’agisse des séminaires ou des universités. Il faut
attendre le XIX° siècle pour qu’un collège protestant soit fondé, puis érigé en faculté
de théologie protestante en 1851 et officiellement incorporé à l’université publique en
1922 seulement, après une longue attente due à l’opposition des catholiques. Toujours
en Autriche, à partir de 1848, la nécessité de former des rabbins se fait sentir, mais
les projets n’aboutissent que lentement à cause de l’opposition orthodoxe; un collège
juif est ouvert à Vienne en 1893, qui s’adresse aux futurs rabbins, mais ne constitue
pas une faculté d’université. Citons aussi la faculté de théologie orthodoxe créée en
1875. La formation des ministres des divers cultes devient progressivement réalité,
mais cela se fait tardivement. Par la suite, ces institutions sont atteintes par le nazisme
et déclinent au cours de ces années.
— Dans les territoires de l’actuelle République Tchèque, l’évolution est assez
comparable; aux XVII° et XVIII° siècles, sous la domination des Habsbourg, le protestantisme est interdit mais quelques communautés juives sont tolérées. Après l’édit
de Tolérance de Joseph II en 1781, la situation se détend. Les pasteurs peuvent officier
dans le pays, mais ils n’y sont pas pour autant formés; certains viennent de Suisse.
Diverses institutions protestantes sont instaurées au début du XX° siècle; ainsi, une
faculté de théologie évangélique est fondée à Prague en 1919, avec un statut d’école
publique.
— En Italie, dès 1854 est créée une fac de théologie vaudoise près de Turin; celleci est plus tard transférée à Rome. Auparavant, les pasteurs vaudois étaient formés en
Suisse. Toujours en Italie, on se préoccupe à la fin du XIX° siècle, des cadres juifs,
mais il se révèle délicat d’établir un accord entre les responsables religieux d’une
tendance particulièrement stricte d’un côté et les libéraux de l’autre côté. Après bien
des tractations, la fédération nationale des rabbins voit le jour en 1917. Elle doit protéger les intérêts spirituels de la communauté juive, indice de ce qu’à l’intérieur des
communautés juives, le courant «religieux» l’emporte face aux «laïcs». Le collège
rabbinique italien est instauré dans cet esprit; il comporte une école rabbinique, des
cours d’études juives et un séminaire.
— Dans d’autres pays, la prise en compte du pluralisme et de l’instruction à
dispenser aux ministres des cultes dissidents demeure plus hésitante. En Grèce,
la prééminence de l’orthodoxie est conservée. En Suède, l’Église luthérienne de
Suède garde sa position d’Église nationale jusqu’en 2000. Ce fut seulement en
1860 que les citoyens suédois avaient été autorisés à quitter l’Église suédoise,
et ceci uniquement pour une autre religion chrétienne, admise par l’État. Dans
l’histoire, seuls comptaient les pasteurs luthériens. Au Royaume-Uni, les évêques
anglicans demandent, sans l’obtenir pleinement, que tous les clercs aient fréquenté
l’université et celle-ci n’est ouverte qu’aux anglicans. Les ministres des autres
confessions sont contraints de suivre des années d’enseignement dans un autre
pays, à Utrecht par exemple.
17
Ce rapide panorama fait apparaître que dans nombre de pays, la prise en compte
des religions minoritaires s’accompagne de l’organisation d’établissements d’enseignement ou de formations dédiés à cette religion. Pourtant, les mécanismes sont bien
différents selon les pays. Surtout, et la constatation mérite attention, l’évolution vers
la tolérance et la reconnaissance d’institutions d’enseignement de diverses confessions n’est pas continue. La marche vers le pluralisme ne suit pas un cheminement
linéaire. Le totalitarisme des régimes communistes en est la manifestation récente,
mais depuis le XVI° siècle, rigidité ou ouverture ont alterné, selon les tensions et
oppositions entre les confessions, mais aussi, et bien davantage, selon les réalités
politiques et les liens ou oppositions qu’une autorité publique entend établir avec
une religion donnée, susceptible d’appuyer son pouvoir mais risquant dans d’autres
hypothèses de heurter son programme.
Une tolérance existait aux Temps modernes, du XVI° au XVIII° siècle. Pourtant,
par la suite, de nombreuses institutions accueillant le clergé d’une confession ont dû
fermer leurs portes, que cette obligation ait été imposée par l’État ou par la religion
dominante. Des pluralismes ont été reconnus et ont permis la création d’établissements religieux qui, par la suite, ont dû disparaître. Cette histoire est tributaire des
décisions prises par les autorités religieuses et, plus encore, des politiques menées
par les gouvernements étatiques.
II. Les autorités religieuses et la puissance publique
La vitalité et le rayonnement des institutions de formation du personnel religieux
constituent, partout et à toutes les époques, un enjeu fondamental des relations entre
la (ou les) religion(s) et les pouvoirs publics. Les rapports de forces se modifient,
selon les situations sans qu’il soit possible de conclure que les États exercent de plus
en plus - ou de moins en moins - leur autorité. En fonction des réalités religieuses
et politiques d’un moment, les mécanismes diffèrent. Souvent les pays gagnés à
la réforme protestante connaissent des situations assez sereines car le prince est
lui-même impliqué dans l’organisation de l’Église dont il est toujours un rouage
essentiel et habituellement le chef. En revanche, dans les pays du Sud de l’Europe
majoritairement catholiques, les tensions et les conflits sont fréquents parce que,
si prince et religion s’appuient mutuellement, ils n’en constituent pas moins deux
autorités distinctes. Sans limiter notre exposé à ces deux seules confessions, voyons
comment les religions d’une part (A), les États d’autre part (B), entendent défendre
chacun leurs prérogatives.
A. Les religions tiennent à leur autorité
Toutes les confessions religieuses veulent conserver une tutelle sur les écoles et
collèges, sur les séminaires et sur les facultés et universités. La faculté de théologie
représentant l’enjeu primordial, plus important aux yeux de tous que la faculté de
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Brigitte Basdevant
droit canonique. Telle est l’une des conséquences de l’intérêt secondaire traditionnellement accordé au droit canonique 3. Au sein d’une religion, quelles instances et quels
pouvoirs doivent prédominer ? L’exemple de l’Église catholique est particulièrement
intéressant pour plusieurs raisons. D’une part, le chef suprême est le pape, étranger
aux territoires où vivent les catholiques. Cette réalité pose la question des relations
entre un État et ce pouvoir extérieur. D’autre part, le prince, même s’il est un roi de
droit divin, n’est pas le chef de cette Église et ne s’exprime pas en tant qu’autorité
religieuse. En troisième lieu, l’Église catholique est organisée selon une structure
hiérarchique ferme qui donne aux évêques exerçant leur charge dans un État une
autorité réelle – une juridiction ordinaire selon la formule des canonistes – sur la vie
religieuse de sa circonscription lui permettant de gouverner les clercs et les laïcs.
Dans ce contexte, rechercher qui, à travers tout l’Occident, doit avoir la haute
main sur la formation des ministres de l’Église catholique implique de tenir compte
des prescriptions tridentines mais aussi des réalités romaines. Les premières demandent des séminaires pour façonner le bon pasteur, et ceci dans le cadre du diocèse.
Dans plusieurs pays dont la France, ces séminaires ne se développent que lentement
mais aux XVII° et XVIII° siècles ils sont devenus essentiels. Ils relèvent de la juridiction de l’ordinaire. Généralement, l’épiscopat entretient de bonnes relations avec
le monarque ce qui n’empêche pas les évêques d’être jaloux de prérogatives qu’ils
souhaitent étendues et qu’ils prétendent exercer librement. En accord ou parfois en
désaccord avec l’épiscopat, les jésuites entendent diriger les écoles, collèges, séminaires. Les discussions entre évêques et jésuites se placent naturellement dans le cadre
des éventuelles tensions entre l’État et Rome. Dans nombre de pays (par exemple
en Autriche), les jésuites gardent, du XVI° au XVIII° siècle, la réalité du pouvoir
et agissent dans les couvents ou collèges épiscopaux au détriment de l’université.
Pourtant, cette période de splendeur se termine le plus souvent par leur expulsion de
l’État et finalement l’ordre est supprimé par Rome en 1773. Pour nous en tenir à la
situation des pays catholiques, c’est donc avant tout l’autorité de Rome qui est en
cause. Rome détermine le sort réservé à la Compagnie de Jésus, mais intervient aussi
et encore plus pour ce qui a trait aux établissements d’enseignement supérieur. Dans
ce domaine, le pontife romain tente de s’imposer de deux façons et sur deux séries
d’établissements dont la nature est bien différente:
— Il s’agit tout d’abord, des universités pontificales romaines, situées dans la
ville même de Rome. Dans quelles hypothèses le pontife romain exige-t-il la formation des clercs dans des universités pontificales romaines ? On connaît le prestige et le
Le consortium qui a organisé cette rencontre rassemble des juristes. Néanmoins, les organisateurs ont choisi d’étudier les facultés de théologie, non les facultés de droit canonique, choix significatif
de la place de chacune des deux disciplines.
3
19
rayonnement d’institutions comme la Grégorienne 4, l’université du Latran 5, l’Angelicum 6, le collège de Propaganda Fidei 7, la Sapienza 8, l’Augustinianum 9 pour ne citer
que les plus fameuses. Le haut clergé de chaque État y est-il formé et le monarque
accepte-t-il de faire alliance avec les élites sortant de ces établissements romains ?
Cet enchevêtrement d’autorités affecte les pays majoritairement catholiques et le
premier État concerné est naturellement l’Italie. Ces universités pontificales, créées
dans les États pontificaux, dépendaient du pape tout à la fois chef de l’Église et chef
d’État. L’un des bouleversements qui marqua fortement fut celui subi par la Sapienza,
université pontificale particulièrement prestigieuse, qui devient université de l’État
italien et perd son caractère d’établissement pontifical en 1870, lorsque Rome est
capitale de l’État. Nombre de ses professeurs démissionnent. Par la suite, à partir
de 1873, les facultés de théologie catholique romaines seront les seules institutions
à dispenser l’enseignement de la théologie en Italie. Le Concordat de 1929 autorise
l’État à «reconnaître» les titres donnés par les facultés romaines, solution confirmée
en 1984. Pendant presque un siècle (jusqu’en 1969) la faculté de théologie conserve
le quasi monopole de l’enseignement de la théologie. Cette situation spécifique de
l’Italie s’explique naturellement par l’histoire.
— En dehors des États pontificaux, il existe, seconde catégorie, des universités
ou établissements qui, dans un pays, sont «de droit pontifical», c’est-à-dire habilités
à délivrer des diplômes au nom du Saint-Siège. Rome a veillé à leur développement.
Ainsi en Irlande, le collège Saint Patrick est fondé en 1795 en tant que séminaire
national. Lors de la célébration de son centenaire, Rome l’autorise à conférer les
diplômes pontificaux en philosophie, théologie et droit canonique; il devient univer-
L’université Grégorienne s’inscrit dans la continuité de ce qu’avait été le collège romain, dont
Ignace de Loyola posait les bases en 1551. Elle est réorganisée à plusieurs reprises, notamment pas un
décret de la congrégation des Études du16 août 1876.
5
L’université du Latran, que beaucoup qualifient comme étant l’université du pape, apparaît
en 1773, lors de la suppression des Jésuites sans être, à cette date, qualifiée d’université. Elle permet la
formation de nombreux auxiliaires du pape. Au XIX° siècle, elle est située au Palais de Saint Apollinaire,
d’où son nom d’Apollinaire. Une faculté de droit canonique y est créée en 1853 mais le titre d’université
ne lui sera donné qu’en 1959, à la veille de l’ouverture du concile de Vatican II.
6
Le studium médiéval fondé par saint Dominique devient, au XVI° siècle, l’Angelicum et se
situe dans la continuité de la pensée thomiste.
7
Le collège de propaganda fide, ou université Urbanienne, est créé en 1627 par Urbain VIII
pour former les futurs missionnaires; il est supprimé car jugé inutile lors de la Révolution française,
puis rétabli mais avec un prestige moindre.
8
Les origines de la Sapienza remontent à une bulle pontificale de Boniface VIII en 1303. Elle
reste au cours des siècles un studium Urbi étroitement dépendant de l’autorité pontificale, jusqu’à ce
qu’elle devienne, en 1870, l’université de Rome en tant que capitale de l’État italien unifié. Elle perd
alors ses liens directs avec l’Église et nombre de professeurs démissionnent.
9
L’Augustinianum est l’institut patristique de l’ordre des Augustins.
4
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Brigitte Basdevant
sité pontificale quelques années plus tard, en 1896. L’établissement est aujourd’hui
tout à la fois de droit pontifical et reconnu par l’État.
En Belgique, lors de l’indépendance du pays, l’ancienne université catholique
est rétablie et approuvée par le pape en 1833; elle est d’abord ouverte à Malines puis
transférée à Louvain en 1834. Ce rattachement à l’Église est voulu; il est aussi une
façon de rejeter la domination que Joseph II avait exercée à la fin du XVIII° siècle,
puis celle de la France, sous la Révolution et ensuite sous Napoléon. L’université
catholique de Louvain connaît un bel essor pendant tout le XIX° siècle.
Les initiatives de l’Église se font sentir dans bien d’autres pays encore. Elles
émanent d’évêques ou de monastères, agissant seuls ou en concertation avec le prince,
ou le pape lorsqu’une reconnaissance romaine est souhaitée. En Lituanie, c’est tout à
la fois par un privilège du roi de Pologne et par une bulle pontificale que le collège de
jésuites de Vilnius est élevé au rang d’académie et d’université jésuite avec mission
de combattre la réforme protestante et de ramener les orthodoxes au sein de l’Église
catholique. Les jésuites contrôle cette université jusqu’en 1773.
Les modalités d’organisation sont diverses selon les circonstances et les forces
en présence. Une faculté de théologie est-elle «de droit pontifical» ? Reçoit-elle des
financements sur fonds publics ? Délivre-t-elle des diplômes reconnus tout à la fois
par l’Église et par l’État ? Est-elle incorporée à l’université publique ? Les réponses
à ces alternatives varient en fonction des pays et des souhaits romains ou politiques,
dans un contexte donné à un moment donné.
Nous avons noté les raisons spécifiques imposant leurs caractères aux instances
catholiques, mais il est certain que les responsables des autres confessions s’attachent
eux aussi à leurs écoles ou facultés de théologie. Ainsi l’Église orthodoxe de Chypre
s’efforce, au XIX° siècle, de fonder une école des sciences sacrées. Elle y parvient au
début du XX° siècle et plusieurs établissements sont reconnus par le gouvernement
grec. L’influence de la religion est particulièrement notable car l’Église veut, par son
rôle éducatif, être un moyen d’affirmation du sentiment national grec. Les protestants
ont les mêmes soucis, mais il serait artificiel d’isoler le rôle des autorités religieuses
de celui du prince car les deux agissent dans une étroite union. Par exemple, en
Suède, jusqu’en 1831 la formation des pasteurs luthériens relève essentiellement
de la compétence de l’Église; par la suite, ceux-ci fréquentent davantage les deux
facultés de théologie des universités d’État 10, mutation effectuée sans conflit. Dans
cette étude, consacrée aux relations de pouvoirs et notamment aux rapports entre les
autorités religieuses et la puissance publique, le cas des établissements protestants
ou orthodoxes n’est pas aussi complexe que celui des institutions catholiques. À côté
10
Il n’y a pas d’université privée.
21
de la religion —et bien souvent en face d’elle, du moins dans les pays à dominante
catholique— la puissance publique entend accroître ses compétences.
B. Les États s’affirment
Dès l’Ancien Régime, la souveraineté de l’État conduit le prince à étendre ses
prérogatives sur les religions et parallèlement sur la formation de leurs ministres.
Qu’il soit ou non chef d’une Église dans le pays, il veille à l’organisation des confessions et se montre très attentif au contenu des doctrines dispensées. À la fin du
XVIII°, puis au XIX° et XX° siècles, la surveillance de l’État augmente ; elle peut
s’accompagner de méfiance, à l’égard des religions minoritaires, mais aussi de la
principale religion, dans un contexte de politique anticléricale. L’autorité publique
dispose de plusieurs moyens d’action qui sont autant de réponses aux questions que
nous avons évoquées. Elle peut ordonner la fermeture et la suppression des facultés
de théologie ou d’autres établissements; réduire ou interdire les financements publics;
décider de ne plus reconnaître la valeur des diplômes donnés par ces facultés. Elle
intervient encore pour modifier le statut de l’établissement. Il est possible qu’une
faculté de théologie soit ainsi incorporée à l’université publique et perde son indépendance. Inversement elle peut être contrainte à sortir de l’université publique ce
qui lui permet de gagner en liberté mais au risque de perdre un financement public
et la reconnaissance de ses diplômes. Ces deux processus peuvent être l’un comme
l’autre défavorables à la religion. Les possibilités d’intervention autoritaire du prince
sont innombrables.
Au Portugal, dans la célèbre université de Coimbra, le roi Manuel Ier crée deux
chaires de théologie en 1503. Un siècle plus tard, dans les statuts octroyés par le roi
à cette université en 1612, le monarque veille à ce que la faculté de théologie soit
l’institution phare de tout l’établissement; cette conception persiste dans les divers
statuts jusqu’à la fin du XVIII° siècle, témoignage de la volonté royale de garder
une autorité sur l’université et d’utiliser la théologie pour en faire un appui efficace
de la politique qu’il entend menér à l’égard de l’Église. Au XIX° siècle, la vie de
l’université et ses relations avec l’État sont tumultueuses. Si la Charte constitutionnelle de 1826 reconnaît (art. 6) l’Église catholique comme seule religion officielle
et se montre sévère à l’égard des autres confessions, ce n’est pas pour laisser toute
liberté à la hiérarchie catholique. La réforme de 1901 témoigne de cette suprématie
étatique. Par la suite, la loi de 1911 sur la séparation de l’Église et de l’État contraint
les institutions ecclésiastiques à s’organiser dans le cadre du droit privé; toutes les
universités sont en revanche publiques et la religion est un fait enseigné dans le cadre
des sciences humaines et sociales. Ici, l’autorité de l’État ne se manifeste pas par un
contrôle sur les institutions d’Église, mais par l’éviction de ces dernières hors de la
sphère de l’université publique. L’évolution du Portugal est largement calquée sur
celle qu’avait connue la France quelques années auparavant. Lors du gouvernement
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Brigitte Basdevant
de Salazar (1933), et selon les termes du Concordat de 1940, l’Église catholique
obtiendra de posséder ses propres établissements (séminaires et universités), qui sont
contrôlés par l’État.
En Autriche, les jésuites avaient maintenu leur position jusqu’au XVIII° siècle,
mais sous les règnes de Marie-Thérèse et Joseph II, l’empereur prend le pouvoir: l’État
contrôle les livres et les formations. Il est interdit d’exercer les fonctions de prêtre
sans avoir étudié six années dans l’un des trois grands séminaires situés à Vienne,
Graz, Innsbruck, trois établissements emblématiques du joséphisme et qui seront, pour
cette raison, supprimés à la mort de l’empereur. Les nombreuses réformes ultérieures
augmentent ou réduisent les prérogatives de l’État ou de l’Église. Dans ce jeu des
autorités, l’Église garde généralement de réelles compétences à l’égard des séminaires,
plus que des facultés de théologie, établies au sein des universités publiques; partout
elle est présente et peut se faire entendre. L’État approuve nombre de statuts et accorde
des financements importants. Les prérogatives de l’Église s’étendent encore au XIX°
siècle (décret de 1851 puis concordat de 1855) alors que l’État se retire davantage de
la formation des prêtres, pour laisser plus de liberté aux évêques. Dans ce schéma, les
compétences appartiennent largement à l’Église et le financement vient de l’État.
Les territoires tchèques connaissent une situation assez comparable sous le
règne des même souverains Marie-Thérèse et Joseph II qui, à la fin du XVIII° siècle,
s’opposent aux jésuites et imposent la soumission au roi des directeurs et des établissements dans leur ensemble. La situation évolue suite à la mort de Joseph II.
Cette politique se retrouve encore dans les projets de Joseph II à l’égard de l’université de Louvain que l’empereur souhaite ériger en université d’État, sous son autorité.
Finalement il crée en 1786 un «séminaire de théologie», à côté de la faculté de théologie et pour l’affaiblir, réforme très vivement contestée. Peu après, Joseph II transfère à
Bruxelles l’ensemble de l’université de Louvain en laissant pourtant dans cette ville, la
faculté de théologie et le nouveau séminaire, face à face. Ces institutions sont supprimées par la France en 1797 et les collèges deviennent propriété de l’État. Par la suite,
Napoléon mettra la main sur l’université, dans une optique sans doute différente de celle
de Joseph II mais avec le même autoritarisme. Les facultés de théologie sont des enjeux
importants pour le gouvernement personnel d’un empereur, autrichien ou français.
Autres lieux, autres autorités politiques et autres confessions. Pour affermir sa
domination sur l’Irlande, la couronne britannique exige un acte d’allégeance de la
part des étudiants du Trinity collège anglican de Dublin. Un même acte d’allégeance
est requis des élèves du collège catholique saint Patrick de Maynooth. Ces pratiques
durent jusque vers la fin du XIX° siècle 11. Toujours en Irlande, en 1845, sont établis
L’Église d’Irlande est désétablie en 1871, conformément à des décisions prises en 1869. En
1873, les étudiants du Trinity college sont dispensés de cet acte d’allégeance et la même dispense était
déjà intervenue pour les étudiants du collège St Patrick en 1862.
11
23
trois collèges royaux (Queen’s Colleges) qui enseignent la théologie catholique,
avec des financements privés. Rome condamne ces collèges «sans Dieu». La querelle s’apaise lorsque Saint Patrick devient université pontificale (1895), l’État ne
cherchant pas à maintenir ses prérogatives au détriment de l’autorité romaine. Dans
cet esprit, d’autres collèges d’État sont fondés par la suite, mais sans avoir le droit
d’enseigner la théologie.
Citons aussi la Grèce, où les moines du Mont Athos prennent l’initiative de fondations vers le milieu du XIX° siècle. Parallèlement, à partir de l’existence du premier
gouvernement indépendant de la Grèce (1830), les pouvoirs publics ouvrent plusieurs
écoles pour la formation des jeunes, catholiques d’une part, orthodoxes d’autre part.
Ces établissements sont règlementés par un décret royal de 1833 et connaissent un
réel essor. Par la suite, l’État les organise et les finance, tout en reconnaissant le droit
de contrôle des instances de l’Église orthodoxe de Grèce. Les écoles hiératiques (ou
écoles de sciences religieuses) sont des établissements de droit public et permettent
l’accès à la faculté de théologie de l’université d’Athènes.
Dans la France catholique, Louis XIV met la main sur la plupart des collèges
royaux et décide l’expulsion des jésuites en 1762. Pourtant, les collèges et séminaires
restent aux mains des hommes d’Église et relèvent de l’épiscopat. À l’université, le
monarque impose à la faculté de théologie de la Sorbonne la politique religieuse qu’il
entend faire triompher dans tout son royaume. La faculté de théologie, moins prestigieuse qu’au Moyen Age, rassemble des membres du haut clergé appartenant aux
catégories supérieures de la société; elle reste l’institution phare de toute l’université.
Le roi confirme ses privilèges. Il lui demande de préparer les principaux dignitaires
ecclésiastiques du royaume à leurs fonctions auprès du souverain et de lui accorder
en outre un soutien politique sans faille. La faculté de théologie est maître de la censure et reçoit donc compétence pour autoriser ou interdire toute publication. Elle est,
jusqu’à la fin de l’Ancien Régime, un lieu de prise de positions dans les querelles
relatives au gallicanisme, jansénisme ou rationalisme. La Révolution abolit toute cette
construction; elle formule quelques projets qui ne sont guère suivis d’effets.
Napoléon entend prendre en main ce secteur, comme l’ensemble des secteurs de
la vie sociale. Le Concordat de 1801 et les articles organiques prévoient des séminaires, sans que l’État s’oblige à les doter bien qu’il s’en réserve la surveillance 12.
Napoléon installe également des académies et séminaires protestants (luthériens ou
calvinistes); une académie de théologie protestante est instituée à Strasbourg dès
1803. Au cours du XIX° siècle, les séminaires resteront sous l’autorité des divers
gouvernements qui, toutefois, leur laisseront généralement une relative autonomie.
Napoléon souhaitait des séminaires métropolitains, donc peu nombreux et plus faciles à contrôler, mais ceux-ci ne furent pas mis en place.
12
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Brigitte Basdevant
Le désir de puissance des Bourbons se retrouve chez Napoléon, à une échelle
beaucoup plus large et dans un contexte où l’alliance entre l’Église et l’État est bien
souvent tumultueuse. L’université impériale est créée en 1806 comptant dès l’origine
une faculté de théologie catholique d’une part, protestante d’autre part 13. Le droit
canonique apparaît en marge de l’université en 1821, à l’École nationale des Chartes.
L’université est publique; elle est le monopole de l’État et est étroitement contrôlée
par le gouvernement, selon les principes d’autorité de Napoléon. Pourtant, dans ce
monopole étatique, l’Église a sa place, à condition d’être soumise à l’État, situation
dénoncée par les dignitaires ecclésiastiques. En 1858, le gouvernement impérial
demande au pape d’accorder une institution canonique à ces facultés de théologie
d’État, mais il se heurte au refus de Pie IX. Lors du gouvernement de l’Ordre Moral,
la loi du 12 juillet 1875, dite loi Laboulaye, sur la liberté de l’enseignement supérieur 14, autorise la création d’universités catholiques. Trois facultés sont nécessaires
pour qu’une université soit constituée. Le cardinal Guilbert archevêque de Paris
charge son vicaire général, Mgr. d’Hulst, de la fondation d’une université catholique 15. Celle-ci ouvre dès 1875, avec des facultés de droit, de lettres et de sciences.
À cette date, il existe une faculté de théologie catholique au sein de la Sorbonne et
les évêques rechignent à en créer une seconde. En 1878, ils instaurent, dans l’Université catholique, une école de théologie, qui deviendra faculté canonique en 1889.
Entre temps, la loi du 18 mars 1880, l’une des lois anticléricales des Républicains
de la fin du siècle, interdit à ces établissements de se qualifier d’université. Dès lors
les Instituts catholiques sont des établissements d’enseignement supérieur privés,
condition qu’ils garderont par la suite et qu’ils conservent aujourd’hui encore. Leurs
diplômes ne sont pas reconnus par l’État. En 1895, Rome décide de diversifier les
formations pontificales à l’intérieur de l’Institut catholique et reconnaît une faculté
de théologie, une de droit canonique, une de philosophie. Les trois sont un temps
administrées par un même conseil et obtiennent chacune leur indépendance en 1913.
D’université catholique d’État, l’établissement est ainsi passé à un statut d’institut
catholique privé de droit français, mais il a parallèlement acquis la reconnaissance
de trois facultés par l’autorité pontificale. En réponse à l’anticléricalisme de la fin du
XIX° siècle qui rejetait l’enseignement de la théologie ou du droit canonique hors des
universités publiques, l’École Pratique des Hautes Études (créée en 1868) se dote en
B. Neveu, les Facultés de théologie de l’université de France, 1808-1885, Paris, Klincksieck, 1998.
14
P.-H. Prélot, Naissance de l’enseignement supérieur libre : la loi du 12 juillet 1875, Paris,
PUF, coll. des Travaux de l’Université de Paris 2, 1987, 139 p.
15
C. Bressolette, «Cent vingt cinq ans d’histoire», dans L’institut Catholique de Paris, un
projet universitaire, dir. P. Valdrini, Paris, Desclée de Brouwer, 2000, 150 p.
13
25
1885 d’une V° section consacrée aux «sciences religieuses» dans laquelle l’histoire
du droit canonique est enseignée.
Instaurant officiellement un système de pluralisme religieux, Napoléon organise
l’enseignement de la théologie protestante à Strasbourg, Genève, Montauban. Par la
suite, ces facultés ne seront pas atteintes par les mêmes conflits que ceux touchant
les facultés de théologie catholique et se maintiendront jusqu’en 1905. Les pasteurs
sont ainsi formés à Strasbourg, Paris ou à Montauban et non plus à Lausanne comme
cela avait été le cas jusqu’à la Révolution.
Le cas de Strasbourg est particulier, les instances n’étant pas atteintes par les
lois anticléricales de la fin du XIX° siècle. En 1902, une convention passée entre le
Saint-Siège et le gouvernement allemand instaure une faculté de théologie catholique
au sein de l’université. Un institut de droit canonique est érigé en 1920 dans cette
faculté et sa direction est confiée à Victor Martin. L’institut délivre, dès 1921, des
diplômes qui sont des diplômes d’État, reconnus comme tels par les pouvoirs publics
(diplôme d’Études supérieures, doctorat de l’université de Strasbourg, mention droit
canonique). En 1924, le Saint-Siège octroie les grades ecclésiastiques de bachelier,
licencié et docteur aux étudiants passant avec succès les examens de l’université et
qui justifient en outre des conditions requises par les règlements pontificaux. Toujours
à Strasbourg, l’actuelle faculté de théologie protestante tire son origine du gymnase
protestant institué en 1538 et transformé en académie en 1566 par Maximilien II, puis
en université luthérienne au XVIII° siècle. Celle-ci, moins combattue par les révolutionnaires, résiste un temps à la tournante des années 1789 et suivantes. En 1803, le
séminaire protestant de Strasbourg est réorganisé, en tant qu’institution ecclésiastique.
Il sera transformé en faculté d’État en 1818. Les enseignements changent peu mais la
nature de l’établissement et les autorités de tutelle sont autres. Il s’agit d’une faculté
de théologie protestante concordataire, système en partie conservé de 1871 à 1918 et
qui demeure après le Traité de Versailles 16.
Ce bref panorama du jeu des faveurs ou défaveurs des autorités politiques ne
permet pas de conclusions définitives. Il est fondamental de nous garder de toute
généralisation et chaque État a son histoire spécifique aux conséquences elles aussi
spécifiques sur les séminaires ou les facultés de théologie; rien ne se retrouve identique d’un pays à un autre. Pourtant plusieurs constats apparaissent si l’on s’efforce
de dégager des caractères communs. Bien des pays – mais pas tous – ont connu une
(ou des) période(s) de crispation, qui ne se sont pas situées au même moment, n’ont
pas mis en présence les mêmes religions ou le même type de régime politique et qui
ne se sont pas manifestées de façon identique partout. Une ligne se dégage néan-
C. Storne-Sengel, «Les études de Charles Wagner à Strasbourg», Actes du Colloque Protestantisme et Libéralisme à la Fin du XIXe Siècle, Bulletin de la société d’histoire du protestantisme
français, 2008, p. 411
16
26
Brigitte Basdevant
moins, opposant parfois d’un côté les pays à dominante protestante dans lesquels la
religion majoritaire demeure très liée au prince et à l’Etat et de l’autre côté les pays à
dominante catholique où la souveraineté du monarque implique une autorité parfois
plus agressive à l’égard des forces cléricales pour tout au moins contenir celles qui
sont extérieures au royaume.
Les luttes du XIX° siècle ont pu crisper les attitudes et expliquent souvent (par
exemple au Portugal ou en France) que la théologie ait été totalement exclue des
universités publiques. Toutefois, ces crispations s’étant aujourd’hui estompées, une
nouvelle réflexion apparaît sur la place des sciences religieuses dans les universités
publiques. Des États, comme la Grèce notamment, opèrent des réformes qui visent
essentiellement à harmoniser le nombre d’étudiants, et le nombre de professeurs de
religion qu’il convient de former, au nombre d’élèves auxquels ses cours doivent
être dispensés. C’est dire que les débats essentiels ne concernent plus la question de
savoir si c’est l’État ou l’Église dont l’influence doit prédominer, mais on se soucie
de répondre aux besoins effectivement ressentis par les populations. D’autre part, les
pouvoirs publics accordent sans doute plus de liberté à la théologie qu’on ne le faisait
dans les siècles antérieurs, parce que les étudiants sont moins nombreux et encore
davantage parce que l’influence d’une faculté de théologie n’est plus ce qu’elle était
lors du conflit opposant Louis XIV à Innocent XI. Les enjeux ont changé d’intensité
et même de nature.
LES POUVOIRS PUBLICS ET LA FORMATION
DES CADRES RELIGIEUX EN EUROPE.
LE CADRE POLITICO-NORMATIF ITALIEN
Roberto Mazzola
I. Evolution historique de la formation des cadres religieux entre
le XIX et le XX siècles en Italie
A. Formation des cadres religieux de l’Eglise catholique
La réflexion sur la formation des cadres religieux s’applique en premier lieu à la
formation du clergé catholique qui, dès le Concile de Trente, a vu dans l’organisation
des Universités ecclésiastiques 1 (can. 819), mais surtout dans les «séminaires» et
dans des institutions similaires l’espace institutionnel dédié à la formation des jeunes
destinés au sacerdoce 2 (can. 234 § 1).
À travers l’évolution du système des grands et petits séminaires, il est donc
possible de reconstruire les grandes lignes de la formation du clergé catholique qui,
jusque vers les années 1990, s’est développé en conservant et en juxtaposant deux
manières différentes de penser le rôle du clergé : la conception traditionaliste inspirée
des principes de la Contre-réforme, et celle réformiste soucieuse de bâtir une image
du sacerdoce capable d’accepter les défis de la modernité.
La conception traditionaliste avait pour but de forger de prêtres obéissants,
attentifs à la dimension spirituelle sans trop se soucier des affaires du siècle. Cette
séparation entre sacré et profane était portée par l’ecclésiologie de Pie IX. Il était
conçu comme un outil pour réaliser deux objectifs différents : faire obstacle dans
l’Eglise à des personnes sans motivation religieuse et pastorale et éviter que les clercs
ne s’immiscent trop dans la vie politique et cela au détriment de la pastorale. L’autre
conception, au contraire, avait comme but la création de la figure du «prêtre social»
Sur cette question: A. Ferrari, «Entre État et Eglise: l’enseignement de la théologie catholique en Italie et en Espagne ou de l’actualité d’une séparation», Studia canonica, 37 (2003), p. 382.
2
Cf. M. Guasco, Storia del clero in Italia dall’Ottocento a oggi, Laterza, Bari-Roma, 1997, p. 23.
1
28
Roberto Mazzola
immergé dans l’histoire et la politique avec la conviction qu’il faut agir pour réduire
les injustices, et ainsi démontrer que la religion est nécessaire 3.
L’alternative entre les deux modèles fut provoquée par les évolutions politiques et
sociales en Italie. Pendant la Restauration, les revendications théologiques de nature
moderniste ont conduit la hiérarchie ecclésiastique à imposer le modèle contreréformiste.
Il faut rappeler, à ce propos, l’influence des séminaires romains, lesquels avaient pour but
la formation des clercs inspirée des valeurs de la Restauration en évitant que la pensée
laïque ne puisse nuire à l’Eglise. Il était clair que l’élément essentiel pour l’Eglise était
d’endiguer les formes de protestations et les interprétations les plus libérales au sein de
la population catholique, comme le démontre l’épisode des séminaires de Milan et la
forte opposition, orchestrée par les Jésuites, à la diffusion de la pensée rosminienne 4. Pie
IX, en effet, souhaitait que les cadres de l’Eglise catholique aient un caractère trempé et
soient doctrinalement fermes et rigoureux. Mais l’Église a dû se confronter aux grandes
transformations sociales. Cette situation a engendré le modèle progressiste qui a conduit
progressivement à la formation d’un prêtre engagé dans le social.
Cette juxtaposition des modèles a eu d’importantes conséquences du point de vue
de la formation du clergé catholique; elle a créé une ligne de fracture entre les nouvelles
générations de prêtres éduquées à l’ombre de la Rerum Novarum et la vieille génération
engagée à défendre l’Église contre les contaminations du siècle et les remous sociaux
Les prêtres éduqués avant l’encyclique Pascendi (1907), sous le pontificat de
Léon XIII, ont conservé pour toute la vie une forte curiosité intellectuelle et une forte
attention pour les nouveautés et les changements. Au contraire, ceux formés après
1907, furent craintifs envers les nouveautés, méfiants par rapport aux évolutions
intellectuelles, à l’étude et à la culture. Ce dernier modèle sera largement dominant
dans les séminaires et les Universités ecclésiastiques jusqu’aux années 1930.
Le document qui souligne cette orientation est la constitution apostolique Deus
scientiarum Dominus du 24 mai 1931 de Pie XI. Dans ce texte, les règles didactiques
des facultés ecclésiastiques changent complètement. Mais la sortie concrète de
l’approche traditionaliste a eu lieu plus tard avec l’exhortation apostolique de Pie XII
Menti nostræ de 1957. En effet, elle remet en cause le modèle du Concile de Trente
en promouvant les thèmes qui seront développés lors du Concile Vatican II.
Devant le problème de l’organisation des séminaires, le Synode épiscopal extraordinaire de 1967 établit que seules les Conférences épiscopales nationales auront
le droit d’écrire la ratio pour leur propre pays. En réalité, la lenteur des épiscopats
dans la rédaction des nouveaux modèles de formation et la force des instances de
centralisation, ont conduit la Curie de Rome à rédiger une seule Ratio fundamentalis
prenant en considération les demandes de renouvellement présentees dans les dio-
3
4
Ibid., p. 129.
Ibid., p. 62.
Les pouvoirs publics et la formation des cadres religieux en Europe…
29
cèses, et surtout propre à offrir aux différents pays une orientation générale permettant
d’introduire les spécificités et les traditions de chaque pays.
La Ratio a été établie à Rome entre 1968 et 1970 conformément aux instructions
conciliaires. Pour ce document la formation devait : i) consacrer une grande importance
au dialogue avec le monde en prêtant une attention aux signes des temps, ii) intégrer
davantage le séminaire dans la vie des diocèses iii) développer la formation humaine iv)
éduquer au sens de la responsabilité v) promouvoir la formation de petites communautés
à l’intérieur du séminaire, c’est-à-dire que les séminaristes pourraient être autorisés,
sous la surveillance d’un éducateur nommé par l’évêque, à vivre dans des communautés
en dehors du séminaire en assistant aux cours donnés dans le cadre du séminaire. La
Ratio fundamentalis institutionis sacerdotalis a été promulguée le 6 janvier 1970 et fut
envoyée aux Conférences épiscopales afin qu’elles puissent écrire la leur sur la base de
la Ratio cadre. Les évêques italiens, ont terminé leurs travaux en 1972.
Pendant les années 1990 les évêques italiens ont décidé de mettre à jour les
normes fondamentales pour la formation des prêtres publiées en 1972. La nouvelle
Ratio des études fut publiée en 1984. Elle prévoyait deux années des cours –en grande
partie en philosophie – quatre années des études théologiques avec une attention
particulière aux expériences pastorales en dernière année et enfin, l’introduction d’un
certain nombre de matières optionnelles: missiologie, athéisme et marxisme.
Des modifications furent également introduites par le Code de droit canonique de
1983 (can. 232-264) qui renouvelait l’invitation à orienter la formation de façon que
le séminariste puisse avoir la chance de servir aussi l’Eglise dans un diocèse différent
de celui d’origine où le besoin pastoral était le plus fort.
Cette réforme sera confortée dans les années 1990. À partir de cette date le
Synode des évêques a choisi la formation des prêtres dans l’Eglise contemporaine
comme thème d’études et de discussion. Le document préparatoire soulignait trois
éléments fondamentaux pour la formation des cadres ecclésiastiques : la piété, l’étude,
la discipline et, en plus, la formation pastorale. La conception qui considérait le séminaire comme le temps de la préparation, et les années du sacerdoce comme le temps
de la réalisation des éléments transmis a été remplacées par un nouveau modèle de
formation. Le cycle d’apprentissage constitue une première phase complétée par la
formation permanente indispensable afin de rester dans le monde 5.
B. Formation des cadres religieux protestants
En Italie la problématique de la formation des cadres religieux protestants est
liée à la mise en œuvre effective de la liberté religieuse des minorités vaudoises-méthodistes. L’évolution des modes de formation des cadres religieux protestants est
5
Ibid., p. 303.
30
Roberto Mazzola
fortement liée au problème de la lutte pour la reconnaissance du droit d’organisation
autonome et du droit à former librement ses cadres dans le respect des règles et de la
tradition théologique des églises reformées.
Les formations expérimentées par la communauté vaudoise-méthodiste, sur le
modèle de celles existantes pour l’Eglise catholique, concernent les centres d’enseignement supérieur comme la Faculté Vaudoise de Théologie fondée à Torre Pellice
(Piémont) en 1854. Les pasteurs vaudois étaient formés à l’étranger dans les facultés
théologiques suisses (Bâle, Genève, Lausanne), hollandaises, anglaises et allemandes.
Mais le concept de ministre du culte propre à la doctrine protestante s’adosse à des
fondements théologiques très différents de la tradition catholique.
Avant toute chose la conception de «sacerdoce universel», également acceptée par
Vatican II, ramène à de plus justes proportions le rôle de la formation des cadres religieux. Dans le protestantisme on ne devient pas prêtre. Le sacerdoce est lié à l’appartenance à une communauté. Le ministre du culte n’est pas ordonné, cette conception modifie le contenu de la formation des ministres du culte. Le caractère sacré des ministres
ordonnés du culte catholique est, en effet, inexistant dans la théologie protestante.
Conformément à cette approche, les ministres du culte : i) sont toujours révocables;
ii) n’ont aucun statut particulier; iii) doivent s’engager dans la communauté et dans la
société civile 6. La pastorat féminin introduit de plus des différences substantielles et
pose des problèmes spécifiques. Enfin, le fait que les pasteurs protestants soient élus par
la communauté, pose le problème de l’existence d’une liste de personnes qui ont suivi
un certain parcours d’étude et ont obtenu la consécration, qui sera différente selon les
diverses dénominations 7 à l’intérieur même de la communauté protestante.
C’est dans ce contexte théologique que la Faculté Vaudoise de Théologie développe
son activité. Son objectif, comme le rappelle l’art. 1 des Statuts, est de former les pasteurs
évangéliques; promouvoir les études théologiques au sein des églises reformées dans une
perspective évangélique et œcuménique et, aussi, d’agir comme centre de culture et de
recherche théologique protestante et de partager les connaissances théologiques 8.
C. Formation des cadres religieux juifs
Il est possible d’affirmer qu’en Italie, entre le XIXe et le XXe siècles, le problème
de la formation des ministres du culte dans les communautés juives italiennes est lié
aux questions relatives à l’unification de cette communauté.
G. Long, Ordinamenti giuridici delle chiese protestanti, il Mulino, Bologna, 2008, p. 89.
Ibid., p. 96.
8
«Statuto della Facoltà valdese di Teologia – Regolamento della Facoltà valdese di Teologia
(approvati rispettivamente con gli artt. 64/SI/1990; 70/SI/1991)», Raccolta delle discipline vigenti
nell’ordinamento valdese, Claudiana, Torino, 1993, pp. 323-342.(Les textes du Statut et Règlement
analysés ont été mis à jour au Synode de 2012).
6
7
31
Les valeurs sionistes de nature laïque et les valeurs religieuses propres du paradigme rabbinique-synagogal s’affrontaient dans le cadre de l’effort en vue de la
construction d’une communauté juive unie. Dans la première hypothèse, le rôle de la
composante religieuse de la communauté aurait été réduit et, avec elle, l’importance
même des instituts affectés à la formation des rabbins. Si la deuxième position l’avait
emporté, la dimension religieuse aurait gagné du terrain et, avec elle, le rôle et la
fonction des institutions responsables de la formation des ministres de la religion. Ce
contraste se manifeste avec force en 1917 de pair avec la création de la Fédération
nationale des rabbins. L’objectif déclaré de cet institut était de protéger les intérêts
spirituels et les droits de la minorité juive en Italie au détriment de l’affirmation du
sionisme 9. Il s’agissait d’un véritable défi pour la composante laïque de la communauté juive italienne et d’une évolution importante de l’équilibre qui s’était constitué,
dans la communauté, entre le rabbinat et les laïcs. La controverse est devenue féroce.
La reconnaissance même de la légalité de la Fédération des rabbins a été mise en
cause, par crainte qu’elle aurait pu saper l’unité et compromettre la reconnaissance
alors controversée de l’unicité de l’Etat. La réponse des rabbins a été précise et argumentée. Selon eux, il était nécessaire de faire la distinction entre la représentation
officielle du judaïsme, légalement aux mains des présidents de la communauté, et la
protection du spirituel, dont ils revendiquaient l’exercice exclusif. Par ce système,
les rabbins avaient non seulement le droit de représenter officiellement le judaïsme
face à l’autorité politique, mais ils étaient encore plus légitimes que d’autres, en raison de leur fonction particulière de docteurs de la Loi. C’est dans ce contexte, qu’a
été constitué le Collège rabbinique italien dans son articulation tripartite d’Ecole
rabbinique, de Cours en études juives et de Séminaire David Almagià, dont la tâche
principale résidait dans la formation des rabbins et des professeurs d’origine juive 10.
D. Formation des cadres religieux de la communauté musulmane
La question de la formation des imams en Italie est un problème récent dont on
attend les développements. En général, il est possible de distinguer les imams étrangers, ou du moins formés à l’étranger, et ceux de la diaspora italienne sans formation
particulière. La première catégorie est minoritaire. Les cadres religieux la constituant
sont généralement nommés par les autorités des pays d’origine et n’ont qu’une sensibilité et une connaissance réduites de la culture et des valeurs du pays d’accueil. Les
imams de la diaspora au contraire exercent l’autorité mais sans avoir suivi des études
9
Sur ce point, voir: S. Dazzetti, L’autonomia delle comunità ebraiche italiane nel Novecento.
Leggi, intese, statuti, regolamenti, Giappichelli, Torino, 2008, p. 26.
10
Voir: UCEI. Formazione rabbinica in Italia, in <www.romaebraica.it/collegio-rabbinico>
(visité le 22 mai 2013).
32
Roberto Mazzola
coraniques. Ils s’appuient sur les connaissances acquises dans l’enfance à la madrasa
de leur pays d’origine, par des lectures, ou encore grâce à internet 11.
En Italie, mais en général dans tous les territoires de la diaspora, les conditions
pour devenir imams ne sont pas codifiées. La communauté se contente de reconnaitre
un candidat connaissant le Coran en capacité de diriger la prière. Toutefois, l’imam
doit également être choisi pour sa capacité à aider, au point de vue moral et spirituel,
les membres de la communauté dont il est chef.
La formation d’une personne possédant ces caractéristiques est un problème que
les associations islamiques sont en train de résoudre. Des cours de formation pour les
imams sont depuis quelque temps créés, soit au niveau local, soit au niveau national.
Ils sont organisés en règle générale par des membres d’associations islamiques. La
CO.RE.IS, dans sa proposition de statut des imams pour accéder à l’inscription établie par la Fédération italienne de l’Islam, a prévu les conditions suivantes : i) être
un citoyen italien ou un résident permanent en Italie depuis 5 ans, de sexe masculin,
d’un certain âge et de religion islamique; ii) être en possession d’un diplôme d’études
secondaires ou d’une autre qualification équivalente iii) n’avoir aucune condamnation
judiciaire en Italie ou à l’étranger, ne pas avoir été incriminé, ni avoir eu de liaisons
avec des mouvements idéologico-politiques fondamentalistes iv) avoir obtenu le
diplôme d’imam dans l’un des instituts de formation des imams accrédités par la
Fédération de l’islam italien, ou être diplômé comme imam par des instituts d’Etats
étrangers garantissant la liberté de religion et cela à condition que ces diplômes soient
validés par la Fédération de l’Islam italienne v) ou être autorisés à exercer la fonction
d’imam par la Fédération grâce à une reconnaissance ad personam.
II. Organisation des formations par les confessions religieuses
A. L’Eglise catholique
En plus des séminaires, l’offre de formation pour le clergé catholique est également
portée par le réseau des Facultés de théologie (can. 819) qui deviennent, après 1873,
les seules à dispenser un savoir théologique en Italie et cela à l’extérieur des Universités publiques. Depuis cette date, l’État se contente d’ «offrir une reconnaissance
externe successive aux titres canoniques délivrés exclusivement par les institutions de
l’Église» 12. Une situation qui reste inchangée jusqu’à nos jours. En d’autres termes,
l’Etat, incompétent en matière théologique, renvoie au droit de l’Eglise. Il se cantonne
à la vérification formelle de la compatibilité entre les études ecclésiastiques et les études
11
On peut lire M. Bombardieri, Moschee d’Italia. Il diritto al luogo di culto il dibattito sociale
e politico, pref. di S. Allievi, Emi, Bologna, 2011.
12
A. Ferrari, Entre état et église: l’enseignement de la théologie catholique en Italie et en
Espagne ou de l’actualité d’une séparation, cit., p. 381.
33
civiles 13. De cette manière «les autorités ecclésiastiques prévoient le moins d’étranglement possible des institutions de l’Eglise vis-à-vis des partenaires étatiques – mais pas
forcément le contraire» 14. Pendant un siècle, l’éducation théologique a été le monopole absolu des facultés théologiques romaines, mais depuis 1969, les équilibres ont
cependant changé. À partir de cette date, l’ancienne faculté de théologie du séminaire
diocésain de Milan est désormais située dans le centre de la ville, avec un nouveau
statut celui de Faculté de Théologie de l’Italie du Nord (FTIS). Elle est «confiée à la
direction de l’épiscopat des régions ecclésiastiques de la Lombardie, du Piémont, des
Trois Venises et, plus tard, de la Ligurie» 15. Dans le prolongement de ce changement,
elle a été réorganisée pour la rendre plus efficace scientifiquement et assurer une liaison
plus forte avec les autres universités et centres de recherche nationaux, en permettant
notamment l’accès aux laïcs, soit comme étudiants, soit comme enseignants.
Le renforcement de la dimension scientifique et l’ouverture aux laïcs constituent les deux objectifs poursuivis par les Facultés théologiques. «Toujours en 1969,
l’ancienne Faculté de théologie du séminaire archiépiscopal de Naples et celle que la
Compagnie de Jésus de Naples fusionnèrent dans une nouvelle Faculté Théologique
de l’Italie Méridionale (FTIM) qui, à l’instar de la FTIS pour le Nord, était appelée
à fédérer progressivement tous les centre d’études théologiques d’importance existant dans le Sud du pays» 16. Après l’institution des pôles de Milan et Naples il faut
attendre presque dix ans avant la création d’autres centres de formation au service des
églises particulières et ouverts au laïcat. Ainsi, en 1980, la CEC reconnait la Faculté
théologique sicilienne (FTSi) dans la ville de Palerme et, l’année suivante, la Faculté
Théologique de la Sardaigne (FTSa) «obtenait la reconnaissance provisoire de ses
statuts renouvelés qui entamaient un nouveau cours pour cette institution, confiée par
la Conférence épiscopale sarde à la direction de la Compagnie de Jésus. En 1997,
enfin, le dernier morceau de la mosaïque se composa avec le reconnaissance de la
Faculté Théologique de l’Italie Centrale (FTIC) avec siège à Florence» 17.
Toutes les régions ecclésiastiques italiennes sont donc, dès la fin des années 1980,
couvertes par un réseau des centres de formation théologique de niveau universitaire,
également ouvert aux laïcs. Le cadre est fixé par le Code de Droit canonique aux canons
815-821. Toutefois l’offre de formation dans le milieu théologique catholique ne se réduit
pas aux seules Facultés de théologie. Des centres liés à ces facultés ont été créés, il s’agit
de a) Sections parallèles aux Facultés de théologie. Ces sections ont presque les mêmes
prérogatives et les mêmes libertés que le siège central de la Faculté, qui se distingue par
Ibidem, p. 393.
Ibidem, p. 394
15
Ibidem, p. 383.
16
Ibidem.
17
Ibidem, p. 384.
13
14
34
Roberto Mazzola
sa primauté administrative et souvent par la variété des spécialisations offertes. On trouve
un seul exemple de ce système à sections parallèles en Italie, notamment dans la FTIS.
En effet, cette Faculté présente quatre sièges parallèles, tous à l’intérieur des séminaires
diocésains locaux, à Gênes, Milan/Seveso et Venegono inferieur, Padoue et Turin; b)
Centres associés/agrées réglés par l’art. 48§1 de la Ordinationes à Sapientia Christiana
(O.C.S.). La procédure d’agrément a permis une forte autonomie de ces centres, en
acceptant «d’offrir aux étudiants un cycle d’études complet. Ces centres en Italie sont
généralement rattachés aux Universités et aux Facultés théologiques romaines. Seulement
la FTIM et la FTSi ont des institutions agrégats: deux dans la première institution, une
dans la deuxième» 18; c) Les Centres affiliés sont, au contraire, des séminaires diocésains
qui sont conventionnés avec des Facultés de théologie et qui sont autorisés à délivrer la
licence au nom de ces Facultés. A la différence de ce qui est prévu pour les centres agrégés, ses enseignants participent directement aux jurys d’examens et, plus généralement,
surveillent de près le déroulement complet des parcours d’enseignement délivrés par les
institutions affiliées. L’affiliation peut permettre aux séminaristes d’obtenir le baccalauréat
(reconnu comme titre universitaire par l’Italie et le Saint Siège) sans avoir précédemment
suivi un cursus académique. Ces Centres, par décision de l’autorité vaticane, sont interdits
aux laïcs, qui obtiennent les diplômes en théologie dans les seules Faculté de théologie
ou dans les Séminaires agréés.
B. L’organisation protestante
La communauté vaudoise-méthodiste, les Baptistes et les Luthériens ont recours à la
Faculté Vaudoise de Théologie pour la formation de leurs cadres. La Faculté a été créée
en 1854 au Collège Valdese de Torre Pellice (Provence de Turin) et elle avait mis en
place le premier cours de théologie en 1855. La Faculté a été déplacée à Florence (18601921), et transférée définitivement à Rome, où elle se trouve actuellement. La Faculté
exerce ses activités de formation sur la base de l’Ancien et du Nouveau Testament et cela
en accord avec la confession de foi et la discipline des églises vaudoises et évangéliques
méthodistes, conformément à l’accord de 1984 et de la loi du 11 août 1984, n. 449 relatif
à l’application de l’accord entre le gouvernement italien et la Table Vaudoise.
Conformément à l’art. 3 du Statut de l’organisation des études et des activités
de la Faculté, la nomination et les fonctions des enseignants, ainsi que le fonctionnement et la gestion de la Faculté sont régis par les statuts approuvés par le synode de
l’Eglise vaudoise. Il appartient à la Faculté, en application des statuts, de gérer ce qui
relève de l’administration de la faculté et de l’enseignement théologique. Le Conseil
de la faculté (art. 6 des statuts) nommé par le synode, propose pour nomination et
le cas échéant pour révocation les maîtres de conférences. Il nomme et confirme les
18
Ibidem.
35
assistants et les lecteurs et invite les professeurs d’autres facultés. La tutelle sur les
activités menées par la Faculté est exercée (art. 9 de Statut) par un délégué de la Table
vaudoise qui siège aux réunions du Conseil de la Faculté et du Collège académique.
De plus, à la fin de chaque année académique le travail de la Faculté est soumis au
contrôle du Synode statuant en commission spéciale.
L’article premier du Règlement prévoit quatre niveaux d’études supérieures : a)
le cours de licence en théologie de 180 crédits en trois ans, b) le cours de licence en
sciences bibliques et théologiques de 180 crédits en trois ans; c) le cours ou diplôme
en théologie de 120 crédits en deux ans, d) enfin, le cours de doctorat en théologie,
qui ne peut être inférieur à trois ans.
La Faculté peut également organiser des cours de spécialisation (Master 1 et
Master 2), en collaboration avec d’autres établissements d’enseignement, à condition
qu’ils soient effectués selon les procédures énoncées dans l’article 20 de Règlement
en concertation avec le Collège académique. L’articulation des cours offerts par la
Faculté Vaudoise de Théologie, comme l’exige l’article 14 du Règlement, est structurée sur cinq disciplines fondamentales: Ancien Testament, Nouveau Testament,
histoire du christianisme, théologie systématique, théologie pratique et des matières
secondaires. Les matières enseignées pour obtenir le diplôme dans les différents programmes d’études sont déterminées par les art. 16, 17, 18 du Règlement.
En contact étroit avec cette Faculté Vaudoise de Théologie, le Centre Melanchthon
représente le côté luthérien. Il s’agit d’un centre de recherche œcuménique fondé en
2002 par l’Église évangélique luthérienne en Italie (CELI) et la Faculté Vaudoise de
Théologie. Il veut être un point de référence pour les théologiens évangéliques venus
de toute l’Europe. Les activités les plus importantes du Centre Melanchthon sont les
programmes d’études annuels d’une part et, d’autre part durant l’été à Rome, pour
les étudiants non italiens de théologie. Le Centre organise également des conférences
internationales et des cours de perfectionnement pour les théologiens actifs dans les
domaines scientifiques, universitaires ainsi que pastoraux. Le Centre Melanchthon
est dirigé par un conseil d’administration composé de deux personnes désignées par
le consistoire du CELI et deux autres nommées par le Conseil de la Faculté Vaudoise
de Théologie. L’activité du Centre est également soutenue par un conseil scientifique
composé de membres des organisations internationales. Les questions organisationnelles
et administratives sont traitées par le directeur de la formation et du secrétariat 19.
L’offre de formation théologique confessionnelle correspond aux activités éducatives menées par les Assemblées de Dieu en Italie par l’Institut biblique italien
créé en 1954, non seulement pour former les cadres et ministres de la religion, mais
aussi pour permettre à chacun d’approfondir sa connaissance des écritures. La même
19
G. Long, Ordinamenti giuridici delle chiese protestanti, cit, p. 90.
36
Roberto Mazzola
remarque doit être faite pour la culture biblique adventiste de l’Institut de l’Union
italienne des Eglises adventistes du septième jour.
C. L’organisation juive
L’article 13 (L. 8 mars 1989-101), prévoit, comme cela a déjà été dit, que la formation théologique de la communauté juive est dispensée par le Collège rabbinique
italien de Rome, par l’École rabbinique Margulies-Dessins de Turin et par d’autres
écoles rabbiniques approuvées par l’Union. L’école rabbinique assure deux cours
principaux: un cours «moyen» et un cours «supérieur». Le premier s’étale sur huit
ans, ce qui correspond à la période de l’école intermédiaire et de l’enseignement
secondaire. À la fin de cette période, l’étudiant obtient le titre de maskil, un titre traditionnel des écoles rabbiniques italiennes, qui équivaut à un baccalauréat. Le maskil
doit avoir une connaissance complète de la langue hébraïque écrite et parlée; il doit
savoir se diriger sans obstacles dans la compréhension de toute la Bible, et avoir une
expérience de la littérature exégétique traditionnelle. Il doit connaître en plus les
principales étapes de l’histoire juive.
Le «cours supérieur», quant à lui, est de quatre ans. Il est utile à la connaissance du Talmud et du Posqim. La Bible, l’exégèse, l’histoire et la littérature
sont étudiées. À l’issue de ce cours de formation les connaissances sont validées
par un examen final (qui comprend également des réponses écrites à des questions sur les pratiques rituelles) et la soutenance de la thèse. Le titre de Chakham
est attribué aux étudiants ayant réussi les épreuves. En règle générale, les étudiants sont invités à alterner les études en Italie par des périodes d’étude passées à l’étranger dans les instituts rabbiniques accrédités et qui ont un certain
rayonnement. Les activités de formation comprennent des cours d’enseignement,
des séminaires, et des séances de formation et le Conseil travaille actuellement
sur la possibilité de mettre des cours en ligne pour fournir un meilleur service
aux étudiants qui ne peuvent assister aux cours. Les trois approches développées
dans l’enseignement, historico-philosophique, pédagogico-éducatif et bibliothécaire-archivistique, sont autant de perspectives de carrière pour les étudiants.
Le Séminaire Almagià, au contraire, vise plutôt à former des professeurs et des
enseignants des écoles juives. La formation se poursuit sur quatre ans et comprend
des périodes d’étude en Israël, plus particulièrement en ce qui concerne l’étude de la
langue hébraïque. Le niveau requis pour accéder à cette formation est un diplôme de
baccalauréat. Les principales matières enseignées sont: la langue hébraïque, la Torah,
la Tefilla, les rituels, l’histoire, l’enseignement, et enfin la pédagogie 20.
S. Dazzetti, L’autonomia delle comunità ebraiche italiane nel Novecento. Leggi, intese,
statuti, regolamenti, Giappichelli, cit., p. 30.
20
37
D. L’organisation musulmane
Pour les raisons déjà mentionnées, il n’est pas prévu actuellement en Italie un
programme de formation à l’intérieur de la communauté musulmane comparable à
ceux des autres confessions religieuses sus mentionnées.
III. L’enseignement des sciences religieuses porté par les collectivités religieuses
A. Formation catholique
Un certain nombre de centres offrent une formation théologique à l’extérieur du
réseau des Facultés de théologie catholique. En général l’accès à ces cours suppose
que l’étudiant soit titulaire d’un diplôme donnant accès à l’université. Ces études ont
dans une moindre mesure que celles des Facultés théologiques, connu après le Concile
Vatican II un certain essor en devenant, pour les églises locales, les lieux privilégiés
pour la préparation notamment des laïcs et des religieuses à l’enseignement de la
religion catholique dans les écoles publiques.Ces études sont sanctionnées par deux
diplômes différents : a) le Diplôme en Sciences Religieuses (ISR) et b) le Master en
sciences religieuses. Le premier comporte trois ans d’études, le second quatre. Les
«Diplômes en Sciences religieuses …sont délivrés par les Instituts des Sciences Religieuses (ISR) institutions dépourvues de tout caractère académique. Ils sont fondées
par les évêques diocésains et reconnues par la Conférence épiscopale responsable
de leur réglementation. Au contraire le Magistère en Sciences religieuses (ISSR)
est reconnu par la CEC à la suite d’une convention avec une Faculté de théologie,
responsable du niveau des études et de la collation de leurs titres» 21.
Pour assurer le contrôle de la qualité scientifique de l’offre de formation dispensée par les Instituts de sciences religieuses et du Magistère en études religieuses,
les Facultés de théologie ont adopté des stratégies différentes. La FTIS refuse toute
reconnaissance des études suivies en dehors des institutions autres que les ISSR
académiques directement sous leur contrôle. La FTIS, au contraire, en reconnaissant
aussi des institutions dépourvues de caractère académique (ISR et ISSR), s’engage
à faciliter l’inscription de leurs étudiants au sein de la Faculté. La question de la
reconnaissance réciproque des études entre ISR et ISSR est, en revanche, typiquement
italienne. Elle découle de la multiplicité des institutions qui sont en charge des Etudes
de Sciences religieuses: Conférence épiscopale; Facultés de théologie; Saint-Siège:
Congrégation pour l’Education catholique.
Cette articulation des centres, 65 ISR et 43 ISSR avec une douzaine de branches,
peut créer des problèmes en terme de qualité de la formation. Dès lors, la volonté
21
A. Ferrari, op.cit., p. 388.
38
Roberto Mazzola
de réduire radicalement leur nombre afin de corriger «une certaine balkanisation des
études théologiques qui en compromet la qualité» 22 s’impose. La prolifération d’instituts de l’Eglise italienne s’appliquant aux sciences religieuses a été générée par le
concordat de 1984 et par l’Entente signée en 1985 entre le Ministère de l’Instruction
publique et le Président de la Conférence épiscopale pour la règlementation de l’enseignement de la religion catholique dans les écoles étatiques. Cette entente exigeait
pour les enseignants de religion un diplôme équivalent à celui détenu par les collègues
enseignant d’autres matières. Cette nouvelle situation qui faisait coïncider de facto la
naissance des ISR et des ISSR avec la question de l’enseignement de la religion dans
les écoles étatiques, eut un fort impact sur la physionomie de ces institutions. «En
effet entre la spécialisation pédagogique-didactique, destinée aux futurs enseignants
de religion, et celle pastorale ministérielle, pensée pour les aspirantes/aspirants aux
autres ministères ecclésiaux, les étudiants ont choisi massivement la première» 23.
B. Formation protestante
Les articles 10 (L. 11 août 1984, n. 449), 9 (L. 12 avril 1995, n. 116), 11 (L. 29
nov. 1995, n. 520), et 12 (L. 22 novembre 1988, n. 516) prévoient qu’un enseignement
relatif à l’étude du phénomène religieux et à ses implications puisse être organisé dans
l’école publique, à la demande des élèves ou de leurs familles.
C. Formation juive
En dehors de l’offre éducative mise en place par le Collège rabbinique Italien il
faut signaler la possibilité, conformément à l’article 11 al. 4 de la L. 8 mars 1989, n.
101, d’organiser un enseignement dans les établissements publics à la demande des
élèves ou de leurs parents, en tant qu’activité culturelle délivrée par l’école. Dans ce
cas, les coûts seront pris en charge par l’Union ou par les Communautés.
Toujours dans le cadre de la formation en dehors du système rabbinique, il existe
des services dans le domaine de l’éducation offerte par l’Office Jeune National
(OJN). Il s’agit d’une agence qui a pour objectif l’éducation des communautés juives
italiennes dans le but de renforcer leur identité et leur sentiment d’appartenance au
peuple juif.
D. Formation musulmane
Deux initiatives de formation en lien avec la Communauté religieuse islamique
(CO.RE.IS). sont à signaler. La première concerne l’enseignement et la recherche
Ibidem, p. 392.
Ibidem. Voir également: R. Mazzola, «Organizzazione non confessionale del «sapere» religioso in Italia», Quad. dir. pol. eccl., 1 (2001), pp. 141-152.
22
23
39
menée par l’Interreligious Studies Academy (ISA) dans le domaine du dialogue interreligieux. La seconde concerne le récent accord signé par la CO.RE.IS et le Ministre
de l’Université et de la Recherche (MIUR) pour la promotion de l’inter-culturalisme,
c’est-à-dire, une éducation interreligieuse destinée à l’intégration des élèves musulmans mais aussi à promouvoir une meilleure connaissance dans les écoles publiques
de la culture islamique et enfin pour prévenir la propagation de l’antisémitisme, de
l’islamophobie et du radicalisme.
IV. La reconnaissance des titres académiques
En Italie, il est important, faire une distinction claire entre les confessions religieuses dont les statuts relèvent de conventions avec l’Etat et les confessions religieuses organisées dans le cadre du droit commun, c’est-à-dire la loi 1159/1929. Dans
la première catégorie se trouvent, en plus de l’Eglise catholique, toutes les minorités
religieuses réglementées par un accord conformément à l’article 8 alinéa 3 de la constitution.
Pour ce qui concerne l’Eglise catholique, la reconnaissance étatique des titres en
théologie accordée par le concordat de 1929 a été confirmée par le nouveau concordat
de 1984. De plus, ce dernier a étendu la possibilité d’une reconnaissance à tous les titres
en sciences ecclésiastiques suite à une entente entre autorités italienne et vaticanes (art.
10, n. 2). Conformément à ce texte, les titres en écriture sainte ont été reconnus par
l’Etat en 1994 24. Dans les deux cas (théologie et écriture sainte), les titres théologiques
sont reconnus par l’Etat italien sur la simple base de la durée des études, du nombre de
cours annuels et des examens prévus pour les obtenir. Ces conditions sont à rapprocher
de celles qui sont prévues pour les études civiles de même niveau.
Pour les confessions religieuses réglementées par un accord bilatéral, la matière est
réglée par les textes d’application. Sont ainsi pris en considération: l’article 10, al. 1 (L. 22
Novembre 1988, n. 517) relatif aux Assemblées de Dieu en Italie. Grâce a cette disposition,
l’Etat italien a reconnu les diplômes de formation théologique et culture biblique décernés
par l’Institut Biblique Italien, conformément à la réglementation, après trois ans d’études
pour les étudiants titulaires du diplôme d’études d’école secondaire supérieure; l’article
13 (L. 8 mars 1989, n. 101) relatif à l’Union des communautés juives italiennes prévoit
que l’Etat italien reconnaisse la licence rabbinique et le diplôme de culture juive délivrés
à l’issue des trois ans d’enseignement par le Collège rabbinique Italien de Rome, l’École
rabbinique Margulies-Disegni de Turin et par d’autres écoles rabbiniques approuvées par
l’Union, pour les étudiants en possession du diplôme de l’enseignement secondaire. Dans
ce cas, les règles doivent être lues et appliquées à la lumière du décret ministériel du 2
24
A. Ferrari, op. cit., p. 395.
40
Roberto Mazzola
juillet 2003 qui met en œuvre l’article 13 l. 101/1989. Ce décret définit les qualités de la
licence rabbinique et du diplôme universitaire délivrés par les écoles rabbiniques
Mais même dans ce cas, la reconnaissance de la valeur juridique du titre d’études
est fixé par décret du ministre de l’Éducation, de la Recherche et de l’Université sous
réserve d’un avis conforme du Conseil Universitaire National (CUN) .
Il n’y a pas de dispositions relatives à la reconnaissance des diplômes pour
l’Église de Jésus-Christ des derniers jours, la Congrégation chrétienne des Témoins
de Jéhovah, le Saint Archevêché Orthodoxe d’Italie, l’Union Bouddhiste Italienne
(UBI), et l’Union hindoue Italienne.
Les projets d’accord avec les musulmans intègrent, au contraire, des dispositions
sur la formation. Dans ces accords, après les nécessaires contrôles, les diplômes en
sciences islamiques délivrés par l’Institut Culturel de la Communauté islamique Italienne et les diplômes équivalents délivrés par les universités ou les instituts d’études
islamiques à l’étranger seraient reconnus.
Pour l’Eglise apostolique en Italie, l’accord signé le 4 Avril 2007 prévoit, dans
l’article 11, n. 1, la reconnaissance des titres en théologie. Selon cette disposition sont
reconnus les licences et les diplômes en théologie et en culture biblique délivrés par
l’École et la Faculté du Centre des études théologiques de l’Eglise apostolique en
Italie pour les étudiants en possession du diplôme d’études secondaires.
La loi du 8 Juin 2009 n. 67, modifiant la lei nº 516 du 22 novembre 1988 relative à la ratification de l’accord entre la République italienne et l’Union italienne des
Eglises Adventistes du Septième Jour, prévoit la reconnaissance des licences et des
diplômes en théologie et culture biblique délivrés par l’Institut adventiste de culture
biblique «Villa Aurora», de Florence.
En Italie, en raison de l’absence d’une offre de formation théologique par les
universités d’Etat, il n’y a pas de réelle possibilité de choix. En effet, la procédure de
reconnaissance des diplômes ne garantit, ni le pluralisme culturel, ni le pluralisme
des titres qui permettent l’accès aux concours publics.
V. Les nouvelles politiques
Ces nouvelles politiques concernent surtout les minorités religieuses implantées
depuis peu en Italie. L’attention du juriste doit être en particulier concentrée sur
l’expérience développée au niveau universitaire au travers du Forum International
Démocratie & Religion (FIDR) 25 avec le projet: Nouvelle présence religieuse en
Italie. Une voie de l’intégration vise à former historiquement et juridiquement des
Le FIDR est un Centre Interuniversitaire fruit de la collaboration entre les universités de:
Milan, Padoue, l’Université Catholique de Milan, Insubria et Piemonte Orientale. Il s’occupe des problèmes lies à l’intégration et à la liberté religieuse entre les deux rivages de la Méditerranée (www.fidr.it).
25
41
cadres des communautés musulmanes italiennes. Premier projet de ce type en Italie, il
a pour but de promouvoir la compréhension mutuelle entre l’administration publique
(Ministère de l’Intérieur et Ministère de la Coopération et de l’Intégration Internationale) et les principales organisations musulmanes sur le territoire national, dans
la perspective du dépassement progressif des principaux obstacles à la jouissance
et à la garantie de la liberté de religion des communautés musulmanes et des autres
minorités religieuses.
LA FORMATION DES CADRES RELIGIEUX EN FRANCE
Le système français de formation des cadres religieux est d’une grande complexité, d’une part parce qu’il n’est pas le même pour toutes les religions, d’autre
part parce que les règles ne sont pas uniformes sur l’ensemble du territoire à raison
de l’existence d’un régime local en Alsace-Moselle. On se propose d’ordonner la
présentation sur un mode historique, comme le suggère la grille envoyée aux rapporteurs, dans la mesure où les formes actuelles, avec leurs incohérences, sont largement
héritées d’une histoire complexe qui se déroule dans le long terme.
I. Histoire des modes de formation des cadres religieux aux 18/19e
siècles
Durant le siècle qui précède la révolution française de 1789, la formation des
prêtres est assurée dans le cadre des séminaires diocésains. Le premier séminaire
diocésain «moderne» apparaît au milieu du 17e siècle, et le modèle va se généraliser
progressivement. En 1696, l’archevêque de Paris rend obligatoire le passage par le
séminaire à tous les aspirants à la prêtrise de son diocèse, et en 1698 le roi ordonne
l’érection d’un séminaire dans chaque diocèse 1. Autrement dit, c’est au tournant du
18e siècle que les séminaires diocésains deviennent ce que Boris Noguès appelle «la
norme» 2.
Le passage dans les facultés de théologie des universités permet aux étudiants
d’obtenir des grades en théologie, qui remplissent «une fonction de hiérarchisation et de formation purement intellectuelle», mais qui ouvrent également l’accès aux
1
On renvoie ici à Boris Noguès à qui sont empruntées les indications antérieures à 1789: La
formation religieuse en France au XVIIIe siècle, ENSL-Service d’histoire de l’éducation, www.inrp.
fr/.../Nogues_La_formation_religieuse_au_XVIIIe_siecle.
2
Ibid., p. 1.
44
bénéfices en application du Concordat de Bologne 3. Les collèges des congrégations
continuent quant à eux à assurer au long du 18e siècle un rôle important en matière
de formation religieuse. Collèges, séminaires et facultés contribuent ainsi à leur
niveau respectif, et selon un dosage qui varie d’une ville à l’autre, à la formation des
ecclésiastiques.
La fonction principale du séminaire est de renforcer la spiritualité des ecclésiastiques, régulièrement mise en cause dans les écrits du temps, en leur imposant une
retraite, «c’est-à-dire une immersion suffisamment longue et profonde dans un monde
à part, spécifique à son projet, pour le transformer définitivement» 4. La durée de la
formation tend ainsi à s’allonger au fil du temps.
Depuis la révocation de l’édit de Nantes en 1685 le protestantisme est interdit
en France, et il n’est donc pas question de formation des pasteurs, sinon dans la
clandestinité. Quant aux rabbins, ils sont formés au sein de la communauté dans les
écoles talmudiques.
La révolution désorganise complètement le système d’enseignement. Le décret du
15 septembre 1793 met en place trois degrés d’instruction, dispensés dans les écoles
secondaires, les instituts et les lycées. L’article 3 du décret ordonne en conséquence
la suppression de toutes les facultés, qui vont disparaître avec le système universitaire d’Ancien régime pour être remplacées par un système d’écoles. Les facultés de
théologie sont englouties avec l’Université royale. C’est Napoléon Bonaparte qui va
réorganiser le système d’enseignement et lui donner les contours qui sont aujourd’hui
encore les siens, malgré d’importantes évolutions depuis deux siècles.
En ce qui concerne la formation religieuse, la Convention du 26 Messidor An
XI (Concordat) est silencieuse sur la formation des ecclésiastiques, mais l’article 11
autorise la réouverture des séminaires, organisés dans le cadre des nouveaux diocèses
qui ont été redessinés: «Les évêques pourront avoir un chapitre dans leur cathédrale,
et un séminaire dans leur diocèse, sans que le gouvernement s’engage à les doter».
Comme on le sait, le Concordat doit être lu à la lumière des articles organiques de la
Convention, promulgués en même temps que lui par la loi du 18 Germinal An X (loi
du 8 avril 1802). Ces articles soumettent la formation ecclésiastique à un contrôle
étatique très étroit. L’article 11 organique subordonne l’ouverture des séminaires
diocésains à une autorisation du gouvernement. L’article 23 prescrit que «les évêques
seront chargés de l’organisation de leurs séminaires, et les règlements de cette
organisation seront soumis à l’approbation du premier Consul». L’article 24 impose
quant à lui aux enseignants de ces séminaires de souscrire « la déclaration faite par
le clergé de France en I682», et de se soumettre «à y enseigner la doctrine qui y est
contenue». Les listes des élèves étudiant dans les séminaires doivent être commu-
3
4
Ibid., p. 5.
Ibid., p. 7.
La formation des cadres religieux en France
45
niquées au Conseiller d’Etat en charge des cultes (article 25). Cette réorganisation
autoritaire des séminaires au début du 19e siècle est essentielle, car aujourd’hui encore
c’est dans les séminaires diocésains créés au début du 19e siècle que sont formés en
France les ecclésiastiques.
Les articles organiques des cultes protestants organisent la formation des pasteurs
sur le même modèle catholique des séminaires. Pour la Confession d’Augsbourg,
deux «académies ou séminaires» sont créés dans l’Est de la France (article 9), et un
séminaire est fondé à Genève pour l’instruction des ministres des églises réformées
(article 10). Les articles 12 et 13 font de l’étude dans les séminaires une condition
pour devenir pasteur. Une académie de théologie protestante est (ré)ouverte en 1803
à Strasbourg.
Pour assurer la formation supérieure du clergé, Bonaparte, sur le projet de Portalis, prévoit l’installation (loi du 23 Ventôse An XII – 14 mars 1804) de séminaires
métropolitains, au nombre de dix, où les clercs devront obligatoirement passer en vue
d’obtenir leurs certificats de capacité pour devenir évêque, vicaire général, chanoine
ou curé de première classe. Ainsi que l’explique Bruno Neveu, le projet de Bonaparte
était de fonder, sur le modèle de ce qui existait en droit et en médecine, «une sorte
d’école spéciale pour le clergé…, avec une fin professionnelle» 5. A la différence
des séminaires diocésains, l’Etat accepte de doter financièrement les séminaires
métropolitains. Mais, selon les indications de Bruno Neveu, seuls deux séminaires
métropolitains ont vu le jour, à Lyon et Malines 6.
En réalité, l’enseignement supérieur de la théologie va être incorporé dans l’Université impériale lorsque celle-ci se met en place en 1808 7. Le décret du 17 mars 1808
qui organise l’Université impériale «établit des facultés de théologie catholique et
protestante, qui constituent le premier des cinq ordres de facultés, avant le droit, la
médecine, les sciences et les lettres» 8. L’article 7 du décret prévoit que les professeurs des facultés catholiques seront nommés par le Grand-Maître de l’Université,
sur présentation par l’évêque ou l’archevêque du chef-lieu de l’académie d’une liste
de docteurs en théologie. Quant aux facultés de théologie protestante, les candidats
à l’enseignement sont également nommés par le Grand maître, sur présentation des
présidents du consistoire de la ville. Six facultés de théologie catholique sont mises
en place (Paris, Aix, Bordeaux, Lyon, Rouen et Toulouse), et trois protestantes, à
Strasbourg, Genève 9 et Montauban. Ces facultés vont survivre jusqu’à leur dispari-
B. Neveu, Les facultés de théologie catholique de l’Université de France (1808-1885),
Klincksieck, 1998, p. 83.
6
Ibid., p. 91.
7
L’Université impériale est créée par la loi du 10 mai 1806, mais c’est le décret du 17 mars
1808 fixant le fonctionnement de l’Université qui marque son point de départ.
8
Ibid., p. 93.
9
En 1814, Genève redevient helvétique.
5
46
tion, en 1885 pour les facultés de théologie catholique, en 1905 pour les facultés de
théologie protestante.
Ainsi que l’explique Bruno Neveu, l’Université qui se met en place est «une
administration publique et une corporation civile» 10, et si elle comprend des facultés de théologie les autorités religieuses n’y sont pas représentées en tant que telles.
En particulier, elles ne disposent d’aucun pouvoir de contrôle des enseignements ni
de sanction à l’encontre des enseignants, qui sont des fonctionnaires d’Etat. Fondamentalement, c’est ce qui permet de comprendre que jamais tout au long du 19e
siècle l’Eglise catholique n’acceptera d’y former ses clercs, et qu’elle s’empressera
de fonder ses propres universités dès que la possibilité lui en sera donnée, en 1875.
Toutes les négociations avec le Saint Siège, en vue d’obtenir l’institution canonique
des facultés de théologie de l’Université publique, se solderont par un échec. Quant
aux protestants, au contraire, ils vont s’appuyer sur les facultés d’Etat de Strasbourg et
de Montauban pour assurer la formation de leurs pasteurs 11, en sorte que ces facultés
vont devenir un rouage essentiel du système de la reconnaissance, avec cette conséquence qu’elles ne disparaîtront que plus tard, en 1905 avec la séparation.
II. Le cadre institutionnel actuel de la formation des personnels
religieux
L’exposé du cadre institutionnel actuel en matière de formation des personnels
religieux n’implique pas de rupture avec la méthode historique jusqu’ici adoptée
pour la présentation. En effet, ce cadre va prendre sa forme quasi définitive à la fin
du 19e siècle. C’est sous la troisième République, dans une période qui va de 1875
à 1919, que l’enseignement de la théologie et la formation des personnels religieux
vont prendre leur forme actuelle.
La première étape est marquée par la privatisation, dans le cadre des communautés, de la formation des personnels religieux. C’est la fondation des Universités catholiques libres, à l’initiative des évêques de France, et au bénéfice de la loi nouvelle
du 12 juillet 1875, qui marque le point de départ de ce mouvement. Ces universités
catholiques pour être reconnues comme telles par Rome devront obligatoirement
comprendre une faculté de théologie. Cinq universités sont fondées à Paris, Lille,
Lyon, Angers et Toulouse, et chacune possède en conséquence sa faculté de théolo-
Ibid., p. 128.
Un arrêté du 24 mai 1828 concernant les études dans les facultés de théologie protestante
prescrit, ainsi que le souligne Bruno Neveu, «qu’il ne serait présenté à la présentation du roi les nominations des candidats appelés pour la première fois aux fonctions de pasteur que sur le vu du diplôme
de bachelier en théologie. Le lien entre ministère pastoral et grade académique était ainsi établi de
manière indiscutable, et l’existence des facultés de théologie protestante justifiée et légitimée, situation
bien différente de celle du culte catholique».
10
11
47
gie. Mais ces facultés de théologie destinées à former le socle des nouveaux Instituts
catholiques universitaires vont se heurter à une double difficulté. La première, c’est la
résistance des évêques qui ne veulent pas voir dépouiller leurs séminaires diocésains
au profit des nouvelles facultés de théologie. La seconde, c’est celle de Rome qui
exige au contraire que la formation des clercs soit assurée désormais dans les facultés
catholiques, et qui entend bien contrôler ce qui s’y passe, en méfiance d’un épiscopat
français à la fois trop libéral et trop gallican. Finalement, chaque évêché étant rattaché
à un Institut catholique, la formation de base des ecclésiastiques est restée assurée
dans le cadre des séminaires diocésains, une partie de la formation étant suivie dans
les facultés de théologie, notamment pour les personnes aspirant à une formation de
plus haut niveau, au bénéfice de conventions entre Instituts catholiques et séminaires.
La seconde étape est marquée par le retrait à peu près complet de l’Etat en
matière d’enseignement de la théologie. L’habilitation accordée par Rome aux
facultés libres de théologie catholique à délivrer les diplômes canoniques, ce que
les facultés d’Etat n’ont jamais su obtenir quant à elles, va priver de raison d’être
les facultés d’Etat. Malgré les efforts désespérés de son doyen, Mgr Maret, en vue
d’obtenir l’institution canonique pour la faculté de théologie de la Sorbonne, la seule
qui témoignait d’une certaine vitalité scientifique, les six facultés de théologie catholique d’Etat créées par Napoléon vont fermer leurs portes en 1885, leur budget ayant
été supprimé par le Parlement. C’est à ce moment (1886) qu’est décidée la création à
l’Ecole pratique des Hautes Etudes, d’une troisième section consacrée à l’enseignement des sciences religieuses, selon la méthode rationnelle des sciences sociales de
l’époque, en particulier l’histoire et la philologie.
Paradoxalement, la faculté de théologie protestante de Montauban ne va pas être
immédiatement affectée par cette suppression des facultés catholiques, car comme
on l’a dit, elle participe à la formation des pasteurs réformés et constitue une pièce
maîtresse du système de reconnaissance. Il en va de même de la faculté de théologie
protestante de Paris, ouverte en 1877 pour prendre la suite de la Faculté de théologie
protestante de Strasbourg, devenue allemande en 1871 avec l’annexion. Ces deux
facultés seront supprimées par la loi de séparation de 1905, et elles seront prolongées
par des Facultés de statut privé, l’une à Paris, et l’autre à Montauban puis à Montpellier. Les deux facultés de Paris et de Montpellier se sont rapprochées pour former
aujourd’hui l’Institut protestant de théologie, fondé à l’initiative de l’Eglise réformée de France et de l’Eglise évangélique luthérienne de France. Outre les facultés
de théologie protestante de Paris et Montpellier, il existe également une Faculté de
théologie réformée à Aix-en-Provence, une Faculté libre de théologie évangélique à
Vaux-sur-Seine (Yvelines), et une Faculté adventiste de théologie à Salève (74). La
formation des cadres religieux protestants s’inscrit pour l’essentiel, on le voit, dans
un cadre privé.
Il convient ici de dire également un mot de la formation des personnels religieux
dans le judaïsme. Comme on l’a vu, l’Université nationale fondée par Napoléon
48
ne comprenait pas de faculté de théologie juive. Mais l’unification structurelle du
judaïsme et sa reconnaissance par les pouvoirs publics ont suscité une réflexion, et
débouché sur la création en 1829, par arrêté ministériel 12 sur la demande du Consistoire central israélite de France, d’une Ecole rabbinique. Installée à Metz où elle
reprend la tradition de l’ancienne école talmudique (yechivah) fermée sous la Révolution et rouverte en 1821, elle est transférée à Paris en 1859, sous la dénomination de
séminaire israélite de France. Elle bénéficiera jusqu’à la séparation en 1905 du soutien
financier de l’Etat. Un projet visant à transformer l’Ecole en Faculté de théologie est
présenté par le Ministre de l’Instruction publique en 1867, mis il est refusé par le
Consistoire central. L’Ecole rabbinique, qui a survécu aux grands traumatismes du 20e
siècle, est aujourd’hui encore rattachée au Consistoire central israélite de France, et
c’est elle qui assure la formation des rabbins orthodoxes. Le grand rabbin de France
est président du Conseil d’administration de l’école.
La troisième étape, dont le point de départ est purement circonstanciel, et dont
l’importance est apparue au fil du temps, correspond à la résurgence dans le cadre
français d’un enseignement public de la théologie. Au départ, cet enseignement fait
figure d’exception géographique, une parenthèse ouverte et vraisemblablement appelée à se refermer bien vite dans la France laïque. En 1919, lorsque l’Alsace redevient
française, l’ancienne Faculté de théologie protestante de Strasbourg fondée en 1808,
et devenue en 1872 l’evangelisch-theologische Fakultät intégrée à la Kaiser Wilhelm
Universität, est toujours en place. C’est elle qui assure intégralement la formation
des pasteurs, le séminaire protestant s’étant quant à lui vu retirer sa fonction d’enseignement. Par ailleurs, une faculté de théologie catholique a été créée par voie de
convention entre le Saint siège et le gouvernement allemand du 5 novembre 1902,
malgré l’opposition du clergé et de la population. Cette faculté ouvre ses portes en
1903 13. La loi organique de 1919 qui reconstitue l’Université française de Strasbourg
maintient ces deux facultés protestante et catholique, qui se voient reconnaître un
caractère public par un décret du 30 mai 1924. Elles existent encore aujourd’hui,
avec le statut de droit commun d’UFR. A ces deux facultés, il convient d’ajouter le
Centre autonome de pédagogie religieuse, aujourd’hui dénommé Centre universitaire
de théologie catholique, qui dispense un enseignement de théologie catholique dans
le cadre de l’Université de Metz, et qui a fait l’objet d’une convention entre l’Etat
français et le Saint Siège le 25 mai 1974. Sa fonction essentielle est la formation des
enseignants de religion dans les collèges et les lycées. Autrement dit, non seulement
le modèle strasbourgeois d’enseignement public de la théologie n’a pas été supprimé,
mais il a été consolidé au contraire au fil du temps, et il sert de point d’appui pour
Par arrêté ministériel du 21 août 1829.
On reprend l’information du Traité de droit français des religions, Lexis-Nexis 2e édition,
2013, p. 1879.
12
13
49
un certain nombre d’établissements d’enseignement supérieur de la théologie de la
Vieille France, auxquels il est rattaché par des conventions.
Il existe donc aujourd’hui en France deux facultés publiques de théologie, l’une
catholique, et l’autre protestante. Mais il n’y a pas de faculté de théologie juive. Il
n’existe pas non plus de faculté de théologie musulmane, même si le cadre favorable
du droit local est régulièrement mis en avant en vue de soutenir la création d’une telle
faculté. En 1988, Etienne Trocmé, alors président de l’Université de Strasbourg, avait
ainsi présenté un projet de faculté de théologie musulmane au sein de l’Université de
Strasbourg, mais il n’a pas été suivi par les autorités politiques. Dans l’attente d’une
hypothétique création, la Faculté de droit a mis en place, sous l’impulsion de Francis
Messner, un Master d’Islamologie, Droit et Gestion en deux ans, dont la deuxième
année propose deux options, une option «islamologie» et une option «finances islamiques». Il existe également un autre master d’islamologie, dans un cadre public,
mais à l’Ecole pratique des Hautes Etudes et pas à l’Université proprement dite.
Envisagé de façon globale, le système français de formation des cadres religieux
apparaît donc comme un système mixte, à la fois intégralement privé dans ce qu’on
appelle la Vieille France, et public dans l’Alsace-Moselle. Mais alors que les configurations géographiques en matière de régime des cultes conduisent à un système
dual, ou juxtaposé, ici compte tenu de la mobilité des étudiants, du nombre réduit
des formations et de la possibilité pour les établissements d’enseignement de passer
entre eux des conventions, il est plus approprié de parler de système combiné, ou semi
public, semi privé. Si l’on veut à tout prix introduire des catégories dans le système
de formation des cadres religieux, il faut alors distinguer plutôt entre les religions
dont les institutions de formation des cadres sont quasi-intégralement privées, ce qui
est le cas du judaïsme et de l’Islam, et celles dont le système de formation des cadres
est mixte public-privé, ce qui est le cas du catholicisme et du protestantisme. Dans
cette configuration stabilisée depuis un bon siècle, la situation du dernier arrivant,
l’Islam, reste encore indécise, la transition vers un système mixte, à laquelle aspirent
timidement les pouvoirs publics dans un but d’intégration nationale, restant à l’heure
actuelle très indécise.
Les avantages du système universitaire public du point de vue de la formation
des cadres sont réels. Il y a tout d’abord la question du financement, à savoir que les
facultés de théologie catholique et protestante de Strasbourg sont financées par l’Etat,
et que les enseignements sont dispensés par des enseignants chercheurs statutaires. Il
y a également la question des diplômes, qui s’inscrivent dans la nomenclature générale des diplômes et des grades de l’Etat, baccalauréat, licence, master et doctorat.
C’est là une question symboliquement très importante. En effet, la laïcisation de
l’enseignement supérieur en France repose historiquement, on l’a vu, sur cette conviction que la théologie n’est pas une affaire de science et de savoir mais de croyance,
et que son enseignement doit relever des religions elles-mêmes sans interférence
aucune de l’Etat. En créant ses propres facultés de théologie, c’est l’Eglise catholique
50
elle-même qui fut au point de départ de la laïcisation de l’Université en France. Le
système public postule au contraire qu’indépendamment de la question intime de la
croyance il existe un corpus théologique qui est l’objet d’une science à la fois historique, philosophique, juridique, philologique…, et surtout que l’indépendance de
l’institution universitaire à l’égard du pouvoir politique offre un contexte favorable
pour l’épanouissement d’une science théologique mieux intégrée socialement.
Bien entendu, dès lors que l’Etat reste en retrait du processus de nomination
des enseignants, et s’abstient d’intervenir dans le contenu des cursus, il reste une
question délicate, qui est celle du contrôle religieux. Les deux facultés catholique
et protestante fonctionnent à cet égard de façon assez différente. En ce qui concerne
l’Eglise catholique, les relations avec la Faculté de théologie catholique sont fixées
de manière conventionnelle, et si le pouvoir de nomination et de sanction appartient aux autorités publiques, en réalité l’Eglise en la personne de l’Archevêque
de Strasbourg dispose d’un pouvoir d’agrément que l’autorité administrative est
tenue de respecter. De la même façon, l’Archevêque a un droit de regard sur les programmes. Il faut comprendre que les tensions susceptibles le cas échéant de surgir
n’opposeront pas les autorités religieuses aux autorités publiques, selon la logique
historique classique, mais bien plutôt les autorités religieuses au corps enseignant de
la Faculté, autrement dit il s’agira pour l’essentiel d’un conflit interne à l’institution
religieuse elle-même. Quant à la faculté de théologie protestante, le directoire (pour
les luthériens) et le conseil synodal (pour les réformés) n’interviennent plus dans
les nominations, et comme le souligne le Traité de droit français des religions, «les
relations entre l’Union des Eglises protestantes d’Alsace et la Faculté de théologie
protestante sont fondées sur la confiance et l’attachement du corps professoral à
une tradition religieuse. Les deux partenaires sont satisfaits de cette situation».
Le fonctionnement synodal qui est celui des facultés facilite l’intégration dans le
système religieux protestant.
III. Perspectives
La situation actuelle en matière de formation des cadres religieux se caractérise
moins par des évolutions notoires que par une prise de conscience et une réflexion
au niveau des autorités publiques. L’organisation du culte musulman dans le cadre
républicain rend en effet nécessaire la formation de cadres religieux, aussi bien d’un
point de vue d’acculturation aux valeurs nationales, laïcité, pluralisme et interculturalité, neutralité des autorités publiques, régime des cultes dans le cadre français…,
que d’un point de vue purement théologique, au sens d’une théologie intégrée dans
les valeurs nationales. Or les instituts de formation théologique qui fonctionnent
actuellement dans le cadre de la communauté musulmane ne sont pas en mesure de
proposer de telles formations, et c’est pourquoi l’autorité publique réfléchit à une
formation publique des cadres religieux musulmans.
51
Jusqu’ici les initiatives sont restées assez limitées. On l’a dit, un master de
théologie musulmane a été mis en place à la Faculté de droit de Strasbourg. Par
ailleurs, une formation « Religions, laïcité, interculturalité » a été créée en 2008 à
l’Institut catholique de Paris, et elle accueille bon an mal an une vingtaine d’imams
et d’aumôniers envoyés par la grande Mosquée de Paris. La formation est financée
par le ministère de l’Intérieur, qui s’est rabattu sur cette solution du fait du refus
des universités publiques, pour des motifs de laïcité, d’accueillir en leur sein un tel
module de formation à la laïcité. Plus récemment, à la rentrée universitaire 20122013, une nouvelle formation a ouvert ses portes à l’Université Lyon III. Soutenue
par la préfecture qui contribue au financement, mais aussi par l’université catholique
de Lyon, l’Institut français de civilisation musulmane et le conseil régional du culte
musulman, elle comprend deux volets, aboutissant le premier à la délivrance d’un
certificat de « connaissance de la laïcité » à l’intention des imams et en particulier
les imams d’origine étrangère 14, et d’un diplôme d’université en « religion, liberté et
laïcité » qui propose quant à lui une acculturation à l’islam pour les personnes (fonctionnaires et agents des services publics, membres d’associations…) qui se trouvent
dans leurs activités en contact avec des musulmans.
Dans l’état actuel des choses, la politique de l’Etat en matière de formation des
cadres religieux musulmans reste assez impressionniste. L’un des principaux écueils
réside dans la difficulté qu’il y a à disposer d’interlocuteurs représentatifs au sein de
la communauté musulmane. Il existe par ailleurs en France une solide tradition d’islamologie universitaire et de grands noms qui ont fait la renommée de la discipline,
à l’Université de Paris Sorbonne, ou encore à l’Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes,
mais celle-ci apparaît difficile à mobiliser pour la formation des cadres religieux.
Les islamologues qui se sont engagés, dans les années 2000, en faveur de la création
d’un Institut des sciences islamiques, soutenu par l’Etat, et où viendrait s’adosser la
formation des cadres musulmans, ont dû faire face tout à la fois aux réticences de la
communauté musulmane et à l’insuffisance de l’engagement de la puissance publique.
En ce qui concerne les autres religions, les perspectives en matière de formation
des cadres religieux s’inscrivent dans une certaine continuité. La seule question qui
a fait l’objet de débats dans les années récentes concerne la valeur des diplômes
délivrés dans les Instituts et Universités catholiques. Ce débat a été suscité par la
signature le 18 décembre 2008 d’une convention entre le gouvernement français et le
Saint-Siège, en vertu de laquelle les diplômes canoniques obtenus dans les Instituts
catholiques en France sont «reconnus» par la France en tant que diplômes délivrés par
le Saint-Siège. Cette convention, promulguée par un décret du 16 avril 2009, et qui
a été l’objet de critiques virulentes, a vu sa légalité confirmée par le Conseil d’Etat
La formation comprend des enseignements de français langue étrangère pour les imams non
francophones. Elle comprend également pour l’essentiel des cours de droit.
14
52
(CE Ass. 9 juill. 2010, Fédération nationale de la libre pensée). Mais sa portée reste
extrêmement limitée. En effet, elle n’implique en aucun cas que les diplômes en question font l’objet d’une reconnaissance académique qui les classerait au même niveau
que les diplômes français, mais elle fixe simplement un cadre pour les équivalences
de diplômes en vue de la poursuite d’études dans des établissements d’enseignement
supérieur public, sous condition que les établissements publics en question acceptent
de telles équivalences. Autrement dit, les facultés de théologie des Instituts catholiques restent tributaires des accords d’équivalence qu’elles pourront passer avec les
universités publiques, ce qui était déjà le cas auparavant.
La convention de 2008 n’aura pas produit les effets que ses promoteurs en
attendaient. De surcroît, elle présente un caractère unilatéral, au sens où les facultés
de théologie protestante restant à l’écart du dispositif. Elle témoigne malgré tout
d’un désir légitime, chez les autorités religieuses françaises, de normalisation de
l’enseignement des sciences religieuses dans le paysage de l’enseignement supérieur
français. Dans l’attente d’une authentique reconnaissance, sous une forme qui reste à
définir, des diplômes de théologie ou de sciences religieuses, la seule possibilité pour
obtenir la reconnaissance étatique consiste pour les facultés privées, catholiques ou
protestantes, à passer une convention avec leur homologue publique de Strasbourg,
en vertu de laquelle les étudiants seront évalués dans le cadre de l’Université publique
qui leur délivrera le diplôme. Mais une telle solution n’est guère satisfaisante pour
les établissements privés.
«NOT BY BREAD ALONE»
THE TEACHING OF THEOLOGY IN PORTUGAL
Jónatas E.M. Machado 1
Since its foundation, in 1142, the identity of Portugal was shaped by the doctrines
and institutional practices of Roman Catholicism. The Portuguese Kings saw themselves as Christian Princes, under the Pope, endowed with a clear theological-political
mission. The first century of its existence was spent fighting the Islamic occupation
in the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula. The following centuries were a time
for spreading the Christian message around the world, namely through the maritime
discoveries of men such as Magellan, Gama and Cabral and the engagement of various religious orders. The same task was to be performed by the Spanish kingdom of
Castile. Throughout the centuries, the teaching of theology in the University, religious
orders and seminars was an essential component of State nationality and identitybuilding, having inescapable political dimensions and implications. The organization
and reform of theological studies followed clear patterns of political agenda-setting.
Theology was often seen as a potential threat to different forms of political organization. It was feared because of its subversive potential by both authoritarian and
democratic regimes. The inherent message of theology courses has always been that
there is a higher law from which transcendent limits to Imperial, Papal, Royal, State,
and popular sovereignty may be derived. The potential for its political manipulation
and abuse by the clergy was also a concern for those in official positions. The present
study focuses mainly on the teaching of theology in the 18th and 19th centuries and in
contemporary Portugal. However, since our country is a very old one by European
standards, some reference is also made to earlier periods, to present a clearer picture
of the interaction between politics and religion.
1
Associate Professor of the University of Coimbra. I want to thank Professor Manuel Augusto
Rodrigues and my colleagues Vieira Cura and João Loureiro for their research suggestions. I also thank
Drs. Fernando Loja, member of the Portuguese Commission on Religious Freedom, and Rev. Dr. Paulo
Branco, from Universidade Lusíada for the information provided.
54
I. Christendom’s theory of everything
In the Respublica Christiana of the Middle Ages and early Renaissance, theology
played a central role in providing meaning and unity to the different intellectual and
scientific fields of human inquiry. The creation of the Medieval Universities by the
Popes and Monarchs of Christendom relied on the combination of the words ‘Unity’
and ‘Diversity’ so as to portray an intelligible unifying theological framework within
which the diversity of natural reality and human experience could be accommodated
as an expression of God’s creative and redemptive acts and of human participation
in His eternal and universal plan.
Christian theology was long-sought as the «theory of everything». It provided
meaning and purpose to all spheres of knowledge - such as law, medicine, philosophy, literature, science, architecture, arts, music - uniting the different Professors in
one body and one main purpose. Knowing God and knowing His Creation were a
defining characteristic of human nature and an essential component of the meaning
of life. The knowledge of a God (Theos) who reveals himself as Reason (Logos) was
the beginning and the end of every other kind of knowledge. The Christian conviction concerning the existence of a written, historical, factual, reliable and publicly
accessible divine revelation required the placement of all rational inquiry under its
authority. The «documents of the Christian faith» provided an obvious explanation
for the «intelligibility of nature and the intelligence of Man» that preconditioned any
rational inquiry.
Although this was a specific Christian understanding, we can find some similar albeit more diffuse and uncertain lines of thought in the Greek philosophy of
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. For these and other Greek and Roman philosophers,
the diversity of nature provides evidence of a single unifying mind. Knowledge
was a seen as essentially a theological endeavor. It is no accident that, even
today, many knowledge-related words, such as theory, theorem or theoretical
point to a time when the basic knowing of the truth about the world was a way
of contemplating God. But we also find that since the time of philosophers such
as Empedocles, Democritus or Epicurus, the idea of a transcendent and universal Logos has faced the competition of naturalistic, materialistic and humanistic
ideas 2. This classical tradition was also incorporated in the social organism of
the Medieval University 3.
2
Classical Philosophy, Oxford Reader, (Terence Irvin, ed.), Oxford, 1999, 33 ff.; Terence Irvin,
The History of Western Philosophy 1, Classical Thought, Oxford, 1989, 20 ff.
3
Olaf Pedersen, The First Universities: Studium Generale and the Origins of University Education in Europe (transl. Richard North), Cambridge, 1997,1 ff.
«Not by bread alone». The teaching of theology in Portugal
55
II. Historical notes on the teaching of theology in Portugal
A. Middle Ages
King Dinis founded the University of Coimbra in 1290 as a Studium Generale.
This was confirmed by a Bull of Pope Nicholas IV, and was to be devoted to Liberal
Arts and Sciences, following a common medieval pattern 4. This University is particularly important since it was the only University in the Portuguese Empire until 1911.
Initially it did not include the teaching of theology, since this subject was treated with
great scholastic competence in several monastic orders, particularly the Augustinians,
Benedictines, Cistercians, Dominicans and Franciscans, as part of the education of
the clergy and nobility. In fact, there was already a strong interest in theology many
centuries before the foundation of the kingdom, during the Visigothic occupation
of the Iberian Peninsula. It declined during the years of Islamic occupation, only to
return in the 10th and 11th centuries during the Christian retaking of the Peninsula 5.
The University of Coimbra always defined its identity and mission by confronting the competition, and sometimes opposition, of other religious colleges belonging
to different religious orders. It is impossible to know for sure when the teaching of
theology became part of the university syllabus, but there is evidence of a chair of
theology in the University of Coimbra at the time of King John I of Portugal, during the 14th and 15th centuries. In 1503 King Manuel I determined the existence of
two chairs of theology. Eventually, after the Council of Trent (1545-63), the subject
became a very important part of University teaching 6. During the 17th century, the
clash between the University and the Jesuits turned theological disputes into disputes
about political power and vice versa.
In the 1612 version of the Royal Statutes (Charter) of the University of Coimbra,
theology appears as the main faculty, followed in rank by the Faculties of Canons,
Law and Medicine. It was very much influenced by the Counter-Reformation and
pressurized by the Inquisition. The syllabus of the course included several major
and minor subjects. The study of the Holy Scriptures was to be accompanied by the
reading of the works of prominent theologians like Peter Lombard, Thomas Aquinas,
Ioannes Duns Scotus, Durando a Saint-Pourçain and Gabriel Biel. Through the teaching of theology, canon law and law, the Portuguese medieval University participated
A History of the University in Europe, University of the Middle Ages I, (W. Rüegg [ed.]),
Cambridge, 1992, 35 ff., 307 ff.
5
O. Remie Constable, Medieval Iberia, Readings from Christian Muslim, and Jewish Sources,
Philadelphia, 1997, 1 ff, 109 ff; B.F. Reilly, The Medieval Spains, Cambridge, 1993, 51 ff., 90 ff.
6
M. Augusto Rodrigues, «Teologia», Dicionário de História Religiosa do Portugal, C.
Moreira Azevedo (coord.), Lisboa, IV, 2000-2001, 276 ff.
4
56
in the medieval theological and legal debates and disputationis which sowed the seeds
of Western political ideas and public law 7.
B. Enlightenment
The New Statutes (Charter) of the University of Coimbra, enacted in 1772 by
the absolutist executive of the Marquis of Pombal, were part of a royalist policy and
therefore part of the Church’s spiritual, intellectual and moral reform by the State (ius
reformandi) 8. This policy aimed to strengthen the rule of the King by centralizing
power both on the continent and overseas. Both the Pope and some religious orders,
specially the Jesuits, were obstacles to be overcome for Portuguese colonial policy 9.
The prevailing mood was one of conflict: opposing the King and the commercial
bourgeoisie to the nobility, the clergy and the Papacy.
On one hand, the New Statutes were aimed at reforming the University syllabus
according to Enlightenment, humanist and rationalistic principles, without doing away
with the Christian rubber stamp. To accomplish this objective, the Marquis of Pombal
counted on the decisive cooperation of famous Rector Francisco Lemos, a prominent
politician, lawyer and clergymen born in Rio de Janeiro. On the other hand, reform
was based on a forceful and blatant attack on the Jesuit order, held responsible for the
prevalence of what they deemed as sterile, subtle and ultimately sophistic theological discussions, around the systems of Lombard, Aquinas, Scotus, Durando and Biel,
prescribed by earlier Statutes.
The Jesuits are also openly accused of perpetuating, in the domain of Christian
theology and ethics, the undue influence of the «Atheist Philosopher» Aristotle 10.
According to the proponents of the New Statutes, this state of affairs had led to the
destruction of Christian theology and the abandoning of its original doctrines. Faced
with this state of affairs, the King sought to reform the Church and the Christian
University. The odium theologicum prevalent in the attacks against the Jesuits betrays
a political agenda of royal and imperialist centralization, command and control. In
spite of its political overtones, theology was still a core subject of higher learning.
Christianity remained the higher law of the land. The purpose was to make way for
the via moderna of theological studies, making them compatible with the most recent
developments in political, philosophical and scientific thought.
J. Greenberg, M.J. Sechler, «Constitutionalism Ancient and Early Modern: The Contributions of Roman Law, Canon Law, and English Common Law», 34, Cardozo Law Review, 2013, 1021 ff.
8
A.C. Araújo, O. Marquês de Pombal e a Universidade, Coimbra, 2000, 9 ss.
9
I.J. Veríssimo, Pombal, os jesuítas e o Brasil, Lisboa, 1961, 185 ff.
10
These points are made in, Compendio Histórico do Estado da Universidade de Coimbra,
Lisboa, Régia Oficina Tipográfica, 1771-1772.
7
57
In its Book I, Titles I and II, the New Statutes establish the general, academic
and moral requirements of admission, as well as the duration and the content of the
theology degree. The 1772 New Statutes’ Preamble makes very interesting and informative reading. It states that the teaching of theology is justified on the grounds
of its pivotal contribution to Church and State and to the setting of high moral standards for public officials, clerics and the people in general. This Preamble vehemently
denounces those who profane the study of theology by entirely missing its spirit and
by engaging in vicious and perverse behavior contrary to sound, holy, wise, pure and
perfect Christian principles. In the New Statutes, the study of theology comprised
many classical subjects such as rhetoric, logic, philosophy and hermeneutics, as well
as the subjects of metaphysics, natural theology, natural law, ethics, catechism, history of religion, Church history and various other domains of Christian theology. It
also included the study of Latin, Greek and Hebrew.
These subjects were deemed necessary for the critical study and interpretation of
the Holy Scriptures. The study of theology was structured on three levels: Bachelor
(five years), Magister and Doctorate (both achieved by an additional year of study).
Any of these degrees facilitated access to the study of Law. The University Rector was
given the responsibility to monitor the progress of teaching activity. The New Statutes
assured public control of theological studies, as a part of the royal prerogative over
the Church. However, not all that was in the New Statutes became reality because of
the shortage of qualified professors and lack of contacts with foreign Universities.
This meant that responsibility for this new reform was largely given to old Professors.
C. Paradigm shift: a naturalistic world view
The 17th, 18th and 19th centuries had been particularly challenging to the central
role played by religion in the University. The Enlightenment had subjected the study
of religion and science to rationalist, naturalist and uniformitarian assumptions which
a priori rejected the possibility of any supernaturally revealed truth. This made way
for a revised and expanded version of ancient Greek naturalistic philosophy. This was
part of a larger political and ideological attempt to defuse the threat of theological
conflict after the Wars of Religion. The leitmotiv of the new intellectual agenda was
to «free the science from Moses» 11. The obvious target was the Genesis record. For
example, Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) 12 proposed the study of the Holy Scriptures
as a purely human construction, on the basis of historical, critical and naturalistic
assumptions. Narratives of supernatural events should be understood as primitive
11
E. Bailey, British men of science: Charles Lyell, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd, London,
Great Britain, 1962 p. 75.
12
Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, 1670. , R.L., Colie, «Spinoza and the early English Deists»,
Journal of the History of Ideas, XX, 1959. 25 ff.
58
myths and culturally conditioned stories 13. This opened the door to the adoption of
the same intellectual approach to various fields of science.
In the field Astronomy, building on the work of Galilei, Copernicus and Kepler,
Immanuel Kant and Pierre Simon Laplace 14 developed a naturalistic approach to
the origin of the solar system, based on the gravitational collapse of a giant cloud
of gas or nebulae. The idea of a sudden supernatural creation by an omnipotent God
was discarded as inconceivable. In the field of Geology, James Hutton 15 and Charles
Lyell 16 combated what they described as the influence of Moses in geology. They discarded any catastrophist and global flood interpretations of the geological and fossil
records, proposing instead a naturalistic and uniformitarian approach, based on the
assumption that presently observed processes are the key to understand unobserved
past geological events - «the present is the key to the past». In the field of biology
Charles Darwin proposed a naturalistic theory of the origin and evolution of species
based on the slow and gradual processes of natural selection 17.
These naturalistic and evolutionary assumptions ended up being adopted in various
domains of scientific and philosophical enquiry, including the study of philosophy, history and economics (e.g. G. F. Hegel, K. Marx). In the field of theology, these assumptions translated into the notions of source criticism, textual evolution and faith evolution, most notably though the work of German theologians K. Graf (1815-1869) and
Julius Wellhausen (1844–1918). The urge to critically undermine any trace of biblical
authority was also seen by many European theologians as part of a larger anti-semitic
project, increasingly popular in 19th century intellectual circles, seeking to undermine
what was seen by many as the excessive weight accorded, in Western culture, to the
Jews and their allegedly primitive, mythological and superstitious texts 18.
This rapid and profound intellectual transformation, a true paradigm shift in
the sense of Thomas Kuhn 19, led to an academic environment deeply embedded in
scientism, naturalism, materialism, positivism and skepticism. Both the scientific
Not all intellectuals found these ideas ultimately convincing. See, for instance, J. Locke, The
Reasonableness of Christianity, (1695), The Works of John Locke in Nine Volumes, (London: Riving-ton,
1824 12th ed.). Vol. 6., defending Jesus as the Messiah based on a plain and straightforward reading of
the scriptures. Isaac Newton, with a Unitarian and Arian approach, was another scholar who upheld the
intimate relationship between theology and science. The Newton Project, Newton’s Religious Writings,
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/prism.php?id=44.
14
Exposition of a World System, 1796; Traité de la Mécanique Céleste, 1799.
15
J. Hutton, «Theory of the earth; or an investigation of the laws observable in the composition,
dissolution and restoration of the land upon the globe», Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1788.
16
Principles of Geology, 3 volumes, 1830–33.
17
On the Origin of Species, London, 1859.
18
R.L. Smith, Teologia do Antigo Testamento, História, Método e Mensagem, São Paulo, Vida
Nova, 2001, 33 ss.
19
T. Kuhn. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions XII, 3d ed., Chicago, 1996, 111 ff. e 160 ff.
13
59
evidence and the documents of Judaism and Christianity were now interpreted within
a naturalist, humanist and anti-metaphysical framework, which a priori excluded the
supernatural and the divine. Within this intellectual context, even prominent theological faculties increasingly became academic centers where the promotion of culture religion, with its values of modernity and progress and its sense of rational superiority,
led to the systematic debunking and discrediting of traditional Christian orthodoxy 20.
The problem with this new paradigm is that it was not totally successful in doing
away with theology. It wrongly assumed that only miracles require a supernatural
explanation and not the rational intelligence of man and the rational intelligibility of
the Cosmos, without which science is not even viable 21. But both these realities defy
a purely naturalistic explanation in the same way as miracles 22.
D. Liberal revolution and the challenges to theology
Portugal experienced a liberal revolution in 1820 influenced by the American
and French Revolutions 23. After some constitutional turbulence associated with the
fight between democrats and absolutists, liberals and conservatives, it was granted
a Constitutional Charter in 1826. Its article 6.º established the Catholic Church as
the official religion of the Kingdom, allowing foreigners to keep their own religions
in private. However, this constitutional instrument did not prevent serious political
confrontation and civil war, with strong clashes between traditional Catholic forces
and more modern and liberal social movements. In the words of a famous 19th cen-
This trend is well documented in books such as, M.D. Chapman, «Ernst Troeltsch and Liberal Theology», Religion and Cultural Synthesis in Wilhelmine Germany, Oxford, 2001, 45 ff., 75 ff; R.
Bultmann, Jesus, UTB, Stuttgart, 1988; Das Urchristentum, Patmos, 2000; Anfänge der dialektischen
Theologie, Teil I - Karl Barth - Heinrich Barth - Emil Brunner, 5.ª ed., 1985; E. Brunner, Christlicher
Existenzialismus, Zwingli-Verl. 1956; Offenbarung und Vernunft, Zwingli-Verl., 1961; E. Voegelin, Der
Gottestmord, Wilhelm Fink, 1999, 91 ff.; J. Meier, A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus,
Vol. I, New York: Doubleday, 1991; M. Borg, Meeting Jesus Again for the First Time, San Francisco:
Harper, 1995; J.D. Crossan, Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography, San Francisco, Harper, 1995; M.J.
Wilkins and J.P. Moreland, editors, Jesus Under Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents the Historical
Jesus, Grand Rapids, Michigan, Zondervan Publishing House, 1996; D. Groothuis, Searching for the
Real Jesus in an Age of Controversy, Harvest House, 1996.
21
R. Stark, For The Glory of God: How Monotheism Led to Reformations, Science, Witch-hunts
and the End of Slavery, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2003, 121 ff.
22
K. Foundation. «The universe or the brain: Where does math originate?». ScienceDaily, 15
Jul. 2013. Web. 16 Jul. 2013; D. Krioukov, M. Kitsak, R.S. Sinkovits, D. Rideout, D. Meyer, M.
Boguñá.«Network Cosmology». Scientific Reports, 2012; 2 DOI: 10.1038/srep00793
23
J.J. Gomes Canotilho, Direito Constitucional e Teoria da Constituição, Coimbra, 7.ª ed.,
2007, 127 ff.
20
60
tury Portuguese writer, Alexandre Herculano, the Catholic Church had been taken
by a storm 24.
In the context of theological-political confrontation, many of the Catholic colleges
were closed in 1836. There was a reform in the teaching of theology between 1836 and
1844 25: a degree in Theology was required as a necessary precondition to the exercise of
any clerical or canonical position. This reform was immediately frustrated in 1845 by the
admission of Law graduates to the exercise of ecclesiastical positions. During the second
half of the 19th century, Portugal lived under the Constitutional Charter of 1826. The
ideological strife between catholic conservatives and secular liberals only intensified,
alongside the tension between monarchists and republicans. In this context, the number
of theology students declined significantly. The Papal Encyclicals Mirari Vos (1832),
Quanta Cura (1864), Immortale Dei (1885), only intensified this tension, since they were
perceived as an ultra-conservative attack on liberal and democratic ideals and rights 26.
Against this background, the University of Coimbra Reform of 1901 seemed to be
defensive 27. It was aimed at preserving the study of theology, but had to put forward
some justifications for the study of theology at the beginning of the 20th century. The
1901 Reform still acknowledged the importance of theology in higher learning. On the
one hand, there was the expectation that the course in theology could serve the purpose
of modernizing religion, through the creation of an enlightened, modern and polite clergy. On the other hand, there was the notion that theological education was an important
line of defense against naturalistic, materialistic, utilitarian and hedonistic ideologies.
The arguments used in the Preamble of the 1901 Reform are very interesting
from a historical point of view and thus worth sharing. One argument made was that
the abolition of public theological teaching in France and Italy had deleterious consequences, not only in the training of the clergy and other ecclesiastical personnel,
but also in the discussion of important social questions. Unfortunately, this statement
is not further explained nor justified, meaning that we do not know exactly what its
author had in mind and what was meant. Another argument put forward seeks to
underline the positive example of Germany. According to this argument, the fact that
Germany kept its Theology Faculties explained why it had excelled in the intellectual
world in the several fields of scientific enquiry. The Preamble of the 1901 Reform
underscores the support that German theological faculties enjoyed amongst the German intellectual elite and the public at large. The 1901 Reform gives a central role to
Catholic Dogmatics, deliberately rejecting the Protestant emphasis on critical exege-
A. Herculano, Eu e o clero. Carta Ao Ex.m° Cardeal-Patriarca, Lisboa 1850, 18.
Decree of December 5th 1836; Decree of Setember 20th 1844,.
26
A.M. Martins, «Recepção em Portugal das Encíclicas sobre o Liberalismo: Mirari Vos,
Quanta Cura e Immortale Dei». Lusitania Sacra, 1, 1989, 40 ff.
27
Decree of December 24th, 1901.
24
25
61
sis, although not without inciting an intellectual engagement and confrontation with
it. It created a chair in Applied Christian Ethics and another in Ecclesiastical Law as
part of the syllabus. The 1901 Reform still assumed that the State had an important
stake in the teaching of theology in the University of Coimbra.
E. The Republican revolution of 1911 and the end of the public teaching of
theology
On October 5th 1910, a Republican revolution took place in Portugal. The last
Portuguese King, Manuel II, was forced to leave the country. This revolution established democratic and liberal principles along with a secular government and public
sphere. A few months later, in April 1911, a Law of Separation of Church and State
was enacted. It disestablished the Catholic Church as the official religion of Portugal
and granted religious freedom and private law status to all religious associations. This
revolution erected a wall of separation between the State and the Catholic Church.
The revolutionaries saw the Church as a conservative force and a reactionary enemy
of the new republican system.
On the one hand, the republican State saw the education of the clergy as the sole
responsibility of the Church, from which political and financial support should be
divested. On the other hand, the law provided for State interference and control of
the teaching of theology in Catholic theological seminaries. Theological teaching was
seen as an actual, conservative threat. The Professors, content and textbooks of theology were subjected to public control. Those who had studied theology in Catholic
seminaries were granted the opportunity of submitting to the general examinations
of the public system of education to receive a more secular education 28. In the same
month of April 1911 there was a new reform of Higher Education. From then on, the
universities were to be secular institutions. Religion could be taught only as a field
of scientific and philosophical investigation 29.
The principles of the Law of Separation became enshrined in the Republican
Constitution of August 1911. This instrument was very much influenced by the French
idea of laicité, and its own Law of Separation of 1905, as well as by the American
principles of separation between Church and State, eloquently promoted, among others, by the Brazilian republican jurist Rui Barbosa. Article 3.º/4-8 of the republican
constitution established the right of freedom of conscience and belief and prohibits
religious persecution and discrimination. It also established the principle of equality
among different faiths, allowing for the public expression of religion in buildings with
the external appearance of a house of worship. Article 3.º/10 prescribed the religious
28
29
Articles 184.º and 188.º of the Law of Separation of Church and State of 1911.
Decree with legal force of April 19, 2011.
62
neutrality of all teaching taking place in public or in private institutions subject to
public supervision. Eventually, this First Republic collapsed amid strong political
confrontation, economic crisis and social unrest.
III. The period of the «Estado Novo»
The Estado Novo (New State) signifies the authoritarian regime between 1933
and the Carnations Revolution of 1974. It is characterized by the Portuguese Constitution of 1933 and the rule of Oliveira Salazar. The former consolidated the principle of
separation of church and state 30. The latter always tried to assure the supremacy of the
state over the Catholic Church. Another important element of the New State is the 1940
Concordat between the Catholic Church and the Portuguese state. Among many other
things, this Concordat guarantees the Catholic Church the right to establish, maintain
and own theological seminaries and other institutions of higher ecclesiastical learning 31.
Although the 1940 Concordat prohibits any state interference in these institutions,
it requires that they inform the state about the text books they use in their theological
studies and that they give an open emphasis to patriotic sentiments of the Portuguese
people in the study of history 32. In 1947, the Catholic Church establishes a Faculty
of Theology in the city of Braga. In 1967, the Catholic Church creates its own Portuguese Catholic University, which was recognized by the State in 1971. This University absorbed the existing Faculty of Theology in Braga and established a new one in
Lisbon, in 1968. Meanwhile there were two superior institutes of theological studies,
established in 1967 in Lisbon and Porto, but they were abolished in 1975 because they
were deemed unnecessary due to the existence of the Catholic University 33.
IV. Teaching theology in contemporary Portugal
A. Constitutional and legal background
After the Carnations revolution of 1974, the Portuguese Constitution of 1976,
in articles 41.º and 288.º, guarantees the fundamental right of freedom of religion
to individuals and religious communities and the principle of separation between
religious communities and the State 34. Article 41.º/4 determines that «[c]hurches
and other religious communities are separate from the state and are free to organize
themselves and to exercise their functions and form of worship». Dealing with the
Articles 45.º ff. of the 1933 Constitution.
Articles 6.º and 20.º of the 1940 Concordat.
32
Article 20.º of the 1940 Concordat.
33
Instituto Superior de Estudos Teologicos (ISET).
34
J.J. Gomes Canotilho, Direito Constitucional e Teoria da Constituição, 7.ª ed., Coimbra,
2003, 226.
30
31
63
right to education, article 43.º/2/3 of the Constitution provides: »[t]he state may not
programme education and culture in accordance with any philosophical, aesthetic,
political, ideological or religious directives»; and: «[p]ublic education shall not be
linked to a religious belief».
This constitutional framework explains the total absence of theological studies
from the public institutions of higher education 35. These and other constitutional
provisions are the basis for the Portuguese Religious Liberty Act 2001 36. According
to article 23.º c(i) of this, religious communities have the right to teach their doctrines
according to the manner and through the people they chose and to establish seminaries
or any other educational or cultural religious institution.
B. Catholic theological teaching
The Catholic Church maintains is theological seminaries, along with its Faculties
of Theology in the Catholic University. In 2004 the Portuguese State and the Catholic
Church celebrated a new Concordat 37. As far as the teaching of theology is concerned
the 2004 Concordat does not change the status quo. Article 21.º mentions the Catholic
University, without adding anything new to its legal status. The Catholic University
of Portugal offers bachelor, masters and doctorate courses in religious sciences and
theology. It develops its teaching in the cities of Lisbon, Porto, Braga, Évora and the
Azores Islands, attracting students from all over the country.
The Catholic Church maintains other institutions that provide theological studies at diocesan level. One example is the Superior Institute of Religious Sciences
in the city of Aveiro 38. This institution offers a degree in Religious Sciences that is
recognized by the Holy See and by the Spanish State in its territory. The degrees in
theology and religious studies obtained in the Catholic University are legal requirements for the teaching of Catholic morals and religious teaching in public schools 39.
This means that those who have completed and obtained their degrees elsewhere
are now required to do further studies in the Catholic University in order to obtain
the necessary professional qualification for the teaching of the Catholic religion and
moral education in public schools.
35
A. Torres Gutiérrez, «Church and State Relations in Portugal», Religions and Churches in
a Common Europe, (ed. János Wildmann), Bremen, 2012, 99 ff.; M.S. da Costa Gomes, Estudos sobre
a nova Concordata: Santa Sé-República Portuguesa, 18 de maio de 2004: actas das XIII Jornadas de
Direito Canónico, 4-6 de abril de 2005: estudos vários, Universidade Católica Editora, 2006.
36
Lei (Act) n.º 16/2001,of 22-6, in its final version of Lei (Act) n.º 66-B/2012, of 31-12.
37
Torres Gutierrez, Church and State Relations in Portugal…, cit., 107 ff.
38
http://www.iscra.pt/, 18-7-2013.
39
Despacho Normativo n.º 6-A/90, 31-1-1990; Despacho Normativo n.º 70/88, 13-8-1988.
64
C. Theological teaching in other religious communities
Although Portugal is largely a Catholic state, from the point of view of its cultural
heritage and of the religion of the majority of its population, it has strong historical ties with other Christian and non-Christian religious, such as the Protestant and
Evangelical communities, as well as the Jewish and Muslim communities. However,
we are speaking about small communities, without the critical mass and the resources
necessary for the establishment of institutions of higher education.
Theology is studied in Bible Institutes and Seminaries in various evangelical
Christian communities. These institutions are not recognized as part of the higher
education system because they do not satisfy the legal requirements that universities
and other higher education establishments must fulfill 40. The main purpose of these
Bible Institutes and seminaries is to train religious ministers and other staff. The
evangelical community has several seminaries and bible colleges. The Portuguese
Theological Baptist Seminary, instituted in 1969, offers, among other things, a degree
in theology, albeit not one recognized by the Portuguese Ministry of Education 41.
This degree aims to teach a Baptist understanding of Christian theology. It covers
such subjects as: church history, church life, ethics, evangelism, apologetics, mission,
communications, pastoral ministry, classical biblical languages and hermeneutics.
Generally speaking these theological courses take place outside the system of public
education, lacking appropriate interaction with it. The Portuguese Bible Institute is
an evangelical religious institution established, in 1974, by the Greater Europe Mission (GEM). Its three year-long bible and theology courses cover the typical syllabus,
with many of the above-mentioned disciplines, and allow for further theological
studies with the support of foreign institutions 42. Often these seminaries and Bible
Institutes offer, along with their resident courses, decentralized teaching extensions
and e-learning facilities. The resources are limited though. This means that there are
many aspects of religion and religious studies that are left out.
Other non-Christian religious communities have their own teaching programs,
although many of their clerics are trained abroad. The Jewish Community of Lisbon
has its own Jewish education program, including the study of the Hebrew language
and of the Jewish religion 43. The Islamic community of Lisbon has an Islamic College
in Palmela, on the outskirts of Lisbon. A significant part of the Islamic community
in Portugal comes from former Portuguese-speaking countries and immigrants. It
must also be remembered that there was a strong Islamic presence in the Iberian
These requirements are established by Lei (Act) n.º 62/2007, 10-9.
http://seminariobaptista.com.pt/programa-academico/licenciatura/, 11-7-2013.
42
http://www.ibp-aee.org/ 18-7-2013.
43
http://www.cilisboa.org/rel_teach.htm, 18-7-2013.
40
41
65
Peninsula for several centuries. Understandably, the Islamic community in Lisbon
likes to emphasize that.
D. Religious Sciences in the higher education system
There is a record of attempts to create theological degrees in private higher education institutions 44. A significant achievement has been the creation of a graduate
degree in Religious Sciences in a private university, with its headquarters in Lisbon.
The «Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias» (ULHT) 45 has a three
year 180 ECTS degree. The purpose is to study religion from a historical, philosophical and scientific perspective. It covers many subjects in the areas of history, archaeology, philosophy, psychology and sociology of religion. It also draws on classical
languages, philosophy of language, semiotics, hermeneutic and studies the doctrinal
and ethical content of different religions, from traditional denominations to new religious movements. It covers subjects like religion and politics, religion and science,
religion and social development. It purports to be a non-confessional and secular
project which aims to study religion in an inclusive, objective and impartial way. In
spite of its secular outlook, it does not prejudge the possibility of divine revelation
and religious truth. It concentrates its attention on the analysis of the individual, communal and social impact of religious belief and practice. It maintains international
cooperation with the United Nations Alliance of Civilizations and the Movement of
Moderates Foundation. It promotes and takes part in a wide variety of international
conferences and research initiatives.
The creation of this course was the result of a concerted effort of leading Protestant and Catholic individuals, who thought that, far from being removed from the
University, religion could and should be studied in institutions of higher learning in an
open, plural, exploratory and non-dogmatic environment. Although it is not a degree
in theology per se, its syllabus shows that there is a lot to be learnt about the impact
of religion and theological doctrines in society as a whole. Although that may be seen
to be foolish to the secular mind, the reality is that religious ideas can have a decisive
impact on the development of other spheres of individual and social life. It is also
obvious that the study of religion and religious doctrines mobilizes a wide variety of
intellectual disciplines and competences. These factors help to build a strong argument for the public study and discussion of religion and religious doctrines.
The Ministry of Education, through Portaria (Decree) n.º 1205/97, 28-11, authorized the
creation of a degree in religious sciences in the Superior Institute of Mathematics and Management (!),
comprising the study of Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox theology, along with Judaism and Islam, as
well as Asian and African religions. There is not much information available about this attempt.
45
Information about this course can be found in http://www.ulusofona.pt/escolas-e-faculdades/
fcsea/licenciaturas/licenciatura-em-ciencia-das-religioes-1-ciclo.html, 11-7-2013.
44
66
The university degree of religious studies at ULHT has attracted the interest of
religious and non-religious professors and students alike, with a common interest
in the study of religious matters. It has its own review of religious studies, where it
publishes the results of its research. For students coming from theological seminaries
of different Christian denominations it provides access to external and comparative
perspectives along with the possibility of broadening and deepening their understanding of religious issues. At first, several evangelical Bible Institutes and theological
seminaries signed cooperation protocols with the Lusófona University concerning
the degree in religious studies. Currently only the Bible Institute of the Assemblies
of God maintains such a protocol. This graduate degree has been a conversational
platform for the dialogic interaction between different religious groups, such as
Christians of different persuasions, Muslims and Jews.
V. Is there room for theology in the public sphere?
An interesting question confronting the 21st century concerns the plausibility
and terms of a possible return of theological studies to a prominent role in the sphere
of public discourse. This return is taking place in many Islamic countries, giving
rise to a significant body of Islamic political and legal thought. However, even in the
west there have been important voices speaking of the desecularization of society 46.
Several lines of argument allow us to raise this question. The interesting point is that
these have developed outside the field of theology itself.
The constitutional state is based on moral assumptions and presuppositions that
it cannot guarantee 47. The notion that politics and law are self-contained and selfsustaining systems, able to generate their own values and principles, is groundless 48.
Assumptions about human dignity, autonomy and equality, as well as the universality and supremacy of the values of reason, truth, justice and solidarity, are hard to
justify on purely secular grounds 49. However, these make perfect sense in the light
46
P. Berger (ed.), The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion and World Politics,
Washington D.C, 1999, 1 ff.
47
E. Wolfgang, Bockenförde, Staat, Gesellschaft, Freiheit. 1976, 60, statment according to
which: «Der freiheitliche, säkularisierte Staat lebt von Voraussetzungen, die er selbst nicht garantieren
kann».
48
This notion has been popularized, among others, by N. Luhmann, Social Systems (trad. J.
Bednatz, Jr., D. Baecker), Stanford, 1995, 12 ff. e 177 ff.; Die Gesellshaft der Gesellshaft, II, Frankfurt
am Main, 1997, 595 ff.
49
Charles Darwin, The Origin of the Species and the Descent of Man, New York, 1936, 411 ss.,
suggesting that the notion of human dignity is essentially based on natural pride and natural prejudice.
Adopting the same naturalistic assumptions, Legal Scholar and Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, said: «[I]
see no reason for attributing to man a significance different in kind from that which belongs to a baboon
67
of Judeo-Christian theological tradition 50. A naturalistic theory of the universe, based
on irrational, random and purposeless processes, will have trouble explaining the
existence and legitimacy of rational and moral norms and sentiments, since neither
are part of physical reality 51.
As legal theorist John Finnis persuasively shows, the notions of normativity and
legal obligation are easy to justify on transcendent objective grounds but ultimately
impossible to explain on purely secular and subjective grounds 52. Political philosophy
and legal theory point to a counter-factual moral and transcendent realm 53. Discussions about God are becoming more common in political and legal settings when one
is called to provide reasons to back political and legal decisions with inescapable
moral dimensions 54.
or a grain of sand» Apud A.W. Alschuler, «A Century of Skepticism», Christian Perspectives on Legal
Thought, (ed. M.W. McConnell, R.F. Cochran, Jr., A. Carmella), New Haven, Conn., 2001, 95
50
H. van Rompuy, Christemtum und Moderne, Werte für die Zukunft Europas, Kevelaer, 2010,
24 ff.; O. Depenheuer, «Religion als ethische reservoir der säkularen Gesellshaft», Nomos und Ethos,
(eds. O. Depenheuer, M. Heintzen, M. Jestaedt, P. Axer), Berlin, 2002, 3 ff.
51
D. Berlinski, The Devil’s Delusion, Atheism and its Scientific Pretensions, 2.ª ed., New York,
2009, 35: «If moral sentiments are about something, than the Universe is not quite as science suggests
it is, since physical entities, having said nothing about God, say nothing about right or wrong, good or
bad. To admit this would force the philosophers to confront the possibility that the physical sciences
offer a grossly inadequate view of reality».
52
J. Finnis, Natural Law and Natural Rights, Oxford, 1980, 371 ff.; «Does Free Exercise Of
Religion Deserve Constitutional Mention?», 54, The American Journal of Jurisprudence, 2009, 51: «[t]he
world we find and do not make includes not only the normativity or directiveness of logic, but also the
normativity of basic practical principles such as those that pick out knowledge and truth as an intelligible
good to be preferred to ignorance and muddle, or again pick out harmony with other persons as another
such good, to be preferred to hatred and war; and so forth. For both these reasons, it is reasonable to
think of the creator-the transcendent, intelligent and freely choosing source of reality and meaning, and
of intelligible goods and our directedness towards them-as being somehow personal, and as personally, so
to speak, anticipating human fulfillment and leading us, via our own understanding, deliberation and free
choices, towards such possible fulfillment». The same idea can be seen in F.J. Beckwith, «The Courts,
Natural Rights, And Religious Claims As Knowledge», 49, Santa Clara Law Review, 2009, 551: «[g]iven
God’s existence, moral realism is natural. But given an atheistic universe..., objective morality - along
with its assumptions of human dignity, rights, and moral responsibility - is unnatural and surprising and
«queer». Thus, given the natural moral law, there are really only two options concerning its origin: it
exists, but it is an accident, a product of chance; or it is the result of intelligence».
53
J. Finnis, «Religion And State: Some Main Issues And Sources». 51, The American Journal
of Jurisprudence, 2006, 118 ff., remarking that «neither atheism nor agnosticism is the rational default
position for political philosophy».
54
Y. Blank, «The Reenchantment Of Law», 96, Cornell Law Review, 2011, 633 ff., stating
that [t]he religious revival observed throughout the world since the 1980s is making its mark on legal
theory, threatening to shift the jurisprudential battleground from debates over law’s indeterminacy and
power to conflicts over law’s grounds, meaning, unity, coherence, and metaphysical underpinnings.»
68
The conclusion, recently put forward by former dean of atheist philosophy,
Anthony Flew 55, that not only does God exist but also that his existence is entirely
rational as well as rationally impossible to rebut, has shaken the promise of an intellectually fulfilling atheism. Although the apologetic works of neo-atheists such as
Richard Dawkins 56, Sam Harris 57 or Christopher Hitchens 58, have been trying to keep
this promise, they have contributed to mainstream discussions about God in the sphere
of public discourse, while at the same time exposing the scientific, philosophical and
moral shortcomings of existing naturalistic world views 59.
The available scientific data of biology, geology, physics or astrophysics have
made apparent the serious scientific problems confronting a purely naturalistic
world view 60. There is simply no obvious reason why each and every secular
world view would be intellectually superior to each and every religious world
view. These developments severely limit the persuasive power of secular theories
of justice, public reason and communicative action, such as those proposed by
John Rawls 61 or Jürgen Habermas 62.
As Michael Sandel points out, far from contributing to the advancement of human rights and social justice, they have led to the colonisation of the public sphere
by market discourses. 63 Sandel’s «punch line» seems to be that man shall not live
by the markets alone, corroborating the old Christian idea according to which «…
A. Flew, R.A. Varghese, There Is a God: How the World’s Most Notorious Atheist Changed
His Mind, New York, 2008, 83 ff.
56
R. Dawkins, The God Delusion, New York, 2008, 51 ff; The Greatest Show On Earth, Evidence of Evolution, New York, Free Press, 2009, 3 ff.
57
S. Harris, The End of Faith: Religion, Terror, and the Future of Reason, New York, 2004, 11 ff.
58
C. Hitchens, God Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything, New York, 2007, I ff.
59
Richard Barnes, Dawkins Proof for the Existence of God, 2009, 9 ff. and 115 ff.; J. Sarfati,
The Greatest Hoax on Earth, Refuting Dawkins On Evolution, Atlanta, 2010, 11 ff.
60
M. Denton, Evolution: A Theory in Crisis, Burnet Books, London, 1985; M. Behe, Darwin’s
Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution, The Free Press, New York: 1996; Lee Spetner
Not By Chance! Shattering the Modern Theory of Evolution, The Judaica Press, New York: 1997.; D.
Ager, The Nature of the Stratigraphic Record, Macmillan Press, London, 1983; The New Catastrophism,
Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1993; R.T. Pennock (ed.), Intelligent Design Creationism and Its
Critics: Philosophical, Theological, and Scientific Perspectives, MIT Press, 2001 Berlinski, The Devil’s
Delusion, Atheism and its Scientific Pretensions…, cit., xv, saying that «[w]e do not know how the
Universe began. We do not know why it is here. Charles Darwin talked speculatively of life emerging
from a «warm little pond». The pond is gone. We have little idea how life emerged, and cannot with
assurance say it did».
61
J. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, Oxford, 1971 (1991); Political Liberalism, New York, 1993
(1996). M.V. Hernandez, «Theism, Realism, and Rawls», 40, Seton Hall Law Review, 2010, 905 ff.
62
J. Habermas, Zwischen Naturalismus und Religion, Frankfuhrt am Main, 2005, 27 ff. 106 ff.
63
M.J. Sandal, What Money Can’t Buy: The Moral Limits of Markets, New York, 2012, 3 ff.
55
69
Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word that proceedeth out of the
mouth of God» 64.
If, as Flew and Finnis conclude, there is strong rational and moral evidence for
the existence of a rational and moral God, then there should be enough room for the
public discussion of the resulting social, political and legal implications. This may be
a surprising and unpalatable conclusion for some, but it seems inescapable. However
the historical lessons of theological-political strife must certainly not be forgotten.
The challenge is to structure an ideal speech situation where theological teaching and
discussion can take place, free from religious and political coercion. The university,
with its tradition of independent, open, plural and exploratory discourse, may provide
an appropriate forum.
Several avenues can be opened. One would be the introduction to different theological subjects in philosophy courses. Another possibility would be the creation in
public universities of degrees on religion and religious studies, with an additional
option of theology. Another would be State recognition of confessional theological
institutions and degrees if necessary according to specific criteria. Other subjects such
as history, archaeology, paleography, classical languages, philosophy and science in
general, could well benefit from the spiritual and cognitive energies unleashed by the
return of theological reflection to a free and open public sphere.
Theology was an important part of the syllabus of the Portuguese University until
the republican revolution of 1910 although subjected to the significant theologicalpolitical trepidation. Since then it has mostly become a private and confessional endeavor. In the current democratic system there seems to be a renewed need of public
reflection in theological and religious subjects. The challenge for the future is to create the appropriate environment and conditions which allow for that kind of reflection
in an open, exploratory, politically independent and non-dogmatic way. This would
provide opportunities for open and frank dialogue about the historical and scriptural
foundations of theological claims, between individuals and communities of different
religious and non-religious persuasions.
64
Mathew 4:4.
PUBLIC AUTHORITIES AND THE TRAINING
OF RELIGIOUS PERSONNEL IN SPAIN
The purpose of this paper is to describe the legal framework governing the training of religious personnel, whether members of the clergy or administrative staff, in
Spanish law. Its main focus is the dispositions of national law regarding the regulation
of religious training centres and the recognition for academic purposes of the studies
pursued in such centres.
The paper is divided into three sections. The first reviews the system of religious
training that had been in place in Spain prior to the 1978 Constitution. The second
concentrates on current legislation regarding the training of clergy and religious administrators. Finally, the third part presents the new policies concerning the training
of religious staff.
I. History of the mode of training of religious staff
A. Training given in seminaries or training centres for clergymen
Except for the period of the Second Republic (1931-1939), until the current
Constitution was promulgated in 1978, Spain had been a confessional state which
recognised Roman Catholicism as the official state religion. According to article
12 of Spain’s first Constitution of 1812, «The religion of the Spanish nation is and
will forever be the catholic, apostolic, Roman, single and true religion. The Nation
protects it with wise and just laws». It was forbidden to practice faiths other than
Roman Catholicism publically, and such faiths lacked any sort of legal recognition.
The second half of the nineteenth century saw the gradual growth of some measures of religious tolerance which found paradigmatic expression in article 11 of the
1876 Constitution: «No one in Spanish territory will be interfered for their religious
opinions or for carrying out worship, provided that Christian morality is shown due
respect. However, public ceremonies or displays other than those of the state religion
will not be permitted».
72
The Holy See’s Concordat of 1851, which remained in force until 1953 (except
during the Second Republic), proclaimed the state’s Roman Catholicism in its first
article. As a direct consequence of the proclamation of Roman Catholic Church as
the state official church, the second article established that teaching in universities,
colleges, seminaries and public or private schools, of all kinds would be in conformity with Catholic doctrine.
Article 28 of the Concordat attributed to the government, with the prior consent
of the Holy See, the obligation to found seminaries for the training of the young men
whom the church hierarchy deemed necessary to attend to the needs of the different
dioceses. The Concordat did not regulate expressly the academic validity of the studies pursued in the seminaries. On 25 October 1787 academic recognition had been
granted by Royal Charter of Charles III to the training given in the seminaries. On 10
September 1866, with the Concordat already in force, that validity would be endorsed
by a Royal Decree, the first article of which indicated that the secondary education
received in the seminaries entitled one to obtain the qualification of Bachelor in Arts
and to proceed to university studies. Later, a Decree dated 29 July 1874 stipulated
that in order for academic validity to be granted nationally to the studies pursued in
the seminaries, the same requirements should apply as for private educational centres.
Under Franco’s dictatorship (1939-1975) a system of recognition of the Roman
Catholic Church as the official state church was adopted. This system was tolerant
of other faiths. Thus, article 6 of the Lex Fori of the Spanish People (Fuero de los
Españoles) laid down that: «[t]he profession and practice of the Catholic religion,
which is that of the Spanish State, will enjoy official protection. No one will be interfered with for their religious beliefs, or for the private practice of their faith. No
ceremonies or external displays will be permitted other than those of the Catholic
religion». This tolerance underwent a marked evolution in the course of the Franco
regime: if at first it was rigid and discriminated openly against those who professed
non-Catholic beliefs, with time it became an open tolerance which accepted, with
some restrictions, the exercise of religious freedom, the best indication of which was
Act 44/1967 (28 June), which regulated the exercise of the civil right of freedom in
matters of religion.
Articles 25-28 of that Act provided for the legal authorisation of clergymen from
non-Catholic churches, subject to their registration as such in a public register held
by the Ministry of Justice. Registration therein empowered them to act nationwide
as clergymen. Article 29 of the same Act permitted non-Catholic churches to set up
centres for the education of their members, in conformity with current legislation and
subject to permission from the Ministry of Justice. For its part, article 30 provided
for the opening of training centres for clergymen, subject once more to permission
from the Ministry of Justice.
As for the Catholic Church, article 31 of the Concordat with the Holy See of
1953, whose first article proclaimed Roman Catholicism as the religion of the State,
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Spain
73
recognised the right of the Church to organise and run public schools of any class or
kind. Article 31 of the Concordat prescribed that religious universities, seminaries,
and other Catholic training and cultural institutions for clergymen and members of
religious orders would continue to answer exclusively to the church authorities while
enjoying the recognition and guarantee of the State.
B. Theological studies
Theological studies had been on the curricula of Spanish universities since the
first of these were founded in the Middle Ages. Article 19 of a Decree of 21 October
1868 was to change that state of affairs drastically with its suppression of the theology
faculties in the public universities and its empowerment of the diocesan bishops to
organise the study of theology in seminaries in whatever shape or form they deemed
appropriate. In its Preamble the decree explained the reason for suppression of such
studies in the public universities as follows:
«The State, to whom it falls only to accomplish the temporal ends of life, must
remain aloof of the teaching of dogma and allow instead the diocesan bishops to
direct such teaching with all due Independence. Different rules apply to university
learning and theology, and it would be wise to keep each independent within its own
sphere of activity. Their separation, without impeding the research required if they
are to achieve their objects, will not only avoid their hampering each other and thus
forestall dangerous conflicts, but will also avoid the conflicts theological teaching
usually implies for the Government. Once theology is suppressed in the universities,
the State is no longer accountable for the errors of those who hold chairs in it and
closes the door on the sort of bothersome grievances it is its duty to avoid. Politics
then, in line with the law, advises the suppression of a faculty, the teaching of whose
few students lays a considerable burden on the public purse, a burden which brings
no advantage to the country and has no justification in common justice».
Article 28 of the 1953 Concordat also referred to theological training. Subject to
the agreement of the competent church authority, public universities were allowed
to run systematic courses, especially in Scholastic Philosophy, Divinity and Canon
Law, whose syllabuses and textbooks were to be approved by the Church. These
courses could be taught by priests, members of religious orders or laymen who had
obtained the nihil obstat from the Diocesan Ordinary and were in possession of higher
academic qualifications awarded by an ecclesiastical university or, in the case of
members of the religious orders, of equivalent degrees obtained in their own order.
II. The modes of training of religious staff: current law
Article 16 Section 1 of the Spanish Constitution of 27 December 1978 recognises the right of groups and of individuals to ideological and religious freedom
(including freedom to worship), with no other restriction on their expression than
may be necessary to maintain public order as protected by law. Section 3 of the
74
same article lays down the principle of the state’s neutrality and of cooperation
between public authorities and religious faiths: «There shall be no State religion.
Public authorities shall take the religious beliefs of Spanish society into account and
shall in consequence maintain appropriate co-operation with the Catholic Church
and the other denominations».
The same article has been developed by means of Organic Law 7/1980 (5 July),
concerning Religious Freedom: article 2.2 recognises the right of religious denominations to appoint and train their minsters as one of the manifestations that falls within
the scope of the protection of the fundamental right to religious freedom.
A. Catholic Church
A few days after the Constitution came into force, on 3 January 1979 the Spanish State signed four concordat-type agreements with the Holy See: the Agreement
on Legal Affairs; the Agreement on Economic Affairs; the Agreement concerning
Religious Attendance of the Armed Forces and Military Service of Clergy and
Members of Religious Orders; and the Agreement on Educational and Cultural
Affairs. The first of these, the Agreement on Legal Affairs, recognizes, in article I,
the right of the Catholic Church to carry out its apostolic mission and guarantees
the church free and public exercise of those activities inherent to it; especially
worship, jurisdiction, and teaching. Accordingly, the Catholic Church’s right to
carry out its own activities, including the teaching and training of its personnel, is
expressly guaranteed.
All matters relating to Catholic teaching and training are regulated in the Agreement on Educational and Cultural Affairs. In the following account of its contents,
two themes will be explored: a) the recognition that the training received in seminaries and centres for higher ecclesiastical education has validity in the public sphere;
and b) training activities of a religious nature carried out in public universities.
1. Recognition that the training received in seminaries and centres for higher
ecclesiastical education has validity in the public sphere
The training of its personnel by the Catholic Church is regulated in article VII
of the Agreement on Educational and Cultural Affairs. The article states that the
Catholic Church may establish diocesan and religious minor seminaries, the specific
nature of which shall be respected by the State. In order to be considered elementary,
secondary or high schools, the general legislation shall be applied, although neither a
minimum number of registered students nor the acceptance of students in accordance
with their geographical origin or family residence shall be required. This article makes
it plain that the Church has the right to set up seminaries and makes them equivalent
to state centres of non-university education. The matter of equivalence is regulated
by the Ministry of Education and Science’s Order of 28 February 1994 regarding the
75
authorisation as private teaching centres of minor diocesan seminaries and of religious
orders within the Catholic Church 1.
Article XI of the Agreement on Educational and Cultural Affairs has as its object
the establishment of educational centres catering specifically for the training of the
Church’s own staff: the Catholic Church, in accordance with its own law, maintains its
autonomy in the establishment of universities, departments, institutes of higher learning and other centres of ecclesiastic science for training priests, members of religious
orders and laymen. Confirmation of studies and recognition by the State of the civil
effects of degrees conferred by these centres of higher learning shall be the subject
of specific regulation between the competent authorities of the Church and the State 2.
The development of this article of the Agreement on Educational and Cultural Affairs, as agreed to by Church and State, is given definition in Royal Decree 1619/2011
(14 November), which established the new system of equivalences between university-level religious studies and degrees and official Spanish university degrees, in
fulfilment of the provisions of the Agreement on Educational and Cultural Affairs
between the Spanish State and the Holy See of 3 January 1979 3.
Article 3 of Royal Decree 1619/2011 states that civil effects are recognised
for the advanced ecclesiastical degrees of Baccalaureatus, Licentiatus and Doctor
conferred by higher education centres of the Catholic Church, created in accordance
with Canon Law or approved by the Church itself, in accordance with the provisions
of the Holy See as set out in the Apostolic Constitution Sapientia Christiana of 15
April 1979, which regulates the existence, rules and development of Ecclesiastical
Universities and Faculties, and in the Instruction regarding Religious Higher Education Institutes, of 28 June 2008, which regulates the existence, rules and development
of such institutes.
The civil effects conferred on the ecclesiastical university degrees of Baccalaureatus, Licentiatus and Doctor correspond respectively to the university academic
levels of Graduate, Master and Doctor, in accordance with the university structure
set out in article 34 of Organic Law 6/2001 (21 December) regarding Universities,
as modified by Organic Law 4/2007 (21 April).
The list of degrees awarded by Religious Higher Education Centres and granted
civil effects is as follows:
By the Ministry of Education and Science’s Order of 11 January 1996, the curriculum and
timetable of compulsory secondary education and of sixth-form school education was adapted to the
special nature of the diocesan minor seminaries and the religious orders of the Catholic Church.
2
The same article further establishes that the confirmation and recognition of studies carried out
and degrees obtained by clergymen or laymen in departments approved by the Holy See abroad shall
also be regulated by common consent between the competent authorities of the Church and the State.
3
This Royal Decree is modified by Royal Decree 477/2013 (21 June).
1
76
a) Degrees equivalent to the official university degree of Graduate (with a minimum accredited length of 240 ECTS credits).
• Degree of Baccalaureatus in Theologia, awarded by faculties of Catholic
Theology and studied in said Faculties or higher education centres affiliated
to them.
• Degree of Baccalaureatus in Philosophia, awarded by ecclesiastical faculties
of Philosophy.
• Degree of Baccalaureatus in Scientiis Religiosis, awarded by faculties of
Catholic Theology and studied at Religious Higher Education Institutes.
b) Degrees equivalent to the official university degree of Master (with a minimum accredited length of 300 ECTS credits).
• Degree of Licentiatus in Theologia, awarded by faculties of Catholic Theology (details of speciality are to be given: Systematic Theology, Holy
Scriptures, Moral Theology, Pastoral Theology, Spiritual Theology …).
• Degree of Licentiatus in Philosophia, awarded by ecclesiastical faculties of
Philosophy (details of speciality are to be given: Theoretical Philosophy,
Practical Philosophy, Social Philosophy...).
• Degree of Licentiatus in Iure Canonico (studied after obtaining an ecclesiastical degree of Baccalaureatus or Licentiatus or of a civil university degree
as the Catholic Church may determine) awarded by ecclesiastical faculties.
• Degree of Licentiatus in Sacra Scriptura, awarded by ecclesiastical faculties
or institutes «ad instar Facultatis».
• Degree of Licentiatus in Sacra Liturgia, awarded by ecclesiastical faculties.
• Degree of Licentiatus in Historia Ecclesiastica, awarded by ecclesiastical
faculties.
• Degree of Licentiatus in Archeologia Christiana, awarded by institutes «ad
instar Facultatis».
• Degree of Licentiatus in Studiis Orientis Antiqui, awarded by ecclesiastical
faculties.
• Degree of Licentiatus in Studiis Ecclesiasticis Orientalibus, awarded by
ecclesiastical faculties.
• Degree of Licentiatus in Iure Canonico Orientali, awarded by ecclesiastical
faculties.
• Degree of Licentiatus in Missiologia, awarded by ecclesiastical faculties.
• Degree of Licentiatus in Musica Sacra / in Cantu Gregoriano / in Organo /
in Directione Chorali, awarded by ecclesiastical faculties or Institutes «ad
instar Facultatis».
• Degree of Licentiatus in Litteratura Christiana et Classica, awarded by faculties of Christian and Classical Literature.
• Degree of Licentiatus in Scientiis Religiosis, awarded by faculties of Catholic Theology and studied at Religious Higher Education Institutes (details of
77
speciality to be given: Teaching the Catholic Religion, Catechetical Instruction, Youth Pastorship…).
c) Degrees equivalent to the official university degree of Doctor.
• Degree of Doctor in Theologia, awarded by faculties of Catholic Theology.
• Degree of Doctor in Philosophia, awarded by ecclesiastical faculties of
Philosophy.
• Degree of Doctor in Iure Canonico, awarded by ecclesiastical faculties.
• Degree of Doctor in Sacra Scriptura, awarded by ecclesiastical faculties or
Institutes «ad instar Facultatis».
• Degree of Doctor in Sacra Liturgia, awarded by ecclesiastical faculties.
• Degree of Doctor in Historia Ecclesiastica, awarded by ecclesiastical faculties.
• Degree of Doctor in Archeologia Christiana, awarded by Institutes «ad instar
Facultatis».
• Degree of Doctor in Studiis Orientis Antiqui, awarded by ecclesiastical
faculties.
• Degree of Doctor in Studiis Ecclesiasticis Orientalibus, awarded by ecclesiastical faculties.
• Degree of Doctor in Iure Canonico Orientali, awarded by ecclesiastical
faculties.
• Degree of Doctor in Missiologia, awarded by ecclesiastical faculties.
• Degree of Doctor in Musica Sacra / in Cantu Gregoriano / in Organo,
awarded by ecclesiastical faculties or institutes «ad instar Facultatis».
• Degree of Doctor in Litteratura Christiana et Classica, awarded by Faculties
of Christian and Classical Literature.
Royal Decree 1619/2011 lists the Ecclesiastical Science Faculties belonging to
the Catholic Church in Spain whose degrees are officially recognised by the state.
a) Faculties of Catholic Theology
1.  Faculty of Theology of Catalonia (Barcelona).
2.  Faculty of Theology of Granada.
3.  Faculty of Theology of the North of Spain (see of Burgos).
4.  Faculty of Theology of the North of Spain (see of Vitoria).
5.  Faculty of Theology of the St Damaso Ecclesiastical University (Madrid).
6.  Faculty of Theology «San Vicente Ferrer» (Valencia).
7.  Faculty of Theology of the University of Deusto (Bilbao).
8.  Faculty of Theology of the University of Navarre (Pamplona).
9.  Faculty of Theology of the Comillas Pontifical University (Madrid).
10.  Faculty of Theology of the Pontifical University of Salamanca.
11.  St Stephen Faculty of Theology of the Dominican Preachers of Salamanca.
b) Faculties of Canon Law
1.  Faculty of canon Law of the San Damaso Ecclesiastical University (Madrid).
2.  Faculty of Canon Law of the University of Navarre (Pamplona).
78
3.  Faculty of Canon Law of the Comillas Pontifical University (Madrid).
4.  Faculty of Canon Law of the Pontifical University of Salamanca.
5.  St Vincent Martyr Faculty of Canon Law of the St Vincent Martyr Catholic
University of Valencia.
c) Faculties of Ecclesiastical Philosophy
1.  Faculty of Philosophy of Catalonia (Barcelona).
2.  Faculty of Philosophy of the St Damaso Ecclesiastical University (Madrid).
3.  Ecclesiastical Faculty of Philosophy of the University of Navarre (Pamplona).
4.  Faculty of Ecclesiastical Philosophy of the Comillas Pontifical University
(Madrid) under the aegis of the Faculty of Human and Social Sciences.
5.  Faculty of Philosophy of the Pontifical University of Salamanca.
d) Other ecclesiastical faculties
1.  St Justin Faculty of Christian and Classical Literature of the St Damaso
Ecclesiastical University (Madrid).
All these faculties of Ecclesiastical Sciences located in Spain must be entered in
the Register of Universities, Centres and Degrees, held by the Ministry of Education,
in accordance with article 2 of Royal Decree 1509/2008 (12 September).
In order to be recognized for civil effects, the degree of Baccalaureatus must
demonstrate a minimum study-load of 240 ECTS credits. The additional training
leading to the degree of Licentiatus must amount to between 60 and 120 ECTS credits and thus be able to demonstrate an overall duration of training amounting to a
minimum of 300 ECTS credits. These degrees must be issued by any of the Catholic
Church’s Centres of Higher Ecclesiastical Learning listed above and, if they are to
be recognised for civil effects at the level of the state, must be accompanied by the
corresponding European Diploma Supplement (EDS), containing information about
the level and contents of the studies pursued in the terms of the ECTS credit system.
Likewise, recognition of civil effects requires that the documents issued in certification of the degrees be vouched for by the competent authorities of the Catholic Church
in Spain, which will certify to their authenticity. The degree recognition procedure is
set out in detail in article 7 of the Royal Decree.
2. Religious training activities at public universities
Article V of the Agreement with the Holy See on Educational and Cultural Affairs establishes that the State guarantees the Catholic Church’s capacity to organise
voluntary educational courses and other religious activities in the public universities,
using said universities’ premises and resources to this end. The church hierarchy will
reach agreement with the universities’ authorities on the proper conduct of each and
every aspect of those activities. Article XII of the Agreement, meanwhile, permits the
public universities to set up centres of advanced studies in Catholic theology, subject
to the prior agreement of the competent church authority.
79
The Agreement on Educational and Cultural Affairs indicates that the actual form
these matters will take will be defined in future agreements between church authorities and universities. Preferring not to regulate this matter expressly, the Agreement
leaves the definition of its contents to subsequent agreements signed, as appropriate,
by the Church and the universities.
These provisions have taken shape in the signing of collaboration agreements
between various dioceses and public universities. According to the 2004 findings of
the Episcopal Subcommittee on Universities of the Spanish Episcopal Conference 4,
twenty-eight of Spain’s fifty public universities – just over half – had signed agreements of this type. Roughly speaking, these agreements covered three areas: pastoral
care, theological studies and the use of church property by university staff for the
purposes of teaching or research.
The agreements provide for the organization of courses in theological training,
Church History and Christian Culture. The contents and teachers of these courses
are decided by the church authorities with the prior consent of the universities and
are recognized for academic effects. Some agreements create self-standing centres or
chairs of theology within a given university’s organigram, but these are never given
the status of faculties or departments.
B. Religious minorities
Article 7 of Religious Freedom Act 7/1980 specifies that the State may, if appropriate, enter into cooperation agreements or covenants with religious communities
that meet two requirements: 1) they are entered in the Ministry of Justice Register of
Religious Entities (Religious Freedom Act, article 5); 2) they have, thanks to their
reach and number of believers, obviously taken root in Spain. As specified in this
article, these agreements must be approved as law by Parliament. Therefore, once an
agreement has been signed between the Government and a religious denomination,
it must be passed by Parliament as an Act in order to be incorporated into the legal
system. Otherwise, i.e. in the absence of parliamentary approval, it will be a mere
political act without legal significance and its fulfilment cannot be exacted before
the courts.
Three agreements have been signed to date in keeping with article 7 of the Religious Freedom Act, and they have been approved by Act 24/1992 dated November 10,
1992, whereby the State’s cooperation Agreement with the Federation of Evangelical
Religious Entities of Spain is passed; Act 25/1992 dated November 10, 1992, whereby
the State’s cooperation Agreement with the Federation of Israelite Communities of
Conferencia Episcopal Española. Subcomisión Episcopal de Universidades, Acuerdos académicos y pastorales entre diócesis y universidades, EDICE, Madrid, 2004.
4
80
Spain is passed; and Act 26/1992 dated November 10, 1992, whereby the State’s
cooperation Agreement with the Islamic Commission of Spain is passed.
These three agreements signed with the evangelical churches and with the Israelite and Islamic communities deal with education in their respective articles 10, which
provide for the possibility that the evangelical churches and the Israelite and Islamic
communities organize, with the agreement of the academic authorities, religious
education courses at public universities, being able to use those universities’ premises and resources to this end. At the same time, the right of these religious bodies is
recognised to establish and run teaching centres at pre-university levels, as well as
university centres and centres dedicated to Evangelical, Judaic or Islamic training,
all subject to current general legislation on the matter.
The regulation contained in the three Cooperation Agreements of 1992 was
developed by Organic Law 4/2007 (12 April), which modified Organic Law 6/2001
(21 December) regarding Universities. Acting on the proposal of the ministries responsible for justice and the universities, its eleventh additional provision empowered
the Government to regulate the terms regarding the recognition of the civil effects of
academic university-level degrees in the areas of theology and ministerial training
taught in higher education centres belonging to the Evangelical, Israelite and Islamic
religious bodies which had signed the 1992 Agreements with the State.
To-date, this legal provision has only been applied in the case of the evangelical churches belonging to the Federation of Evangelical Religious Entities of Spain,
which are subject to Royal Decree 1633/2011 (14 November). This decree defines
the system of equivalences for university-level degrees taught in centres dependent
on the said Federation.
To be more precise, this Royal Decree recognises the civil effects of the universitylevel degrees awarded by centres or faculties of Protestant theology, dependent on the
Federation of Evangelical Religious Entities of Spain, which have been accredited by
the Accreditation Commission for Protestant Theological Centres and Degrees. The civil
effects granted to these theological degrees are equivalent to the university academic titles of Graduate and Master, respectively, as defined in article 34 of Organic Law 6/2001
(21 December), regarding Universities, modified by Organic Law 4/2007 (12 April).
To achieve the recognition of civil effects referred to in Royal Decree 1633/2011,
titles of Graduate in theology must demonstrate a minimum study-load of 240 ECTS
credits. As for theological Master’s degrees, they must involve additional training of
at least 60 ECTS credits, being able to accredit altogether a training total of at least
300 ECTS credits.
The following degrees have achieved recognition in terms of their civil effects:
a) Degrees equivalent to the official university degree of Graduate (being able
to accredit a minimum study-load of 240 ECTS credits):
• Title of Degree in Theology issued by the EBUS Protestant Faculty of Theology, in Madrid - Evangelical Baptist Union of Spain (face-to-face teaching).
81
• Title of Degree in Theology issued by the BITSS International Faculty of
Philosophy, in Madrid - Bible Institute and Theological Seminary of Spain
(face-to-face teaching).
• Title of Degree in Theology issued by the Assemblies of God Faculty of
Theology, in Cordoba (face-to-face teaching).
• Title of Degree in Theology issued by the Adventist Faculty of Theology, in
Valencia (face-to-face teaching).
• Title of Degree in Theology issued by the UETS Faculty of Theology, in
Madrid – United Evangelical Theological Seminary (face-to-face teaching
and distance learning).
b) Degrees equivalent to the official university Master’s degree (being able to
accredit a minimum study-load of 60 ECTS credits and a minimum of 300
ECTS credits between undergraduate studies and Master’s studies):
• Degree of Master in Theology issued by the Protestant Faculty of Theology,
EBUS, in Madrid (face-to-face teaching).
• Degree of Master in Theology issued by the Adventist Faculty of Theology,
in Valencia (face-to-face teaching).
For the purposes of recognition of civil effects as provided for by Royal Decree
1633/2011, degrees issued by the Protestant centres and faculties of theology must
be accompanied by the corresponding academic certificate containing information
regarding the level and content of the studies pursued, all expressed in the terms
of the ECTS credit system. Recognition of civil effects entails that the interested
party demonstrates that he or she gained access to the relevant studies by meeting
the requirements established by Spanish law in matters of university entrance. The
recognition of civil effects of theological degrees further requires that the certifying
documents be vouched for previously by the Accreditation Commission for Protestant Theological Centres and Degrees, dependent on the Federation of Evangelical
Religious Entities of Spain. The procedure for recognition of civil effects of degrees
is regulated by article 6 of the Royal Decree. Finally, article 7 of Royal Decree
1633/2011 establishes the requirement that degrees be monitored and assessed by the
Ministry of Education every four years.
III. New policies concerning the training of religious staff
At its meeting on 11 January 2008, and at the proposal of the President of the
Government, the Council of Ministers adopted the National Plan of the Kingdom of
Spain for the Alliance of Civilizations 5. The goals of this Plan included encourage-
Order PRE/45/2008 (21 January), whereby publicity was given to the Agreement of the Council
of Ministers of 11 January 2008, according to which approval was given to the National Plan of the King5
82
ment for an academic training scheme for the religious personnel of the minority
denominations through a cooperation agreement with the State and a scheme of grants
and financial aid for that training. The whole design of the Plan was in response to
the urgent need to close the gap that was opening between the West and the Arab and
Muslim world. It was also consistent with the principles of international ethics which
underpinned the Government’s foreign policy, namely, a commitment to international legality, full respect for human rights with no discrimination of any sort on the
grounds of sex, and support for the multilateralism represented by the United Nations.
Academic training for religious personnel has taken institutional shape in the
Pluralism and Coexistence Foundation (Fundación Pluralismo y Convivencia), a
public body created by agreement of the Council of Ministers on 15 October 2004 and
constituted by the Ministry of Justice on 25 January 2005. According to its statutes,
its ends are to «contribute to the execution of programmes and projects of a cultural
and educational kind, with a view to the social integration of the non-Catholic denominations which have signed a Cooperation Agreement with the Spanish State or
which have obviously taken root in Spain» 6.
The Pluralism and Coexistence Foundation has two lines of activity.
A) Financial aid:
• It supports federations or organisations which coordinate religious denominations by means of an annual aid campaign for strengthening the
institutions and coordination among the religious communities, and for
the improvement and upkeep of the infrastructures and equipment of the
federations of religious denominations (Evangelical, Jewish or Muslim)
party to Cooperation Agreements with the Spanish State.
• By means of an annual aid campaign it supports local projects of a cultural
or educational nature, or those which work towards social integration, and
also the improvement and upkeep of the infrastructures and equipment of
the federations by the entities, religious communities and places of worship
belonging to religious denominations party to Cooperation Agreements with
the Spanish State.
• It supports flagship and other representative projects of faiths and denominations with a recognised established presence in the Spanish State (Buddhists, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Church of Christ of the Latter-day Saints,
Orthodox Church).
dom of Spain for the Alliance of Civilizations. By Order PRE/1329/2010 (20 May) was published the
Agreement by which approval was given to the Second National Plan for the Alliance of Civilizations.
6
Order ECI/935/2005 (8 March), whereby the Pluralism and Coexistence Foundation is registered in the Register of Foundations of the Ministry of Education and Science.
83
• By means of six-monthly aid campaigns it supports activities aimed at promoting religious freedom and conviction, and improving awareness about
the minority faiths among the Spanish population at large.
B) Promoting and managing knowledge:
• The promotion of research into religious pluralism in the Spanish State.
• Consciousness-raising and dissemination of knowledge through publications
and electronic resources.
• The creation of support tools for the public management of religious diversity.
• The development of training and empowerment activities related to religious
diversity and its public management.
• Cooperation with other entities and participation in national and international networks and projects concerning the promotion of freedom of
conscience and religious freedom.
In the period 2010-2012, as part of its training activities, the Pluralism and Coexistence Foundation taught three specialization courses in collaboration with the
National University of Distance Learning. These courses are Social and Legal Aspects
of Islam in Spain, Islam and the Principles of Democracy, and Human Rights and
Religions in Spain 7. These courses study the current state and practice of Islam in
Spain. Some of their goals are to contribute to training ministers of Islam who conduct
their ministry in Spain, helping them to contextualize the social, cultural, political
and legal context in which they have to carry out their functions.
In addition to this ministerial training of a general kind, there is a specific area
where there is provision for ministerial training. This is pastoral care in prison facilities carried out by minority religious denominations and regulated by Royal Decree
710/2006 (9 June), in development of article 9 of the 1992 Cooperation Agreements
with Evangelicals, Jews and Muslims. The aim of the Royal Decree is twofold: a)
to ensure that the accreditation and authorisation procedure concerning ministers
dispensing pastoral care offers maximum guarantees of legal certainty; b) to ensure
that there are better guarantees for the full exercise of religious freedom on the part
of Evangelical, Jewish or Muslim inmates of prison facilities.
Article 4.2 of this Royal Decree provides for the possibility that the competent
prison authority organizes compulsory short courses or training sessions for ministers
nominated by the religious denominations. This training is in prison issues affecting
ministerial work. According to the regulation on this matter, it is to be inferred that a
7
In addition to these courses organized by the Pluralism and Coexistence Foundation, private
universities like the Camilo José Cela University, and religious entities, such as the Islamic Council
of Catalonia and the Islamic Federation of Murcia, have organized private training courses for imams;
see J. Ferreiro, Islam and State in the EU. Church-State Relationships, Reality of Islam, Imams and
Training Centres, Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main, 2011, pp. 270-272.
84
minister who does not participate in the training activities will be refused permission
to enter the prison facility or, of already in possession of permission, will have that
permission revoked.
THE TRAINING OF MINISTERS OF RELIGION IN IRELAND
Celia G. Kenny
A close reading of religious history in Ireland disrupts the traditional tri-partite
model of church/state relations, providing evidence for Sandberg and Doe’s claim
that «it is an examination of church-state relations in Ireland that illustrates the limitations of [the so-called separation category]» 1. In 1985, historian, Patrick Corish,
surveying the ecclesiastical history of Ireland, wrote that there was «much to be said
for regarding Ireland about 1880 as having two church establishments, one Catholic
and the other Protestant, despite the fact that there was no longer a legally established
church» 2. In 1957, The Irish Times reported the remark of Pope Pius XII that Catholicism had been made «an organic party of Irish culture» 3. These observations should
be borne in mind in an interpretation of the following historical and comparative
account of the training of religious personnel in Ireland. Note that, while the focus
of this report is on the Republic of Ireland, the ecclesiastical history requires to be
contextualized within the political entity of the whole island before the point of partition following the Treaty of 1921 4.
The report is in three sections. The first section will present a historical overview
of clergy education, with specific regard to the Church of Ireland and the Roman
Catholic Church. The second section looks at religion in relation to the Irish Constitution of 1937. The third section, which focuses on the increasingly pluralist landscape
of contemporary Irish society, is grounded in the empirical findings of the national
R. S andberg and N. Doe, «Church-State Relations in Europe», Religion Compass 1/5
(2007): 567.
2
P. Corish, The Irish Catholic Experience: a historical survey (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan,
1985), 226.
3
Irish Times, 5 October 1957.
4
The six North-Eastern Counties (Northern Ireland) remained part of the United Kingdom, these
having largely Unionist and Protestant populations.
1
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Celia G. Kenny
census of 2011, with the addition of relevant data from a special report on the changing patterns of religiosity in Ireland, undertaken by the Irish School of Ecumenics,
Trinity College Dublin.
I. Historical Overview
A. The Church of Ireland
Historically, the training of Church of Ireland clergy is inextricable from the history of Trinity College Dublin (TCD), founded in 1592, for the moral and religious
advancement of the students. In 1833, the system of training changed, narrowing
down from a more general education to a two-year Divinity Testamonium course,
which remained as the basis of clergy training until the 1960’s. Notably, during this
period (1840), a chair of Irish was established by public subscription, with a view to
training clergy for the West of Ireland (the Gaeltacht), and this continued to be part
of the divinity school until 1918. In 1888, a professorship of pastoral theology was
endowed, with appointments being made by the Provost and fellows of the college
from a list of nomination provided by the bishops. While the bishops retained the
right to examine candidates, the academic content of the Testamonium was under the
provenance of TCD. Under the influence of Archbishop Whately, plans were laid to
establish a Hall along the lines of Lampeter and Chichester (1830’s), but it was not
until 1913 that the Church of Ireland Divinity Hostel opened. From 1913 until the
1960’s, ordinands divided their time between the Hostel and their classes in TCD.
The Church of Ireland was disestablished in 1871, following the Irish Church Act of
1869. TCD, however, continued the requirement that scholars, fellows and professors
should be Anglican, which was formalized by the College Board and the House of
Bishops in 1911.
Up until 1873, TCD required students to take an oath of allegiance to the British Crown. Such test oaths were abolished in TCD, following Fawcett’s Act (1873),
with the exception of the Divinity School. Although this, in theory, opened the way
for Catholics to attend TCD, the Catholic hierarchy actively discouraged entry for
Catholic students, who, in some cases, applied for a papal dispensation. Under such
pressure, the majority of TCD students and professors continued to be drawn from
the Protestant community until the late 1960’s.
In 1911, the management of the divinity school passed to a council, composed
of members of the board of TCD, Church of Ireland Bishops, and the teaching
staff of the divinity school. The council undertook responsibility for the teaching curriculum and appointments to the board. This was ratified by letters patent, changeable only by royal assent. The arrangement continued until the board
ceased to function in 1978. In 1979, The Testamonium for divinity students was
replaced by a three-year professional diploma, which, by 1986, had become the
degree of B.Th.
The training of minister of religion in Ireland
87
By 1982, formal ties between TCD and the Church of Ireland had been broken and the training of Church of Ireland clergy was transferred to The Church of
Ireland Theological College, situated in a suburb of South Dublin. This followed
lengthy discussions between the House of Bishops and TCD, begun in 1968, on the
future of ordinand training. What was envisaged was a structural division between:
biblical studies and theology, which would remain the provenance of TCD; and the
pastoral training of the clergy, to take place in the Theological College. A new nondenominational chair in TCD was created in January 1981, to which Sean Freyne
(Roman Catholic) was appointed. In 1990, women were ordained to the priesthood
in the Church of Ireland.
During the last 30 years, the make-up of theological students has changed in
three significant ways: 1) the number of non-clerical candidates has increased;
2) women are now included on the teaching staff and the student body; 3) the
importance of non-stipendiary ministry is openly acknowledged as necessary
for the flourishing of the contemporary church. The responsibility of training
non-stipendiary ordinands (now 50% of the student body) has shifted from being
the responsibility of the dioceses to the Theological Institute. A new course has
been developed, to include nine residential weekends and a three-year placement, adapted from modules of the St. John Nottingham Certificate in Christian
Education, with the addition of Church history and Liturgy as appropriate to Irish
candidates.
Between 2004 and 2005, the House of Bishops commissioned a review of the
Church of Ireland Theological College, followed by discussion with TCD (2006) and
a presentation to the General Synod (May 2007). Curriculum changes were approved
by the Executive of the Aspirant School of Religions, Theology and Ecumenics, TCD,
thence to Graduate Studies, and the University Council (2007). The relation between
the two bodies was set out in a Memorandum of Understanding, passed by the House
of Bishops and by the Board of TCD (2008).
In 2007, following a Bishops’ Report, the Church of Ireland Theological College was reconstituted as the Theological Institute, with the post of Principal being
replaced by a Directorship. The key recommendations of the Bishops’ report called for
integration of the theory and practice of ministry, a more inter-disciplinary approach
to the study of scripture and theology and a move away from the two-tier system
which had differentiated between stipendiary and non-stipendiary ministry. It was
also decided to develop a degree at Masters level. In addition, the Institute widened
its student body to include lay as well as clergy, recognizing the implicit changes
which would be required in the programme of study.
For contextual clarity, it is important to note some policy proposals and changes
made since the 1960’s. Under the Minister for Education, Donough O’Malley, discussions took place aimed at merging Trinity College Dublin with University College
Dublin, with separate Catholic and Protestant schools of theology (it was left unclear
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Celia G. Kenny
whether these would be funded by state or church) 5. The consequences for the divinity school were debated. Three important outcomes of these deliberations were: 1)
the establishment of a moderatorship in biblical studies within the Faculty of Arts,
TCD (1971); 2) the founding of the Irish School of Ecumenics (1970); and 3) the
development of the Jesuit-run School Milltown Institute in South Dublin, leading to
a degree in religious studies open to non-ordinands. These were significant moments
in the move towards the creation of a new chair in non-denominational theology in
Trinity College (1981) and the recent establishment of the Loyola Institute, also in
Trinity College (see section 1.5) 6.
B. The Roman Catholic Church
In 1795, Grattan’s Parliament passed an Act creating St. Patrick’s College, Maynooth, for «the better education of persons professing the popish or Roman Catholic
religion» 7. Thus was the national seminary of Ireland founded, with a curriculum
which included courses in philosophy and theology, Classics, English, Irish, Modern
Languages, Science and Mathematics. From 1795 until 1862, trustees, students and
staff were required to swear an oath of allegiance to the Crown, since the college received funding from the British Government. This prompted some clerics to study for
the priesthood elsewhere, and the Irish College in Rome trained over 1,000 students
between 1826 and 1926, 20 of whom became bishops.
During the decades, 1846 to 1878, the training of clergy was influenced by the
rise of ultramontanism, an increase in the number of clergy in Ireland, and closer
supervision by the bishops. The training of Roman Catholic clergy in these years was
dominated by the patterns laid down at Trent, which means that the curriculum was
designed to prepare priests for the confessional, and to provide catechetical instruction according to a fixed, diocesan programme (rather than speculative theology).
Moral theology was approached from a casuistic perspective, with priests trained to
instill a set of truths to be believed which would then give rise to social duties 8. There
were few signs that Roman Catholic clergy education was influenced by the social,
The Church of Ireland Board of Education strongly urged separate school of theology (1970).
Note that Trinity College Dublin, unlike the national University, was never prohibited from teaching
theology; but was prevented from using public monies for the purpose.
6
See J. Bartlett, «From Divinity to Theology in Four Centuries», in C. Holland, ed. The Idea
of a University (Dublin: Trinity College Press, 1991), 224-237. I am indebted to John Bartlett, not only
for supplying me with this article, but also for discussing it with me.
7
This can be read as a pragmatic counter-move to avert the danger of priests who might return
from the continent with revolutionary intent.
8
According to Corish, in the mid-19th century, Maynooth was «a crucial target for anti-popery
agitation…[especially concerning]… the nature and extent of papal authority, and confessional practice,
especially in sexual matters.» Corish, 1985, 200.
5
89
cultural and political challenges of the 19th century. With regard to the formation of
religious sensibility at all levels of Irish society, it is noteworthy that, during this
period, there emerged a national system of primary and secondary education which
was clergy-controlled. The involvement of Catholic clergy in national education at
all levels continues to cut across the constitutional separation of church and state 9.
In 1845, the Queen’s Colleges were established in Belfast, Cork and Galway by
government endowment, but with the teaching of theology to be funded by private
endowment. The Vatican condemned these ‘godless’ colleges, a view which was intensified at the Synod of Thurles in 1850. Rome then recommended the founding of
a Catholic University, but prevented priests from accepting teaching posts. In 1895,
St. Patrick’s College, Maynooth was granted a Charter as a Pontifical University,
with permission to confer canonical degrees in Philosophy, Theology and Canon law.
In 1908/1909, The National University of Ireland was established, with colleges
in Dublin, Cork and Galway, and the trustees of Maynooth were granted recognition
as a college of the National University of Ireland. None of these colleges, however,
was granted the right to teach theology. In 1997, an Act of Dail Eireann restructured
the National University, and, under the terms of the Act, the seminary of St. Patrick’s
College, Maynooth and the National University of Ireland, Maynooth (NUIM) became independent of one another. Since then, in the wake of the steep fall in vocations
to the priesthood, St. Patrick’s has become the sole location for the training of RC
clergy in the Republic. Currently, it operates two educational streams. One is the canonical stream, leading to the B.D. which covers Catholic theology and tradition, and
is set within the parameters of magisterial teaching. The other is the non-canonical
stream, leading to the B.Th. and open both to male and female lay students, who now
form the majority of the student body.
Since 1992, and the continuing exposure of abuse scandals involving the clergy,
a major change has taken place in the vision and curriculum of the B.D. Formerly,
the model on which clergy were trained rested on the idea of ‘training for the priesthood’. In consultation with educators, counselors and theologians, it became evident
that a crucial element had been missing in the development of the ordinands, and so
the emphasis has changed from ‘training’ to ‘formation’, where the academic pillar is
now contextualized within a reflective understanding of the nature and construction of
human identity, including the centrality of sexuality in the development of the person.
During the 1880’s, the Jesuits established a School of Philosophy and Theology
at Milltown Park in South Dublin, which became a Jesuit Pontifical Faculty in 1932.
In 1968, the School became known as the Milltown Institute, a Pontifical Athanaeum,
with a programme of studies in Theology and Philosophy, which, throughout the
P. Colton, «Schools and the Law: A Patron’s Introspection», in Irish Educational Studies,
Vol. 28 (3) [2009].
9
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Celia G. Kenny
following decades, widened its student body to include lay men and women. As
such, the Institute was recognised as a both a College of the National University of
Ireland (NUI) and a Pontifical Athenaeum. In November 1989, it was granted designated status under the National Council for Education Awards Act 1979, developing
civil programmes leading to Bachelor, Masters and Doctoral awards. These changes
reflect the widespread recognition in former seminaries, of the expressed need for
theological education, spiritual formation and pastoral training among the laity. The
new approaches adopted by Irish seminaries can be interpreted as being both visionary and pragmatic.
C. The Presbyterian Church in Ireland (PCI)
In 1853, what is now called Union Theological College was established as the
theological college of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, and known as Assembly’s
College. In 1976, Magee College in Derry/Londonderry became amalgamated with
Assembly’s College, the whole to be renamed as Union College. Currently, no training of Presbyterian clergy takes place in the Republic of Ireland.
D. The Methodist church in Ireland
In 1865, a decision was taken to build a college for the training of Methodist
ministers (Methodists in Ireland numbered 23,000 at that point). In 1926, Edgehill
Theological College was established in Belfast for the training of ministers in the
Methodist Church in Ireland (ratified by the Northern Ireland Parliament Act of 1928).
The college is affiliated to Queen’s University, Belfast. It offers degrees and Professional certificates in theology and ministry through St. John’s College, Nottingham,
validated by the University of Chester. In conjunction with Mater Dei Institute in
Dublin (part of Dublin City University), Edgehill College promotes a number of
reconciliation initiatives and supports the programme, Exploring Theology Together
which is supported by the European regional Development Fund.
E. The Irish School of Ecumenics (ISE)
In the social and political context of Ireland, and in terms of the formation of
religious personnel, the work of the Irish School of Ecumenics is of the utmost importance. Since its foundation in 1970, ISE has disseminated its inter-church, inter-faith
vision through teaching in the colleges and seminaries of Ireland (All Hallows, Mater
Dei, Kimmage Manor and the Milltown Institute); and also through local projects
(involving both laity and clergy) which have engaged with the social and political
divides in Ireland, North and South. ISE is run by a Trust which funds some of the
projects, while the staff are employed by TCD. ISE has campuses in both Dublin and
Belfast, each of which draws international students.
91
With regards to the curriculum, the vision of ISE has moved beyond a comparative model of theology to critical engagement and inter-cultural theology. Presently,
ISE has re-aligned itself as part of the newly formed School of Religion, Theology
and Ecumenics in TCD, which also provides teaching on Islam, and offers modules
in world religions, as well as teaching theoretical approaches to the study of religion.
In 2011, the newly-established Loyola institute was incorporated into this confederal
School, further expanding the College’s theology teaching 10. The Loyola Institute’s
aim is to engage in critical reflection on the Christian faith, social justice and contemporary culture, using the intellectual resources of the Catholic tradition. The extent
to which the Catholic hierarchy will encourage ordinands to avail of this theological
and social resource remains to be seen.
II. Church/State relations in Ireland
Ireland before independence was officially sectarian, divided between the legally privileged Church of Ireland and the (majority) Roman Catholic Church. The
Constitution of the Irish Free State (1922) referred minimally to religion, adhering
to the emerging European pattern, which was to guarantee freedom of religion and
conscience, and freedom from discrimination on grounds of religion. In addition,
according to Article 8, «no law may be made either directly or indirectly to endow
any religion…» 11. It is important to note, however, that the Declaration of Independence (1919) framed the nationalist project in overtly religious terms, linking political
destiny and the revolutionary struggle with the name of Almighty God.
The constitution constructed under De Valera’s government (Bunreacht na
h’Éireann, 1937) reiterated the liberal guarantees of religion, conscience and nondiscrimination, but went further than the 1922 constitution in linking the nation with
a distinctive religious role for the state, and, as Mr. Justice Donal Barrington put it,
made «an open profession of Christianity» 12. Moreover, the Preamble of the 1937
Constitution has been cited in a number of cases to argue an exclusive connection
between the Irish people and Christianity 13.
Article 44.2.2, however, confirms that «the State guarantees not to endow any
religion», thus imposing an effective Church/State separation, working from a
model of state neutrality towards religion, while respecting the internal autonomy
The Loyola Institute Trust will work within Trinity to develop the new Institute, funding both
teaching positions and academic activities such as conferences and scholarships.
11
Constitution of the Irish Free State (Saorstat Éireann) Act, 1922
12
D. Barrington, «The Irish Constitution X. Article Forty Four. II. Church and State» (1953)
81 The Irish Monthly 1, p 3.
13
Quinn’s Supermarket Ltd. v Attorney General [1972] IR 1 at 23; Norris v Attorney General
[1984] IR 36 at 64.
10
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Celia G. Kenny
of religious bodies. (Article 44.2.5) 14. The special position of the Catholic Church
was acknowledged as being the guardian of the faith of the majority (93%), while
‘recognizing’ other religious denominations existing in Ireland at the time. In 1972,
the fifth amendment to the Constitution removed the clause relating to the special
position of the Roman Catholic Church 15.
With regard to the framing of the 1937 Constitution, it is crucial to note that De
Valera insisted upon the recognition of a number of fundamental rights (bunchearta)
which were understood to pre-date the constitution, these being inferred from natural
rights and not positive law. The significance of this is particularly acute in contemporary pluralist perspective, evidenced in the need to balance the democratic impetus
of the constitution with the conception of theistic natural rights promulgated through
Irish educational and health-care policies. This is a live and potentially divisive issue,
in the theological training of clergy and of lay religious personnel.
III. Demographics
According to the Central Statistics Office, Republic of Ireland, the 2011 Census
lists religions (including atheists’, ‘other stated religions’, ‘no religions’, and ‘notstated’). It also gives a percentage change between the last two censuses: that is,
between 2006 and 2011. The fastest growing religions in Ireland are: Apostolic or
Pentecostal (increase of 73%), Muslim (increase of 51.2%), Orthodox (increase of
117.4%). The number of those who describe themselves as having no religion increased by 44.8%. While some of the increases signify a trajectory from a very small
base, the figures, nevertheless, speak of a rapidly changing religious landscape. One
of the most significant developments, for the purpose of this report, is the fact that a
large number of immigrant faith-groups, rather than remaining within existing mainline churches, have opted to start up immigrant-led religious groups. The Directory
of Migrant-led churches and chaplaincies lists over 327 churches and chaplaincies
in the Republic alone.
Currently, in the Republic of Ireland, there is no training of religious leaders for
the following communities: Muslim, Hindu, Sikh, Jewish, or Orthodox. In conversation with representatives of these faith groups, I learned that it has been, and remains,
common practice to ‘import’ leaders. One Jewish scholar reported to me that, in 1938,
See McGrath and O’Ruairc v Trustees of Maynooth College [1979] ILRM 166 which aims to
contextualize the internal freedom conferred upon religious organizations within the overall objectives
of the constitution. Note that the Report of the Constitutional Review Group (1996) recommended an
amendment to reflect a potentially divisive state religious affiliation in the increasingly plural state.
15
To put this in context: 1972 was a pivotal period in the history of the state, turning around
such issues as membership of the EEC, women’s rights in relation to marriage and work, debates on
contraception, and the reduction of the voting age from 21 to 18.
14
93
Justice Minister Ruttledge asked Robert Briscoe why the Jews could not train their
own rabbis instead of importing ‘aliens.’ Briscoe replied that maybe Ireland should
stop sending Maynooth-trained missionaries to China, since China could supply its
own priests.
In terms of religion and pluralism, two surveys went out live on April, 15th, 2009
and closed on July, 31st, 2009. Set to target everyone living in the Republic or Northern Ireland, one of the surveys was directed at lay people of all faiths or none 16; the
other was designed specifically for faith leaders: clergy, pastors, and ministers, both
in the Republic and in Northern Ireland 17. A full report of the results of results and
analysis can be found on the website: www.ecumenics.ie. I turn to three salient points
from the section marked ‘summary of key findings’.
First, 73% of respondents reported that immigrant or ethnic minorities were part
of their congregational worship. If we add this to the national figure which has already
been mentioned (that, in the Republic alone, over 300 new faith communities have
sprung up outside of mainstream church life), at least two things can be inferred:
the first is that religious life and worship form an important part of the life of immigrant communities; and second, immigrant groups are becoming embedded into the
religious life of Ireland to the extent that they are finding avenues for their religious
values and practices in a variety of ways. These include: a) the intentional identification with religious communities which have historic roots in Irish society; and b) the
establishing of new and innovative ways to become faith communities in which they
might be able to express their religiosity through cultural patterns carried over from
their country of origin. Each of these examples of what might be called ‘immigrant
settling’ pose challenges for the training of religious personnel of all churches. In
the case of immigrants who have opted to join existing churches throughout Ireland,
a residue of resistance exists among members to the fact that long-established patterns of worship in the historic churches are being adapted to meet demographic and
congregational changes 18.
The second significant point is that 12% of those who responded to the survey
described themselves as atheist, agnostic, or as having no religion, which suggests
that there is a need to extend our understanding of the meaning, and the significance
in practice, of our conceptions of faith and religion. If this is accepted, then there are
clear implications for the training of religious leaders.
16
G. Ganiel, 21st Century Faith: Results of the Survey of Laypeople in the Republic of Ireland
& Northern Ireland (Irish School of Ecumenics, Trinity College Dublin).
17
Ibid.
18
The challenges reported included: the language barrier, the wish to have newcomers adapt to
Irish ways instead of expecting the Irish to change, and an admission of ‘unspoken racism’.
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Celia G. Kenny
Finally, Ganiel’s census indicates a radically altered view of the conceptualization
of reconciliation among the faith leaders who responded to the survey. A sizeable proportion now understands the work of reconciliation to involve building relationships
between Christians and people of other faiths; not simply, as previously, between
Roman Catholics and Protestants. Notably, in terms of the purpose of this report,
most of the faith leaders stated that they have received inadequate training for this
new aspect of their work 19.
IV. Closing Remarks
Two points deserve to be foregrounded in research which is concerned with
clergy education in relation to the Irish Constitution, as does the link between them.
The first is the ideological force of a particular interpretation of natural law which
continues to pervade religious positions and moral debates in the Republic 20. Aquinian natural law, and the notion of the common good which is built upon it, underpins
the approach to religion in the Irish Constitution. As indicated above (section 2), De
Valera, in drawing up the constitution of 1937, enshrined a number of fundamental
rights (bunchearta) which are designed to be particularly resistant to change, these
being held in higher regard than positive law. In addition, there has developed, in the
minds of Irish legislators 21 and educators, a conflation of the idea of Aquinian natural
law with what is perceived to be the essentials of Roman Catholic moral theology. 22
Since Catholicism is the majority religion in the state, this has contributed to educational policies which promote an impression of a seamless fit between Irishness and
an adherence to a set of Catholic social principles which are inspired by an arguably
reductive reading of natural law.
The second point arises from the first, which is that there is a historical and
contemporary tension between: on the one hand, the liberal, secular and republican
Reflected in the answers from faith leaders to the question of how they conceptualize ‘reconciliation’. Many of them admitted that they felt unequipped to preach or teach about reconciliation in the
changing demographic context of Ireland. (24% of clergy said that their training for this was inadequate).
20
For an account of Irish case law, natural law and religious education, see D. Glendinning,
Education and the Law, second edition (Dublin: Bloomsbury Professional, 2012), chapter 3.
21
Constitutional lawyer, Eoin Daly, puts it baldly: «The influence of the Catholic Church has
been secured informally through the obeisance of legislators, abdicating, in practice their constitutionally
supreme position, in a sometimes supine acceptance of a duty to legislate in accordance with Catholic
imperatives, as interpreted by the Irish hierarchy.» Eoin Daly, Religion, Law and the Irish State (Dublin:
Clarus Press, 2012), 5,6.
22
See J O’Hanlon «Natural Rights and the Irish Constitution» (1993) 11ILT (ns) 8, quoted in
Glendinning, 2012. Glendinning adds that O’Hanlon stated that, according to Article 6 and the Preamble
of the Irish Constitution, the Holy Trinity is the source of the higher law against which all positive law
must be interpreted.
19
95
vision behind the constitutional separation of church and state; and, on the other, the
construction and management of key social policies which rest on theistic and essentialist conceptions of the nature and purpose of human life, and the moral duties
which flow from that 23. It is the contention of this paper that this tension pervades
contemporary clergy training in Ireland, currently interrupting the potential for new
models of ministry which might cut across the imagined boundaries of culture, gender, religion and sectarian accounts of faith.
At many levels, there is a growing acknowledgement that theology cannot be undertaken in a cultural bubble; nor can pastoral care be administered without attending
to the multi-cultural context in which crises and celebrations now occur. There are,
however, a number of indications that clergy training is not rising to the challenge
of contemporary religious belief and practice in Ireland. These signs come through:
current debates in the politics of reproduction and laws on abortion; the persistence
of a patriarchal desire to control the sexuality and bodily comportment of women;
the residue of hurt and confusion in the wake of the misuse of power among church
leaders which often included physical abuse of minors; and a notable resistance,
among ordinands and educators, to engage deeply with the neuralgic issues of gender
and sexuality which underpin the religious and political debates currently dividing
Irish society. Since these are problems which must be shared by church and state, the
place to begin might be in seminaries and halls of academia, disrupting old notions
of privilege and certainty traditionally invested in religious personnel.
V. Selected Bibliography
Barrington. D. «The Irish Constitution X. Article Forty Four. II. Church and State» 81 The
Irish Monthly (1953).
B artlett , J. «From Divinity to Theology in
Four Centuries.» in The Idea of a University,
ed. Charles Holland. Dublin: Trinity College
Press, 1991.
C olton , P. «Schools and the Law: A Patron’s
Introspection.» in Irish Educational Studies Vol.28 (3) [2009].
Corish, Patrick. The Irish Catholic Experience: a
historical survey. Dublin: Gill and Macmillan.
Daly, Eoin. Religion, Law and the Irish State.
Dublin: Clarus Press, 2012.
Ganiel, Gladys. 21st Century Faith: Results of the
Survey of Laypeople in the Republic of Ireland
& Northern Ireland. Irish School of Ecumenics, Trinity College Dublin.
— 21st Century Faith: Results of the Survey of
Clergy, Pastors, Ministers and Faith Leaders.
Irish School of Ecumenics, Trinity College
Dublin.
Glendinning, Dympna. Education and the Law,
second edition. Dublin: Bloomsbury Professional, 2012.
O’Hanlon, J. «Natural Rights and the Irish Constitution» (1993) 11ILT.
23
The use of papal encyclicals by the judiciary is interesting. In Ryan v Attorney General, Kenny
J cited the authority of Pacem in Terris. A decade later, in McGee v Attorney General, Walsh J, citing
Humanae Vitae, reached an opposing conclusion; the point being that it was deemed acceptable to appeal
to papal encyclicals to establish constitutional rights.
96
Sandberg, R. and Norman Doe. «Church-State
Relations in Europe.» Religion Compass 1/5:
2007.
Norris v Attorney General [1984] IR 36.
McGrath and O’Ruairc v Trustees of Maynooth
College [1979] ILRM 166.
McGee v Attorney General [1974] IR 284.
Celia G. Kenny
Quinn’s Supermarket Ltd. V Attorney General
[1972] IR 1.
Ryan v Attorney General [1965] IR 294.
Irish Times, 5 October 1957.
Constitution of Ireland (Bunreacht na hÉireann)
1937.
Constitution of the Irish Free State (Saortat Éireann) Act, 1922.
OF RELIGIOUS PERSONNEL IN HUNGARY
Balázs Schanda
The training of religious personnel and training in theology have been almost
identical until recent times. At some points in the past, public authorities showed
interest in the formation of clergy, and at other times higher education was an issue
of concern to the state; indeed, sometimes the state seemed to be interested both in
universities and prospective clergy. As a consequence of the strict legal separation
of church and state, today the training of religious personnel is not an issue of public
concern. However, with regard to theology, university autonomy and church autonomy require a special legal regime for higher education in theology. But the training
of religious personnel is an entirely internal church affair; religious personnel may
qualify as such without any kind of training.
I. History of the mode of training of religious staff in the 18th/19th
century
Until the 18th century the college of theology and the seminary of the diocese
were identical. Several diocesan (Tridentian) seminaries were entrusted to the Jesuits
in the counter-reformation and Protestants set up their schools training ministers in
the 16th century. Ministers of religion were trained at denominational institutions until
Josephinist tendencies emerged (Joseph II ruled Hungary as emperor from 1780 to
1790). During the Josephinist era seminaries were centralized in four major centers
(Eger, Pest, Zagreb and Bratislava). The training of the clergy in these institutions
was strictly controlled by the state.
From the late 18th century to the communist takeover, some clergy received
higher education in theology at denominational theological faculties of state/public
universities (seminaries certainly remained as church institutions). The first solid university of Hungary having a Catholic faculty of theology was set up by Cardinal Péter
Pázmány in 1635. The most important Reformed faculty (Debrecen) was incorporated
into a state university in 1912; the Lutheran faculty of Sopron was incorporated in
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Balázs Schanda
1923 to the University of Pécs. The Jewish Rabbinical Seminary in Budapest was
set up by government decision in 1877. As well as public institutions a number of
both Catholic and Protestant institutions were run by their own church organs. These,
however, had no university status but qualified as «colleges».
The only university level faculty of Catholic theology was set up in 1635 by Cardinal Pázmány, archbishop of Esztergom (as his seat was under Ottoman occupation he
resided in Tirnava (today Slovakia)). The university was put under state control under
Maria Theresa in 1769 and moved to its present seat in (Buda)Pest in 1777. Instead
of professors from the dissolved Jesuit order the Queen appointed new professors.
Joseph II has moved the Faculty to Bratislava (until 1848 the capital of Hungary). The
emperor attempted to set up a central seminary under state control. From 1790 to 1805
there was only an examination board to control the professors or candidates from all
the dioceses of the country. The Theological Faculty was set up again in Pest 1805 by
a royal decree as part of the university. In 1950 the Faculty of Theology was detached
from the University and entrusted to the Bishops’ Conference. Whereas for centuries
the Faculty served exclusively the training of clergy, from the late 1970s lay students
were also admitted. Discussions on an eventual re-integration to the state university
were rejected both for constitutional reasons (the interpretation of separation seemed
to rule out mixed – non-neutral – public institutions), and by the Church which decided
to launch a Catholic University based on the Faculty of Theology in 1992. It has to be
noted that a significant number of young clergymen receive training abroad, especially
at pontifical faculties in Rome. The Jesuit College for German and Hungarian seminarians has played an important role in this since the 16th century 1.
For the post-graduate training of clergy the Pontifical Hungarian Academy has
a special role and is mentioned in concordatarian arrangements. This institution was
founded in the 1920s when the Hungarian government purchased the Falconieri palace in the centre of Rome. The palace is the home of two prestigious institutions: an
institute of culture (the Hungarian Academy in Rome) and the Pontifical Hungarian
Institute, a post-graduate institute for Hungarian clergy (usually young priests working on their doctorates at one of the pontifical universities). As the Hungarian State
partly used church funds for purchasing the palace the Institute enjoyed the free use
of a part of the building in return. The 1964 document signed by the Holy See and the
government of the Peoples’ Republic of Hungary restated that bishops had the right to
The Collegium Germanicum – an institution founded by the pope in 1552 entrusted to the
Jesuits to combat Protestantism in German-speaking countries by training German priests in Rome –
has become the «Pontificium Collegium Germanicum et Hungaricum» when institutions were merged
in 1580. With, in historical terms, a short interruption (e.g. due to the French occupation the Collegium
ceased its activities from 1798 to 1818) the Collegium plays an important role in the training of a clerical
elite. Most of its seminarians attend the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome.
1
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Hungary
99
send young clergymen to the Institute which was put under the direction of the Bishops’ Conference. As the 1964 document was no longer in force when the diplomatic
relations between the Holy See and Hungary were re-launched in 1990 the status of
the Institute was not addressed. The Amendment to the 1997 Agreement between the
Holy See and Hungary on financial issues concluded in 2013 settles the difficulties
arising from the common use of the palace by dividing the property. Maintenance
costs, however, rest with the Hungarian Academy as was originally the case.
The Reformed (Calvinist) Theological College (University) was founded in 1538
in Debrecen. In 1912 it became the Faculty of Reformed Theology of the University
of Debrecen. Since 1949 it has been independent of the state university and maintained by the Church District of the Reformed Church. Training in Reformed Theology was provided at schools from the 1530s in Sárospatak and Pápa. The Reformed
Theological Academy in Budapest was set up in 1855. Whereas in Sárospatak and
Pápa the Theological Colleges were re-opened after the fall of communism, in Budapest the Reformed Theological Faculty did not close but is still active as the part
of a Reformed University.
The most important Lutheran institute of theological training was founded in
1557 in Sopron. Incorporated into the University of Pécs in 1923 (almost 300 km from
Sopron), in 1950 it was detached from the university and a year later the Lutheran
Academy of Theology moved to Budapest where it functions today as the Lutheran
University of Theology. (www.teol.lutheran.hu)
The Rabbinical Seminary was set up by a ministerial decree in 1877 as an important step of Jewish emancipation. Since 1999 the institution functions as the «Rabbinical Seminary – Jewish University» where not only rabbis and cantors receive
formation but also courses in Judaism are offered. The university is maintained by the
Alliance of Jewish Congregations of Hungary (with is in fact the major, conservative
Jewish congregation in Hungary). (www.or-zse.hu).
II. The modes of formation of religious staff: current law
There have been no theological faculties at state universities in Hungary since
1950, when theological faculties were detached from state universities and their
maintenance entrusted to the relevant religious communities. Some seminaries were
also closed; religious orders too with their formation institutions were banned. After
the collapse of the communist system the interpretation of separation and neutrality
ruled out the re-integration of theological faculties in public universities, as religionaffiliated institutions cannot be maintained by or linked with the state. Certainly
courses on religion may be delivered at state institutions, but courses of religion may
not. Religious training and training in theology can be provided by church-run institutions of higher education. These institutions also have the right to provide training
in fields other than theology.
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Balázs Schanda
An interesting and special case is the Liszt Ferenc Music University (the Liszt
Academy); its Church Music Institute provides training for church musicians. Despite
the content of the training the degrees are not ecclesiastical, but entirely lay in character. At some universities there are courses for the study of religions but not linked
to any religion or religious community; neither teaching, nor staff, nor students are
exclusively affiliated with a church. (http://lisztacademy.hu/).
Church institutions can be acknowledged by the state to issue recognized degrees.
State acknowledgement does not change the purely ecclesiastical nature of church
institutions. A list of the theological institutions – extended several times – is annexed
to the Act on higher education 2. Besides the institutions themselves, the courses (e.g.
MA in Catholic theology, catechist–pastoral assistant, teacher of Catholic religion)
are accredited and acknowledged. The content of theological courses is not subject to
scrutiny, only material conditions (like the existence and the quality of the library) and
the qualification of the personnel are controlled. Degrees are recognized by the state.
The law has detailed provisions which confer exemptions for church institutions from
various obligations, while in other cases no distinctions are made. Differences party
derive from the ecclesiastical nature of theological colleges, but a practical aspect
plays a role too as the size of theological institutions is usually very small in comparison with public institutions. For example, theological institutions are not bound
by the principle of equal treatment with regard to religion (they may have exclusive
policies both for their teaching staff as well as their students), but they are certainly
bound by other elements of equal treatments policies, like accessibility. Theological
higher education is exempted from the entrance examination regulations, but highschool graduation is certainly required.
At present there are five church universities (a Catholic, a Lutheran, a Jewish and
two Calvinist), as well as twenty-one other institutions of higher education, ten of
which are Catholic (one Greek Catholic). Religious orders run a Catholic theological
college in Budapest, with the nearby Catholic Theological Faculty of Péter Pázmány
Catholic University. Seven colleges belong to various smaller Protestant churches
that are not particularly numerous in Hungary (Baptists, Adventists, Pentecostals,
etc.). There is also an accredited Buddhist Theological College and ISCON college.
Some of these institutions may function with a very low number of students. Due to
the limited number of Muslims in Hungary the creation of an Islamic institution of
higher education is not yet envisaged.
These arrangements do not mean that in reality church institutions are cut off
from other institutions of higher education. This is determined by local arrangements
between church institutions and universities. In some university cities the church in-
2
Act CCIV/2011. Earlier acts on higher education had the same structure.
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Hungary
101
stitution and the public university have developed a close cooperation with a number
of students who attend courses in both institutions.
The system of higher education is open to emerging or immigrating religious
communities. Public authorities have no role in enhancing institutional training: this is
up to the particular religious community. With the set-up of a new institution there are
two stages at which public authorities are involved: first, institutions and courses need
accreditation from the independent Hungarian higher education committee in order to
acquire public recognition. Second: state scholarships are the subject of agreements
between the government and the appropriate church organ. Whereas some communities may not want to receive public funding, the government in general seems to
be generous to minority theological colleges and most of their students enjoy state
scholarships. This means in practice that the state pays the institution a per capita
funding equal to the per capita funds for teacher training.
Some examples of institutions of non-mainstream communities:
The Dharma Gate Buddhist College (established in 1991) was first accredited in
1999. Thus, it became the first (and, as of now, the only) European Buddhist institution of tertiary education that is accredited and supported by the state. The accreditation was reconfirmed in 2001. Until 2006, the institution offered 4-year college
courses. With the introduction of the Bologna process in 2005, the College applied
for the accreditation of its 3-year BA course and its 2-year MA course. The accreditation was granted in 2006. In the same year, the first BA course was launched; the first
MA course started in 2007. The latter is launched exclusively in the full-time system,
every two years. As a result of a second round of accreditation evaluation in 2008,
the accreditation of both programmers was extended until 2016. The number of state
scholarships for full-time students is 30-90, for evening students 20-30, which is a
generous support with regard to the number of Buddhists in Hungary. (http://www.
tkbf.hu/) Other students (e.g. those who have already completed higher education and
«consumed» that way their right to a state scholarship) pay tuition fees.
Exceptionally, Sola Sriptura College, maintained by a breakaway Adventist
community, does not accept state subsidies (www.sola.hu). State scholarships are
available for BAs and MAs of all other colleges run by religious communities small
or large - from John Wesley Theological College (maintained by a breakaway Methodist community, the Evangelical Brotherhood) to the Baptist Theological Academy,
Pentecostal Theological College, College of Faith Church (Saint Paul Academy) and
institutions like the College of ISCON. Starting in 2009 the College offered the possibility to earn a Bachelor’s degree in Vaishnava Theology. The teaching offered is in
accordance with the Vedic educational tradition. The degrees are in accord with the
Bologna Treaty of the European Union and are internationally accepted. A university
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Balázs Schanda
level education at Bhaktivedanta College is a unique in the entire world. The college
even offers off-site courses in Finland which are delivered in English (and in Finnish
if all the students are Finnish). (www.bhf.hu).
PUBLIC AUTHORITIES AND THE TRAINING OF RELIGIOUS
PERSONNEL IN EUROPE. A REPORT FROM POLAND
Michał Rynkowski
I. Historical overview
The first university in Poland – or as it was known at the time, the first Studium
generale - was founded in Cracow (Kraków) in 1364, 16 years after the establishment of the Prague University, one year before the University in Vienna and three
years before the University in Pécs 1. Against the will of the founder, King Casimir
the Great (the last of the Piast-dynasty), the Pope did not allow to establish a faculty
of theology 2. It was only after second opening of the University, in 1400, when this
faculty was added. For almost 200 years it played the central role in the theological
education in Poland.
The situation changed significantly in the 16th century, when the Jesuits reacted
to the Reformation. The Jesuit college in Vilnius was transformed by the king Stephen Bathory into a Jesuit University (1579) and it included a faculty of theology,
the second in the country. Following the Council of Trent, in the second half of the
16th century bishops decided to found first seminaries, aiming at education of the
future priests. The seminary open by the Primate in 1598 in Gniezno was already
the seventh, the one in Kraków followed in 1601 (in parallel to the existing faculty
of theology at the Kraków University, nowadays known as Jagiellonian University).
The protestant youth went for studies mainly abroad 3: however, for a short period of
time (1602-1630) there existed also Akademia Rakowska in Raków 4, which was a
F. Kiryk, Nauk przemożnych perła, Kraków 1986, p. 57.
J. Bardach, B. Leśnodorski, M. Pietrzak, Historia ustroju i prawa polskiego, Warszawa
2009, p. 141.
3
J. Bardach, op. cit., p. 263.
4
There is no spelling mistake: no K at the beginning: Raków is a small town in South-East
Poland.
1
2
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Michal Rynkowski
higher school of the Arians, also known as Polish Brethren, negating the Holy Trinity.
The academy attracted a number of students and professors from Poland and abroad,
however it was closed after riots, allegedly caused by its students. Generally, the
seminaries were run exclusively by the church; to open a university, the consent of
the Sejm (Parliament) and of the Pope was required. This remains valid also today:
creation of every university is based on an act of the Parliament (ustawa), and for
Catholic university additionally approval of the Holy See is required. The universityalike institutions, but called «Higher School» may function provided their obtained a
permission from the Minister of Science, who is in charge of the list of such entities 5.
This refers to religious and non-religious higher schools.
The end of the 18th century saw the partitions of Poland (1772-1795). The governing powers: Orthodox Russia and Protestant Prussia were anything but enthusiastic
about Catholic seminaries and Catholic faculties of theology. Even the catholic Austria, in the spirit of Josephinism, was closing and merging the seminaries. There were
some short brighter moments: a fully new university in Warsaw was created by the
tsar of Russia in 1816 and it included the faculty of (Catholic) theology. Several years
later the November Uprising of 1830 was a reason for closing this University. All in
all, with short interruptions, the seminaries existed, however were closely monitored
by the partition powers, leading to conflicts and even imprisonment of local hierarchy
- archbishop of Poznań M. Ledóchowski, who refused the (Prussian) state control
over seminaries, was imprisoned; the seminaries were closed for 11 years. Only in the
Austrian part functioned (but also with short interruptions) the University in Lwów
(Lviv, Lvov, Lemberg, Leopolis), with its faculty of theology.
The newborn Republic (1918-1939) was very friendly towards the Catholic institutions: following the Concordat of 1925 6, the Catholic seminaries were exempted
from any form of the state control. This concordat formally and theoretically remained
in force also after the World War II, however it was clear it ceased having effects
after 1945.
The War World II was another interruption to the function of the faculties of theology and seminaries. The major part of the academic staff was murdered or deported
by both occupying powers: the Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. The seminaries
existed in underground, as a part of the Polish underground state – one of the students
was Karol Wojtyła (who as of 1942 studied in Kraków).
1944 brought a new political factor: the new government in Lublin, communist
and dependent from Moscow. However, the new government needed first support
from the population, so did not start with a war against seminaries and faculties of
Regularly updated on the website of the Ministry of Science: https://polon.nauka.gov.pl/opi/
aa/rejestry/run?execution=e1s1, access on 26.02.2014.
6
OJ 1925, No. 72, item 501.
5
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Europe …
105
theology. Gradually the government was taking more and more anti-ecclesiastical
course: for example, the faculty of theology at the Jagiellonian University was closed
in 1954. In 1960 the repressions of the government reached its high point: the control
of the seminaries by the officials of the Ministry of education from Warsaw became
regular and omnipresent, requiring access to all records, controlling even the teaching
of theological subjects, confiscating books from the libraries in the seminaries, calling
the students to the army service 7. Despite this pressure, the seminaries did not cease
to exist, however were under constant a close surveillance. The undersigned still remembers the agents of the security services, constantly watching from the windows of
the local hospital opposite the seminary in Wrocław: they observed everyone entering
and leaving the seminary, till 1989. The faculties of theologies at the universities were
closed or simply not open at newly created universities. The only exception remained
the Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski, funded in 1918, which functioned during all the
years of the communism, the only private (and Catholic) University in the whole of
Easter block. It remained fully financed by the Church – the money was mainly collected on the second Christmas Day, 26 December, in all churches across the Poland.
Karol Wojtyła was one of the lecturers at KUL.
During the communist time (1954) the Christian Academy of Theology in Warsaw, known under the acronym of ChAT, was created by the state 8. It was deemed
to be a continuation of the Faculty of the Protestant Theology of the University in
Warsaw, alluding also to the Orthodox tradition 9.
II. Current legislation
Current period begins with 1989, which is known in Poland as the Third Republic
(to the confusion of foreign readers, the Kingdom till 1795 is called the first Republic,
as the noblemen were electing the kings, 1572-1795).
The right of Churches and religious communities to establish higher theological
schools is confirmed in general in the statute on the guarantees of freedom of conscience and religion of 1989 in the Art. 22. This right is repeated also in the Concordat 10, but also in the individual statutes, e.g. in the statute on the relations between
the Polish State and the Catholic Church in Art. 23, in the statute on the relations
between the Polish State and the Lutheran Church in the Art. 19. Also for the Polish
Extensively on this subject: A. Mezglewski, Szkolnictwo wyznaniowe w Polsce w latach
1944-1980. Studium historyczno-prawne, Lublin 2004.
8
D. Walencik, Status prawny Chrześcijańskiej Akademii Teologicznej w Warszawie, Studia z
Prawa Wyznaniowego, vol. 11 (2008), p. 99.
9
More about ChAT nowadays in part II.
10
K. Warchałowski, Nauczanie religii i szkolnictwo katolickie w konkordatach współczesnych,
Lublin 1998, p. 186-188.
7
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Michal Rynkowski
Autocephalous Orthodox Church this right is guaranteed in the Art. 19 of the relevant
statute 11. This latter statute clearly states that the titles awarded by the Orthodox
Seminary are treated like the titles awarded by the state schools.
A creation of a public university, religious or not, requires an act of the Parliament (ustawa, i. e. statute), as stated in the Art. 18 of the statute on higher education of
2005 12. For example, the Cardinal-Stefan-Wyszyński-University in Warsaw was created
in 1999, by the statute of 3 September (published in Dz. U. 1999, no. 79, item 884), on
the basis of the Academy of Catholic Theology, which was established in 1954.
The Catholic faculties of theology, which were created by the Church in various
towns in 1960’s and 1970’s as independent bodies, in the 1990’s got integrated into
the state universities and nowadays constitute one of their faculties. This is the case
for Katowice or Poznań. The newly created universities in Opole and Olsztyn have the
faculties of the theology from the beginning. At the University in Białystok there are
two independent chairs of theology, Catholic and Orthodox. Where two universities
function in one city: a state one and Catholic one, the faculty of theology exists only
at the latter. This is the case in Warszawa (Warsaw University v. Cardinal-StefanWyszyński-University, Jagiellonian University v. John-Paul-II-Papal University in
Kraków, and Maria Curie-Skłodowska-University v. Catholic University in Lublin).
Only a few state universities decided not to integrate the local (Papal) faculty of theology into its own structure, e.g. universities in Wrocław and Gdańsk. The Wrocław
University which itself was once established by the Prussian King (1811) on a basis
of a Jesuit Academy, opposed the integration of the Papal Faculty of Theology into
the university. This faculty was established in 1968, as of 1974 has the right to use the
adjective «Papal» in its name, obtained legal personality only in 1981, it continues to
exist as a separate and independent entity.
As regards the Catholic education, they are still two mains streams: faculties
of theology and seminaries. Almost each diocese runs its own seminary (currently,
there are 38 seminars); there are also several seminaries, run by the provinces of the
religious orders.
As stated in the concordat (Art. 15), the agreements between the State and the
Catholic Church create basis for recognition of diploma given by the religious institutions. Such agreements serve as basis for the legal acts of the state. One of the last acts
of the communist government - a few weeks after the famous 4 June 1989 election
- was the agreement from 30 June 1989 (published in M.P. 1989, no. 22, item 174).
It listed which faculties of which (Catholic) Academy are entitled to award titles of
doctor and doctor «habilitowany». Following the ratification of the Concordat, and
M. W iniarczyk -K ossakowska , Ustawy III Rzeczypospolitej o stosunku państwa do
Kościołów chrześcijańskich, Warszawa 2004.
12
Statute of 27 July 2005, OJ 2005, No. 164, item 1365; consolidated text OJ 2012 item 572.
11
107
in particular its Art. 10, a new agreement between the government and the Catholic
Bishops’ Conference was reached on 1 July 1999 and is still in force 13. It lists Catholic
Universities and high schools in Poland, confirms that they have legal personality and
lists which of them have the rights to award academic titles. Such awards are allowed
only under the condition that these universities respect provisions of the state law as
regards the academic titles. Catholic institutions have to submit to the State authorities a statute (bylaws) of the university and any related changes. They have to notify
curricula and any related changes, changes as regards rectors/ deans and submit a
list of academic teachers according to the specialization of studies. If an academy/
high school complies with all these requirements, the minister in charge of science
issues a decision, stating the titles awarded by such an institution are honoured by
the State. The Chief Council of the Science and Higher Education, being a form of
self-government of academic world and at the same time an advisory body to the
Minister of Science, sets minimal requirements as regards curricula of all studies in
Poland, including specialization «theology» and «canon law».
Another issue is linked to the financing: the statute on the guarantees of the
freedom of conscience and religion of 1989 provides that the Polish State does not
fund churches and religious communities and that every exception from this rule
must be based on an act of the parliament (Art. 10 of this statute). According to the
concordat (Art. 15 para. 3), the Catholic University in Lublin and the John-Paul-II
Papal University in Kraków are financed from the State budget. Moreover, according
to the statute of 5 April 2006 three other Catholic institutions receive funding from
the State: Papal Faculties of Theology in Warsaw and Wrocław and PhilosophicalPedagogical Higher School «Ignatianum» in Kraków.
The alumni of the seminaries (i.e. priests) may obtain title of «magister» on the
basis of agreement between their seminary and a local faculty of theology; in this
respect, Polish law points at the apostolic constitution Sapientia Christiana, and declares that will honour such agreements and such titles. Another Communique of the
Minister of 24 August 2000 (published in OJ of the Ministry, 2000, no. 4, item 21)
lists the decisions of the Ministry, which academies are entitled to run master courses.
The non-Catholic (or more precisely, non-Roman Catholic and non-Catholic)
theological education is assured by the Christian Academy of Theology (ChAT) and
some smaller protestant high schools. ChAT prepares young man and woman to serve
as clergy of the Lutheran, Orthodox and Old-Catholic Churches. The Academy was
founded by the State in 1954; its functioning is currently regulated by the statute of
16 March 2000 (OJ 2000, No. 39, item 440). ChAT is financed from the state budget.
Some smaller private schools exist in various cities, e.g. the Evangelical Higher
13
OJ 1999, no. 63, item 727.
108
Michal Rynkowski
School of Theology, established in Wrocław in 2006, with many members of the staff
from the English-speaking countries. As it is a high school, but not a university, it
received permission from the Ministry and is on the list of educational institutions,
managed by the Minister of Science.
The Orthodox Church, apart from the ChAT, runs a seminar for its future priests,
which is also explicitly mentioned in the statute on the relations between the State and
the Polish Autocephalous Orthodox Church of 1991. In 2008 a group of deputies to the
Sejm launched iniative to obtain state funds for this seminar. Their argumentation that
this way the Orthodox seminar would be treated like the Catholic ones was not fully
correct, as the Catholic institutions (faculties of theology and academies) are funded by
the State, but not the seminaries. After three years, on 13 May 2011 a statute on state
financing of the Orthodox seminary was adopted (OJ 2011, No. 144, item 849).
III. Outlook
The statute on relations between the Polish State and the Jewish Religious Communities mentions the education of rabbies only in the context of a suspension of
conscription for men attending rabbinical training in Poland or abroad (Art. 15 of
the statute of 1997, OJ 1997 No 41, item 251; since the conscription is suspended,
the provision seems to be of limited importance). Art. 33 of the statute on relations
with the Muslim Religious Association (OJ 1936 item 240) mentions the right of this
Association to establish in Poland schools in order to educate the religious leaders.
However, this statute dates from 1936 and is basically regarded as not applicable
(desuetude) – the same statute provides that the seat of Mufti of the Republic of Poland is in Vilnius (Art. 4 para. 2).
Indeed, the leaders of non-Christian denominations active in Poland were educated outside of Poland: chief rabbi of Poland M. Schudrich studied in the USA, while
mufti T. Miśkiewicz received shariah education in Saudi Arabia. As of 2008 functions
in Warsaw Jeshiwa, a school for young men who would like to become rabbies; the
first group received diplomas in 2008. The Muslim community in Poland consists of
two groups: the descendants of the Tartars, whose families have been living in Poland
for centuries, and the new groups, who arrived in recent decades, mainly for studies,
and stayed in the country. Their religious leaders are usually foreigners who learned
to speak Polish (mainly during their studies), but received religious training abroad.
Generally it can be stated that except for rabbis and Islamic leaders, the overwhelming majority of clergy is brought up and educated in Poland. Due to social
(and statistical) circumstances it seems that at the moment there is no need to create
a special institution aiming at education of non-Christian spiritual leaders; it may be
the case in the near future though. On the contrary, Polish priests and nuns often leave
Poland to serve Catholic communities all around the world. Other national reports
comment on that issue and mention some challenges related to it.
PERSONNEL IN EUROPE – THE GERMAN PERSPECTIVE
Matthias Pulte
I. History of the mode of training religious staff in the 18th/19th Century
The training of religious staff on an academic basis has a rich tradition in Germany. Since the middle ages, the scientific study of theology had its roots in the study
of science and law at university; with medicine and law, theology was the nucleus of
the university 1. Most modern faculties in state universities have their roots in the universities of the 15th and 16th century. These were usually supported by the local princes
or the bishops if they too were territorial rulers. They equipped the new universities
with assets from different sources. When the education of the clergy was proposed,
financial aid for the faculty usually came from secularized church property, the conventional means of support. Precise information can only be gleaned by researching
the foundations of each faculty in question. We have to bear in mind that Germany
was a huge territory of sovereign states where every ruler arranged the education
and formation of the clergy in cooperation with the church in his own way. Mainz
University may be offered as an example.
The Archbishop of Mainz, Diether von Isenburg, Elector and Chancellor of the
German Nation, founded the University of Mainz in 1477. By doing this he realized
the dream of his predecessor. His actions were wholly in line with the spirit of the
time, as regional universities had already been founded in almost all of the larger territorial states. In Mainz, theology, medicine, Church law and Roman law were taught
in addition to the seven liberal arts, i.e. grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic,
geometry, astronomy, and music. This range of subjects was a quite unique feature at
the time, because most European universities offered only one or two of these «higher
Cf. H. Hallermann, «Theologie und Professorenbesetzung», in J. Schmiedl, J. E. Hafner
(ed.), Katholische Theologie an der Universität. Situation und Zukunft, Ostfildern 2009, 30-45, 32.
1
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Matthias Pulte
faculties». The University of Mainz flourished. In its first few decades, the number of
students rose to about 200. In 1508 Petrus Ravenna chronicled that Mainz University
was already «highly renowned». However, repeated attempts at reform —in 1523,
1535, and 1541— reflect that the university had already experienced its first crisis.
This was caused, primarily, not only by its inadequate economic foundation, but also
by conflicts between the two different theological schools at Mainz.
The Protestant Reformation left its mark on theology in Mainz. By opening a
Jesuit college in 1561, to introduce a catholic reform against the more or less liberal
faculty of theology, the Archbishop of Mainz pursued several goals. He undertook
a great educational initiative to aid the Catholic Reform and helped to renew and
stabilize the university; he succeeded in doing so not only in the field of theology but
also in the field of medicine. In the end, there was even need of a new building: the
Domus Universitatis which was built between 1615 and 1618.
In Mainz, as elsewhere, the Thirty Years War (1618-1648) resulted in a significant decline in the number of students. When Swedish troops occupied the city, the
members of Mainz University went into «exile» to Cologne, for example, where
they continued teaching. After the war, the University of Mainz was slow to recover. Following the suppression of the Jesuit Order in 1773, its Mainz College was
disbanded that same year. This required another reform of the university statutes.
Finally in 1781, the Mainz University Foundation Fund was established creating a
secure economic foundation for the university; two very rich monasteries (Karthause
and Reichsclara) had been closed and their temporal goods had been secularized by
the prince-bishop. This was the basis for the extension of the range of subjects and
disciplines at the University.
In reference to theology and the education of the clergy we have to realize that
academic education was foreseen only for the higher clergy - those coming from the
nobility or the emergent urban upper class 2. Sometimes young men from the lower
classes received a scholarship from the rich. For the rest there remained only a rudimentary education in theology and in how to serve as a priest. When Bishop Colmar
became bishop in Mainz in 1803, he found a very simply-educated lower clergy
serving in the parishes who had very poor discipline. Because of this he recognized
a great need to reform clerical education and formation as the basis for the development of his new diocese 3.
2
Cf. M. Pulte, 34 «Der kanonistische Nachlass von Weihbischof Ludwig Philipp Behlen
(1714–1777) in der Mainzer Martinus-Bibliothek – ein erster Forschungsbericht», in H. Hinkel (ed.),
Bibliothek S. Martini Moguntina. Alte Bücher – Neue Funde, Mainz, Würzburg, 2012, S. 263-278, 263.
3
Cf. A. Egler, «Das Priesterbild Bischof Colmars in Seminar- und Diözesanstatuten», in Archiv
für Mitterheinische Kirchengeschichte, 28 (1976), 209.
111
Looking back to the 18th century before the changes stimulated by the French
revolution, we see clergy in similar situations all over Germany. Another example:
according to the ordination protocols of the Archdiocese of Cologne 52% of ordained
men came from cities, more than 13% were from Cologne, and overall they came out
of the property-owning classes. Country parishes were not the target of the priests,
but even the country priests came from higher classes. This means that a gap opened
up between urban ministers and ministers from the small farming communities. The
formation of priests often concluded with preparation to read the Latin Mass; even
in the 17th Century most clergy had no theological training. The establishment of
seminaries often failed for lack of money. The first seminar opened in Cologne in
1736. In 1749 only one year at the seminary was required in this diocese. Prior to
approval as a priest, a pastoral examination had to take place 4.
The educational system in the Archdiocese of Mainz seemed little better. Shortly
after, the Council of Trent Archbishop Daniel Brendel von Homburg founded (in
1561) a tridentine seminary to refurbish clerical education according to the decrees
of Trent. His successor Johann Philipp von Schönborn (1647-1673) renewed the
tridentine seminary and refunded the trust for this institution very generously (according to witnesses at that time) 5. However, the academic training remained in the
Faculty. All this was lost in 1803. The property was confiscated by the French government and the building was put to another use. The French Revolution (1789-1799)
left many traces in the Rhine area, in Mainz, Cologne and elsewhere. Teaching at
Mainz University, however, ceased due to war, permanent unrest, and the conquest
and recapture of the city of Mainz. The faculty of theology closed in 1801 with the
resignation of the prince-bishop of Mainz, Karl Joseph von Erthal. The legal basis
for this was the French concordat of 1801 between Pope Pius VII and the emperor
Napoleon Bonaparte. Only the faculty of medicine continued; it awarded doctorates until 1818, but had to close five years later. In 1803 the French founded a new
diocese of Mainz in the occupied territory. The first Bishop of the new diocese of
Mainz, Joseph Ludwig Colmar, former preacher at Straßburg cathedral, found only
4 seminarians left at Mainz. So he decided to erect a new tridentine seminary which
was not only responsible for the spiritual life and education of the students, but also
the academic institution for the theological education of the clergy. This seminary
was formally ruled by universal and diocesan church norms. But Bishop Colmar had
to obtain recognition of the statutes of the seminary from Napoleon.
4
Klerus und geistliche Bewegungen im Mittelalter, online: http://www2.erzbistum-koeln.de/
erzbistum/geschichte/geschichte_ebk/epochen3/epochen3-03.html.
5
Cf. Protocollum Seminarii episcopalis Moguntini (Handschrift) Fundus Liebermann, Domund Diözesanarchiv Mainz, 5.
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Matthias Pulte
It is not inaccurate to say, therefore, that at that time the church law in force was
under the control of the secular authority. Depending on the extent of subjection of the
diocesan authority, we may conclude that there were no norms presented to the emperor
which were not consistent with the state law of the time. On the other hand, from the
canon law of the time we see that these norms also conformed to the universal church
law. The Bishop had the right to install the director of the seminary and the professors.
The minimum of academic studies required was two years. The disciplines to be studied
were: dogmatic and moral theology, pastoral matters, liturgy, homiletics, church history, Latin, Greek and French and philosophy. Canon law was not a subject of study at
that time. The administration of the temporal goods lay in the hands of the director, the
financial administrator and a financial commission. The members of this board were
also appointed by the director. One particular provision underscores the dependence
of the Mainz Church on Napoleon: the duty of professors to sign the Gallican articles
of 1682 6. On this basis, Napoleon approved the seminary statutes on 11th November
1805 7. A most difficult situation arose in the relations between state and church when
the organic articles to the 1801 concordat were put into effect by the emperor. The
academic staff had to sign those norms thereby submitting to the superiority of the
state; neither the bishop nor the director of the seminary refused to sign, perhaps a sign
of the overwhelming nature of state authority. Those statutes remained in force until
1830. They were replaced by new statutes of Bishop Joseph Vitus Burg in the year of
his succession. The reason for the revision was to adapt the regulations to the prevailing
conditions, not to replace Napoleonic law. This is not the place to discuss the norms in
detail. It is interesting to see that for the first time in the new diocese of Mainz there was
no direct state influence on church legislation regarding the education of seminarians.
From 1801 on only the Mainz University Foundation Fund (a Catholic seminary),
and the Mainz «Accouchement» (a school for midwives founded in 1784), continued,
preserving a little of the university’s tradition until its reopening in 1946. Before that
The Declaration of the Clergy of France of 1682: 1. St. Peter and the popes, his successors, and
the Church itself have dominion from God only over things spiritual and not over things temporal and
civil. Therefore kings and sovereigns are not beholden to the church in deciding temporal things. They
cannot be deposed by the church and their subjects cannot be absolved by the church from their oaths
of allegiance. – 2. Authority in things spiritual belongs to the Holy See and the successors of St. Peter,
and does not affect the decrees of the Council of Constance contained in the fourth and fifth sessions of
that council, which is observed by the Gallican Church. The Gallicans do not approve of casting slurs on
those decrees. – 3. The exercise of this Apostolic authority (puissance) must be regulated in accordance
with canons (rules) established by the Holy Spirit through the centuries of Church history. – 4. Although
the pope has the chief part in questions of faith, and his decrees apply to all the Churches and to each
Church in particular, yet his judgment is not irreformable, at least pending the consent of the Church.
7
Cf. R. Fischer-Wolpert, «Die Anfangsjahre unter Colmar und Humann (1805-1829)», in
Bischöfliches Priesterseminar Mainz (ed.) Augustinerstr. 34. 175 Jahre Bischöfliches Priesterseminar
Mainz, Eltville 1980, 15-27, 18.
6
113
date, there had been continual discussions about reestablishing the entire universitylevel teaching operation - but all these plans failed due to a lack of funds.
Until the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century the church itself was
responsible for the higher education of young clergymen. Bishops erected schools of theology in their sees or founded universities and promulgated the legal framework for these
institutions. The situation changed in Germany after secularization and the new circumscription of dioceses as a result of the Vienna conference 1803. In the following decades
the diocesan bishops founded faculties of theology at their diocesan seminaries. These
became important for the independence of the church against the dominant state in Germany during the 1870s when church and state struggled in a most intense and unfriendly
manner. Religious orders acted in the same way in their jurisdiction but state law on the
freedom of establishment of orders, which really was the most effective instrument against
the religious orders, ended with the suppression of academic institutions run by them.
The Mainz seminary and its academic teaching were suppressed by the Prussian Kulturkampf in the mid-19th century. In 1851 Bishop von Ketteler was able to
re-establish the seminary and academic studies at Mainz. The seminary regulations
were based on the norms enforced by Bishop Colmar 1805. According to the secular
norms in the state of Hessen-Nassau, the bishop had to ask for the approval of the
statute. Four interesting changes may be mentioned. First, the statutes were approved
for the Mainz theological seminary. This means that not only pastoral formation but
also theological formation was an integral part of clerical training. Secondly, the
college of professors (not only the director of the seminary) had the right to propose
appointments to the chairs in sacred theology. Thirdly, the professors had the right to
elect a dean of the faculty, an office distinct from that of the director of the seminary.
Fourthly, the faculty remained under the sole supervision of the bishop 8. The Kulturkampf forced a break in the education of religious personnel at Mainz. The main
reason for this was the anti-Catholic legislation of Prussia and this state following
Hessen-Nassau. Legislation from 1871 required a three-year academic education for
seminarians at a state-run university, a nationally recognized church-run academic
institution, or a papal university in Rome 9.
In 1885 a final reestablishment of the Seminary and theological studies took
place. This time the old norms were used again. We can see a great degree of continuity from the beginning of the 19th century until the end of the period. This was the
legal situation until the end of the period at Mainz.
When the German states founded their secular universities in the first half of the
19th century, the state had an interest in influencing the academic education of clergy.
Cf. R. Fischer-Wolpert, Die Statuten unter Bischof Ketteler und nach der Wiedereröffnung
1887, a.a.O., 95-104.
9
Cf. Hallermann (Fn.1), 33.
8
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Matthias Pulte
The state wanted to ensure that only German priests, well-educated at German universities or comparable institutions, could be appointed as parish priests or superior
clergy in the diocese. This was one of the major interests of the state in negotiations
with the church on the question of concordats. For both parties it was obvious that
the integration of the education of the clergy is a typical res mixta which could only
be sufficiently regulated if church and state worked together on it. Unfortunately,
Germany was not a nation like others in the region. Germany was a national state of
partly sovereign states, especially on the topic of religion and education. In the 1820s
some concordats had been contracted, three of them are relevant here:
(a) The Concordat with Prussia 1821: This was concluded with the Holy See
through Prince von Hardenberg, the chancellor, King Frederick William III on 23
August, 1821. It was recognized as a law binding on Prussian Catholics. It contains
the circumscription of the archbishoprics and bishoprics, and regulations concerning the erection of dioceses and chapters, the qualities of candidates, the taxation of
episcopal and archiepiscopal churches by the Apostolic Camera, etc.
(b) The Concordat of the Upper Rhine Provinces 1821: This consisted of a Papal
Bull issued by Pius VII and accepted by the King of Würtemberg, the Grand Duke of
Baden, the Elector of Hessen, the Grand Duke of Hessen, the Duke of Nassau, the free
city of Frankfort, the Grand Duke of Mainz, the Dukes of Saxony and Oldenburg, the
Prince of Waldeck, and the Hanseatic cities, Bremen and Lübeck. By this concordat
the bishoprics were divided among the provinces as follows: Freiburg im Breisgau, the
metropolis, was the see for Baden; Rottenburg for Würtemberg; Mainz for HessenDarmstadt; Fulda for Kurhessen and Saxe-Weimar; Limburg for Nassau; and Frankfurt.
(c) The Concordat with the Upper Rhine Provinces 1827: Entered between
Leo XII and the above-mentioned provinces, this contained agreements on the election of bishops, the processus informativus, the holding of a second election when
the first had not been canonical or the person elected lacked the required qualities,
the institution of chapters, the establishment of seminaries, etc.
However, the churches’ favoured position in the constitution results from the
so-called «Weimar church compromise». The interwar Weimar democracy sought a
constitutional compromise between a state church (as in England) and a private one
(as in France). The two main German churches were not to be part of the state, on the
one hand, or completely separate, on the other. Instead, they received intermediate
status as «public corporations».
Agreements may be made with German churches because they are public corporations, not private ones. Being a public corporation allows the Church, as Cardinal Lehman
puts it, to «be outside the private sphere» without being integrated into government 10.
«Lehmann warnt Staat vor Gleichgültigkeit gegenüber Christentum», DDP, 19 June 2007.
http://www.pr-inside.com/de/lehmann-warnt-staat-vor-gleichgueltigkeit-gegenueb-r158242.htm.
10
115
The practice of dealing with religious groups by means of treaties between State
and Churches (Vertragsstaatskirchenrecht) began after World War I when the abdication of the last Kaiser ushered in the Weimar Republic. The new Weimar Constitution
separated church and state on the one hand 11, and made the churches self-governing
on the other 12. In order to bridge this gap between a religiously neutral state and religious groups which ran their own affairs (and many of Germany’s social services),
the government resorted to agreements. The power of German churches was such
that the state was obliged to negotiate with the churches over the laws that would
govern them.
The Weimar articles on religion were taken over by the present Constitution
(1949). This national constitution, unlike the constitutions of several of the twenty
states in the German federation, makes no explicit mention of agreements as a potential source of laws concerning religion. However, by assuming Weimar treaty
obligations, it acknowledges the continuing validity of accords made with religious
groups before 1919 13. It also effectively permits the conclusion of new ones. It does
this by giving to the individual German states jurisdiction over religion, by default 14,
and then allowing them to use this jurisdiction to conclude treaties with foreign
countries, so long as they get permission from the national government 15. Actually,
the Constitutional Court has ruled that in the case of concordats the individual states
need no clearance from the national government 16.
11
Cf. the Weimar Constitution http://www.zum.de/psm/weimar/weimar_vve.php (WRV), 1919.
The parts of it relating to religion which were taken over by the present German Constitution, 1949,
are listed at the end under «Appendix to Basic Law» http://www.psr.keele.ac.uk/docs/german.htm For
separation of church and state see, for example, WRV Art. 136.1: «Civil and political rights and duties
are neither dependent upon nor restricted by the practice of religious freedom»; WRV Art. 137.1: «There
is no state church».
12
Ibid., WRV Art. 137.3: «Each religious body regulates and administers its affairs independently within the limits of general laws…».
13
Art. 138 I WRV: «State contributions to religious communities, inasmuch they are based
on law, treaty or specific legal claim, are to be handled by state legislation.» [This seems to be
missing from the (smoother) translation of the Weimar Constitution available in the Constitution or
Grundgesetz, (GG.].
14
Grundgesetz der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (1949): Art. 70 I GG: «The Laender [individual
German states] have the power to legislate insofar as this Basic Law does not confer legislative powers
on the Federation».
15
Art 32 III GG: «Insofar as the Laender have power to legislate, they may, with the consent of
the Federal Government, conclude treaties with foreign states».
16
[Constitutional Court Judgement of 26 March 1957, III. 2. (BVerfG, Urteil vom 26. März
1957 - 2 BvG 1/55 - KirchE Bd. 4, S. 91.) http://www.ekd.de/staatskirchenrecht/inhalt/urteilevolltext/
kirche4_46.html.
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Matthias Pulte
The current state church law on the training of religious personnel in Germany
were until now based on the regulations of the Weimar Constitution. The Grundgesetz from 1949 integrated the former constitutional law concerning the religious
affairs by Art. 140 GG, which says: «The provisions of Articles 136, 137, 138, 139,
and 141 of the German Constitution of August 11, 1919 shall be an integral part of
this Grundgesetz (Constitution).» From those articles, Art. 137, 1-4 are interesting in
this context. They say: «(1) There shall be no state church. (2) The freedom to form
religious societies shall be guaranteed. The union of religious societies within the
territory of the Reich shall be subject to no restrictions. (3) Religious societies shall
regulate and administer their affairs independently within the limits of the law that
applies to all. They shall confer their offices without the participation of the state or
the civil community. (4) Religious societies shall acquire legal capacity according to
the general provisions of civil law». The German constitution guarantees religious
freedom and autonomy in wide measure. There is no control over religious communities by the state. The academic and pastoral training of the clergy is totally under
the authority of the church. But, according to the concordats and church-state agreements, the ac academic instruction of the students in most cases takes part in state
run universities. Based on the German concordats of the early 20th century, the church
is according to Art 20 RK free to erect their own faculties of theology 17. There is no
need to say that this norm in practice was not guaranteed during the Nazi-regime.
The Faculty of Saint Augustine SVD for example was confiscated by the Nazis and
turned into an institution of SA during wartime. In Art 19 RK the state guarantees the
existence of the established faculties of theology at state universities in Germany 18.
This is a very interesting norm because some Bavarian faculties in the 1990s experienced how this guarantee was not that cast-iron, as they suspected. Concordat law
is a dynamic norm-system. Every concordat has a clause of friendship which means
that differences or problems will be solved in agreements. One example is Art 33
RK: «Should differences of opinion arise regarding the interpretation or execution of
Article 20 RK: Where other agreements do not exist, the Church has the right to establish
theological and philosophical colleges for the training of its clergy, which are to be wholly dependent
on the Church authorities if no state subsidies are sought.
The establishment, management and administration of theological seminaries and hostels for
seminarians is, within the framework of the laws valid for all, the exclusive prerogative of the Church
authorities.
18
Article 19 RK: Catholic theological faculties in state universities are to be maintained. Their
relation to Church authorities will be governed by the relevant concordats and by their supplementary
protocols with stated regulations, having due regard for the relevant Church decrees. [12] The Reich
Government will endeavour to secure for all of these Catholic faculties in Germany uniformity of treatment.
17
117
any of the Articles of this Concordat, the Holy See and the German Reich will reach
a friendly solution by mutual agreement.» According to this regulation the Apostolic
See and the country of Bavaria agreed that there has to be a reduction of faculties,
because of the ongoing loss of students in the full-time theological program at Passau
and Bamberg. Those faculties were reduced to Institutes of theology. They further
on provide a decentralized theological education for future religious teachers. The
dioceses in the church province of Bamberg decided to collaborate in the education
and formation of the seminarians. As a result, theological education was centralized
for this province in the KU of Eichstätt. While the state of Bavaria wanted to reduce
the financial responsibility, the Apostolic See wanted to strengthen the situation of
Theology at KU Eichstätt. The canonical reason for this strategy can easily be found
in the Code of Canon Law, cc. 807 and 809 19. This legislation massively supports
the erection and elaboration of catholic universities, because of the greater influence
the church can exert over them in comparison to state-run faculties. However, the
intention to undertake new negotiations were quite different, it is an interesting fact,
that the bishops of Passau and Bamberg had not been involved in the state-church
negotiations at that time. Looking at the formal responsibilities for church-state affairs, this seems to be according to the law, but we have to admit, that this is not a
good example of the practice of subsidiarity in the church. Talking about the role of
the public authorities, in the field of theological education for clergy, reference must
be made to Art. 33 RK. This states, that all matters relating to clerical personnel or
Church affairs, which have not been addressed in the concordat, will be regulated for
the ecclesiastical sphere according to current Canon Law.
Finally we have to discuss the regulations for those seeking to become parish
priests according to c. 519 CIC. Art. 14 RK, according to the legislation from 1871,
states that Catholic clerics who hold an ecclesiastical office in Germany or who
exercise pastoral or educational functions must: (a) be German citizens, (b) have
earned a secondary-school graduation certificate which permits study at an institution of higher learning, and (c) have studied philosophy and theology for at least
three years at a German state university, a German ecclesiastical college, or a papal
college in Rome. The secret attachment to the concordat says that they can be given
dispensation from these three regulations by the state administration. In relation to the
lack of priests in Germany, the question has to be asked if there can be dispensation
Can. 807 The Church has the right to erect and direct universities, which contribute to a more
profound human culture, the fuller development of the human person, and the fulfillment of the teaching
function of the Church.
Can. 809 If it is possible and expedient, conferences of bishops are to take care that there are universities or at least faculties suitably spread through their territory, in which the various disciplines are
studied and taught, with their academic autonomy preserved and in light of Catholic doctrine.
19
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Matthias Pulte
from all of these conditions or only from one or two. The norms are not clear on this
point. Therefore we must look at administrative practice. As far as I can see in my
residential diocese, the permission will be asked from time to time to have foreign
priests who have undertaken a prior pastoral examination at the seminary. This of
course is not a fulfilment of the conditions named in Art 14 RK, which is the last in
force Kulturkampf-law. However the civil authorities act generously in these cases.
Religious personnel of course are not only the clergy, but also the lay collaborators in the pastoral fields. For them, more or less, the same regulations are in force
as for the clerics. The major difference is that those students earn a state degree as
a diploma or mag. theol., while the seminarians receive a church degree. Due to the
central functions of the faculties as institutions for the development of priests, the
academic teaching for all Christian faithful according to c. 229 § 1 CIC and scientific
research it is an open question if the education of the later clerics is the central function of a faculty of catholic theology as the Roman documents point out.
Finally, there is a third group to be considered: teachers of religious. Under Art.
7 GG, education in schools is a responsibility of the state. Regarding religious education, however, there is a slight difference. As a consequence of the religious neutrality
of the state, no state authority may provide any teaching that is bound to a certain
faith. On the flip side the state, especially in Germany, has made the discovery that
a religiously-educated citizen is better regarding the morality of his behaviour in the
state. This is the reason why the state wants the churches to collaborate with them in
the field of education. Art. 7 III GG therefore states that the religious education of
the pupils, regarding the content of this type of education, is the responsibility of the
religious community. The administrative equipment and the salary for teachers have
to be provided by the state. This is the most relevant example of a res mixta. Religious
education needs the collaboration of both parties. This is why Art. 21 RK seeks to
guarantee some state influence on education of this special type, namely religious
personnel. It says: «Catholic religious education in elementary, vocational, secondary
schools and institutions of higher learning is a regular school subject, and is to be
taught in accordance with the principles of the Catholic Church. In religious education, special emphasis will be given to inculcating a patriotic, civic and social sense
of duty in the spirit of the Christian faith and the moral code, just as happens in all
other subjects. The curriculum and the selection of textbooks for religious education
will be arranged in agreement with the Church authorities. The opportunity will be
given to the Church authorities to check, with the agreement of the school authorities,
whether the pupils receive religious education in accordance with the teachings and
specifications of the Church.» This contractual norm has been transferred into law in
many states of Germany. Mostly we find the same words and syntax in those norms.
There is, therefore, no need to cite them here.
One developing problem is related to the loss of religiosity in modern society.
In countries where we find a decreasing religiosity, we predict that there will be a
119
lack of teachers of religious education in the future. The situation in reality is that
a religious education according to Art 7 GG, linked to the denomination, cannot be
realized in all primary and secondary schools. Is an ecumenical Christian education
the solution for the present and the future?
There are very few norms in the constitutions of German states on the training of
religious staff. In the last 50 years the state has seen no reason to change anything in
these norms. It is a matter of religious freedom to leave the theological authority over
training religious personnel to church administration and legislation. This is one side
of the coin. On the other hand, the loss of vocation for clerical ministry changes the
policy of the bishops as to the training of priests. It is obvious that there is a certain
need for most of the dioceses belonging to one ecclesiastical province to work together in this field. But we must see from the same point of view, that a state will not
be obliged to support a faculty of theology any longer if the bishop sends his students
to another faculty. At the moment this is the situation in the diocese of Essen with
its faculty at the Ruhr University Bochum. The bishop has decided. No seminarians
remain in the full program of theology. The state seems to consider that the church
has lost her interest in the faculty as a training institution for clergy. Currently the
state and church are in negotiations about the future of this faculty. Surprisingly the
secular university wants to keep this faculty open because of the interdisciplinary
collaboration of this faculty with others on the campus. One other problem may be
on the horizon. If one or more faculties close their doors in the future there will be a
dramatic loss of positions as academics for scientific young people.
An additional problem of the loss of vocations is the need for some bishops to
invite priests from the so-called third world to serve in their dioceses. Their academic
degrees are not accepted as a full program of theology in Germany. If they want to undertake postgraduate studies they have first to receive a licence in theology or canon
law. If they have graduated with an A or B they may continue. A further condition
is the language certificate of DSH. Only stage 2 is sufficient for the enrolment at a
German faculty. Those two conditions, to my mind, also have to be fulfilled if foreign
priests want to serve as pastors in German parishes.
I have already pointed out that the state does not intervene if those priests were
appointed as pastors according to c. 519 CIC with all the requirements met. It is positive to see that the state does not intervene in the appointments of parish priests - a
further sign of religious neutrality. However, we must realize that the loss of supervision by the state leads to a loss of quality in pastoring because of a decline of clergy
education, and competence in language. The state has not only the right but also the
obligation to ensure a certain quality and competence for those clerics who serve in
a responsible position, even in the field of local church and state collaboration. At the
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Matthias Pulte
moment this issue seems to be of no significance to the church and state. It is possible
this lack of interest stems from the view that Christianity can only play the role of
intellectual leadership in society, as long as there is a powerful presence of the church,
even on the local stages of church and state relationship in the parish and the local
communities. Currently the experiences of clergy coming from India and Africa are
too few to give a fair representation as to whether the secondary education of those
priests, in the pastoral seminaries of the dioceses, is sufficient for the pastoral needs
of a postmodern and secularized society.
IV. Islamic theology and the training of Islamic ministers
During the last 15 years the issue of the training of religious personnel took a new
direction, not only in Europe but also in German states. Denominational pluralism increased after the end of the Cold War. People from Eastern Europe came to Germany
to find a new life without poverty and discrimination. As a result the Islamic population increased. Now we have the third generation of Muslim citizens of the German
nation. They have asked for their religious identity in this society dominated by the
Christian religion, despite the fact that less than 60 percent of people are members
of one of the Christian churches. One major problem for the religious education of
Islamic pupils is that the German constitution has no normative basis for developing a similar system to that which currently exists for Christian denominations only.
Speeches at the German Juristentag in 2010 clearly pointed out that this problem cannot be solved easily. The Islamic community does not want to elaborate church-like
structures. This does not fit with the identity of their religion. Islamic theologians say
that Islam does not need church-like structures as Islam is focused on the individual’s
faith, rather than on community structures.
In relation to this institutional problem, the question arises as to whether religious
education on Islam should be based on the neutral provision of information in the
sense of religious studies or religious education according to Art. 7 III GG. We have
to realize that there is no general position on this in Germany to-date. As a result of
the independence of the German states in cultural affairs there is no possibility of
such a general position in the future. This also depends on the different situations
of the Islamic population and their confessions in the individual states. We have to
understand that each state will have its own view on the matter.
Recently jurists have recommended that the more or less pragmatic approach of
single states to religious education causes problems with constitutional law. The main
points of interest here are state control over the constitutional conformity of education
and the training of teachers of religious education. If such teachers are to be educated
at state universities in Germany, there is a constitutional necessity to organize collaboration between state and church according to Art. 7 III GG. Several German state
constitutions declare directly the need for approval of such teachers by the relevant
121
religious community. Others refer indirectly to this condition, by declaring that such
teaching has to be organized according to the regulations of the religious community
in question. If we look pars pro toto at the norms of the Catholic Church, c. 805 CIC
(ius nominandi aut approbandi) is the legal basis which is integrated in the secular
law by those constitutional norms. Some states do not have any regulations on religious education and therefore none regarding personnel. Bremen plays a special role
as religious education there is not bound to a specific faith. Consequently, there are
no regulations for religious teachers either.
If certain states want to establish Islamic religious teaching in addition to the
confessional religious teaching of the Christian communities, they have to negotiate
contracts with certain Islamic communities as they are responsible for the education
and the teachers. Islamic theology must therefore be established in a proportion of
German educational institutions, in order to guarantee that the education and training
of the religious teachers is in accordance with the standards set by the established
religious communities.
Currently there is in place no established religious education in schools across
Germany. However, there are in some schools experiments on a contractual basis
with diverse Islamic communities. The only connection between those communities
is membership in the German Islam Conference. A distinction has to be made between
denominational and religious educational school initiatives, and confessional Islamic
teaching. The religious educational classes give students neutral information about
religion, whilst confessional Islamic courses are taught by teachers who belong to that
religion. So far none of the approaches correspond to an (Islamic) religious education
within the meaning of Article 7 III GG, which generally represents the legal basis for
religious education in schools.
The reality: since 1999 in Northrhine Westphalia (NRW), schools have introduced
religious teaching in the German language. Since 2010 the NRW administration has
wanted to establish courses on Islam in the German language at schools with a certain
number of Muslim pupils. At Münster university a chair for Islamic religious teaching
was erected for the education and training of teachers in this subject.
In Lower Saxony a school has successfully started Islamic teaching in German at
the secondary education level. This initiative was extended to the primary education
level in 2007. The requirement that the principles of the Islamic religious community
comply with the constitution is fixed institutionally by a «roundtable for Islamic religious instruction» in the Lower Saxony Ministry. Of course this is not according to
Art. 7 IIII GG, but the approach may represent a solution as to how incompatibility
between this religion and the constitutional law could be overcome.
In Bavaria an experiment by a school in Islamic teaching under the scientific
supervision of the University of Erlangen-Nürnberg started in Erlangen in 2004.
This experiment has been successful. It is planned to extend the experiment to other
schools and school-forms where comparable circumstances exist to those in Erlangen.
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Matthias Pulte
The cooperation partner of the state was the Erlangen Islamic community. In the long
run a country-wide form of Islamic teaching is to be provided. This has failed thus
far due to the absence of a contact person at country level.
In Rhineland-Palatinate Islamic religious education has been piloted in the German language since 2003/04 - at a primary school in Ludwigshafen. This is based
on a curriculum authorized by the Ministry in consultation with local contacts. In
the school year 2008/09, such denominational religious instruction was introduced
at a second elementary school in Mainz. Starting in the next school year, the Islamic
teaching will be expanded in Ludwigshafen and in other cities in secondary schools.
At the beginning of the school year 2006/ 07, Baden-Württemberg started a pilot
school project for denominational Islamic religious education in twelve elementary
schools; this lasted until 2010. The basis for this teaching was a curriculum for grades
one to four. It was developed by a steering group including representatives of the four
applicant Sunnite organizations, an educationist and a religious pedagogue educator
at the University of Karlsruhe, under the direction of the Ministry of Culture. This
control group exists due to the absence of a representative Muslim religious community. Local and regional parents’ associations and mosque communities should
act as the contact for the country administration. If this school experiment leaves a
positive impression, it will be expanded into religious education properly so-called.
In Hessen for quite some time there has been no interest in organizing Islamic
teaching in the school system. Recently, there have been plans to introduce Islamic
teaching in a fashion similar to the Lower Saxony model. The institutional contact for
this would be a round table with several Muslim organizations. Now (2013), Hessen
has been the first state to adopt Islamic teaching on the basis of Article 7 III GG. The
two religious communities, DİTİB Hessen eV and the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, in the Federal Republic of Germany eV, fulfill the formal requirements of Art. 7
III GG and are thus cooperation partners for the establishment of confessional Islamic
teaching in Hessen. Islamic teaching on this basis is a regular subject under state
auspices according to state curricula in the German language and by state teachers.
The Islamic training options at the University Gießen (JLU) are the educational basis
for the Islamic denominational religious instruction being taught in primary schools,
commencing in the school year 2013/2014. The preparations for the qualification of
teachers standing in the Hessian service started in March 2013.
Having considered these experiments in relation to the integration of Islamic
teaching into the German educational system, there are questions concerning the
confessional identity of the teacher, subject and pupils as the German constitution
requires. As the local cooperation partners and the Muslim pupils at the schools do not
belong to the same denomination, we must ask: for whom does the country provide
religious education? Is this implementation a more or less helpless attempt to accommodate Islamic pluralism which is not compatible with the constitutional system?
Is this way of implementing new structures therefore only a quick-fix by politicians
123
to keep an increasingly confident community quiet? Is this an attempt to prevent
Islamistic action? And what about the teachers and their training? Do they receive
a theological education at any German university, or are the chairs of Islam more or
less chairs for Islamic science, as they were before? Let us keep in mind that the typical Islamic confession only reaches so far as the authority of the referring school, to
which the individual Muslim wants to belong. A full compatibility of European state
and Islam communions does not seem to be available for me, despite the fact it will
be more advantageous in relation to collaboration. The further question is whether
this is necessary for a minority of approximately 4 % of the German population. This
is not a question of religious freedom, which is granted for everybody in this country.
It still remains as a question of political opportunity.
Regarding the foundation of chairs of Islamic theology at German Universities,
we can recognize a certain interest of the Universities and the state to build those
institutions. One major problem is the appointment of chair-holders in these institutions, as Islamic communities claim a right of collaboration in the election of the
professors. The Universities provide a consulting committee, although the authority of
these committees is not clear thus far. The state of NRW, for instance, has developed
the curriculum of the Islamic teachers at Münster University. This is in conjunction
with a consulting committee, but in reality other Islamic groups (Deutscher Islamrat) disagree with the state as to the validity of the representation of the committee,
and if the committee is sufficient according to Art. 7 GG. All these questions remain
unanswered - most significantly the question of the education of the Islamic preachers. The religious communities seem to be divided in opinion, in an area where the
state has no influence. The issue is whether the German state has a desire to recover
more authority in this area. There may be good reasons for this as can be seen in the
problem of importing foreign clerics into Germany. But this is a political not a legal
question. Until now the function of those chairs is to educate the religious teachers
in Islam in the German language so a supervision of the teaching, according to the
constitutional conformity, is possible. Whether the respective education would be sufficient for the education of Islamic preachers is a question that can only be answered
by the responsible religious community.
PERSONNEL IN EUROPE. A REPORT FROM GREECE
Lina Papadopoulou 1
This report deals with the involvement of public authorities in the training of
religious personnel and other relevant staff by exploring the system developed in
Greece. The report has three parts: (1) history; (2) contemporary law; and (3) emerging mechanisms. The term ‘ecclesiastical education’ means educational structures
institutionalised by both the Church and the State with the purpose of educating and
training prospective religious personnel and accommodating the needs of the Church;
it is used throughout the report to describe the subject field. As the highly important
recent law (L 3432/2006) 2 states: «the aim of Ecclesiastical Education is to promote
and train the clergy and laymen of the Orthodox Church in Greece so as to raise the
level of their education and Christian ethos». In other words, ecclesiastical education
mainly, but not exclusively, aims to develop executives for recruitment into various
sectors of the Church, on the basis of their specific interests and talents, as well as
to support those who choose to be appointed priests and join the clergy. As will be
shown below, ecclesiastical education in Greece was undertaken for a short period of
time by the Church itself, although in modern Greece it has been the State itself that
has organised and financed the preparation and training of Orthodox Christian ministers, through a complicated and fluid system. The same does not apply, however, to
Muslim ministers, who are educated partly in Greece and partly outside the country.
Assistant Professor of Constitutional Law, Jean Monnet Chair for European Constitutional Law
and Culture, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. E-mail: [email protected]. I would like
to thank Prof N Magioros for valuable advice, Mr A Kehagias for bibliographical assistance and Ms A
Kokkinidou for linguistically editing the text.
2
Art 2 of Law 3432/03-02-2006, Government Gazette (henceforth GG) issue 14, vol A’, on
«Structure and Function of Ecclesiastical Education».
1
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Lina Papadopoulou
I. History of the mode of training of religious staff in the 18th, 19th
and 20th centuries
A. General presentation: modes of training of ministers in the prevailing Greek
Orthodox Church
1. The 18th-19th centuries
Ecclesiastical education in Greece is rooted in the monasteries of the 17th century.
It was revived in the 1720s after the establishment and operation of the ‘School of
Patmos’ (Patmiada Scholi) 3. In 1749 monks from Mount Athos (Agion Oros) took
the initiative to found a school near the Monastery of Vatopedi, which would later
be named ‘Athonias Ecclesiastical Academy’, and this attracted many students from
the whole of the Orthodox world and beyond. In Corfu, which was not yet united
with Greece, the British philhellene, Earl Frederick North Guilford, founded the first
Hieratic School (Kapadochos), 1824-5.
After the formation of an independent Greek state, the first governor, I. Kapodistrias, established the first seminary (Hieratic School) in Poros in 1830 4. In the
‘Hieratic Schools’, 13-18 year-old students were educated and prepared for the
clerical profession. In this sense, this specialised form of education for prospective
clergymen, which was first developed by the Roman Catholic Church, was gradually
adopted by the Orthodox Church. Since then more than 65 ecclesiastical schools of
varying types have been established.
Formal ecclesiastical education in Greece was established through Royal Decree
(RD) 14/1833 5. In 1844 the ‘Rizarios School’ 6 was founded and has since occupied
a predominant position in ecclesiastical education. In 1856, a law 7 provided for the
foundation of ecclesiastical schools running four-year courses for those preparing to
serve in the Orthodox Church 8. These schools belonged, in administrative terms, to
the Ministry of Ecclesiastical Affairs 9, and functioned under the supervision of the
Holy Synod (Iera Synodos) of the Church of Greece. They were administered by a
five-member supervisory committee, presided over by the local bishop (metropolitan),
two lay people and two clergymen, who were nominated by the metropolitan and
See M Malandrakis, The Patmias School, Athens: Leonis Pubs 1911, p 1 (in Greek).
Art 15 of Resolution 409/03-02-1830 (GG 1830, 57) establishes «an ecclesiastical school for
those dedicated to ecclesiastical service». See K. Diovouniotis, ‘The First Ecclesiastical School in free
Greece’, Ieros Syndesmos [journal], 88/1909, 1 and 89/1909, 11.
5
‘Concerning the formation and competence of the Secretary of Ecclesiastical Affairs and
Public Education’.
6
Recognised by RD 12/24-05-1841.
7
Law 367 (ΤΞΖ΄) ‘On Hieratic Schools’.
8
Art 1 of Law 367 (ΤΞΖ)’/05-10-1856 (Government Gazette 54/vol. Α).
9
RD/25-10-1856 ‘on special taxes for the maintenance of Hieratic Schools’ was issued.
3
4
127
approved by the Minister of Ecclesiastical Affairs and Public Education. By offering
scholarships and accommodation to all students 10, the state tried to induce qualified
young Greeks to join the clergy 11. The director of each school (Scholarchis) was appointed by the Ministry, which was also required to approve the curriculum and the
books proposed by the Holy Synod.
Another type of seminary appeared in the early second half of the 19th century:
the Ierodidaskaleia (teacher training hieratic schools), and their graduates could
serve as both priests and school teachers. Since the graduates of the Teacher-Training
Schools (Central School - 1829, the Model School of Mutual Teaching Methodology
– 1830, and the first schools at Nafplio and later Athens - 1834) were insufficient for
the learning needs of the independent state; and parish priests were - officially, since
during the Ottoman Empire they exercised this duty unofficially - assigned to undertake teaching duties in 1844. Thus, the difference between Hieratic Schools (Ieratikes
Scholes) and the Teacher-Training Schools (Ierodidaskaleia) lies in the fact that the
latter could officially educate teachers 12.
2. The first half of the 20th century
In 1909 13 the age of students eligible to attend the ‘Hieratic Schools’ was extended to cover the 14-21 age range while an apolytirio (certificate of completion of
upper secondary education) issued by a Greek school became a prerequisite for attendance at them 14. A ‘General Ecclesiastical Fund’ was also established 15 to finance
the work of the preachers (Ierokirikes) 16, teachers and professors teaching theological
courses. In 1917 17, the duration of studies at the Hieratic Schools increased from 4
to 5 years and entrance examinations were introduced. The Minister of Education
decided upon the curriculum after consultation with the Holy Synod and exercised
his supervision over the Hieratic Schools through the relevant school supervisor (in
respect of pedagogical courses) while the competent metropolitan, and thus the Holy
RD/11-01-1857.
Th Christoforidis and Aik Rossiou, Explorations into Ecclesiastical Education (Kilkis:
ed Ziti 2006), 24f.
12
See also A Korakides, Ierodidaskaleio of Vellas 1911-1989 (Athens: ed. Vassilopoulos
1993), 49 (in Greek).
13
Law 3435 (ΓΥΛΕ΄) (4-12-1909, GG GG 282).
14
RD/13-10-1911 (GG 287) changed the courses taught.
15
Law 3414 (ΓΥΙΔ) (/19-11-1909 (GG 270), Art 2.
16
The education of Ierokirikes was regulated by L 4596/02-05-1930, GG GG 138. Like all the
other institutions these special schools were abolished and re-established several times during the 20th
century.
17
Through RD/10-06-1917 (GG 105).
10
11
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Synod, supervised the theological courses. The graduates of these Schools were entitled to be admitted only to the University Faculties of Theology 18.
In 1918 19, the ‘Rizarios School’, which had been an Ecclesiastical Gymnasium
since its foundation, functioned for a decade as a Ierodidaskaleio, which boosted the
number of its entrants. Its graduates had the right to enter the Faculty of Theology at
the University of Athens and, following the completion of a 4-year course, could work
as schoolteachers, while those wishing to become priests could attend the Seminary
Preparatory School. Later 20, they also acquired the right to teach theology in schools
and after the age of 30 they could also be ordained priests and/or serve as supervisors
of elementary schools. After a 1921 law 21, stipulating that those seeking to be appointed as priests in small towns were required to complete a six-month ecclesiastical
internship 22, ‘Preparatory Ecclesiastical Schools’ were established, although they only
survived for two years 23.
In 1926 most of the twenty two Hieratic Schools in existence at that time were
abolished 24, on the grounds that the number of their graduates was disproportionate
to the Church’s needs, while the elementary education sector had become overloaded
with their graduates, who were considered to be incompetent as teachers 25. In 1927
the remaining Hieratic Schools, which were restricted to 15 in number, were organised
on the basis of the ‘Rizarios’ model and offered a five-year study program 26. Graduates could either be appointed as teachers or enrol at university, though only in the
Faculty of Theology 27. Graduates of the 3rd grade of the ‘Hellenic School’ could sit
for the entrance examinations provided that they were healthy Greek Orthodox males
and that they submitted a certificate from the local metropolitan. Pedagogy and theology were the main courses taught. The Schools were organised as Legal Entities of
Christoforidis / Rossiou, 56f.
On the grounds of Law 1432/1918 «On the Organisation of the Rizarios Ecclesiastical School
and the Ierodidaskaleio».
20
Through RD/11-09-1897, GG GG 129.
21
According to Arts 6 & 7 of Law 2677/19-08-1921 (GG 147).
22
Christoforides / Rossiou, 81.
23
They were abolished by LD/31-12-1923 (GG 390).
24
Through RD/17-3-1926 (GG94).
25
Ministry of Education, General Report on the Draft Laws, submitted on 2.04.1929 by the
Minister of Education, Athens, p. 41, as mentioned in: Christos Antoniou, The Education of Greek
Teachers (1828-2000) (Athens: Ellinika Grammata 2002), p. 92 (in Greek). It is worth noting that most
graduates of the Hieratic Schools preferred to be appointed as teachers rather than priests due to the fact
that teachers’ salaries were higher.
26
Through RD of 12-11-1927 (GG 251, A’) on the ‘Organisation of Public Hieratic Schools’,
which explicitly mentions ecclesiastical education.
27
This right was later abolished by Law 4368/17-08-1929 (GG 291), which stipulated that graduates only had the right to enrol at the Gymnasia or Teacher-Training Schools (Didaskaleia).
18
19
129
Public Law and they were entitled to establish ‘Preparatory Schools’ of at least one
year’s duration within their organisational context 28.
The 1929 Reform 29 transformed all the Ierodidaskaleia 30 into 4- or 6-grade
Hieratic Schools (Ieratikes Scholes), whose number was also limited to six. 31 Soon
afterwards, all the Hieratic Schools were abolished except for the ‘Rizarios’ and the
Saint Anastasia Schools, to which the students from all the abolished schools were
transferred while the length of studies was increased once more to five 32. Graduates
had the right to enter the Faculty of Theology or to be ordained priests. A special Tutorial Centre (Frontistirio) for Preachers (Ierokirikes) was established at the ‘Rizarios
School’ 33. The same law 34 provided for the foundation of four 35 Hieratic Tuition
Centres (Frontistiria), including two at senior level, for High or Didaskaleio School
graduates with studies of one year’s duration, and two at junior level. Their aim was
to prepare prospective candidates for the clergy. In 1932 the relevant legislation was
codified 36. In the meantime the Church was trying to guarantee the right to be appointed as schoolteachers for the graduates of these Hieratic Schools 37.
In 1935, by virtue of a Synodical Encyclical, all metropolitan sees could establish
‘Ecclesiastical Preparatory Schools’, instead of the abolished hieratic tutorial centres
(Frontistiria) with the aim of educating parish clergy. Compulsory Law 887/1937 led
to the re-establishment of the Ierodidaskaleia and stipulated that the existing ‘Preparatory Schools’ could be converted to Ierodidaskaleia. During 1936-1938, the six-grade
Ecclesiastical Schools were established. Along with the Greek Orthodox schools, a
Hieratic School of the Roman Catholic Church and a corresponding Ottoman School
also operated in Athens.
In 1940, during World War Two, Law 2553 38 established six Hieratic Schools,
where those selected to become parish priests were obliged to study before ordination,
as well as two Ecclesiastical Schools (in Corinth and Saint Anastasia) with six-year
courses, equivalent to the state lower secondary schools (gymnasia). Graduates pos-
RD/12-11-1927, GG 251.
Law 4370/21-08-1929 (FEK 303).
30
It is worth mentioning that the Ierodidaskaleia placed an emphasis on agricultural training,
see Christoforides and Rossiou, 119f.
31
According to the Supervisory Board of Ecclesiastical Education, in 1929 there were 14 Hieratic Schools, see Ecclesia (Official journal of the Greek Church), 25/1929, pp 191-195.
32
Law 5142/16-07-1931 (FEK 207).
33
Law 4596/02-05-1930 (FEK 138).
34
Law 5142/16-07-1931 (FEK 207).
35
These were established within the framework of the Rizarios and Saint Anastasia Hieratic
Schools. The following year they moved to Corinth and Vellas respectively.
36
Art 6 of L 5408/25-04-1932 (FEK 131).
37
Christoforides and Rossiou, 113.
38
Compulsory Law 2553/17-09-1940 (FEK 294).
28
29
130
Lina Papadopoulou
sessed the rights of both parish priests (ephimerioi) and gymnasium graduates. At the
same time the five-grade Hieratic Schools were abolished. Also, in order to meet the
needs of restructuring, many Farming Schools were established, including the Ecclesiastical Farming Schools 39 which survived for only two years before becoming
‘Tuition Centres’ for the training of parish priests.
Since the primary objective of the Ierodidaskaleia had been to educate and prepare clergy, women were not admitted, despite the fact that they had the right to enrol
at the secular Didaskaleia (Teacher-Training Schools) 40. It was only in 1943 41 that
women were allowed to enter the newly-created second-year ‘Senior class for Women’
at the Ierodidaskaleia. Graduates of the latter were awarded a certificate equivalent
to that awarded by the Pedagogical School. This measure, made possible as a result
of the war, did not last long.
3. Since World War Two
After World War Two, it was observed that Greek ecclesiastical education had
proved to be ineffective 42, for two reasons. First, the types of schools had been changing too often - six different types until then, namely: (i) Hieratic Schools; (ii) Hieratic
Tutorial Centres [Frontistiria]; (iii) Ecclesiastical Schools; (iv) Preparatory Schools; (v)
Hieratic Teacher-Training Schools (Ierodidaskaleia); and (vi) Ecclesiastical Farming
Schools. Secondly, these schools did not exclusively aim to train the clergy. On the basis
of of Law 540/1945 43 the types of ecclesiastical educational institution were limited to
three. Ecclesiastical Schools became seven-grade schools and admitted those who held
a graduation certificate from a six-grade primary school. Graduates could be ordained
parish priests or appointed to metropolitan sees, churches and other organisations as
administrative staff, and/or they could enter the University School of Theology.
In 1958 44, all Ecclesiastical Schools became six-grade schools. Graduates with
a certificate of completion of the second grade of the six-grade high schools were
entitled to be admitted to these schools. At the same time the Higher Ecclesiastical
School of Thessaloniki, offering a three-year course of study, was founded «for the
education of parish priests of the borderland territories», while those appointed parish
priests could also serve as teachers in the same village if the teaching position was
Law 328/14-07-1943 (FEK 205).
According to an 1834 law by von Maurer ‘on elementary schools’.
41
Law 748/07-10-1943 (FEK 340).
42
See in detail P. Zografos, Ecclesiastical Education and Clergy (Athens, 1969) p 11ff (in
Greek), where the author estimates that only 25% of the graduates of the Higher Ecclesiastical Schools
joined the Clergy.
43
Compulsory Law 540/07-09-1945 (FEK 230).
44
Legislative Decree (LD) 3885/1958.
39
40
131
vacant. It is to be noted that the parish priests who also worked as teachers were paid
for both occupations.
During the dictatorship from 1967-74 two interesting developments occurred.
First, the possibility of distance training was established at the Higher Hieratic
Tuition Centre (Frontistirio) on Tinos for those wanting to work as parish priests 45.
Secondly, the Ecclesiastical Schools acquired 46 the status of ‘legal entities of public
law’ functioning under the financial control of the State, while their teaching staff
appointments had to be sanctioned by the Holy Synod. It is also worth noting that
until 1971 ecclesiastical education was part of the public education system. From
that year 47, the responsibility for administering, organising and running ecclesiastical
schools was assigned to the Church of Greece. This was the status quo until 1976,
when 48, mainly due to financial hardships, these schools were placed back under State
custody and sponsorship 49.
Between 1957 and 1984, a school for women, the ‘School of Social Work’,
trained deaconesses (diakonesses). It was not until 1983, however, that a long-term
possibility was established for women to be admitted into the Ecclesiastical School of
Patmos. During the three years from 1976 to 1979 ecclesiastical education comprised
two levels, the middle and the higher levels. The middle-level graduates could be appointed to parish priest posts of the second wage category (class B) while the higherlevel graduates were to be paid in accordance with a higher wage category (class A).
The Secondary Tuition Centres re-appeared in 1976 50, when the one-year ‘Special
Schools for Hieratic Education’ were also established 51 in order to educate prospective
parish priests. In 1977 52, ecclesiastical education was divided into two sectors: (a)
Compulsory Law 137/03-10-1967. See Christoforides and Rossiou, 194ff.
LD 126/17-02-1969.
47
By virtue of LD 876/17-05-1971 (FEK 95). It is interesting to note that the special annual
budget dedicated to the Greek Church, and especially Ecclesiastical Education, destined for the payment
of staff and the operation of the Ecclesiastical Schools, was transferred to the Standing Holy Synod
(Diarkis Iera Synodos - DIS) in a lump sum or in instalments, in order to cover the same needs. Amongst
other types of school, schools were then functioning for clergy and candidate clergymen, monks, cantors and deaconesses, nurses, and for Christian missions abroad. The Higher Hieratic Schools were also
re-established (Church Regulation K.23/12-07-1971, GG 134) in order to prepare those whose were
graduates of Gymnasia and wanted to become Church ministers. Also seven-year ‘Hieratic Schools of
Secondary Education’ were established for elementary school graduates aged fifteen, for the preparation
of future clergymen (Church Regulation K.22/14-07-1971, GG 138).
48
Law 476/18-11-1976 (FEK 308).
49
Law 389/27-07-1976 (FEK 195) raised again the budget for ecclesiastical education, which
was cut in half after the Church had taken over.
50
DP 178/20-03-1976 (FEK 65). Three year study program for graduates of elementary schools
up to 16 years of age.
51
Law 346/10-06-1976 (FEK 142).
52
PD 1025/10-11/1977, GG 344.
45
46
132
Lina Papadopoulou
the Secondary Education sector (Mesi Ekpaidefsi, mesi meaning middle), consisting
of Frontistiria 53, three-grade Gymnasia and four-grade Lykeia (Lyceums, the second
tier of secondary education), and the ‘Rizarios’ Higher Hieratic School of Athens; and
(b) the Higher Education sector (Anotera Ekpaidefsi), consisting of two Ecclesiastical
Teacher-Training Academies (Vellas and Thessaloniki), the ‘Athonias’ Ecclesiastical
Academy and the Higher Ecclesiastical School of Athens. The students of all these
institutions (except for those of the ‘Rizarios’ School) received state funding.
The Ierodidaskaleio of Vellas and Higher Ecclesiastical School of Thessaloniki
had been renamed the ‘Ecclesiastical Pedagogical Academy of Thessaloniki and the
Convent of Vellas, respectively, and continued their work until the entry into force of
Law 1566/1985 which brought an end to the tradition whereby Ecclesiastical Schools
combined the education of priests and teachers alike and led to a reduction in their
students’ numbers 54. In 1992 four ‘Higher Ecclesiastical Schools’ (in Thessaloniki,
Vellas, Crete and Athens) operated and accepted students while ‘Ecclesiastical Institutes of Professional Training’ were also established 55.
In 2003 56 there were: (a) eighteen four-grade ecclesiastical lycea 57; (b) six ecclesiastical lower secondary schools (Gymnasia); and (c) four three-grade ecclesiastical
preparatory secondary schools. Each school was governed by a school board (eforia),
appointed by the respective Prefect, presided over by the local bishop and holding
financial and administrative responsibilities. Certificates awarded by ecclesiastical
schools of any type were completely equivalent to the corresponding certificates issued by regular (secular) schools 58.
B. Administration of religious education
In 1925, a special ‘Directorate for Religions’ 59 was added to the structure of the
Ministry of Religious Affairs and Public Education, to which the competency for all
religious affairs, including ecclesiastical education, was transferred 60. The latter was
abolished in 1952 and the General Directorate for Education became competent for all
These ceased to exist 88 years after they were first introduced in 1918.
Christoforides / Rossiou, 344f.
55
Art 20 of Law 2009/1992 (FEK 18).
56
S Troianos and G Poulis, Ecclesiastical Law, 2nd ed, Athens-Komotini: Ant Sakkoulas 2003,
346 (in Greek).
57
PD 1025/77, Law 2525/97 with a special executive note for issuing additional presidential
decrees on the matter, Art. 1§12.
58
The operation and curriculum of the schools are governed by PD 287/97 (students entering
tertiary education), 407/98 (unified ecclesiastical schools), 215/01 (evaluating students of unified ecclesiastical lycea), 73/01 (rules of operation for HESs).
59
See also Law 180/1945.
60
LD 29-12-1925, GG 423, A’.
53
54
133
matters of ecclesiastical education. Consequently, a professor of a theological faculty
was appointed as Head of the General Directorate 61. In 1959 it was explicitly declared
that ecclesiastical education was to come under the aegis of General Education and
not of Vocational/Professional Education. In 1967 62, the ‘General Directorate of Religions’ of the Central Service of the ‘Ministry for National Education and Religions’
was restructured and divided into two units covering ecclesiastical administration,
and ecclesiastical education and research. The latter became the competent authority for - among other things - the organisation, supervision and administration of the
schools belonging to the ecclesiastical education sector along with its personnel, while
in a more general manner it was assigned the theological and hieratic education of
parish priests 63.
Through PD 417/1987 64, a ‘General Secretariat of Religious Affairs (GSRA)’ was
established in the Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs, which was entrusted
with the supervision of all religious affairs and the implementation of government
policy in this field. At one time it used to exercise general State supervision of all
religions. It was divided into the Directorate of Ecclesiastical Administration, the
Department of Ecclesiastical Education, and the Directorate for Non-Orthodox Christians and Adherents of Other Faiths. The Directorate of Ecclesiastical and Religious
Education 65 monitored the operation of the Ecclesiastical Secondary Schools and
‘Hieratic Second Opportunity Schools’ (ISDE). It was made responsible for educational matters, curricula administrative issues, and issues relating to preachers of the
Church of Greece. In 2000 the competencies for both elementary and middle-grade
public schools were transferred to the Prefectures 66.
II. The types and modes of education and formation of religious personnel: current legislation
A. Ecclesiastical education
The current system of ecclesiastical education was introduced to revise the previous provision by Law 3432/2006 67. This law laid down that ecclesiastical schools
should train recruits for the Orthodox Church in Greece and should be supervised by
the Ministry of National Education and Religious Affairs (Art 1). Almost all ecclesi-
Law 3283/01-07-1955, GG 168, A’.
RD 230/30-03-1967, GG 43, A’.
63
Art 4 RD 230.
64
PD 417/19-10-1987, GG 186
65
This directorate was established by PD 147/1976 (FEK 56 Α΄).
66
See Law 2817/14-03-2000 & PD 161/23-06-2000, A’, on «Transfer to Prefectures of competencies of local interest’.
67
Law 3432/03-02-2006 (FEK 14) on ‘Structure and Function of Ecclesiastical Education’.
61
62
134
Lina Papadopoulou
astical educational schools operate as boarding schools providing free accommodation and meals to their students. More specifically, according to the above-mentioned
law, ecclesiastical education was to be provided by the following institutions (see
also Table 1):
1. Ecclesiastical lower (gymnasia) and higher (lykeia) secondary schools
Three-grade ecclesiastical gymnasia and three-grade ecclesiastical lykeia have
the same curriculum as all other state secondary schools, as well as specialised ecclesiastical subjects such as the Old and New Testaments, Byzantine music, hagiology and the Divine Liturgy 68. Their primary aim is to educate and sufficiently train
learners in the values of Orthodox faith and Christianity, to staff the Orthodox Church
and to fulfil the Church’s needs for secular clergy. Graduates are granted a certificate
equivalent to those issued by all other state secondary schools and their graduates are
entitled to participate in the applicable admission system for university entrance 69.
2. Supreme Ecclesiastical Academies
Until 2006 there were four ‘Higher Ecclesiastical Academies’ (HEA), which operated in accordance with the rules in force for the HEA in Athens 70. In 2006, they were
renamed ‘Supreme Ecclesiastical Academies’ 71, and they now constitute a part of the
state tertiary education sector, admitting graduates from any lyceum through the General
(Pan-Hellenic) University Admission Exams, provided that they are Orthodox Chris-
N. Maghioros, «Religion in Public Education – Report on Greece», in: G. Robbers (ed),
Religion in Public Education, Proceedings of the Conference Trier, 11 – 14 November 2010, Germany
2011, pp 195ff (204).
69
Art 20 para 2 of Law 3432/2006.
70
The HEA of Athens [governed by the royal decrees (RD) 45/68, 643/72 and Presidential
Decree (PD) 1025/77], The HEA of Heraklion, Crete (Art. 10 Law 1999/91), the HEA of Thessaloniki
(decree 3885/58, PD 1025/77 and Art 69§3 of Law 1566/85 and Art 62 of Law 1946/91) and the HEA
of Vellas (Law 887/37, PD 1025/77, 511/78, Art. 69§3 of Law 1566/85 and Art. 62 of Law 1946/91).
71
This transformation and elevation in status was criticised by many of the professors in the
two Theology Faculties, who insisted that there was no need to add to the already high number of theology graduates. This criticism was justified if one takes into account the idea – according to the political
explanations of the then Minister of Education and Religious Affairs - that their sole aim was to produce parish priests. If this was true, then the Schools should have remained ‘Higher’ – and not become
‘Supreme’ - in order to be in line with Art 16 para 7 of the Greek Constitution, which provides that
«Professional and any other form of special education shall be provided by the State, through schools
of a higher level and for a time period not exceeding three years, as specifically provided by law which
also defines the professional rights of the graduates of such schools; professional and any other form
of special education shall be provided by the State through schools of a higher level, with a duration of
no more than 3 years, as stipulated by the law, which defines the professional rights of their graduates».
68
135
tians. They offer studies 72, of eight semesters’ duration, which aim to train recruits for
the Greek Orthodox Church in Greece and grant tertiary education degrees. It should
be noted that especially for the programmes of clerical studies only male students are
eligible (Art 4 para 1 L 3432) 73. Their graduates are exclusively appointed to positions
in the Greek Orthodox Church and may not be appointed as teachers in schools.
3. Ecclesiastical Institutes of Vocational Training
The Ecclesiastical institutes of Vocational Training provide post-secondary
ecclesiastical training that lasts for two semesters and falls within the category of
non-compulsory, post-secondary, non-tertiary vocational training. Their operational
costs are covered by the Ministry of National Education and Religious Affairs budget.
There are also eleven departments of ecclesiastical training, located in the state Institutes of Vocational Training 74.
4. ‘Second Opportunity Hieratic Schools’ (ISDE)
‘Second Opportunity Hieratic Schools’ (ISDE) are institutions of lifelong learning offering two-year programmes which are followed by members of the clergy or
laymen over the age of 18 75.
5. School for Church Ministry (Diakonia-Diaconate)
Art 27 of Law 3432/2006 provided for the foundation of a School for Church
Ministry (Diakonia-Diaconate), aiming to provide life-long learning and further
The Curricula pertaining to all the Higher Ecclesiastical Academies are as follows: (a) In all
cases, the Curriculum of Hieratic Studies; (b) The Programme of Teaching on Handling Sacred Church
Relics, in Athens and Thessaloniki; and (c) The Programme of Ecclesiastical Music and Chanting, in
Herakleion and Ioannina (Vellas). Likewise, the Programme of Correspondence of the Certificate issued for graduates of the Higher Ecclesiastical Academies runs for all those interested and lasts for two
semesters.
73
Sexual discrimination is a huge issue for the Greek Orthodox Church, which does not allow
women to join the clergy. Another issue of discrimination is raised by the provision of Art 4§2 L 3234
according to which: Especially for admission to the Hieratic Studies programme, a recommendation letter issued by the bishop of the place of residence of the candidate is to be taken into account. The letter
should confirm if the candidate possesses an appropriate inclination and aptitude and if the requirements
for the hieratic office are fulfilled. Art 14 of Law 3687/2008 stipulates that a Ministerial Decision may
be issued to regulate the admission of students to the programmes implemented by the Higher Ecclesiastical Academies without a prior examination and without the submission of a recommendation letter.
74
See N. Maghioros, «Religious Education in Greece», in The Routledge International Handbook of Religious Education, D. Davis and E. Miroshnikova (eds.), (Oxford: Routledge, 2013), p.
130ff (137).
75
Art. 21 para 2 Law 3234.
72
136
Lina Papadopoulou
education for Church ministers, either clergymen or lay people, as well as (Art 26)
the establishment of a legal entity of private law called the ‘Centre of Ecclesiastical
Education’ (Estia Ekklisiastikis Ekpaidefsis) which functions under the auspices of
the Church and takes care of the ecclesiastical school students’ accommodation and
welfare.
6. Training institutions
Apart from the aforementioned state schools, the Church is equally entitled to
found educational institutions (Art. 43§1 of the ‘Charter 76 of the Orthodox Church’),
exclusively for the purposes of training and continuing or further education. The
Standing Holy Synod of the Church of Greece is empowered to issue executive orders
for the regulation of specific issues pertaining to these training facilities.
B. Administrative structure of the ministerial Directorate for Ecclesiastical
Education
Those working in the ecclesiastical education sector are civil servants 77 of the
Ministry of National Education and Religious Affairs. The administrative personnel
of ecclesiastical schools are hired and promoted in accordance with the principles
that apply to all Public Administration personnel, as stipulated in Law 2683/99 (see
Table 2).
The ‘Directorate of Ecclesiastical Education and Religious Formation’ 78 is
competent for all issues relating to ecclesiastical education. It is divided into two
sections: (i) the Personnel Section, responsible for the appointment, transfer, posting, promotion and layoff of staff and general personnel issues in the ecclesiastical
education schools, as well as in the Overseas Missions Division (Apostoliki Diakonia)
of the Church of Greece, which organises the missionary and cultural activities of the
Church, and preachers; and (ii) the Administrative Section, which is responsible for
the establishment, suspension, modification, and transfer of ecclesiastical schools, as
well as their administrative rules and all issues pertaining to the registration, transfer
and evaluation of students, and also for monitoring the administration of the ‘Rizarios’
Ecclesiastical School and the Athonias Ecclesiastical Academy. Within this Directorate there are two special corporate bodies: (i) the ‘Government Council of Ecclesias-
The new Charter was passed through Law 590/31-05-1977 (FEK 146).
Issues regarding their employment status are also governed, apart from the laws stated above,
by laws 1517/85, Art. 1§6, 1566/85 Art. 69, 2530/97 Art. 18§§6,7, 2126/98 Art. 2§10, 2942/02 Art. 4,
and presidential decrees 292, 1025/1977, 1249/81, 333/85, 366/89, 357/93, 332/98.
78
PD 147/1976.
76
77
137
tical Education’ 79 (Y.S.D.E.E.), which is concerned with personnel issues, and (ii) the
Supervisory Board for Secondary Ecclesiastical Education (E.S.D.E.E.) 80, which is
concerned with educational matters related to the schools of ecclesiastical education.
C. Faculties of theology in public and private universities
Two Schools of Theology (in the Universities of Athens and Thessaloniki respectively) operate in Greece, both of them public and without a formally confessional
character, accepting lyceum graduates on the basis of their performance in the generally applicable Pan-Hellenic university entrance exams. In the University of Athens,
the Faculty of Theology was the first to be established out of the first four Faculties
in 1837. Since 1982, the Faculty has had two Schools: Theology and Social Theology. The Faculty of Theology of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki had already
been established by law in 1925 but it was actually founded in 1942. Since 1964 it has
comprised three Schools: Theology, Pastoral Theology (Poimantiki Theologia) and
Social Ministry (Koinoniki Diakonia), which was later abolished because it did not
appeal to a satisfactory number of students. In 1994 the School of Pastoral Theology
was renamed ‘School of Pastoral and Social Theology’.
Theology School graduates seek employment mainly as members of the clergy or
in the state education sector. In the former case, they may cover significant needs of
the clergy within Greece but also in the wider context of the Greek diaspora (Europe,
America, Australia, Africa and Asia), while they may equally be recruited as secular
clergy in different services of the Church’s social ministry. In the state education sector, they may serve as teachers in secondary schools, thus occupying posts of regular
civil servants.
The Schools of Pastoral Theology constituted an evolution of the pre-existing
‘Departments of Hieratic Training’ which were, upon their foundation (PD 434/1977),
placed under the «service of the Church», aiming to «offer special training to executives of the Church, clergymen and lay people for their recruitment to posts in the
Church’s ministry». Despite this original and statutory objective, these Departments
were turned into Schools of ‘Social Theology’ and their graduates, although they did
not initially have the right to be appointed as teachers in the secondary education
Art 25 Law 3234/2006, as amended by Art 39§6 Law 3848/2010. It is worth noting that since
this law was passed none of the Members of this Council has been proposed by the Church.
80
As provided for by Art 24§1 L 3234/2006. The Supervisory Board for Secondary Ecclesiastical Education (E.S.D.E.E.) as amended by Art 39§4 L 3848/2010). Of the five members of the Council,
one is proposed by the Holy Synod of the Greek Church along with his deputy, another one is proposed
by the Regional Synod of Crete along with his deputy and the rest are appointed by the Minister of
Education and Religious Affairs.
79
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Lina Papadopoulou
sector, eventually acquired this right in 1983 81; as a result, there is no distinction
between them and the graduates of the Faculties of Theology.
D. The Muslim minority
The officially recognised 82 Muslim minority of Western Thrace makes up almost
two per cent of the total population of Greece and is found in the region of Western
Thrace. The Treaty of Lausanne gave the minority a unique legal status and certain
rights that the Greek government was obliged to protect, such as bilingual education, government salaries for muftis and other religious ministers 83, the operation
of mosques and auqafs, and the recognition of elements of Islamic Law (Shari’a) in
family (law) matters. The muftiship in Western Thrace is divided into three territories,
Xanthi, Komotini and Didymoteicho, whilst there are another three mosques with two
imams and one mufti on the islands of Rhodes and Kos 84.
Nowadays there are more than 400 Muslim ministers (muftis, imams, hatibs and
muezzins). The mufti is the religious leader and he also has the jurisdiction of qadi,
that is, the judge entitled to act as the highest religious teacher and interpreter-judge
of shari’a law. The mufti is appointed by the Greek state by virtue of a presidential
decree after nomination by the Greek Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs
and receives a civil servant’s salary 85. The government, in consultation with a com-
Art 6§10 L 1351/1983.
Its legal status was first regulated by the Convention of Peace between Greece and Turkey
(1913, known as ‘The Treaty of Athens’). This status was altered through the Lausanne Conference
(1923), which is still in force.
83
By virtue of Art 36 Law 3536/2007, as amended by Art 53 of Law 4115/2013, 240 religious
education teachers for the teaching of the Koran were appointed in Western Thrace. «Religious education
teachers (Ierodidaskaloi) should be Greek citizens of the Muslim Minority and holders of a certificate issued by a University Faculty of Theology in Greece or abroad, while in the latter case the certificate should
be recognised by the National Academic Recognition Information Centre (DOATAP). If candidates with
the aforementioned qualifications are fewer than the posts available, appointment to the post of religious
education teacher may be granted to the holder of a certificate from a Higher Education Institution in
Greece, provided that the latter is a graduate of one of the Hieratic Schools of Thrace». In any event, Art
73 par 3 of Law 3536/2007 as amended by Art 53 of Law 4115/2013, stipulates that «By a resolution of the
local Mufti and in order to cover urgent needs, religious education teachers may offer their services to the
Central Service of the Muftiship as assistant administrative personnel and within the statutory time, with
a consequent decrease in their main occupation and without any additional remuneration».
84
The individual muftiship of Kos ceased to exist in 1948, and that on the island of Rhodes in
1974. See A. Ziaka, «Greece - Debate and Challenges», in M.S. Berger (ed.), Applying Shari’a in the
West - Facts, Fears and the Future of Islamic Rules on Family Relations in the West (Leiden: Leiden
University Press), pp 125-140 (129).
85
More recently, by virtue of a relevant government decision, the imams are considered to be
public officials who are to serve as regular Greek state officials in a similar manner to Orthodox Church
priests. This measure has been only partly enforced.
81
82
139
mittee of Muslim leaders, appoints all three muftis in Thrace for a ten-year term of
office with the possibility of extension. The muftis may also, in turn, appoint imams
to serve in the community’s mosques.
The mufti must be a graduate of Muslim Studies in theology and law and he
needs to have a command of the old Ottoman language, in which the decrees (fatwafetva) are written 86. He must also have served as an imam for at least a decade, and
needs to be of outstanding moral character and to possess excellent theological qualifications 87. Although the law has provided for the foundation of a clerical school for
Imams, this has not yet been realized. Muftis (and some Imams) have been trained by
means of their own resources in Saudi Arabia, Egypt and Turkey, especially Mecca
or Medina 88.
While the requirement for the appointment of a Mufti is a high level of education,
a lower level of education and fewer qualifications are sufficient for an imam, who
is selected for appointment by the local village community 89. Imams are graduates
of the Thracian madrasas or may have graduated from the imam hatib in Turkey
(comparable to the madrasas), or may have completed a junior or senior high school
education. In some cases they may have completed theological university studies in
Turkey or in Arab countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Syria and Egypt.
The Madrasas 90 (in Greece there are two, in Komotini and Echinos) are private
Muslim religious schools under the Mufti’s supervision. In the past they were exclusively intended to train imams and hotzas but nowadays they also serve as ‘minority
schools’ of secondary education and their diplomas are recognised by the Greek state as
being equivalent to those of the state Greek-language lycea 91. Their trilingual curricula
comprise, among other subjects of general and theoretical orientation, courses of Islamic
education (the Quran and its interpretation, religious education, Arabic, Islamic history
and law, life and the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad), while there is additional indepth religious teaching in the fields of Muslim Law (Sharî‘a), the Sunna and Hadîth,
the Quran and exegetics of the Quran and Arabic, in addition to Greek, Turkish, and
(since 1987) English 92. Educators in the Madrasas are both Muslim and Christian, and
The rulings of the mufti in the religious court are translated from Ottoman into Greek and are
then routinely validated by the Greek Courts of Law.
87
Ziaka, «Greece - Debate and Challenges», op. cit., 129.
88
See in detail, K Tsitselikis, Old and New Islam in Greece: From Historical Minorities to
Immigrant Newcomers (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff 2012), p 367ff.
89
A Ziaka, Interreligious Dialogues, Vol. B, Encounters between Christianity and Islam (Thessaloniki: Pournaras, 2010), 343 (in Greek).
90
LD 2203/1952, Art 4, Law 2621/23.6.1998, FΕΚ Α 136.
91
M Kotakis, Thrace: The Minority Today (Athens: Nea Synora, 2000), p. 116 (in Greek).
92
S Soltaridis, The History of the Muftis in Western Thrace (Athens: Nea Synora, 1997),
147-154 (in Greek).
86
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Lina Papadopoulou
their teaching duties are allotted in accordance with the course material 93. Most Muslim
priests, like the imams, hotzas and hatipides, are graduates of such schools.
A. Life-long learning
There are needs for further education and life-long training among the clergy
that are not yet properly covered 94. However, recently there have been attempts on
the part of the Church to cover these needs; the Holy Synod and various metropolitan
sees in particular have founded ecclesiastical institutes for life-long learning in order
to offer all kinds of education and vocational training in the subject fields of ecclesiastical, theological, philosophical and humanistic studies, to teach Greek to foreign
students who are due to be admitted following the recommendation of Patriarchates
and Churches of the same denomination, and also to train the clergy and other Church
personnel 95. These objectives are pursued through the foundation of Centres for the
Education and Vocational Training of theologians, clergymen and individuals within
the broader aim of supporting their qualitative training. This endeavour is to be funded
by the Church as well as, for example, by private individuals and the EU.
B. School of Islamic Studies?
Recently, discussions have been taking place concerning the foundation of a
School of Islamic Studies within the Faculty of Theology at the Aristotle University
of Thessaloniki. One of the proposals is that the school would train Muslim theologians and perhaps religious leaders. Ministers of the Greek Church have, however,
expressed concern as to whether such a development would confirm the non-confessional character of the Faculty of Theology.
C. A liberal proposal for reformation
A major problem that needs to be addressed concerns the fact that the Church is
very actively involved in ecclesiastical education and intervenes more directly than
93
A Ziaka, «Religion in Public Education, Multicultural and Muslim Schools: Greece a case
study», in: N. Maghioros (ed), Teaching about Religion and State Interaction – An analysis of Religion
and State studies in Europe (Thessaloniki, 2010), 254ff (266) (in Greek).
94
Christoforides and Rossiou, op. cit., 359.
95
See, for example, Holy Synod Resolution 222/2011 (FEK 103 Α) concerning the «International Academy of Theological and Philological Studies ‘Saints Kyrillos and Methodios’ of the Holy
Metropolis of Langadas, Litis and Rentinis». Similarly, in March 2012 the creation of a ‘Foundation
for the Training and Improvement of Parish Clergy’ at the Dimitriada Metropolis was announced by the
metropolitan bishop Ignatius mainly aiming to provide continuing training for the local clergy.
141
necessary 96, while the latter is financed by the State. In this direction, in 2005, the
Hellenic League for Human Rights (HLHR), an NGO working for and on the protection of human rights in Greece, submitted a proposal in the form of a draft law on
the ‘Regulation of relations between the Church and State, religious unions and the
consolidation of religious freedom’. According to the proposal (Article 7) concerning
ecclesiastical education, all ecclesiastical schools should acquire the status of private
schools of equivalent level 97. Based on the latter, three proposals were submitted to
Parliament by leftist parties and liberal independent deputies 98; these were discussed
in March 2006 but none of them was voted on 99. It is submitted that a possible distinction between the Ecclesiastical Schools and the other state schools would possibly lead to a radical reduction in student numbers. Thus, the Church is not willing
to return to the 1971-1976 regime, when it bore full responsibility for ecclesiastical
education; rather it prefers the latter to be supported by the State while the Church
has the power to make many independent decisions.
IV. Ecclesiastical Education: a burden borne by both Church and
State
This brief historical survey reveals the unstable character of Greek ecclesiastical
education, with multiple types of educational institutions undergoing changes within
Art 7 of the draft law (www.hlhr.gr/index.php?MDL=pages&SiteID=317) on ecclesiastical
education
1. The superior Ecclesiastical Schools, the Ecclesiastical Academy «Athonias», the Ecclesiastical
Academy, the Ecclesiastical Unified Upper Secondary Schools and the Ecclesiastical Lower Secondary Schools are subject to the liability, supervision, and financial support of the Church of Greece, the
Church of Crete, the Ecumenical Patriarchate and the Holy Community of Mount Athos, according to
the place where these institutions are located. 2. The institutions mentioned in the first paragraph of
this article operate as private institutions, subject to the familiar provisions regarding private education.
Until the supervising institutions suitably reform the institutional frame of their organisation and their
operation, the regulations which were in force upon commencement of this law apply, except for those
which acknowledge greater competences than that of the general supervision to organs of the Greek
state authorities, which are exercised in private institutions. 3. The students in institutions mentioned
in the first paragraph of the said article who do not wish to remain in these institutions under this new
legal status, can transfer to public institutions of equivalent rank of their choice.
98
Cf Maghioros, «Religion in Public Education – Report on Greece», op. cit., p. 208.
99
See Acts of the Parliament, 11th Period, 2nd Synod, Session 114, pp. 5560–5595 (in Greek)
www.parliament.gr/ergasies/showfile.asp?file=end060330.txt. It is also worth noting that the Metropolitan of Thiva and Livadia, Ieronimos Liapis, had already in 1992 expressed the view, in his capacity as
Head of a Committee formed by the Church and the Ministry of Education, that the best way forward for
ecclesiastical education would be for it to come only under the jurisdiction of the Church . Nevertheless,
he concluded that, despite this being the ideal way forward, the Church was not yet ready to undertake
this task (as mentioned in Christoforides and Rossiou, 360).
96
97
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Lina Papadopoulou
very short periods of time, which in turn has led to a wide variety of formal qualifications for its users. A further essential feature of Greek ecclesiastical education is
that it has always been free of charge for students as a result of state funding. The
privileged position of the Greek Orthodox Church in the modern, Greek state has
also been demonstrated. This position is reflected in – rather than regulated by - Art
3§1 of the Greek Constitution that declares Orthodoxy to be ‘the prevailing religion’.
This results in the ‘State law rule’ over ecclesiastical matters being a core element
of the actual system of relations between Church and State in Greece in general 100,
and the role that the latter plays in educating and training Greek Orthodox Church
staff in particular.
Based on the fact that the Theological Faculties were neither accountable to
nor allowed the Church to decide upon their own operation and/or curricula, the
Church insisted on the elevation of the ‘Higher’ Ecclesiastical Schools to ‘Supreme’
(2006). This persistence is attributed to the Church’s desire to gain more influence
without bearing the financial cost, despite its vast stock of movable and immovable
assets 101. Law 3432/2006 proceeded not to relax these extremely close and intricate
relations between State and Church, but rather to intensify their interconnectedness. In other words, the operation of the ecclesiastical schools and especially of
the Supreme Ecclesiastical Academies has ensured the prevalence of official church
opinions and positions, and mainly those of the church’s leadership, since the latter
exercises control.
However, the Church has not been satisfied. According to the Archbishop of
Athens, Ieronimos, ecclesiastical education should be based on collaboration between
State and Church, and the latter should not be a mere spectator without any say in
these issues 102. Moreover, the Church claims the right to equip the Holy Synod with
the possibility of training ordination candidates in matters of Church ethos, while
it also demands to be involved in the selection of principals and teachers for the
100
Cf Ch Papastathis, «The Hellenic Republic and the Prevailing Religion», in: Brigham Young
University Law Review, 4 (1996), 815ff; Idem, ‘Church and State in Greece’, in Church and State in the
European Union, ed. G. Robbers (Baden-Baden, 2005), 116.
101
102
Archbishop of Greece Ieronimos, Address at the One-Day Conference on Ecclesiastical
Education, Rizarios Ecclesiastical School of Athens, 03.05.2011, in: Ecclesia [journal] May 2011, pp
313ff (314). At the same one-day conference, however, Metropolitan Nikodimos, Head of the Synodal
Committee for Ecclesiastical Education, (‘Information on the Church’s position on the latest educational
reforms, in: Ecclesia [Official Newsletter of the Greek Church] May 2011, pp 217ff [318]), expressed an
even more radical view stating that «the first word in ecclesiastical education as well as the full monitoring must belong to the Church…, since there cannot be a mutual understanding between the Church and
the State». According to him neither L 3234/2006 nor L 3848/2010 took into account the pre-existing
and directly expressed views of the Church.
143
ecclesiastical schools whilst also participating in curriculum design at all levels of
education 103.
A perennial and still unresolved question 104 is the concern of who exactly has
the right to have an ecclesiastical education, i.e. whether this right should be exclusively reserved for those intending to join the clergy, or the secular ministry of
the Church, or open to any other interested parties 105. The fact is that only a low
percentage of the graduates of the ecclesiastical schools of all levels eventually decide to become church ministers, while most of the graduates have always preferred
to be appointed to educational and other public posts. In this context, the Church’s
criticism also focuses on the selection system for University Schools, which fails
to ensure 106 that students opt for theological studies out of genuine love and interest
for the spirit and teachings of the Church 107. Academics at these Schools have been
sharp in criticising the Church for wanting to exercise its power and determine the
content of studies at the Faculties of Theology 108. This close State-Church relation
and the privileged position of the Greek Orthodox Church may be cast in doubt by
the ongoing fiscal crisis.
Table 1
GREECE
Ecclesiastical Educational Institutions
Previously: PD 1025/10-11-1977, FEK 344, A΄
4 Higher Schools
18 Lycea
(3 -year second tier of secondary education,
constituting non-compulsory upper secondary education)
6 Gymnasia (lower secondary education)
4 Secondary Tuition Centres (Frontistiria)
See Metropolitan Nikodimos, op.cit., 321; Metropolitan Dorotheos, Ecclesiastical Gymnasia
and Lykeia. Historical route and perspectives, in: Ecclesia, Oct 2008, p 685 (in Greek).
104
Cf K. Frangos, «Ecclesiastical Education: Thoughts for Renewal», in: Rizarios Ecclesiastical Education, A. Fytrakis (ed), vol. C (Athens, 1984), pp 85ff (101) (in Greek).
105
I. P etrou , «‘Theological studies in the state universities» (in Greek), in: 2nd Conference of the Schools of Theology (Athens: ed. National University), 111ff, where the author pleads
in favour of a pluralist model accommodating different needs and users of public university
education.
106
This was the official argument that the Church used in order to succeed in changing the old
Higher Ecclesiastical Schools into ‘Supreme’, i.e. tertiary educational institutions.
107
There has been criticism of the Church’s ‘fundamentalism’ in aiming to control the University
Faculties of Theology; see K. Delikostantis, «he perspectives in the relationship between theology
and ecclesiastical education», in: 2nd Conference of the Faculties of Theology (Athens: ed. National
University), p. 97ff (103) (in Greek).
108
See Petrou, «Theological studies in the state universities», op. cit.
103
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Lina Papadopoulou
Law 3432/03-02-2006 (FEK 14, A΄) (status July 2013)
4 Supreme Ecclesiastical Academies
There are 4, in Athens, Thessaloniki, Vellas near Ioannina and Heraklion, Crete.
They train ministers of the Greek Orthodox Church and they offer education and issue certificates
equivalent to those of the Institutions of tertiary (University) education.
Those eligible to study should be:
-Holders of a Higher Secondary Education (Lykeio) Certificate, according to the rules stipulated by
the Law regulating access to tertiary education (L. 3432/2006 FEK 14 Α΄/2006),
-Required to be Christian Orthodox
-Of male gender, in the case of the Hieratic Studies program offered by the Supreme Ecclesiastical
Academies.
General Ecclesiastical Lycea (17)
- Those eligible to attend should be graduates of lower secondary education (Gymnasia, either
ecclesiastical or any other kind of public or private ones).
Ecclesiastical Gymnasia (10)
These accept graduates of elementary school and operate with the respective General Ecclesiastical Lykeia, with which they usually occupy the same site.
Second Opportunity Hieratic Schools (ISDE) (3)
These operate as autonomous educational units.
- First cycle: for clerics or lay staff aged over 18 who have not completed the obligatory 9-years of education
- Second cycle: for clerics or lay staff who have graduated from a gymnasium (and thus completed the
obligatory 9 years of education) or who have completed the First Cycle of ISDE.
School of Church Ministry
Aiming to provide life-long learning and further education for Church ministers, either clergymen
or lay people.
Ecclesiastical Institute of Vocational Training (1)
Vocational Training Institutes (life-long learning).
Both male and female students of any religion are accepted.
11 Departments of Ecclesiastical Training at the State Institutes of Vocational Training (IEK)
Vocational Training Institutes (life long learning) that offer –.among other things- programs of ecclesiastical studies.
145
OF RELIGIOUS PERSONNEL IN ROMANIA
Emanuel Tăvală
I. History of the Mode of Training of Religious Staff in the 18th/19th
Century
We can speak of organized and continuous theological education in Romania
only from the first half of the nineteenth century, when the theological seminaries of
Moldavia and Wallachia were founded. However, there were also schools or sporadic
training courses for the clergy, either in monasteries or episcopal residences. Between
1490-1585 a school functioned in the Monastery of Putna, in Moldavia; it had the
character of a theological seminary in which theological and humanist disciplines, traditions, notions of astronomy and Pascal computation, and church music, were taught
by prestigious teachers. A school with a long tradition in the training of clergy from
Braşov and Burzenland was that of St. Nicholas’ Church from Braşov Schei founded
at the end of the fifteenth century and reorganized in 1597. Other candidates for the
priesthood acquired training in schools linked to the bishops of Bucharest, Râmnnic, Buzău or Argeş in Wallachia and Iaşi, Roman, Rădăuţi and Huşi in Moldavia.
In Transylvania there was a school attached to the Cathedral of Alba Iulia, but many
young Transylvanians prepared themselves for the priesthood at the monastic schools
across the mountains, namely those from Cozia, Argeş, Colţea, Neamţ or Putna.
However, the training of prospective priests was inadequate, as evidenced by a
decision of the council convened by Bishop Athanasius Anghel in Alba Iulia, in September 1700: The deacon who wishes to enter the priesthood has to have a prescription from the archbishop and know the Psalter and the hymns and all the Sacraments
of the Church and if he does not spend 40 days with the Metropolitan, he will not be
received into the priesthood.
A. The First Theological Schools in Moldavia and Wallachia
Much the same occurred in Wallachia and Moldavia. The Phanariot ruler, Constantin Mavrocordat, in successive reigns in the two countries, initiated a series of reforms
148
Emanuel Tăvală
aimed at raising the level of instruction for the clergy. The first attempts to organize
courses in the Romanian Principalities for the clergy occurred very late on - in the
eighteenth century. These attempts resulted in Prince Constantin Mavrocordat setting
up the first courses for clergy in the diocesan centers of Moldavia. Later on, priests
and deacons from here were assembled annually to receive some pastoral-missionary
guidance from a cleric with greater education and experience. Well-known are those
courses of 40 days organized in 1714; after several years the priests and deacons would
be called to the church of the Princely Court where they would receive guidance. Such
measures were also provided for priests in Wallachia, but these were not aimed at candidates for the priesthood; this was a time of priestly dynasties rather than one for the
admission of low-class candidates to ordination.
In 1764, Ştefan Racoviţă, ruler of Wallachia, ordered the establishment of a Romanian school attached to St. Demetrius’ Church, Craiova; its aim was to provide for
those «acquiring the priestly divine ordinances by those worthy to be ordained» 1. Such
initiatives were not unique: they were followed by other similar ones in both Romanian
Countries.
The first theological seminary, in the true sense of the word, was established at
the beginning of the nineteenth century, in 1803, at Socola, near Iaşi (Moldavia),
on the initiative of Metropolitan Veniamin Costache, who was supported in this by
Prince Alexandru Moruzi. In the nineteenth century, there followed others similaries
in Neamt, Huşi and Roman (Moldavia).
The Metropolitan of Moldavia, on 1 September 1803, decided to establish at
Socola a school to educate the sons of priests and deacons, who were to be ordained
later. At the insistence of the Metropolitan, the Prince of Moldavia gave this school
an annual grant of 2.500 lei from the treasury of the country. Initially, only the sons
of priests and deacons were admitted. 1846 saw the establishment of regional catechetical schools, but with a very limited educational program; from these emerged
candidates for admission to seminary or ordination. On 15 December 1859 the school
was closed and converted into primary school. In 1851 the country’s Public Assembly
enacted «The Rule to Organize Religious Teaching in Moldavia»; this was of three
types: (1) regional religious schools (catechetical) at which two years of study were
undertaken – they were like elementary schools, preparatory for the seminary; (2)
the first section of the seminary, for the «lower clergy» with four years of study; and:
(3) the second section of the seminary, for the «higher clergy», also with four years
of study. General management was provided by the Metropolitan of the country, the
two suffragan bishops and the Ministry of Religious Affairs.
M. Păcurariu, Istoria Bisericii Ortodoxe Române (History of the Romanian Orthodox Church), 3rd tome, 3rd Edition, Trinitas Publishing, Iaşi, 2008, p. 218.
1
public authorities and the training of religious personnel in
Romania
149
In Wallachia, The Rule for Seminaries, Deacons and Priests (from 11 April 1834)
provided for the establishment of seminaries attached to diocesan centers and, thus, the
Metropolitan of Bucharest. In Bucharest, Nifon Bălăşescu was appointed director and
sole teacher (1 January 1835) of one such seminary; he was responsible for the preparation of candidates for the priesthood in the «School for Vergers», and for its general
management. Opened on 2 February1836, it had 42 students, all of whom were sons
of priests from all over Moldavia. Later, an appeal was made to all the archpriests to
send to the seminary five students from each protopresbyterate.
Although reform of the educational system was attempted in terms of religious
education, young people wishing to become clergy had to wait until «they would be
called to share the things they wanted to aquire from teaching designed specifically
for the rank of priesthood» 2.
The Seminary at Arges also opened in 1836, as did, on 8 November 1837 the
Seminary at Râmnicu Vâlcea. All seminarians underwent four years of study. The
seminaries accepted graduates from primary school and grammar school and less
skilled candidates who knew how to read and write and who were familiar with
church ordinances. The costs were first met by the bishoprics. As there was a lack of
priests in Wallachia, there were also courses which ran parallel to those in the Seminaries (i.e. grammar courses) lasting several months. They were needed especially
after 1848 when Seminaries’ courses were interrupted for three years following the
entry of foreign armies in the country and the fact that almost all of their teachers
participated in the revolution.
These «schools» produced graduates «with no other science than that of the
ordinances of the church»; they were a combination of elementary and vocational
schools. Courses did not have a fixed duration, but varied between five months and
two years. Grammar schools, in addition to seminaries, existed until 1863, although
the Ministry of Religious Affairs excluded them from the budget after 1861.
B. Seminaries in Romania after 1860
The parlous condition experienced by all theological Seminaries (e.g. frequent
changes of teachers, improprieties in administration, etc) led the Government to put
them under the supervision of the Ministry of Religious Affairs and Public Education
in 1860.
Thereafter, the bishops were entitled (as stated in a letter from the Ministry to the
Metropolitan) «to watch over the conduct and morals of students and of those charged
with their development and education, and to ensure that theological education is delivered in good order…»; the Metropolis and Dioceses were the «intermediate points
2
V. A. Urechia, Istoria şcoalelor (History of Schools), p. 319.
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Emanuel Tăvală
between the Ministry and Seminary». A commission on seminary teachers was then
established which proposed the reorganization of seminaries. Among other things, it
was proposed that all seminaries were to provide six years of study; the seminary in
Bucharest was to be established as a «superior or central seminary» to «serve as an ecclesiastical academy or theological faculty for all the dioceses in the country». It was
also required that young people, who did not complete four years at elementary school,
would no longer be accepted in the seminary; only graduates of a 6-year seminary
program would be ordained.
In the same year, measures were also taken to reorganize the seminaries in Moldavia. The seminaries at Socola, Roman and Huşi had programs identical to those of the
gymnasium, with the addition of theology. The curriculum of Moldavian seminaries
was superior to that of Wallachia.
In 1862 there were several proposals for the reorganization and unification of seminaries in the new Romanian state. This was achieved through the Public Instruction Law
of 25 November 1864 - this contained detailed provisions on the organization of theological seminaries. The law provided two types of seminary: state-maintained (i.e. under
the Ministry of Public Education and Religious Affairs which had «superior inspection
over the seminaries»); and episcopal: the bishops had «the right to supervise the overall
condition and progress of the seminary in their diocese and inform the Ministry of any
irregularity, lack or improvement». The same Law set up a Catholic seminary in Iasi.
The law was welcomed: it put theological education in order and stopped ordinations of those without training (for ordination one had to graduate with at least four
seminary classes).
In 1893, further changes occurred in the life of the theological seminaries, as a
result of the Law of Secular Clergy and Seminaries. This law radically reorganized
education in seminaries, increasing the courses to eight years of study. It provided
two types of seminary: the lower, with three classes; and superior, with five years (a
total of eight classes). The Law allowed ordination only to the graduates of a seminary
with eight classes; four classes graduates, not ordained at the moment of the passing
of the law, could work for parishes in Dobrogea, or work as church singers.
On 9 July 1901, whilst Minister of Religious Affairs and Education, Spiru Haret
abolished the lower seminaries. Courses at the two remaining seminaries were further reduced to seven classes. After a few years, things improved; the same minister,
appreciating the increasing lack of priests, allowed some of the old seminaries to
re-open, with a full course of seven classes.
C. The First Theological Schools in Transylvania
On the basis of the experiences in Moldavia and Wallachia, efforts were made to
set up clergy courses in Transylvania in the second half of the eighteenth century. The
confessional circumstances were completely different from the other two Romanian
Romania
151
countries; the Transylvanian situation became further complicated in the eighteenth
century. In 1783, the Romanian Orthodox Bishoprics of Transylvania (Sibiu) and
Bukovina (Cernăuţi) were subjected in dogmatic spiritual matters to the Serbian
Metropolitan from Karlowitz. On 8 December 1786 the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan of Karlowitz was extended to administrative matters. These circumstances were
unfavorable to the Orthodox Church in Transylvania. In turn, questions arose about
the setting up of a special school for the training of clergy and prospective teachers
in rural schools run by the Church. The Greek Catholic Diocese of Blaj founded a
school for clergy in 1754. We must say that theological education in Transylvania was
influenced by what was happening throughout the Hapsburg Empire. In the last three
decades of the eighteenth century, due to Enlightenment ideas diffused throughout
the empire, leaders were concerned about the spread of mass culture and literacy as
well as strengthening the multinational Hapsburg rule. On 6 December 1774 the first
law for schools was approved for basic education in the Hapsburg Empire: «Allgemeine Schulordnung für die deutschen Normal-, Haupt- und Trivialschulen in sämmtlichen Kayserl. Königl. Erbländern». Until this law, which provided guidance on
all aspects of elementary education, there were few Romanian schools functioning
in Transylvania under the aegis of the Church from which graduates were recruited
for ordination. Transylvanian education from the middle of the Age of Enlightenment
may be understood as unitary only due to its confessional nature; a school belonging
to a particular church meant not only religious boundaries, or even a national-ethnic
delimitation, but also another system of organization, a different curriculum, and other
programs and textbooks. A new Law for schools appears in 1777, Ratio Educationis:
this set various levels of development creating further degrees of social functionality.
After 1760, education officially became a political issue; that year also saw the establishment of the Aulic Commission on the management of school affairs.
Elementary schools were organised differently on the basis of Ratio Educationis;
they were provided for each group to be taught in its native language; it gave priority
to the German language. In 1781, new legislation was enacted in Transylvania entitled Norma Regia. This dealt almost exclusively with the organization of secondary
schools, Latin schools; it sought standardization in the content of education amongst
the different denominational secondary schools in Transylvania. Norma Regia was
applied to all religious secondary schools in Tranilvania until the second half of the
nineteenth century. Later, other laws were added. By a decree of 28 April 1784, the
supervision of elementary schools in Transylvania was entrusted to the priest or to a
particular community inspector. Parishes were required to watch over school buildings, and to support the local school through contributions in cash or kind; they were
also responsible for the payment of teachers.
In the general context of educational reform in Transylvania, representatives of
the «Romanian Enlightenment» formulated new ideas about the social and political
emancipation of Romanians; these ideas included education in the mother tongue.
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On 7 October 1784, a request was made to the Imperial Court for the establishment
of Romanian schools; ineed, there were 292 young Transylvanian belonging to the
Orthodox Church who were attending monastic schools in Bucharest, Argeş, Iaşi
or elsewhere. In 1785, a new imperial rescript on education provided for the establishment of elementary schools for Romanians and for a seminary in Timişoara (to
train Orthodox clergy). The director of schools in Transylvania, I. Martonfi, future
Roman Catholic Bishop of Alba Iulia, was expected to make concrete proposals on
this matter, with the Orthodox Bishop Ghedeon Nichitici. On 4 November 1785, they
submitted a proposal to the Government of Transylvania; this spelt out the need for
a seminary to train Orthodox clergy. Costs would be covered by the Orthodox «Provincial House». On 20 September 1786, Dimitrie Eustatievici was appointed director
of the schools of the Romanian Orthodox Church; he initiated courses for prospective
teachers of Orthodox schools in Transylvania at Sibiu. Along with its first teachers,
four candidates for the priesthood and three young men who were to become singers
attended the courses. Thus, we see in Sibiu the first institution exclusively devoted
to the formation of priests; it is today the Faculty of Orthodox Theology in Sibiu.
Indeed, in a letter to one of his senior clergy, Bishop Ghedeon Nichitici states: from
now on all priests and singers must attend the normal school and show a certificate
from their teacher regarding their instruction 3. The first systematic training courses
for Romanian Orthodox clergy were opened in Sibiu on 15 March 1811; these were
coordinated by the young Gheorghe Lazăr, who had studied Theology in Vienna. The
courses lasted six months and they were organized in two annual cycles.
When he came to Sibiu, Andrei Şaguna was actively involved in both the organization of the Church and in theological education. The first Synod of the diocese,
called on 12 March 1850, decided that the clerical school of the diocese was to become its theological-pedagogical institute.
In 1852 the studies were increased to two years, and from 1861 to three.
In the west of the country, theology courses were introduced sporadically at the
end of the eighteenth century, but they were not organized effectively until 1822.
After much discussion between Serbian Bishop Stephen Stratimirovic, of Karlowitz,
and the Court in Vienna, in 1822 saw the approval of a proposal to establish clerical
schools for each diocese; this was implemented immediately with such schools opening in Arad, Timişoara and Vrsac. In the fall of 1876, the theology school of Arad
merged with the pedagogical school there to prepare prospective priests and teachers.
The Theological Seminary in Caransebeş was also founded in the nineteenth century.
The Greek-Catholic Church of Transylvania had a system of theological education in the mid-eighteenth century. The establishment of a seminary at Blaj was
M. Păcurariu, 200 de ani de învăţământ teologic la Sibiu (200 Years of Theological Education in Sibiu), Sibiu, 1987, p. 21.
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discussed at the diocesan synod convened by Inochentie Micu in 1738; but it was
not until 1754 that training for clergy was established at the Holy Trinity Monastery
of Blaj. In 1760 a new seminary was established at the Monastery of the Annunciation, close to the bishop’s residence in Blaj; here, 12 young people (and then 24)
were trained to be monks. Samuil Micu, one of the graduates, records that the bishop
maintained 300 students in Blaj with food, clothes and books. Both the students and
the schools experienced considerable financial hardship in so far as the Church met
the bill. To improve the endowment, the Greek Catholic Bishop of Blaj bought an
estate whose income was to be used to support the seminary close to the bishop’s
residence; he also used income from diocesan printing. The two seminaries were
unified in 1773; later, by a Decree of 25 March 1783, after the reforms of Emperor
Joseph II, central seminaries were set up in Eger and Lvov and replaced the diocesan
ones. After 1784, the students of Blaj were sent to Lvov (Ukraine). King Leopold II
overturned some of Joseph II’s measures, including those related to Greek Catholic
theological education, by a Decree of 20 May 1790. The diocesan seminary of Blaj
reopened in 1791; after 1854 it became archdiocesan.
Young Greek Catholics in the west of the country were prepared (in the Hungarian language) in the Roman Catholic seminary at Blaj; but on 30 January 1792,
the Romanian United Youth Seminary was set up in Oradea to educate prospective
Romanian priests and teachers.
There was no requirement for Roman Catholic clergy to undertake training in
Romanian territory given the possibility of studying abroad. However, in 1636, a Jesuitical school was set up in Satu Mare. In the eighteenth century, the Piarist order had
an important role in religious education in the schools established in Carei and Sighet.
In the case of Protestant denominations in Transylvania, various diets between
1556-1557 approved the establishment of high schools – and the first of these were set
up in Târgu Mureş, Cluj and Oradea. Material stock and welfare of pupils were provided for by the religious community. By the mid-nineteenth century, most Reformed
colleges had department in which students were trained to become ministers or teachers
in denominational schools. The Theological Institute operated, from 1858-1895, in Cluj
and Alba Iulia, but after 1895 only in Cluj.
In the case of the Evangelical Church in Transylvania, theological education for
prospective pastors had a different history, as there was no faculty of theology; the
candidates spoke German and were able to train at universities in Germany, such as
Tubingen, Halle, Leipzig, Heidelberg, etc.
D. The First Faculties of Theology in Romania
As already mentioned, the first Orthodox theological college in the presentday territory of Romania was set up in 1786 (see above for Sibiu), and seminaries
generally which were organized around monasteries or episcopal centers. However,
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after various political developments, the first faculties of theology were set up in
the Universities of Iaşi and Bucharest in the second half of the nineteenth century.
The Law for the reorganization of public education in the Principality of Moldavia
(1850) provided for the establishment of an Academy in Iaşi with four faculties,
including one for Orthodox theology. It was only on 26 October 1860 that a new
university was established in Iaşi with four faculties. The number of students was
very small because of the harsh conditions of maintenance and lack of teachers. The
faculty ran for only four years until 1864. After this there were several attempts to
establish new faculties in Bucharest. The Synod of the Orthodox Church in 1880
even prepared a draft law for the establishment of a Faculty of Theology which
would be subject to approval by Parliament - but the Metropolitan did not wait for
legal recognition and solemnly opened the new institution and its courses on 12
November 1881. Recognition from the Ministry of Religious Affairs and Public
Education came only in 27 October 1884 through its appointment of the first three
teachers, in addition to those who had functioned within the faculty since 1881.
From the 35 students enrolled, 20 had state scholarships; a theological boarding
school was set up for them. Public funds from the Ministry and donations from
church members provided support.
E. Bukovina
Another significant institution in the history of theological education was the
Orthodox theological school in Chernivtsi. In 1786, a school for the training of prospective priests was set up at the Monastery of St. Elijah in Suceava; it later moved to
Chernivtsi. The courses there lasted three years and there were about 10 scholarships
in each class; but because there were only 2 teachers, the school did not live up to
expectations and was disbanded in 1817. On 4 October 1827, a Theological Institute
with four years of study and classes in Romanian, German and Latin was opened at
Chernivtsi. This was maintained from church funds and operated until 1875 when
the new University in Chernivtsi was opened; this had a theology faculty with classes
in German and Romanian. It was to become one of the best faculties of Orthodox
theology in the world.
As we have seen, the training of clergy was a matter of the utmost importance
for each of these denominations and it was dependent on historical and political circumstances. In the case of the Orthodox Church in Romania, preparation began with
the collaborative initiatives of princes and bishops who established such institutions
around bishoprics or monasteries (especially in Moldavia and Wallachia). However,
in Transylvania local initiatives are relatively late and some of them were ephemeral.
The vast majority of those to be ordained were forced to study over the mountains.
It was only towards the end of the eighteenth century that we can talk about obvious
attempts to organize such courses of theology, which often were the responsibil-
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ity of churches and religious communities. As a mode of training, legally, we see a
combination of action by the state (which issued decrees, equipped the schools with
necessities, or provided financial support), and by ecclesiastical authority (which appointed teachers and established rules to be were applied in these institutions). These
institutions trained those who sought ordination and, in the nineteenth century, those
who were to become teachers in religious schools. Indeed, sometimes, a graduate of
an educational institution had first to become a teacher and only then could become a
priest. It was an interesting way for a community, typically in Transilvania, to know
their future priest first as a teacher. However, these schools also prepared prospective
church singers, especially from the nineteenth century.
The abolition of institutions of theological education institutions occurred most
often because of material shortages or lack of students; though sometimes thyere
were hostile socio-political reasons for closure. So: the emergence of theological
faculties, in the true sense of the word, is a relatively late development - in the second half of the nineteenth century – and their establishment was effected through
the laws of the State, as with the Faculty at Iaşi, or by unilateral decision of the
Church, for the Faculty at Bucharest (though the latter was subsequently recognized
by state law).
Initially, the denominations provided the funds; only later did the state give
public funds.
II. The Modes of Formation of Religious Staff: Current Law
Most of the Faculties of Theology in Romania are of recent date. They appeared
after 1990, even though some may claim a longer history. Where it existed, this tradition was interrupted in 1948, when the Communist regime was established. The situation in Romania was similar in this regard, to that of Russia or Ukraine, rather than to
that of the German Democratic Republic (where the faculties of theology continued to
function in state universities) and in Poland (which maintained a Catholic university in
Lubin) 4. In Romania, only four theological institutes survived the Communist period:
two Orthodox (in Bucharest and Sibiu), one Catholic (in Iaşi), and one Protestant (in
Cluj, which prepared clergy for Reformed, Evangelical, and Unitarian Churches) 5. The
inclusion of theology in universities was justified as a return to the natural state before
S.P. Ramet, Nihil Obstat: Religion, Politics, and Social Change in East-Central Europe and
Russia (Durham & London: Duke University Press, 1998), p. 6.
5
Several theological seminaries were added to these. The Romanian academic theological education in the last decades of the communist period was one of relative success. In 1980, the four institutes
enrolled 1142 students, of which 1097 were studying at the two Orthodox Theological institutions. See
Stan and Turcescu, Religion and Politics…, p. 150.
4
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Emanuel Tăvală
1948; the principle of restoraive justice was also invoked in support of the status quo
ante communism and official atheism 6.
This justification only partly reflects the more complex reality preceding World
War II. Unlike the current situation, in which state faculties of theology are under the
supervision of the Patriarchate (see below), the Orthodox Theological Faculties at
public universities had, before 1948, «no connection with the hierarchy, the Church
and its needs, as this had no right, and was unable, to exercise any leadership or guidance over them» 7. This situation is now considered «deficient, just because [education] was scholastic and broken by the practical realities and needs of the Church»
- but the interwar realities are partially at odds with the claim of the Romanian Orthodox Church that the reorganization of theological faculties is a return to the situation
before the Communists came to power. The Statute on Theological Faculties, which
as public institutions are «part of the Romanian Patriarchate», clearly represents not
a trivial difference to the situation before the war. Otherwise, interwar realities should
not necessarily be considered an appropriate standard for the standards of today –
neither in theology nor other matters.
Thus, after 1989, the expectation was that the return of academic theology within
the university would not take too long. In 1991, the theological university institutes
became faculties of theology at the state universities. This followed a protocol between
the Ministry of Education, the State Secretariat for Religious Affairs (SSRA) and the
Romanian Patriarchate. The Protocol, signed in May 1991 8, took into account three
existing institutes, in Bucharest, Sibiu and Iaşi (established in 1990). The Protocol was
implemented at the start of the new academic year (1991-1992). Under the Protocol,
the schooling figure was to be fixed, for the Department of Pastoral Theology (whose
graduates could seek to become clergy), by the Patriarchate; and for the double specializations (Letters/Theology, Theology/Social Assistance), by the Patriarchate and
the university (Article 4) 9.
From the Church’s perspective, the Protocol solved several issues simultaneously.
First, it solved the problem of financing theological institutes; this passed to the State.
Transforming private theological institutions into public faculties allowed, as a result,
the development of academic theology. Within a decade, the number of Orthodox
theological schools increased from three (at the date of signing the Protocol) to fifteen
(eleven faculties and four departments of Orthodox theology). The number of students
See, for example, N.D. Necula, «Raportul dintre universităţile şi facultăţile de teologie
ortodoxă din România» (Relationship between Universities and Faculties of Orthodox Theology in
Romania), Studii teologice (Theological Studies) 1 (2005).
7
Ibidem.
8
Protocol No. 9870 of May 30, 1991.
9
See http://www.ftoub.ro/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=88%3Aistoricul-fa
cultatii&catid=8%3Astatic&Itemid=286&lang=en, read on August 2, 2013.
6
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and teachers has also increased, along with the institutional and financial capacity of the
Orthodox theology to finance research, organize congresses, edit publications, etc. 10.
The decision to turn theological institutions into state faculties was little discussed at the time, even within the Orthodox Church; and no academic has discussed this matter in detail (unlike in other countries in the region after the fall of
communism) 11. This has been the case despite the fact that «many administrators and
professors felt that [the Theological Institute of Bucharest] did not meet academic
standards of excellence» 12. The situation was different in, for example, Sibiu, where
the Theological Institute enjoyed greater prestige and credibility as to the newly
established university there, which could boast a faculty of theology with a history
of over 200 years.
The reorganization of university courses in 2005 attracted a great deal of skepticism about the public regulation of theology. Adopting the «Bologna system» had an
affect on the profile of theology faculties; they have lost some of their specialization,
although they have kept pastoral theology (for 4 years) 13. Despite having received
official approval and support from the Orthodox Church, the Bologna process was
met with concern by some theologians. The new organization was charged with, for
example, the «superficialization» of theology, removing optional specializations,
encouraging the methods, standards and «stereotypes» of modern theology, and the
pursuit of external academic standards (for research, publishing and so on) 14.
Theology as taught at public universities is a partnership: the State (University)
provides the money and the Church, its blessing. According to the Framework Regulation on the Faculties of Orthodox Theology in the Romanian Patriarchate (approved
by Decision 2411 of the Holy Synod 4-5 June 1998) 15, these structures «are under
According to figures from the National Statistics Institute (NSI), Învăţământ superior la
începutul anului universitar 2008-2009 (Higher Education at the Beginning of the Academic Year 20082009) (Bucharest: NSI, 2009), pp. 8-11).
11
We refer to the opposition from Russia and Ukraine to the integration of theology in the
university, in part because of the existence in the universities in those countries of opposite interests,
particularly, in the former, «scientific atheism». See L. Filipovych and A. Kolodny, «Theology and
Religious Studies in Post-Communist Ukraine», Religion in Eastern Europe 23.6 (2003); I.K. Maktusov, «Theology in Higher Education in Post-Communist Russia (1991-2008)», Journal of Religion
in Europe 1 (2008).
12
Stan and Turcescu, Religion and Politics…, p. 168.
13
As engineering, medical or legal specialties.
14
D. Sandu, «Ortodoxia românească la răscruce: trecut şi prezent în educaţia teologică» (Romanian Orthodoxy at a Crossroads: Past and Present in Theological Education), Scientific Annals of
University Al. I. Cuza: Orthodox Theology 9 (2006); also, M. Păcurariu, «220 de ani de învăţământ
teologic sibian…» (200 Years of Theological Education in Sibiu), The Theological Review 3 (2006).
15
Note that, according to the title of this document, the faculties of theology are part of the
Romanian Patriarchate, a significant detail —at least in terms of the ROC— on the relationship between
the Church and these institutions.
10
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Emanuel Tăvală
[the] dual subordination of the Romanian Orthodox Church and the public universities» to which those stuctures belong (Art. 1). The framework in which theology
faculties operate is also regulated by the Education Law (1/2011), the Academic Charter, the Statute of Organization and Functioning of the Romanian Orthodox Church
(Part II, chap. 1, art. 115-121) and the Protocol signed on 30 May 1991 between the
Orthodox Church and the Ministry of Education (through which the older theological
institutes in Sibiu and Bucharest we absorbed into the newly established Faculty of
Theology in Iasi).
According to the Framework Regulation, the mission of the faculties of Orthodox
theology is to «contribute to strengthening the unity of faith and the promotion of
Orthodox spirituality and the mission of the Church» in Romanian society (Art. 3).
The document introduces here an important distinction as to the duties of the two
entities to which the faculties of theology are subordinated, namely: the Church and
the Ministry of Education. According to this regulation, «organizationally, administratively, technically and financially» the faculties are subordinate to the universities
they belong to, while in terms of the «theological and spiritual canon» they are subordinate to the ecclesiastical authorities (Art. 4). In turn, the Commission mentioned
above consents to the curriculum. On 18 June 2012 a committee of the Romanian
Patriarchate was formed for dialogue with the Romanian Ministry of Education with
regard to the faculties of Orthodox theology - the large number of schools of theology in Romania had become problematic as did the quality of theological education.
The Holy Synod decided to establish a committee for dialogue with the Ministry of
Education to undertake an objective assessment of all educational institutions, to
develop measures to improve education at Bachelor, Masters and Doctorate level.
The Framework Regulation does not address possible tensions between the secular organization of theology faculties, which mirrors that of all the other faculties,
and the external control of the Church over academic activities, teaching, research,
or leadership and elections.
One area of tension is the relationship between, on the one hand, the rights of the
Church «over» theology faculties, and, on the other hand, the rights and freedoms of
university professors and research under Romanian law.
These rights are conferred by Education Law 1/2011 (art. 118-119, 123, 131 and
135), the Law on Teaching Staff 16, state universities charters and other regulations of
the public universities in Romania. All of these instruments provide, in one form or
another, for the right to academic freedom. Although in Romania the precise terms
of this right are not defined, and despite the fact that there is no law that specifically
circumscribes its exercise, the core of the right to academic freedom is in large meas-
See especially Art. 96-99, Art. 116-123 and Art. 138 of the Law on the Teaching Staff Statute
(no. 128/1997).
16
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ure at the discretion of the university. Activities such as the structure of the course,
the selection of materials and topics to be discussed, the perspective from which they
are approached, selecting the right system, and, in part, assessment standards etc., are
assigned to the professors, without external interference. Also, the development of
textbooks for each subject is an issue as is the permissibility of differences between
what is taught in the Orthodox theology faculties (though this could have implications
for the freedom of the teachers).
III. New Policies concerning the Training of Religious Staff
It is often suggested that theology faculties have no place in a modern university.
Moreover, we must recognize that theology in general, and Orthodoxy in particular, is in a state of crisis, including one of identity. Indeed, the crisis in Orthodox
theology is an old one. The contribution of Dumitru Stăniloae, George Florovsky or
Iustin Popovici was great, but not enough to overcome the crisis completely. Professor
Georgios Kapsanis in Athens said that Orthodox theology has broken [away] from
God, the Church and modern man, on the basis of the theology taught at theology
faculties. Regarding alienation from God, we must say that academic theology seems
to be developed into a synergistic process, although in itself it teaches that nothing
can work without synergism. A methodological distinction has even been made between scientific theology, and, on the other hand, charismatic or spiritual theology;
the former is identified with the theology produced by the professors of theology, and
the latter with that of Church Fathers 17.
As to alienation from the Church, the dynamics of church life have resulted in
richness and diversity of acts, gestures, habits which are not found in the theology of
the Church (in terms of either theme or object of study). Father Dumitru Stăniloae
has also recognised this alienation of academic theology from the reality of church
life, when he recalled his first encounter with academic theology at Chernivtsi: the
God he was taught about in theological study had nothing in common with the One
he knew from experience in his church. This raises serious issues.
A. Alternative Methods of organizing Theological Study
It has been said repeatedly that the organization of academic faculties of theology
in secular universities, is not only a return to position pertaining prior to 1948, but
also an alignment to the situation of theology in European higher education generally.
This is not exactly accurate; in some higher education systems, faculties of confes-
The idea of the so-called dual methodology was promoted by Prof. N. Matzoukas from
Thessaloniki.
17
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Emanuel Tăvală
sional theology are part of the public education system and more often than not belong
to large universities offering a broad educational spectrum 18.
Romania opted for transplantation of the old theological institutes into the existing higher education institutions. With regard to the majority confession, this led to
a degree of inertia. The Romanian Orthodox Church did not establish private theological institutes (as other denominations did), in a manner, let us say, less subject
to restrictions imposed by the public nature of universities. Moreover, it did not set
up private religious universities with different study programs (as other Orthodox
churches have done in other countries) in which to assume the rigors of a complex
academic exercise 19.
In this context, it should be noted that the current formula of organizing academic
theology sometimes leads to organizational structures which are difficult to reconcile
with the logic of the Romanian higher education system. At the University BabesBolyai, for example, several theological faculties offer specializations in History:
Greek Catholic Theological Faculty (Oradea), Faculty of Reformed Theology and
that of Roman Catholic Theology. Of course, UBB offers a specialization in History
also under the tutelage of the Faculty of History and Philosophy. In other words, the
University offers four «different» specializations in History through four distinct units
(faculties), of which three are theological 20.
At the University Aurel Vlaicu from Arad, Pentecostal didactic theology falls
under the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, while Orthodox theology is
subject to the Faculty of Orthodox Theology. A similar situation is found at the University of Oradea, where the specialization of Baptist didactic theology is subject to
the Faculty of Letters, but also within the University is a faculty of Orthodox theology. A solution from an administrative point of view is found in North University
of Baia Mare: its Faculty of Theology offers all theological specializations - two
Orthodox and two Greek Catholic.
The integration of denominational «theologies» united in one state faculty would
have had many advantages over the current solution. It would have allowed better
use of resources, as some subjects could be taught, regardless of religion, by the best
professors in the field. (This happens today in some private theological institutes,
although for reasons that are rather to do with the shortage of professionals affiliated
Charles University in Prague has three confessional theology faculties and the Comenius
University in Bratislava two.
19
See K.I. Petrenko and P.L. Glanzer, «The Recent Emergence of Private Christian Colleges
and Universities in Russia», Christian Higher Education 4 (2005).
20
See GD 749/2009, published in Official Monitor No. 465 from 06 iulie 2009. Faculties of
Reformed and Roman Catholic Theology offers only specializations in Hungarian.
18
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to the tutelary confession.) It would have provided, in this way, a higher degree of
objectivity of a non-dogmatic nature 21.
As already mentioned, every denomination provides for the education of its
clergy, in part through faculties of theology integrated into public education system.
Considering that Romania is not a country that would be a destination for emigration,
the training of imams or other Muslim has not arisen as an issue. The Muslim community is confined to south eastern Romania (Dobrogea), which was for a long time
under Turkish rule. Training occurs abroad, but the mufti of the Muslim community
in Romania is a PhD candidate at the Faculty of Orthodox Theology in Constanţa.
Currently, in Romania, there are over 30 faculties, departments and institutes of
theology in public and private institutions, most of them Orthodox (15). In addition,
there are three Roman Catholic Faculties of Theology and a Faculty – separate and
older – of Greek-Catholic Theology. The University of Cluj holds «the record of
ecumenism» regarding faculties of theology, with four: Orthodox, Roman Catholic,
Greek Catholic and Reformed. The State University of Bucharest has the Faculty of
Orthodox and Roman Catholic Theology, and a Baptist Faculty of Theology, with
two majors (theology-social assistance and didactic theology). At the University of
Oradea, Baptist didactic theology is under the auspices of the Faculty of Letters. The
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences at the University Aurel Vlaicu (Arad), has
specialism in Pentecostal didactic theology. At the North University of Baia Mare, the
Faculty of Theology offers – in addition to Orthodox theology – two Greek Catholic
theological specializations. Finally, Lucian Blaga University at Sibiu has recently
established a Department of Protestant Theology (with a unique specialization in Protestant pastoral theology, which is actually the successor of the Protestant Theological
Institute at Sibiu which, for lack of students, could not cope outside the university).
More particularly, Emanuel University, Oradea (EUO) is a private university
with a Baptist affiliation; operating since the 1990s, EUO offers, besides Baptist
theology, other courses common to the «theology» and management degree. Other
private institutions offering accredited theological specializations are: the Roman
Catholic Theological Institute, Pentecostal Theological Institute and Baptist Theological Institute, all three in Bucharest, along with the Roman Catholic Theological
Institute in Alba Iulia. Finally, at Partium Christian University, Oradea - separated in
the mid-1990s from the Reformed Theological Institute, Cluj - there are 10 majors
in Reformed pastoral theology.
21
To give just one example: the history of Romanian churches under Communism would not
have been taught differently by Greek Orthodox and Catholics historians. See in this respect also C.
Vasile, «Studiu introductiv» (Introductory Study), in C. Vasile, Istoria Bisericii Greco-Catolice sub
regimul comunist, 1945-1989: Documente şi mărturii (History of the Greek Catholic Church under
Communism: Documents and Testimonies) (Iaşi: Polirom Publishing, 2003), pp. 23 and folow.
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Emanuel Tăvală
As well as accredited higher education institutions, several theological institutes
in Romania are authorized: the Adventist Theological Institute (Cernica), the Protestant Theological Institute (Cluj), the Roman Catholic Theological Institute (Iaşi),
the Franciscan Roman Catholic Theological Institute (Roman), and the Timotheus
Christian Evangelical Theological Institute (Bucharest).
In short, twenty years after the regime change of 1989, theology in Romania is
a well-developed academic field. Almost all recognized religions, with a substantial
number of believers, have one or more institutions providing theological training to
meet their needs. The main Romanian churches are almost all represented in academic
theology at state universities (mostly in the largest and oldest universities) and in this
way provision is made for the training of personnel needed to serve the Church(es)
and religious organisations.
OF RELIGIOUS PERSONNEL IN AUSTRIA
Richard Potz
I History of the mode of training of religious staff since the 18th
century 1
Following the Counter-Reformation, particularly effective in Austria, since the
end of the 16th Century theological education has been mainly in the hands of the
Jesuits, who were largely obstructive of major reforms in higher education until the
middle of the 18th Century. The standard of theological training by the Jesuits was
relatively high - but the extremely poor funding of secular university teachers resulted
in a lower standard at the other faculties. In the 1730s and 1740s ever louder calls
for reform resulted in the establishment of state superintendents and the withdrawal
of traditional state support for the Jesuit Order. Moreover, between 1630 and 1732,
theological schools were established in almost every major Austrian monastery;
these were able to largely escape State or Jesuit supervision. Therefore, the training
of priests remained dependent on the specific efforts of the bishops and monasteries
until education took a new direction within the framework of a state-led «reform-Catholicism» under the reign of Maria Theresia (1740-1780) and Joseph II (1780-1790).
The consequences for the training of the religious staff were far-reaching; indeed, the
use of books selected by state authorities was compulsory for teachers and students
alike. The reforms culminated in 1783 when Joseph II ordered that no-one should
be admitted to ordination or a religious order if they had not completed six years of
study at a state General-Seminary. Within the boundaries of present-day Austria, there
were three such seminaries: in Vienna, Graz and Innsbruck. These General-Seminaries
were regarded as the key measure of the Josephine «reform-Catholicism» and were
dissolved immediately after Joseph II’s death. However, the state supervision of the
For the history of education in Austria cf. especially H. Engelbrecht, Geschichte des österreichischen Bildungswesens, 5 vol., Vienna 1982-1988.
1
164
Richard Potz
re-established episcopal and monastic seminaries remained, dominating the further
development of the training of religious staff for a long time.
In the first half of the 19th Century, no fundamental reform was carried out; only
single reforms sought an intensification of pastoral and educational subjects. It was
not until after the revolution of 1848 that there were decisive reforms for the Austrian
university system, covering also the study of theology. In 1850 a new regulation on
Catholic theology faculties and diocesan and monastic colleges was issued by the
Minister of Cult and Education (RGBl No 319/1950). In it the bishop’s competence
was strengthened and the former absolutist state supervision was reduced. For diocesan and monastic colleges, a four-year study was provided and fully recognized
by the State. Moreover, the doctoral program still had to be completed at a theology
faculty. The study regulations for theology faculties at state universities were set out
in detail by a Ministerial Decree of 16 September 1851.
As a result of the Concordat with the Holy See in 1855, which generally brought
the Josephine system to an end, the State distanced itself even further from the formation of priests. According to Article 17 of the Concordat, the bishops were free
to regulate the teaching of seminarians according to church law. Subsequently, the
Bishops’ Conference enacted uniform guidelines for the colleges and these received
the imperial approval in 1858. The influence of the State persisted in so far as the financing of the seminaries was dependent on government grants to the Religionsfonds,
which resulted in state regulation of the number of seminarians.
After its termination according to international law in 1870, the Concordat was
replaced by a «Law regulating the external legal relations of the Catholic Church»
(Katholikengesetz, RGBl 50/1974) enacted on 13 May 1874, which was basically
committed to the system of Staatskirchenhoheit. Under § 30 para 1 leg. cit., the establishment of Catholic theology faculties would be regulated by a separate law. § 30
para 2 provided the same for the training of candidates for ordained ministry. Neither
law came into effect since, as was noted at the time, the «prevailing extraordinary
shortage of priests made it practically impossible» to introduce new requirements on
candidacy for the priesthood. Therefore, the measures from 1850 and 1851 continued
in force and the training of Catholic priests in diocesan colleges remained exclusively
in the hands of the bishops.
As for other churches and religious societies in the territory of present-day
Austria, the theological college of the Protestant Church was raised to the status of a
faculty in 1850, but not included in the state university, mainly due to opposition from
the Catholic Theology Faculty 2. After 1848, there were also increased efforts for the
establishment of a college for rabbis and Jewish religious teachers, which, however,
Cf. K.W. Schwarz/F. Wagner, (Ed.), Zeitenwechsel und Beständigkeit. Beiträge zur Geschichte der Evangelisch-Theologischen Fakultät in Wien 1821-1996, Wien 1997.
2
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Austria
165
were mostly opposed by orthodox circles. Nevertheless, in 1863 a bet ha-midrash
was founded in Vienna, and on 15 October 1893 the college (Israelitisch-theologische
Lehranstalt) was opened as a non-university faculty in Vienna. This college served
both the training of rabbis and Jewish religious teachers as well as Jewish scholarship in general 3.
Also worth mentioning is the foundation of the Orthodox theology faculty in
Czernowitz/Chernivtsi in 1875 on the initiative of the Viennese canonist Joseph von
Zhishman (also closely involved in the development of the curriculum) 4.
After 1918, the legal basis of theology faculties and diocesan and monastic
schools remained unchanged and thus the dual system for the education of Catholic
clergy persisted. In 1926, the period of study was extended to five years (though a
six-year study was prescribed in the CIC 1917); this contained an introductory twoyear Philosophicum - but this could not be carried out in Austria for financial and
organisational reasons. The duration of theological study continued to be the subject
of negotiations between Austria and the Holy See until recent times – that is, up until
debate about the EU Bologna system.
The Concordat of 1933 confirmed the dual system. Under Article V para 1, the
scientific education of clergy was to occur at state universities and in colleges established by the Church. The existing state faculties were guaranteed and the establishment of diocesan and monastic schools was left to the Church without restriction.
This law is still in force 5.
In 1922 the Protestant Theology Faculty was formally incorporated into the University of Vienna. The Israelite theological college flourished until the Nazi takeover
in March 1938.
The Catholic theology faculties were particularly affected by Nazi policies; and
with the abolition of the Concordat of 1933 their legal basis was lost. The Catholic
theology faculties in Vienna and Graz were merged; those in Innsbruck - at that time
the largest German-speaking theology faculty - and Salzburg were closed; and the
Protestant Theology Faculty ceased for practical purposes.
After 1945, with restitution, the theology faculties and diocesan and monastic
colleges resumed their activities. Thereafter, the theology faculties shared the fate of
the universities – university reforms took place at ever shorter intervals (University
laws 1955, 1975, 1993, 2002). All these laws contain reservations in favour of the
Concordat of 1933 and since 1961 in favour of the Law for the Protestant Church
enacted in this year.
Cf. P. Landesmann, Die Rabbinerausbildung in Wien, Phil. Diss. Univ. Vienna, 1994.
Cf. T.M. Németh, «Joseph Ritter von Zhishman und die Errichtung der orthodoxen theologischen Fakultät in Czernowitz»: Ostkirchliche Studien 54 (2005), 279 – 291.
5
Cf. below 2.2.1.
3
4
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Richard Potz
In 1999, there was a significant reform in Austrian higher education: the Universitäts‑Akkreditierungsgesetz (BGBl I Nr. 168/1999) 6 put an end to the State monopoly
on universities and made it possible for private universities to be established. In 2000,
the former diocesan college of Linz – now the Theological Private University of Linz
– made use of this provision 7.
A. The guiding principles for theological studies at public universities
The Austrian constitutional system contains no explicit guarantee of theological
research at state-run higher education institutions. Although the existence of religious instruction is assumed in the Constitution, there is no obligation for the State
to provide for the training of teachers of religion; this is because, in Austria, it is the
churches and religious societies (not the State) which provide religious instruction
in public schools. For this reason, the Constitution does not require the inclusion of
theology amongst university subjects.
Nevertheless, an overview of the constitutional principles applicable to law on
religion shows that the undertaking of this task by the State would conform to the
Austrian system. The starting point is the assumption that the principle of secularity
does not mean that the State has to ignore religion.
The principle of religious neutrality not only allows the State to take religion into
consideration, but it also requires the State to take into account religious interests in
a pluralistic society as part of its socially legitimated purposes. The State, therefore,
must avoid infringing its religious neutrality by an exclusion of religion, thus becoming an ideological «player» with a secular character.
Theology faculties belong to those areas in which cooperation with religious
communities (as socially effective factors) is not only permissible, but required. State
universities operating under the umbrella of academic freedom may not be used by
the State to enforce a scientific concept of theology which denies its qualification as a
science. Therefore, it does not contradict the guarantee of genuine scientific standards
to take into account the specificity of theology.
This overview of the constitutional basis of Austrian law on religion finds substantiates the guarantee for the existence of theology faculties in the Concordat 1933,
the Protestants Act 1961, and university law. According to Article V of the Austrian
Concordat 1933, the State guarantees the preservation of the existing state-funded
6
Replaced 2011 by the Bundesgesetz über Privatuniversitäten (Privatuniversitätengesetz –
PUG), BGBl. I Nr. 74/2011.
7
Cf. H. Kalb, Die «Katholisch-Theologische Universität Linz. Von der diözesanen Lehranstalt
zur Privatuniversität», Österr. Archiv f. Recht & Religion 47 (2000), 363-383.
167
Catholic theology faculties for the scientific education of the clergy; and § 15 Protestants Act 1961 contains a guarantee of the existence of the Protestant Theology
Faculty at the University of Vienna.
It is deduced from the wording of these provisions that the churches commit
themselves to accept that individuals may attend theology faculties at state universities to prepare for service in the church. Moreover, one can assume that each
extension of university theological or religious education training to other religious
communities in principle has to follow the same logic.
Increasing religious pluralism presents state theology faculties with some challenges. The religious neutrality of the State allows differentiation between churches
and religious societies only if based on secular grounds, e.g. statistical data, or on the
self-understanding of the individual confessions.
The Catholic Church and Protestant Church, due to their historical involvement
in the state university system, may not be privileged over others religious societies
which are in a comparable situation. In principle, the possibility of establishing state
faculties must also be offered to other religious communities if they meet the relevant
conditions. This means that the self-understanding of religious communities has
be taken into account. Education at state institutions requires the agreement of the
churches and religious communities concerned.
First, there is the fundamental question as to whether and in what form a religious
community conducts theological research at all 8. Furthermore, the question arises
as to whether the religious community concerned is willing to entrust theological
research and teaching to the state university system.
From our synopsis of Austrian religion law and university law, therefore, it follows that the establishment of university theological structures should be provided
for those religious communities which, on the one hand, have an adequate social
significance and, on the other hand, trust the state university to teach theology as a
science under the guarantee of religious freedom.
Apart from the Catholic and Protestant Churches, for which the conditions
are traditionally met, we must mention Islam which in the last decade has striven
intensively for the establishment of an Islamic Theology Faculty. The existence of
this ambition makes it clear that, from the perspective of the Islamic community in
Austria, the integration of Islamic Pedagogics and Theology in state universities does
not mean the imposition of a structure foreign to Islam.
Relevant here is the integration of Orthodox Theology in the Austrian university
system; that is, the historical precedent of the Orthodox Theology Faculty established
Cf. H.M. Heinig, «Wie das Grundgesetz (vor) Theologie an Staatlichen Hochschulen schützt.
Eine Erwiderung auf Carsten Bäcker», Der Staat 48 (2009), 619.
8
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Richard Potz
at Czernowitz/Chernivtsi in 1875 9. Also, for the training of religious instruction
teachers, Orthodox churches participate in the Ecclesiastical College of Education
Vienna/Krems established under the Higher Education Act of 2005. Preparations are
currently being made for a master’s degree in «Orthodox Religious Education» at
the University of Vienna.
Finally, Alevism should be mentioned. An Alevi group, the Islamic Alevi religious community in Austria, was legally recognized in 2003 and will soon introduce
the establishment of Alevi religious education.
The willingness of religious communities to entrust theological research and
teaching to state universities presupposes, on the part of the State, that theology is
generally carried out in a manner associated with a particular confession 10. Making
the faith and doctrine of socially relevant religious communities part of state university teaching and research is the raison d’être for integrating their theology in state
university system 11.
The organization of theological research and teaching at state universities takes
into consideration not only the religious neutrality of the State and the self-determination of religious communities, but also the guarantees for teaching and research
– both in terms of the institutional side of academic freedom (i.e. the constitutionally
guaranteed autonomy of universities and the individual fundamental rights of the
theologians concerned). The result is a complex web of relationships between State,
Church, university, and individual theologians with sometimes converging, sometimes
colliding legal positions which often extend into the sphere of fundamental rights.
Such cases require a careful balance to meet the guarantees of the affected legal
goods. This means above all that the right of self-determination of those religious
communities must be respected, when their theologies are the subject of research
and teaching.
Therefore, the academic freedom of professors of theology finds its own limits
in this right of self-determination of religious communities; and this requires a fair
balance in the event of a clash of interests 12. To a certain extent, the different forms
of confessional links in theological research must also be considered; this implies
the admissibility of a certain disparity in the involvement of the official church. 13
This means essentially participatory rights both in the establishment of university
Cf. above.
Cf German BVerfG 2008 in the case of Lüdemann (BVerfGE 122, 89), a consideration which
is followed by the German Wissenschaftsrat, Drs. 9678-10/29. 01. 2010, http://www.wissenschaftsrat.
de/download/archiv/9678-10.pdf [12.07.2013], 15 ss.
11
Heinig (fn. 8), 622.
12
Cf. BVerfGE 122, 89, 50.
13
There are, for example, various forms of participation of the respective Protestant Church in
the law of the Evangelical Theological Colleges in Germany, cf. Heinig, (fn 8), 626s.
9
10
169
theological institutions, as well as in the design of the curriculum and especially the
employment or dismissal of staff.
B. Theological Study at State Universities
1. Catholic Theology Faculties in Particular
The legal basis of Catholic theology faculties is currently the Concordat of
1933. Article 5 of the Concordat guarantees the continued existence of the Faculties
of Catholic theology at the Universities of Vienna, Graz, Innsbruck and Salzburg,
financed by the State for the purpose of the academic education of the clergy . Their
internal organisation and educational practice has to be regulated by the State in accordance with the relevant rules of the Church.
The term «internal organisation» refers to the organisational provisions of the
Universitätsgesetz (UnivG) 2002; the term «educational practice» refers to the provisions of this law on academic studies. The law itself includes an explicit proviso in
favour of the provisions of the Concordat (UnivG Section 38 (1)).
The appointment or admission of professors and lecturers must be agreed by the
competent church authority. If church authorisation is withdrawn, the teacher must
be excluded from teaching. The majority opinion is that the disciplinary measure of
the compulsory redundancy of a theology professor whose authorisation has been
withdrawn (according to Article 5 (4) of the Concordat) does not violate the rights of
freedom of religion and conscience, freedom of expression, and freedom of academic
teaching and research, since the aim is to educate pastors and teachers of religious
education 14.
According to Article 5 para 2 academic degrees in theology awarded by a papal
university in Rome or any other papal academy have the legal status of state degrees
in Austria.
In 2011 at the four faculties of Catholic theology 1.030 students were enrolled in
theology and 963 in religious pedagogics. 427 students were enrolled in the doctoral
program.
2. Faculty of Protestant Theology in Particular
The Federal State is obliged to maintain a Faculty of Protestant Theology with
at least six permanent chairs at the University of Vienna to guarantee the academic
education of ordinands, theological research and teaching (Protestantengesetz Section 15). Teachers at the faculty must be members of the Protestant Church. When
appointing a professor to a chair, the commission charged with the appointment
14
See Constitutional Court VfSlg. 6998/1973, Administrative High Court VwSlg. 8419 A/1973.
170
Richard Potz
must consult the Protestant Church authorities. The curriculum is designed without
the direct formal involvement of the Protestant Church, but nonetheless substantive
agreement is sought.
In 2011 at the Faculty of Protestant Theology, 149 students were enrolled in
theology and 20 in religious pedagogics. 36 students were enrolled in the doctoral
program.
3. Islamic Pedagogical and Theological Studies at the University
In 2009, the study of Islamic religious education was established at the Faculty of
Philosophy and Pedagogics of the University of Vienna. Since the autumn of 2011, it
is possible to attend lectures for the Master’s program in Islamic Religious Education
(which is also at the University of Innsbruck).
In 2011 67 students enrolled on Islamic religious pedagogics. Islamic theological studies in Vienna start in 2014; the curriculum is currently under development.
C. Diocesan and Monastic Theological Colleges
On the basis of Article 5 para 1 of the Concordat, theology may also be studied
at theological colleges established by competent church authorities. Actually, the
College of St. Pölten is the only one which still exists under this provision. The
Theological College of the diocese of Linz has been converted into a Private University. In 2007, the monastic College in the Cistercian monastery of Heiligenkreuz was
given the status of a pontifical institution (Philosophisch-Theologische Hochschule
Benedikt XVI).
In 2012/2013, at the Catholic Theological Private University of Linz, 446 students enrolled, including 222 at the Catholic Theology Faculty (Theology and Religious Pedagogics). In 2012, at the Philosophisch-Theologische Hochschule Benedikt
XVI Heiligenkreuz, 208 students enrolled and at the Diocesan Theological College
St. Pölten, 69 students (Theology and Religious Pedagogics).
D. Pedagogical Colleges
The «Federal Law on the Organisation of the Pedagogical Colleges and their
Studies» 2005 (HochschulG) 15 provides for the independent incorporation of Teachers’ Training Academies into the tertiary sector of education (which includes bachelor’s degree for teachers). This law put an end to a transitional period which started
in 1999. Until that time, the Religious Education Teachers’ Training Academies
(Religious-Pedagogical Academies) had been established as denominational private
15
BGBl. I 2006/30. Cf. R. Potz/B. Schinkele, «Religionsrecht im Überblick«, Wien 22007, 86.
171
schools pursuant to the Law on Private Schools; and they had acquired public law
status on this legal basis.
Denominational colleges are private institutions. The legal relationship with their
students is based on a contract under private law. The structure, organisation, and
academic level of these colleges are the same as at public institutions and must be
guaranteed. Consequently, denominational colleges must observe the general provisions concerning the qualification of teaching staff (including performance review,
academic autonomy, students’ co-determination, personal staff, and material equipment). In this regard, the relevant principles explicitly provide for the development
of social competence in connection with imparting social, moral-ethic and religious
values.
In order to ensure comparability between these studies and degrees with those
of the public teachers’ training colleges, the law provides for recognition (§§ 4 to
7 HochschulG). Till now, four Catholic religious-pedagogical colleges have been
established. Protestant, Orthodox and Old-Catholic studies are also connected with
the Viennese Catholic College.
Both the Islamic Religious Community and the Jewish Religious Society have
also established independent courses of studies.
In 2011, the numbers of students enrolled at the pedagogical colleges of the religious communities were: Catholic, 465 students; Protestant, 52 students; Orthodox,
34 students; Oriental-Orthodox, 3 students; Jewish, 68 students; and Islamic, 187
students.
A. The Intercultural Academy for Priests
The Intercultural Academy for Priests was founded for priests who come from
other countries to serve in the Archdiocese of Vienna. It seeks to assist them in the
first two years of their work there. Therefore, the two focal points of the Academy’s
program are the knowledge and understanding of the pastoral situation in the Archdiocese of Vienna and the improvement of language skills. This program is compulsory
for all priests coming from other countries.
B. Training for Imams
Following the introduction of Islamic religious instruction in 1993, an Academy
for Islamic Religious Pedagogics was established in 1999 16.
16
Cf. above.
172
Richard Potz
As far as the training for imams is concerned, there are different programs. Since
November 2008, the Türkisch-Islamische Union für Kulturelle und Soziale Zusammenarbeit in Österreich (ATIB) is connected with the Turkish Office of Religious
Affairs (Diyanet) in cooperation with the Austrian Ministry for European and International Affairs. It organizes training for Turkish Imams and religious representatives
who have been sent to work in Austria. Its aim is to inform them about the land,
people and culture, about the Austrian political system, and about the relationship
between State, society and religion 17 .
Since the academic year 2009/2010, the University of Vienna has also offered
a one-year university course «designed for imams and other personnel for pastoral
care. Admission requires relevant professional activity in Austria. In addition, participants should have a degree in Islamic theology. These requirements arise from the
character of the course, which is intended as further education for the target group.»
Therefore, this course is not training for imams in a narrow sense, but should «convey
knowledge of the legal, social, political and religious situation in Austria and Europe
at university level». In addition, the successful completion of the training program
«enables graduates to understand Islamic subjects in the European context, including gender-specific matters. The participants will learn about Islamic traditions, with
particular attention to those positions relevant for the everyday life of the Muslim
population in Europe» 18.
Cf. the press-releases of the Austrian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: http://www.bmeia.gv.at/
botschaft/ankara/aktuelles/presseaussendungen/2010/entsendung-tuerkischer-imame-nach-oesterreichverabschiedung-in-ankara.html; http://www.bmeia.gv.at/aussenministerium/pressenews/presseaussendungen/2011/tuerkische-religionsbeauftragte-fuer-oesterreich-in-ankara-verabschiedet.html.
18
The course brochure is available under http://mie.univie.ac.at/fileadmin/user_upload/proj_
muslime_eu/Brosch%C3%BCre_2011_12_final.pdf [25.11.2011].
17
OF RELIGIOUS PERSONNEL IN CYPRUS
Achilles C. Emilianides*
The aim of this paper is to identify the elements of the current system for the
training of religious personnel in the Republic of Cyprus. Following a succinct historical introduction, the current system will be analysed, with emphasis on the training
of the religious personnel of the Orthodox Church of Cyprus which is the dominant
religious corporation of the island. Training of religious personnel in other religious
communities will also be addressed.
I. Historical Introduction
During the Turkish rule of Cyprus, the great majority of clergymen of the Orthodox Church of Cyprus were uneducated. Educated clergymen during this period
studied at various hieratical schools which functioned in monasteries on the island 1.
This situation was a cause for major concern for the Orthodox Church which, especially after the 1821 Greek revolution and the subsequent independence of Greece in
1832, considered that clergymen should be educated so as to successfully guide their
flock to political and spiritual freedom 2. This was due to the fact that during the Turkish and British rule of Cyprus, the Orthodox Church constituted the nation-leading
* Head of the Department of Law, University of Nicosia.
312
See generally J. Hackett, A History of the Orthodox Church of Cyprus (London: Methuen
& Co, 1901), T. Stavrides, «The Holy Monastery of Kykkos and the Education of the Cypriot Clergy
during the Turkish and British Rule» (2001) 5 Yearbook of the Centre of Studies of the Monastery of
Kykkos 69-85 (in Greek).
2
See generally T. Papadopoulos, The History of the Greek Church and People under Turkish
Domination, 2nd Ed., (Variorum: Aldershot, 1990), H. Luke, Cyprus under the Turks 1571 – 1878:
A Record Based on the Archives of the English Consulate in Cyprus, (London: Oxford University
Press, 1921), M. Michael, The Church of Cyprus during the Ottoman Era (Nicosia: Cyprus Research
Centre, 2005).
1
174
political organisation of the Greeks under foreign sovereignty; thus, the Archbishop
of Cyprus was both the spiritual and political leader of Greek Cypriots 3.
There were various efforts by the Orthodox Church of Cyprus to found a hieratic school during the 19th century, efforts which became more intense when the
Ottoman Empire assigned to Great Britain the rights of possession and administration of Cyprus, by signing the Convention of Defence Alliance on 4 June 1878 in
Constantinople 4. With the signing of the Treaty of 1878, the period of British rule
in Cyprus officially began 5. In 1910 the Orthodox Church (and particularly the then
Metropolitan of Kition, Meletius Metaxakis) 6 founded the Pancyprian seminary
(hierodidaskalion) at the Monastery of Saint George Kontos in Larnaca 7. The Greek
Government recognised the seminary of Larnaca as equivalent to the Rizarios ecclesiastical school. Furthermore, the Educational Board of the colonial government of
the island recognised that graduates of the seminary could be employed as teachers.
Despite the efforts of the Orthodox Church, however, only high-ranking religious
personnel, such as Archbishops, Metropolitans or Monks, remained educated. Most
of the graduates of the seminary opting to become teachers, instead of members of
the clergy, a fact which undermined the aim of the Holy Synod to improve the educational standards of clergymen 8. Following the disturbances of 1931 9, the colonial
Government withdrew the recognition of the seminary and cut off its funding; with
the Metropolitans of Kition and Kyrenia having been deported from the island by
the colonial Government, the seminary was shut down 10. When the Holy Synod was
reinstated in 1948, one of its first decisions was to found a hieratical school from the
3
A. Gavrielides, Nomocanonical and Political Study on the Unfrocking of Bishops in Cyprus
in Conjunction to the Exercise of their Ethnarchical Rights, 2nd Ed., Nicosia, 1973, Idem, The Ethnarchic
Rights and the Plebiscite for Union with Greece, 2nd Ed., Nicosia, 1972.
4
See G. Georgallides, A Political and Administrative History of Cyprus 1918 – 1926 with a
Survey of the Foundations of the British Rule (Nicosia: Cyprus Research Centre, 1979) 3ff, L. Dwight,
Great Britain and the Cyprus Convention Policy of 1878, Harvard Historical Studies: Cambridge, 1934.
5
See in particular A. Emilianides, «Justice and Human Rights during British Rule in Cyprus»
Cyprus Law Tribune 3 [2006]; pp. 66 - 96 (in Greek), S. Symeonides, «Introduction to Cypriot Law» in F.
Frantzeskakis, D. Evrigenis, S. Symeonides, Comparative Law, Thessaloniki: Sakkoulas, 1978: 375ff.
6
A. Fytrakis, The Ecumenical Patriarch Meletius Metaxakis, Athens, 1973.
7
In 1914 it was relocated at the house of the former Director of Larnaca, Claude Delaval
Cobham.
8
See C. Kokkinoftas, «The Hieratical School of Apostolos Varnavas and the Education of
the Cyprus Clergy» Hieratical School of Apostolos Varnavas: Nicosia, in Greek, available in <www.
churchofcyprus.org.cy/ap_varnavassxoli.shtml>, november 2008.
9
P. Stylianou, The Movement of October of 1931 in Cyprus, Nicosia, 1984, in Greek; V.
Livadas, G. Spanos, P. Papapolyviou, The Insurrection of October 1931 (Nicosia, 2004, in Greek).
10
See also G. Georgallides, «Church and State in Cyprus october 1931 to november 1932:
A Systematic Humiliation of the Autocephalous Church of Cyprus» Yearbook of the Cyprus Research
Centre 19 (1992); pp. 361 - 448.
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Cyprus
175
academic year 1949-1950 onwards; the Monastery of Kykkos offered to finance the
new hieratical school 11.
A. The General Philosophy of the System
According to Cypriot law, a legal person is considered to be a legal person
under public law, if it has been established by law, is endowed with decisive public
law competences and is under the control of the State 12. The majority of the Supreme Court of Cyprus has held that the Orthodox Church of Cyprus does not fulfil
the requirements of the aforementioned definition, since it is not under the control
of the State, it does not function as a governmental body or organ and it does not
exercise any state powers. It has accordingly been held that the Orthodox Church
of Cyprus should be properly considered as a peculiar legal person under private
law and not as a legal person under public law 13. These principles also apply with
regard to the three constitutionally recognized religious groups of the Republic,
namely the Maronites, the Armenians and the Roman Catholics, as well as the
Islamic religion, an approach which is consistent with the principles of the system
of coordination, as applied in the Republic of Cyprus 14. Therefore, the Orthodox
Church, the three religious groups of the Republic and the Vakfs should properly
be considered as legal persons of private law.
In view of the above, religious authorities are not considered as legal persons of
public law under the Cypriot legal system. The system prevailing in Cyprus effectively
safeguards religious pluralism by acknowledging that the state and the various religions
occupy in principle different societal structures; religious neutrality is achieved both
because there is religious autonomy and through positive measures on behalf of the
See C. Kokkinoftas, «The Hieratical School of Apostolos Varnavas and the Education of
the Cyprus Clergy» (Hieratical School of Apostolos Varnavas: Nicosia, in Greek).
12
Elias Petrou and Others v. The New Co – Operative Society of Karpashia 3 RSCC 58.
13
Autocephalous Orthodox Church of Cyprus v. The House of Representatives [1990] 3 CLR
338 (in Greek). For an assessment see A. Emilianides, «Religious Entities as Legal Persons in Cyprus»
Friedner L (ed), Churches and other Religious Organisations as Legal Persons (Peeters, Leuven,
2007): 49 - 53. See further K. Chrysostomides, «Cyprus Ecclesiastical Law» in Tribute to the Parish
of Agion Panton of London, (London, 1968): 131, C. Papastathis, «The Power of the Church to Have
Recourse in the Supreme Court under Article 139» Review of Public Law and Administrative Law 34
(1990): 321 – 325 (in Greek).
14
A. Emilianides, Religion and Law in Cyprus (Kluwer: The Hague, 2011), Idem, «The Constitutional Framework of the Relations between Church and State in the Republic of Cyprus» Nomokanonika 1 [2006]: 37ff (in Greek), C. Papastathis, On the Administrative Organisation of the Church
of Cyprus (Thessaloniki, 1981): 34.
11
176
state, which aim at the protection of religions 15. The general philosophy of the system
implies that the state has recognized broad discretionary powers in favour of the major
religions and creeds of the island and does not have the right to intervene in their internal affairs. Article 110 of the Constitution, in particular, provides that the five constitutionally recognized religions have the exclusive right of regulating and administering
their own internal affairs and property in accordance with their internal religious laws.
The executive or legislative authorities of the Republic may not act inconsistently with
the right of the five major religions to administer their internal affairs and property 16.
The right to religious autonomy is therefore considered as an integral part of the
right of religious freedom, the principle of autonomy being in principle an all-encompassing one, in so far as it is applied within the boundaries of the law. As a consequence
of this general philosophy of the system, whereas the state supports in principle the
training of religious personnel and other staff working in religious communities, public
authorities do not involve themselves in the actual training of religious personnel since
this would be considered as interfering with the internal affairs of the various religious
corporations and violating the principle of autonomy. The state might potentially finance
or otherwise support certain activities of religions which aim at the training of their
religious personnel; however, such training may not be conducted by public authorities,
or with the direct involvement of public authorities. It is for the religious corporations
themselves and not for the state or public authorities to set up or identify universities
or schools which might train religious personnel.
This approach has also been confirmed by the Supreme Court which held that
religious ministers, even if performing a spiritual function, are properly considered
as employees and thus the general provisions of employment law are applicable with
respect to their status as employees 17. Religious ministers are not considered as public
servants and are governed by contractual employment relations of private law. In the
case of Sideras, the petitioner was a member of the clergy of the Orthodox Church
and was employed as a religious minister in the Metropolis of Limassol. The Director
of Social Securities informed the petitioner that he was classified as a self-employed
person, for social security purposes - because «members of the clergy in general
perform spiritual functions and in view of such functions, they cannot be considered
15
A. Emilianides, «Secularism, Law and Religion within the Cypriot Legal Order» in P.
Cumper, T. Lewis (eds), Religion, Rights and Secular Society: European Perspectives, Edward Elgar:
Cheltenham, 2012; pp. 169-188, Idem, «Equal Promotionist Neutralism and the Case of Cyprus» in M.
Moravcicova (ed), Financing of Churches and Religious Societies in the 21st Century, Institute for
State-Church Relations: Bratislava, 2010; pp. 135-144.
16
A. Emilianides, «State and Church in Cyprus» in G. Robbers, State and Church in the European Union, Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft: Baden – Baden, 2005; pp. 237-258, Idem, «Law and Religion
in Cyprus», Kanon 20 (2008); pp. 7-21.
17
Sideras v. The Minister of Labour and Social Securities [1989] 3 CLR (in Greek).
177
to be employees, irrespective of the fact that they receive compensation with respect
to such function by the Government, or the respective Metropolis».
The Supreme Court had no difficulty in holding that the decision of the Director of Social Securities was legally wrong; the petitioner was an employee of the
Metropolis of Limassol. The Court observed that despite any spiritual mission of
the petitioner, he was also an employee receiving instructions and salary from the
employer, namely the Metropolis of Limassol. In any event he would not be a selfemployed person, also due to the fact that performing the functions of a religious
minister may not appropriately be considered as a profession or occupation which is
carried out in compensation for money; a religious minister undoubtedly belongs to
a peculiar category of employees, despite the fact that he should most definitely be
considered as an employee.
B. The Apostolos Varnavas Hieratic School
The hieratic school Apostolos Vanavas, bearing the name of the founder of the
Orthodox Church of Cyprus, operates in Nicosia, under the supervision of the Holy
Synod, as a dependence of the Monastery of Kykkos. The school was founded, as
described in the historical introduction, in 1949 and currently offers two distinct
levels of courses for persons who seek to become priests. The lower level of courses
is designated for graduates of elementary schools, gymnasiums or technical schools,
while the higher level is designated for graduates of lyceums who have successfully
passed the placement exams organised by the school. The duration of the higher level
is two years, whereas the duration of the lower level is three years. Graduates of the
lower level of courses may, however, proceed to the higher level. Furthermore, in
exceptional cases, a graduate of a gymnasium might be directly admitted to the higher
level, subject to success in the placement exams organised by the school.
Pupils are enabled to become acquainted with the main aspects of the Orthodox
Christian teaching and the various ecclesiastical ceremonies, while also acquiring
general knowledge which deemed necessary to carry out their duties. The everyday
program normally begins at 6.30 in the morning with participation in the Orthodox
liturgy. From 8.00-13.15 the pupils study the main theological courses, such as theology, ecclesiastical history, interpretation of the Holy Scripture, study of religions and
hymnology; examinations for all lessons are held at the end of the academic year.
After lunch, from 14.45-16.15 the pupils study ecclesiastical music from MondayWednesday and computers on Thursday. Following the completion of the afternoon
liturgy, the pupils are expected to study for one or two hours at least until dinner 18.
See the interview of the Director of the hieratic school Antonis Kalogirou, Simerini newspaper,
11/3/2012, available at http://www.sigmalive.com/simerini/news/social/471640.
18
178
The school also functions as a boarding house for those pupils who wish to stay
there during their courses. In practice, the great majority of pupils of the hieratic
school reside in the school during the entire duration of their courses, so as to become
better acquainted with their spiritual mission. There are no fees for studying in the
school and the pupils further receive a monthly stipend of 250 euro to cover their
immediate everyday needs. All expenses of the school are covered by the Monastery
of Kykkos. The number of pupils of the school ranges from 30-35 for both levels of
courses. In the 2013 graduation ceremony there were four graduates from the lower
level and 8 graduates from the higher level of courses 19. Other than the hieratic
school, the Orthodox Church does not operate any training programs (other than occasional seminars) for its religious personnel, either clergymen or laypersons.
C. University Schools of Theology
At the state University of Cyprus, as well as at private Universities in Cyprus,
there is no School of divinity or theology. Those who wish to study theology at a
University level have resorted primarily to Greece, as well as to other countries,
where Orthodox theological academies enjoy the status of a University or a college.
It should be noted, however, that a newly founded University, the Neapolis University
of Paphos, has introduced from the academic year 2011-2012 an accredited Master
program in Theology which is taught in Greek. The specified aim of the program
is to provide education at a postgraduate level, primarily to graduates of schools of
theology or divinity, in order to enable them to improve the teaching of religion in
schools and to contribute to the spiritual mission of the church. The duration of the
program is two years; students study biblical studies, ecclesiastical history, Christian
education, religiosity, the spiritual and social work of the Church, Christian patristic
theology, systematic theology, canon law, byzantine archaeology and art, byzantine
music, liturgies and hymnology 20. The majority of the academic faculty are for the
time being retired Professors from the University of Athens and the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. The tuition fees for the academic year 2012-2013 amounted
to approximately 6.000 euro.
The program has officially been supported by the Orthodox Church 21, which further
provided a significant number of scholarships 22. It has been recently announced that part
of the program will be offered in the Arkalohori of Crete in collaboration with the Greek
Metropolis of Arkalohori, Castelli and Viannou; this is an effort to attract a greater num-
http://www.churchofcyprus.org.cy/article.php?articleID=3302.
http://www.nup.ac.cy/en-gb/postgraduate/masterintheologicalstudies/programme.aspx.
21
«Theological Studies in Cyprus» Fileleftheros newspaper, 9/7/2012, p. 22 (in Greek).
22
http://www.churchofcyprus.org.cy/article.php?articleID=2237.
19
20
179
ber of students from Greece 23. The Ministry of Education and Culture of the Republic
of Cyprus has recognised the program, following the same procedure as with any other
academic program offered by private universities in Cyprus, but does not intervene in
the preparation of the curriculum or selection of members of the faculty or students. The
elaboration of the curriculum, and selection of students and of members of the faculty
are issues to be decided by the private university which offers the program and not by
the State, in so far as such decisions are in accordance with the general provisions of
the legislation applicable to any other academic program.
D. Indirect Promotion of the Training of Religious Personnel by the State
Religious lessons given in primary and secondary schools follow the doctrine
of the Eastern Orthodox Church. In secondary education, the courses are given by
graduates of university schools of divinity, while in primary education they are given
by the class teacher. Attendance is compulsory for Orthodox pupils; atheists or members of other religions, however, may be excused 24. Teachers of theology in public
schools are appointed by the Government, and are members of the educational service
of the Republic. Thus, the Republic provides for all their salaries and pensions. A
person may become a teacher of religious education, called a teacher of theology, in
secondary education, only so long as s/he has graduated from a theological academy
of a Greek University, or from an equivalent Greek Orthodox theological school; this
indirectly promotes the training of religious personnel by the State, since graduates
from a school of theology may be employed in the educational service of the Republic
as teachers of theology in public schools.
In the case of Stavrou the applicant was a teacher of religious education in the
private school of the American Academy of Larnaca 25; the applicant was a Greek Orthodox Christian, holding a Bachelor in religious studies from the University of Lancaster. The Consulting Committee for Education had concluded that the applicant did
not possess the necessary legal requirements for being a teacher of theology. While
the recourse of the applicant was pending before the Supreme Court, the Ministry
of Education decided that graduates of non–Orthodox universities may also teach in
private schools, so long as they are Orthodox Christians and the teaching is in Greek.
What counts as service for a teacher of theology was examined in the case of
Ioannou 26. According to Regulation 3 § 1 (f) (i) of the Regulations of 1997 regarding
http://www.romfea.gr/oikoumeniko-patriarxeio/arxipiskopi-kritis/17597-2013-06-20-09-04-44.
A. Emilianides, «Religion in Public Education in Cyprus» in G. Robbers (ed), Religion in
Public Education (European Consortium for State and Church Research: Trier, 2011): 87-98.
25
Stavrou v. The Republic [1996] 3 CLR 2796 (in Greek).
26
Ioannou v. The Republic, App. 1131/2002, Decision of the Supreme Court of Cyprus of 12
May 2004 (in Greek).
23
24
180
Educational Officers (Determining Recognised Service for the Purpose of Appointment, Promotion and Remuneration), educational service also includes service in the
respective Offices of Religious Elucidation of the Archdiocese or the Metropolises,
«so long as it contains the element of guidance and teaching». The applicant had been
a teacher of theology in secondary education since 2002; however, from 1989 until
2000 he had been working in the Office of Religious Elucidation of the Metropolis of
Paphos. The applicant requested that the Educational Service Committee recognises
his prior service to the aforementioned Office of the Metropolis of Paphos.
The Education Service Committee decided that such a service was in general
of an administrative character; however, it considered that his service as teacher at
Sunday schools, which had been confirmed by the local ecclesiastical committees,
could be recognised as prior educational service. The Supreme Court held that the
decision of the Educational Service Committee was flawed; not only teaching at Sunday schools, but also guiding young couples with respect to their potential marriage,
delivering religious speeches, providing guidance to the youth in order to join the
church’s activities and solve their various problems, were all activities containing the
necessary element of guidance and teaching provided for in the Regulations of 1997.
Therefore, prior service for the purpose of the Regulations of 1997 is not restricted
to teaching theology.
E. The Islamic Religion
The Interim Committee of Turkish Affairs observed in its 1949 Report that the
Kemalic reforms and the principles of sections 82-145 of the Civil Code of Turkey
of 1926 ought to be adopted with respect to Turkish Cypriot Muslims. Sharia law
was thus largely substituted by secular principles in line with the Kemalic reforms
which had taken place in Turkey 27. It should be noted that Turkish Cypriots, like most
Turkish nationals, are in general followers of Sunni Islam and are predominantly in
favour of a secular state 28. Turkish Cypriot religious personnel were normally taught
Islamic theology in universities in Turkey, such as the Istanbul and Ankara Universities, or the famous El Azhar University in Cairo.
Article 87 of the Constitution provides for two communal chambers: a Greek
communal chamber and a Turkish communal chamber, which shall have legislative
power in educational, cultural, religious and other matters of purely communal nature;
the Turkish communal chamber would therefore, by virtue of the constitutional provisions, have power over the training of religious functionaries of the Islamic religion.
27
Cyprus Government Printing Office, Interim Report of the Committee on Turkish Affairs: An
Investigation into Matters Concerning and Affecting the Turkish Community in Cyprus, (Nicosia, 1949).
28
A. Emilianides, «Islamic Faith as a one of the Main Religions: The Case of Cyprus» in
Institute for State - Church Relations, Islam in Europe (Bratislava, 2005): 220-229.
181
The Vakf (or Evkaf) and the Mufti are the Muslim institutions that regulate religious
activity for Turkish Cypriots. The Evkaf was one of the cornerstones of the Turkish
Communal Chamber and is one of the largest landowners in Cyprus. The Mufti is
the spiritual head of the Turkish Cypriot Islamic community, but has lost his influence over matters such as law, marriage and education, due to the secularisation of
the Turkish Cypriot society. As a result of the abnormal situation pertaining since the
Turkish invasion of 1974 29, the religious institutions of the Turkish Cypriot Muslim
community of Cyprus operate only in the area not controlled by the Republic of Cyprus. Furthermore, the Turkish Communal Chamber may not operate because of the
relocation of the great majority of Turkish Cypriots to the north. This implies that the
main religious institutions of the Muslim community and the legislative framework
governing the Islamic community of Cyprus does not fully apply in practice with
respect to Muslims (either Turkish Cypriot, or not), who reside in the areas controlled
by the Republic of Cyprus.
III. New Policies Concerning the Training of Religious Staff
The right of religious minorities to set up and operate their own schools (including schools for the training of religious personnel) is safeguarded as an indispensable part of the constitutional right to religious freedom. It could be well argued
that there is a continuous effort to maintain the special characteristics of the various
religious communities with regard to education. In principle financial assistance is
provided to the three religious groups of the island (Armenians, Maronites and Roman
Catholics) 30; religions and creeds, other than the five major religions of the island,
may set up and operate their own schools if they so wish, but will not be financially
assisted by the State. In practice the training of religious personnel of minority religions normally takes place in other countries and not in Cyprus.
With respect to religious ministers hailing from foreign countries, it should be
noted that the Orthodox Church of Cyprus employs a number of religious personnel
who are not Cypriots and who have studied in an Orthodox school of theology. The
same is true with respect to the religious groups of the Republic who, however, employ a limited amount of employees due to their small size. Public authorities do not
29
A. Emilianides, Constitutional Law in Cyprus (Kluwer: Hague, 2013), Idem, Beyond the
Constitution of Cyprus (Sakkoulas: Thessaloniki, 2006, in Greek), K. Chrysostomides, The Republic
of Cyprus: A Study in International Law (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The Hague, 2000), D. Constantopoulos, The Turkish Invasion of Cyprus from the Aspect of International Law (Thessaloniki, 1978),
C. Tornaritis, The Turkish Invasion of Cyprus and Legal Problems Arising therefrom (Nicosia, 1975).
30
See Second Report submitted by Cyprus pursuant to article 25, paragraph 1 of the Framework
Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, 27 october 2006, para. 28ff. For the period before
1974 see C. Tornaritis, Promotion and Protection of Human Rights of National, Ethnic and Other
Religious Minorities in the Republic of Cyprus, (Nicosia, 1974): 7.
182
interfere in principle with the integration of religious staff of foreign origin, as they
recognise full religious autonomy to the religious communities concerned; the only
reason for public authorities to intervene would be a violation of the constitutional
right of non-discrimination.
The strict immigration laws set up by the Republic might, however, indirectly
hinder the efforts of religious staff of foreign origin to integrate successfully in the
Republic 31. The case of Levantis is of note. The applicant was a Greek national married to a Greek Cypriot, and resident in Cyprus. He impugned by means of recourse
before the Supreme Court of Cyprus, the decision, whereby his application for a permit to work as a Religious Officer of the Church of God of Prophecy, was rejected 32. It
was argued by the applicant that he is prevented to exercise and express his religious
duties as a Religious Officer of the Church of God of Prophecy in Cyprus, that there
is discrimination and unequal treatment against the applicant as a religious officer of
the said Church, that the freedom of worship is violated, as well as that the applicant
is compelled in a manner tantamount to the exercise of moral pressure to change his
religion.
The Supreme Court rejected the application and held that article 18 of the Constitution safeguards freedom of religion and not entitlement to work permit, a matter
which is regulated specially by the Laws of Cyprus. The applicant was free to profess
any religion he wished, while the refusal of a work permit did not prevent him from
attending his Church or otherwise manifesting his religion or belief. Thus, it was held
that there was no violation of article 18 of the Constitution. While it can be generally
accepted that granting work permits to aliens falls within the discretionary powers
of the State and that religious freedom does not entail a right to be granted a work
permit, it is suggested, on the other hand, that the aforementioned decision of the Supreme Court presents certain problems. The said alien was a resident of Cyprus who
had married a Cypriot and who intended to work as a religious minister of a Church;
rejecting his application for a work permit should not be arbitrary so as to cause concerns that is was due to his religious beliefs and to the fact that he wanted to work as
a religious officer of the particular Church. There seemed to be no justification why
the application for a work permit was rejected in the case of Levantis and this raises
serious concerns of religious discrimination.
A. Emilianides, «Immigration and Religion in Cyprus», in A. Motilla (ed.), Immigration.
National and Regional Laws and Freedom of Religion, Peeters, Leuven, 2012; pp. 27-34.
32
Levantis v. The Republic [1988] 3 CLR 2483.
31
PERSONNEL IN EUROPE. REPORT CZECH REPUBLIC
Jiří Rajmund Tretera and Záboj Horák
I. T he History of the Mode of Training of Religious Staff in the
18th/19th Century and in the 20th Century until the Great Change
in 1989
The historical background of the legal regulation of training religious staff in
Czech lands does not end with the close of the 19th century. The real turning point in
this legal history is the revolutionary year of 1989.
The earlier position may be divided into three periods with remarkable differences:
1. The first is the period when Czech lands together with Austrian lands constituted one State (the western «Austrian» part of the later Austria-Hungarian
Monarchy) ruled by common «Cis-Leithanian» law (from unification of the
Bohemian and Austrian Court Chambers in 1749 until the fall of the Monarchy
in 1918).
2.The second period is when Czech lands were part of the newly-constituted
Republic of Czechoslovakia, a State of a classical democratic type close to
west-European democracies (1918–1948). This period was interrupted only
during the time of Nazi occupation (1939–1945).
3.The third period is that of the Communist dictatorship over Czechoslovakia
(1948–1989).
A. The Hapsburg Monarchy until 1918
After the defeat of the Czech Estates Revolution in the Battle of White Mountain
(1620), the Protestant churches in Czech lands were outlawed, Christian inhabitants
were re-Catholicised, and only the Jewish minority was tolerated.
The Czech kingdom was originally connected to Austrian lands only by a personal union represented in the ruling dynasty. Their real unification was implemented
184
Jiří Rajmund Tretera / Záboj Horák
by the acceptance of the so-called Pragmatic Sanction by the relevant assemblies in
1713. This incorporation of Czech lands in the Hapsburg monarchy lasted until 1918,
the year of upheaval and renewal of Czech independence in the framework of the
new Czechoslovak state.
1. Seminaries
At the time of re-Catholicisation some new Catholic dioceses and diocesan
seminaries were founded by the Church in: Litoměřice (1655), Hradec Králové
(1664), Brno (1777) and České Budějovice (1785). Catholic clergy were trained at
either diocesan seminaries or colleges of religious orders. Study at the archdiocesan
seminary in Prague and the diocesan (later archdiocesan) seminary in Olomouc was
combined with study at the theological faculties of public universities in these towns.
2. Theological Faculties
The theological faculty in Prague was a part of Charles University founded by
King Charles IV’s royal charter from 7th April 1348. King Ferdinand III published the
Unification Decree on 23rd February 1654, which united the Jesuit College in Prague
(Clementinum) founded about 1556, with the Charles University (Carolinum) under
the common name Charles-Ferdinand University. The University was declared to be
a so-called ‘landlord’s institution’, i.e. a State university.
The theological faculty in Olomouc was originally part of the Jesuit University
founded in 1570, later a separate theological faculty under the sovereignty of the
‘landlord’.
3. Reforms of Both Seminaries and Theological Faculties
In 1752 the influence of the Jesuit order over the administration of the theological
faculties ended. Maria Therese published a new curriculum for all faculties within the
territory of her hereditary lands (formulated by her collaborator Gerhard van Swieten,
a representative of the Enlightenment). Each faculty was led by a study director who
was independent on the faculty and subordinate only to the Monarch. After the global
cessation of the Jesuits in 1773 further changes were made. Theological studies were
organized afresh according to a reform proposed by the abbot of Prague-Břevnov
Benedictine monastery, František Rautenstrauch, a devoted adherent of Enlightenment
absolutism, on 3 October 1773. The new system of clergy education was no longer
focused on speculative methods of thinking, but on pastoral practice and obedience
to the Monarchy.
Emperor Joseph II (1780–1790) abolished diocesan seminaries and those of
orders and replaced them with General Seminaries led by State; these were located
only in the chief cities, usually the university towns. Their aim was to educate clergy
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel on Europe …
185
in the utilitarian spirit of the Enlightenment. General Seminaries operated only in
the years 1783–1790. They were abolished after the death of Joseph II, and diocesan
seminaries were renewed.
4. Jewish and Protestant Training of Religious Staff
Throughout the 18th century, the only minority religious communities permitted
in the Czech lands were Jewish communities, their rabbis trained in jeshivas.
The Letter of Tolerance (1781) enabled renewal of the Protestant churches in
the Czech and Austrian lands. Pastors for the Czech parish congregations of the Helvetic Confession were called from Hungary, and pastors for those of the Augsburg
Confession from modern-day Slovakia. They graduated mainly from the Sáros-Patak
Helvetic College, or at the Budapest Protestant Academy. Some Czech students graduated there later, too. The public Evangelical Theological Faculty for all Austrian and
Czech lands was founded in Vienna in 1821. The Faculty was not incorporated into
the University. The Czech students of Protestant theology preferred studying abroad,
especially in Switzerland (Basel), Germany (Heidelberg), and Scotland (Aberdeen).
However, they were obliged to stay one «obligatory» semester at the Vienna Evangelical Theological Faculty, to complete inter alia the course on Austrian State law
applicable to churches. This state of affairs lasted until 1918.
5. The Modernisation of the School System after 1848
As for the training of Catholic clergy, no substantial changes were made in the
period 1790–1848. This period could be characterised as an absolutist and nonconstitutional period.
After the March revolution of 1848 in Vienna, the modern legal order was developed on the basis of constitutional and other legal norms. In 1849 a complex of
school reforms was initiated by Minister of Education Count Leo Thun. The status
of universities was regulated by legal norms and they acquired greater independence
from the Crown. Even the relation between seminaries and theological faculties
was set by legal norms from the 1850s. Paradoxically, thanks to the liberalization of
society and implementation of principles of legality, the influence of bishops on the
administration of theological faculties increased. According to imperial decree No.
152/1850, professors of Catholic theology had to obtain permission from the bishop
to teach theology.
6. Cooperation of State and Church under the Hapsburg Monarchy: Overview
During the time that Czech lands were under the Hapsburg monarchy, the influence of the State in the training of clergy was high. Also, the cooperation of State
and university authorities with bishops was maintained. Private universities were not
186
founded. Neither public theological faculties nor Church seminaries were suppressed
at that time (with exception of during the very short rule of Joseph II).
7. The Double Formation of Catholic Clergy under the Hapsburgs
A system of double formation – in the faculties or in the seminaries – operated in
the Czech lands. Both faculties and seminaries prepared senior clergy as well as parish
clergy. The main difference between them lay in the exclusive right of theological faculties to confer academic degrees (licentiates and doctorates). Therefore, the faculties
of theology were regarded as more scientific. The bishops usually sent seminarians,
who had proved their ability after some years of seminary study, for further studies
at the theological faculty. These students then attended the archdiocesan seminary
for spiritual formation and returned to serve as ministers in their home diocese. The
State authorities did not oppose this practice.
B. Democratic Czechoslovakia 1918–1939 and 1945–1948
The separation of Church and State, as originally suggested, was not implemented
either by the Constitution of Czechoslovakia 1920 or by subsequent legislation. The
former excessive entanglement of Church and State was dissolved (e.g. Catholic
bishops were no longer nominated by the head of State). But there were no substantial
changes in the training of religious staff. It went on in the public theological faculties, and in the diocesan seminaries as well as those of the religious orders. No one
was suppressed.
In April 1919 the Evangelical Theological Faculty in Prague was founded
by Act of the Czechoslovak Parliament as a public school to train staff of the
Protestant churches. Some churches founded their own private seminaries (e.g.
Jews, Methodists and Baptists). The newly-founded Czechoslovak Church tried
to operate its own high-level theological school (1932), but after two years it
ceased because of financial difficulties. In 1935, a department was founded for
this Church at the Evangelical Theological Faculty, in agreement with the leadership of the Czechoslovak Church, the Evangelical Theological Faculty and the
Ministry of Education.
On 17th November 1939, during the Nazi occupation of Bohemia and Moravia,
all Czech universities were closed, including the Catholic theological faculties (at
Prague and Olomouc) and the Evangelical Theological Faculty (Prague). The training
of religious staff went on at seminaries of several religions. A ban on teaching was
imposed on former professors of the theological faculties, which concerned teaching
at seminaries, other school facilities, public and private. Professors, who disobeyed
the ban, were persecuted. This lasted until liberation in May 1945. The German
Catholic theological faculty in Prague was suppressed in 1945, in connection with a
transfer of the German minority.
187
In 1945 democracy was renewed in the liberated Czechoslovakia on the basis of
the doctrine of the continuity of the legal order in force until 30th September 1938.
This state of affairs lasted until the communist upheaval in February 1948. At that
time, the number of students at the theological faculties, as well as at the seminaries,
was higher than ever before.
C. The Communist Dictatorship 1948–1989
The ultimate aim of the communist regime was the entire liquidation of all
religious communities. But the Communist Party and State authorities decided to
proceed step by step. In 1950 all seminaries, Catholic and Protestant, were abolished, in the whole territory of Czechoslovakia. The Catholic theological faculty
in Olomouc was also abolished. The training of religious staff in Czech lands was
provided at only three State theological faculties, outside the universities. The first
one was the Catholic faculty in Prague, later (1953) relocated to the north Bohemian town of Litoměřice. The faculty was united with an inter-diocesan seminary
for all Catholic dioceses in the Czech lands. The second one was for all Protestant
churches, and the third one for the Czechoslovak Church, which later changed its
name to the Czechoslovak Hussite Church (1971). The nomination of professors
and admission of students was to be decided by the State administration – i.e. the
political offices of the communist party. The admission of students was limited
by the numerus clausus. A similar situation was introduced for the Slovak part of
Czechoslovakia and this lasted beyond the federalisation of Czechoslovakia to 1st
January 1969.
During the last years of the Czechoslovak communist regime theological training was organised underground (the so-called «flat seminars») in both parts of the
federal Czechoslovak State by means of clandestine measures taken by the Catholic
Church. Their graduates were ordained by publicly recognized bishops abroad or by
clandestine bishops at home.
The principles of the current situation for the training of religious staff were
set up afresh after the Czechoslovak democratic «velvet» revolution in NovemberDecember 1989. Only some of these principles had their roots in the historical tradition developed prior to 1948. Some of these new principles are at odds with rules
applied under the communist regime 1948–1989 which were evidently in conflict with
freedom of religion. Many of the new principles are accepted thanks to international
agreements and foreign models.
The process of democratisation in the whole Czech and Slovak Federal Republic
(1990–1992) continued after the dissolution of the federal State and the founding of
the independent Czech Republic and Slovak Republic (1st January 1993).
188
The Czech legislator looks for and finds new solutions in the conditions of a
democratic State based on principles of State neutrality in relation to religion. The
constitutional provisions of the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms 1 confirm that the State may not be bound either to an exclusive ideology or to a particular
religious faith (Art. 2 Section 1). It also recognises the autonomy of religious communities. The neutrality of the State in religious affairs does not exclude State support
for scientific and pedagogic activities as to theological studies at public schools. State
neutrality in ideological and religious affairs does mean ‘value neutrality’. The State
is prepared to support all sciences including theology as well as the educational efforts
of the inhabitants in this field. Support for theological studies helps in the formation
of religious staff and brings positive benefits to those inhabitants who are members of
religious communities and to others who benefit from the social, health and cultural
activities of religious communities.
The Czech Republic is a secular State open to cooperation with religious communities. Religious communities can train their religious staff either at their own schools,
or at public schools, or at both of these. They have absolute freedom of choice.
A. Theological Faculties in Public and Private Universities and other Theological Schools and Facilities
1. Public Universities
Three theological faculties, existing at the time of upheaval, were incorporated in
the Charles University in Prague by Act of the Parliament No. 163/1990, on Theological Faculties, in May 1990. They were incorporated according to the wishes of all of
the religious communities concerned. They use the names: The Catholic Theological
Faculty of the Charles University, The Evangelical Theological Faculty of the Charles
University and The Hussite Theological Faculty of the Charles University.
The Catholic Theological Faculty moved back from Litoměřice to Prague. The
Evangelical and Hussite faculties were incorporated in the public university for the
first time in modern history.
The Catholic Faculty of Theology in Olomouc was re-established by the same
Act and incorporated in the Palacký University in Olomouc. It is called the Cyril and
Methodius Theological Faculty of the Palacký University in Olomouc.
In 1991 several regional public universities were founded. One - the University of
South Bohemia - was completed by the newly-established theological faculty. It is the
fifth faculty of theology in the Czech Republic, the third faculty of Catholic theology.
It was published as a part of the Czech constitutional system under No. 2/1993, Czech Collection of Laws.
1
189
There were 3,300 students at Catholic public theological faculties 2, and more than
1,000 at the Evangelical and Hussite public theological faculties in the academic year
2011/2012. Candidates for ministry represent a minority of students as between all
five theological faculties. All Czech theological faculties have features of considerable
de-clericalisation. Most of the students (among whom are many women) prepare to
become teachers of religious education at public schools or Church (parish) catechists,
parish or diocesan pastoral assistants, social and charity workers both in the religious
or the secular sphere, free-time educators, employees in secular cultural centres, etc.
A new specialised department for the history of Christian art was established at the
Catholic Theological Faculty of the Charles University, Prague. There is also an Institute for Judaism, a Department for Orthodoxy, and provision for Old-Catholic Theology at the Hussite Theological Faculty of the Charles University, Prague, and The
Ecumenical Institute at the Evangelical Theological Faculty of the Charles University.
Theological faculties bestow such publicly recognized academic titles as: Bachelor, Master in undergraduate studies, Licentiate of Theology, and Doctor of Theology
in post-graduate studies.
1. Private Universities
The Act on Universities No. 111/1998 makes enables the establishment of private
universities, among them the private universities of religious communities. No religious community, registered in the Republic, has applied for this until today. The only
private university of such a type is The International Baptist Theological Seminary in
Prague, which was founded by the European Baptist Federation and opened in 1997.
2. Seminaries
Not all former diocesan seminaries and those of the religious orders, as well as
seminaries of other religious communities, have been re-established. This is the case
despite new legal regulation from 1990 enabling religious communities to found
Church schools and this facility is used as much as ever before the war 3. Two existing archdiocesan seminaries in Prague and Olomouc are for the spiritual formation
2
Česká biskupská konference (ed.), Katolická církev v České republice, [Czech Bishops’ Conference, ed., Catholic Church in the Czech Republic], Karmelitánské nakladatelství, Kostelní Vydří,
2013, p. 72.
3
About 130 church schools and 30 school facilities were founded after 1990 in the Czech Republic. There are kindergardens, basic schools, grammar schools, industrial schools, health schools, social
and juridical schools, academies of music and higher schools of different types. See J.R. Tretera, Z.
Horák, Religion in Public Education in the Czech Republic, in G. Robbers (ed.), Religion in Public
Education, Proceedings of the Conference of the European Consortium for Church and State Research,
Trier, 2011, pp. 100-104.
190
of students of theology, i.e. candidates for the Catholic priesthood and students of the
Catholic theological faculties in Prague and Olomouc.
3. Theological Higher Schools
What is quite new are thirteen Church higher schools, founded by religious communities, providing theological and other special education. These schools admit
students who have passed the school leaving examination at grammar schools. Thus,
they have a character close to that of universities but their students do not obtain academic degrees but only the title DiS (Specialist with Diploma). These schools prepare
students for the teaching of religion, for social work, for pastoral assistance and jobs
in journalism. Examples include the: Hussite Institute of Theological Studies, founded
by the Czechoslovak Hussite Church to prepare deacons, pastoral assistants and other
auxiliary members of the Church staff; Jabok, Church Higher Social and Pedagogical
and Theological School, founded by the Salesian Congregation for a wide range of
social and pedagogic activities with different Church and charity bodies.
4. Departments of Religious Education and Social Work at the Non-Theological
Faculties of Public Universities
Four Czech universities 4 have founded departments at their faculties offering
study programs of religious education and social work. The graduates prepare above
all for work as teachers of religion and for secular social work.
Moreover, some other Czech universities, even technical universities, offer
courses of basic knowledge in theology. The aim is not to train religious staff but to
widen the students’ intellectual horizons.
Overview of types of theological schools in the Czech Republic
Public theological faculties
catholic
other religions
3
2
Private theological seminaries
Church higher schools
1
6
Departments of religious education and
social work at non-theological faculties
of public universities
4
without religious affiliation
In Hradec Králové, Liberec, Ostrava and Brno.
7
4
191
B. Training of Ministers of Religion in Public Universities
1. Juridical Status and Financing
The main legal instrument regulating theological faculties is Act No. 111/1998,
on Universities. Theological faculties have the same position as other faculties of
public universities. They are financed the same way; the main source is a yearly contribution from the State budget for educational and scientific activities.
The universities and faculties have their internal rules (the statutes, study rules,
disciplinary rules, etc.). But theological faculties are different from other faculties of
the university concerning the procedure to approve the internal faculty rules. After
their approval in the faculty senate and before transmission to the university senate for
final confirmation, they must be sent to the relevant Church authority for endorsement.
This is only if such is required by the internal provisions of the Church concerned 5.
In case of Catholic theological faculties, the statutes are sent to Congregation for
Catholic Education in Rome.
2. Nomination of Teaching Body
In the statutes of Catholic theological faculties there are provisions concerning missio canonica or venia docendi, which are conferred upon the professors in
selected subjects by the Great Chancellors of those faculties (Archbishop of Prague,
Archbishop of Olomouc, and Bishop of České Budějovice).
Professors of the Evangelical Theological Faculty of the Charles University in
Prague are traditionally members of different denominations, Protestant and others.
There is no quota for any particular religious community. Scientific and pedagogic
ability play the most important part in this process.
A multi-denominational body of professors is typical for the Hussite Theological
Faculty of the Charles University, Prague. Most of the theologians and other teachers are from the Czechoslovak Hussite Church, Federation of Jewish Communities,
Orthodox and Old-Catholic Church; but some are Protestants or Catholics. Even some
teachers at Catholic theological faculties are not Catholics.
3. Elaboration of the Curricula
The curricula of all faculties are prepared by those faculties, i.e. by professors.
The Ministry of Education decides on their accreditation. The religious communities influence the curricula through their own professors. Each faculty has its own
curriculum. Even curricula of Catholic theological faculties differ one from another.
5
Act No. 111/1998, on Universities, Art. 33, Section 2.
192
Personalities of professors, as well as the official documents of religious communities, play a role in the preparation of particular curricula.
4. Selection of Students
Students of public faculties of theology and Church higher schools are selected on
ability. Their religious adherence is not taken into account and nobody make enquiries
about this. Students of theology may legally belong to different confessions and they
do so in practice, or they can be non-denominational. The same applies to students of
religious education and social work at non-theological faculties of public universities.
5. Studies Abroad
Students of Catholic theological faculties in the Czech Republic can study
abroad, or continue their home studies abroad, in the subjects of theology, canon
law and philosophy. They study mainly at the John Paul II Catholic University of
Lublin (Poland) or the Pontifical universities in Rome (candidates for the priesthood
or priests are formed at the College Nepomucenum in Rome). Students of theology
of other religious communities can study abroad, or continue home studies abroad.
C. The Value of Qualifications and Degrees Conferred by the Faculties of Theology of Private Universities
There is only one private university with a faculty of theology in the Czech Republic: the International Baptist Theological Seminary, Prague. Its study programs,
accredited according to Act No. 111/1998, on Universities, by the Czech Ministry of
Education, have automatic recognition in the Czech Republic.
D. The Creation of Faculties of Theology for Newly Emerging Religions
There are 36 registered religious communities and several not yet registered in
the Czech Republic. The rules for their registration are found in Act No. 3/2002, on
Churches and Religious Societies. Most are Christian. Each denomination has an
opportunity to found their own schools to train their staff. But such staff may study
at existing theological faculties, which is what they do in practice. The Evangelical
Theological Faculty of Charles University in Prague in particular is known for the
wide denominational diversity of its students.
Several non-Christian and non-Jewish denominations in the Czech Republic were
registered during the last few years. These include Hindus, Hare Krishna, Buddhists
and the Centre of Muslim Communities. None of these religious communities has
more than 10.000 members; they are not widespread as yet. Each of these denominations has the right to found their schools and educate their staff. There is no practical
reason to establish theological faculties for them. The reason for the relatively small
193
number of Muslims in the Czech Republic is the low level of immigration from
Muslim countries. Most foreign workers in the Czech Republic come from Vietnam
and the Ukraine. They are particularly active in filling vacancies in the job market.
As mentioned above, the study of theology is relatively well organised in the
Czech Republic today; and it may take many possible forms. All religious communities with a substantial organisation use the current legal possibilities. Therefore,
they do not require any new forms of training for their religious staff. Nor do State
authorities instigate changes or reform.
Many small Protestant Churches, Revivalists, and Pentecostals, have extended
their activities and have established new parishes and spiritual centres over last twenty
years. They operate their own schools, or use the public theological faculties, or send
their candidates for religious ministry to study abroad.
A. Using Polish Priests in Czech Spiritual Administration
The only numerically large group of religious staff from abroad are Polish priests.
They come at the request of the Czech Bishops’ Conference to help in Catholic parish administration, above all as parish priests, because of a lack of Czech priests.
Czech bishops enter agreements with their Polish counterparts on lending particular
priests incardinated in Polish dioceses, usually for a term of five years. The time can
be extended. Some Polish religious priests come at the request of the superiors in the
Czech orders to help with the renewal or creation of monasteries.
State authorities issue permits to these priests, allowing a temporary stay in the
Czech Republic. There are no issues with the theological training of these. They are
usually graduates from Polish universities and seminaries. They study the Czech language, usually, at the start of their work. This raises no problems because the Czech
language is very much like Polish.
Nowadays Polish priests represent more than 5 percent of Catholic clergy in the
Czech Republic and are spread around the archdioceses and dioceses. They often
avail themselves of theological study in postgraduate programs at Czech theological
faculties. Several Polish priests teach as professors at Czech theological faculties or
Church higher schools.
B. Using Members of Staff of Religious Communities from Some Other Countries
There is an active Catholic minority among Vietnamese immigrants in the Czech
Republic (perhaps it is the only group of Vietnamese in the Czech Republic which
actively profess a religion). Representatives of the Catholic Church in the Czech
194
Republic provide spiritual care for them. Because Vietnam is a socialist country, it is
quite impossible to receive any priest from there. Some Vietnamese pastoral assistants
came from Germany; others are trained in the Czech theological schools.
C. Hindus and Buddhists
Two Hindu and two Buddhist denominations registered in the Czech Republic
consist many of Czech members, admirers of Oriental cultures. They are led by the
gurus and other superiors usually from abroad, who are in the teaching relation to all
believers. They do not require any other studies at the moment.
D. Muslims
The position of the Centre of Muslims and four Muslim local communities is
similar to the positions of Hindus and Buddhists. The only difference is that most
Muslims are immigrants (above all from Afghanistan, Iraq and Syria). Actual participation at Friday worship does not exceed 1,000 people. The estimated number of all
Muslims in the Czech Republic is approximately 10,000 people (including children).
Relations among different groups of Muslim are – in spite of the efforts of both Czech
and foreign leadership – rather confused.
There exist no conventions or agreements between public authorities and institutes or faculties of theology created by the Muslim community or the institutions
representing the administration of religious affairs of a foreign country.
E. Training of Religious Staff of Foreign Origin
Religious communities are free to invite foreigners as religious staff. But there
is no need to invite them. The only exception is the need for Catholic priests from
Poland.
The new religions and denominations are usually introduced by native Czechs,
educated abroad. The number of foreign immigrants to the Czech Republic, adherents
of new religions and denominations, is low.
These are the reasons why Czech public authorities do not put in place special
training for religious staff of foreign origin to enable integration in the host country.
STAFF IN LITHUANIA
I. Historical review of the mode of training of religious staff in
Lithuania
A. Christian religious communities in Lithuania
Examining the historical interactions between church and state educational efforts in Lithuania, the first significant event occurred when the government invited the
Jesuits to educate clergy in the late 16th century. The counter-Reformation movement
in Lithuania led to increasing educational efforts amongst Christian churches. Due
to their late Christianization (1387, 1413), Lithuanians, the so-called «last pagans of
Europe», kept their tradition of religious tolerance and avoided violence during the
Reformation period. That was enhanced by Polish-Lithuanian legislators, when the
Warsaw Confederation, in 1573, adopted the law on religious tolerance and formally
abolished discrimination on religious grounds. It is interesting to note that although
Protestants had gained the majority among Lithuanian senators, having Roman
Catholic kings during the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 1 kept the country moving
towards Catholicism. Regarding religious tolerance during the Republic of the Two
Nations, historical evidence suggests that only nobles, and not their subjects, could
practise religious freedom 2. The rule cuius regio, eius religio was no longer valid even
in the private estates of the nobles of Lithuania after the mid-17th century. Then, the
Roman Catholic Church came to represent loyalty to the King and gained dominant
positions within the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
In 1569, the first group of six Jesuits arrived in Vilnius and founded a college
based on the model of the Collège de Sorbonne in Paris. Historical sources tell us that
«Polish-Lithuanian Union», or «Republic of the Two Nations», in the period since 1569 to 1791.
L. Jovaisa. The Age of Church Reforms // Christianity in Lithuania, Vilnius, Aidai, 2002.
1
2
196
the Jesuits came from various lands (i.e., Spain, Poland, Portugal and Scotland) and
soon started «pastoral activities hitherto unseen on such a scale» 3.
In 1579, by means of privilege granted by the King of the Polish Lithuanian
Commonwealth, Stephen Bathory, and by means of Papal bull, the College of Vilnius was elevated in status and became the Alma Academia Et Universitas Vilnensis
Societatis Iesu 4; the intention was to reserve the reformation, to integrate Orthodox
with Roman Catholics and, in that way, to strengthen the monarchy and legitimacy
of the Commonwealth 5.
Most of the first professors in the newly founded Faculty of Theology at the Academia Et Universitas Vilnensis came from the Collegium Romanum. They represented
«Spanish theology» and based their lectures on the works of St. Thomas Aquinas 6.
The Jesuits controlled Vilnius University until 1773, when the Commission on
Education took over their role. The Commission sought to institute the Polish-Lithuanian Enlightenment, developing educatio populi. At the beginning of the 19th century,
under tsarist Russian rule, Vilnius University still maintained the scientific and political ideas of the Enlightenment. Theology and related subjects where included in the
programme of moral and political sciences and did not accord with Canon law. The
Bishop of Vilnius could not control the teaching of Theology since professors were
appointed by the University Council.
The Chief Seminary of Vilnius was opened in Vilnius in 1803; the total number
of seminarians was 50, including 33 Roman Catholics and 17 Greek Catholics. Long
discussions were needed before a decision was made to open a Faculty of Theology,
subject to the Bishop of Vilnius. Yet it did not come to fruition, because Vilnius University was closed in 1832 as a consequence of the Polish-Lithuanian insurrection
against the tsarist regime. In 1834, a Roman Catholic Academy was opened in Vilnius.
Later, the tsarist administration took radical measures against the Greek Catholic
Church, its monasteries, and its schools. In the former territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth millions of believers were forced to join the Russian Orthodox
Church and thousands of priests had to renounce their affiliation to Rome 7.
Under Soviet occupation, Soviet officials did not allow the Greek Catholic
Church to function either. After 1946, its leaders were put under arrest and the remaining believers could not resist incorporation into the Russian Orthodox Church.
The Greek Catholic Church ceased to exist during the Soviet era.
Ibid., p. 73.
Vilniaus universiteto istorija 1579 - 1803. Vilnius, «Šviesa», 1976.
5
Stanisław Bednarski. Geneza Akademji Wilenskiej. Wilno : Druk Józefa Zawadzkiego, 1929, p. 12.
6
Vilniaus universiteto istorija 1579 - 1803. Vilnius, «Šviesa», 1976, p. 139.
7
D. Barnas, R. Cernius, L. Jovaisa, L. Paknys, E. Raila, A. Streikus, P. Subacius, Krikscionybes Lietuvoje istorija. Vilnius, Aidai, 2006, pp. 333-334.
3
4
Public authorities and the training of religious staff in Lithuania
197
After the restoration of the independent Republic of Lithuania in 1990, the Greek
Catholic Church emerged from underground. In present-day Lithuania, there are
around 900 Greek Catholic believers, served by three priests and one newly ordained
bishop.
There are two significant historical branches of the Protestant Church in Lithuania: the Lutheran Church and the Reformed Evangelical Church. The Lutheran
Church in Lithuania had its ups and downs for many centuries, until it was recognized
as a traditional religious community in the Republic of Lithuania after 1990 with its
38 active parishes. In 1992, in the State University of Klaipeda (former Memel), a
department of Theology introduced a study programme for the Evangelical Lutheran
priesthood. At present, Lutherans have 54 communities with 21 priests 8. Every
Lithuanian Lutheran community is self-contained. It has the right to elect (subject to
confirmation by the Lutheran Consistory) and fund its priests.
The Evangelical Reformed (Genevan) Church of Lithuania, together with Lutherans, fulfilled their mission in Lithuania to question and improve the understanding of
biblical truths, ecclesial life, the role of the clergy, pastoral ministry, etc. In particular,
the Protestant churches in Lithuania had a strong impact in fostering the Lithuanian
language, as well as advocating national Catholic Church reform 9. Since their «golden
period» between the 16th and 17th centuries in Lithuania, the number of congregations
has declined to 14 congregations and parishes in various regions of Lithuania today.
The Russian Orthodox Church has very old historical roots in Lithuania. It was
openly protected by the Russian tsarist administration and entered into complicated
relations with Catholics. In the period between World War I and World War II, the
Russian Orthodox Church in Lithuania had no seminary. They practiced the ordination of self-educated priests and applied to the Lithuanian government for permission
to establish a government spiritual school or at least courses to prepare prospective
priests. The Department of Education of the Republic of Lithuania issued permission
to introduce two-year long courses for that purpose, but did not provide any funds 10.
Until the start of World War II, only the older generation of Orthodox priests in Lithuania had received higher theological education. And they still had to resist Catholic
proselytism, especially among their younger members.
After its congress in Moscow in 1943, the Russian Orthodox Church received
exclusive rights to re-create its structure and to open its spiritual seminaries, etc.
G. Beresnevicius, D. Glodenis, A. Pazeraite, E. Racius, H. Kobeckaite, V. Aliulis,
V. Mockus, H. Lahayne, G. Potasenko, Religines bendruomenes. Mokslo ir enciklopediju leidybos
institutas, Vilnius, 2009. p. 179.
9
L. Jovaisa. The Age of Church Reforms // Christianity in Lithuania. Vilnius, Aidai, 2002.
10
R. Laukaityte. Staciatikiu baznycia Lietuvoje XX amžiuje. Lietuvos istorijos institutas,
Vilnius, 2003, p. 59.
8
198
The Orthodox spiritual seminary in Vilnius began functioning and accepted its first
20 seminarians in 1946. Later, after the death of Stalin, the Soviet administration
increased pressure on the Orthodox Church throughout the Soviet Union. The cutting
of state funding brought closure to many Russian Orthodox institutes. The process
was not so intense in Lithuania, where Soviet officials saw the Orthodox Church as
a counterbalance against the Catholic Church.
At present, Russian Orthodox clergy may acquire initial spiritual formation in
monasteries in Lithuania, but formal Russian Orthodox theological education is only
available abroad.
The branch of the Russian Orthodox Old Believers in Lithuania, historically, had
no priests. Instead, they chose spiritual fathers to serve the community. Men (and
sometimes women) were prepared through self-contained studies and through experience in church service. At present, some Lithuanian Old Believers clerics graduated
at Orthodox Old Believers’ schools of spiritual formation in Riga (Latvia) and St.
Petersburg (Russia).
B. Non-Christian religious communities in Lithuania
Jews settled in Lithuania during the 14th century and perhaps even earlier. They
contributed much to its culture, science, trade, and economic development. Before
the World War II Holocaust in Lithuania, the Lithuanian Jewish population was about
7% of the total population, and about 45% of the total population of Vilnius 11. The socalled «Litvaks» (meaning Lithuanian Jews) encompassed territories in present-day
Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, and also parts of Poland and Russia as a corroboration
of the former supra-national Lithuania or Litwa 12.
Since the 16th century, when famous rabbis and teachers of the Talmud arrived
from Poland, the Czech Republic, and Germany, Vilnius became a prominent center
of highly intellectual Torah and Talmudic studies. Among the most respected was
the famous Talmudist and Cabbalist Elijah ben Shlomo Zalman Kremer, Vilna Gaon
(1720-1797).
Before World War II, there were over 100 synagogues (houses of prayer) and 10
yeshivas (Judaic schools and spiritual centers) in Vilnius alone. Significant yeshivas
and synagogues were also operating in many other parts of Lithuania 13.
Yiddish «Vilne», Hebr. «Vilno», «Vilna».
Orig. «Lietuva», slavic «Litwa» ethymology contains the same root meaning of amalgam, or
liquids put together but not intermixed.
13
G. Beresnevicius, D. Glodenis, A. Pazeraite, E. Racius, H. Kobeckaite, V. Aliulis,
V. Mockus, H. Lahayne, G. Potasenko, Religines bendruomenes. Mokslo ir enciklopediju leidybos
institutas, Vilnius, 2009, pp. 60-65.
11
12
199
At present, there are several thousand Jews living in Lithuania, working to restore
their communal life. Their old traditions were broken and property confiscated. Just
after the restoration of the independent Lithuanian Republic in March 1990, the Head
of the Lithuanian Supreme Council, Vytautas Landsbergis, made an appeal to the
Lithuanian government and people, stimulating restoration of justice with regard to
the Lithuanian Jewish community, including respect for the memory of the Holocaust
victims and further development of Jewish institutes of culture, science, and religion
(Supreme Council of Lithuania, May 8, 1990).
Since the middle of the 15th century, a group of Muslim Tatars also settled in
Lithuania. Tatars have lived in close communities with their number never exceeding thirty thousand 14. Yet, they still live in present-day Lithuania and constitute a
cultural community of Lithuanian Sunni Muslims. Isolated from other Islamic groups
(in a long historical perspective), Lithuanian Muslims did not speak Arabic, but they
did read and memorize their sacred texts. The lack of knowledge of the Koran was
compensated for by authentic prayers, which often came close to Catholic prayers in
form and in some instances content. Lithuanian Muslims practised exclusive loyalty
to the State, and their men served in the army - dozens of them became generals or
even reached the next-highest position in the Lithuanian army in various historical
periods. In 1991, when a Soviet tank ran into acrowd of protesting and unarmed
Lithuanian people, a young lady, daughter of Lithuanian Tatar, was killed. It is important to emphasize this unique example in Lithuanian history where Muslims and
Christians have lived peacefully together for a period of 600 years – as have other
religious communities in Lithuania.
Historical sources suggest that there was no Mufti in Lithuanian mosques until
the 1930s 15. Tatar communities had elected councils of elders and prayer leaders.
For a long period, they resisted attempts to subordinate themselves to larger foreign
Mufti groups. At present, Lithuanian Muslims have Mufti on the basis of an arrangement with the support of the Turkish Embassy in Lithuania. The Lithuanian Tatar
community still keeps its ancient traditions and resists Muslim new-comers into its
communal religious life.
The last representative sociological survey (2001) revealed 3265 Tatars living
in Lithuania, 2860 Muslims (1679 Tatars among them), and up to 400 Lithuanians
converted to Islam in 2011 16.
The Karaite community settled in Lithuania as early as the end of the 14th century.
For centuries, they preserved their autonomy as a Karaite religious community with
Ibid., p. 74.
Ibid., p. 81
16
Ibid., p. 88.
14
15
200
their priests called hazzan, senior priests known as ullu hazan, and prayer houses
called kenesa.
The Soviets neglected the needs of the Karaite community and closed (nationalized) their kenesa in Vilnius. It was a typical example of Soviet bureaucracy against
religious communities: Soviet officials based their solution on the assertion that «there
were only 15 believers and no priests», when there were actually 200 believers with
their spiritual leader. Indeed, the Head of the Karaite religious community had been
forced by the Soviets to renounce his priesthood 17. The kenesa in Trakai (the ancient
capital of Lithuania) was the last and the only prayer house of Karaites in Europe
during the Soviet occupation. Since 1989, the kenesa of Vilnius was returned to the
Lithuanian Karaites. The number of Lithuanian Karaites continues to decrease: historical sources indicate around 380 families of Karaites arriving to settle in Lithuania
in 1397 by the permission of Duke Vytautas Magnus, and hundreds of Karaites were
registered in Lithuania in 1923. In 1959, there were 433 and in 2001, there were 273.
C. Training religious personnel in the Roman Catholic Church under Soviet
persecution
During the Soviet occupation, there were countless violations of the rights of
believers of all religions in Lithuania 18. One may discern several periods in Soviet
attitudes toward religion, yet the principal goal, under the Soviet Union, was the total
eradication of religion. Although the Constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics guaranteed freedom of religion, Soviet officials were expected to annihilate
religions gradually. As recent research suggests, the Soviets used deliberate tactics to
achieve this. They closed most of the convents, thus eliminating the historical spiritual
refuge and backbone of Christian communities. Then, the training of religious staff
was restricted severely and controlled by the state, along with a strict prohibition on
priests to teach children. Priests were actually treated as «servants of the cult» and
were required to stay within the limits of the traditional liturgy and common ecclesiastical services. In the context of general suppression, two major religious communities with their particular yet different modus vivendi survived under the Soviet
regime. The Russian Orthodox Church, after suffering inconceivable losses after the
Soviet Revolution in 1917, finally came to better meet the requirements of the Soviet officials. The Russian Orthodox Church also served as proof to the international
community that religious freedom and the observance of the basic human rights of
people did exist in the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the Roman Catholic Church became
a symbol of disloyalty to the Kremlin in the sense of opposing the Soviet regime, and
17
18
Ibid., p.101.
Chronicle of the Catholic Church in Lithuania. Issues 1 to 81, 1971-1989.
201
yet keeping its headquarters in the Vatican, i.e. outside the Soviet Union. It may not
be self-evident now but subordination to a non-Soviet head abroad was treated as a
serios anti-Soviet matter at that time. Consequently, the Catholic Church in the Soviet
Union became one of the leading anti-Soviet agents, with its periodical «Chronicle
of the Catholic Church in Lithuania» (CCCL, 1971-1989).
In soviet Lithuania, the implementation of strict separation of the church and state
was realized by closing all schools, faculties and institutes of religious formation, with
the exception of only one Catholic Theological College/Seminary in Kaunas. The annual number of the new students in the Kaunas Catholic Seminary was strictly limited
by state officials; the applicants had to attend meetings with the state security agents,
and some of them would have their applications rejected. Yet official reports kept
informing society that all applicants, wishing to join the Kaunas Catholic Seminary,
were admitted 19. As a result, the number of Catholic priests in Lithuania gradually
decreased though some determined men did join the Seminary.
The phenomenon of underground Catholic seminarians and secret ordination
to the priesthood also appeared in Lithuania. It was initiated by seminarians whose
applications to join the only Kaunas Catholic Seminary had been rejected annually
(for a period of 10 and even more years), to include those who were removed from
the Seminary by the direct pressure of soviet officials. Most of them were very conscious of their religious vocation, or they were close to «extremist» priests (in soviet
terms), and/or they refused to sign contracts of collaboration with KGB agents. The
leaders of the Catholic Church in Lithuania faced a reducing number of clergy and
were willing to ordain more new priests. There was a period of attempts to educate
groups of seminarians secretly, but later individual teaching and formation occurred
to avoid the risk of discovery of the underground seminary by Soviet officials.
The clandestine formation of priests reached its peak after the appointment of a
«secret Cardinal» in Lithuania by Pope John Paul II in 1979.
Quite interesting details were revealed in CCCL about various Soviet officials
regularly coming to read lectures and attend discussions with the seminarians of the
Kaunas Catholic Seminary in order to form them as loyal Soviet priests, and prevent
them from effective pastoral ministry (i.e. anti-Soviet action). For instance, the Minister of Education of the Lithuanian Socialist Republic himself attempted to convince
seminarians that Christos in Greek and Hebrew was an appellative word, and, therefore, there is no evidence that Jesus Christ could exist as a historical person 20. Then,
other high Soviet officials kept coming to the Seminary and «educating» seminarians
in the final courses with explicit demands to «stay away from politics,» not join any
Chronicle of the Catholic Church in Lithuania. Volume 10, Issue 76. Kingsport Press, Kingsport, Tennessee, USA, 1992. p. 46.
20
Ibid., p. 48.
19
202
fighting for the rights of believers, avoid meetings with children and young people,
and only participate by «satisfying the religious needs» of believers 21.
During the Soviet period, other Christian denominations - the Greek Uniates,
Lutherans, and Reformed churches - were brought to near-extinction in Lithuania,
as well as in other areas of the Soviet empire. Clergy of some Evangelical churches
and new Christian groups, Baptists and the Seventh-day Adventist Church members,
experienced the most pressure exerted by Soviet officials, namely: the State Deputy of
Religious Affairs, court prosecutors, militia or KGB agents, various clerks of the State
Ministry of Science and Education, heads of local agencies, teachers, members of
the Communist Party of the USSR, etc. A multitude of precedents of the Soviet state
clerks interacting with religious staff members and ordinary religious people were
collected and published in issues of the Chronicle of the Catholic Church in Lithuania,
1971-1989. The Chronicle did not limit itself to Catholic issues as it kept reporting
on actions against other religious communities as well. Thus, the Catholic Chronicle
took responsibility for, and a real risk to represent, the struggle of all believers for
their rights to practise religion. By summarizing the scope of the Chronicle of the
Catholic Church in Lithuania, it is important to note that not only its publishers were
hunted by Soviet security agents, but also most of the informants were investigated
by Soviet officials to check the facts, to disclose the organisation of the publishers of
the CCCL, and possibly to destroy it.
In 1984, a Catholic priest, Rokas Puzonas, published the details of the KGB attempt to recruit him. He publicly appealed to the Head of the Security Committee of
the Soviet Republic of Lithuania with his request and demand in four articles:
1. To revoke his promise of collaboration with the state security, signed in 1977,
because it was achieved by means of moral violence;
2. To stop violence and the bull-dozing of young men seeking the priesthood;
3. To allow Lithuanian bishops and the heads of the Seminary to decide on the
suitability of candidates to the priesthood, without interference by the State
Deputy of religious affairs;
4. To give bishops freedom to appoint or to move a particular priest to any parish
under their jurisdiction 22.
At present, the Roman Catholic Church in Lithuania operates four Spiritual
Seminaries in various towns. A university degree in Catholic studies is also available
at the Faculty of Catholic Theology at Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas. There
are two more State universities with courses in Catholic theology within the study
programmes for teachers of Catholicism in public schools.
Ibid., p.49-51.
R. Puzonas. Pogrindzio kunigu seminarija. Kataliku Akademija Vilnius, 2002, p. 195. (free
translation).
21
22
203
Facing the decreasing number of new spiritual vocations over the last decade,
four Catholic spiritual seminaries have become a significant financial burden for the
Catholic Church in Lithuania, yet every one of them represents a precious tradition.
II. The modes of formation of religious personnel: current law and
new policies
The Law on Education of the Republic of Lithuania recognizes the right to religious education on the basis of free choice within the context of compulsory moral
education: «Religion shall be an optional part of moral education. Moral education
shall be a part of primary, basic and secondary education. Upon the request of parents
(or guardians), the subject of religion may be included in the pre-school education
of their children. Non-formal religious education and informal education in religion
may be carried out» 23.
Education at the college and university level is regulated by the national Law
on Science and Studies, which does not mention religion at all. Instead, the national
Law on Science and Studies recognizes the autonomy of the higher schools (colleges,
universities) and allows their subordination to the government department of Science
and Education and other related government institutions. It is important to note, that
Art. 2 of the Law on Science and Studies of the Republic of Lithuania makes an
exception for both the Military Academy of Lithuania and for theological colleges
(literally: seminaries for the priesthood) 24. Article 2.2. of the national Law on Science
and Studies reads that the current law is applicable to the theological colleges to the
extent that it does not contradict the provisions of the Agreement between the Holy
See and the Republic of Lithuania on Co-operation in Education and Culture (The
Concordat between Vatican and the Republic of Lithuania). Its Article 5 reads: «The
Catholic Church may organise courses and engage in spiritual-religious education
in universities and other establishments of higher education in agreement with the
administration of these institutions» 25. Article 10 states: «The Contracting Parties
shall mutually recognise diplomas and academic qualifications in education at the
University level (10.1.)»; and: «the competent authority of the Church may establish
diocesan and inter-diocesan seminaries for the spiritual and intellectual preparation of
candidates for the priesthood. Diplomas of higher education granted by the seminaries
Artic. 31, Law on Education, Republic of Lithuania, Vilnius (As last amended on 17 March 2011
– No XI-1281) http://www3.lrs.lt/pls/inter3/dokpaieska.showdoc_e?p_id=399271&p_query=&p_tr2=2.
24
Artic. 2, Law on Science and Studies, Republic of Lithuania, Vilnius, 2009 http://www3.lrs.
lt/pls/inter3/dokpaieska.showdoc_l?p_id=424020.
25
Artic. 5. Agreement between the Holy See and the Republic of Lithuania on Co-operation in
Education and Culture. http://www.lcn.lt/b_dokumentai/kiti_dokumentai/AS-LR-sutartis-svietimas.html.
23
204
shall be recognised in the Republic of Lithuania, provided that the level of studies
meets the qualification requirements set for higher education (11.1.)» 26.
Analogous agreements between the Republic of Lithuania and other religious
communities and associations do not exist.
Lithuanian universities, colleges and institutes of science and research use their
academic autonomy to provide courses, research projects and study programmes,
grounding them on the needs of the students, the peculiarity of the region, and strategic vision.
The current situation regarding theological education for clergy in Lithuania
consists of four Catholic seminaries, one Faculty of Catholic Theology in a state
university (Vytautas Magnus, Kaunas), a department of historical research of the
Protestant churches in the state University of Klaipeda, and studies of Lithuanian
cultural groups/cultural minorities in the state university of Vilnius (including studies of Orthodox Old Believers, Yiddish and Judaist, Karaites, Tatars, Roma people),
along with several centres of Asian studies (Arabic, Indian, Japanese studies, Confucian institutes), all of which seem to satisfy current spiritual needs of the Lithuanian
society. From these, only four confessional Catholic seminaries prepare religious
personnel in a strict sense.
III. Conclusions
Any person wishing to become a minister of any religious group in Lithuania is
free to attend studies in a foreign country. In general, more and more students from
Lithuania attend universities abroad while British universities seem to be among the
most desirable. Altogether, a tendency of pragmatic choice becomes more noticeable
with an evident decrease of spiritual vocations if compared with the last decade of the
20th century in Lithuania. A general decrease in the choice of humanities could also
be a related characteristic of educational patterns in modern Lithuanians.
In present-day Lithuania, the State distances itself from the formation of religious staff of any religion - thus realizing the constitutional principle of separation of
church and state. National government departments work together and assign funds
to preserve architectural monuments and masterpieces of art, belonging to religious
communities and recognized by laws as a part of national cultural heritage. There is
collaboration between religious institutes and governmental structures in the field of
social care and security. Also, governmental institutes of justice and equal opportunities, along with non-governmental institutes monitor the development of traditional
and new religious groups in the country - but no evidence of interference in the formation of religious personnel has been uncovered in recent decades.
26
Ibid., Artic. 12,11.
OF RELIGIOUS PERSONNEL IN SLOVENIA
Blaž Ivanc * 1
I. Introduction
This paper first presents the historical aspects of various modes of training of religious staff that are typical of the public authorities that ruled over the whole Slovene
territory or over its respective parts (nowadays a constituent part of the Republic of
Slovenia) during the period between the 18th century and the late 19th century. The
second part of the discussion deals with various current legal acts, principles and rules
that are operative in relation to various modes of formation of religious staff. Finally,
the discussion turns to Slovenia’s policies that concern the training of religious staff
in the future.
In the past three centuries, before the proclamation of the independent state in
June 1991, Slovenes have lived under numerous State Regimes: the Federative Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia, the State of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, the Kingdom of
Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Austrian Empire, the Habsburg Monarchy, the French Republic, the Kingdom
of Italy and also the triple occupation by Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Hungary.
Various public authorities, including all three totalitarian regimes of the 20th century,
have had different perceptions of State-Church relations and consequently different
attitudes towards the training of religious staff. Despite this colourful complex of public authorities, this discussion concentrates on the training of religious staff as organized mainly by the Catholic Church. The main reason for this is found in the course
of historical events and the dominant position of the Catholic Church – this was the
only religious organization which provided for the higher education of religious staff
in this period on the Slovene territory. Another important reason is that other large
* Blaž Ivanc, PhD in Law, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Health Sciences – University of Ljubljana (Zdravstvena fakulteta – Univerza v Ljubljani).
1
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Blaž Ivanc
churches or religious communities, whose adherents mainly immigrated to Slovenia
from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Kosovo etc., still educate their religious staff
abroad (e.g. the Muslim Community, the Serbian Orthodox Church). No significant
data are publicly available about the education of religious staff belonging to smaller
religious communities.
II. History of the mode of training of religious staff in the 18th/19th
century
The beginnings of theological studies in Slovenia during the Middle Ages may
be traced to the monastic theological schools of various religious orders. The activities of Slovene Protestants in the field of education (translation and publication of
religious books, establishment of schools, etc.) were reduced in the period of the
anti-protestant reformation which took place at the time of the Habsburg Monarchy.
Following the Council of Trent and its legislation on the study of theology, in 1759
at Gornjigrad, the Catholic bishop Janez Tavčar established a seminary that provided
higher theological study for prospective priests. Already, in 1619, the Jesuits College
in Ljubljana offered lectures in casuistry (moral theology) as part of studia superiora,
but the College did not have the power to confer academic titles. The religious orders
of Cistercians, Franciscans, Conventual Franciscans, Carthusians and Capuchins
established their own theological schools. Because the Jesuit order was dissolved in
1773, theological studies which took place in the Jesuit College were transferred to
the seminary. In 1710 a diocesan seminary school was set up in Koper.
In the period of Josephinism (1783-1791) the monastic and diocesan theological
schools were closed and schooling of prospective clergy was only possible in the
general seminary in Graz. In 1791 the Lyceum (Archiducale Lyceum Labacense)
Ljubljana was established; it had three study courses, including theology, and the
right to confer academic titles. The religious orders were once again free to establish
their own theological schools.
The situation changed once again with the establishment of the Illyrian Provinces
after the French occupied the Slovene territory (1809-1813). The French authorities
established the Central school (École Central) by transforming the Lyceum in Ljubljana. The rector and the chancellor of the Central school were theologians and the
school had the power to confer all academic degrees. In November 1811 the Central
school was renamed as an Academy, a community of faculties, including the Faculty
of Theology. Thus, the Central school, or later on the Academy, could be considered
as being a full university.
Austrian authority over Slovene territory was re-established in 1814 and theological studies returned to the Lyceum in Ljubljana. The term «Faculty of Theology» was
replaced by the term «Theological College Seminary». After the Lyceum ended its
activities in 1848, the higher study of theology moved to the Ljubljana Diocesan
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Slovenia
207
Seminary – Collegium Carolinum. In 1846, the Ordinary of Ljubljana, Bishop Anton
Alojzij Wolf, established a secondary school seminary, the Collegium Aloysianum,
for around 80 pupils who intended to become priests. Only some monastic schools of
theology began to operate after the year 1850. The Lavantine Bishop Anton Martin
Slomšek transferred the episcopal see from Št. Andraž to Maribor in 1859 and at the
same time established the Lavantine Seminary College in Maribor to ensure theological education for prospective priests (Dolinar, 2007). The Lavantine Seminary College
later on became the Higher Theological College in Maribor (1940).
The Faculty of Theology was one of the first five faculties of the University of
Ljubljana which was established in 1919. The establishment of the University of
Ljubljana had a decisive influence on the educational, cultural, artistic, political and
national development of the Slovene nation. Because of the German occupation, the
Higher Theological College in Maribor ceased activities in 1941 but resumed under
the administration of the Faculty of Theology in Ljubljana in 1968 (being basically a
dislocated department). After the end of the Second World War monastic schools of
theology discontinued their work.
For 16 years (from 1928 until 1944) the Salesian Religious Congregation operated a Higher Theological School in Rakovnik near Ljubljana as a private higher
school. The students came from Slovenia, Croatia and Czechoslovakia.
In October 1949 the communist authorities ousted the Faculty of Theology from
the University of Ljubljana by the enactment of the Higher School Settlement Bill
(1949). However, the faculty remained part of the public educational community
with a public status until 1952 when it lost the status of a public higher educational
institution. The diploma of the faculty also lost its public validity, and the State
funding of the faculty was abolished. Thus, the Catholic Church in Slovenia (like the
Catholic Church in Croatia for the Faculty of Theology in Zagreb) decided that the
bishop ordinary would be responsible, acting as the chancellor of the faculty, for the
functioning of the faculty. A separate Church Faculty fund was established which provided for private funding of the faculty. Later on, the State provided for the funding
of the Faculty of Theology but at a high price: the Religious Commission, appointed
by the State, exercised strict control over the faculty, including the power to veto the
appointment of teachers (Ambrožič, 2010).
III. The modes of formation of religious staff: current law
The democratic Constitution (December 1991) provides for freedom of education in Article 57 and guarantees the autonomy of universities and higher schools
(Article 58). In May 1991 the National Assembly adopted significant changes to the
1976 Act on the Legal Status of Religious Communities in the Socialist Republic of
Slovenia. The first democratically-elected Slovene Parliament got rid of the statutory
provision that separated religious communities not only from schools but also from
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other educational and social care institutions (Article 3). Thus, a statutory prohibition imposed on all religious organizations to perform activities of general benefit
(e.g. social care, health care, education) was lifted. Consequently, Article 10 of the
bill, which conditionally allowed only the establishment of religious schools for the
education of priests, and imposed strict control over them, was annulled. The schoolleaving certificates and diplomas of Church educational institutions were given public
validity. Finally, the State ex tunc acknowledged the public validity of school-leaving
certificates/diplomas issued by the Religious secondary school in Vipava, by the
Religious secondary school in Želimlje and by the Faculty of Theology in Ljubljana.
The Catholic Faculty of Theology regained its legal status as a public educational
institution in May 1991 and was reintegrated into the University of Ljubljana on 18th
November 1992. As a member of a public university, the Faculty of Theology enjoys
autonomy (guaranteed by the Constitution). It is open to students of all denominations and world views. The Faculty of Theology is financed only in the framework
of the University of Ljubljana’s budget. The Archbishop of Ljubljana holds the position of a great Chancellor of the faculty and the Catholic Church has influence on the
nomination of teachers.
The Catholic Church in Slovenia established the Catholic Institute in September
2008. The Catholic Institute is a founder of the Faculty of Business Studies which
– as a private law entity with full autonomy – started educational activities in the
academic year 2010/11. The Catholic Institute’s intention to establish a private
Catholic university was communicated to the general public and forms a part of
its basic mission. Other churches and religious communities have not established
their own higher school institutions and have not yet publicly communicated an
intention to do so.
The Religious Freedom Act acknowledges the role of Churches and religious
communities as institutions of general benefit when they perform important functions
in public life, e. g. the operation of educational activities (Articles 3 and 5). The law
enables the State to provide material support for the operations of registered Churches
and religious communities if they perform activities that contribute to general benefit
(Art. 29 of the RFA).
The Agreement between the Republic of Slovenia and the Holy See on Legal
Issues (signed in 2011 and in force since 2004) provides that in accordance with the
legislation of the Republic of Slovenia and canon law, the Catholic Church is entitled to establish and manage schools of all types and levels, secondary schools and
university students’ halls of residence, and other educational institutions (Paragraph
1 Article 10). Both parties agreed that the State shall support these institutions under
equal conditions as other private institutions of the same kind (Paragraph 2 Article
10). The status of church secondary schools and university students and pupils at
these institutions is equal to that of secondary schools and university students and
pupils of public institutions (Paragraph 3 Article 10). Special State-Church agree-
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Slovenia
209
ments were concluded with the Evangelical Church in the Republic of Slovenia,
with the Pentecostal Church in the Republic of Slovenia, with the Serbian Orthodox
Church, with the Islamic Community in the Republic of Slovenia and with the Buddhist Congregation Dharmaling (Čepar, 2008). These agreements explicitly provide
for freedom to establish educational institutions and have basically the same content
as the provision in Article 10 of the Agreement between the Republic of Slovenia and
the Holy See on Legal Issues.
IV. New policies concerning the training of religious staff
After the democratic Republic of Slovenia was established in 1991, the National
Assembly and Government did not produce a political document that would comprehensively elaborate new policies related to churches and religious communities.
This also applies to State policies on training religious staff. In practice, the training
of religious staff is closely linked with Church’s suitable premises that enable the
courses for religious staff to take place.
The right-wing Government in 2008 decided to co-finance the erection of a parish
pastoral centre for the Serbian Orthodox Church in Slovenia with a sum of 500.000
EUR. The left-wing Governments in 2009-2011 and in 2013 were not in favour
of financial aid to the Muslim Community of Slovenia for the erection of the first
Mosque in Slovenia and of the Muslim cultural centre that would provide space for
religious teaching. One may say that the situation in Slovenia somehow reveals weak
points considering the integration of immigrant populations and the implementation
of religious plurality.
V. Final remarks
Having analysed the historical aspects of various modes of training of religious
staff, the current state of law that applies to the formation of religious staff, and the
future policies that concern the training of religious staff, we might offer the following final remarks:
1.Historically, training religious staff in Slovenia was perceived by the various
public authorities governing the Slovene territory as one of the most important
activities with repercussions for Church–State relations. A strong totalitarian
interference into the organizational, financial, personal, legal and practical
aspects of the training of religious staff was a particular characteristic of the
Communist period.
2.The Religious Freedom Act acknowledges the role of Churches and religious
communities as institutions of general benefit when they perform important
functions in public life, e. g. the operation of educational activities (Art. 5).
The law enables the State to provide material support for the operations of
registered Churches and religious communities. The Agreement between the
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State and the Holy See and other special State-Church agreements explicitly
provide for freedom of establishing educational institutions.
3.Slovenia did not produce comprehensive policies that would determine the
attitude or the role of the State in relation to the training of religious staff.
Thus, we are able to determine that a period of totalitarian interference of public
authorities in Slovenia in the training of religious staff (1945-1991) was succeeded
by a democratic period in which the Faculty of Theology was reintegrated into the
University of Ljubljana and the freedom of Churches and religious communities to
establish educational institutions (with a possibility of public funding) was legally
recognised. However, in the light of the principle of cooperation, the Republic of
Slovenia might prepare policies that would include concrete financial, organizational
and other positive measures which would stimulate religious plurality, general equality, and the integration of migrants, and contribute to the general benefit of all the
inhabitants of Slovenia.
VI. Literature
A mbrožič , M. (Ed.): Teološki študij na Slovenskem. Vloga teoloških izobraževalnih
ustanov v slovenski zgodovini pri oblikovanju
visokošolskega izobraževalnega sistema. Acta
Ecclesiastica Sloveniae 32, Teološka fakulteta
Univerze v Ljubljani, Ljubljana 2010.
Čepar, D. (ed.), The State and Religion in Slovenia, Office of the Government of the Republic
of Slovenia for Religious Communities, Ljubljana 2008.
Dolinar, F. M.: Slovenski škofje, Družina d. o. o.,
Ljubljana, 2007.
Gabrič, A.: Katolištvo, socializem in netolerantnosti, Šolska kronika – Revija za zgodovino
šolstva in vzgoje, Slovenski šolski muzej,
Letnik 17 – XLI, Leto 2008 – številka 2, p.
229-245.
Ivanc, B.: A values dilemma in Slovenian public
school law: missed balancing of negative and
positive aspect of religious freedom in public
schools in: Secularism and Beyond: International Conference, May 29th to June 1st 2007.
Københaven: Københavns Universitet, 2007.
http://www.ku.dk/satsning/Religion/sekularism_and_beyond/pdf/Paper_Ivanc.pdf
— «Concordatos entre la República de Eslovenia
y la Santa Sede : de un modelo negativo a
otro positivo de separación entre el Estado
y la Iglesia». Rev. gen. derecho canón. derecho ecles. estado, 2009, no. 21, 36 str. http://
www.iustel.com/v2/revistas/detalle_revista.
asp?id_noticia=408365&d=1.
O koliš , S.: Zgodovina šolstva na Slovenskem,
Slovenski šolski muzej, Ljubljana 2009.
Šturm, L.: Church-State Relations and the Legal
Status of Religious Communities in Slovenia,
Brigham Young University Law Review, Number 2, Volume 2004, p. 638-640.
OF RELIGIOUS PERSONNEL. SWEDEN
Lars Friedner
I. History of the Mode of Training of Religious Staff in the 18th/19th
Century
From the year 1527, and in the centuries which followed, Sweden had a Lutheran state church 1. No other religion was accepted. However, from the 18th century,
foreigners of other religious affiliations were allowed to practice their religions in
Sweden. This started with those of the Anglican and Reformed traditions and then
Roman-Catholics and Jews 2. But it was not until 1860 that Swedish citizens could
leave the state church to become members of another Christian church or religious
community - though opting-out of the Lutheran church was only accepted if the
other church (or religious community) was recognized by the State 3. From this time
Christian minority churches also started to grow, i.e. Baptists, Reformed, and later
Pentecostal.
Thus, the Swedish history of training religious staff during the 18th and 19th centuries is mostly the history of the Lutheran state church. But in the late 19th century,
some training within the Christian minority churches also began, but this paper does
not deal with these.
The history of the training of religious staff in the Lutheran state church (Church
of Sweden) is that of the formation of priests. It was relatively late on that deacons
formed part of the church staff 4.
Göransson, Svensk kyrkorätt – en översikt, Stockholm 1993 p. 26 f.; whether the decision
of the Parliament in 1527 actually created a state church is a matter of debate; in any event, the effect
was such.
2
Ib. p. 38
3
Ib. p. 39
4
The formal integration of deacons in the staff of the Church of Sweden was completed first in
2000: see Church of Sweden Church Ordinance 32:1 (CsSkr 1999:3 p. 2-219ff.). In practice, the educa1
212
Lars Friedner
Until 1831 the education of Lutheran priests was a matter for the upper secondary schools of those towns in which a bishop’s see was located 5. From then and on
their education took place at the theological faculties of the universities, of which
there were two in Sweden at the time, Uppsala and Lund, both run by the State. As
the Lutheran church was the state church, both state universities sought to educate
priests for that church. At that time, no one would have regarded this as inappropriate,
either from the State’s or from the Church’s point of view. There were at that time no
private universities or private theological faculties in Sweden.
The history of the state-run theology faculties goes back to the foundation of the
two Swedish universities of that time, Uppsala and Lund. The university in Uppsala
and its theology faculty was founded in 1477 6, and the university in Lund (and its
theology faculty) in 1668 7.
The training of pastors for the emergent Christian minority churches was divided
between the churches and religious communities which acknowledged the need for
academic studies for their pastors and those which saw such studies only as an unnecessary theoretical matter incidental to the proclamation of the «word of God».
In the latter group the Pentecostal Movement was prominent 8, and in the former the
Baptist Community had started to educate its pastors in 1866 9.
When the current law on the training of religious staff is compared to what was
described above, one should bear in mind the changes in Swedish society which occurred during the 20th century. One big change in this regard is the new state-church
relations from the year 2000, which has meant that Sweden no longer has a state
tion of deacons had already started, as a private initiative but connected to the Church of Sweden, in
1849, followed by other initiatives in the later 19th century and early 20th: see Bäckström&al, För att
tjäna – en studie av diakoniuppfattningar hos kyrkliga befattningshavare, Svenska kyrkans utredningar
1994:1, Uppsala 1994, p. 12. See what follows for the education of deacons.
5
Bexell, Prästutbildning, prästtjänster och prästerlig befordran i äldre tid – en kyrkorättslig
översikt, Strängnäs stifts herdaminne, vol. 4, Strängnäs 1995 p. 16; Bäckström, Präst år 2000 – en
studie av svensk prästutbildning inför 1990-talet, Uppsala universitet, pedagogiskt utvecklingsarbete,
rapport no. 86, Uppsala 1987 p. 6 f. During some decades of the 17th century, the university in Lund
was responsible for the education of Lutheran priests in the newly conquered, former Danish southern
provinces. This system was abolished in 1695. See, Olsson&al (ed.), Theologicum i Lund – undervisning och forskning i tusen år, Malmö 2001, p. 21. Also, there was education at the universities for those
priests who taught the new priests, see Askmark, Samlingar och studier till Svenska kyrkans historia
7. Svensk prästutbildnig fram till år 1700, Stockholm 1943, p. 140.
6
www.teol.uu.se.
7
Olsson&al, ib.
8
Betänkandet (SOU 2009:52) Staten och imamerna, p. 68.
9
Ib. p. 69.
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel Sweden
213
church. The Lutheran Church of Sweden is still a national church, but no longer a
part of the State. Another big change, which in part was one of the reasons for the
new state-church relations, is the contemporary religious landscape of Sweden. Due
to high levels of immigration, a lot of Swedes are today Roman-Catholic, Orthodox,
or Muslim. A third factor might be the overall increase in educational standards; this
has meant that today the former schools for the education of pastors have become
university colleges.
A key stage of development in the education and training of priests for the Church
of Sweden occurred in the 1970s. Until then, the education of priests was a matter for
the state universities. As already mentioned, it was no problem for the universities to
teach the Christian faith in its Lutheran form. But from 1973, Lutheran theological
education at the universities was replaced by non-confessional education in religion 10.
Nevertheless, the practical training of Lutheran priests took place in the last semester
of education at university. But from 1980, the Church of Sweden assumed responsibility for this latter stage of training 11. This might be seen as one the first signs of the
new state-church relations: the Church of Sweden was still part of the State – thus,
the change from a state university education to a state-church education might not
have been too great.
Ever since the 1950s, religious freedom in Sweden has meant that anyone could
to opt out of the state church, without becoming a member of any other church or
religious community 12. This was mirrored in university education. The universities
– including their theology faculties – were only supposed to teach science and not
the beliefs of a specific church, although this change, as mentioned, came about stepby-step. Regardless of this supposition, there was no obstacle to theology faculties
educating the prospective Lutheran priests. As the practical element of priestly formation was a matter for the Church, the system remained even after the introduction of
new state-church relations in 2000.
Another change came in 2007, when Sweden adjusted its system of university
education to the EU Bologna-process. Since then, there has been no examination at a
Swedish university on priestly ministry in the Church of Sweden 13. The main reason
for this change was the new state-church relations and the State’s view that it must
10
Royal Writ September 26, 1969, quoted in Religionsvetenskaplig utbildning – betänkande avgivet av utredningen angående den religionsvetenskapliga utbildningens mål och organisation
(RUMO), Stockholm 1971, p. 7ff.; Royal Decree (1973:411) on Education at Theological Faculties (Sw.
Kungörelse om utbildning vid teologisk fakultet); a Royal Decree (1969:333) on Education at Theological Faculties, already stated that the education should rest on a scientific basis and seek critical training.
11
Bäckström, ib., p. 17.
12
Act (1951:680) on Freedom of Religion (Sw. religionsfrihetslagen).
13
Regulation (2007:638) on Amendment of the Regulation (1993:100) on Universities and
University Colleges (Sw. förordning om ändring av högskoleförordningen).
214
Lars Friedner
be neutral in religious and confessional matters. Students seeking to become priests
in the Church of Sweden now have to choose and study different university courses
that are accepted by the Church as the basis for practical priestly education.
A step in the opposite direction was taken quite recently when the universities
were invited by the State to find ways to co-operate with the future employers of
students. Several universities, in accordance with wishes of the Church, once again
started to arrange practical training for priests 14. This change was noted by the Swedish National Agency for Higher Education 15 but has not to-date led to a restoration
of the former system.
The education of deacons in the Church of Sweden followed a different path.
This started through initiatives which did not originate in the State. Their education
took place in separate institutions, theoretically linked to the Church but in practice
independent both from the Church and from the State. Initially, these institutions
provided for their entire education of deacons; indeed, to become a student at such an
institution it was normal that the candidate had undertaken prior training for example
as a nurse or social worker; and in those days deacons were mainly women 16.
Continuing what had already begun in the 19th century, during the 20th century
the Christian minority churches (and religious communities) set up their own systems
for the education of pastors. Some of their institutions eventually acquired the status
of private university colleges. As a result, the delivery of courses at these colleges
came to be broader than what was needed for the education of pastors 17. (As a matter
of fact, the Swedish National Agency for Higher Education in its 2008 report did not
scrutinize these university colleges).
A special arrangement applied to the Swedish Evangelical Mission 18, an Evangelical movement within the Church of Sweden. Since 1990, pastors of the Swedish
Evangelical Mission have been regarded as priests of the Church 19. In the 20th century,
the school for the education of pastors of the Mission became a private university
college, as did similar institutions in several other churches and religious communi-
A probable reason for the new interest from the universities in the practical training of priests
is the fact that the universities – as mentioned later – receive funds from the State in proportion to their
numbers of students.
15
Sw. Högskoleverket; Rapport 2008:41 R Granskning av utbildningarna inom religionsvetenskap och teologi p. 21.
16
i.e. www.erstadiakoni.se, www.brackediakoni.se, www.varsta.se; Melin, Från diakonissanstalt
till diakonigård – Vårstaperspektiv med särskild utgångspunkt från åren 1976-2006, Studier och uppsatser IX, Härnösands stiftshistoriska sällskap, Härnösand 1994.
17
www.ths.se, www.orebromissionsskola.se.
18
Sw. Evangeliska Fosterlandsstiftelsen, EFS.
19
CsSkr 1990:4, KEu 1990:3, kskr 1990:14.
14
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel Sweden
215
ties. Today the school not only educates pastors for the Mission but also priests for
appointment to ordinary positions in the Church 20.
During the 20th century, the Roman Catholic Church, Orthodox Churches, Jewish congregations and Muslim communities did not make provision in Sweden for
the training of their religious staff. All the prospective priests of these churches, as
well as rabbis and imams, were educated and trained abroad. In Sweden, there is no
academic education which caters for atheist groups.
Though historically there were only two theology faculties (at the universities in
Uppsala and Lund), today religion or theology may be studied at 17 universities or
university colleges in Sweden. Most are state institutions, but (as mentioned above)
some are private. These private institutions are mostly financed by the State, but they
normally receive private donations as well. All universities and university colleges
are under the supervision of state authorities, although the universities (and university colleges) have quite a high degree of freedom to create their curriculum for the
students. Provisions on examinations are in the hands of the state authorities.
The state-run universities and university colleges are free of influence from religious groups, although - of course – the teachers may have a religious affiliation.
As mentioned above, some private university colleges are owned by churches or
other religious communities (or have some kind of connection to a specific church).
Even among church-owned university colleges there is, at least in theory, no special
selection of students; but students affiliated to that church might be more interested
to study there than other students. The main impression is that there is quite strong
competition between the minor universities (and university colleges) in Sweden to
attract students, as financial state support is determined mainly on the basis of student
numbers.
A new factor with regard to theological education in Sweden is the foundation of
a private university college in Uppsala, run by the Roman-Catholic Jesuit Order. The
college was founded in 2010, and the state authorities the same year granted it the
right to hold examinations in theology 21. It does not seem to have been said expressly,
but the inception of the college may well be a first step towards Swedish education for
Roman-Catholic priests. The state decisions in this matter do not obviously contradict
the trend outlined earlier, i.e. that the state tries to maintain a distinction between state
and religion - but these developments point in the other direction 22.
www.johannelund.nu .
www.newman.se.
22
There is, as well, an organization in Sweden for Orthodox education, although not on an
academic level, see www.sanktignatios.org.
20
21
216
Lars Friedner
A state report on the education of imams in Sweden appeared in 2009 23. It concluded that no state initiatives should be taken to establish a Swedish system for the
education of imams. The reason was that such a decision would not correspond to
either the confessional neutrality of the State or the autonomy of the religious communities. A practical point of view was that there was no consensus among the different Muslim communities in Sweden regarding the appropriate modeling for such a
system 24. Since this report was published, the State has taken no initiatives regarding
the matter. Now and then, there is an initiative from other actors for a system of education for imams, but still no comprehensive education for them has been organized 25.
However, Jewish academic education has recently been introduced in Sweden. It
does not seem, though, that the object of this is the education of rabbis for the Jewish
communities 26.
The Church of Sweden is about to re-arrange its training of priests and deacons,
mainly for economic reasons. The training will be centralized in one single organization, although courses will be held in different parts of the country 27. This means
that the Church’s economic support for the Swedish Evangelical Mission’s university
college is at stake.
It is not easy to draw an over-arching picture of the education of religious staff
in Sweden. On the one hand, the step-by-step nature of the evolution of university
education in theology suggests a movement gone from the education of Lutheran
priests into a more common education in religion. On the other hand, the universities
today are more engaged in the practical education of clergy than they have been for
several decades – and also, the State authorities have recently acknowledged a new
private Roman Catholic-run university college.
Betänkandet (SOU 2009:52) Staten och imamerna.
Ib., p. 109.
25
Uppsala University has in 2012 started an education for a Bachelor of Divinity exam, targeting
at Islamic theology, although it is expressively mentioned that the education does not aim at the training
of imams. See Signum 3/2013 p. 24 ff.; see also www.zidni.se, where The Swedish Institute for Islamic
and Arabic Studies offers education regarding the Koran.
26
Paideia – The European Institute for Jewish Studies in Sweden, see www.paideia-eu.org.
27
See KsSkr 2013:1 p. 19.
23
24
THE TRAINING OF MINISTERS OF RELIGION
IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
Norman Doe
What follows provides, briefly: an overview of the historical development of
departments of theology and/or religious studies at public universities in the UK and
the development of theological colleges and seminaries in the Christian tradition during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; contemporary denominational institutions
for the training of ministers of religion, most from within Christianity, but some from
within the Jewish and Islamic traditions, including the training of persons for religious
ministry from overseas and for ministry overseas; and training in church and State
law in Christian theological colleges 1.
I. Historical Overview: Ancient Universities and Modern Theological Colleges
The medieval universities of Oxford and Cambridge were essentially religious
foundations, each with its own faculty of theology 2. The University of Oxford today
has a Faculty of Theology and Religion - the Divinity School is one of the oldest
buildings in the university (1423) - and the University of Cambridge has its own
ancient Faculty of Divinity. The same applied in Scotland to the universities of St
Andrews (1410), Glasgow (1451) and Aberdeen (1495); at St Andrews, St Mary’s
College, home to Divinity teaching in the university, was founded in 1539; Edinburgh
I am grateful to Emma Cuerden, a student at Cardiff Law School, for research assistance with
this paper, and to Frank Cranmer, at the Centre for Law and Religion Cardiff Law School for invaluable comments.
2
For religion and higher education in the UK, see F. Cranmer, «La presence religieuse dans
l’enseignement supérieur au Royaume-Uni», in Actes de manifestations scientifiques du Centre Societé,
Droit et Religion en Europe (Strasbourg, 2010).
1
218
Norman Doe
University with its own theology faculty was founded in 1583. Attendance at these
university faculties was the usual route to ordained clerical ministry.
Following the Reformation in the sixteenth century (and after it as a result of the
Act of Uniformity 1662) until the nineteenth century, in England there were religious
tests for admission to Oxford and Cambridge universities which meant that only
members of the Church of England were eligible to study in them (and their theology faculties). Those who did not belong or conform to the Church of England either
studied in Scotland, or abroad (such as Protestant students at Utrecht or Catholic
seminarians at the English College Rome, founded 1579), or they attended the socalled «Dissenting Academies» run by the Non-Conformists; for instance, from 1690
the «Presbyterian Fund Board» provided scholarships for ministry training at these,
and from 1743 the Coward Trust funded the Daventry Academy within the Congregational tradition. The Schism Act (1714 to 1718) resulted in closure of several. But
some of these academies survived. For example, what is now Homerton College in
the University of Cambridge began life as one of the dissenting academies 3.
However, the nineteenth century witnessed the establishment of secular higher
education institutions, such as University College, London – its foundation in 1826
was opposed by the Church of England and it was not until 1836 that it acquired the
right to award degrees; today it has an Institute of Jewish Studies (established in
1959). In response, King’s College London was set up as a Church of England establishment, and the University of Durham was founded in 1832 under the control of the
(Anglican) Dean and Chapter of Durham Cathedral. Religious tests were removed
with the enactment of the Universities Tests Act 1871. By way of contrast, Protestant
religious tests for holding office at the Scottish universities of St Andrews, Glasgow,
Aberdeen and Edinburgh were abolished in the early twentieth century 4.
At the start of the nineteenth century, one ambition of the bishops of the established Church of England was that all clergy should be university graduates. The
ambition did not come to fruition. Instead it was proposed that any non-graduates
prior to ordination should have sufficient education for effective ministry in new
theological colleges to be sponsored by the Church of England. Theological colleges
were set up, for example, at St. David’s College Lampeter, in Wales, established in
1822 by royal charter as a college for the training of Anglican clergy (to obviate the
need for travel to Oxford and Cambridge) – after Oxford and Cambridge this was the
first institution to be awarded degree-conferring powers in England and Wales (and
the first in Wales). The nineteenth century saw the foundation of a series of specialist
theological colleges for ordination training, most of which were linked to the local
See e.g. J.W.A. Smith, The Birth of Modern Education: The Contribution of the Dissenting
Academies 1660-1800, London, 1954.
4
Churches (Scotland) Act 1905 and Universities (Scotland) Act 1932, s. 5.
3
The training of minister of religion in the United Kingdom
219
cathedral: Chichester (1839), Wells (1840), Lichfield (1857), Salisbury and Exeter
(1861), Gloucester (1868), Lincoln (1874), and Ely (1876). In addition, St Aidan’s
College, Birkenhead (1847) and St John’s Hall, Highbury (1863) were established
as avowedly Evangelical colleges in reaction to what was seen as high church dominance within the «cathedral» colleges 5. This was followed by the establishment of the
high church foundation of Kelham at the end of the nineteenth century. A centralized
system of church examinations was introduced in the 1870s but the institutions were
very much free in terms of their internal governance 6. A similar trend may be discerned as to clergy training in the Scottish Episcopal Church 7. Likewise, in the Roman
Catholic Church prior to the restoration of the hierarchy in England around 1850 and
as a result of a rapid increase in the Catholic population, seminaries were founded
at St Edmund’s, Ware, Hertfordshire (1793), St Mary’s, Oscott, Birmingham (1794),
and St Cuthbert’s, Ushaw, Durham (which moved to Durham from Douai in1808,
affiliated to Durham University in 1968, but closed in 2011); for one historian, the
Catholic bishops in the period «advocated a training which isolated seminarians from
contemporary developments in secular education and which was marked by a deep
suspicion of the world» 8.
The twentieth century has seen an increase in higher education institutions
entitled to award degrees and many have grown out of church colleges for training
teachers. For instance, Canterbury Christ Church University College and the Universities of Chichester, Winchester and Gloucestershire all evolved from Church of
England teacher training colleges, and Liverpool Hope University is a joint initiative
of the Roman Catholic Church and Church of England 9. There is no general legal
rule against universities providing teaching in theology or religious studies. Most
of these institutions have their own department of theology and/or religious studies
– these are open to any qualified person including potential candidates for ministry
training. Moreover, teaching of theology in the universities is academic rather than
confessional, though a small number of professorial chairs (at Oxford and Durham)
are annexed to cathedral canonries and thus open technically only to members of the
Church of England. Generally, however, university teaching posts in theology are
open to those of all faiths and none, and degree programmes and courses or other
5
D. A, Dowland: Nineteenth-Century Anglican Theological Training: The Redbrick Challenge
(Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1997) 68.
6
Ibid.
7
G. White, The Scottish Episcopal Church: A New History, Ch. 14: <www.episcopalhistory.
org.uk>.
8
P. Doyle, «The education and training of Roman Catholic priests in nineteenth century England», 35 Journal of Ecclesiastical History (1984) 208.
9
M. Hill, R. Sandberg, and N. Doe, Religion and Law in the United Kingdom (Wolters
Kluwer, 2011) 180.
220
Norman Doe
schemes of study in theology and/or religious studies are regarded as academic disciplines like any other 10.
Universities are public institutions usually set up by royal charter and funded by
various public higher education funding bodies and councils. Generally, they subscribe to the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education the function of which
is to safeguard quality and standards in UK universities and colleges, so that students
have the best possible learning experience 11. As universities are public institutions
they also have the status of public authorities for the purposes of human rights legislation. As we shall see more fully in the next section, there are also several private
colleges which provide training for ministers of religion and many of these prepare
students for qualifications either awarded by or validated by a public university;
e.g. the Free Church College in Edinburgh awards successful students a Bachelor of
Theology degree which is taught within the college but validated by the University
of Glasgow. It is unlawful for an institution to discriminate on grounds of religion in
the provision of goods, facilities or services, the management of premises and in the
exercise of public functions 12. It is also unlawful for institutions of higher education
to discriminate on grounds of religion in its admissions policy or in the way it treats
students (which may include students preparing for ministry) once they are admitted to the institution, or to subject to harassment any student at the institution or any
person who has applied for admission to it. However, there are exceptions: where the
discrimination only concerns training for employment for which «being of a particular religion or belief is a genuine and determining occupational requirement» 13. As
such: «Colleges for the training of clergy which are associated with universities are
therefore entitled to restrict entry to persons of their own denominations – though a
secular university theology department would not be so entitled» 14. Higher education institutions have set up a central Equality Challenge Unit, funded jointly by the
institutions» representative bodies and the higher education funding bodies in the
UK which issues guidance on equality issues 15. University theology and/or religious
10
Ibid., 182; there are four chairs open to members of the Church of England, four at Oxford
and one at Durham, though the Oxford Chair in Ecclesiastical History (attached to a canonry at Christ
Church) has been held by a Roman Catholic – who duly took his turn as Canon in Residence at the Cathedral. In 2008, Durham University established the Bede Chair in Catholic Theology which is partly funded
by the university and partly by various Roman Catholic trusts. Its current occupant is a Roman Catholic.
11
The QAA is an independent body, a registered charity and a company : <www.qaa.ac.uk>
12
Equality Act 2006, Part 2.
13
Employment Equality (Religion or Belief) Regulations 2003, Regulation 20.
14
M. Hill, R. Sandberg, and N. Doe, Religion and Law in the United Kingdom (Wolters
Kluwer, 2011) 181
15
See <www.ecu.ac.uk/>; for guidance on religion and belief, see <www.ecu.ac.uk/subjects/
religion-and-belief>. Also, individual institutions have had to establish formal policies on religion as
part of their general codes of practice on equality and diversity.
221
studies departments may or may not be attended by students preparing for ministry
depending on what arrangements exist between the university in question and the
ministerial training institution to which that student belongs. It is to this we turn in
the next section.
II. Denominational Colleges to Train Ministers of Religion Today
The training of ministers of religion is regulated primarily by the norms of religious organisations and norms created by their own educational institutions; these
address the erection of such institutions, their governance, discipline within them
(including academic discipline on the admission of students, the course of study,
and exclusion of students), and their dissolution 16. Institutions to train ministers of
religion are also subject to civil law applicable to them directly or indirectly: for
example, the law of trusts (applicable to their trust property); employment law (applicable to staff who function under contracts of employment); and immigration law
(applicable to students and ministers of religion from overseas) 17. The following sets
out the provision of training of ministers of religion at specific institutions run by a
variety of different churches. A common theme which emerges is that these denominational institutions – theological colleges and seminaries – provide in-house training, enable ministry students to attend courses on the basis of agreements with local
or other public universities in their departments of theology and/or religious studies,
and enter agreements with public universities to prepare students for qualifications
either awarded or validated by a university. Whilst public universities subscribe to
the Quality Assurance Agency (see above), in England, theological colleges of the
Church of England, Methodist Church, Baptist Union of Great Britain, and United
Reformed Church have all subscribed to a separate regime of quality assurance (which
includes inspection, curriculum approval, and moderation) 18. The section treats each
tradition – Christian, Jewish and Islamic – seriatim.
Church of England: According to the canon law of the established Church of
England, candidates must be «called, tried, [and] examined» prior to ordination, and
the Ministry Division of the Archbishops» Council, and its Vocation, Recruitment
For Christian theological colleges and seminaries, see e.g. N. Doe, Christian Law: Contemporary Principles (Cambridge, 2013) 203-209.
17
For ministers of religion under UK immigration law, see D. McClean, «Immigration and
religion in the United Kingdom», in A. Motilla (ed), Immigration, National and Regional Laws and
Freedom of Religion (Peeters, Leuven, 2012) 247 at 251: Immigration Rules, Appendix A, pars. 85-92.
These educational institutions may also be subject to elements of higher education law (e.g. on quality
assurance).
18
Quality Assurance and Enhancement in Ministerial Education: Inspection, Curriculum Approval, and Moderation – Handbook 2010 (e.g. in the Church of England the House of Bishop oversees
inspection).
16
222
Norman Doe
and Selection Committee advises the Council and House of Bishops on ministry strategy 19. The candidate must: have been involved with the Anglican Church for some
time; consult his/her incumbent priest; contact his Diocesan Director of Ordinands
(DDO), and obtain approval; attend the Bishops» Advisory Panel and once approved
may commence training. Provision is made for Initial Ministerial Education (IME),
Continuing Ministerial Education (CME), funding for ministerial training, the validation of courses at Church of England theological colleges, their enjoyment of higher
education funding, and the evaluation of new training proposals 20.
The training delivered at Ridley Hall, Cambridge (founded 1881) is typical; the
college is not part of the University of Cambridge but students there training for
ministry may be awarded degrees of (and designed by) Cambridge University as
well as qualifications validated by other public universities (such as Anglia Ruskin
University) 21. Students under 32 who do not already have a Theology degree must
complete one of the following three year courses offered by the University of Cambridge: Bachelor of Arts (BA) in Christian Theology, «a full vocational degree in
Christian Theology which leads to ordination»; Bachelor of Theology, «a vocational
degree for Christian ministry leading to ordination» combining «theological and
practical study»; or Bachelor of Arts in Theological and Religious Studies combined
with a Certificate in Theology for Ministry (CTM): this two-year BA is «appropriate
for [those] who want a more academic focus» and the one-year CTM «covers the
ordination requirements for a theology graduate». Those aged over 32, or those with
a significant amount of theological study already, must complete one of the following two year courses (unless permission is granted for them to train for an alternative amount of time): Foundation Degree Award, «a vocational degree for Christian
ministry leading to ordination» (made up of the first two years of the BA course);
Bachelor of Arts in Christian Theology; the two-year Bachelor of Theology; and the
Certificate in Theology for Ministry. In terms of the curriculum, for example the BA
in Christian Theology: «The ecumenical programme is divided into three streams»
entitled Bible (e.g. exegesis); Christian Life and Thought (e.g. doctrine and liturgy);
Church and World (e.g. Pastoral Theology and Practice); other courses include e.g.
Canon C1; see M. Hill, Ecclesiastical Law, 3rd edn., Oxford, 2007, par. 4.04.
House of Bishops’ Regulations for Training; Higher Education Funding (GS Misc. 990
(2011)); Funding Ministerial Training (GS Misc. 990A); Principles for the evaluation of new training
proposals agreed by the House of Bishops in May 2010; Formation and Assessment in Curacy (approved by the House of Bishops in May 2010); The Learning Outcomes for IME (as approved by the
House of Bishops in May 2005); see also The Hind Report: Formation for Ministry within a Learning
Church, 2003.
21
<www.ridley.cam.ac.uk>; most residential students are training to be ordained ministers in
the Church of England, but some are training for Ordained Pioneer Ministry (to work in «fresh expressions» churches).
19
20
223
Mission and Ethics. Teaching is provided by, inter alia, the members of the Theological Federation at Cambridge University 22. The three-year BA covers, e.g., Biblical
Hebrew; New Testament Greek; Psychology and Religion; Christian Culture in the
Western World; Christian Ethics; Church History; Judaism, Christianity and Islam in
Encounter; and Feminist Theology. There is also provision for optional modules in
Judaism, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism 23.
Church in Wales (Anglican): The training of those preparing for ordination in the
Church in Wales is regulated by the norms of the Church and the Bench of Bishops
plays a key role in its oversight; and the Church administers a fund (derived primarily
from the donations of the faithful) to train candidates 24. The church has one institution
to train its candidates for ordination: St Michael’s Theological College in Cardiff;
this is also recognised as a training college for lay, reader and ordained ministry by
the Church of England and the Methodist Church and it works closely with the South
Wales Baptist College 25. Initial ministerial training can be either residential (the
norm) or non-residential (particularly for those training for non-stipendiary ordained
ministry in the Church in Wales). For those who undertake residential training, the
course taken depends on the individual’s previous education, for example: a Diploma
in Higher Education, a Bachelor of Theology degree, a Bachelor of Arts degree in
Theological Studies or a Graduate Diploma in Theology. Non-residential students normally take a Diploma in Practical Theology. As to curriculum, the Diploma in Higher
Education and Bachelor of Theology take «an integrated practical theology approach,
including the option of language study». Students may select modules «from a wide
theological field of biblical, historical, doctrinal, liturgical, ethical and pastoral study
options». The course contains an element of traditional academic theology but places
emphasis upon practical theological learning. The BA in Theological Studies takes
«a Liberal Arts approach to theology with a strong emphasis on the study of biblical
languages». Many modules are shared with the Bachelor of Theology. Students on
the Graduate Diploma in Theology select modules from the Bachelor of Theology
Course; it is skills-based and «theological knowledge is grounded in practical experience». The College also offers the MTh in Chaplaincy Studies and the IME (Initial
Ministerial Education) and CME (Continuing Ministerial Education) qualifications 26.
<www.theofed.cam.ac.uk>.
<www.theofed.cam.ac.uk; http://www.ridley.cam.ac.uk/images/documents/courses/ba-tripos.
pdf>. Moreover, the Ministry Division of the Church of England has an agreement with Durham University to validate its training: <http://www.dur.ac.uk/news/newsitem/?itemno=14864>.
24
N. Doe, The Law of the Church in Wales (Cardiff, 2002) 147 (the bishops) and 343 (the fund).
25
<www.stmichaels.ac.uk/index.php>. Ordination candidates often train outside Wales (at e.g.
English theological colleges of which Wycliffe Hall and St Stephen’s House in Oxford are popular).
26
The MTh in Chaplaincy Studies covers: Reflective Practice; Ethics; Social Context; Models
of Chaplaincy; and two specialist modules (moral and spiritual values; Chaplaincy, organisations and
22
23
224
Norman Doe
The ordination courses are delivered by Cardiff University, and are full-time and take
two or three years, on the basis of a «three-way partnership» between St Michael’s
College, the South Wales Baptist College and the School of Religious and Theological Studies of Cardiff University 27. Cardiff University is institutionally reviewed by
the Quality Assurance Agency. However, the non-residential training is part-time and
takes two or three years to complete (and it is again validated by Cardiff University) 28.
There is no formal interview for entry but candidates must have been recommended
for training in accordance with the norms of the Church; overseas students who will
exercise ministry in the UK have training in British culture, history and politics 29.
Roman Catholic: Clerical formation in the Roman Catholic Church is governed
inter alia by the Code of Canon Law 1983 and particular norms (including those
issued by national episcopal conferences, such as those published by the Bishops»
Conference of Scotland in 2005) 30. Under the auspices of the Bishops» Conference
of England and Wales, the National Office for Vocation exists to build a culture of
vocation and to promote the calls to specific vocations, including the priesthood and
the diaconate 31. Clerical formation is delivered at several seminaries; Allen Hall in
London it typical: under the authority and guidance of the Archbishop of Westminster,
formation occurs «in the light of the Scriptures, the Tradition, and the Magisterium of
the Church, and in the service of [its] mission» – training lasts six years and involves
human, intellectual (e.g. theology), spiritual and pastoral formation 32. Allen Hall is
not affiliated to a public university. By way of contrast, Blackfriars Hall Oxford is a
professional values). The IME and the CME is taught by the training officers of the Church in Wales.
The IME aims «to support the essential development and growth of both curate and training incumbent», while the CME is «designed to support and enhance professional performance at all stages of [an
individual’s] journey in ministry».
27
«St Michael’s College, the South Wales Baptist College and the School of Religious and
Theological Studies of Cardiff University together make up the Faculty of Religious and Theological
Studies of Cardiff University. Tutors from the colleges teach in the University and this is where college
students have their lectures».
28
The Diploma in Practical Theology is taught at three regional centres across Wales: St
Michael’s College (Cardiff); Trinity St David’s University (Carmarthen); and Glyndwr University
(Wrexham).
29
Each Diocese has its own selection procedures which culminate in the person considering
ministry attending a Provincial Selection Board. This Board may provide the required recommendation
for ministerial training.
30
See J.J. Conn, «Norms for priestly formation in the Latin Church: universal and particular»,
in N. Doe (ed), The Formation and Ordination of Clergy in Anglican and Roman Catholic Canon Law
(Cardiff, 2009) 141; for the Scottish norms, see 144: Norms for Priestly Formation (June 2005).
31
The inspiration for its creation is New Vocations for a New Europe 1997 (In Verbo Tuo).
32
Other seminaries are St Mary’s Oscott (Birmingham) and St John’s Seminary Wonersh (London). Students may also attend the Venerable England and Welsh College in Rome and other seminaries
worldwide.
225
Permanent Private Hall of the University of Oxford, a Dominican Priory, and a Centre
of Theological Studies of the English Province of the Dominican Friars - students
there, as part of their formation in the religious life, may study for degrees of Oxford
University 33.
Methodist: In the Methodist Church of Great Britain, training is compulsory prior
to ordination 34. Two Methodist colleges may be compared: one at Cambridge, the other at Birmingham. Wesley House, Methodist Theological College, Cambridge, works
in partnership with Cambridge University, Anglia Ruskin University, and Cambridge
Theological Federation «to train presbyters, deacons and lay people for ministry in
the British Methodist Church»; it offers «full time and part time study programmes
for independent and international students, and… short courses for those engaged
in various ministries and those exploring vocations» 35. The courses are basically
the same as those offered by Ridley Hall, Cambridge, namely those provided by the
Cambridge Theological Federation (see above). However, importantly: «Benchmarks
are set by the Methodist Conference and the progress of each student is monitored by
the local Oversight Committee of the Methodist Church» 36.
By way of contrast, the Queen’s Foundation, Birmingham, is an ecumenical
theological college, a recognised training college for those going into ordained
ministry in the Methodist Church and Church of England; it also welcomes students
from a variety of denominations 37. The normal route for initial ministerial training
is the Foundation Degree in Mission and Ministry: «It is designed for those preparing for some form of recognized ministry in their sponsoring church, and thus attracts students from a variety of denominations.» The college also offers a Graduate
Diploma in Theology, a BA in Theology, Research Degrees (M. Phil and PhD) and
a number of Taught Post Graduate Programmes (e.g. Post Graduate Certificates in:
Black Ministries and Leadership; Inter Faith Engagement; Leading in the Church;
Transformative Theologies of Gender; Theology and Practice). Students who have
successfully completed a Post Graduate Certificate may go on to study for a Graduate Diploma in Theology and Transformative Practice. Students who complete an
extended dissertation can gain the MA in Theology and Transformative Practice. As to
curriculum, the Foundation Degree in Mission and Ministry comprises both contentbased and practice-based modules; content-based modules include the Introduction
to New Testament Studies, while practice-based modules include Foundations in
<www.bfriars.ox.ac.uk>.
See N. Doe, Christian Law (2013) 82; the vocation of the candidate is tested in the Circuit,
then the District, followed by a selection committee of the Connexional Church, prior to ordination by
the Conference.
35
<www.wesley.cam.ac.uk/index.html>.
36
<www.theofed.cam.ac.uk>.
37
<http://www.queens.ac.uk>.
33
34
226
Norman Doe
Christian Worship. Students also participate in practical placements and attachments
as part of the programme. The Graduate Diploma consists of a number of modules
offered within the Foundation. The BA in Theology covers inter alia: Introduction to
Hebrew Bible; Introduction to New Testament; and Introduction to Christian Theology. Optional modules «[take] account of students» prior knowledge and skills, along
with any other requirements from sponsoring churches». Optional modules include:
Foundations in Christian Worship; Black and Asian Christian Theology; Pastoral
Theology; and Introduction to Christian Mission. The Post Graduate Certificate in
Interfaith Engagement comprises two modules: Theology in Dialogue; and Christian
Practice in a Multi-Faith World. The Post Graduate Certificate in Leading the Church
also comprises two modules: the core module, Transformative Christian Leadership,
and one from: Supervision Skills; Evangelism and Emerging Church; Transformative
Theologies of Gender; and Christian Practice in multi-faith contexts. The Foundation Degree is taught part-time over three years; it is «designed to integrate several
different modes of learning»; practical placements are also «a key element in the
development and assessment of competence for ministry». The Graduate Diploma
can be studied for one year (full-time) or two years (part-time). The BA in Theology
can be studied full or part time. Modules are typically assessed by essays or other
coursework (e.g. presentations, group work, theological conversations, and portfolios) rather than by examinations). The Foundation Degree is validated by Newman
University College, Birmingham on the basis of a «collaborative programme». The
Graduate Diploma in Theology is offered «in partnership» with Newman University
College. The BA in Theology and Taught Post Graduate Programmes are validated by
Newman University College. The Research Degrees are validated by the University
of Gloucestershire. There are students from overseas 38, and the Queen’s Foundation
«has undergone a review for educational oversight by the Quality Assurance Agency
for Higher Education».
The Centre for Black Ministries and Leadership at the Queen’s Foundation
«celebrates the major contribution of Black and Asian Christians to the life of the
churches in Britain» and seeks «to equip and resource Black and Asian Christians,
including lay and ordained ministers, through theological education». It offers a
range of programmes for those seeking to develop «skills and expertise in ministry
and leadership». Its focus is: vocation, calling and entry into ministry; discipleship
International students must also achieve a satisfactory score in a recognised English language
competence test or submit other proof of proficiency in English; «International students are an important part of community life at Queen’s, and particularly within our M.A. and research programmes. We
presently have students from about 20 different nations living and studying with us, and our teaching,
worship and life together all reflect this international diversity. A number of our international students
are participants in the SALT scholarship scheme, a fund related to our SOCMS centre, but we welcome
those who are independently funded for study in the UK».
38
227
training; training in ministry and leadership for serving ministers and clergy; and
opportunities for theological study include the MA in Theology and Transformative
Practice with a pathway in «Black Ministries and Leadership». The Centre seeks «to
widen access to theological education and to enable the development of the vocations,
gifts and leadership of Black and Asian Christians, lay and ordained, in the Church
of England» and «to provide theological education, ministerial and leadership training to lay and ordained members of participating Black Majority Churches». It also
seeks: «to develop expertise in inter-cultural ministry so as to provide consultancy,
research and training to enable the churches to meet the challenges and opportunities
that exist in congregations and communities of ethnic and cultural diversity»; and
«to gain support and participation from other churches so as to widen and deepen the
ecumenical dimension of the Centre» 39.
Baptist: In the Baptist Union of Great Britain, candidates to train for ministry
must satisfy various religious tests 40. Bristol Baptist College provides a good example
of the several Baptist colleges in Britain 41. It offers a wide range of courses to prepare
people for ordained ministry, youth or children’s ministry, ministry as a lay pastor, or
those seeking to study theology their own development and growth 42. There are three
possible routes to ministry: a college-based course, congregation-based learning, and
mission-context based training. Each of these routes «can be accompanied by different degree or diploma courses up to PhD level». Students with a theology degree
can study the Advanced Diploma in Ministerial Theology. The college-based courses
offered to ministerial students are: Certificate in Theological Studies; Diploma in
Theological Studies; Bachelor of Arts in Theological Studies; and Graduate Diploma
in Theological Studies. The congregation-based ministerial course is «an in-service
course of ministerial formation»; it results in an academic qualification recognised
by the Baptist Union Ministry Department and those who have completed it can be
entered onto the Baptist Union’s ministerial accreditation list. The student is put on
placement in a local Baptist Church, as the «minister-in-training», for at least three
years, usually four (if the minister is studying the BA in Theological Studies). There
is also a missional ministry course on urban mission and church planting which
<http://www.queens.ac.uk>.
For the denominational selection process, see <http://www.baptist.org.uk/exploring-a-call.
html>; see also Baptist Union document – «Called to Pastoral Ministry»; e.g. to be admitted the person must be a baptised believer and recommended by the Congregational Meeting and the appropriate
Baptist Association. On completion of training the college will commend the person for ministry and
on recommendation from the Association the final test is a call from a local Baptist church; the person
has the status of a Newly Accredited Minister (a probationary period) leading to Fully Accredited status.
41
Others include the South Wales Baptist College and Regent’s Park College Oxford: see section 3 below.
42
<www.bristol-baptist.ac.uk>.
39
40
228
Norman Doe
leads to a Baptist Union recognised qualification and entry on the Union’s ministerial accreditation list. The Baptist History and Principles course is compulsory for
most of those preparing for ordained ministry in the Baptist Church 43. Three themes
«permeate the whole of [the] curriculum»: Bible; Discipleship and Leadership; Mission and Evangelism. The subjects taught are Biblical Studies (e.g. Hermeneutics
and Languages); Church past and present (e.g. Church history, Christian doctrine and
worship); Discipleship and Leadership (pastoral theology, spirituality, ethics); Mission and Evangelism (history, theology, context and practice) 44. The undergraduate
and postgraduate courses in Theology are validated by the University of Bristol and
taught in partnership with Trinity College, Bristol. The Youth and Children’s Ministry
courses are validated by the University of Gloucestershire and Staffordshire University. The missional ministry course is a partnership with the West of England Baptist
Association and Urban Expression 45. There are prescribed academic qualifications
for entry of a student to the college 46. Overseas students may be admitted if they are
recommended by their own church. The Ministry Department of the Baptist Union
takes part in the ecumenical Quality in Formation Panel programme which inspects
periodically every Baptist College 47.
Presbyterian: Presbyterian churches have complex norms on the process leading
to ordination, a process which is characterised typically by the participation of the
local (Kirk) Session, the regional Presbytery, and the national General Assembly 48.
The college also delivers e.g. a BA Honours Degree in Children and Family Work and Practical Theology; and a BA Honours degree in School, Youth and Community Work and Practical Theology.
44
The courses vary from 1 year to 3 years full-time, and 2 years to 6 years part-time. Assessment
is usually by essays, learning journals and placements. As to the congregation-based ministerial course,
there are allocated slots in church work, college work and free time each week. The mission ministry
course is largely vocational and focuses on four competencies: pioneer; community formation; urban
and bi-vocational. The Baptist History and Principles course can be completed by correspondence. It
is assessed by essays.
45
The University of Bristol is represented on the college’s Academic Board and Examination
Board and inspects the college regularly. It approves the appointment of external examiners its Department of Theology and Religious Studies appoints a representative to the college’s selection panels to
recruit teaching staff.
46
For the BA course, students under 25 must have passed 3 A Levels, students over 25, 5 GCSEs
at grade C or above. Those without these qualifications can study the Certificate in Theology with the
possibility of upgrading to the degree if successful in their studies.
47
«The state offers no formal recognition of Baptist ministers and does not pay for their formation. It has no authority to monitor quality and does not do so…Baptist Union of Great Britain ministers
are required to attain a certain level of formal general theological education. This means that our students
hold qualifications accredited by universities and these are monitored by the State. Our College is subject
to monitoring by the University of Bristol, QAA and Home Office. The formal…elements of ministerial formation are therefore subjected to a degree of state monitoring but not the ministerial formation
process itself»: Response from Dr Finamore.
48
N. Doe, Christian Law (2013) 83.
43
229
In Scotland, the Highland Theological College (HTC), affiliated to the University of
the Highlands and Islands (UHI), may be offered by way of illustration 49. The college
is «an official training provider for the Associated Presbyterian Churches, Church of
Scotland and United Free Church of Scotland. Our student body is not restricted to
these denominations and many ministers and lay readers from other denominations
(including Baptist, Congregational, Free Church and Presbyterian Church of Ireland)
have undertaken study with us»; it is «a partner college within the UHI network».
Thus: «HTC is at the same time both an independent college run by its own Board
and one of thirteen colleges and research institutions which together make up the
University of the Highlands and Islands». Each college within the UHI network is
self-governing, with its own Board of Management. The governance structure of
HTC is headed by the Highland Theological Trust (a charity) 50. To run the college,
the Trustees have formed Highland Theological College Ltd – this is a company under
civil law 51. The University of the Highlands and Islands is regulated by the Quality
Assurance Agency.
The normal route for initial ministerial training is the Bachelor of Arts in Theological Studies: «[t]he ideal course for prospective ministers, pastors, religious
workers, and missionaries»; this is followed by «The Master of Theology…used by
the Church of Scotland as part of their training for the ministry requirements». With
regard to Ordained Local Ministry and Readership Training is «to the standard of a
Diploma in Higher Education…and must include the Sacramental Theology module.
The programme for the academic element of Readership training is to the standard
of a Certificate in Higher Education». The BA in Theological Studies is a four year
course and includes: Jesus and the Gospels; Introduction to Systematic Theology;
Pastoral and Practical Theology; Pentateuch; Greek Grammar; Protestant Reformation; Understanding Worship; Evangelism (Year 1, Certificate of Higher Education);
Old Testament Prophecy; Greek and Hebrew Grammar; Early Church History; Biblical Theology of Mission; Cross-Cultural Mission; Youth Ministry; Exploring Other
Faiths; Counselling Theories; Sacramental Theology (Year 2, Diploma of Higher
Education); Hebrew Texts; Scottish Church History; Homiletics; Christian Ethics;
Christian Spirituality; Theological Project; Counselling in a Pastoral Setting; and
Placement (Year 3, BA); Quest for the Historical Jesus; Luke/Acts; Holy Spirit and
the Word; Hermeneutics (Year 4, BA Honours). There are also Masters» degrees in
Reformed Theology (e.g. the History of Reformed theology; Scottish covenant the-
49
<http://www.htc.uhi.ac.uk>. The example, however, is an unusual one when compared to
other such colleges which are not generally so deeply entangled with the institutional structures of
public universities.
50
Scottish Charity Registration Number SC022838.
51
Scottish Company No. 149728 and Scottish Charity Registration No. SC029190.
230
Norman Doe
ology; Calvin and Calvinism; Reformed theology and pastoral ministry; Method in
Reformed theology; Zwingli and the Swiss Reformation) and in Pastoral Theology
(e.g. Reformed theology and pastoral ministry; Spirituality; Counselling and pastoral
care; Christian communication in a post-modern world; Chaplaincy ministry; and
Homiletics). The BA (Honours) in Theological Studies can be studied either full-time
(four years) or part-time (eight years) structured or unstructured). The MTh Courses
may also be studied full-time (1 year) or part-time (2-6 years). Students are taught
by lectures at Highland Theological College and by way of independent study. For
admission: «Candidates training for Ministry of Word and Sacrament, Ordained Local Ministry (OLM) or Lay Readership should contact [their own] denomination as
well as the HTC Registry Officer for advice regarding academic requirements» 52.
In the Church of Scotland, potential Ministers of Word and Sacrament and potential
candidates for Ordained Local Ministry go through the following process: the call
to ministry (run by the Ministries Council); Vocations Conference (which involves
Enquiry and Assessment); Extended Enquiry (which usually involves a placement);
Local Review followed by a national Assessment Conference (including interviews
by Church Assessors and a Psychologist Assessor) which reaches «a final decision on
whether or not you should become a Candidate in Training for Ministry».
Religious Society of Friends (Quakers): Quakers do not have any separate category of ordained ministry: in Quaker ecclesiology, all are «ministers» and anyone
present at a Meeting for Worship may minister if moved by the Spirit to do so. However, every Local Meeting (equivalent of a church congregation) and Area Meeting
(the basic ecclesial unit of the Society) has particular functions that must be carried
out by members appointed for that purpose: at the very least, there must be elders to
provide spiritual leadership for the meeting, overseers to provide pastoral oversight
and care, a treasurer, and a clerk to facilitate meetings for business and maintain meeting records. While there is no formal training for office-holders, Woodbrooke Quaker
Study Centre at Selly Oak in Birmingham provides short courses for elders, overseers, treasurers and clerks, usually held at weekends. Also, there are various regional
day conferences arranged by groups of Area Meetings. Local and Area Meetings
will normally assist financially office-holders to undertake appropriate training. In
addition to training for office-holders, Woodbrooke also provides more general short
courses in such areas as Quaker spirituality and Quaker history. In association with
the Graduate Institute for Theology and Religion of Birmingham University (which
validates its degrees) its Centre for Postgraduate Quaker Studies also offers a taught
Postgraduate Certificate, a partly-taught MRes and research supervision for the MA,
MLitt and PhD 53.
52
53
<http://www.htc.uhi.ac.uk/courses/ministry-training>.
I am very grateful to Frank Cranmer for this inclusion.
231
Islamic: Partnerships between Muslim colleges and public universities has been
encouraged in recent years by the government 54. What follows contrasts two Islamic
colleges both of which are in London 55. In the Islamic College, London, although
there is no specific Imamship Programme, the Hawaza Programme «provides students with an excellent platform for a career as an Islamic lecturer and researcher or
as a minister of religion» 56. The Hawaza Programme consists of a Bachelor of Arts
(Honours) in Hawaza Studies plus Complementary Hawaza Studies (CHS). The BA
is validated by Middlesex University, as are many other courses at the Islamic College. The BA (Honours) in Hawaza Studies «is consistent with the subjects taught
in traditional centres of Hawaza studies such as Qum and Najaf, and incorporates
some additional modules that suit the needs of Muslims living in the West». The
first year modules are: Islamic Laws; Arabic Syntax; Logic; Research Methodology for Hawaza Studies; Islamic Theology; Formative Period of the Shi’a; and
Qur’anic Sciences and Approaches to Exegesis. These modules are all compulsory.
The second year compulsory modules are: Principles of Jurisprudence; Demonstrative Jurisprudence; Islamic Ethics; and Hadith Studies. Students must choose two
optional modules from: Thematic Exegesis; Arabic Rhetoric; Current Issues in
Muslim Societies; Muslims in the West; and Abrahamic Faiths. The compulsory
third year modules are: Principles of Jurisprudence; Demonstrative Jurisprudence;
Project; Islamic Philosophy; Islamic and Mysticism. Students must choose two
optional modules from: Biographical and Narrative Studies; Jurisprudential Maxims; Principles of Qur’anic Exegesis; Muslim Social and Political Thought; and
Islamic Education and Teacher Training. The curriculum of Complementary Hawaza Studies comprises modules in: Islamic Law, Arabic, Recitation of the Qur’an,
Shi’a Islam, Women in Islam, Exegesis of the Qur’an, Nahj al-Balaghah, Sahifat
54
See R. Jarrar and L. Collard, University of Westminster, A Model for Collaboration in
designing and delivering Islamic Studies modules between a HE institution and a Muslim community
college (2012): this includes a model Memorandum of Understanding; in the academic year 2011/12 the
following Muslim colleges claimed to be accredited by HEIs: Al-Maktoum College of Higher Education in Dundee (accredited by the University of Aberdeen), the Islamic College in London (accredited
by Middlesex University), and Markfield Institute of Higher Education in Leicester (accredited by the
University of Gloucestershire). The partnerships pursued by these institutions mainly involve the HEI
validating courses hosted by the colleges at their own site. They often require the Muslim college to pay
considerable sums for the privilege of accreditation.
55
Universities may also have centres to study Islam: e.g. Cardiff University has a Centre for
the Study of Islam in the UK; this aims to promote scholarly and public understanding of Islam and the
life of Muslim communities in the UK from the inter-disciplinary perspectives (especially sociological
and anthropological methodology).
56
<http://www.islamic-college.ac.uk>. Also, the Hijaz College Islamic University (Nuneaton
near Birmingham) offers a Diploma in Islamic Law and the London University external LLB: <www.
hijazcollege.com/>.
232
Norman Doe
al-Sajjadiyyah, Comparative Theology, Islamic Sects and Schools of Thought,
and Skills Workshops (e.g. research skills, cultural management skills, translation
skills). Further, the optional modules that are not taken as part of the BA (Honours)
are studied as part of the CHS course. The BA (Honours) in Hawaza Studies can
be studied full-time for 3 years, or part-time for 5 years. The Complementary Hawaza Studies course is taught by way of Research Seminars; Open Discussions; the
Spiritual Development Programme (consisting of «traditional sessions on Islamic
Ethics conducted by different scholars, and one-to-one consultations on spiritual,
psychological and family-related matters»); and Educational and Cultural Trips (one
to an Islamic country and the others to UK destinations). One optional module on
both courses is Abrahamic Faiths. There are academic entry requirements 57, and
overseas students may also be admitted 58.
The Muslim College, London, is «a post-graduate Islamic seminary based in
West London that is geared towards engagement with wider society by providing
comprehensive studies of Islam to its students and visitors. It offers theoretical understandings and enlightening experiences of the workings and challenges faced by
all faith communities living in a modern secular society» 59. The College offers an
Imamship programme: «The way British Muslim chaplains/Imams are trained is very
much dependent upon where they choose to perform their duties. Although the chief
responsibility of a Muslim chaplain/Imam is to offer personal and spiritual advice and
care, the context within where they are operating very much affects the delivery of
their course». As such: «The Muslim College Imamship programme delivers a comprehensive and holistic training programme that will grant participants all the skills
required in Britain’s charities, hospitals, prisons, hospices, universities and mosques
fully engaging them with all other departments in the organization». The curriculum
of the Imanship Programme includes: British culture and history; Introduction to the
major issues of Muslim’s concerns in the light of Fiqh; Introduction to the history of
Islam and Muslims in Britain; Perception of Muslims in the West; Islam in the Media;
Major Muslim groups and organisations in Britain; Islam and citizenship; Defences
forces and Imams; Madaras/School Management; Mosque Management: Youth Participation; Charity Commission (and its relationship with Muslim organisations);
Fund-Raising; Dispute resolution; Marriage and Divorce: Rules and Regulations;
the National Health Service and Imams (e.g. the importance of hygiene in Islam);
«A-levels grade CCC or equivalent, plus knowledge of the Arabic language or successful
completion of the Foundation Year in Qur’anic Arabic. Students from outside the UK may also apply.
Non-native English speakers must have an IELTS score of 6.5.» Students must apply through UCAS.
58
International students are welcomed. «Muslims in the West» is an optional module for the
BA (Hons) and, if not chosen, will be studied as part of the Complementary Hawaza Studies Course
anyway. The CHS course includes Skills Workshops and one of these is in cultural management skills.
59
<www.muslimcollege.ac.uk>
57
233
Education in Britain; Sex Education; Interfaith in the United Kingdom; Dawah work
in the United Kingdom; Public Speaking; British Laws affecting Muslims, Mosques
and Islamic organisations; Prison service and Imams; Muslim Women in Britain;
Spirituality, ethics and community building; Mental Health and Bereavement Care;
Immigration Laws and Imams; Islam and racism; Local councils and working with
the Muslim community; Counselling and Meditation. The programme is taught mostly
at the college, but there are also practical elements to the course (such as visits to
external sites) 60.
The Muslim College in London also offers the MA in Islamic Studies, and an
International Programme, namely: «a specialist course attended by mature government officers from the Department of Islamic Development, Malaysia, drawn across
all sectors of the civil service and NGOs»; its aim is «to introduce participants to the
workings and challenges faced by a modern secular state»; this postgraduate degree
consists of 16 modules and an 11-12,000 word dissertation in prescribed topics 61.
Applicants for courses at the college must satisfy various academic criteria 62; and
if from overseas they must be proficient in English 63. Moreover: «The [imam] programme provides participants with learning opportunities to become receptive to the
needs of individuals and the congregation they are serving, maintain a high degree
of confidence, and develop pastoral skills for the service of the British community»
(emphasis added); as seen above, the relevant modules include: British culture and
history; Perception of Muslims in the West; Islam in the Media; Education in Britain;
British Laws affecting Muslims, Mosques and Islamic organisations; and Muslim
Women in Britain. As to the teachers: «teaching staff of the Muslim College are all
specialists in their designated fields: from classical exegetical studies to Muslims liv-
60
«The programme comprises of classroom based learning with specialists coming from a
broad array of subject. Theological and scholastic studies will take place largely at the Muslim College London and will provide participants of the programme to examine and discuss topic related
to the needs and demands of the British community from an Islamic perspective. In addition to the
theoretical component of the course, there will also be opportunities for practical exercises and excursion many of London’s reputable faith and community establishments so that the participants of the
programme will have a more hands on approach in what is required from a Muslim faith representative in modern Britain».
61
Namely: Islamic Theology and Philosophy; Qur’an and Hadith Studies; Islamic Jurisprudence;
Islamic History and Civilisation; Arabic Language and Literature; World Religions; Western Philosophy.
62
«Applicants…are assessed on an individual case by case basis – provided they have completed
their A-Level or equivalent overseas qualifications. We may also consider your work experience in the
related fields». For the MA in Islamic Studies, «all applicants MUST have a good first degree or the
overseas equivalent».
63
International students «must demonstrate an English Language competency. Applicants who
did not have English as the formal language of instruction are expected to demonstrate a reasonable
command of the language by taking an IELTS test for an IELTS test a score 5.5+ is required».
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Norman Doe
ing in the post-modern world. Between them, the scholars have decades of teaching
and research experience». The college website does not indicate that the courses are
validated by a university.
Jewish: The Leo Baeck College, London, for example, offers rabbinical training
for «Progressive Judaism» 64. The normal route is the five-year Rabbinic Programme
consisting of academic studies, placements and apprenticeships, and vocational modules, namely: the Graduate Diploma in Hebrew and Jewish Studies - first year - high
holy day apprenticeship and placement and vocational modules (homiletics, including services, weddings, and funerals, listening, service-leading skills, education, and
reflective skills); second year – high holy day placement and vocational modules
(life cycle excluding bereavement, chagrim (the use of festivals) and education);
Postgraduate Diploma in Hebrew and Jewish Studies – third year – high holy day
placement and apprenticeship and vocational modules (Jewish care); MA in Applied
Rabbinic Theology – fourth year – congregational placement and vocational modules
(dying, death and bereavement, mental health, spirituality and social action); MA
(continued) – fifth year – high holy day placement and congregational placement
– vocational modules (transition to the rabbinate and leadership and management
skills). As to method: «A variety of teaching methods including tutor led, group work
and independent study will be used. Types of assessments include: examinations, essays, presentations, textual analyses, sermons, short tests, designing a service». The
college also has an Interfaith Programme and «has pioneered the work of JewishChristian-Muslim dialogue for over 50 years both for its rabbinic students and the
wider community. For over 40 years, the College has been co-hosting an Annual
Jewish-Christian-Muslim Student Conference in Wuppertal, Germany and an Annual
Jewish-Christian Bible week in Osnabruck, Germany which is open to all».
For the Rabbinic Programme, the «General Criteria for Admissions» include: appropriate motivation; academic ability to complete the programme; willingness and
potential to grow and develop through the programme; religious commitment and
personal integrity; dedication to «the Principles of Progressive Judaism»; and intellectual maturity. The «Specific Criteria» include: proficiency in Hebrew; a BA degree
of a good standard (2:1 or higher) or the academic equivalent; willingness to spend
time in an accredited academic programme in Israel; Jewish status (as recognised
by a Beit Din of the Liberal, Masorti or Reform rabbinate or an Orthodox Beit Din
and to have held that status for a minimum of five years prior to entry); a reference
preferably from their community rabbi; a minimum of 21 years of age at the time of
application; prospective students are expected to have been active in Jewish commu-
64
<www.lbc.ac.uk>.
235
nity life prior to application 65; and proficiency in English 66. All rabbinic candidates
are interviewed over a period of three days and this includes an academic interview,
and structured and unstructured group interviews. Psychological assessment of the
candidate is also required. Candidates for the other courses are selected on the basis
of their application form or by interview. International students are provided with
additional support e.g. there are allocated members of staff that assist them with personal, welfare, residential and visa issues. The College also offers a Bachelor of Arts
(Honours) and a Master of Arts in Jewish Education. All the courses at the college
are validated by the University of Winchester.
III. The Training of Christian Ministers of Religion in Church and
State Law
The theological colleges and seminaries of the Christian denominations studied
here usually provide that students training for ministry are required to be introduced
to at least elements of their own systems of church law and church polity. However,
only some of them make provision for the study of State law applicable to their own
church and their ministry.
Anglican: Theological colleges of the Church of England make some provision
for the training of ministers in ecclesiastical law (the law of England applicable to
the Church of England) 67. Since its establishment in 1987, the Ecclesiastical Law
Society has undertaken several initiatives to encourage the study of ecclesiastical
law as part of initial and continuing ministerial education in the Church of England 68,
including a guide and teaching aid on canon law for the newly ordained – to meet the
expectation of the Ministry Division of the Church of England that, at the point of
ordination, candidates should «demonstrate familiarity with the legal, canonical and
administrative responsibilities appropriate to the newly ordained and those working
65
For example: membership of a local Liberal, Reform or Masorti Synagogue, or if from the
USA, Reform, Reconstructionist or Conservative Synagogue, or European equivalent; regular attendance at Shabbat, Festival and Holy High Day services; regular home observance of the major festivals
and occasions in the Jewish year; engagement with educational programmes organised within a local
synagogue or wider Jewish community.
66
«Prospective students for whom English is not a first language must obtain a minimum level
B2 on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CERF)».
67
See N. Doe, «The teaching of church law: an ecumenical exploration worldwide», 15 Ecclesiastical Law Journal (2013) 267.
68
An Ordered Church: A Syllabus Introducing the Canon and Ecclesiastical Law of the Church
of England, Ecclesiastical Law Society in Conjunction with the Ministry Division of the Archbishops»
Council (1999).
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Norman Doe
under supervision» 69. The guide asserts: «All clergy are, to a certain extent, practitioners of ecclesiastical law and should be aware of their legal responsibilities» on
the basis that: «The general public are entitled to expect the same level of service
and expertise from the clergy as they would expect from any professional person» 70.
Nevertheless, there is still no national formal freestanding provision in the Church
of England itself, or its theological colleges, to train its clergy (as part of initial or
continuing ministerial education) or its legal officers in the canon and ecclesiastical
law they administer 71; rather, the teaching is on an ad hoc basis, often by members
of the Society 72; yet there are at UK law school courses in canon law 73, or aspects
of it are treated in courses on law and religion 74. There is modest training in law for
Anglican clergy in Wales 75, Scotland 76, and Ireland 77.
Roman Catholic: The study of canon law as part of priestly formation is designed
to enable seminary students to understand how canon law applies to everyday ministry as parish priests, for them to know, explain and apply the law with confidence
in the decisions they make which affect people; teaching is also provided at a more
advanced level in the faculties of canon law at pontifical universities to prepare those
to be engaged in the exercise of administrative and judicial offices, and the licentiate
(JCL) takes three years 78. The Sacred Congregation for Catholic Education provides,
69
The Ecclesiastical Law Society, in association with the Ministry Division of the Church of
England, Canon Law for the Newly Ordained: A Brief Guide and Teaching Aid, L. Yates and W. Adam,
3rd edn., 2011.
70
Ibid., 9, 18.
71
Canons of the Church of England, Can. G4: to qualify for appointment as provincial and diocesan registrars, candidates must be «learned in the ecclesiastical laws», but no formal training is provided
by the church; no such requirement attaches to candidates for the office of diocesan chancellor: Can. G.2.
72
Canon David Parrott has produced a book for clergy, Your Church and the Law, 2nd edn.,
London, 2011, based on his experience of teaching curates in the south east of England.
73
The Cardiff LLM in Canon Law deals critically with the laws of the Church of England and
other churches in the global Anglican Communion, as well as comparative church law (and religion
law in the UK and Europe).
74
Ecclesiastical law appears in LLB law and religion modules at e.g. Bangor, Cardiff, and
Oxford Brookes.
75
St Michael’s Theological College, Llandaff, has a two-day course on canon law for ordinands
(with material prepared by D.G. Belcher, Canon Law for those in Public Ministry in the Church in
Wales); at provincial level continuing ministerial education in canon law is given by the Centre for Law
and Religion, Cardiff Law School.
76
A two-hour course on the law of the Church of Ireland is given at the Church of Ireland Theological Institute, Dublin by the Bishop of Cork, the Rt Revd Dr Paul Colton (a graduate of the Cardiff
LLM in Canon Law).
77
Scottish Episcopal Church ordinands are introduced to its canons.
78
J. Conn SJ, «The teaching of canon law in the (Roman) Catholic Church», unpublished
paper delivered at the 14th Colloquium of Anglican and Roman Catholic Canon Lawyers, Rome 26-27
April 2013: graduate level programmes exist at e.g. the pontifical Gregorian, Angelicum, and Lateran
237
inter alia, that teaching should cover: the theological foundations of canon law; the
application of canon law to concrete the circumstances of pastoral life; administrative
and judicial practice; and ecumenical aspects of canon law; also, canon law should
be treated in the continuing education of clergy 79. In terms of the purpose of training:
«Competent canonists are needed in teaching theology, in the structures of diocesan
curial offices, in regional Church tribunals, [and] in the governmental structure of
Religious Families»; moreover: «even a priest who is directly occupied with the care
of souls needs an adequate training in law to carry out suitably his pastoral ministry
in the way a shepherd should» 80. As to the methods of study: «Canon law should be
taught in relation to the mystery of the Church as more profoundly understood by the
Second Vatican Council. While explaining principles and laws, the point should be
made plain, apart from anything else, how the whole system of ecclesiastical government and discipline is in accord with the salvific will of God, and, in all things, has
as its scope the salvation of souls» 81.
Methodist: The approaches of two institutions may be compared - in Great Britain
and in Northern Ireland. The Queen’s Foundation, Birmingham, teaches «Methodist
law and polity» (at BA level 5/6) as a compulsory subject for all Methodist preordination students, and, for a smaller number, at MA level as part of their leadership
work; it is designed to introduce students to «the concept of living within authority» 82.
Teaching begins with the foundational documents, the Deed of Union (1932) and the
Constitutional Practice and Discipline of the Methodist Church. Students then «engage with the authority of the Conference including the historical developments from
the first Conference, Wesley’s Rules for the Societies and Rules for the Helpers»; they
explore notions of «corporate episcope, the connexional principle and Being in Full
Connexion with the Conference» and «order and accountability» 83. Students cover the
workings of the Methodist Conference, Law and Polity. Moreover: «Those training as
presbyters are taught their responsibility for ensuring [that] Methodist law and polity
universities in Rome and the Catholic University of America (Washington), St Paul University (Ottawa),
and Catholic University (Leuven).
79
Ibid; Conn cites the Circular Letter 2 April 1975, On the Teaching of Canon Law to those
Preparing to be Priests, and other key instruments on the teaching of canon law such as Sapientia Christiana 29 April 1979, Art. 75 of which states: «A Faculty of Canon Law, whether Latin or oriental, has
the aim of cultivating and promoting the juridical disciplines in the light of the law of the Gospel and
of deeply instructing the students in these, so as to form researchers, teachers, and others who will be
trained to hold special ecclesiastical posts».
80
Circular Letter 2 April 1975, On the Teaching of Canon Law to those Preparing to be Priests, II.
81
Ratio fundamentalis institutionis sacerdotalis (Congregation for Catholic Education, 1970)
174: see Conn.
82
Revd Helen Cameron, Oversight Tutor, Co-Director of the Centre for Ministerial Formation,
The Queen’s Foundation, Birmingham (UK) (email 15-4-2013).
83
The principal document is the Conference Statement Called to Love and Praise (1999).
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Norman Doe
are communicated and upheld in the life of the local Church at local level» 84. Edgehill
Theological College, Belfast, trains ordained ministers for the Methodist Church in
Ireland. All ministerial students take a compulsory course called «Preparation for
Circuit Ministry» for 2 semesters; the course is not university-validated. About 6
weeks involve «examination of the Manual of Laws» and the sessions will deal with:
the duties of the minister in relation to church structures; disciplinary procedures;
church governance – especially the annual Conference; and doctrine (also dealt with
in a separate module on Methodist history, ethos and theology) 85. These courses at
Birmingham and Belfast study only the laws of the relevant Methodist Church, and
not the wider civil laws applicable to these churches.
Presbyterian: In the Church of Scotland, students in their years of ministerial
training attend conferences at which «the Church’s practice on matters such as Baptism, Communion, Ordination etc. are taught» and in their final year all probationers
are taught the «Church of Scotland Law» 86. This study is «compulsory for all new
entrants and for ministers coming from other churches and from other Presbyterian
churches overseas» and is taught over four years with some 24-30 hours of lectures/
seminars which includes «interactive learning» and a «mix of theory and practice».
They cover church governance, ministry, doctrine, liturgy, rites (e.g. marriage),
property, and ecumenism. Students undertake 30 weeks of part-time practical work
during college studies and 15 months of full-time probation during which «they are
introduced to the practical application of the law at all levels» – namely, the Kirk Session (local), the Presbytery (regional), and the General Assembly (national). Students
must complete a 1500-2000 word essay on «an issue that requires some knowledge of
a wide range of the Church’s law». Refresher courses are offered throughout ministry,
«especially [for] Presbytery Clerks who have to handle the law and its implications
every day» 87.
Baptist: In the Baptist colleges the study of Baptist «polity», «principles», or
«ecclesiology» is often «a compulsory part of the course for ministerial students» 88.
One purpose of the course at the Bristol Baptist College, on Baptist History and
84
Revd Helen Cameron (email 16-4-2013): «I can confirm that we teach Methodist law and
polity in various places throughout the course [as] compulsory sessions for Methodist pre-ordination
students in their third year».
85
Revd Dr Richard Clutterbuck, Principal (email 16-4-2013).
86
The Acts of General Assembly: <http://www.churchofscotland.org.uk/about_us/church_law/acts>.
87
Rev John P Chalmers, Principal Clerk, Church of Scotland (email 16-4-2013); the parish
minister is ex officio moderator of the Session and so needs to have at least a basic understanding of
church law.
88
Regent’s Park College, Oxford - Revd Anthony Clarke, Tutor in Pastoral Studies and Community Learning (email 18-4-2013). See also Bristol Baptist College (UK), Baptist History and Principles:
«The unit is mandatory for most ministerial students» - Stephen Finamore, Principal (email 16-4-2013);
South Wales Baptist College, Cardiff: «all candidates for ordained Baptist ministry are required to
239
Principles, is to ensure that «a genuinely Baptist Christian culture is ingrained into
the way we do things and relate to one another» 89. At Regent’s Park College Oxford,
«Baptist Ecclesiology» may be integrated into the diploma or degree programme for
undergraduates and taught alongside other things for masters students. It is taught
at different times through the three years of ministerial formation and with different
aspects (historical, theological, and practical) having an emphasis at different times.
In the third year it lasts for 16 hours, and is taught by «interactive seminar/class» and
other methods (such as guided reading) - and it is examined. Study covers the Baptist
Union of Great Britain, «Associations, local congregations, covenants, models of
church, ordination, ecumenical relations, the nature of ministry, church governance,
authority, liturgy, trustee issues, finance, administration, safeguarding responsibilities,
weddings, [and] funerals»; the course may also cover «membership, church offices,
and church and state» 90. Separate courses may be run on the administration of worship and doctrine 91. In the South Wales Baptist College (Cardiff): «In the first year
of their training ministerial students have an overnight visit to the National Resource
centre for the Baptist Union of Great Britain to meet with staff [there] and with staff
from BMS World Mission… This gives ordinands some idea of how the denomination
seeks to function» 92. Reading material is prescribed 93.
IV. Conclusion
In general, there is no distinct body of State law in the United Kingdom which
explicitly addresses the training of ministers of religion. Historically, in the medieval
period (and afterwards) clergy obtained their theological education at the ancient
universities in England and Scotland. Today most universities have faculties or departments of theology and/or religious studies (and some grew from teacher training
establishments run by churches). These universities are funded wholly or partly from
complete modules on Baptist History and Baptist Principles - Revd Dr P.K. Stevenson, Principal (email
16-4-2013).
89
Stephen Finamore (email 16-4-201).
90
Revd A. Clarke (email 18-4-2013). For teaching on the Union, associations, congregations,
see also Northern Baptist Learning Community, Manchester (UK): compulsory courses cover «history,
governance, ministry, Baptist Declaration of Principle, theology and practice of baptism and communion» and «non-accredited formational learning at all levels including CME on worship, rites of passage,
property» (e.g. «Managing Trusteeships, Trusts Deeds etc.») - Revd Dr A. Phillips (email 16-4-2013).
91
Bristol Baptist College: Free Church Worship is a 10 credit unit at Level 1 and mandatory
for ministerial students; «Ecumenism is taught within the non-accredited programme» and «is practised through our partnership with Trinity College, Bristol»; doctrine is covered in accredited units on
systematic theology.
92
Revd Peter K. Stevenson, Principal (letter, 16-4-2013).
93
Ibid., e.g. N.G. Wright, Free Church, Free State: The Positive Baptist Vision, Paternoster,
London, 2005; S. Holmes, Baptist Theology: Doing Theology, T & T Clark, London, 2012.
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Norman Doe
public funds and have the status generally in civil law of public authorities. However,
following the Reformation in the sixteenth century, in England the bar to admission to
the ancient universities meant that religious groups other than the Church of England
set up their own so-called «dissenting academics» or else their members trained for
ministry abroad. The nineteenth century in particular witnessed the rise of Church of
England, Roman Catholic, and other theological colleges to train candidates for ordained ministry. The twentieth century, and the religious pluralism which has emerged
during it, has seen the rise of Islamic and Jewish colleges for the training of imams
and rabbis. Broadly, these religious colleges offer courses (for ministry candidates)
which are either validated by or delivered at the theology and/or religious studies
departments of public universities (themselves subject to State higher education law
and independent quality assurance standards). Some religious colleges provide training in other faiths, civil culture and civil law. The colleges are subject to the general
law (on e.g. employment and charity) but may enjoy exemptions under equality law
(e.g. to restrict admission of students within the faith in question). There are also specific rules in immigration law about ministers of religion and those training for this.
The colleges may or may not be regulated by trust deeds and other instruments (e.g.
articles of association in the case of a company) which provide for their governance,
inspection, admission, staff, property and academic discipline. Religious laws are the
principal means of regulation.
PERSONNEL IN ESTONIA
Merilin Kiviorg 1
Religious education has been one of the most contested issues regarding
religion in Estonia today, and, in fact, throughout its history as an independent
State. However, most of the debates have been related to religious education in
basic and upper secondary schools. There has been no real discussion on training the clergy for religious communities. Issues that have been discussed and
sometimes hotly disputed in many other European states, such as control over
religious teaching and state financing, are not yet on the agenda in Estonia. Although many aspects of the relationship between State and religious communities
are still under discussion, the relationship between religious communities and
the State is generally amicable and cooperative. Estonia also does not consider
itself a country of immigration. The social fact is that it is not yet facing any
of the challenges related to the growing Muslim communities experienced in
other European countries. History, however, knows a few controversies that
have emerged in relation to training clergy on Estonian territory 2. Different
rulers have had different ideas for this training. The autonomy of the training
institutions and through that the autonomy of religious institutions to select and
acquire qualified personnel has been to some extent fluctuating. The following
will give a brief account of the history from the 18th century onwards and focus
on the current law, trends and issues.
1
Senior Researcher in Public International Law, University of Tartu, Faculty of Law, Chair of
European and Public International Law.
2
Many of the clergy has been trained in seminaries and educational institutions outside Estonia.
This article focuses on the training in Estonia.
242
Merilin Kiviorg
I. History of the Mode of Training of Religious Staff since the 18th
Century
Estonian history since the 13th century is marked by multiple conquests by
Germans, Danes, Swedes and Russians who fought against Estonians and among
themselves for the control of this territory, each one having a turn in ruling and consequently in influencing the development of Estonia, its religious life and the training of
clergy. The beginning of the 18th century marked the end of Swedish rule in Estonia.
Estonia came under the sovereignty of Sweden in the seventeenth century. This meant
systematic reorganization of social and religious life under the Lutheran Church. The
Catholic Church was practically expelled from Estonia during that period.
Under Swedish rule, the Lutheran church was elevated to the status of the state
church. Three academic secondary schools were opened (in Tartu in 1630, in Riga
and Tallinn in 1631). On the initiative of Governor-General Johan Skytte, the secondary school in Tartu was transformed into a university (Academia Dorpatensis) by
ordinance of King Gustav II Adolph on 30 June 1632 3.
The Faculty of Theology became the leading faculty at the university. The educational work was modelled on the Faculty of Theology of Uppsala University. Pursuant to the University’s bylaws, the theological orientation of the University and its
Faculty of Theology was to fit into the frame of Lutheran orthodoxy. The University
provided qualified people to serve as church ministers in Livonia and in Estonia, but
also on Saaremaa Island 4. Many former students also became school teachers influencing development of future generations. In this sense the university also provided
the basis for establishing a network of public schools in Estonia. University alumni
made a significant contribution to Estonian language religious literature.
The end of Swedish rule came with the Great Northern War at the beginning
of the eighteenth century waged by Russian Tsar Peter I and his Danish, Polish and
Saxon allies against Sweden. In 1710 the area encompassing present day Estonia
came under Russian rule. The same year the university was closed. As a result, in the
18th century many of Estonia’s Lutheran clergy was trained in educational institutions
abroad.
The University of Tartu (Kaiserliche Universität zu Dorpat/ Imperatorskij
Jur’evskij Universitet) was reopened in Tartu in 1802 as a German-speaking Russian state university. In the 19th century, theology was foremost associated with the
German-language Faculty of Theology of the University of Tartu (1802-1918), at
which pastors were trained for Lutheran churches all across Russia. This was also the
time when the first generation of ethnic Estonian theologians received their education.
3
4
University of Tartu, Faculty of Theology, http://www.us.ut.ee/en, accessed 1 august, 2013.
Ibid.
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Estonia
243
In 1823, the Faculty of Theology was reformed in the spirit of Pietism. All of its
professors were either dismissed or pensioned off as emeriti and replaced with new
lecturers 5.
In the 1890s it became difficult to acquire new Faculty members. This was partly
because of the governmental Russification campaign, during which it was usual practice to appoint lecturers without consulting the Faculty. It was also no longer possible
to invite lecturers from Germany.
In 1916, the Faculty was ordered to transfer to Russian as the language of instruction. The professors resigned in protest, and the Faculty dissolved itself. It resumed
operation briefly under German occupation in autumn 1918. In the aftermath of establishing the independent Estonian Republic in 1918 the university was re-opened
as the state university (Republic of Estonia University of Tartu) where instruction
was carried out in Estonian.
After the opening of the University of Tartu in the Republic of Estonia, the teaching of theology and theological research were continued at its Faculty of Theology 6.
This Faculty has persisted in operation until today, although not always under the
same name or under the University of Tartu. After the Soviet invasion in 1940, the
Soviet authorities abolished the theological department. In 1941, German occupation
forces did not allow the reopening of the faculty. Under Nazi German occupation
in 1941-44, the faculty bore the name Institute of Theology and was not part of the
University. In the late 1940s, operation was continued initially under the name of the
Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church (EELC) Higher Proof Committee of Theology
and was later converted into the Theological Institute of the Estonian Evangelical
Lutheran Church, which operates to this day. In 1991, the Faculty of Theology was
reopened at the University of Tartu. The Faculty’s structure has basically remained
the same, except that in 1940 the Chair of Orthodoxy terminated its activity; since
1991 the Faculty is no longer denominational but evangelical, and in 2001 the Chair
of Lutheran Theology was established.
The Lutheran Church had been the largest religious institution in Estonia since
the sixteenth century. During the first independence period (1918–1940), approximately 78% of the population belonged to the Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church
(EELC). The numbers refer to both active and passive members of the church. The
second-largest Church was the Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church (EAOC). According to the 1934 census, approximately 19% belonged to the latter church 7. Up
to 1991 we can primarily talk about the training of Lutheran and Orthodox clergy.
Ibid.
Ibid.
7
Riigi Statistika Keskbüroo, ‘Rahvastiku koostis ja korteriolud: 1 III 1934 rahvaloenduse andmed’ (Tallinn: Riigi trükikoda, 1935), Vihik II.
5
6
244
Merilin Kiviorg
As to statistics today, according to the last population census from the year 2011,
54% of the adult population (those aged 15 and above, 1 094 564 from the total
population 1 294 455) declared that they do not adhere to any particular creed. Only
29% considered themselves adherent to any creed. Of this figure, about 10% declared
themselves to be Lutherans. The majority of Lutherans are ethnic Estonians. The largest religious tradition in Estonia is that of the Orthodox Church. Of the 29% of the
population following any creed, 16% considered themselves as Orthodox 8. Since the
2000 census the Orthodox community has grown in numbers and has become bigger
than the historically dominant Lutheran church. All other Christian and non-Christian
religious communities have adherents of approximately 3% of the adult population.
The largest religious communities among those are Roman Catholics, Old Believers,
Baptists, Pentecostals, and Jehovah’s Witnesses. There are several Jewish organizations in Estonia and a new synagogue was opened in 2007. There is a small Muslim
community in Estonia. Muslims have lived on Estonian territory since approximately
the eighteenth century. The majority of Muslims are ethnic Tatars. So far there have
been only a limited number of new arrivals 9.
There are certain rights and principles stemming from the Constitution which are
relevant when one talks about the training of clergy. The Estonian Constitution protects both individual and collective religious freedom and provides for the autonomy
of religious communities. In the current context it would also mean the right to determine the rules and qualification requirements for their clergy. The general right to
self-determination of persons, both individuals and collectives, stems from Article 19
of the Estonian Constitution. Article 19(1) of the Constitution states that: «all persons
shall have the right to free self-realization». The right to religious (church) autonomy
is also considered to be an essential part of collective freedom of religion which is
protected by Article 40 of the Constitution and by the Articles 48, 19(1) and 9(2).
Although the Constitution sets forth the principle of the separation of State and
Church, it has not been interpreted as a rigorous policy of non-identification with
religion. The cooperation between the State and religious associations in areas of
common interest is an established practice today. In practice it has also manifested
itself in the financing of religious organisations and their educational institutions. For
example, the State makes annual allocations to the Estonian Council of Churches.
It also has been financing specific projects including ones related to preparation of
teachers of religious education or chaplains for public institutions.
Population and Housing Census 2011, http://www.stat.ee/phc2011, accessed 1 August, 2013.
See also M. Kiviorg, Law and Religion in Estonia. The Hague, Kluwer Law International, 2011.
8
9
245
As to the law on education, Article 37 of the Estonian Constitution 10 creates the
basis for the entire school system. It also sets forth that the provision of education
shall be supervised by the state. In addition to Article 37, Article 38 states that universities and research institutions are autonomous within the restrictions prescribed
by law.
Training of Estonian clergy takes place in both public and private educational
institutions. Estonian law allows religious organizations to set up private educational
institutions. According to § 2 of the Private Schools Act (PSA, Erakooliseadus) 11 a
private school can be established by profit making and non-profit making organisations (including religious associations). There is no difference in treatment depending
on the nature of the organisation (e.g. it being a religious organisation). The owner
of a private school has to have a separate budget for the private school which has
to be kept apart from the accounts of other agencies and undertakings of the owner
(PSA, § 22 (1)).
The PSA regulates the establishment of private educational institutions at all
school levels (pre-school, basic, secondary, vocational and higher education) 12.
The right to provide instruction in higher education and to award the corresponding
academic degrees and diplomas is granted to a private school by the Government of
the Republic (§51 (1)). The license is issued for a certain period of time, but not for
less than an academic year. Private schools have some access to public funding. The
license is also necessary in order to apply for this funding and projects financed by
the State or municipal government.
Only a very few religious organisations have established educational institutions
in accordance with the PSA. Just recently there were four applied higher education establishments (rakenduskõrgkool) of theology operating in Estonia: the EELC Institute
of Theology, the Theological Seminary of the Estonian Methodist Church in Tallinn,
the Higher Theological Seminary of the Union of Estonian Evangelical Christian and
Baptist Congregations, and the Tartu Academy of Theology 13.
The Tartu Academy of Theology grew out of the courses provided for religious
education teachers at the beginning of the 1990s. The academy has an ecumenical
ethos. It was established by the EELC, Orthodox Church of Estonia, Estonian Methodist Church and Union of Free Evangelical and Baptist Churches of Estonia. The
academy offers among other courses BA or MA degree studies for teachers of religion
RT I 1992, 26, 349.
RT I 1998, 57, 859; RT I, 13.12.2013, 5 (last amended).
12
Ibid.
13
Eesti Hariduse Infosüsteem [Estonian Education Information System], ‘Koolid’, <www.ehis.
ee/>, 1 May 2013.
10
11
246
Merilin Kiviorg
and ethics. On 1 July 2013, the Academy joined the EELC Institute of Theology as
one of its departments.
The Institute of Theology of the EELC is an educational centre for the entire Estonian Lutheran church: its main mission is to prepare clergy, other church workers,
lay people, church musicians, etc., for various types of work within Lutheran congregations. The institute also trains teachers of religious education in public schools, as
well as military, prison and hospital chaplains and people who are to work in the mass
media. The institute had been the oldest private university in Estonia, established in
1946 after the Soviet regime had closed the only faculty of theology in Estonia at
the University of Tartu. The Institute continued to educate prospective clergy for the
EELC and is still doing so. In 2011, however, it lost its status as an accredited university and has operated as an institution of professional higher education. The institute
not only provides degree programs in theology but also continuing training for both
pastors and other professionals and volunteers in church ministry. As an institution
of professional higher education, the institute is open to everyone who has interest
in a humanistic education in the field of theology or education or who would like to
learn more about the interaction of Christianity and Western culture and society 14.
There was an interesting development in January 2014. The Institute of Theology of
the EELC and the St. Platon Seminary of the Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church
signed a cooperation memorandum which envisages opening the Chair of Orthodoxy
at the EELC institute in the autumn of 2014. There seems to be a general trend to
consolidate training of clergy in Estonia. The trend is caused by limited financial
and human resources and the need to meet the standards set by the state for higher or
professional education institutions.
As to theology education at public universities, as mentioned before, the Faculty
of Theology has existed at the University of Tartu since 1632, but in 1940 the Soviet
authorities abolished the theological department. In 1941, German occupation forces
did not allow the reopening of the faculty; however, they granted permission to form
a Theological Examination Commission at the Consistory, thus providing an opportunity for students to complete their theology degrees. After the Second World War,
theological education continued, and the Examination Commission was converted
into the Theological Institute of the EELC, which operates to this day as described
above. In 1991, the Faculty of Theology was reopened at the University of Tartu.
Since 1991 the Faculty has been non-denominational but evangelical. The Faculty
of Theology, as part of a public university, is fully funded from the state budget. The
activities of the faculty include theology and religious studies (religious anthropology), with theology traditionally having a greater emphasis on protestant theology. In
Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church, Institute of Theology, <http://ui.eelk.ee/english.php>,
1 may 2010.
14
247
the theology Masters program one can also specialize in the field of religious pedagogy. Graduates can teach religious education classes in general education schools,
and many also serve as chaplains in public institutions such as armed forces, prisons
and police.
The Faculty of Theology offers a higher theological education, but does not
automatically authorize the graduate to serve in the church. The faculty only gives
a theoretical preparation for practical work as a minister. Ministerial qualification
implies confessional studies in a relevant educational institution. In the case of
the Evangelical Lutheran Church this situation is solved in cooperation with the
Theological Institute of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. Graduates of the Faculty
of Theology can continue their confessional studies in the pastoral seminary of the
Theological Institute of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. There is also a cooperation
agreement with another private higher education institution providing confessional
studies: the Theological Seminary of the Union of Free Evangelical and Baptist
Churches of Estonia.
The faculty is connected with churches by several agreements. The purpose of
the agreements is to maintain the quality of theological education, and to increase the
cooperation between the faculty and private universities belonging to the churches.
As of 1999, it is connected with the Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church (EELC)
by one of these cooperation agreements (a third party is the Theological Institute of
the EELC). The ties with the EELC are also manifested in the fact that some of the
faculty members have been or are working in the EELC as ministers. In addition to
graduates, many students, especially the ones in the master’s degree and doctoral
studies, are working in the EELC. Among the students there are also parish ministers,
provosts and chaplains who work in the defence forces and prisons.
In 2002, the Faculty concluded a protocol of joint intentions with the Estonian
Orthodox Church. Grigorios Papathomas from Paris was giving lectures on Orthodox theology as a visiting professor from 2005-2009. His work was financed by the
Greek Ministry of Education 15. The theology of the Roman Catholic Church has been
introduced by some visiting professors as well.
There is also the protocol of common interests signed between the Estonian
Council of Churches and the University of Tartu in October 2005. This protocol gave
a framework for the cooperation and an opportunity to commission scientific projects
from the faculty 16.
Although higher education institutions enjoy a certain amount of autonomy, both
the Faculty of Theology as a part of the public university and other higher education
institutions have to comply with the standards set by laws to their specific level of
15
16
University of Tartu, Faculty of Theology, http://www.us.ut.ee/en, accessed 1 August, 2013.
Ibid.
248
Merilin Kiviorg
education 17. Their curriculum, teaching and research needs to meet the standards set
for higher education institutions. There is periodic supervision to assure they meet
the requirements to be able to continue operating and to issue degrees and diplomas.
As noted before, meeting the standards has proven to be challenging which has created the need for tighter cooperation between very different religious communities
and their educational institutions. Regarding financing one can argue that the state is
indirectly financing the training of clergy for Estonian Christian religious communities and primarily for the EELC through providing funding for the University of Tartu
and its Department of Theology. Although one of the disputed issues in Estonia has
been the preferential treatment of Christian communities and especially of the EELC,
the financing of the training of clergy has not raised any concerns.
As already indicated in the introduction, there has been no real discussion on
training the clergy for religious communities. There is no major discussion over it in
media or politics. Issues that have been discussed and sometimes hotly disputed in
many other European states, such as training clergy of Muslim communities or (state)
financing of preparation of ministers or other personnel for religious communities,
are not yet on the agenda in Estonia.
Estonia is not yet facing any of the challenges related to the growing Muslim
communities experienced in other European countries. Muslims have lived on Estonian territory since approximately the eighteenth century. The majority of Muslims
are ethnic Tatars who arrived in Estonia during the late nineteenth and early twentieth
century 18. In 1940 the Soviet regime prohibited the activities of these communities.
During the occupation the Muslim community carried on its activities unofficially.
The ethnic composition of the Muslim community changed during the Soviet period due to new arrivals from other republics of the former Soviet Union, such as
Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and other traditionally Muslim nations of the
Caucasus and Central Asia. However, Tatars maintained their leading role in cultural
and religious activity 19. The majority of the Estonian Muslim community is still made
up of individuals who came from the territory of the former Soviet Union: Tatars,
Chechens, Azers, etc. They have integrated well into Estonian society. So far there
are only a limited number of new arrivals. They are from different regions globally,
and do not form any significant ethnic religious communities. Clerics of Muslim and
17
University Act [Ülikooliseadus], RT I 1995, 12, 119, last amended RT I, 10.07.2012, 2;
University of Tartu Act [Tartu Ülikooli seadus], RT I 1995, 23, 333, last amended RT I, 30.05.2012, 1.
18
R. Ringvee, «Islam in Estonia», in Islam v Európe (Centrom pre európsku politiku: Bratislava, 2005), 242-243.
19
Ibid.
249
also Jewish communities are not trained in Estonia. There is no institution for imam
training in Estonia. Two of the four active imams have received their higher religious
education abroad (in Russia and Saudi Arabia respectively). The remaining two are
self-taught. Currently four Estonian-born Muslims are studying Islamic theology in
Saudi Arabia 20. Considering the limited number of Muslims and conservative immigration policies it is unlikely that a need for local imam training will arise in the
foreseeable future.
Subsequently, and as a result of freedom afforded religious communities to
dictate the method of their leader’s education and the acceptance by Estonia and Estonians of the guarantee of individual and collective freedom of religion, there is not
likely to be new policies in this area; at least not in the foreseeable future. Considering
previous debates on the preferential treatment of Christian communities, questions
may be raised about spending public funds towards this endeavour, but at the moment this financing seems to be at the generally acceptable level and has not stirred
up society’s sensibilities. For these reasons, no major changes in policy can yet be
identified regarding the control, financing or assisting of the training of religious staff.
Changes in the attitudes and policies may occur if Estonia faced significant changes
in the religious composition of the population due to migration. Currently there only
exists the need to conceptualise and learn from other countries’ experiences to prevent
and tackle potential future problems.
20
R. Ringvee, «Estonia», Yearbook of Muslims in Europe, Volume 5 (Brill, 2013), 229-236.
PERSONNEL IN LATVIA 1
Edvins Danovskis 2
I. H istory of the mode of training of religious personnel in the
18th/19th century
The training of religious personnel in universities in the territory of Latvia has
to be discussed in two periods: before and after 1918 (the declaration of independence). In Tsarist Russia the nearest higher education institution where it was possible
to acquire theological education, was the University of Tartu founded in 1632 (in
Swedish times). From its foundation, it had four faculties (in accordance with the
tradition of the times): Philosophy, Theology, Law, and Medicine 3. Likewise, after
its reinstatement in 1802, the Faculty of Theology was maintained in it 4. From 1802
to 1918, 219 Latvians studied theology there; only 187 studied law 5. See also the
Estonia report for the University of Tartu.
After the declaration of independence in Latvia, theology as an academic subject
could be studied at the Faculty of Theology of the University of Latvia. Extensive
research on the establishment of the Faculty of Theology at the University of Latvia
was carried out in 1939 on the twentieth anniversary of the University of Latvia. The
most important quote from the book is as follows:
For more information on religion in general education in Latvia please see: R. Balodis,
«School-Religion Relations: Republic of Latvia», European Review of Public Law, vol. 17, No. 1, Esperia Publications Ltd, p. 397-407; R. Balodis, «Religion in Public Education – Latvian Experience»,
Religion in Public Education. G. Robbers (ed.), 2011, p. 273-294; R. Balodis, «Religious education in
Latvia», The Routledge International Hanbook of Religious Education, D.H. Davis, E. Miroshnikova
(ed.)m Routledge: 2013, p. 202-211.
2
University of Latvia, Faculty of Law, Department of Constitutional and Administrative Law.
3
A. Vīksna, Tērbatas, Universitāte. Rīga: Zinātne, 1986, 10.lpp.
4
Turpat, 26.lpp.
5
Turpat, 94.-95.lpp.
1
252
Edvins Danovskis
«The [Latvian] requirement in the training of Latvian theologians and priests
initially came from the so-called national professorships project. Around 1905, the
church-sympathetic Latvian and Estonian communities considered that, alongside
existing training chairs in the German language at the Faculty of Theology of the
University of Tartu [...], Latvian and Estonian national professorships in practical
theology would be desirable to train Latvian and Estonian parsons. [...] A meeting
of the Latvian Evangelical ministers, convened in consultation with the Ministry of
Interior in Riga on 6 and 7 August [1919] [...] unanimously expressed [a need for
a] Faculty of Theology in the University of Latvia, in the name of the evangelical
Lutheran traditions, adhering to the principle that only an academically educated
theologian with a wide comprehensive vision may serve as an evangelical pastor.
[...] [On 24 December 1919 the Cabinet of Ministers, on a proposal by the Minister
for Education, decided that]: «The cost of opening the Faculty of Theology at the
higher education institution [meaning the University of Latvia] for the time being has
to be entrusted to the Treasury, while the Constituent Assembly will settle the question of the relationship between the state and the Church in principle» 6. The Faculty
of Theology of the University of Latvia was non-confessional - but it was in close
contact with the Evangelical Lutheran Church. «The Faculty was given a free hand
to create its own curriculum in accordance with the content and scope of theology,
and practical requirements for employees [at the level of] higher [and] comprehensive
theological education. However, a narrow confessional character has not been […]
imposed on the Faculty» 7.
In 1938 the University of Latvia also established the Roman Catholic Faculty of
Theology, «Its predecessor is the Theological Seminary of the Archdiocese of Riga,
which was founded by the Archbishop of Riga [...] on 3 October 1920. [...] In order
to acquire academic rights legally, it was intended to be re-named as the Riga Roman Catholic Academy of Theology; the expectation was that the government would
recognise its higher education institution rights as well. When in 1928 the Academy
Statute was submitted for approval to the government at the time, the Minister of
Education sent the same to the University of Latvia for comment. The latter came up
with a proposal to open the Roman Catholic Faculty of Theology at the University of
Latvia. [...] When everything needed was ready, at the beginning of 1938 the Nuncio
of the Holy See to Latvia […] and […] the Foreign Minister [of Latvia] [...] arrived at
the Vatican City in order to sign a covenant supplementary to the Concordat between
the Holy See and the government of Latvia, which, inter alia, would also provide for
the establishment of the Roman Catholic Faculty of Theology at the University of
L. Adamovičs, «Teoloģijas fakultāte», in Latvijas Universitāte divdesmit gados, 1919-1939,
I. Rīga, Latvijas Universitāte, 1939, 809-813.lpp.
7
Ibid, 820.lpp.
6
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Latvia
253
Latvia. With bilateral benevolence, on 25 January 1938 the additional covenant was
signed [...]». 8 In 1938, Pope Pius XI issued an instrument which, in particular, stated:
«[...] For that reason his Holiness himself, the Prefect of this sacred congregation,
shall establish the Faculty of Catholic Theology at the said University and with this
writ announces it to be established with the right to grant academic degrees pursuant to the Apostolic Constitution Deus scientiarum Dominus [...]» 9. Members of the
teaching staff of the Faculty were selected by the Metropolitan Archbishop of Riga,
who submitted them for the approval of the Holy See 10. The Faculty worked until the
occupation of Latvia in 1940, but was not reinstated.
II. The modes of formation of religious personnel: current law
During the Soviet occupation, there were no programmes recognised by the state
providing religious education. However, during the Soviet period, theological education was provided in unofficial groups. For example, in 1969 Academic Theological
Courses were established (from 1976 at the Theological Seminary) on an informal
basis, to provide theological education for prospective Lutheran clergy – these were
equivalent to the pre-war training programmes at the Faculty of Theology of the
University of Latvia 11. On this informal basis, in 1990, the Faculty of Theology was
reinstated at the University of Latvia. The Faculty of Theology was the first higher
education institution in Latvia after the restoration of independence, where one could
acquire higher education in theology. The reinstatement of the Faculty may be explained largely by the desire to reinstate historical traditions, as well as the desire to
ensure the character of a classical university for the University of Latvia.
The current self-assessment report of the Faculty of Theology specifies that «in
terms of tradition the UL Faculty of Theology represents the Western critical line of
research and underlines its non-confessional (interconfessional) nature. However,
according to its content and substance the bachelor’s programme is Lutheran, as in
most European Faculties of Theology» 12.
There are three levels of programme at the Theology Faculty: bachelor; masters;
and doctoral. Each year 30 students (on average) are enrolled on the bachelor’s programme, and on the master’s programme an average of 15 students. There were 32
8
P. Strods, «Romas katoļu teoloģijas fakultāte 1938-1939», in Latvijas Universitāte divdesmit
gados. 1919-1939, I. Rīga, Latvijas Universitāte, 1939, 905.-907.lpp.
9
ibid, 908.lpp.
10
Ibid, 908.lpp.
11
R. Akmentiņš, «Teoloģijas fakultāte», in Latvijas Universitāte 75, Rīga: Latvijas Universitāte, 1994, 234.lpp.
12
LU Teoloģijas fakultātes 2007. gada akreditācijas vajadzībām sagatavotais pašnovērtējuma
ziņojums. http://www.aiknc.lv/zinojumi/lv/LuTeolBM2007.doc.
254
Edvins Danovskis
students enrolled on the bachelor’s programme in 2013. Of these, 30 students study
at the expense of the state 13. In these study programmes one can learn all the classical
theological sub-disciplines: New and Old Testament, Systematic Theology, Practical
Theology, Church History and Research of the Religions of the World 14.
The education acquired in the Faculty of Theology does not automatically qualify
a person for admission to religious office in any Latvian Church.
It is possible to acquire religious education recognised by the state in three other
higher education institutions. Within the meaning of the Law on Institutions of Higher
Education these are private higher education institutions. The «Latvian Christian
Academy» is a private higher education institution, offering bachelor and master’s
programmes in theology. The content of the study programme is not linked to any
particular religion. In addition, there are also two denominational higher education
institutions established by Churches with the aim of recruiting their religious personnel. The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia has established the «Luther Academy», where the bachelor’s study programme is offered. Its aim is to «train potential
Lutheran clergy having academic knowledge and competence in practical theology
to serve in parishes of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia» 15. The Roman
Catholic Church has established the Riga Higher Institute of Religious Sciences –
this is affiliated to the Pontifical Lateran University, Rome. For those who complete
this study programme, «opportunities on the labour market shall be determined by
the demand of the Catholic Church for religiously trained personnel of parishes and
various Church institutions, and the demand in schools for Christian teaching and
ethical teachers» 16. The Riga Higher Institute of Religious Sciences also offers the
master’s programme of professional higher education. Persons may enrol on this programme if they have a humanities degree in religion, a professional bachelor’s degree
in religion, or appropriate higher education acquired in an educational establishment
recognised by the Congregation for Education, Vatican City, at the Pontifical Lateran
University or its affiliates 17.
13
2. kārtas apstiprinātie pieteikumi uzņemšanai pamatstudiju programmās. Pieejams: https://
latvija.lv/Statistics/Default.aspx#lu.
14
LU Teoloģijas fakultātes 2007. gada akreditācijas vajadzībām sagatavotais pašnovērtējuma
ziņojums. http://www.aiknc.lv/zinojumi/lv/LuTeolBM2007.doc.
15
Lutera akadēmija. Bakalaura studiju programma Teoloģija. Akreditācijas dokumenti. Pieejams:
http://www.aiknc.lv/zinojumi/lv/LATeologijaBSP12lv.pdf.
16
Laterāna Pontifikālās Universitātes filiāle. Rīgas Augstākais Reliģijas Zinātņu Institūts. Augstākās izglītības iestādes pašnovērtējuma ziņojums. 2006. Available at: http://www.aiknc.lv/zinojumi/
lv/RarziHEIlv.pdf.
17
Rīgas Augstākais reliģijas zinātņu institūts. Profesionālā maģistra studiju programma reliģijā.
Kvalifikācija – pastorālais konsultants (kods 46221). Pašnovērtējuma ziņojums. Rīga, 2012. Available
at: http://www.aiknc.lv/zinojumi/lv/RARZIReligijaPMSP11lv.pdf.
Public authorities and the training of religious personnel in Latvia
255
The existence of this educational establishment is also determined in the Agreement between the Republic of Latvia and the Holy See:
«Chapter 3: Riga Theological Seminary
Article 20:
1. The Riga Theological Seminary is an institution of the Catholic Church in
Latvia, offering academic education to candidates for the priesthood and providing
an opportunity to study Catholic theology.
2. The Riga Theological Seminary may obtain the status of a higher education
institution under the procedure prescribed by law.
3. Diplomas and study courses of the Riga Theological Seminary that are consistent with national laws and other statutory enactments, will be considered valid
and will be equivalent to the diplomas and training courses of national educational
institutions.
4. Within the legislative framework the state ensures economic support to the
Riga Theological Seminary as well as to other equivalent institutions».
In 1938 the Faculty of Catholic Theology was established in the University of
Latvia, in the light of the Concordat provisions. This Faculty has not been reinstated,
even though Article 21 of the Agreement between the Republic of Latvia and the Holy
See provides that «The Reinstatement of the Faculty of Catholic Theology within the
University of Latvia will be negotiated in the future between the Holy See and the
Government of the Republic of Latvia».
In sum: the state ensures and partly provides funding to acquire higher theological education in the Faculty of Theology at the University of Latvia. The Evangelical
Lutheran Church of Latvia and the Roman Catholic Church, within the framework
of the Law on Institutions of Higher Education, have set up private higher education
institutions with the right to provide a nationally recognised higher academic and
professional education in theology. In addition, there is one private higher education
institution in Latvia with no express denominational adherence, also implementing
nationally accredited higher education study programmes in theology. The state does
not participate in the financing of these higher education institutions.
In addition to higher education institutions, there are also other educational institutions of religious organisations; however, these do not function as state-recognised
higher education institutions and cannot provide higher education.
FROM STATE-CHURCH TO NON-DENOMINATIONALISM PUBLIC
AUTHORITIES AND THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION IN FINLAND
Ilkka Huhta
I. Historical background
A. Finnish theological education: the Middle Ages to the foundation of the
Academy of Turku
The earliest Christian influences came to the region of Finland both from the east
and the west. The latter proved clearly more powerful in the Middle Ages, with the
result that the area became part of western Catholic Christendom. The Dominicans
had extended their education system into Finland by the end of the 1300s, and many
friars of the convent of Turku were sent to study at the studia of the Dominicans in
different parts of Europe. However, the University of Paris became the most important
destination for Finnish theological students travelling abroad during the 1300s. By the
end of the 14th century, the spread of the university system into Germany improved
the chances for Finns to study abroad 1.
During the Middle Ages, studying theology at university had been intended
mainly for an elite who were prepared to sacrifice years for the consideration of
theoretical questions. Such a readiness was not required of the ordinary clerics of
congregations. During the centuries subsequent to the Reformation, Finland adopted
a Lutheran state-church system, which included as a central principle the demand for
religious unanimity. From the 1530s, the University of Wittenberg became the most
important destination for students travelling abroad 2. Because Sweden (including
The first time Finnish students are mentioned in the written record is 1313 at University of
Paris. J. Nuorteva, 1997, p. 523-533, Suomalaisten ulkomainen opinkäynti ennen Turun akatemian
perustamista 1640. Summary: Finnish Study Abroad before the Foundation of the Royal Academy of
Turku (Academia Aboensis) in 1640, Bibliotheca Historica 27, Helsinki, 1997.
2
S. Heininen, Die finnischen Studenten in Wittenberg 1531-1552, Schriften der Luther-Agricola-Gesellschaft A 9, Helsinki, 1980.
1
258
Ilkka Huhta
Finland) was a Lutheran state, its universities were confessional also. The supervision
of right doctrine and of confession was an important task not only for the church, but
also for the whole university.
After the Reformation, new attention had to be paid to the education of the clergy.
The clerics’ main task was no longer simply the administration of the sacraments,
but preaching sermons and teaching. University reform, which occurred in Sweden
in the early 15th century, increased the total number of university students and led
to the majority of Finnish students travelling to the University of Uppsala. The first
university in Finland (Academy of Turku) was founded in 1640 3.
Finland’s location at the meeting point of East and West contributed its own
special characteristics to the religious policy of the country. Lutheran confessionalism as state ideology meant that the position of the Orthodox minority was difficult,
especially after the Treaty of Stolbovo (1617) between Sweden and Russia, when
Sweden (including Finland) gained control over the Karelia region and the Orthodox
in the area were forced to convert to Lutheranism 4. The reasons for converting the
Orthodox minority lie, above all, in Swedish foreign policy; the Orthodox congregations were subject to the Russian Church and its clergy came from Russia. The Treaty
of Åbo (1743) largely returned the eastern Orthodox areas back to Russian rule, which
made life easier for the Orthodox minority 5.
B. Enlightenment and theology
In the 18th century, the education of the Lutheran clergy took place at the Academy of Turku. According to the regulations applicable to it, which were issued in
the 1700s, no-one was allowed to pass the examination for ordination if he had not
participated in academic theological education at the university. However, the actual
ordination examination was taken in the cathedral chapter, and the ordination was at
the discretion of the bishop and the chapter. There was no final academic theological
degree awarded at the university 6
3
S. Heininen, «Kirkko, teologia ja yliopisto», in Teologia kirkossa ja yhteiskunnassa, H.
Mustakallio & S. Peura (eds.). STKSJ 180 & SKHST 158, Helsinki 1992, p. 62-62; Also M. Heikkilä, 164, «Teologia», in Suomen tieteen vaiheet. P. Tommila & A. Korppi-Tommola (eds.), Helsinki
University Press, 2003.
4
P. Laasonen, Novgorodin imu. Miksi ortodoksit muuttivat Venäjälle Käkisalmen läänistä
1600-luvulla? Summary: Pull of Novdorod. The reasons for the Orthodox migration from Käkisalmi
province to Russia in the 17th century. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 2005, p. 155-159.
5
T. Laitila, Suspicion, negligence et respect. Les relations entre I´Église luthérienne et
I´Église orthodoxe en Finlande après la Seconde guerre mondiale, in ISTINA LIII, Paris 2008, p.
365-379.
6
E. Murtorinne, The History of Finnish Theology 1828-1918, Societas Scientiarum Fennica,
Helsinki, 1988, p. 12.
From state-church to non-denominationalism public authorities and theological …
259
The influence of the Enlightenment was also seen in the Finnish university theological systems, but in rather moderate forms 7. Even though the different, radical
views of the Enlightenment were known within the circles of the Academy of Turku,
Enlightenment theology surfaced there in the guise of a moderate interpretation of
Neology, which was one of the main trends of Enlightenment theology in Germany.
The main emphases of Neology, such as an aspiration to produce harmony between
reason and revelation, and the practical character of Christianity, were especially
evident in the thinking and actions of Professor (later Archbishop) Jacob Tengström
(1755–1832) 8.
These practical interests appeared particularly in reforming of clergy training.
Instigated by Jacob Tengström, a theological seminary, associated with the Academy
of Turku, was founded in the early 19th century. Models of this kind of seminary
existed in Germany and Denmark, and the educational task was to improve students’
practical abilities for ordained ministry. Among other subjects, special attention was
paid to both theoretical and practical instruction in homiletics, canon law, catechetics, and liturgy. On the whole, the theological seminary was the clearest expression
of Enlightenment theology and its practical nature in early 19th century Finland. The
seminary reflected the aims of Neology, in favour of practical and comprehensible
Christianity 9.
The purpose of the theological seminary was not to replace the education
provided by the university, but to supplement it. In 1824 a statute came into force
concerning the «order of the ordination examination» in an attempt to regularize
university studies for the clergy. A lower-level preliminary examination (for sacri
ministerii candidates) came into use. However, the process of qualifying for priests’
orders continued to take place in the cathedral chapter. Later on, by a statute of 1846,
the university ordination examination in theology was required 10.
C. The era of the autonomous Grand Duchy
Following the Napoleonic wars, Finland was made a part of the Russian Empire
and given the status of an autonomous grand duchy. In religious policy, the impact
of this change was twofold. First, it was essential for the Lutheran Church that the
Russian Emperor as the Grand Duke of Finland would guarantee that the legal po-
More about Enlightenment in Finnish culture see M. Ahokas, Valistus suomalaisessa kirjakulttuurissa 1700-luvulla, Summary: The Enlightenment in eighteenth-century Finnish book culture.
Societas scientiarum Fennica, Bidrag till kännedom av Finlands natur och folk 188, Diss. Helsinki, 2011.
8
More about J. Tengström, see G. Björkstrand, J. Tengström. Universitetsman, kyrkoledare
och nationsbyggare, Skrifter utgivna av Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland 772, Helsinki, 2012.
9
E. Murtorinne, 1988, p. 12.
10
E. Murtorinne, 1988, p. 11-13.
7
260
Ilkka Huhta
sition of the Lutheran Church would be kept intact. The Diet of Borgå (1809) saw
Alexander I ratify the Lutheran faith of the grand duchy as well as the constitutions
then in force. The only significant change in the relation between Church and State
was that the Emperor abolished the rule in the former system of government that
the sovereign must be a Lutheran. In validating the position of the Finnish Lutheran
Church and legislation from the time of Swedish rule, the Orthodox Emperor kept the
position of highest authority in the Finnish Lutheran Church for himself 11. Secondly,
for the Orthodox population, this period of autonomy meant a stronger position under
the protection of the Emperor. The small Orthodox minority began to enjoy a rather
important political role in comparison to its size 12.
Even though the State was economically responsible for the maintenance of the
university, in the early 19th century the control of teaching still belonged mainly to the
Church. However, the change of the political situation in Finland affected the future
development of theological education in many ways. First, the desire of Emperor Alexander I to show conscious benevolence towards the cultural life of Finland led to a
discernible preferential treatment for the university. Thus, on the basis of the estimate
of expenditures for the year 1811, the Academy of Turku was granted a number of
new academic posts, and an allowance, substantially exceeding any previously given,
was put at its disposal 13. Secondly, and even more influentially, was the decision made
after the fire of Turku in 1827, to transfer the university to the new capital of Finland.
In 1828, the Imperial Alexander University commenced its activities in Helsinki, the
capital of Finland from 1812.
These changes had their effects on the relationship between university theology
and the Church.
The weakening of connections between the Church and the university was unavoidable; the cathedral chapter stayed in Turku but, given their relocation, professors
of the theology faculty could no longer be members of the chapter 14. Furthermore,
Bishop Jacob Tengström had not been the vice-chancellor of the university since
11
M. Klinge, Keisarin Suomi. Schilds, Espoo 1997, p. 17-18; and P. Tommila, Suomen autonomian synty 1809-1819, Edita, Helsinki, 2008, p. 103.
12
M. Nokelainen, Vähemmistövaltiokirkon synty. Ortodoksisen kirkkokunnan ja valtion suhteiden muotoutuminen Suomessa 1917-1922, Zusammenfassung: Die Entstehung einer Minderheitsstaatskirche. Die Ausgestaltung der Beziehungen zwischen orthodoxer Kirche und Staat in Finnland
1917-1922. Societas Historiae Ecclesiasticae Fennica 214, Diss. Helsinki, 2010, SKHS, p. 5-6.
13
A. Veli-Matti, Yliopiston virkanimitykset. Hallinto- ja oppihistoriallinen tutkimus Turun
Akatemian ja Keisarillisen Aleksanterin Yliopiston opettajien nimityksistä Venäjän vallan alkupuolella
1809-1852, Suomen historiallinen seura. Historiallisia tutkimuksia 115, Diss. Helsinki, 1981, p. 8-9; and
E. Murtorinne, The History of Finnish theology 1828-1918, Societas Scientiarum Fennica, Helsinki,
1988, p. 11-13.
14
S. Heininen, «Kirkko, teologia ja yliopisto», in Teologia kirkossa ja yhteiskunnassa, H.
Mustakallio & S. (eds.), STKSJ 180 & SKHST 158, Helsinki, 1992, p. 66.
261
1817. When in post, his task had been to supervise the work and conduct of the
teachers and students, and also to participate in making the most important decisions
affecting the university. This tie between Church and university broke in 1817 15.
Also, the substantial transformation in the European ideal of science and the
university affected the direction of change. A new conception of the university’s tasks
had a fundamental effect on theology and the position and structure of the theological faculty. The change was especially clear in the development of the nature of the
professorial chairs in the faculty of theology. The new division into theological disciplines took place in the statutes of 1828. According to the new statutes, the faculty of
theology had four professorships: dogmatics, biblical exegesis, ecclesiastical history
and moral theology. The post of practical theology was formed in 1846 by combining
the teaching of moral theology with the teaching syllabus of the professor of dogmatics and by founding, in its place, the chair of practical theology 16.
This new direction was continued when the above-mentioned theological seminary had to be closed in 1846, and it was decided that the provision of practical exercises for students would be assigned to the new professor of practical theology. At
the same time, a regulation was issued declaring that the ordination examination in
theology was to be obligatory for all ordinands. This meant that emphasis was placed
on university theological education, and theology began to gain its independence.
Furthermore, when the system of benefice parishes was finally abolished in 1865,
teachers in the faculty of theology were no longer dependent upon the Church – the
theological faculty became an institution for scholarly research and teaching independent of the Church 17.
At the end of this period of autonomy (in the late 19th and early 20th centuries),
the significance of Lutheranism for the developing Finnish State was strengthened.
As the Lutheran faith of the majority of the Finnish people separated Finland from
Russia more clearly than the countries’ political relations, it was also in the interests
of the Finns to have a strong Lutheran Church in the future. The influence of this
political issue may be seen in the Church’s attempts to increase its independence visà-vis the state, as governed by the Emperor, and also in its desire to cherish the image
of unanimity within the Lutheran Church. This political situation affected that position of theology in the university which remained strong, and it became a task of the
theology faculty to serve the needs of the Lutheran church. This can be clearly seen
in the formulation of the statute (1886) concerning the «education of future pastors
at the Alexander University».
17
15
16
262
Ilkka Huhta
II. Current situation
A. Legal status of the theological education
The introduction of the republican system of government in Finland (1919)
meant a fundamental change in the relationship between the State and the Lutheran
Church - but at the same time it confirmed the special legal position of the Lutheran
and Orthodox Churches. On the one hand, the State no longer officially recognised
the significance of religion as a cohesive ideology – rather, non-denominationalism
and religious impartiality were fundamental starting points. On the other hand, the
state ratified the legislative procedure for the Lutheran Church and its resulting special
legal position 18. The Constitution Act (1919) also indirectly ratified the special legal
position of the Orthodox Church based on the national church treaty from 1918. The
Orthodox Church also became a national church and state authorities had a notably
large say in its affairs 19. Although it was expressed in the constitution that Finland
was a non-confessional state, the change was not immediately visible in legislation
concerning theological education. Instead, the change did affect the training of Orthodox Church personnel, even in 1918 – this will be explained further below.
The statute (1886) mentioned above was operative until 1938, and it connected
theological studies with Lutheran ordination and the pastoral practice of ministry. The
1938 decree brought a change to this situation. The earlier formulation «education of
future pastors at the Alexander University» had been replaced in the new decree with
«a degree to be passed at the theological faculty of Helsinki University (459/38)» 20.
The change implied a shift to the interpretation prevailing today that it is not up to the
faculty to determine the office for which the degree provides a qualification.
Yet, the 1938 decree still contained some regulations implying a connection between the Faculty and the Lutheran Church. For example, paragraph 9 of the decree
stated that the diploma awarded to a student should recite whether the student «has
the moral seriousness required by Church Law 108 § [necessary] to obtain pastoral
ordination». This regulation was omitted from the 1947 decree.
This official connection between the Faculty of Theology and the Lutheran
Church decreased gradually in the 1900s. The latest decree (572/1970) was on
the office of university lecturer. Its 4th paragraph required, among other qualifying
conditions, that applicants for the post of lecturer in theology also had to meet the
requirements for the office of pastor in the Finnish Lutheran Church. But there was
18
M. Heikkilä, J. Knuutila, M, Scheinin, «State and Church in Finland», in G. Robbers (ed.)
State and Church in the European Union, 1996, p. 288.
19
J. Seppo, Uskonnonvapaus 2000-luvun Suomessa, Edita: Helsinki, 2003, p. 40-41; and M.
Nokelainen, 2010, p. 5-6.
20
Report 1977:21, Church-State Committee, p. 195-201.
263
never a decree about the denominational affiliation of other faculty teachers. At that
time Lutheran Church membership was self-evident - later on such a regulation was
considered impossible, due to the principle of freedom of research and education at
the university.
The Theological Faculty of the University of Helsinki was until 1924 the only
university institution providing theological education in Finland. Åbo Akademi,
founded with private funding in 1918, started theological training in 1924, targeted
primarily at the Swedish-speaking population 21. Although the academy and its theological training were funded by a private foundation until coming under state ownership in 1981, its position was no different from the University of Helsinki; the decree
(152/1926) concerning the latter was also applied to the Åbo Akademi theological
faculty 22.
A third faculty of theology was founded at the beginning of 2002 when the Faculty of Theology at the University of Joensuu started operating as an independent
faculty. Its founding was connected to a decades-long discussion about a second Finnish faculty of theology, and the training of Orthodox theologians in a state university,
which started in 1988 at the University of Joensuu 23.
B. Orthodox pastoral training
Finnish independence in 1917 also meant a redefinition of the status of the
Orthodox Church, with a new decree on that denomination issued in 1918. A statefinanced Orthodox seminary was founded the same year, and until 1988 it provided
education for Orthodox clergy, teachers of religion and cantors. Since then such
education has been provided by the University of Joensuu (the University of Eastern
Finland since 2010).
Within the denomination, serious debate about transferring Orthodox education to the university began in the 1960s. This was related to the reform of Finnish
higher education, and especially the establishment of new universities in Eastern
Finland 24. The 1972 decree was the last to regulate the status, purpose, teaching
and students of the old-model Orthodox Seminary 25. The Seminary’s administration
http://www.abo.fi/institution/en/tf.
Report 1977:21, Church-State Committee, p. 195.
23
H. Makkonen, «Ortodoksisen teologikoulutuksen suuntaa etsimässä», in Golgatanmäeltä
karjalaiselle. Joensuun yliopiston Ortodoksisen teologian laitos 10 vuotta, Publications of The Department of Orthodox Theology of the University of Joensuu, 1998, 40. P. Kettunen, «Joensuun teologisen
tiedekunnan synty – sadan vuoden prosessi. (Abstract: Birth of the Faculty of Theology in Joensuu)»,
in Teologinen aikakauskirja 6/2006, p. 515-535.
24
H. Makkonen, 1998, p. 28-29; J. Numminen, «Yliopistolaitoksen hajasijoitus», in Omalla
pohjalla Euroopassa, 2002; P. Kettunen, 2006, p. 515-535.
25
Asetus ortodoksisesta pappisseminaarista 593/1972.
21
22
264
Ilkka Huhta
became subject to the Ministry of Education, but it was managed and supervised
by the Orthodox Church Council. The role of the State was also manifested in the
practice by which the Ministry of Education nominated the Rectors and the teachers of theological subjects, even though it followed the recommendation of the
Orthodox Church Council. Unlike in other faculties of theology, teachers had to be
members of the Orthodox Church 26.
The special status (under government protection) of the Orthodox Church is illustrated by the fact that the Parliamentary Church-State Committee that completed
its work in 1977 did not take a stand on Orthodox pastoral training; the Committee
was in favour of maintaining the status quo. It merely stated that «as society is responsible for Lutheran pastoral training in faculties of theology, it is justified that it
also provides economic resources for the Orthodox Seminary» 27. Critical discussion
within the Orthodox Church about improving the quality of pastoral training was,
however, visible in a statement (about the report of the Church-State Committee) of
the General Synod addressed to the Ministry of Education; instead of a status quo,
the Church expressed its wish to develop Orthodox pastoral training in the direction
of university-level education 28.
After several preparatory phases, the decree, of 1988 29, provided for an Orthodox
theological programme in the Joensuu University Faculty of Humanities. The commencement of university education meant a decrease in the authority of the Orthodox
Church as to the content of teaching and research; but, on the other hand, limiting
theological research and teaching to Orthodox theology was a sufficient measure to
guarantee the position of an independent Orthodox Church. Furthermore, the Orthodox Seminary was not closed; its role was redefined by a new decree. The new decree
about the Orthodox Seminary stated that its primary function was to organise applied
studies (practical training) related to theological studies at the University of Joensuu.
The new decree did not change the relationship between the Orthodox Seminary and
public authority; it remained a government-funded school under the administration
of the Ministry of Education 30.
The programme of Orthodox theology in Joensuu also gave a new boost to the
plans to found a second Finnish language faculty, which had been under discussion
for decades. In the 1990s a professorship of General Theology was also opened in
Joensuu; the Evangelical Lutheran teaching of the pedagogy of religion was strength-
Report 1977:21, Church-State Committee, p. 195
Report 1977:21, Church-State Committee, p. 201.
28
H. Makkonen, 1998, 29.
29
http://www.finlex.fi/fi/ : Asetus teologisen perustutkinnon järjestämisestä Joensuun yliopistossa 644/1988.
30
http://www.finlex.fi/fi/ : Asetus ortodoksisesta seminaarista 760/1988.
26
27
265
ened by creating the post of Lecturer of Religion; and serious plans were being made
for an «ecumenical» faculty at the University of Joensuu 31.
Moreover, due to the joint efforts of the Lutheran Church, the University of Joensuu and the Ministry of Education, the economic requirements for the new faculty
were met at the beginning of the 2000s. On 1 January 2002 it began as an administratively independent faculty that houses study programmes for both Orthodox and
Western theology.
C. Theological studies, churches and religious communities
The current situation in Finland results from the historic development described above. Theological education is provided by faculties of theology at the
University of Helsinki and Åbo Akademi, as well as the School of Theology at
the University of Eastern Finland which started in 2010 when the universities
of Kuopio and Joensuu were united to form a single University of Eastern Finland. Having operated for ten years, the Faculty of Theology of the University
of Joensuu became a School of Theology under the Philosophical Faculty of the
University of Eastern Finland 32.
Each unit in the field of theology has its own special features and emphases,
but their common feature is that they are not denominational. Most Masters of
Theology graduates are still employed by the Finnish Lutheran Church. The
second largest group of graduates is teachers of religion in schools. Theological
education has provided a good basis for work in the media, research, the third
sector and different international fields. The main employer of graduates of the
programme of Orthodox Theology at the University of Eastern Finland is the
Orthodox Church.
University studies of theology are open and non-denominational, and no membership of a church or religious community is required of the students. According to the
same principle, qualifying requirements for teachers in theological faculties accord
with the general qualifying requirements of universities, and they are not linked to
requirements specific to clerical offices in any denomination.
However, both the Lutheran Church and the Orthodox Church include a university degree in theology in their qualification criteria for the priesthood 33.
University degrees meeting the criteria set by the Bishops’ Conference include
individual study modules as an obligatory part of the master’s degree for those to be
ordained pastor. It has therefore been reasonable for units providing university edu-
P. Kettunen, 2006, p. 526-527.
http://www.uef.fi/en/filtdk/teologia.
33
http://www.finlex.fi/fi: Suomen evankelisluterilaisen kirkon Kirkkolaki, luku 5 § 1 and Kirkkojärjestys, luku 5 § 2. Ortodoksisen kirkon kirkkojärjestys 174/2007, 132 §.
31
32
266
Ilkka Huhta
cation to take into account the applicability of university degrees from the Church’s
point of view. The theological education coordination group nominated by the Bishops’ Conference also includes representatives from the universities.
Guaranteed by public authority, the connection between the university-level Orthodox theological study programme and the Orthodox Church is still tighter than that
for the Lutheran Church. The clearest sign of this is the special national mission set
for the Philosophical Faculty of the University of Eastern Finland to train employees
for the minority church 34. For this purpose, the Ministry of Education and Culture
gives separate funding for the study programme. Funding, in the case of other units
of theology, follows the general principles of university funding.
The great importance of the Lutheran Church as an employer of theologians
has meant that theological faculties have in their study programmes taken into account the needs of church employees’ professional training. The consequence of
this has traditionally been that the number of non-church members in the faculties
was for a long time quite low. The situation has become more varied only over the
last few decades. For historical reasons, the State has only financed the training of
theologians for the Lutheran and Orthodox churches. Other churches and religious
communities have trained their own personnel in their own institutions from their
own funds 35.
The situation described above has, however, slowly changed during the last few
decades. First, the rapid weakening of the membership basis of Lutheran churches,
especially in the 2000s, has inevitably raised questions about the special status of
the majority church. Second, the growing independence of university theological
research vis-à-vis the churches has compelled the Church to continuously evaluate the usefulness of research-based education for the Church. Third, due to immigration, the question about the societal importance of research and education
has gained new dimensions that undoubtedly affect university-level theological
education in the future.
These three matters have become relevant in public debate about religious education in schools, but also as to the issue of the commencement of training for imams
in Finland.
34
http://www.uef.fi/documents/11461/898556/Filtdk_Strategia_2013.pdf/3a3a5b9d-9ea3-4107a2a9-657882c65b8a.
35
About financing of religious associations, see Matti Kotiranta 2011, p. 411-429: The Financing of Churches and Religious Associations in Finland. In Kirkkohistorian alueilla. Societas Historiae
Ecclesiasticae Fennica 217. Helsinki 2011.
267
A. New law on freedom of religion and the question of religious education
As required by the new law on freedom of religion in 2003, the term «education
according to individual religious affiliation» in the law on comprehensive and senior/
upper secondary education was replaced with «teaching the pupil’s own religion» 36.
According to the current legislation, all pupils in Finland have the right to receive
education according to their own religion, provided that the criteria on the number
of pupils per group are met.
Of religions that meet these boundary conditions, three forms of Christianity are
taught in schools (Lutheran, Orthodox and Catholic) and Islam, Buddhism, Baha’i
and the Krishna religion among non-Christian religions. The teaching of Judaism is
centred on the Jewish School of Helsinki. The right guaranteed by the law has however not led to practical equality between different religions.
The new law on freedom of religion links religious education to membership of
a denomination. The membership requirement is no problem for Lutherans, but in the
case of other religions it tends to create confusion. Adherents of other religions may
not see it necessary to register as members of a religious community. For this reason
the new law has been viewed, from the perspective of multiculturalism, as one that
was outdated when it came into force. According to Tuula Sakaranaho, Professor of
Comparative Religion, the law «reflects institution-centred thinking of the majority
culture and fails to observe the difference and plurality of minority religions. The new
law has been created from the majorities’ point of view and it does not change the
advantage of the prevailing religion, Lutheranism, vis-à-vis the minorities. In short,
the new law expands the rights enjoyed by the majority for the benefit of minorities,
but strictly on terms dictated by the majority» 37.
In addition to what has been said above, the new situation manifests itself
especially in the question of how, in the future, we are to train qualified teachers
of religion. Thus, the issue of training teachers of religion other than Lutheran
or Orthodox is still unsolved, and the situation raises expectations for existing
theological study programmes as well. One of the frequently presented models
of the future in recent debates is to organise religious education in schools as
a subject common for all – the Finnish term «uskontotieto» refers to neutral
information on religions. This could be the solution to the problem of teacher
training, but the proposition has its strong opponents within the majority church
and minorities alike.
http://www.finlex.fi/fi: Perusopetuslaki 13 § (6.6.2003/454) and Lukiolaki 9 § (6.6.2003/455).
T. Sakaranaho, «Pienryhmä- ja vähemmistöuskontojen opetus», in A. Kallioniemi & E.
Salmenkivi (eds.) Katsomusaineiden kehittämishaasteita, 2007, p. 6-7, http://www.helsinki.fi/vokke/
english/katsomus.pdf.
36
37
268
Ilkka Huhta
B. Training of imams
The number of Muslims is estimated at around 60,000 and there are more than 60
registered Islamic communities in Finland. However, there are, as yet, no schemes for
supplementary or basic vocational imam training. The training of teachers of Islam for
Finnish schools began in 2007 at the University of Helsinki. Because of the current
situation, Finnish Muslims have in several contexts expressed their concern to secure
trained imams and other religious personnel familiar with the Finnish circumstances
and legislation. Most Finnish Muslim communities use self-taught imams.
The current public discussion of imam training has led to a project organized
by the Finnish civil society organization FOKUS (Forum for Culture and Religion).
One of its main tasks has been to gather systematic information on the educational
background of Finnish imams and their needs for training in the future. The survey
Imams in Finland was published in the summer of 2013 38. One of the main results of
the study is that most of self-educated imams in Finland would prefer fully trained
and qualified imams. They also welcome educational programs for imams.
IV. Conclusion
During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Sweden (including Finland)
adopted a Lutheran state-church system. The strong demand for religious unanimity
meant that universities were confessional and the supervision of right doctrine was
an important task for the university. The historical background of Lutheranism, and
Finland´s geographical position between eastern and western cultures, have both
strongly influenced the religious policy of Finland.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, the education of Lutheran clergy took place
mainly at university. However, until 1824, no final academic theological degree was
awarded. The actual qualification for priests’ orders continued to take place through
the cathedral chapter. After the statute of 1846, the university ordination examination
in theology was required. This change reflected a new ideal of science and a new
understanding of the university’s tasks, which had a fundamental effect on theology
and the position of the theological faculty. Gradually, the theological faculty became
an institution for scholarly research and teaching independent of the church.
However, the wording of the 1886 statute implies that there was still a strong
tie between church and university theology, as evident in its reference to «education
of future pastors at the Alexander University». This connection between theological
studies and Lutheran pastoral ordination was valid until 1938, when a new decree
changed the wording to «a degree to be passed at the theological faculty of Helsinki
The study is written in Finnish with an English summary. Open access document: http://www.
kulttuurifoorumi.fi/fin/julkaisut/?id=125.
38
269
University». This change suggests a shift to today’s prevailing interpretation that it
is not for the faculty to express for which office the degree qualifies.
Until 1924, the Faculty of Theology at the University of Helsinki was the only
university institution providing theological education in Finland. Åbo Akademi,
founded in 1918, started theological training in 1924, and primarily targeted the
Swedish-speaking population. A third faculty of theology was founded at the beginning of 2002, when the Faculty of Theology at the University of Joensuu started
operating as an independent entity. Its founding was connected to a decades-long
discussion about offering a second Finnish faculty of theology in Finland, and the
training of Orthodox theologians in a state university; this training began in 1988, at
the University of Joensuu.
The current situation in Finland has resulted from the historical developments
described above. Theological education is provided by faculties of theology at the
University of Helsinki and Åbo Akademi, as well as the School of Theology in Joensuu at the University of Eastern Finland.
While each unit in the field of theology training has its own special features and
emphases, all of them share one attribute: they are not denominational. Theological
studies are open and non-denominational, and membership in a church or religious
community is not required.
As guaranteed by public governance, the connection between the university-level
Orthodox theological study program and the Orthodox Church is a bit tighter than that
of the Lutheran Church. The clearest sign of this is the special «national mission» set
for the Philosophical Faculty of the University of Eastern Finland: to train employees
for the minority church. However, the great importance of the Lutheran Church as an
employer of theologians has also meant that each theological faculty has taken into
account the need for church employees’ professional training.
Due to the historical context in Finland, the State has only financed training of
theologians for the Lutheran and Orthodox churches; other churches and religious
communities continue to train their own personnel in their own institutions and with
their own funds. Nevertheless, the training of personnel in minority denominations
and religions is an important issue today in public debate in Finland. Also, the issue of
training non-Lutheran and non-Orthodox schoolteachers of religion is still unresolved;
the situation also raises expectations for existing theological study programmes.
LISTE DES AUTEURS
Brigitte Basdevant, Professeur et vice-doyen de la Recherche, Université ParisSud - Faculté Jean Monnet.
Edvins Danovskis, University of Latvia, Faculty of Law, Department of Constitutional and Administrative Law.
Norman Doe, Professor and Director of the Centre for Law and Religion, Cardiff
Law School.
Achilles C. Emilianides, Head of the Department of Law, University of Nicosia.
Lars Friedner, General Secretary, Church of Sweden, Uppsala.
Záboj Horák, Faculty of Law, Charles University, Prague Czech Republic.
Ilkka Huhta, PhD (Theology), Adjunct Professor University of Eastern Finland.
Blaž Ivanc, PhD in Law, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Health Sciences – University of Ljubljana (Zdravstvena fakulteta – Univerza v Ljubljani).
Celia G Kenny, Research Assistant, Trinity College Dublin, Research Associate,
Centre for Law and Religion, Law School, Cardiff University.
Merilin Kiviorg, Senior Researcher in Public International Law, University of Tartu,
Faculty of Law, Chair of European and Public International Law.
Jónatas E.M. Machado, Associate Professor of the University of Coimbra.
Roberto Mazzola, Professeur de Droit ecclésiastique à l’Université du Piémont
Oriental.
Francis Messner, Directeur de recherche émérite au CNRS, Professeur conventionné à l’Université de Strasbourg.
272
Lina Papadopoulou, Assistant Professor of Constitutional Law, Jean Monnet Chair
for European Constitutional Law and Culture, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece.
Richard Potz, Professor of canon law at the Institute for Legal Philosophy, Religion
and Culture Law, University of Vienna.
Pierre-Henri Prélot, Professeur de droit public - Université de Cergy Pontoise.
Matthias Pulte, Professor at the Faculty of Theology, Canon Law Seminar, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz.
Jiří Rajmund Tretera, Univerzita Karlova Právnická Fakulta.
Miguel Rodríguez Blanco, Professeur, Universidad de Alcalá.
Michał Rynkowski, Assistant Professor at Chair of International and European
Law, Faculty of Law, Administration and Economics, University of Wroclaw,
Poland.
Balázs Schanda, Professor, Pázmány Péter Catholic University.
Andrius Sprindziunas, Mykolo Romerio universitetas.
Emanuel Tăvală, Law Faculty, University of Sibiu.

Untitled - European Consortium for Church and State Research

Transcription

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