discussing plurilingualism in algeria: the status of french and english

International Journal of Arts & Sciences,
CD-ROM. ISSN: 1944-6934 :: 4(18):227–234 (2011)
c 2011 by InternationalJournal.org
Copyright DISCUSSING PLURILINGUALISM IN ALGERIA: THE STATUS OF
FRENCH AND ENGLISH LANGUAGES THROUGH THE
EDUCATIONAL POLICY
Mohamed-Amine Chemami
University of Nantes, France
This paper presents the linguistic situation of Algeria since its independence in 1962. The first
part explores the linguistic landscape of this country and locates on a large scale the debate on
the public school reform. The second part of the paper gives a historical overview of the
language policies of Algeria. The third part addresses the status of the French and English
languages. Competition of these languages is linked to the French and North American’s
efforts to promote them. Finally, this paper highlights that the new language policy in Algeria
tries to reconcile arabophones and francophones through a several measures.
Keywords: Algeria, Language educational policy, Language attitudes, Multilingualism, Plurilingualism.
INTRODUCTION
This research draws on data and theoretical results of a bilingual questionnaire to a sample of
Algerian students. Our investigation was conducted on the fourth grade students from the
2008/2009 academic year of a public school. The sample consists of fifty student volunteers,
made of twenty-eight girls and twenty-two boys. Their average age was sixteen, which is
representative of the Algerian population in general, where less than thirty years represents
62.7% (Riols, 2004:50-51).
These students are from the middle class in the Algerian society. They speak Algerian
Arabic and Tamazight. Their schooling was done in Literary Arabic. French and English
languages were incorporated in their learning respectively during the third year of primary
school and first year of their middle school. This choice is not pointless, since it is motivated by
the fact that education is a vital area where the language issue remains the most important. The
middle school offered us the opportunity to gather the views of a younger generation about its
identity and its language practices when educational policies (French and English languages) are
trying to substitute their native languages (White, 2002: 17).
1. LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE OF ALGERIA
The terms of plurilingualism or multilingualism are currently used to refer to pupils who live in
two languages or need to use two or more languages at home and at school. It does not mean that
they are competent and literate in both languages (Hall, 2001). Thus, the linguistic landscape of
Algeria is plurilingual because there are four spoken languages : literary Arabic, Algerian
Arabic, Tamazight and French.
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Mohamed-Amine Chemami
1.1 Literary Arabic
Arabic is a Central Semitic and an Afro-asiatic language. More than 280 million people speak it
as a first language, most of whom live in the Middle East and Northern Africa. The roots of the
Arabic language are linked with the revelation of the Qur'an to the Prophet Muhammad :
And We sent not only a Messenger but with the language of his people, in order to
enlighten them. Then Allah misleads whom He wants and guides whom He wants.
And He is the All-Mighty, the All-Wise. (The Holy Qur'an, S.14, V.4).
Therefore, there cannot be Arabic without Islam and vice versa (Ouameur,1985). Muslims
attribute the Arabic language to a special position and total respect for conveying theological
debates and secular sciences during the period known as the Golden Age of Islam (Motassime,
1996: 71). Modern Standard Arabic (Literary Arabic) is widely taught in schools, universities,
and used in workplaces, government and the media. Actually, it is the official language of
Algeria since 1962.
1.2 Algerian Arabic and Tamazight
The phenomenon of diglossia present in Algeria is linked to the various transformations the
original language of the Qur'an went through during the history of the Maghreb (in Arabic :
what exists in the west). We stress that the split between the Literary Arabic and the Algerian
Arabic began with the Spanish settlement (1509-1555) by the phenomenon of borrowings
(Bensafi 2002, 831). This cut has been increased during the French colonization of Algeria
(1830-1962) when the Literary Arabic was far from the various social and administrative
domains for the benefit of French language.
Algerian Arabic is the main language of Algeria. It is used by 70℅ - 80% of the population
as their mother tongue. Tamazight on the other hand, is practiced orally by 20℅ - 30% of the
population. Tamazight is the oldest language of Maghreb (Montagnon, 1998: 21). However, it is
facing major challenges. Technical problems related to its mode of writing are not resolved
(Benmayouf, 2010: 38). Initially taught in sixteen wilayas (There are 48 Wilayas or Departments
in Algeria), Tamazight is no longer in ten wilayas (Amir, 2002: 2). To identify the daily use of
languages, we asked the college students to classify them in terms of frequency. Table 1
summarizes the results:
Table 1. Daily linguistic practices.
Algerian
Arabic
Literary
Arabic
Tamazight
French
English
Use
R. %
R. %
R. %
R. %
R. %
1.Very frequent
46 67.6
4 5.8
4 5.8
14 20.5
0 0
2. Frequent
4 12.9
7 22.5
0 0
20 64.5
0 0
3. Casual
3 7.3
24 58.5
1 2.4
8 19.5
5 12.1
4. Rare
0 0
5 15.6
3 9.3
9 28.5
15 46.8
5. Very rare
1 1
11 11.2
37 38
5 5.1
27 27.5
68% of the Students surveyed who use the Algerian Arabic very often confirm this view
against 13.8% for the Literary Arabic. This difference in results shows that the Algerian student
has difficulties in learning Literary Arabic. In January 2006, the Minister of Education publicly
Discussing Plurilingualism in Algeria: The Status of French and English Languages....
229
regretted that young Algerians do not master the Arabic language (Amir, 2006: 4). Then comes
the French language, with a score of 55.9%. Thirdly, is the English language which is used
occasionally and its results equivalent to 42.8%. Finally, is Tamazight which is barely used at
38%.
We specify that the languages in Algeria are in constant interaction. This phenomenon is
known by linguists as “codes-witching” and defined as a mixture of languages. This change of
language occurs in a single sentence or from a sentence to another (Calvet, 1993: 29). To
understand the code- switching, we demanded the students some explanation about this issue.
Table 2 summarizes their answers.
Table 2. Attitudes towards code-switchnig.
Code-switching
Responses
1. Explaining a thing
2. Language Diversity
3. Habit
4. Vocabulary weakness
5. Empathy towards a
person
6. Stress and abbreviation
M.
12
3
1
9
%
22.6
5.6
1.8
16.7
F.
8
1
8
5
%
15.1
1.9
15.1
10
0
1
0
1.8
2 3.7
3 5.7
T.
20
4
9
14
%
37.7
7.5
16.9
26.7
2 3.7
4 7.5
A proportion of 37.7% think that code- switching assists to clarify a thought. This desire to
explain an idea is linked to the vocabulary weakness (26.7%) and habit (16.9%). Moreover, other
factors come justify this linguistic phenomenon as the languages diversity in Algeria (7.5%), the
abbreviation of words (7.5%), stress and even the empathy with interlocutors (3.7). Thus, the
code- switching of Algerian Arabic, Tamazight, French and sometimes English is almost
instinctive for young students in Maghreb (Sultana, 1999: 32).
2. LANGUAGE POLICIES OF ALGERIA
We distinguish two main language policies in Algeria. The first one is the policy of Arabisation
between 1962 and 1999. The second policy concerns the educational reform since 2000.
2.1 Arabisation policy
By 1962, the Algerian government implemented a language reform which aims to reintroduce
Literary Arabic in education and public administration. This Arabisation policy is motivated by
three elements. First, the Arabic language represents the cultural side of independence: the
French is the language imposed by the colonizer. Secondly, the Arabic is the language of Islam:
Islam was a shelter during colonization when Algeria had not an identity. Finally, Arabic is the
language of the Arab nation. (McDougall, 2006: 338).
The Arabisation policy has been weakened by its link with the Islamist movement. The
majority of the Egyptian and Syrian teachers recruited since 1964 by Algeria to ensure the
teaching of Arabic language were members of the Muslim Brotherhood who were more
interested in the ideological indoctrination of the students than the teachings (Saad, 1992: 60).
230
Mohamed-Amine Chemami
These teachers proved to be major channels for importing Islamist ideology into the Algerian
public life (Abu-Haidar, 2000: 161; Mostari, 2004: 38; Roberts, 2003: 12; Thomas, 1999: 27).
However, we cannot only understand this policy in negative terms but the main purpose of
Arabisation was to turn the Arabic language as a true instrument of thought and work to reach
the requirements of time and to overcome the prejudice of language literature and poetry
(Benmayouf, 2010: 56-57).
2.2 Educational reform policy
The main themes of the reform policy in Algeria since the year 2000 concerns the low level of
teachers and improving their socio-economic development, revision of curriculum content and
the status of foreign languages. In this perspective, the National Commission for the Reform of
Education System was created in March 2000 (CNRSE). This scientific panel consists of 153
teachers and scholars. The aim is to diagnose the components of the educational system,
vocational training and modernize the entire education sector. Following the tragic events of
September 11, 2001, the Algerian authorities decided to include the educational reform policy as
part of the global war on terror (Karmani, 2005: 262). The president, Abdelaziz Bouteflika
stressed that the school reform is a challenge for the Algeria.
3. STATUS OF MODERN LANGUAGES
IN ALGERIA
The status of French and English languages in Algeria does not depend only on
cultural preferences and educational options. The country's modern history and political alliances
are also taken into consideration.
3.1 Historical status of French
Algeria has a special link with the French language. Historically, Algeria was proclaimed in
1870 as part of the metropolitan territory of the 3rd Republic (Loyal, 2009: 407). This vast
country of 2.3 million km2 is inhabited by 36 million people. Despite its ideological refusal to
integrate the Francophonie, Algeria remains the second French-speaking country in the world
with nearly eighteen million speakers (Algerian attended the Beirut summit for the first time in
October 17th , 2002).
Today, the French language is taught from the second year of elementary school. French has
its place in secondary education, as a second language and in higher education, especially in
science fields. This language is used in many private schools. French is considered necessary to
pursue higher education, especially abroad, or to find a job. Its knowledge is related to young
Algerians hope to immigrate into Europe and Canada (Lacoste, 2006: 231). For the economic
sector, it only works in French or in English (Kateb, 2005: 89). Thus, Table 3 emphasizes the
positive relationship of college students to the French language.
We noted that only 12% of college students surveyed do not like the French language.
Contrary to the latter, a majority like to write and speak French. Several factors are cited to
justify this opinion. First, the easy acquisition of language stands at 29.7% of the positive
response to the French language. 19.1% have a preference towards the French language as
against the English. Then the desire to learn (21.2%), the prestige, the status (14.8%) and the
Discussing Plurilingualism in Algeria: The Status of French and English Languages....
231
feeling of pleasure (10.6%) remain crucial to any process of acquiring a second language.
Finally, the influence of family mentioned had only 4.2% response.
Table 3. Attitudes towards the French language.
French language
Explanations
1. Easy acquisition
Of language
2. Preference towards
Other languages
3. Prestigious and status
4. Pleasure
5. Desire to learn
6. Family influence
M. %
8 16.9
F. %
6 12.8
T. %
14 29.7
4
5 10.7
9
19.1
1
4
6
0
3
5
10
2
6.3
10.6
21.2
4.2
8.4
2 4.2
1 2.1
4 8.4
2 4.2
2.1
8.5
12.8
0
These results of table 3 highlights a paradox because the French language in Algeria is doing
well despite the strict language policies against it (Benrabah,2007: 240).The French is perceived
as a language of seduction (Benmesbah, 2003: 13). Thus, the taboos that cannot be
communicated in a first language are transgressed by the French language brand impersonation.
(Benrabah,2001 ; Caubet, 2004: 16).
3.2 Promising status of English
The role of English in the world has become a controversial issue which leaves little space to
mention the positive aspects of a common international language democratically. Technically,
speaking English is apprehended as a second foreign language in Algeria. Its teaching is in
competition with the French language since the year 2000 at the first grade level of middle
school. However, in Universities, 95% of undergraduate and post-graduate courses in sciences or
in medicine are taught in French language (Miliani, 2000: 20).
In short, the desire to promote English in Algeria is due to a high cooperation with the
United States of America and Canada who are committed to freely support this educational
reform policy in Algeria. This aid concerns the making of textbooks, the training of teachers of
English and the introduction of new technologies. Table 4 summarizes the suggestions made by
Algerian school children to improve their English language.
College students surveyed have an emotional maturity in their suggestions and this is
interpreted below in brackets : the diversification of activities of writing and reading seems to be
a way to improve their level in English language (69%). Similarly, providing modern
documentation (2.9%), let the students choose their subjects of study (3.7%) and evaluating
through serious examinations (22.5%) are among the recurrent proposals. The pairing of their
college with a foreign schools is also desirable.
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Mohamed-Amine Chemami
Table 4. Improving the English language.
English language
Suggestions
1. Provide more
meaningful review
2. Diversify writing
Activities
3. Encourage reading
4. Choose free
study subjects
5. Enrich the school
library
6. Affiliating local
college with foreign schools
M. %
F. %
T. %
12 11.2
12 11.2
24 22.5
12 11.1
24 22.3
25 23.4
13 12.2
37 34.5
37 34.5
2
1.8
2 1.8
4 3.7
1
0.9
2 2
3 2.9
1
0.9
1 0.9
2 1.9
CONCLUSION
The recognition of Tamazight as a national language reflects a desire to reconcile the
arabophones and the francophones in Algeria. This legitimacy should not rely on a permanent
opposition to the Literary Arabic which needs scientific renewal. Thus, the process of building a
national identity must go beyond the official language. Despite its refusal to integrate the
Francophonie, Algeria is the second French-speaking country in the world when the craze for
English language is expressed by a large segment of the Algerian society (Abid-Houcine, 2007:
152). In fact many Algerians are aware that the Arabic-French bilingualism and the mastery of
English are appropriate ways to acquire formal knowledge.
The analysis of the sociolinguistic situation of Algeria shows an offset between the major
languages (Algerian Arabic and Tamazight) with low status and the enrollment languages with
high status (Literary Arabic, French and English). This separation is related to the dichotomy
spoken language/written language. The Diglossia between the Algerian Arabic and the Literary
Arabic is being added to this complex reality.
In conclusion, Algeria seems to need more than one cultural language for complementary
objectives. So the best solution would be that, Algeria puts in place a plurilingual policy beyond
the opposition which reserves French and English languages for modernity and literary Arabic
for tradition. This new solidarity would have a democratic impact on the redefinition of the
Algerian identity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author is thankful to all the staff members of the Emir Abdelkader Middle School in
Inkermann for their valuable support. Inkermann is located in the north west of Algeria.
Renamed Oued-Rhiou in 1963 (Oued: river in Arabic and Arhiou : in Tamazight language), this
city of 60000 inhabitants is known as an international economic hub.
Discussing Plurilingualism in Algeria: The Status of French and English Languages....
233
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