ROMAN TINGITANIA TO THE MOSLEM CONQUEST, AD 40 to 788

ROMAN TINGITANIA TO THE
MOSLEM CONQUEST, AD 40 to 788
A Historical Overview with DBA Notes
By Robert Munson
The Roman Province of Tingitania effectively corresponds with modern
Morocco. The subject is largely ignored by most historians who write off
Tingitania as nothing more than a peaceful backwater of the Roman Empire.
Its primary claim to fame was the fact it was a breadbasket and olive oil
producer for the Empire. This is not the stuff of glorious history. This is not
helped by the fact that virtually all the scholarly work on Tingitania is
published only in French. Thus the decline of the Empire and the ensuing
dark ages in Tingitania are totally ignored.
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However, I have found the location and its history a fascinating challenge. So
much so I have virtually abandoned my Crusader, Byzantine, Turkish and
Georgian armies and concentrated on the armies of Tingitania. Listed below is
a DBA establishment for both the end of the Empire and for the city kingdoms
which replaced it and fought the invading Moslems to a standstill for eighty
years.
My personal army is from the city kingdom of Sala Colonia/Chellah which is
now a ruin on the eastern outskirts of modern Rabat. It could equally be Lixus
(modern Larache), Tamesna, or any of the six other Roman garrison towns
which became kingdoms in the dark age of Tingitania. These armies are a
fascinating and colorful mélange of late Roman, Vandal, Byzantine, Moor,
Berber, Mauretanian, Numidian and Baquatae. Everyone has heard of the first
seven cultures, but:
WHO WERE THE BAQUATAE?
The Berbers are the original native population of Morocco. The Baquatae were
the Berber tribe Birghwata of northern Morocco. More than the Central or
Southern branches of the Berbers, the Baquatae, as the Romans called the
Birghwata, had great influence on Roman Tingitania and its dark age history.
The basic social unit of the Baquatae and other Berber tribes is the ikh
consisting of several families. Two or three ikhs inhabit a village, and a dozen
or so villages formed a tribe. In the face of external threats, tribes could
confederate into a leff or soff under a temporary elected military leader. Small
tribes were led by elders, but larger ones were ruled by actual kings who
founded dynasties and who were recognized by the Romans who either tried to
overthrow them or ally with them. The larger tribes were viewed as nations by
the invading Moslem Arabs. These Berber “nations” and city kingdoms put up
a stiff resistence, keeping the Arabs out of most of Morocco for over eighty
years.
In the mountains the Berbers lead a settled agricultural way of life, villages
being defended by simple towers and infantry. The large tribes were on the
steppes and concentrated on raising horses, thus their reputation as highly
effective light cavalry. The Romans were astounded that the Berbers could
easily obtain 100,000 horses in a single season. While the Saharan Berbers
went over to the camel about 1000 AD, these do not seem to have been used,
for combat at least, by the steppe Berbers.
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ROMAN TINGITANIA
After the fall of Carthage, Rome established the scholarly Numidian king Juba
II (r.25BC to 23 AD) and his queen Selene (only surviving child of Anthony and
Cleopatra) as a client state. They made their capitol at Iol Caesaria (modern
Cherchel in Algeria), but developed Volubilis (the Berber Oulalia) as the great
city of Tingitania. Juba II’s son, king Ptolemy, was assassinated by Caligula in
40 AD and Mauretania (Numidia and Tingitania) became a Roman province. In
40-44 AD, the Romans crushed a rebellion in Mauretania and established
Tingis (Tangier) as capitol of a new and separate province: Tingitania.
Volubilis became a Roman city in 45 AD and primary military garrison of the
Roman province of Tingitania (modern Morocco). Volubilis was protected by a
fossatum (defensive ditch) and five outlying ring forts, including Tocolosida
slightly to the southeast and Ain Chkour to the northwest.
The Romans also built a fossatum, rampart and watch towers at Sala Colonia
at the same time they were protecting Volubilis.
Relations with the Baquatae sub-tribes are mostly unknown but presumably
were largely peaceful due to Roman military might and diplomacy. However, in
122 AD the Baquatae attacked the Roman colony of Cartennae in Algeria and
the Romans began to recognize the Baquatae as viable states not a subject
people. In the mid-140s the Romans gave the Baquatae “Prince” citizenship in
order to gain his aid in putting down a local rebellion at Sala.
Between 168-180 AD, by order of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, Volubilis was
surrounded by one and a half miles of stone city walls with 40 towers and eight
gates.
In 180 AD the Romans recognized Canates as prince of a unified Baquatae
state and entered into an alliance with him. Canates and his men took on
Roman names and became long term allies of Rome.
Roman records (3rd. Cent.) state the Baquatae capital was what is now modern
Fez in northern Morocco.
Max. population of Volubilis was c.20,000, including a high percentage of
Romanized Berbers. There were over 100 olive presses. Lifestyle: furniture,
lamps, statuary was distinctly Roman and of high quality, sometimes with
clear Greek influences, floors were fine mosaics often exhibiting definite Berber
design influences.
Lixus (modern Larache) was the only site the in province with an amphitheatre.
The old Carthaginian/Mauretanian temple to Baal Moloch at Volubilis was
rebuilt as a temple to Saturn.
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A formal Capitol, Forum and Basilica were built at Volubilis in the late 2nd.
Cent. under the Severii Emperors (193-218 AD).
The Capitol at Volubilis was rebuilt in the early 3rd. Cent. AD, and a triumphal
arch dedicated to Caracalla and his mother Julia Domna was built in 217 AD.
Sala Colonia also constructed a Capitol, Forum, Basilica, and Triumphal Arch
about the same time. Presumably the other cities, such as Lixus did likewise.
Sala Colonia also had a “Mauretanian” temple. Was this to a Berber diety or
Carthaginian Baal Moloch? Was it consecrated to Saturn in Roman times?
The 3rd. Cent. saw the first identifiable Jewish inscriptions in Volubilis.
Between 238-44 AD the Gordian Palace was built in Volubilis as the residence
and HQ of the governor.
Cavalry reforms of the Roman Army by Emperor Gallienius (260-68 AD)
introduced a larger percentage of horsemen into the defense forces.
In 277 AD the Romans bestowed the title “Rex” on the Baquatae leader Julius
Matif in a treaty of alliance. In 280 they made a treaty with his son Nuffusi on
whom they confered the title “Rex Baquatae”
Ruins of Roman Volubilis
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THE SACK OF VOLUBILIS
By the third century Roman power was beginning to wane. Although the
reforms of Emperor Gallienius 260-68 tended to make the Roman army more
cavalry oriented in order to deal with fluid frontier situations, the African army
contained only one Legion, the 3rd. Augusta. Forces in Tingitania would be
exclusively Auxilliaries, frequently incorporating frontier barbarians. More and
more the Romans were having to rely on treaties with the Berbers rather than
an effective show of force.
c.280 AD marks the year of the traditional “sacking of Volubilis” by the
Baquatae. Did this really happen? Did Nuffusi repudiate the treaty made
between his father and the Romans? Did the Romans refuse to recognize
Nuffusi (on the death of his father?). Is it possible the Baquatae took (or
seriously threatened to take) Volubilis and this lead the Romans to the treaty
with Nuffusi. Were Roman forces sufficiently Berberized that it was a fait
accompli? How in the world could a Baquatae force take a fortified city of
c.20,000?
The Roman forces in Tingitania (c.280 AD) consisted of
8%
8%
8%
50-60%
8%
10%
Medium Cavalry (helmets, lorica
hamata, oval shields
Cataphracti (mailed lancers, no
shield, unarmored horses)
Equites Sagitarii (light cavalry horse
archers)
Auxillia infantry (helmets, lorica
hamata, oval shields)
infantry archers
Light infantry skirmishers, but
possibly including artillery
This can be roughly translated into DBA terms as 1x 3Cv (Gen), 1x 3Kn
(Cataphracti), 1x 2Lh or 3Cv (Equites Sagitarii), 6x 4Ax, 1x 4Ax or 2Ps or Art,
1x 4Bw and 1x 2Ps.
Alternatively, I field this army as 1x 3Cv(Gen), 2x 3Cv (cataphracti and
sagitarii), 6x 3Bd (auxilia), 1x 3Bw, 1x 2Ps (archers) and 1x 2Ps or Art.
A DBA Baquatae army (280 AD) would consist of 1x 2Lh (Gen), 5x 2Lh and 6x
2Ps. All Baquatae (mounted and foot) would be equipped with javelins and
round or oval shields. They wore an unbelted tunic and a sheepskin cloak with
the hair left on. This cloak was wrapped around the torso and tied at the left
shoulder to serve as a crude form of body armor.
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At 280 AD a DBA Berber army in Tingitania would consist of 1x 2Lh(Gen), 4 x
2Lh (w/ javelins, round or oval leather shields, no helmets or armor), 4 x 4Wb
(spears and shields, no helmets or armor), 1x 3Bw and 2x 2Ps (with javelins).
LATER ROMAN PERIOD
The period 284-305 AD saw the massive reforms of the empire under Emperor
Diocletian. Introduction of downsized Legions, and implementation of the
Comitatensis/Limitanei organization.
The Berber tribes were accepted as Foederati (allies) serving in the Roman army
under their own officers.
In 285 AD Roman administrators abandoned Volubilis, although it remained
inhabited and essentially a Roman town. What was left of the province was
now administered out of Hispania. Roman rule retained sufficient force that
Diocletian’s persecution of the Christians was still enforced in Volubilis as
evidenced by the martyrdom of a Centurion named Marcel there in 298 AD (the
first mention of Christianity in the area). Tangis, once more became capitol
during the reign of Diocletian (284-305 AD).
In the 300s, Sala Colonia became Christian, like most of the Empire after 312
AD. It evolved into independent Berber city kingdom, more likely a fait
accompli rather than a violent overthrow of Roman authority. By the end of
the 300s the population was probably Berber with a strong Roman influence.
Volubilis also became Christian, but by this time many Berber, particularly the
rural tribes, were becoming Jewish. Some time during the 300s, Volubilis also
reverted to its original Berber name Oualilia (flowering oleander).
THE BERBERS AT WAR
It appears that over time the Berber weapons and tactics remained virtually the
same, despite the introduction of Carthaginian, Roman, Vandal and Byzantine
equipment such as helmets and armor. The most powerful Numidian kings
also raised units of elephants, slaves, freedmen, and mercenaries. The basic
Berber were javelin armed light cavalrymen or light infantry skirmishers.
While not afraid to face an enemy in open battle, they were practical enough to
realize when they were outgunned by more heavily equipped enemies such as
the Romans. At that point they resorted to raids and ambushes. Horse
mounted infantry moving quickly into position but attacking on foot, the horses
being held back with reserves of ammunition. The cavalry were organized in
loose squadrons which kept up a harassing pressure as squadron elements
would alternately attack and retire to rest and re-ammunition. This mobility
allowed them to choose their terrain, preferably attacking in narrow places
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from all sides at once. The Berbers were of sufficient tactical sophistication to
maintain tactical reserves to capitalize on success.
The Romans regarded the Berbers as brave and superb horsemen, but too
lightly armed and superstitious to be relied upon in a pitched battle.
If attacked themselves, the Berbers retreated into the mountains where they
would build wood field defenses. If caught in open country they could quickly
construct defenses for their families and herds/flocks. The defenses would by
held by women and boys using slings while the horsemen maneuvered away
from the position to threaten an attacking force from the flanks or rear.
Broad bladed javelins were the preferred missile weapons. Wealthy or
successful warriors might also carry a captured Roman sword. They all carried
a round or oval leather shield. Berber men shaved their foreheads before battle
when possible.
While the Romans report the Berbers as riding bareback without reins, it
appears they did use saddle cloths and a simple halter with a lead rope but no
bit. One source states they used a short light stick as a quirt. However, in the
heat of battle, with one hand holding a shield and spare javelins and the other
throwing a javelin, it seems likely most communication between horse and
rider would be by knee pressure, heel taps and body movement (techniques
known to horsemen as “aids”).
THE LATER ROMAN ARMY IN TINGITANIA
Within two decades of the “sack”, the Reforms of Emperor Diocletian (284-305
AD) downsized the Legions drastically and introduced the Comitatensis (Field
Army) and Limitaneii (Border Garrisons) organization.
In Tingitania, the Romans were forced into allying themselves with the Berbers
as Foederatii and incorporating entire Berber units into the Army. At first they
were lead by Roman officers; but by the 5th. Century the Praepostii who
commanded the local Gentili Berber units were Berber chieftains. These
Praepostii not only commanded units, but the arsenal forts (castra) they
operated from. In other words; it appears the five forts originally intended to
keep the Berbers away from Volubilis were now being manned by largely
Berber forces. How Romanized these forces had become is open to debate, but
the fact they appear to have continued to use Latin as their operational
language could be significant.
Up to c.300 AD Berber forces were almost exclusively javelin armed light
cavalry (50%) and light infantry (50%) using no armor of any kind, except their
goatskin cloaks tied around their torsos as a crude gambeson. They did use
round or oval rawhide shields. One commentator noted that they “floated like
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a butterfly and stung like a butterfly”. However, during the 4th. Century there
appears to be more formal cavalry appearing in Berber forces. Their service in
Roman auxiliary units perhaps having lead to the adoption of Roman
equipment (helmets and lorica hamata chainmail tunics). This would give the
Berber butterfly tactics an effective sting.
Just how much and how quickly the Berbers bought into the Empire’s
becoming officially Christian in 312 AD is not known.
The Notitia Dignitatum of 405 AD is a listing of all forces in the Roman Army
at that time. By this time the Army consisted of two elements. The
Comitatenses or Field Army consisting of: so-called Legions of the Line of 1000
infantry each, Palatine Auxillia of 500 men each (something of an elite as they
were better paid.) and Vexillationes of cavalry of 1500 men each. The Limitanei
which were a combination National Guard & Minutemen; soldiers farming the
frontier while defending it. They were not liable for service outside the
province. The units consisted of so-called Legions of 1000 infantry each,
Auxillia of 500 infantry each, Cohorts of 500 infantry each (commanded by a
Tribunis Cohortis,a Roman), and Cavalry Squadrons of 50 men each (variously
styled Eques, Alae, or Cunei Equitum).
According to the NOitia, military forces in Tingitania were commanded by a
Comes (Count) of Tingitania, presumably a Roman, apparently based at Tingis
(Tangiers), and commanding the following units:
COMITATENSES Units
Vexillationes: Equites Scutarii Senior (medium Cavalry) 1500 men
Vexillationes: Equites Sagitarii Senior (horse archers)
1500 men
Vexillationes: Equites Sagitarii Cordueni (horse archers) 1500 men
Legion of the Line 2nd. Flavia Constantia 1000 infantry
Legion of the Line Septimani Junior
1000 infantry
Palatine Auxillia Mauretania Senior 500 infantry (Berber?)
Palatine Auxillia Mauretania Junior 500 infantry (Berber?)
LIMITANEI Units in Tingitania:
Cohort
Cohort
Cohort
Cohort
Cohort
Cohort
Cohort
2nd. Hispanorum based at Duga 500 men
1st. Herculae based at Auluces 500 men
1st. Ityracorum based at Castra Barenisis 500 men
name lost based at Sala (presumably Sala Colonia) 500men
Pacatianensis based at Pacatiana 500 men
3rd. Asturum based at Tabernas 500 men
Friglensis based at Friglas 500 men
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Alae Herculae based at Tamuco 50 men commanded by a
Praefectus Alae.
How much of the Roman Notitia Dignitatum Comitatenses organization and
composition would have coalesced around a newly independent major
population center like Sala Colonia/Chellah is hard to say. Using the Notitia
Dignitatus organization, circa 405 AD, I have translated the following DBA 15
element army list for:
CHELLAH 5th. Cent. Notitia Dignitatum Organization C. 405 AD,
Arable, Aggression 1. Enemies: Later Moorish (Berbers/Baquatae)
(II/57), Early Vandals (II/66), African Vandals (II/84).
1x 3Cv (Gen)
3x 3Cv
2x 4Bd
2x 3Ax
2x 2Lh
2x 2Ps
medium, lances, mail, helmets (late Roman)
horse archers ( late Roman)
“Comitanenses legionaires” (late Roman auxillia)
with spears, helmets, oval shields
“Palatina auxillia” (late Roman auxillia) with
spears, helmets, and oval shields
Berbers with javelins and round shields
Berbers with javelins and round shields
Although Volubilis remained a viable city at this time, it is interesting to note
that there does not appear to be a “Roman” force based there as at Sala
Colonia.
How Berberized this army had become by this time is hard to tell, but it was
still officially Roman and its upper level command structure still appears to be
Roman, although probably all local men who may have had considerable family
ties to the Berbers.
Undoubtedly there remained Berbers outside the province who remained
strictly traditional. Even they, however, have been influenced by the Romans
as shown by a shift in organization. From 300 AD to approximately 1000 AD
Berber armies still incorporated 25% light cavalry and up to 60% light
infantry, but there are now also components of up to 75% medium (armored)
cavalry and significant percentages of spear and sword armed medium
infantry.
The Notitia Dignitatum notes that Sala Colonia is one of the bases of a
Limitanei Cohort, yet it has been stated that in the late 4th. Century the city
had become a Christian Berber city state/kingdom. It has been observed that
some of the data in the Notitia Dignitatum could reflect the status a decade or
two prior to 405 AD. This suggests that the Notitia Dignitatum represents the
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end of an organized Roman Army in Tingitania and that by the time of the
Vandal invasion the forces repelling them were virtually allied Berber tribes,
some with Roman equipment.
Starting about 423 AD the Empire began having difficulty paying the Limitanei,
and in 444 AD pay effectively stopped. This could have been the last nail in
the coffin of the Roman Army in Tingitania. Its probably what would have lead
individual units, such as the Sala Cohort, to set up shop for themselves,
beyond their de facto occupation of the site, no longer bothering to maintain
the fiction they were a Roman force.
At any rate, when the Vandals crossed into Africa at Gibraltar in 429 AD with
some 30,000 fighting men, they regarded the Romano-Berber army(s) as a force
fully capable of engaging their mail armored cavalry. This suggests a
combination of both Roman and Berber tactics, organization and equipment.
The Vandals elected to move east of the Atlas Mountains instead. While there
may not have been the lure of plunder in Tingitania, it seems inconceivable
these landless invaders would have avoided one of the two great agricultural
breadbaskets of the Roman empire if it had been defenseless.
DARK AGE TINGITANIA
Visigothic (418-710 AD) records state the Birghwata were raiding southern
Spain to aid their Jewish co-religionists. The Baquatae capitol, Fez, is in
northern Morocco. When, how and why the Birghwata became Jewish is open
to conjecture.
In 429 AD, the Vandals crossed from Spain to Africa at Gibraltar, and decided
Berber Morocco was more trouble than it was worth, moving east of the Atlas
Mountains.
In 533-34 AD, Byzantines vanquished the Vandals and reoccupied North
Africa. Some Berbers assisted the Byzantines against the Vandals. In
Tingitania Byzantine occupation was limited to Tangiers and Ceuta although
their influence was much wider. Quite substantial Byzantine remains have
been found at Sala Colonia and Volubilis. Volubilis became the official capitol
of the Baquatae. However, the Baquatae/Berbers had apparently balkanized
and many local chiefs used the Byzantine presence to legitimize their claims to
local kingship.
On the Atlantic coast Tamesna (apparently controlling a large area south of
Casablanca and north of Marakesh) was the most important of these shadowy
Berber kingdoms. However, it is quite possible that the former Limitanei
garrison towns: Duga, Auluces, Castra Barenisis, Sala Colonia (Chellah),
Pacatiana, Tabernas (Tamesna?), Friglas and Lixus, which had established
themselves as city kingdoms in the 300s, were similar. The status of the
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cavalry garrison at Tamuco (Tamuda) on the Mediteranean coast is unknown.
It appears Latin was still being spoken as a daily language at Chellah in the
600s, and presumably elsewhere as well.
Here is my interpretation of a 12 element DBA list for Rex Chellah, along with
notes on the figures used to create my Chellah army:
CHELLAH, 7th. Cent. (Romanized Berber, Christian, City-Kingdom):
Arable. Aggression 1. Enemies: Later Moorish (Berbers/Baquatae)
(II/57), Arab Conquest (III/25b), Umayyid Arab (III/31), Early Muslim
North Africa (II/33)
1x 3Cv
(Gen)
1x 3Cv
2x 2Lh
2x 4Bd
2x 3Ax
2x Lh
2x 2Ps
General on armored horse with
lances, mail, helmets; (late
Roman, early Byzantine, or
Vandal-style).
horse archers (late
Roman/early Byzantine-style)
late Roman/early Byzantinestyle light cavalry
“legionaires” spears, helmets,
oval shields (late Roman
auxillia) helmet, mail
“auxillia” spears, helmets, oval
shields (early Byzantine light
inf./auxillia helmet, no mail,
spear, oval shield)
Berber with javelins and round
shield
Berber with javelins and round
shields
Hinchliffe 3313,
3097, & BAC7
Hinchliffe 3724 and
Ral Partha CSP-6
Old Glory PLR-2
Old Glory with
Foundry oval shields
Hiinchliffe AR-23
Palatina Aux. with
spear
Numidians, don’t
remember who made
them
Numidians, don’t
remember who made
them
How much of the Roman Notitia Dignitatum Comitatenses organization and
composition would have coalesced around a newly independent major
population center like Sala Colonia/Chellah is hard to say.
With the end of pay about 444 AD, presumably armor production/importation
virtually stopped. What could have been achieved by local craftsmen/industry
over the next two centuries and on what scale?
Whatever the organization and equipment of the Berber tribes/kingdoms of
Tingitania, they were still a strong enough force to keep the invading Muslims
at bay for eighty years. This is no mean feat considering the Muslims had
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intense religious zeal and had just conquered virtually all of North Africa in
only sixty years. Muslim forces first entered what had been Tingitania about
705 and Volubilis did not fall to them until 788.
Sala (the former Sala Colonia) appears to have remained an independent city
kingdom from the time of the Vandals until the end of the 8th. Century. This
suggests some form of effectively organized and equipped army.
In 705 AD Muslim forces first attacked Tingitania, allying themselves with
some of the Jewish Berber tribes and apparently occupying the Mediterranean
coast. In 711 AD the Moslems landed in Spain near Gibraltar with a largely
Berber army. The Arabs tended to regard the Berbers, even those who
converted to Islam, as second class citizens. This led to a Berber revolt in Tingi
(Tangiers) in 739-40. Tangiers later became a focal point of resistance against
the Umayyids. In the 740s, Islamic Berbers were raiding Arabs in Spain.
Whatever the organization, the Berber tribes and kingdoms of Tingitania were
still a strong enough force to keep invading Muslims at bay in most of Morocco
for eighty years. The Muslims had taken only 63 years to conquer all the rest of
north Africa (642-705 AD).
I would submit that such an army in the 8th. Century would be heavily based
on medium cavalry equipped with coats of chainmail and open helmets of a
late Imperial Roman/Vandal/Byzantine type. City defense forces would include
mail and helmet equipped medium infantry, and that both forces would be
supported by citizen soldiers equipped and fighting in traditional ancient
Berber style.
To what degree chainmail was supplanted by leather or quilted torso armor is
debatable, probably depending on the wealth of the city and its individual
defenders. The fact that two thirds of Comitatensis cavalry listed in 405 AD
were horse archers suggests that combat bowmen were part of a late Berber
army, if not supplanting the traditional Berber javelin.
In 788 AD Volubilis fell to Islamic forces, effectively ending the nominal control
of the Caliphate of Baghdad, and realistically marking the end of non-Islamic
resistance. The conqueror of Tangi (Tangiers) and Volubilis, Idris ibn Abdallah,
proclaimed himself Moulay Idris I being a descendant of Ali, and established
his capitol at Volubilis. He thereby founded the Idrissid Dynasty which would
last until 1146 AD. The Idrissids moved their capitol to Fez in 808 AD.
c.1000 AD the harbour at Sala Colonia/Chellah silted up and the city was
moved to the location of modern Sale’. Marakesh was founded in 1062 AD in
the south.
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In 1755 AD, Volubilis was destroyed by the same earthquake which flattened
Lisbon.
CONCLUSION
All of the above is based on sporadic research over a number of years especially
when I had the good fortune to live in Morocco. It is not considered definitive,
especially as new information is appearing all the time. I would be delighted to
hear from anyone with comments or new information.
Bob Munson
“Rex Chellah”
Comments to: [email protected]
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