Introduction - Université Grenoble Alpes
Transcription
Introduction - Université Grenoble Alpes
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` !!. ! !/ / ! . / . 4 ! ?= " /!! . _ ? !! . $ =! /= /= : ? 42. 4 / ! >/= ! / / !1 / . 3 .& .9 8/! ! ! / $'$ @B ) ! . N') . 4 > !. ) @0B /1=. ! . @DB >. 2 K*K 2 ! ( . .M @*B 0,,D 2 2! G 2 KK @KB 2 ! . 4 7 $ /=R ! / >. N KKK 9 .^ " @ AB .^ ! .O @ +B% . N' @ -B = $% $ ! (4 5 : 4 - " > K*F @ FB) !/= 7 4! KK, ( > P ! N/ / . N K+K 4 @ DB ` 4! KKK 2 8 .) . O / KK0 @ ,BO = . 2 /! / / . N'N KK, 6 @ 0B (4 KKD 5 7. @ BM / KF* 4 .) M /= / 4 > !.) @FB ) @-B V / KK+ @AB ^ ! .) . @+B KKF % > K** ; ! KK . & 2 < = KK- 2 $ (4 @ *B .) . % /=!. ) @ KB) /= !' =! .) ' @0,BO /=" KK0 2 .O @0 B ! KK @00B . ? ^. = > 8 /9 @0DB) > . % 6 '! $ K*A 2/ $ > $ /=R ! . O /]( !/= 7 $ &$ ! M "3 4!"" " . .&? KK- 2 / KK0 @ KK* 2/ ! 1 8] `! / 4 ! ?= () A . A,F'A 0 = 4 /" !" = &" - ` = / 2 !> ? #). 0 '0A, / ! >/= ! > @0AB^ . A . ^. ) . ) . ^ ]8 . .M . N. N> = " . % 0,,, /4 $ `_ ] @0FB - .? . 0,,, B 8 @0+BO 4>! 7. . .2 ! 8/ 4 9 . "". , ' . 0,,D & / 1 " . 6 / ; + ! 1 / / 0 D'0F- 1 (4 / ) ^ ! )