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HEKIMA REVIEW
Journal of Hekima College
Jesuit School of Theology
Nairobi
Number 34, December 2005
Address: P. O. Box 21215, Ngong Road, 00505 Nairobi – Kenya
Telephone: (254-2) 576607/8/9
Fax: (254-2) 570972
E-mail: [email protected]
Hekima Review is a bi-annual publication of Hekima College, Jesuit School of
Theology, in Nairobi, Kenya.
The Editorial Board
Editor-in-Chief:
Assistant Editor:
Managing Editor:
Distribution:
Willy Moka, S.J.
Jean-Clement Nikubwayo, S.J.
Kabamba Nshimbi, S.J.
Amaechi Ugwu Miletus, S.J.
Dominique Dhedya, S.J.
Members:
Georges Bidzogo, SCA
Honoré Bahire, SCA
Jean-Baptiste Mvukiyehe, SCA
Ugenio Phiri, S.J.
Tang Abomo Paul-Emile, S.J
Titus Chilonga, S.J.
Brian Banda, S.J.
Loic Mben, S.J.
Yves Menanga Kizito, S.J.
Godwin Mulenga, S.J.
The views expressed in this issue of Hekima Review do not necessarily reflect
the opinions of the Editorial Board. We welcome letters to the editor in reaction
to any of the pieces published by Hekima Review.
Price per issue:
in Kenya: KShs 250.00
abroad: US$ 10.00 (including postage)
All correspondence should be addressed to:
The Editor of Hekima Review
Hekima College
P. O. Box 21215, Ngong Road,
00505 Nairobi – Kenya
Email: [email protected]
ISBN 1019-6188
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PAULINES PUBLICATIONS AFRICA, P. O. Box 49026, 00100 Nairobi (Kenya)
Printed by Kolbe Press, P. O. Box 468, 00217 Limuru (Kenya)
2
Hekima Review, No. 34, December 2005
Contents
EDITORIAL
Silence of Complicity
Willy Moka, S.J. .............................................................................................. 5
THEOLOGICAL ISSUES
Les Enjeux De La Paix Dans L’eucharistie
Paul Tang Abomo, SJ ................................................................................. 9
Justice to the Environment
Amaechi M. Ugwu, S.J. ................................................................................ 20
A Church In the Modern World of Africa: The Zambian Experience
Peter J. Henriot, S.J. ..................................................................................... 28
SCRIPTURE
Ac 5, 1-11; Ananie et Saphire: Lecture exégétique et réflexions théologiques
Valentin Kapambu Ntumba, O.C.D ........................................................... 43
Jesus’ Hour In the Fourth Gospel: A Reading of John 12: 20-36.
Willy Moka, S.J. ............................................................................................ 56
War and Victory of the Lamb in the Book of Revelation
J.M. Vianney Paluku, AA .......................................................................... 66
DOCUMENTS
Challenges and Contributions of Medieval Religious Women
Nshimbi Kabamba Emmanuel, SJ ............................................................ 83
BOOK REVIEWS
Jean Marie Quenum, S.J.
Le Dieu de la solidarité qui vient à l’Africain ............................................ 91
Reviewed by Paul Tang Abomo, SJ ............................................................ 91
Ghislain Tshikendwa Matadi, SJ
De L’absurdite De La Souffrance A L’esperance
Reviewed by Luzolo Ndol Jean-Pierre, SJ ..................................................... 93
POETRY
Paroles Muettes by Richard Tambwe, S.J. ........................................................ 95
3
4
Editorial
SilenceofComplicity
Willy Moka, S.J.
“Do not ask me where I speak from, who I am, and what audience I wish to
help or harm. I am a human being like you, I shall die, and I was not born a
functionary of the Truth nor a professional in the service of Christianity. I write in
order to doff my masks before they blot out my face.”
This is how Fabien Eboussi Boulaga concludes his book, Christianity without
fetishes, to express, somehow, his refusal of a silence of complicity. In effect, we are
living in a world where people are ready to sacrifice the truth on behalf of a false
peace, which is the opposite of what their mouth loudly proclaims. Pope Paul VI
condemned this attitude by stating that
Peace cannot be based on a false rhetoric of words which are welcomed because
they answer to the deep, genuine aspirations of humanity, but which can also
serve, and unfortunately have sometimes served, to hide the lack of true spirit and
of real intentions for peace, if not indeed to mask sentiments and actions of
oppression and party interests. Nor can one rightly speak of peace where no
recognition or respect is given to its solid foundations: namely, sincerity, justice
and love in the relations between states, and, within the limits of each nation, in
relations of citizens with each other and with their rulers.1
What is described by Paul VI is a clear reflection of the relationship between
nations, based on self-interests. We are all aware of it and affected by its devastating
effects, but no one has the courage to condemn it. We are participating in the evil
that destroys our society by silence, which is a silence of complicity. We prefer to
keep quiet in front of injustices and situations which degrade the human person’s
transcendent dignity; either because we are benefiting from the situation or because
we are afraid of being genuine witnesses of the truth. By so doing, we are ignoring
the repercussions of such an attitude on the future of the world, and mostly on poor
countries, most of which are in Africa. Better the truth that hurts than a silence
which kills.
The situation of Africa is well described by Pope John Paul II in his message to
Archbishop Nikola Eterovic, secretary general of the Synod of Bishops: “Africa”,
writes the Pope, “is still afflicted by terrible plagues such as armed conflicts, persistent poverty, illnesses and their devastating consequences, starting with the drama of
1
Pontifical Commission “Justitia et Pax”, Ways of Peace: Papal messages for the World Days of Peace
(1968-1986), p. 4
5
AIDS, widespread insecurity and finally, corruption. All this weakens Africa, saps its
energies, decimates its new generations and mortgages its future” ( Vatican Information Service, on February 25, 2005). To this list should be added the drama of
refugees and internally displaced people, the increasing rate of illiteracy, precarious
health conditions and the burden of the international debt. They deeply affect both
the lives of individuals and of communities. Thus they should be addressed seriously in order to provide solid and permanent solutions. Africans bear the greatest
responsibility to face these challenges. No solution should be expected from elsewhere. They must be aware of international domination from political, social and
cultural points of view. Oftentimes the so-called liberating interventions cause more
problems than they pretend to solve. One can think of the mission of the United
Nations in the Democratic Republic of Congo, known as Monuc, which has created
more insecurity in the eastern party of Congo and facilitated the circulation of light
and heavy weapons instead of playing the role of peacekeeper. All this increases
misery and violence, which paralyze any effort of development.
The above considerations do not aim at pointing fingers at international institutions. Rather they shed light on the responsibilities of each part stakeholder.
Likewise, the sons and daughters of Africa also have their share of responsibility.
Those who are in positions of authority, at any level, take advantage of their
positions to oppress the weakest and defenseless Africans. Some collaborate in the
destabilization of the continent by hidden forces. In other words, Africans are
used to harm and exploit their own people.
We are all familiar with the first paragraph of the Pastoral Constitution on
the Church in the Modern World, Gaudium et Spes, of the Second Vatican
Council:
“The joy and hope, the grief and anguish of the men of our time, especially of
those who are poor or afflicted in any way, are the joy and hope, the grief and
anguish of the followers of Christ as well. Nothing that is genuinely human fails to
find an echo in their hearts.”
This passage underlines the involvement of every human being in promoting
values that enhance the quality of life within society. We all share in the concrete
human condition. No one can behave as a spectator and look from afar at the drama
of human situation being played by others. This requires a true collaboration between nations. If we are still human beings, that is to say, people who have a
conscience and who are able to use their rationality, we cannot be indifferent to
what is going on around us. In one way or another, we are affected by the situation
in which other people are living. This is well depicted by an African saying: “If you
do not help your poor neighbour to bury his dead child, the smell of the decaying
body will prevent you from enjoying your delicious meal.” The morale of the saying
is simple: we should come out of our silence of complicity and fight injustices that
strike our brothers and sisters. The international dimension of peace and justice
should be seriously taken into account, because we are living in an interdependent
world where the problems of one country affect the others in one way or another.
Many western countries are complaining about the migration of Africans to that part
of the world. This move is seen as an invasion of their privacy, and a source of
insecurity. Neither complaining nor reinforcing laws on immigration provides the
6
best solutions to this problem. The effective way of dealing with the problem is to
help Africa improve its socio-political and economic situation; then people will stop
going to look for their happiness out of Africa. If western countries continue to
destabilize Africa by fueling wars and creating division and hatred among the peoples, they have to accept as a consequence of their acts the mass migration of
Africans towards Europe and America. Rich countries have to be aware of their duty
to support poor countries, mostly African countries, for a lasting peace and harmony in the world. The Synod of Bishops in 1994 emphasized this point in the
following words: “In the present world order, the African nations are among the
most disadvantaged. Rich countries must become clearly aware of their duty to
support the efforts of the countries struggling to rise from their poverty and misery.
In fact, it is in the interest of the rich countries to choose the path of solidarity, for
only in this way can lasting peace and harmony for humanity be ensured.”2
*****
In this issue, Paul Tang Abomo tries to find out what can be the contribution of
the Eucharist to the peace building process. Contrary to the Pax Romana, which
wanted peace through weapons, Jesus chose, by his death, to reconcile humanity
through non-violence. This is the message at the heart of the Mass and the “do this
in memory of me” reminds us of our duty to do likewise. Amaechi M. Ugwu
explores the ways through which human beings have been striving in order to
correct the injustices to the environment and to restore the relationship of mutual
respect with the natural environment. Besides the scientific and economic reasons
presented as arguments for the respect and preservation of our natural environment, Amaechi offers theological reasons why human beings should be engaged in
a mutually benefiting relationship with the natural environment. Peter Henriot,
from his pastoral and political experience, presents a Zambian Church in the modern context of Africa. He shows how the church has been active in improving the
socio-political situation of Zambia. Valentin Kapambu deals with the difficult lucan
text from the Acts of the Apostles concerning the death of Ananias and Sapphira as
a consequence of their attempt to violate the integrity and the communion of the
first Christian community by making a false declaration to the Apostle Peter in front
of the whole community. The emphasis of the text is not on God’s mercy but rather
on a sin that destroys the community. Willy Moka suggests a systematic exploration
of the significance of the “Hour of Jesus” in the fourth gospel. Basing his reflection
upon the Hebrew conception of time as a succession of events, he shows that this
“hour” refers to the main events of Jesus’ saving mission. J. M. Vianney Paluku
deals with the question of war and victory of the Lamb in the Book of Revelation.
He shows how John’s view of peace is to be understood within God’s judgment and
the victory of Jesus Christ over the evil powers. He invites Christians in Africa to
build a world of justice, peace and love in order to overcome their situation of
misery and war. Emmanuel Nshimbi shows how since the medieval period, women
have exercised responsible roles in the Church; but not without challenges. As an
example, their religious commitment has driven some people to accuse them of
2
John Paul II, The Church in Africa. Post-Synodal Apostolic Exhortation Ecclesia in Africa (Nairobi:
Paulines Publications, 1995), n.114.
7
heresies. Yet women themselves have been very instrumental in combating heresies. And today the Church continues to enjoy the fruits of women’s labor, so
much that we can all also learn something from their skill of survival.
Hekima Review welcomes Father Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, S.J. who has joined
the Hekima College staff this academic year, and Brian Banda, S.J., Loic Mben,
S.J., Yves Menanga, S.J., Godwin Mulenga, S.J. who have just joined the editorial board of Hekima review. On behalf of the editorial board, I would like to
express our profound gratitude to Father Eugene Goussikindey, S.J., former
Rector of Hekima College, and Father Peter Schineller, S.J., former Librarian of
Hekima College and Former Director of Hekima Review, for their hard work
and support to Hekima Review. May God bless their new apostolates.
8
TheologicalIssues
Les Enjeux De La Paix Dans L’eucharistie
Paul Tang Abomo, SJ *
Je me souviens de la devise d’un cimetière avec ces mots: ‘Pax perpetua. Les
morts ne se battent point mais les vivants sont d’une autre humeur, et les puissants
ne respectent pas les tribunaux’.
D’Alembert, Eloge a l’abbé Saint Pierre
Summary
In this article the author tries to find out what can be the contribution of
the Eucharist in the peace building process. Contrary to the Pax Romana,
which wanted peace through weapons, Jesus chose, by his death, to reconcile humanity through non-violence. This is the message at the heart of the Mass
and the ‘do this in memory of me’ reminds us our duty to do likewise.
Introduction
Paix et guerre sont deux réalités toujours en corrélation. La guerre
c’est l’absence de paix. La paix c’est l’état de non-guerre, la période
entre deux guerres, l’avant ou l’après guerre. Les Romains, par
exemple, pensaient qu’il fallait assurer la paix en préparant la guerre,
si vis pacem para bellum. La conception moderne, tout comme ses avatars, est
justement liée, tout en s’en distinguant, à ce modèle classique de la Pax Romana. La
Paix Romaine était un ordre imposé par la conquête guerrière qui soumettait au jus
gentium les sujets - non les citoyens – de Rome. Plutarque, en parlant de son
expédition militaire en Espagne, disait de César qu’après avoir mené la guerre à une
fin victorieuse, il était autant heureux de régler les problèmes de paix1. Les Romains
semaient d’abord la panique et la terreur et se proposaient ensuite comme gardiens
de la paix. L’atteste cette pièce de monnaie en usage à l’époque victorienne qui
montrait l’Empereur Commodus marchant sur un ennemi désarmé se protégeant
fébrilement d’une main et implorant l’armistice avec l’autre2. La mort de Jésus est
inséparable de cette paix garantie par les armes, car aux yeux du procureur romain
Pilate, cette exécution, comme beaucoup d’autres du même genre, visait à assurer la
paix. Il était de son devoir de punir les criminels et les rebelles à l’autorité et Jésus
en faisait partie puisqu’il fut crucifié avec deux autres bandits (Mc 15. 27).
La Pax Romana pouvait se targuer de résultats de masse, d’enthousiasmes de
commande, de manifestations ostentatoires, mais cette paix victorieuse ne sut jamais
mettre à l’unisson les âmes des vaincus et des vainqueurs. La contrainte grégaire
n’amène pas forcément une cohésion intérieure et une réelle communion entre les
*
Paul Tang Abomo is a Jesuit from Cameroon in his third year of theology at Hekima College.
Plutarque, Lives, Cesar, 12, (London, Heinemann, 1926) .
2
Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana and peace of Jesus Christ, (London, SCM Press Ltd, 1987), p. 12
1
9
Paul Tang Abomo, S.J.
hommes. Les consignes et le dressage des instincts laissent toujours subsister s’ils
n’accroissent pas des oppositions individuelles et des différenciations les plus
passionnées. La preuve est que des escarmouches éclataient régulièrement dans les
montagnes de la Galilée entre les soldats romains et les zélotes qui préféraient
mourir martyrs que de se soumettre à ce système injuste.3
Contrairement aux attentes juives qui voyaient dans la figure du messie un
libérateur politique puissant qui serait la réplique de l’autorité romaine, le Christ prit
le chemin de la non-violence : « je vous laisse la paix, c’est ma paix que je vous
donne ; je ne la donne pas comme le monde la donne » (Jn 14. 27). Il choisit de
communier avec l’humanité par la souffrance et la mort. C’est tout le sens du sacrifice eucharistique. Dès lors, quel sens prend aujourd’hui le mémorial de la rupture
du pain et le partage du vin dans le processus d’édification d’une communauté de
paix ? L’enjeu ici est de fonder un sol de crédibilité à la pratique eucharistique sur le
terrain mouvant des conflits sociaux. On procèdera en trois étapes. La première
partie a le souci des circonstances et du contexte de la célébration du rite. Le
mémorial y apparaît comme source d’innovation avec ses ruptures créatrices et ses
continuités dynamiques dans les luttes sociales pour la survie. Dans la deuxième
partie, l’éthique des premières communautés eucharistiques nous rappelle quelle
lecture de la messe est aujourd’hui possible qui ne soit pas un culte rendu à des
‘fossiles’. On terminera par les attitudes et les manières de vivre que cela induit dans
la construction d’un monde d’harmonie et de respect fraternel.
I- ‘Faites ceci en Les souvenirs du dernier repas du Seigneur s’expriment sous
distinctes : la tradition testamentaire et la tradition
mémoire de moi’ deux formes
4
cultuelle . Dans la forme testamentaire telle que rapportée dans
l’évangile de Jean, les apôtres sont invités à continuer l’union
avec le Seigneur par la vie de service et d’amour enseigné et vécu par le Christ lui
même : « vous m’appelez Maître et Seigneur, et vous dites bien, car je le suis. Si
donc je vous ai lavé les pieds, moi le Seigneur et le Maître, vous aussi vous devez
vous laver les pieds les uns aux autres. Car c’est un exemple que je vous ai donné,
pour que vous fassiez, vous aussi, comme moi j’ai fait pour vous » (Jn 13. 13-15). La
tradition cultuelle (Mt 26. 22-50 ; Mc 14. 22-25 ; Lc 22. 19-20 ; 1 Cor. 11. 24-25) est
plutôt d’essence liturgique et l’aspect rituel y est prépondérant. A travers ce geste
Jesus laisse un signe vivant de sa présence au milieu de ses disciples. Mais avec la
distance et le temps, le rite peut dériver de sa fonction et se transformer en une fin
en soi au lieu de référer au contexte et à la signification de ce qui le fonde.
Les pièges du ritualisme
La tradition cultuelle peut avoir cet inconvénient de jouer avec des rites et des
symboles qu’on conserve par héritage ou par fidélité à des usages rigides et parfois
désuets. Ils sont centrés sur eux-mêmes et ne laissent pas de place à l’inspiration ou
à l’invention personnelle. Pour importants et nécessaires qu’ils soient, « ils ne signifient
rien, en dehors de ce que l’homme en fait, de la manière dont il en fait une partie
3
H. Jagersma, A Hisory of Israel, from Alexandre the Great to Bar Kochba, (London, Fortress Press,
1986), p. 104.
4
Xavier Leon-Dufour, Le partage du pain eucharistique, (Paris, Seuil, 1982), pp. 97-102.
10
Les Enjeux de la Paix Dans L’eucharistie
intégrante de sa destinée5 ». C’est donc sans surprise que leur contenu imposé de
l’extérieur débouche souvent sur le fantastique, le légendaire, la magie ou l’allégorie.
On voit ainsi des chrétiens qui croient et ne pratiquent pas, certains qui pratiquent
et ne croient pas, sans compter ceux qui ne croient pas et ne pratiquent pas. La
reprise du passé ne doit pas se muer en un culte des morts, de peur que les vivants
ne soient imperméables aux enseignements de l’histoire où se déploient la capacité
et la volonté humaines d’agir à partir d’un temps et d’un espace que l’on choisit et
invente avec les autres. Le tout n’est pas de rééditer ou de reproduire les symboles
du passé, mais de recommencer ce qu’ils signifient en créant de nouveaux rapports
humains et de nouveaux modes de vie.
Si les rites possèdent « l’art ou le pouvoir de révéler ce qui est caché, et d’où
dépendent la vie et la mort, le bonheur ou le malheur, le salut ou la perdition6 », ils
ont forcément un sens existentiel et ne se vérifient que dans l’interaction sociale. La
Cène est chronologiquement distante de nous et si elle est efficace, c’est dans la
mesure oú elle peut être actualisée comme événement fondateur d’un nouvel ordre
humain. Elle ne saurait être un fait magique, une parabole préfabriquée et imposée
du dehors. Sa répétition ne saurait faire l’économie du contact dur avec la réalité
vécue et la remise en question du désordre établi. La messe n’est pas un acte formel
réduit à une organisation de gestes, de rites et de comportements sans autre but que
l’expression de l’appartenance à une tradition. Elle doit prendre au sérieux les
situations de disette et de violence, les réseaux et les mécanismes de survie par
lesquels tout un peuple de marginalisés et de laissés-pour-compte affronte la misère
et l’absurde.
La valeur du Testament
Le repas d’adieu du Christ comme tel n’avait rien de nouveau. On en trouve
dans l’Ancien Testament et dans la littérature juive apocryphe. Peu avant de mourir,
il était courant qu’un homme adresse des recommandations à ses proches. Par là
était scellé un lien de communion transhistorique entre testateurs et testataire7. Le
rassemblement des descendants est une invite à perpétrer cet acte de communion
en souvenir du moribond. Et dans la tradition juive, le souvenir n’est pas seulement
un acte psychologique isolé de recension du passé, il implique une action. Le Christ
ne dit pas « dites ceci », mais bien « faites ceci ». Il invite ses disciples à refaire ce qu’il
a fait, c’est-à-dire, à se rompre eux mêmes, à mourir et à s’offrir comme nourriture
aux autres comme condition nécessaire à l’avènement du royaume des Cieux.
Quand Israël est appelé à garder mémoire de Yahvé, il doit reproduire ce qu’il
a fait pour lui. Il existe un lien intrinsèque entre mémoire et action. Quand Dieu se
souvient de Noé, d’Abraham ou de Rachel, c’est qu’il opère un bienfait en leur
faveur8. A son tour quand l’homme se souvient de l’intervention salvifique de Dieu
dans son histoire, il ne doit pas réduire cet acte à un geste rituel ; il est plutôt appelé
à faire de même, c’est-à-dire à imiter la justice et la bonté de Dieu envers son
5
6
7
8
F. Eboussi Boulaga, A Contretemps, L’enjeu de Dieu en Afrique, (Paris, Karthala, 1991), p. 46
E. Ortigues, Religions du Livre et Religion de la Coutume, (Paris, Le Sycomore, 1981), p. 41
X. L. Dufour, op. cit., p. 109
Ibid, p. 132
11
peuple. C’est tout le combat des prophètes de l’Ancien Testament ; c’est la justice
que Dieu veut et non les sacrifices « car tu ne prends aucun plaisir au sacrifice ; un
holocauste, tu n’en veux pas. Le sacrifice qui plaît à Dieu, c’est un esprit brisé ; d’un
cœur brisé, broyé, Dieu, tu n’as point de mépris » (Ps 50. 18-19).
Ce rôle prophétique aujourd’hui passe par ce que Hollenbach appelle
l’imagination sacramentelle9. Les sacrements, en effet, ritualisent et donnent un sens
religieux à la vie de ceux qui y participent. Ce sens ne demeure pas un simple acte
cognitif, il doit se réaliser dans la vie sociale du croyant. En d’autres termes, les
sacrements sont une synthèse expérientielle entre la réalité ultime en laquelle le
chrétien croit et sa vie concrète dans une communauté humaine. Ils maintiennent
l’équilibre entre la mémoire du passé et l’attente eschatologique, car le royaume de
Dieu est virtuellement présent parmi nous (Lc 17. 21). La présence divine ne se
réduit pas aux sept sacrements institués par le Concile de Trente, mais elle se vit
dans la totalité de la vie chrétienne et du cosmos considéré comme la manifestation
symbolique de l’amour de Dieu. Nous devons répondre à cet amour en restant
fidèles à cette alliance. Chaque sacrement implique un monde d’initiatives et
d’engagements en dehors du sanctuaire. Et l’eucharistie exprime non seulement la
participation à la mort et à la résurrection du Christ qui sont la source de l’unité
chrétienne, mais aussi la source fondamentale de communion de la race humaine10.
La rencontre autour de la table du Seigneur doit se faire en solidarité avec l’humanité
offrant « sur l’autel de la terre, le travail et la peine du monde11 ». Participer à la
messe signifie réaliser en acte le mémorial de la nouvelle alliance établie avec Dieu
et entre les hommes par la mort et la résurrection du Christ. Le partage à la table de
Dieu inaugure une nouvelle relation humaine, une relation de paix par solidarité et
réconciliation. Revenons à présent sur le déroulement des premières assemblées
eucharistiques.
II- Le repas
eucharistique
comme symbole
de communion
Les banquets étaient répandus dans les cultures juive et grecque.
Dans le monde hellénistique, c’était souvent un lieu de débats
philosophiques ou politiques. Le Banquet12 de Platon, par
exemple, montre les convives discutant de l’amour. C’était un
cercle d’intellectuels n’ayant entre eux aucune affinité sociale,
aucun lien affectif. Eryximaque, Aristodème et Socrate ne se connaissent pas et ne
se rencontrent chez Agathon que pour un partage d’idées. Dans la culture juive, les
repas étaient pris entre les membres d’une même famille ou d’une même caste
puisque la différence de classe était même codifiée par la religion. Les pharisiens ne
s’associaient jamais aux publicains ni aux pécheurs et reprochaient à Jésus de le
faire (Mt 9. 11). Mais la Cène était un repas fraternel qui réunit tous les disciples du
Christ indépendamment du statut social. Le projet du Christ était d’établir en Israël
une communauté humaine réconciliée sans discrimination ni structure de classes13.
Il s’associa aussi bien aux riches (Lc 19. 1-10) qu’aux pauvres (Lc 6. 20), aussi bien
9
Voir David Hollenbach, “A Prophetic Church and the Sacramental Imagination” in Justice, Peace
and Human Rights, (New York, Crossroad, 1990), pp. 181-202
10
Ibid., p. 197
11
Teilhard de Chardin, La Messe sur le Monde, (Paris, Seuil, 1965), p. 9
12
Platon, Le Banquet, (Paris, Belles Lettres, 1951), p. 4
13
Gerhard Lohfink, Jesus and Community, (London, Fortress Press, 1985), p. 88
12
aux intellectuels (Lc 14. 1-6) qu’aux ignorants (Mt 11. 25), aussi bien aux populations
rurales de Galilée (Mc 1. 14) qu’aux citadins de Jérusalem (Mt 2. 37), aux bien
portants et aux malades (Mt 4. 23), aux justes et aux pécheurs (Lc 19. 10). Il prit le
parti des pauvres, des affamés, des prostituées, des femmes et des enfants, bref tous
ceux qui constituaient la raque de la société juive, les sans-droit et les laissés-pourcompte.
A sa suite, la première communauté chrétienne de Jérusalem prit le nom d’Ecclesia,
assemblée publique où Juifs et Gentils partageaient la même table eucharistique du
Christ qui, par sa mort, a renversé les barrières entre classes et nations. Cette communion à la même table s’élargissait dans les rapports sociaux, notamment dans le
partage de la parole autour des apôtres, la prière et l’aide aux pauvres. Paul mit
toutes ses forces à consolider cette unité et cette intégration des différences dans la
communauté naissante. Avec la rapide expansion du christianisme en dehors des
frontières d’Israël et l’accueil de la bonne nouvelle par les Gentils, la question de
diversité culturelle commença à se poser.
Un des traits essentiels d’appartenance à la culture juive était la circoncision.
Religion et culture faisant un chez le juif pieux. Cet aspect prenait une dimension
sociale et cultuelle très importante. Les juifs chrétiens voulaient l’imposer aux
nouveaux convertis comme condition nécessaire au salut. La question fut portée
devant les Anciens. « Après bien de l’agitation et une discussion assez vive engagée
avec eux par Paul et Barnabé, nous disent les Actes des Apôtres, il fut décidé que
Paul, Barnabé et quelques autres des leurs monteraient à Jérusalem auprès des
Apôtres et des anciens pour traiter ce litige » (Actes 15:1-2). Malgré les différences
d’opinion et des débats houleux et parfois violents, l’unité fut préservée. On prit la
décision de ne pas tracasser ceux des païens qui s’étaient convertis au christianisme.
On leur enjoignit seulement de s’abstenir de ce qui avait été souillé par les idoles,
des unions illégitimes, des chairs étouffées et du sang (Actes 15: 19-20). Plus tard
Paul affronta Pierre lorsque ce dernier voulut rompre la table de communion avec
les Gentils à Antioche (Gal 2. 11-21). Pierre menaçait l’unité et la paix de la
communauté en établissant une opposition entre les peuples ; ce qui était en flagrante contradiction avec l’enseignement du Christ : « il n’y a ni Juif ni Grec, il n’y a
ni esclave ni homme libre, il n’y a ni homme ni femme ; car tous vous ne faites
qu’un dans le Christ Jésus » (Gal 3. 28).
La table eucharistique mettait côte à côte maîtres et esclaves. Fait nouveau, les
esclaves avaient accès à certains postes d’autorité. Eloquent à cet égard est l’épisode
d’Onésime. Esclave païen, Onésime s’était enfui de chez son maître chrétien Philémon.
Il trouva refuge chez Paul qui le convertit à la foi chrétienne. Bien que Paul aurait
souhaité garder Onésime avec lui, il le renvoya chez son maître « non plus comme
esclave, mais bien mieux qu’un esclave, comme un frère très cher » (Phl. 16).
Désormais Onésime était égal à son maître dans le service de la parole. Il pouvait
participer dans les assemblées de prière et échanger le baiser de paix pendant les
célébrations communautaires de l’Eucharistie.
Cette amitié se manifestait aussi dans le partage et la solidarité matérielle avec
les plus démunis. En effet, l’unité de la communauté implique la responsabilité de
chacun envers le prochain. Cela est aussi perceptible dans les quêtes que Paul fit
dans les cités grecques au profit de la communauté de Jérusalem (Rom. 15. 25-28).
13
D’un point de vue économique Jérusalem n’était pas prospère et les chrétiens y
subissaient les affres de la misère ambiante. Durant la famine qui frappa Jérusalem
autour de l’an 46 après J.C, une aide d’urgence leur fut apportée d’Antioche14.
Quand Paul et Barnabé allèrent de nouveau à Jérusalem en 49, Jacques, Pierre et
Jean leur demandèrent de penser aux pauvres de Jérusalem ; ce que Paul fit
promptement (Gal 2. 10) et leur porta personnellement les aumônes collectées
(Actes 24. 17). La plénitude de cette solidarité était « symbolisée par le rassemblement
eucharistique qui transcence tout exclusivisme biologique ou social.15 »
Si ce repas avait comme fonction de rassembler les chrétiens dans l’amitié en
souvenir du Christ, certains abus étaient inacceptables. En effet, il en vint aux oreilles
de Paul que quelques individus dans la communauté ne partageaient pas avec les
pauvres. Certains mangeaient et s’enivraient alors que d’autres rentraient affamés. Il
intervint énergiquement pour mettre fin à cette dérive: « Dès qu’on est à table en
effet, chacun prend son propre repas, et l’un a faim, tandis que l’autre est ivre… Ou
bien méprisez vous l’Eglise de Dieu, et voulez vous faire honte a ceux qui n’ont rien
?… Sur ce point, je ne vous loue pas » (1Cor. 11. 21-22). Cette réprimande souligne
la dimension éthique à vivre en dehors du sanctuaire16. Ce rappel historique met en
lumière trois éléments indispensables à la paix : la communication, le respect de la
différence et la non-violence dans la résolution des conflits.
Les enjeux
eucharistiques
de la paix
Communion et communication
L’exemple de la première communauté chrétienne nous montre
que l’homme ne se développe, ne se libère que si, au lieu de se
replier sur soi-même, il vit aussi pour les autres au service de
l’ordre universel et divin auquel il doit tendre. Ce don de soi aux autres permet une
distribution équitable des biens fongibles qui permettent de pourvoir aux nécessités
individuelles de la communauté humaine. L’harmonie sociale n’est possible que par
un dévouement réciproque et une commune participation au bien dont tout le
monde s’enrichit à travers l’échange et la communication réciproque.
La paix ne saurait être l’équilibre des forces obtenue par dissuasion nucléaire ou
terroriste. Pas plus qu’Al Quaeda, la puissance militaire américaine n’a pu établir la
paix dans le monde. La paix consolidée par des traités, des conventions utilitaires
ou par le sort précaire des armes a quelque chose d’indigent et demeure fragile du
fait des déplacements permanents des forces, de l’instabilité des intérêts mouvants
et des convoitises contraires. La paix par la peur peut se maintenir pendant un
temps, mais cette dernière ne lui assure nullement la pérennité. La menace reste un
déclencheur de conflits si puissant qu’elle peut balayer tous les scrupules. Elle peut
constituer un puissant aiguillon pour la recherche des solutions, mais elle est un
fondement peu sûr de la paix17.
La paix a certainement besoin d’ordre, mais ne saurait toute se réduire à elle.
Que ces deux notions ne puissent pas correspondre, les remarques introductives le
14
15
16
17
14
John Nelson, The Church: People of God, (New York: Rinehart and Winston, 1965), p. 161
Jean Marie Quenum, Le Dieu de la solidarité qui vient à l’Africain, (Abidjan, UCAO, 2005), p.10
A. Manaranche, Ceci est mon corps, (Paris, Seuil, 1975), p. 115
Eibl – Eibesfeldt, Guerre et Paix dans l’homme, (Paris, Stock, 1976), p. 246
laissent entendre. Pendant plus de quinze siècles, a prévalu la définition augustinienne
de la paix comme tranquillité de l’ordre, Pax, tranquilitas ordinis. Cette expression
empruntée à la philosophie stoïcienne n’a rien de biblique et évoque plutôt la
domination despotique d’un Etat policier ou totalitaire. De plus, elle développe une
conception statique, nullement dynamique de la paix18. Jésus s’oppose radicalement
à cette conception de la paix, « n’allez pas croire que je sois venu apporter la paix
sur la terre ; je ne suis pas venu apporter la paix, mais le glaive ». Faire la paix ne
veut pas dire perpétrer une société de classes où les puissants se taillent la part
léonine, font les lois et donnent des ordres. Les chrétiens doivent éviter de se
comporter en tyrans fantasques, en autocrates vaniteux, avides de domination et de
flatteries comme certains chefs africains. La suite du Christ est incompatible avec
toute complicité, toute symbiose avec les structures du péché. C’est plutôt un appel
à débusquer tous ces préjugés idéologiques qui fondent et justifient la domination
d’une minorité sur des multitudes. Le Christ ne légitime aucune structure injuste et
n’est pas le garant céleste du statu quo social.
La paix est un processus jamais achevé « de libre et confiante communication
entre les hommes des richesses de leur esprit et de leurs facultés créatrices : la ferme
volonté de respecter les autres hommes et les autres peuples ainsi que leur dignité,
la pratique assidue de la fraternité sont absolument indispensables à la construction
de la paix.19» De la communication et du respect entre les hommes naîtront l’accueil
et l’échange, base de cette hospitalité dans laquelle Kant voyait l’essence du droit
qu’il appelait cosmopolitique. Quelque soit la couleur de la peau, la taille ou la
forme des lèvres ou du nez, nous faisons partie de la race humaine avec ses peurs
et ses espérances. Personne n’est étranger sur la terre et sa forme circulaire indique
que nous devons cohabiter20. Le sacrifice du Christ nous montre que la vie humaine
« n’apparaît concevable qu’au prix d’un idéal de justice, de fraternité et de générosité,
sans doute toujours menacé et imparfait, mais toujours aussi soutenu par un effort
renaissant et en voie de réalisation21 ». C’est ce qui se vivait à l’échelle nucléaire
dans les premières assemblées eucharistiques.
Le respect de la différence
Très peu de ceux qui se réclament de la dignité de la personne humaine
comprennent et vivent ce qui fonde et ce qu’exigent les droits et devoirs dont ils se
prévalent. L’auto-défense justifie aujourd’hui les théories de la guerre préventive
(par aggression ou représailles) et la course aux armements la plus effrénée. Que
d’oppressions et de crimes se commettent sous ce pavillon séduisant, que d’erreurs
dangereuses et d’instincts belliqueux se cachent derrière cet argument spécieux !
Cette idéologie ne fait aucun droit à l’autre qu’on considère avant tout comme
étranger ou ennemi potentiel comme jadis où tout ce qui n’était pas européen était
considéré comme barbare, clientèle commerciale ou réservoir d’esclaves comme il
arriva à un astronome turc. Il avait découvert l’astéroïde B 612 en 1909. Il en fit une
grande démonstration au Congrès International d’Astronomie. Personne ne le crut à
18
R. Bosc, Evangile, Violence et Paix, (Paris, Centurion, 1975), p. 22
Gaudium et Spes, n.78, §2
20
E. Kant, Projet de Paix Perpetuel, in Oeuvres Philosophiques, (Paris, nrf/Gallimard, 1986), pp. 349-350
21
Blondel, Lutte Pour la Civilisation et Philosophie de la Paix, (Paris, Flammarion, 1939), p. 120
19
15
cause de son costume. Plus tard le dictateur turc au pouvoir imposa à son peuple,
sous peine de mort, de s’habiller à l’européenne. L’astronome refit sa démonstration
l’année suivante dans un ‘habit très élégant’. Et cette fois-là, tout le monde fut de
son avis22.
Sous l’invocation ambiguë et souvent fallacieuse de l’auto-défense se déploient
presque toujours l’arbitraire et la violence au service des intérêts d’un groupe, de
leurs rêves d’orgueil et de jouissance, leur espoir de la joie par la force brutale,
l’autolâtrie de leur caste et une prétendue supériorité qui leur confère tous les droits
sur tout et sur tous. Cette mégalomanie, lucide ou obscure, doit aussi être présentée
en oblation à l’autel du sacrifice eucharistique. Toute théorie exclusiviste nous ramène
sur le plan de l’animalité et en prétendant ériger en norme le droit de conquête et
de défense, on retourne à une sorte de sauvagerie qui, pour être savante, n’en est
que plus barbare. Même les bêtes sauvages ne se font pas la guerre, à moins que la
faim ou le soin de leurs petits ne les y obligent. A-t-on jamais vu des lièvres aller en
guerre contre des taureaux ? En revanche, combien de fois n’a-t-on pas vu des
chrétiens aller en guerre contre d’autres chrétiens23.
La non- violence
La morale classique, à la suite des philosophes grecs, admet comme normale la
rétribution ou la compensation pour un dommage subi. Platon pense qu’en toutes
circonstances, il est juste de rendre à l’ennemi son dû, c’est-à-dire, quelque mal24.
Pour Aristote, se venger de ses ennemis est juste et plus noble que l’arrangement à
l’amiable ; et un homme courageux ne doit pas se laisser maltraiter25. Après avoir
montré que le juste milieu et la réciprocité président à toute éthique sociale, il
conclut que la conduite juste est « le juste milieu entre commettre et souffrir l’injustice26
». Mais le Christ va au-delà de cette sagesse éthique comme prérequis à l’harmonie
sociale.
En portant sa croix et en souffrant la passion, le Christ montre que sur le chemin
de la paix, il est mieux de subir que de commettre l’injustice. Contrairement à son
disciple qui dégaina et coupa l’oreille de l’esclave du grand prêtre, il se laissa arrêter
(Mt 26. 47-56). Frappé, il ne rendit pas (Mt 26. 67-68). Il ne fit pas appel aux anges
pour sa défense, ce qui aurait été contraire à sa vision de la paix. Injustement accusé
il ne répondit rien ; on l’insulta et on cracha sur lui. La seule réponse fut sa prière à
son Père : « pardonne leur car ils ne savent pas ce qu’ils font » (Lc 23. 34). Cette
attitude de désistement27 face à la violence ne signifie pas résignation et passivité
face à l’injustice. La non-violence met l’agresseur dans une situation de perplexité
qui met en lumière l’absurdité de la violence. Est-il humain de continuer à frapper
quelqu’un qui est sans défense et qui renonce à se défendre ? Quel sens cela fait-il
de dépouiller quelqu’un qui donne déjà tout ce qu’il a ?
22
St Exupery, Le Petit Prince, (New York, HBJ Books, 1971), pp. 15-16
Erasme, Paix et Guerre, (Paris, Aubier Montaigne, 1973), p. 222. Voir aussi Voltaire, Treatise on
Toleration, chap. VI, (New York, Wise and Company, 1931), pp. 159-161
24
Platon, La République, 332b
25
Aristote, La Rhétorique, 1.9.24, 1167a 19-22
26
Aristote, Ethique a Nicomaque, 5.5.17, 1133b 30-32
27
Hans D. Betz, The Sermon on the Mount, (Minneapolis, Fortress Press, 1995), p. 284
23
16
Gandhi est probablement la première personne de l’histoire à étendre l’éthique
chrétienne de la non-violence au-delà de la relation intersubjective. Il en a fait une
arme efficace à l’échelle sociale, « j’ai tout simplement trouvé, dit-il, que cette loi de
l’amour était plus efficace que la voix de la violence28 ». Si on veut atteindre l’harmonie,
il faut détourner son adversaire de l’erreur avec patience et bonté au lieu de recourir
à la force. De fait, la résistance non-violente est moralement et pratiquement la
seule arme des opprimés dans leur lutte pour la liberté et la justice sociale. Ce n’est
pas de la lâcheté. Elle ne doit pas être utilisée par peur ou comme seul recours pour
des faibles par manque d’instruments de violence. Si la lâcheté devient la seule
alternative, il est mieux de combattre29. Ce n’est pas une passive acceptation des
injustices et du mal. Même si le résistant non-violent n’agresse pas physiquement
son adversaire, sa pensée et ses sentiments essaient de le persuader de son tort.
Le but n’est pas de détruire ou humilier l’agresseur, mais l’invitation à l’amitié et
à l’entente mutuelle. La protestation, la non-coopération ou le boycott ne sont pas
des fins en soi. Ce sont des moyens pour interpeller l’autre à la réconciliation. Il faut
affronter l’agresseur non pas dans le but de l’anéantir mais le changer. On s’attaque
non à l’ennemi, mais à l’inimité responsable de la violence en lui. En cas de racisme
par exemple, ce qui est en jeu, ce n’est pas le raciste, mais la tension entre les
races30. Ce qui est visé, ce ne sont pas les personnes, mais la force de destruction en
elles. C’est la manière la plus efficace de mettre un terme au cycle de violence et de
contre-violence. Les problèmes humains ne se résolvent pas par des luttes sanglantes
et des haines fratricides, « la guerre ne paie pas. Même victorieuse elle est ruineuse
pour l’équilibre moral et matériel des vainqueurs et des vaincus31 ». La triste
conséquence de la lutte violente c’est l’amertume et la rengaine alors que l’opposition
non-violente crée des liens nouveaux dans le tissu social. Se venger ne fait rien
d’autre qu’intensifier la haine dans le monde. La violence n’arrête pas la violence.
Même si le terroriste se dit mû par l’amour des opprimés, son action s’enferme dans
la spirale ininterrompue de la violence et de la contre-violence. La vraie liberté «
c’est être prêt à mourir, s’il le faut, de la main de son prochain, mais jamais à le tuer.
Quelle qu’en soit la raison, tout meurtre ou autre atteinte à la personne est un crime
contre l’humanité32». C’est à ce devoir de réconciliation que nous sommes appelés
au quotidien, et ceci de deux manières.
Passivement, en étant ‘pacifiques’. Les pacifiques se caractérisent par leur absence d’agressivité, l’horreur des querelles et des disputes. Ils aiment la tranquillité
et le calme qui poussent à la tolérance et à la conciliation. Ils ne bousculent pas les
autres. Ils s’appliquent à être en paix, à vivre en paix, et à rechercher la paix avec
tous33. Ils sont humbles, patients, vivant selon la recommandation du Christ « vivez
en paix les uns avec les autres » (Mc 9, 50). Activement en étant ‘pacificateurs’ c’està-dire ceux qui font la paix. Il ne faut pas seulement s’employer a vivre en paix avec
tout le monde, mais il faut faire plus et ne pas craindre de perdre sa paix personnelle
28
29
30
31
32
33
Gandhi, Tous les Hommes sont Frères, (Paris, Gallimard, 1969), p. 155
M. L. King, Stride toward Freedom, (New York, Harper and Row, 1964), p. 83
Ibid, p. 84
Maurice Blondel, op.cit., p. 114
Gandhi, op.cit., p. 153
Jacques Dupont, Les Beatitutes, Tome III, (Paris, Gabalda et Cie, 1973), p. 635
17
en intervenant dans des conflits, en se plaçant pour ainsi dire au milieu du feu de
deux partis en querelle pour apporter la paix dans la communauté34. C’est en faisant
respecter le droit et la justice que les pacificateurs assurent la paix. Et il faut mettre
à profit toutes les ressources humaines et sociales pour remédier aux injustices
commises contre les faibles, les opprimés et tous ces pauvres hères que l’on considère
comme les balayures, le rebut du ‘genre vraiment humain’.
Conclusion
La paix est indocile à toute tentative faite pour gommer les différences,
résorber la polychromie de la vie dans la grisaille des dogmes
unanimistes imposés par la force et la contrainte. Elle est invincible à
tout désir de faire triompher ses convictions, son mode de penser et de sentir, au
mépris de l’autre. La tendance moderne au culte de l’autonomie individuelle et de
la personne-fin-en-soi est une erreur foncière qui expose la société à un état de
violence permanente. Il n’y a aucune nécessité de prétendre posséder à soi tout
seul toutes les harmoniques de la vérité, du savoir être et du savoir faire en réduisant
l’autre à la sujétion ou au silence. La paix n’est possible que par la mort à ses
propres certitudes, par le dessaisissement de soi qui admet comme préalable la
complémentarité avec d’autres hommes situés autrement et dans d’autres conditions, et avec qui on est en relation. Dans l’Eucharistie, Dieu s’annonce comme
puissance différentielle d’illumination qui opère au sein des divisions et des conflits
en vue de les surmonter, comme acte de réconciliation, règlements de conflits,
rétablissement des équilibres et résolution des crises. L’Eucharistie devient donc
une abstraction morte, une référence oiseuse et mystificatrice si elle n’exprime pas
cette exigence éthique de communion, cet impératif qui nous renvoie à notre
responsabilité historique. La fuite dans les ‘symboles de Dieu’ ne saurait être un
refuge et un exorcisme contre les aspérités de la vie, l’alibi qui ajourne notre propre
conversion. Le Christ nous renvoie aux conditions vérifiables de l’expérience où il
nous invite à être ‘artisans de la paix’ (Mt 5. 9), à l’encontre de la répétition des
croyances et des rites sans enjeu ni pertinence. Et uniquement ceux qui s’engagent
contre la violence, pour le respect du droit des gens et pour la défense des hommes
peuvent être considérés comme des artisans de la paix.
Bibliographie
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———— Rhetorics and Poetics, New York, Random House, 1954.
Betz H. D., The Sermon on the Mount, Minneapolis, Fortress Press, 1995.
Blondel M, Lutte Pour la Civilisation et Philosophie de la Paix, Paris, Flammarion, 1939.
Bosc R., Evangile, Violence et Paix, Paris, Centurion, 1975.
Dupont J., Les Beatitudes, Tome III, Paris, Gabalda et Cie, 1973.
Eboussi Boulaga F., A Contretemps, L’enjeu de Dieu en Afrique, Paris, Karthala, 1991
———— Christianisme sans fétiches, Paris, Presence Africaine, 1981.
34
18
Ibid., p. 637
Eibl – Eibesfeldt, Guerre et Paix dans l’homme, Paris, Stock, 1976.
Erasme, Paix et Guerre, Paris, Aubier Montaigne, 1973.
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Exupéry St., Le Petit Prince, New York, HBJ Books, 1971.
Gandhi, Tous les Hommes sont Freres, Paris, Gallimard, 1969.
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Jagersma H., A Hisory of Israel, London, Fortress Press, 1986.
Kant E., Projet de Paix Perpetuelle, in Oeuvres Philosophiques, Paris, Gallimard, 1986.
King M. L., Stride toward Freedom, New York, Harper and Row, 1964.
Leon-Dufour X, Le partage du pain eucharistique, Paris, Seuil, 1982.
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Manaranche A., Ceci est mon corps, Seuil, Paris, 1975.
Mellon C., Chretiens devant la guerre et la paix, Paris, Ceras, 1984.
Nelson J., The Church: People of God, (New York: Rinehart and Winston, 1965.
Platon, Le Banquet, Paris, Belles Lettres, 1951.
———— La Republique, in Œuvres, Paris, Belles Lettres, 1932-33.
Plutarque, Lives, London, Heinemann, 1926.
Ortigues E., Religions du Livre et Religion de la Coutume, Paris, Le Sycomore, 1981.
Teilhard de Chardin P., La Messe sur le Monde, Paris, Seuil, 1965.
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19
Amaechi M. Ugwu, S.J.
JusticetotheEnvironment
Amaechi M. Ugwu, S.J.*
Sommaire
Cet article montre comment les hommes luttent pour réparer les injustices infligées à l’environnement, en vue de restaurer le respect que
nous devons avoir vis-à-vis de la nature. En plus des raisons
scientifiques et économiques présentées comme motivation pour un tel respect et pour
la préservation de notre milieu naturel, l’auteur présente quelques raisons théologiques
qui justifient notre engagement de promouvoir une relation responsible avec
l’environnement.
1. Introduction For millennia, humans have inhabited the earth and have relied on
it for sustenance as well as for the gratification of humans’ insatiable
appetite for materialism. Initially, humans loved the environment
and viewed it as a major partner in their earthly journey. In other words, mutual
benefit marked the relationship existing between humans and the natural habitat.
They got their livelihood from their surrounding and in return, gave back what the
environment needed for its continuity, peace. Cultures and tribes around the world
respected the environment from which they sustained their livelihood. These tribes
some of which could be found in Africa worshipped the physical environment in
which they lived. The mountains, oceans, seas, rivers, forests, valleys, plains, basins, deserts, seasons, and the skies represented not merely exploitable components
of the earth, but also sacred sanctuaries which deserved respect from humans.
However beginning from about 5,000 years ago when human population started
to increase geometrically, they began putting stress upon the natural world culminating in the industrial assault on the planet especially in the last two centuries.1
This final assault which originated in Western Europe, North America, eventually
spreading to Asia and most recently and still on a relatively small scale to Africa stems
from the unbridled desire of nations to sustain their ever growing economy. The
result of this abuse and misuse of our natural resources in the past century particularly
in the developed world is such global environmental problems like global warming,
depletion of the ozone layer, desertification, flooding, drought etc. Today, the world
has become aware of its exploitative and destructive activities on the natural environment, hence efforts are been made globally and locally to reverse the situation.
In this four- part paper, I intend to take a look at the global state of the environment: this includes the world ecological state of affairs and the consequent environmental crises experienced in various parts of the world. Specific attention will be
given to Africa’s participation not only in the global effort to restore the environment to its traditional state, but also on the role Africans have played in the depletion of the natural environment. This paper will not be complete without an in*
Amaechi M Ugwu is a Jesuit from Nigeria in his second year of theology at Hekima College.
James Conlon, Geo-Justice. A preferential Option for the Earth, San Jose: Resource Publications,
Inc., 1990, p. 7.
1
20
depth look at some of the concrete actions being taken around the world and in
Africa with specific interest in some cities like Lagos, Nairobi and Johannesburg
towards achieving the global objective. Finally I shall join other voices in proffering
some theological theory of Justice for our world.
2. The Causes of
Global Ecological
Threat
While the title of this segment might suggest that the main
focus of this paper is the global climatic and ecological state
of the world, it is not necessarily so. Such an enterprise will
be too ambitious for the purpose of this paper however, since
the world is a network of relations and connectedness, any appreciation of a continental dimension of the problem will be incomplete without the global appraisal of
the issue. The ecological changes and crises on the continent of Africa and the
solutions currently being proffered remain the center of focus for this paper. Geographically, Africa occupies a definable space, but environmentally it is one with
the rest of the world. Whatever affects Africa as a continent, indirectly has a bearing
on the world at large and vise versa. In a concrete analysis of the situation, Africa
ranks among the lowest offenders of the global environment and its activities make
up about a less than a third of the world’s ecological destruction but sadly enough,
research shows that it stands to loose more from the present deterioration of the
global environment. This low percentage does not mean that African nations practice a higher standard in their relationship with the ecological environment, but
simply because most ecological destructions are economically driven. In other words,
the more developed a nation’s economy is, the more damage that nation stands to
inflict on the global environment. Statistics reveal that the highly industrialized nations in their drive to technologically conquer and subdue the earth account for the
highest percentage in the destruction of our ecological environment. In spite of this
statistic, this paper does not intend however to view Africa as an innocent victim of
a global environmental conspiracy.
The result of several publications, reports, surveys etc carried out on the ecological state of the world present very grim pictures of our world. Our world faces
great threat from human activities with grave consequences on the climate, the
ecosystems, the marine system, and on the general environment. One example is
the depletion of the ozone layer resulting from the emission of certain dangerous
gasses from our industries. Related to this problem is the fact that due to excessive
use of fossil fuel and bush burning around the world, the atmosphere is undergoing
a change in its chemical composition.2 Africa’s contribution to the global environmental degradation is mostly felt in this level. Furthermore, the increase in the
overall global temperature resulting from heat generated by industries, thermal and
nuclear plants around the world in turn precipitates great changes in our global
climate. Again, industries in African cities send out plumes of industrial gases into
the atmosphere due to the non-environmentally friendly technologies in use in
some of these places. Deforestation, bad irrigation techniques, industrial pollution,
unplanned urbanization, improper management of solid and liquid urban waste
2
J.N.K Mugambi & Mika Vahakangas (eds.), Christian Theology and Environmental Responsibility.
Nairobi: Action Publishers, 2001, p. 8.
21
products and an ever increasing human population are some other ways through
which human societies particularly Africans are participating in ecological deterioration. Slums in most major cities of Africa like Ajegunle in Lagos, Sophiatown in
Johannesburg, and kibera in Nairobi and other big slums in Africa in many ways
create hazards to both the human population inhabiting in these places as well as to
the environment. Overcrowding caused by rural-urban migration and poor or lack
of urban planning create a strain on available facilities leading to an eventual collapse of the social amenities. Albeit the list of these ecological and environmental
offenses may be endless, the objective of this research analysis is not to dwell so
much on the causes of ecological degradation, rather, it hopes to explore the ways
through which the world and in particular Africa can, and is responding to the crisis
of environmental degradation.
The reality of our situation is precarious and the picture is a gloomy one. The world does not stand a very
good chance of sustaining itself, and providing adequate food, clean water, purified air and good climate for its population if the scenario is not quickly
amended. Klaus Toepfer, of the UN. Environment Programme further amplifies the
global state when he said, “It would be a disaster to sit back and ignore the picture
that is being painted,”.3 The UN report on the Environment that prompted Toepfer’s
comment clearly stated that “in 30 years, the earth could look like a desert-strewn
wasteland of urban slums, lose almost a quarter of its mammal species and leave
people inhabiting large regions perishing from thirst and water-borne disease.”4
Currently the world is experiencing an unprecedented high global temperatures
leading to global warming which in turn sets off other chain reactions from the earth
like changes in the global climate, weather and wind patterns etc.5 The notion that
the precarious state of our global environment is likely to worsen if things continue
unabated has been echoed by various environmental experts as far back as in the
80s and even before. An example is “The Global 2000 Report”6 published in the US
that predicts consequences for the world if nothing was urgently done to reverse
the course of environmental degradation.
Meteorologists have persistently warned of a rise in the sea and ocean levels
due to the thawing of ice in the polar regions of the globe. Although there has been
no direct link yet between the ocean Tsunami -disaster which occurred in South
East Asia late last year or the most recent hurricane Katrina and Rita that wrecked
enormous havoc in US with any man-made environmental disruptions, the world
has over the years experienced storms, cyclones, floods, draught etc with wide
ranging effects on the human and animal population. The atmosphere too has not
been left out in this assault. The pollution from automobile exhausts, from fossil
fuels, from factories and waste dumps in cities combine to form acrid smog over the
3. Effects of Global
Ecological Deterioration
and the Consequent
Crises
3
Olivia Ward, The Toronto Star, “ UN Report: Planet’s Future At Stake”, May 23, 2002.
Ibid.
5
J.N.K Mugambi & Mika Vahakangas (eds.), Christian Theology and Environmental Responsibility,
p. 12.
6
Philip N. Joranson & Ken Butigan, Cry of the Environment. New Mexico: Bear and Company, 1984, p. 3
4
22
skyline of most major cities. The result is a reduction of oxygen level and the
increase in carbon-dioxide level. In addition, there is the threat posed by the depletion of the ozone layer which in the long run exposes the earth’s surface and the
atmosphere to harmful rays from the sun.7 Sewage from treatment plants, factory
disposal units, as well as other communal and industrial wastes improperly disposed constitute great sources of water pollution which are harmful to the marine
life or worse still to human beings that drink such water.
Where does Africa stand in the context of this ecological and environmental
deterioration? As I have already mentioned, issues of ecology and climate are our
global commons. By this, I mean that all human beings share in the responsibility of
maintaining the global climate and ecology irrespective of what part of the world they
live. Just as a peaceful global environment favors all, so also does its deterioration
adversely affect all. African nations like their counterparts elsewhere have also participated in varying degrees in the exploitation and careless treatment of the world
environments. For example, most cities in Africa like Lagos, Nairobi, Cairo, Johannesburg, etc are currently experiencing population explosion which in most cases creates
heavy strain on the little social infrastructure to the point where they become completely overrun. When this happens, the result is ecological and environmental degradation. Also the incidence of bush burning as well as deforestation through unplanned and illegal lumbering and farming activities are common ways of creating
environmental hazards in Africa. Another way through which African countries often
neglect the environment is through overgrazing of the fields which leads to
desertification and other more serious environmental or climatic problems like drought.
4. What Can Be Done to Salvage
the Situation? What Is Being Done
To Restore Our Environment?
The current state of the global environment
makes the cry for an environmental justice
inevitable. According to a United Nations
environmental study released a few years
ago, the planet is poised on a precipice, and time is running out for making tough
political and economic choices that can pull it back from disaster. Considering this
scenario in addition to the fact that our human survival and sustenance on earth is
inescapably tied to the survival of the earth and its ecological and climatic environments, the fight for eco-justice is also a fight for human justice. Only two options are
available to human beings. The first option is a scenario where the nations of the
world continue their unbridled exploitation and neglect of the environment, thus
inevitably leading to the detriment of the whole human race. The second and last
option which I suppose is what the UN and other nations have endorsed, involves
a committed change in our human attitude towards the environment in a manner
that will result in “stabilizing global warming, repairing damage to water resources
and mitigating the worst effects of environmentally induced poverty”.8 The good
news is that the International Community now recognizes the severity of the threats
to the environment, and there have been numerous programs set up by governments
around the world, as well as by agencies like the UN, NGOs, Religious organizations
and other private groups towards the conservation of our environment.
7
Samson K. Gitau, The Environmental Crisis: A Challenge for African Christianity, Nairobi: Action
Publishers, 2000, p. 1
8
Olivia Ward, “UN Report: The Planet Future At stake”, The Toronto Star, May 23, 2002
23
The issue today is not what can be done, but what is being done? The answer
to the question of what can be done has long been proffered by scientists and
environmentalists. On a global level, the United Nations Environmental Program
[UNEP] has begun a number of projects around the world that aim at protecting and
conserving the ecosystem. These programs vary from such simple projects of tree
planting to very complex plans involving drastic reduction of the global CO2 level.
Under the guidance of the UN also, the countries of the world have come together
to sign the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 which requires most of the wealthier nations to
reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by about 60-80%.9 Although not all countries
in the world have agreed to sign into this protocol, there is hope that if nations
complied by this protocol there will be some noticeable changes in the global
carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere.
Today, a great ecological and climatic sensitivity has been created and fostered
by many nations of the world. Individuals and States have begun taking responsibility for the welfare of their environments and this new attitude towards the environment is gradually translating into positive changes. For example in Europe and
North America, the quality of air and river waters has improved and checks on
chemical emissions have made it possible for recovery of ozone layer damage,
which has been growing to alarming proportions. Forest management schemes,
such as those of Canada, Finland, Norway and the United States, are ensuring that
the impact of over-harvesting of timber will be reduced in those countries.10 America
and Europe are not alone in this progressive attitude as other nations are currently
implementing similar programs.
In Africa, the fight for ecological justice has not been as successful as it ought to
be, simply because of incidence of wars and gross under development and poverty.
The many wars going on around the continent continue to pose great threat to the
few progressive attempts been made to plant more trees and to conserve the already existing forests and animal species. The threat to marine system resulting from
illegal wastes dumped in rivers and in other inland water bodies is another area that
is currently receiving attention from some governments and citizens. For instance,
in Lagos, a city which for years was notorious for dumping its waste products into
the surrounding lagoon has begun to reverse that attitude. Currently environmentalists in collaboration with some environmentally conscious citizens have begun a
clearing operation on the lagoon in order to save the aquatic life in addition to
making the metropolis more beautiful. Part of the effort to realize an environmental
justice on the continent can be seen in the establishment of ministries and centers
for environmental and ecological conservation. In addition, schools around the
continent have begun to include some subjects that deal with environmental awareness, ecological justice and responsibility as well as other environmentally related
issues in their curriculum with a view of developing environmental sensitivity among
the children. In Kenya, environmental justice is being achieved through tree planting programs aimed at increasing the forest area as well as conservation of the
existing forests and wildlife. The ecological activism of Professor Wangari Marthai,
the recent winner of the Nobel Peace Award is a worthy example of Africans who
9
10
24
J.N.K Mugambi & Mika Vahakangas, p. 15.
Olivia Ward, Toronto Star.
have devoted a great deal of time and efforts for the cause of the environment.
Unfortunately, like the case in other African countries, the positive effort to preserve
and plant new trees is thwarted by the destructive activities of certain disgruntled
citizens who fell trees and poach animals for economic purposes.11 Lately, with the
increase in the phenomena of poaching and illegal lugging a new burden of protecting the forests and the wildlife has been added to African governments in a bid
to realize the ecological justice which our world desires. In order to attain the 6080% global reduction in the green house gas emission, African countries are expected by the Kyoto protocol to introduce improved environmentally friendly technologies in their fledging industries.
5. Towards A Theology of The demand for justice to the environment may seem to
have been necessitated only by fear of the impending
Environmental Justice
consequences of our environmental abuse. However the
theological dimension to this new eco-sensitivity has always been with man. For
centuries, Christian writers and theologians have canvassed for the respect of our
natural world on the basis that, just like humankind, the natural world too bears the
mark of God hence it deserves some respect from human beings. The Bible is full of
passages that denote environmental appreciation. In Genesis 1:31, “God created
heaven and earth and saw that everything he had made was good”. He created
human beings and placed them in charge of the earth, but in our selfishness, we
chose to destroy it rather than preserve God’s creation. By our destructive activities
we have thwarted the design of God. The book of Psalms (Ps. 104) as well as the
Gospels (Mk. 4:30-32) further bring out this theological dimension.
Numerous theological and scientific reasons abound that support environmental justice in all of its forms and in the course of this paper, I have presented some
of the scientifically and economically driven arguments. In this last segment, I intend to proffer three theological reasons why we should preserve, respect and undo
the damage we have done to the natural environment over the course of time. First,
“All humankind is made in the image and likeness of God and all of nature bear the
marks of God. This demands (requires) of us to adopt the guiding principle of
equity.”12 In other words, by the fact that God created the natural world in all its
beauty and richness and placed it in our charge presupposes that our attitude to our
environment should be nothing less than one of respect and equity. I believe that
God did not place nature at our disposal that we may ruin it rather nature is God’s
gift to human beings from which we can get our sustenance. Perhaps, if we can
learn to see nature as a product of God’s creative love for us, then we would be
able to better appreciate it not merely for its beauty but for its purposes. The second
theological reason for ecological sensitivity is a moral justification. I agree with the
claim of T.S Derr in his book, Ecology and Human Liberation, which states that
since “humanity is given dominion over the work of God for having a special
relationship with God and nature”, human beings especially Christians have a duty,
which I call a moral obligation, to work for a well- balanced life where justice and
ecological concerns are the living testimony in revealing the love of God for both
11
Konrad Adenauer Stiftung, Environmental Problems in Kenya: Surviving a spoiled Environment,
Nairobi: Konrad Adenauer Foundation, p. 17
12
Mugambi & Vahakangas, p. 29.
25
humanity and nature.13 It is said that “to him whom much is given, much is expected”. From this saying, we can confidently assume that it behooves humankind
to strive for the welfare of the environment which supplies us with our every need.
The third and last reason for ecological justice comes from the inseparable relationship existing between human beings and nature. This point too has been echoed by
E.M Odum, in a book entitled Ecology. Paraphrasing Odum, Gitau writes that “ecology stands for the totality of mankind and environment”.14 The point is that human
beings and the environment exist in such a close relationship that we cannot survive without the environment. In fact, the natural environment probably may be
able to do without us, but human beings cannot do without the physical or natural
environment. Therefore, by destroying the ecological environment through insensitive and exploitative activities, we are indirectly destroying human beings who are
God’s images on earth. In the same way, the preservation of the environment involves the indirect protection and care for the welfare and existence of human
beings too, since our sustenance is directly dependent on the natural environment.
The church too has not been left out in this fight to reclaim our earth and restore
it to its original ecological state. Albeit less vigor as with the dogmatic teachings on
Faith and Morals, a few papal encyclicals have been devoted towards our responsible attitude to the environment. In addition, many Catholic theologians and social
scientists like Pete Henriot among others have also been theologizing and writing
extensively on the subject. As a further response to this global issue, the Church
through its local authorities has set up “Centers for Concern” in a few countries
around the world where serious intellectual attention can be paid to matters of
environment as well as other social justice issues plaguing our contemporary world.
In a concrete way, the church could also further its role in the restoration of our
environment through organization of awareness programs in parishes and out stations for its members. These structures could also serve as centers through which
the Church could implement the thoughts echoed in Vatican II’s Lumen Gentium
and other environmentally conscious papal encyclicals. Through its small Christian
groups, the Church may also initiate tree planting campaign, educating the public
on the need for a proper disposal of its waste materials, the need to reduce their
rate of fuel and fossil burning while introducing better and more efficient ways of
living without necessarily putting further strain on the environment.
6. Conclusion The earth with all its resources is ours to hold and to cherish and
like the proverbial bed we shall lie on it just the way we make it.
After centuries of plundering, exploiting, and other careless attitudes towards the
environment human beings seem to have realized that it is their responsibility to
care for and protect the earth and its environment. In the course of this paper, we
have looked at the global state of our ecological, climatic and marine environments.
One fact agreed upon by all is that our global environment is in a precarious state
and demands urgent commitment to change on the part of all humans irrespective
13
T.S. Derr, Ecology and Human Liberation, A Theological Critique of the use and abuse of our
birthright, New York: AWSCF Books, 1973
14
Samson K. Gitau, p. 8.
26
of where we are living on the globe. In order to reverse the damage caused to the
world environment, there is a need for a sustained intensity in our attitudes and
redeeming actions towards the earth. So far, scientists, ecologists and conservationists and even theologians have been coming up with various theories on how we
can be able to salvage our physical environment, but nations, corporate groups,
religious movements and individuals have not been able to match their pledges
with equal concrete commitments in investments and attitude change to bring about
the much desired change. However, this is not to say that nothing is being done.
Actually, a lot of programs, summits, conferences have been convened around the
world for this purpose and governments and private organizations as well as individuals are gradually warming up to the great and important task ahead of us in this
battle to save our environment from total collapse. Whether it is through lofty
scientific theories, theological and ethical/moral arguments or still through the simple acts of the common man on the street, the world must be united today in its
desire to restore our global environment. Finally, the knowledge that we humans
exist as a communion of subjects with nature and other created beings ought to act
as the backdrop on which our new found relationship with the environment should
be developed. Africa as the cradle of human life has a significant role to play in
order to guarantee the sustainability of the lives of humans and nature. From our
research, it is clear that the prevalent poverty in Africa makes it the most vulnerable
continent to the hazard of the natural disasters such as drought and flooding or
desertification etc. How then can Africa achieve its millennium goals of poverty
alleviation as well as reduction in the HIV/AIDS pandemic under these conditions?
What would peace in the world and Africa be? As the members of Peace Conference
held in Costa Rica rightly concluded, “Peace in an ideal world, would be more than
a lull between wars—It would be an accepted state of mind, a way of life, a firm
principle shaping the behavior of individuals, families and societies and their relationships with each other, and with all other living things and with the Earth itself”15.
Bibliography
A Guide to World Resources 2000—2001. People and Ecosystems: The Fraying Web of Life.
www. wri.org
Conlon, James. Geo-Justice. A Preferential Option for the Earth. San Jose: Resource Publications, Inc. 1990.
Derr, T. S. Ecology and Human Liberation: A Theological Critique of the Use and Abuse of our
Birthright. New York: AWSCF Books, 1973.
Gitau, K. Samson. The Environmental Crisis: A Challenge for African Christianity. Nairobi:
Actions Publishers, 2000.
Joranson, N. Philip, & Butigan, Ken. Cry of the Environment. New Mexico: Bear and Company. 1984.
Mugambi, J.N.K. & Vahakangas Mika, (eds.). Christian Theology and Environmental Responsibility. Nairobi: Action Publishers. 2001.
Mwichabe, Situma. Environmental Problems in Kenya: Surviving a Spoiled Environment. Nairobi: Konrad Adenauer Foundation. 2002.
Tico Times: Editorial (English Language Weekly). San Jose, Costa Rica. June 23, 1989.
Ward Olivia. The Toronto Star. “UN Report: Planet’s Future at Stake”. May 23, 2002.
15
Tico Times: Editorial (English Language Weekly), San Jose, Costa Rica. June 23, 1989.
27
Peter J. Henriot, S.J.
A Church In the Modern World of Africa:
The Zambian Experience
Peter J. Henriot, S.J.*
Sommaire Sur base de son expérience pastorale et politique, l’auteur présente “une
Eglise Zambienne dans le contexte de l’Afrique moderne”. Pour parvenir
à cette fin, il articule quatre axes essentiels, à savoir, le contexte de la Zambie, la
méthodologie de l’Enseignement Social de L’Eglise, et les leçons qu’on peut en tirer.
Devenir certainement une Eglise dans le monde moderne exige quelque chose de
plus que de brilliants documents. Il s’agit encore de mettre ces documents en valeur
dans la vie pratique. L’auteur invite donc à une lecture des signes des temps à la
lumière de l’Evangile, à redécouvrir l’engouement de la recherche intellectuelle, à
une ouverture à la coopération internationale et à faire de l’Eglise un véritable instrument de paix, de justice et de libération, à partir de ses structures internes.
How often have you and I used the opening words of Gaudium et Spes, “The
joys and hopes, the fears and anxieties…”. to call attention for ourselves and for
others to the overriding priority of the Church’s mission today, the service of all
humanity to enjoy life to the fullest! Surely, there is no “church in the modern
world” if there is not that Christian community composed of women and men,
united in Christ, led by the Holy Spirit, in a journey to the Kingdom intimately
linked with humankind and its history (#1).
I want in this paper to present the experience of one part of our universal
Christian community, reflecting my own encounter of what this means in putting
our church’s social teaching (CST) into real daily life. This is more of a personal
reflection on experience than an academic analysis of texts. I bring to this reflection
sixteen years of working, pastorally and politically, in one African country, Zambia.
Zambia became independent of British colonial rule in 1964, one year before
that greatest document of the Second Vatican Council, Church in the Modern World
(Gaudium et Spes), was published. The Catholic church in Zambia has over the past
forty years played a very significant role in the development of the country. This has
occurred both through direct service institutions (e.g., schools and hospitals) and
through explicit social teaching on key issues facing the country at large. Today the
church enjoys a prominent and respected place, in cooperation with other church
bodies, in influencing the social, economic and political life of the people, as well
as the religious life of individuals and the community.
It is certainly true that key to the influence of the Catholic church has been the
guidance provided by the church’s social teaching, in offering both clarification of
issues and motivation for responding to those issues. This social teaching is found
both in official documents (many of them ecumenically produced)1 and in actions
*
Peter Henriot is an American Jesuit from Zambia-Malawi province of the Society of Jesus, Director
of the Jesuit Centre for Theological Reflection (JCTR).
28
undertaken by churches and small Christian communities (SCCs) and by significant
organizations such as the Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace and the Jesuit
Centre for Theological Reflection. The CST has also served as the basis for formation of clergy, religious and laity with the tools of social spirituality and social
analysis.
One can quite honestly say that the Church in the Modern World has found an
incarnation – could we even say an inculturation – in the Church in Modern
World of Africa as experienced in Zambia. Because of this experience, I want to
explore here (1) the context of Zambia, (2) the methodology of the church’s teaching, (3) the major points in its content, and (4) a few significant lessons that can be
drawn from its experience.2
1. Context
It is very important to realize that Zambia is a very rich country, one of
the richest in Africa, and that Zambians are very poor people, some of
the poorest in the world. Zambia is rich in land, water, agriculture, minerals, tourist
sites and most especially, a people at peace – forty years of seventy-two tribes living
without conflict. We are indeed the envy of our neighbours! But Zambians are very
poor, ranking 163 out of 173 on the UNDP Human Development Index, with the
World Bank estimating more than 80% living on less than one dollar a day. Life
expectancy is around 37 years, as malaria, malnutrition and AIDS inflict high mortality on the population.
In many ways, Zambia is a classic case study of what afflicts so much of Africa
today: a legacy of colonial exploitation, a history of bad governance, and an experience of the inequitable structures of globalisation. The current worldwide campaign, Make Poverty History, identifies well the global problems faced by Zambia:
unjust debt burden, unfair trade relationships and inadequate aid arrangements.3
Zambia is a multi-party democracy, struggling to achieve good governance after
twenty-seven years of one party rule and ten years of highly corrupt rule. We are in
the midst now of constitutional review and up-coming presidential elections – highly
contentious issues, but issues being dealt with politically, not militarily, thank God!
Within Zambia, we have a very vital civil society, often led by a very vital
church. The Catholic church plays a major role, as it is a church working to implement the guidelines designed by the 1994 African Synod and articulated in the 1995
apostolic exhortation of John Paul II, Ecclesia in Africa. These guidelines describe
the task of evangelisation as five-fold: (1) proclamation, (2) inculturation, (3) dialogue, (4) justice and peace, and (5) communication.4 The life of the church is
grounded in the small Christian communities that form each parish in the country.
1
An excellent collection of these documents can be found in J. Komokoma, ed., The Social Teaching
of the Catholic Bishops and Other Christian Leaders in Zambia: Major Pastoral Letters and Statements,
1953-2001. Ndola, Zambia: Mission Press, 2003.
2
In my discussion of Gaudium et Spes, I will mainly limit my references to Part II, Chapters I, III and
IV, paragraphs 53 to 76.
3
See website of this campaign: www.cafod.org.uk/make poverty history.org
4
For articles that provide a good overview of the Synod and also the text of the Apostolic Exhortation, see Maura Browne, SND, ed., The African Synod: Documents, Reflections, Perspectives (Maryknoll,
NY: Orbis Books, 1996).
29
Early in Gaudium et Spes, there is a beautiful and powerful description of “The
Role of the Church in the Modern World”(#40-45). The description highlights the
mutual relationship between church and world and the contribution that each can
make to the other. I believe a look at how that relationship functions in the church
in Zambia in a few major points can throw important light on this topic. In a brief
paper, I can cite only a few of the more important instances, but enough to show
how a specific methodology influences the content of the Zambian church’s social
teaching. I also cite how this CST is put into practice.
2. Methodology How the church goes about its formulation and proclamation of
the CST that guides its being a “church in the modern world” is
extremely important. The methodology needs analysis
Ecumenical Cooperation
The Zambian expressions of CST have been examples of serious ecumenical
cooperation in articulation and action. There are three major church bodies (frequently referred to as “mother bodies”) in Zambia: the Zambian Episcopal Conference (ZEC – national secretariat for ten dioceses), the Council of Churches of Zambia (CCZ, comprised of mainline Protestant churches), and the Evangelical Fellowship of Zambia (EFZ, comprised of mainline evangelicals, not including the newer
“tele-evangelicals” coming in from North America). This cooperation surprised and
encouraged me when I came to live in Zambia in 1989.
These church bodies cooperate in some service missions such as health care,
particularly in the rural areas of the country. Most significantly, many major pastoral
letters have come out over the signatures of the leaders of these three major church
bodies. This ecumenical cooperation influences both the presentation – enriching
the message – and the reception – strengthening the response. Surely this fact is a
recognition of the wisdom of Gaudium et Spes when it stated that the church “must
rely on those who live the world, are versed in different institutions and specialties,
and grasp their innermost significance in the eyes of both believers and un-believers”(#44). Effective ecumenical cooperation makes good sense in today’s church
and world, especially in Zambia.
One important joint pastoral letter came in 1979 from the leaders of the Christian Churches, entitled “Marxism, Humanism and Christianity,” addressing the crisis
provoked by the Ruling Party’s desire to introduce “scientific socialism” as a compulsory course of study in all schools, from primary to university level. That effort
was subsequently successfully defeated as the churches’ unified voice and cooperative action forced a backtracking by the Ruling Party.
Another very important ecumenical document was the joint statement in 1987,
“Christian Liberation, Justice and Development: The Churches’ Concern for Human
Development in Zambia.” This statement covered a wide range of political, economic, social, cultural and religious issues. Whether or not it received the response
that such a substantial document deserved is a serious question that needs to be
raised in the evaluation of such efforts by the churches, either singularly or together.
30
Other important ecumenical documents will be highlighted below under the
discussion of economic and political content. But it is helpful to note here that even
if some very strong CST documents were signed only in the name of ZEC, they were
often immediately endorsed by leaders of the other church bodies. This was true,
for instance, in the important ZEC statement, “Economics, Politics and Justice,” that
was issued in the wake of the 1991 “IMF riots,”5 attempted military coup, and
movement toward mulit-partyism.
Inductive Approach
The philosophical/theological methodology that begins with the reality experienced and moves to theoretical understandings is a mark of contemporary CST
around the world. It is an application of the “see, judge and act” approach popularised in the social action movements inspired by Canon Cardijn in the mid-1900s and
the “pastoral circle” approach that my colleague Joe Holland and I developed in the
1980s.6
Though sometimes recently disparaged in more conservative church circles, this
approach is certainly endorsed in the “Introductory Statement” of Gaudium et Spes
where reading the signs of the times to discern the situation of women and men in
the modern world is clearly described as a starting point for the church’s mission
(see #4-10).
A good reading of the signs of the times, followed by a cogent social analysis,
was the method employed by the Zambian bishops in their 1993 letter on the effects
of the IMF-World Bank imposed SAP reforms. Entitled, “Hear the Cry of the Poor,”
this letter begins with a story of a woman facing immense problems of poverty, with
the specific case of poor health care offered by government facilities. Similarly, the
Fortieth Anniversary letter referred to above does an inductive review of national
history, its graces and sins, to discern the hopes and resolutions for the future.
The inductive approach praised by Gaudium et Spes is facilitated by the structure of the Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace (CCJP) in Zambia. Over 250
parishes around the country have local CCJP teams, well trained in CST, social
analysis and political advocacy. By feeding in their local experiences, these groups
enable the national Commission to prepare very good annual statements on the
government’s national budgets, with recommendations for a set of more pro-poor,
pro-justice priorities in policies.7
5
The “IMF riots” were a week of citizenry rampage caused by removal of subsidies on mealie meal,
the maize basic food commodity, because of strict Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) reforms enforced by the World Bank and the IMF.
6
See Joe Holland and Peter Henriot, Social Analysis: Linking Faith and Justice, revised and enlarged
edition, Marynoll, NY.: Orbis Books, and Centre of Concern, 1983. See also the upcoming Revisiting the
Pastoral Circle: A Critical Quest for Truth and Transformation, eds. Frans Wijsen, Peter Henriot, Rodrigo
Mejia, to be published by Orbis Books in late 2005.
7
Good information about the work of CCJP can be found on its website: www.ccjp.org.zmGood
information about the work of CCJP can be found on its website: www.ccjp.org.zm
31
Consultative Fashion
We all know that pastoral statements are usually not written by one person, but
by a committee of advisors and experts on a particular topic. This assures the
degree of technical and theological competence necessary for the document to gain
acceptance and have an influence. But beyond the committee approach there is
also an approach occasionally used that involves wider public consultation. The
consultative fashion can be very creative, but can also be a bit contentious when
different points of view are heard from those who are solicited to offer input.
When I worked at the Center of Concern in Washington DC before coming to
Zambia in 1989, I saw three examples, two successful and one unsuccessful, of an
effective consultative fashion of developing CST. The first two involved the production of pastoral letters by the US Catholic Bishops on peace and on the economy,
where insights were gathered from hearings around the country on what should be
said about these important topics. This approach resulted in two letters that serve as
standards for excellent CST. The third example did not fair as well. A letter on
women in society and church, developed through the same open hearing process,
was halted by the Vatican, to the loss of significant religious and social insights and
responses.
The Zambian church’s experience has on occasion utilized the consultative
approach to make its CST more credible and more relevant. A good example is the
Bishops’ pastoral letter, “The Future Is Ours,” published in 1992 at the start of the
Third Republic, following multi-party elections. In preparing the letter, ZEC requested the diocesan offices to solicit suggestions and recommendations for the
country’s key policies in this new era. This resulted in a very good document.
Besides the expected political and economic discussions, one topic is raised which,
in my opinion, surfaced because of the consultative fashion. This was the urging of
all Zambians to be personally responsible and take up hard work to move the
country forward. This echoes the injunction of Gaudium et Spes for personal responsibility in the political order (#75). Indeed, the future is ours!
In Zambia, a consultative fashion is also possible because of the inductive
approach utilized through the activities of the 250 local CCJP groups. The national
CCJP statements on the government’s budget, mentioned immediately above, are
effective because of consultation with the local groups. In my opinion, wider consultation would have helped improve some others statements such as those on
family and on abortion. I will return to that later in the discussion of content.
Practical and Policy Relevant
It is understandable that universal church statements (e.g., encyclicals, decrees
of Councils and Synods) will usually be fairly general and non-specific. Happily,
Gaudium et Spes does occasionally speak more concretely and practically in some
appropriate instances, for example in discussion of “new forms of art…introduced
into the sanctuary,”(#62) “gigantic rural estates…insufficiently cultivated,”(#71) “civic
and political education…painstakingly provided”(#75).
The Zambian CST has had to take up issues of daily concern for the people and
address larger topics that have consequences for the nation’s future. While repeating the caution of Gaudium et Spes about politics and the church, (#76) the leaders
32
of the Zambian church have not hesitated to be quite practical and policy relevant
when addressing key economic and political issues. This is done not to lay down
laws that all Catholics must follow but to introduce into the public discourse very
specific topics that have great significance for the common good of society. Two
good examples are “Hear the Cry of the Poor” (1993) and “Let My People Go”
(2004). The first spoke practically about a mechanism for price control to limit the
impact of spiraling costs on the poor (a policy unacceptable to the IMF and World
Bank because of interference in the free market); the second urged a policy of a
popular Constituent Assembly to be adopted to deal with the new Constitution (a
point opposed by the President because of possible infringement on his powers).
Another example of practicality and policy relevance in CST is the work of the
Jesuit Centre for Theological Reflection (JCTR) on a monthly “Basic Needs Basket”
(BNB).8 This BNB provides data that highlights the great gap between what is required to meet basic needs for a family of six (currently around USD 210.00) and
what employed workers take home as pay (currently ranging for most civil servants,
for example, from between USD 50.00 to USD 150.00). This very specific information is used in policy advocacy campaigns for improved wages, nutritional adequacy for ARV recipients, agricultural inputs, attention to gender differentials, etc.
And all of this within a CST framework for sustainable development!
Values Approtach
While it is obviously true that all CST is about values, it is sometimes important
to stress that explicit attention to values is more effective — both pedagogically and
politically – than frequent references to “quotations” from papal encyclicals and
other church documents. This in no way lessens the authority of official documents,
but simply makes the obvious point that it is for the most part the values espoused
that make the difference and not the authority cited. Indeed, it is the set of values
that provide CST’s power to clarify, motivate and sustain in the struggle for great
justice, development, peace and the integrity of creation. A good set of values
drawn from the CST can be found in introductory material of the latest edition of the
very popular book, Catholic Social Teaching: Our Best Kept Secret.9
In the Zambian picture, constant reference is important to the values of (1)
human dignity (e.g., what happens to workers with families when a company is
privatised?), (2) community (how can we justify an ever-growing gap between rich
and poor?), (3) the option for the poor (e.g., how can the views of the majority poor
influence constitutional development?), and (4) integrity of creation (e.g., will new
industries violate our fragile ecological situation?). The CST of the church in Zambia
– documents and in actions – has clearly emphasised these values over the years.
The examples already cited in this paper demonstrate that emphasis.
8
The JCTR is a project of the Zambia Malawi Province of the Society of Jesus. Working in close
collaboration with the ZEC and CCJP, it considers itself a faith-based organisation “promoting faith and
justice.” The author of this paper is the current Director. Website: www.jctr.org.zm
9
See Edward P. DeBerri and James Hug, with Peter J. Henriot and Michael J. Schultheis, Catholic
Social Teaching: Our Best Kept Secret, fourth revised and expanded edition, Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books,
and Washington, DC: Center of Concern, 2003, pp. 18-34.
33
A new institutional commitment to the values approach is the establishment a
few years ago of the African Forum on Catholic Social Teaching (AFCAST).10 With a
current working group of a dozen CST practitioners (teachers, church officials, activists) from countries in southern and eastern Africa, AFCAST promotes study and
implementation of the values — principles, norms, standards, ideals — of CST. Its
commitment to promoting social justice is grounded in the belief that the CST provides a value-added dimension to public policy discussions, debates and decisions.
Recent topics focused on are issues of great relevance to Africa: elections, poverty
eradication, land reform, corruption, integrity of creation and church-state relations.
3. Content
There are of course many topics that might be highlighted in this
section. But I choose five that are useful in the work of the JCTR and
the CCJP that I have personally experienced. These topics are clearly developed in
the sections of Gaudium et Spes under consideration and in the documents and
activities of the church in Zambia.
Political Democracy
As mentioned earlier in the paper, Zambia is a struggling democracy, trying to
shape both the institutions and the attitudes that were sadly lacking in the first 27
years of our nation’s history. When defeated in multi-party elections in 1991, the
founding president, Kenneth Kaunda, stepped down in an exemplary fashion. The
second president, Frederick Chiluba, was forced to step down ten years later, when
civil society (led by the churches) rebuffed his efforts to change the constitution in
order to secure a third term. (Chiluba is now under arrest and on trial for “plunder
of the national economy” through a series of corrupt activities.) Elected third president in a 2001 election fraught with irregularities,11 Levy Mawanawasa is in conflict
with opposition parties and civil society about his constitutional reform process.
The church has played a key role in each of these moments in the political
history of Zambia.12 Indeed, even before Independence, the Catholic bishops (all
ex-patriates) issued two strong pastoral statements challenging the non-democratic
rule of the English colonial powers. From early days of the new Republic, statements have been made that call Zambians to greater political responsibility and that
challenge the government to institute more effective democratic arrangements.
One interesting development can be noted. In a 1974 letter on “The Tenth
Anniversary of Independence,” the Bishops encourage Christians to cooperate with
the government in promoting social welfare but “do not specifically urge Church
members to be politically involved as a way of promoting justice.”13 However, in the
1987 ecumenical letter, “Christian Liberation, Justice and Development,” there is
10
AFCAST is directed by Dr. David Kaulemu and is based at Arrupe College (Jesuit philosophical
college) of the University of Zimbabwe, with address: P.O. Box MP 320, Harare, Zimbabwe.
11
Only in mid-February 2005, over three years after his December 2001 election, did the Zambian
Supreme Court uphold the legitimacy of Mwanawasa’s election against petitions filed by several losing
candidates.
12
A very good study detailing this history is Hugo Hinfellaar, M.Afr., History of the Catholic Church
in Zambia: 1895-1995, Lusaka: Bookworld Publishers, 2004.
13
Komakoma, op. cit., p. 88.
34
explicit call for all Zambian Christians “to involve themselves more actively in the
political life of the Country”(#157). This is certainly more in keeping with the emphasis in Gaudium et Spes to take up more effective political responsibility (#75)
and the call of the African Synod for Christians to be engaged in the democratic
struggle and even a call for “holy politicians.”14
By many, the church was called the “midwife” for the birth of multi-partyism in
the 1991 elections. Education, prayers, election monitoring, challenges: all these
activities marked the church’s presence at that key moment. And these activities
have continued and expanded since then. The stress placed by Gaudium et Spes on
civic and political education (#73 and 75) has been responded to in the works of
the CCJP (e.g., through its 250 local committees) and JCTR (e.g., through its CST
homily guidelines and annual calendars). Another significant contribution to this
education comes from the five church-sponsored community radio stations. To be
honest, these stations have sometimes faced political persecution (even threats of
state prosecution!) by trying to communicate openly and fairly about the political
situation in the country.
Economic Development
We must acknowledge that Gaudium et Spes is pre-Populorum Progressio and
pre-UNDP Human Development reports. As such, it does not bring out so very
forcefully or fully the new thinking about sustainable and integral development.
But it certainly does lay down the foundations for that thinking, especially in its
discussion of socio-economic life, which opens with the statement: “In the socioeconomic realm, too, the dignity and total vocation of the human person must be
honoured and advanced along with the welfare of society as a whole. For the
human person is the source, the center, and the purpose of all socio-economic
life”(#63). And, of course, today we would place that human person in the community of creation, with greater respect for the God-given dignity of the natural environment.
I believe that particularly relevant to the Zambian situation is the discussion in
Gaudium et Spes of (1) economic resources that should be put to the use of development of all the people, even with necessary state action, (2) narrowing the growing gap between rich and poor, (3) agricultural progress to be emphasised, (4)
workers’ decent wages and good conditions to be provided (with the proper role of
trade unions), and (5) the common purpose of created things qualifying the understanding of property (see #64-71).
As indicated already, the church in Zambia has since earliest days been actively
involved in economic development efforts with and for the people. Local parish
training programmes, technical schools, agricultural projects, cooperative schemes,
housing projects: these and many other practical efforts have marked the church’s
history – with varying levels of success.15 But since Independence these programmes
14
See Ecclesia in Africa, #s 111-112.
2005 marks the centenary of Jesuit presence in Zambia and one of the earliest Jesuits, Father
Joseph Moreau, is known for introducing the oxen plough in the southern region of the country and
revolutionizing maize production. See Edward P. Murphy, S.J., ed., A History of the Jesuits in Zambia: A
Mission Becomes a Province, Nairobi: Paulines, p. 149.
15
35
have been supplemented by advocacy efforts to assure better government policies
for effective development. Pastoral letters (many of them ecumenical), CCJP statements, local diocesan and parish advocacy programmes and cooperation with wider
civil society efforts have all contributed to the push for more equitable socio-economic development, especially relating to Zambian government priorities.
But the impact of wider international policies has not been neglected. As the
consequences of IMF and World Bank neo-liberal policies became clear in the lives
of the ordinary Zambian, the church raised a clarion call to set as the evaluation
criteria of the imposed economic reforms one clear norm: “they must serve all the
people.16 The development model of liberalisation, privatisation, curtailment of social services and overall retreat of the state has not met that criteria in the Zambian
experience.17 That was made very clear indeed in the 1993 pastoral letter, “Hear the
Cry of the Poor,” and repeated as recently as the 2004 ecumenical letter for the
Fortieth Anniversary of Independence, “Looking to the Future with Hope.”
The Jubilee 2000 Zambia campaign was launched in 1998 by a joint pastoral
statement, “Cancel Zambia’s Debt!” There it was made clear that the debt could not
be paid back because that would be economically destructive, would not be paid
back because that would be politically destabilising, and should not be paid back
because that would be ethically discriminatory – hurting the poor the most (#9).
The debt campaign is a good example of churches and civil society cooperating
together for economic development. It is also an example of some success in
impact, because in 2005 significant decisions were made to cut back Zambia’s enormous external debt (US$ 7 billion). Zambia reached the “HIPC decision point”
(completing reforms necessary for debt relief to come to a “Highly Indebted Poor
Country”) and also benefited from the agreement of the G-8 nations (major industrialised countries) to cancel debts.
Cultural Questions
African cultures are many and varied. In Zambia, culture is a key to development and national unity. As Gaudium et Spes clearly put it, “It is a fact bearing of the
very person of the human that the person can come to an authentic and full humanity only through culture, that is, through the cultivation of natural goods and values”(#53). In Gaudium et Spes the right to culture is balanced with the need to
create harmony with genuine Christian formation.
This effort at balance is at the heart of the task of inculturation: making our
faith understanding and expression authentically Christian and genuinely African.
(It is noteworthy that the concept of inculturation is not used in the discussion of
culture in Gaudium et Spes.) The Zambian bishops devoted several paragraphs to
inculturation in their 1991 pastoral letter on the church’s centenary, “You Shall Be
My Witnesses.” Noting considerable progress in this task since the days of the early
missionaries, the bishops called for further research and action to move forward.
16
“The Future is Ours,” #25
See Peter Henriot, “Retreat of the State: Political Consequences and Social Implications for Zambia,” Trocaire Development Review 1997, pp. 39-60.
17
36
An important example of research and action touching culture in the Zambian
church is the recent product of the JCTR’s Task Force on Inculturation, a small
pamphlet for use in small Christian communities entitled, “Traditional Healing: A
Pastoral Challenge for the Catholic Church in Zambia” (2004). The pamphlet, following the methodology of the pastoral circle, gets communities to recount their
personal experiences of traditional healing, to analyse why this healing is still very
popular, to reflect on the faith meaning of this practice, and to respond with good
guidelines for approaching healers.
Another area of great importance in discussions of culture in Zambia is the role
of women. “You Shall Be My Witnesses” devotes a section to the topic, asking how
women are treated in families, work places, public life and the Church, and what
the Church should do to promote greater justice for women. Related to women’s
issues – but of course, much wider — are the topics of family and of abortion. The
fact that the African Synod called the church “the family of God” has prompted
much reflection on the family. A 1997 pastoral letter from the Catholic bishops, “The
Church as a Caring Family,” tied this concept to the life of the small Christian
community.
Zambian law is quite liberal on the matter of abortion. A major bishops’ letter in
1997, “Choose Life,” addressed the topic in a direct and pastoral fashion. Indeed,
there is a story behind this document. It first was written quite narrowly, emphasising primarily the sanctity of human life and therefore the absolute evil of abortion.
The second version, written after wider consultation, clearly maintains the church’s
teaching on no abortion, but promotes a positive approach to dealing with the
causes of abortion, offering help to mothers, and creating greater respect in society
for women’s rights. And its tone is more compassionate that that of the first version.
A good example of what consultation can do for faithful construction and effective
communication of CST documents!
Training Programmes
As noted earlier, civic education is stressed in the political discussions in Gaudium
et Spes. But good civic education requires good civic educators. And the Zambian
church has made a commitment to good training of pastoral agents to communicate
the values of justice, peace, development and the integrity of creation. Courses on
CST are mandatory in all seminary instruction – I have personally taught in these
courses. Special workshops on CST are provided for women and men in formation
for religious life. The purpose of this focus on pastoral agents is to equip them both
to communicate the CST values and also to encourage the efforts of others involved
in promoting these values through justice and peace work.
A recent bishops’ pastoral letter, “Empowerment through Education “ (2004),
highlights the values that are essential to the centre of the Catholic education system. Justice is one of these central values and the students must be educated to
know the social problems and to act to change the unjust situations in Zambia.
One of the best instruments for promotion of the CST values in Zambia has
been a well organised and well trained network of justice and peace committees
throughout the country. Members of these local groups, usually based in parishes,
are required to go through five phases of training: (1) spirituality of justice (includHekima Review, No. 34, December 2005
37
ing CST), (2) research methods, (3) social analysis, (4), social action, and (5) evaluation. The national CCJP office and the JCTR office are staffed by highly competent
women and men, able to do excellent research, make clear presentations, and
interact effectively with government and church personnel at national and international levels.
I am undoubtedly prejudiced, but I believe that Zambia has the best organised
and trained justice and peace set-up on the African continent (comparing favourably with others outside Africa). But one area that we have not adequately developed through training programmes is a wider outreach to laity in general and in
particular to those in influential positions. We need to do more of this. One significant event has been a more or less regular annual “retreat day” for Catholic Members of Parliament and other significant national leaders. This has provided exposure to CST values in an atmosphere of prayer and reflection – something much
appreciated by participants.
Model of Church
It is true to say that ecclesiology (the theology of the church) is key to CST. Of
course the great document Gaudium et Spes is at its basic foundation an ecclesiological
document. For to speak of the “church in the modern world” is to speak of a
particular kind of church, a specific character of Christian community. Accordingly,
Gaudium et Spes says clearly: “That is why this community realises that it is truly
and intimately linked with humankind and its history”(#1). The church in Zambia
has been influenced by this vision of Gaudium et Spes and by the vision of “church
as family” expressed by the African Synod.18
It is for this reason that a church that incorporates promotion of justice and
peace into the task of integral evangelisation would react so negatively to the declaration of Zambian as a “Christian Nation” made by President Chiluba shortly after
his 1991 inauguration. It is not clear exactly what his intention was, other than to
gain political mileage with more conservative church members. But the letter “The
Future Is Ours” expressed strongly the conviction that “a nation is not Christian by
declaration but by deeds”– especially the deeds of justice and concern for the poor
(#40). And in 1995, during the debates over constitutional amendments, the ZEC
and the CCZ issued a joint statement opposing the inclusion of the Christian nation
declaration in the constitution. Significantly, their opposition was rebuffed, and the
Catholic Bishops have again, in the 2003 Pastoral Letter on the constitutional review, “Let My People Go,” stated their opposition to this declaration, as religiously
and politically untenable.
4. Lessons
To really become a “Church in the Modern World” requires more
than a brilliant document, no matter how theologically solid, pastorally
oriented and politically sensitive that document might be. Certainly the many and
varied papers presented at this “Call to Justice” Conference will demonstrate the
18
For an very insightful analysis of this concept by a young African theologian, see A.E. Orobator,
S.J., The Church as Family: African Ecclesiology in Its Social Context, Nairobi:, 2000.
38
truth of that statement. An essential part of the growth into a community responsive
to the “joys and hopes, sorrows and anxieties” of our sisters and brothers is a
learning from the lessons all of us gain from experience. What I have attempted in
this paper is to highlight the Zambian experience by noting the church’s efforts to
put the CST into daily life. I believe that reflection on some aspects of the methodology and content of that experience can indeed offer some important lessons for
the church universal.
Reading the Signs of the Times
Gaudium et Spes makes clear at the outset of its discussion the duty of the
church “to read the signs of the times and interpret them in the light of the Gospel”
(#4). This duty demands a serious study of the world in which we live, the expectations that people have and the significant characteristics that mark it in the unfolding of history. Without such a commitment to discern God’s action in history around
us, the church has neither ability nor legitimacy to share something it would call
“Good News” with people.
This has surely been the experience of the Zambian church. The fact that the
church is seen – by members and non-members alike – as an important actor in the
life of the country is, in my opinion, largely due to its service of the people in
relevant word and deed. Surely the Catholic Church in Zambia has had a mixed
history of grace and sin. Our church may have a divine foundation but it also is a
human institution! As such, it can and does face difficulties and fall into mistakes.
But the fact is that the Zambian church has not faced some of the difficulties or
fallen into some of the mistakes other churches in Africa (and elsewhere!) have
experienced. Difficulties and mistakes like tribalism, withdrawal of leadership from
public life, over-zealous involvement in an other-worldly religiosity, fixation on
narrow personal moral issues to the neglect of wider social moral issues, etc. The
CST of the Zambian church reveals a serious attempt to read the signs of the times
and this surely has had its effect in enabling the Zambian church to be a true
“church in the modern world” according to the letter and spirit of Gaudium et Spes.
Intelligent Research
More than simply reading the signs of the times, the church needs a commitment to serious investigation through scholarly research of what is happening and
how the church can respond. The task of being prophetic is not only helped by
good study but the lack of that good study can indeed hinder a truly effective
prophetic voice. No one listens – or should listen – to shoddy analysis or unwise
pronouncements, however well intentioned.
The experience of the Zambian church has shown that intelligent research does
make a difference. This is evident in the work that several scholars – laity, sisters,
priests – have done on issues of importance in Zambia today such as theological
reflection, inculturation, education, HIV/AIDS, gender issues, church history, socioeconomic problems, etc. It is also shown in the commitment to place well-trained
staff at the ZEC secretariat, in the offices of the Catholic Centre for Justice, Development and Peace, and in the team of the Jesuit Centre for Theological Reflection.
39
What this results in is a respect that is paid to the statements coming from the
church, even if there is disagreement. For example, the CCJP’s annual budget analyses seriously challenge the government’s priorities, but key government officials
come to the forums to debate the findings and recommendations. The JCTR’s critique of the IMF and World Bank proposals for debt relief (such as the HIPC initiative) get widely circulated nationally and internationally and taken into account
when evaluations of these programmes are made.
An example of the value of intelligent research on a highly controversial topic is
what has occurred in the on-going debate over the refusal of the Zambian government to allow the importation of genetically modified foods (popularly referred to
as “GMOs”) into the country. This refusal has gone on during serious food shortages
and in the face of immense pressure by the government of the United States of
America. There has even been considerable dialogue with some offices of the Vatican that have tended to show a more favourable stance toward GMOs. But after its
own research, in cooperation with others nationally and internationally, the JCTR
has supported the Zambian government’s position as more in accord with clear CST
principles, reliable scientific data and sound economic analysis.
International Cooperation
One of the strengths of the church in Africa in building a good CST foundation
has been good international cooperation. This has involved sharing of information,
programmes, materials, personnel, etc. This has occurred not only at levels outside
of Africa (e.g., with the Vatican’s Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace and with
development and advocacy groups) but also at the African continental and regional
levels.
The Zambian church is a member of AMECEA, the regional conference of bishops for eastern Africa. But Zambian representatives also participate in the programmes of IMBISA, the regional conference of bishops for southern Africa. A good
example of cooperation was in the preparations for the African Synod that met in
Rome in 1994. There was very good exchange among bishops and consultants in
the AMECEA region, which meant that the AMECEA bishops went to Rome well
prepared and confident in their presentations on the Synod’s key topics. These
bishops played an influential role in the debates, decisions and documents of the
African Synod.
Another example of international cooperation that benefits the Zambian church
is the work of AFCAST. As mentioned earlier in this paper, AFCAST strives to make
the CST relevant to policies that profoundly affect the development of people in
Africa. As this organization matures, it will continue to assist the church in Zambia
to be a “church in the modern world.”
Justice in the Church
I imagine that my experience is not unusual: every time I give a lecture or
workshop on the church’s call to promote justice, I receive a question like, “Does
this also mean promote justice in the church?” Of course I can answer with a very
clear yes, recalling the strong words of the 1971 Synod of Bishops to the effect that
those who would teach justice to others must first be seen to be just themselves!
40
The theme of justice in the church is certainly hinted at in the discussion in
Gaudium et Spes of the help which the church strives to give to human activity
through Christians (#43). There it is recognized more in a negative fashion, however, by noting that defects in the church hinder the communication of the gospel.
But there is no full discussion of the witness of justice that the church is obliged to
give in social matters within its own organization if it is to authentically and effectively work for justice in the wider society. This message was more clearly developed by the 1971 Synod. And it is a point picked up by the African Synod with the
message that justice must start within God’s family itself.19
Within the Zambian church, the issues of justice are not all that unique. The
questions that usually arise are around wages paid to church workers, treatment of
women (including the role of women in decision-making places), participation of
laity in shaping priorities in the church (through councils, etc.), and the principle of
subsidiarity that recognises the legitimate role of the local church. Many of the
statements coming from the bishops over the years touch the issue of justice in the
church either directly or indirectly, explicitly or implicitly. But I believe it can fairly
be said that there is need for greater focus on this topic if the church is to retain
credibility in its prophetic role in society at large.
Conclusion
The Zambian experience of being a “church in the modern world of Africa”
points to an on-going effort to build a Christian community that has a message at
once credible and relevant. Credible in that its message can be believed because the
church tries to practise it itself, and relevant in that its message relates to real life
concerns of the African people. Truly, the “joys and hopes, the sorrows and anxieties” of the people are our own!
41
42
Scripture
Ac5,1-11:AnanieetSaphire
Lectureexégétiqueetréflexionsthéologiques
Valentin Kapambu Ntumba, O.C.D *
Sommaire
This article deals with the difficult lucan text from the Acts of the Apostles concerning the death of a couple, Ananias and Sapphira, as a consequence of their attempt to violate the integrity and the communion of
the first Christian community, by a wrong declaration to the Apostle Peter in front of
the whole community. The emphasis of the text is not on God’s mercy but rather on
the consequences of a sin that destroys the community. God intervenes to confirm the
power of the Holy Spirit.
0. Introduction Le récit de la fraude d’Ananie et de Saphire constitue un des plus
difficiles textes du NT. Comme tout texte littéraire, il est exposé au
risque d’être mal lu. En tout cas, avant de l’instrumentaliser pour
promouvoir ceci ou pourfendre cela, on ferait mieux de regarder à deux fois s’il dit
bien ce que l’on croit qu’il dise. La mort de ce couple - Ananie et Saphire – n’est-elle
pas bénie par le Dieu de la Bible? Il faut aller lire ce texte de près, avant de tirer
cette conclusion aussi facile que rapide. Car les plis du récit recèlent des éléments
qui invitent à la distance critique et sont susceptibles de détourner le lecteur des
jugements simplistes, qu’ils soient positifs ou négatifs.
Cette étude n’a pas seulement pour but d’établir ce que le texte lucanien signifiait
au premier siècle1, mais également quel est son sens aujourd’hui. Nous devons
donc combler le fossé entre son temps et le nôtre. “L’interprétation est
fondamentalement un processus global, par lequel le sens historique et le sens
théologique finissent par se fondre harmonieusement. Cela n’est possible, bien sûr,
que si nous traitons le texte original avec le plus grand respect et si nous évitons
d’escamoter son sens premier dans notre hâte à vouloir l’appliquer au temps présent.
En un mot, il nous est demandé d’être fidèles au texte ancien dans une situation
*
Valentin Kapambu Ntumba is a Carmelite father from the Democratic Republic of Congo. He
teaches Sacred Scripture at Eugene de Mazenod Theologate.
1
P. H. MENOUD, “La mort d’Ananias et de Saphira (Actes 5, 1-11)”, dans Aux sources de la tradition
chrétienne. Mélanges M. Goguel, Neuchâtel-Paris, 1950, 146-154. Dans cette contribution, Menoud tente
de montrer que le texte d’Ac 5, 1-11 est né à la suite d’une crise dans la communauté primitive : en raison
de la doctrine de la vie nouvelle en Christ, la mort des premiers chrétiens a dû faire problème. Pour
expliquer cette mort, la réflexion chrétienne a imaginé une faute qui devait l’expliquer. Cette solution du
professeur Menoud a été jugée invraisemblable.
43
Valentin Kapambu Ntumba, O.C.D
nouvelle”2. Nous devons lire Luc historiquement, c’est-à-dire selon ses propres termes
(autant que faire se peut) et alors seulement nous pourrons nous lancer dans la
phase d’application.
Pour y arriver, nous allons subdiviser notre étude en deux parties. La première
est consacrée à la recherche du sens exégétique du passage et la deuxième aux
leçons à tirer de ce texte lucanien.
I. LE SENS EXÉGÉTIQUE
DU
TEXTE
L’exposé de cettte partie va s’articuler en trois points. Nous aborderons d’abord
la question du contexte du passage en étude. Nous nous pencherons ensuite sur le
genre littéraire du texte lucanien. Le dernier point sera consacré à l’analyse narrative
du récit.
1. Le texte en
son contexte
Plusieurs indices3 indiquent qu’Ac 5, 1-11 ne peut être isolé du
contexte où il est inséré et avec lequel il constitue une unité narrative (4, 32-5, 16). La préposition grecque, dé, en 5, 1, équivaut
généralement à une conjonction. Elle a ici une nuance adversative
et elle oppose ce qui suit à ce qui a été dit précédemment. Dans le sommaire de 4,
32-35, il est question de l’unanimité du groupe et de sa communion exemplaire des
biens. Cette dernière est illustrée par le désintéressement de Barnabé qui apporte
aux pieds des apôtres le montant recueilli de la vente de son champ (4, 36-37). Le
récit du mensonge et de l’avarice d’Ananie et de Saphire raconté en 5, 1-11 est en
contraste avec l’unanimité d’intentions et la communauté de biens de la première
communauté à Jérusalem (4, 32-37).
L’expression «vendre des maisons ou des terres et déposer le prix de la vente
aux pieds des apôtres» répétée trois fois, – au terme du sommaire (4, 34-35), dans
l’exemple de Barnabé (4, 37) et au début du deuxième exemple (5, 1-2) –, conduit
à conclure à l’existence d’une corrélation entre les différents passages. En outre,
l’épisode d’Ananie et Saphire trouve une certaine suite dans l’autre sommaire sur la
vie de la communauté (5, 12-16) où l’on montre le fait d’être ensemble basé non pas
tant sur le partage des biens que sur «la crainte» pour les nombreux miracles et
prodiges accomplis par les apôtres. Ce troisième sommaire met en évidence la
figure de Pierre. La constatation littéraire que le troisième sommaire (5, 12-16) et
notre passage (5, 1-11) ont en commun le rappel à la «crainte» et au rôle de Pierre
permet de créer un pont entre les deux passages.
De ce qui précède, l’on peut conclure que le sens exact de notre péricope
émergera mieux si elle est considérée comme partie intégrante d’une unité narrative
qui commence en 4, 32 et s’achève en 5, 164.
2
J. C. BEKER, Paul’s Apocalyptic Gospel: The Coming Triumph of God, Philadelphie 1984, 106.
L. TOSCO, Pietro e Paolo: Ministri del giudizio di Dio. Studio del genere letterario e della funzione
di Ac 5, 1-11 e 13, 4 -12, Bologna 1989, 16. Ce livre nous sert de livre de référence sur bien des points.
4
Cf. S. J. NOORDA, «Scene and Summary. A Proposal for Reading Acts 4, 32-5, 16 », in BETHL, Les
Actes des Apôtres. Traditions, rédaction, théologie, Leuven 1979, 475-483.
3
44
Actes 5, 1-11: Ananie et Saphire: Lecture exégétique et réflexions théologiques
2. Le genre
littéraire
La punition de deux conjoints renferme quelque chose d’étrange à
l’esprit de Jésus, parce qu’elle ne laisse aucune place à la possibilité
du repentir en vue du pardon. Tout semble être finalisé à mettre en
relief le pouvoir souverain de l’Apôtre Pierre dans l’acte de juger et d’infliger même
une punition mortelle.
Cet épisode appartient à un sous-groupe du genre littéraire5 des récits de miracle appelé communément «miracles de punition» ou «jugement de Dieu»6. Etant
donné que l’expression «jugement de Dieu» peut prêter à des interprétations ambiguës,
il convient de souligner que l’accent doit être mis sur l’aspect positif du dépassement
des limites ou de l’attentat, plutôt que sur celui négatif de punition.
Les passages appartenant à ce genre littéraire sont composés des éléments narratifs
suivants: transgression, intervention verbale de l’offensé ou de son représentant,
punition du transgresseur, appel, mitigation de la peine. Ces derniers éléments sont
absents de notre récit.
Ce genre littéraire a fréquemment comme Sitz-im-Leben (milieu de vie qui donne
lieu à une spécifique forme expressive) le surgissement et le développement de
nouveaux cultes ou mouvements religieux et il a comme finalité la polémique et la
lutte contre l’athéisme, l’impiété ou le scepticisme. La faute est dénoncée comme un
facteur qui trouble et brise l’ordre constitué, désagrège les structures et les certitudes sur lesquelles la vie de la communauté est fondée. La punition dure,
apparemment disproportionnée et même injuste, sert à rétablir l’ordre violé en
réaffirmant les valeurs sur lesquelles se base la vie de la communauté.
Nous nous en rendons aisément compte, notre texte voudrait souligner, d’un
côté, la transgression qui a quelque chose de radicale parce qu’elle porte atteinte à
la foi et à l’unité de la communauté, de l’autre côté, l’extrême facilité avec laquelle
l’obstacle et l’attentat sont dépassés et anéantis. Si l’attentat a une dimension satanique,
son dépassement a quelque chose de divin. Il s’agit d’une histoire édifiante dont il
faut garder le caractère populaire.
Un rôle relevant revient à l’intervention verbale de l’offensé ou de son représentant
humain, qui assume d’habitude une forme de procès, avec la convocation et
l’interrogation des coupables visant à faire lumière sur la transgression et les mobiles. Notre texte appartient à ce genre littéraire parce qu’on y voit une rencontre
entre adversaires de Dieu et Dieu lui-même.
3. La Lecture
narrative du récit
Nous allons tenter de baser notre analyse sur une assise
méthodologique que nous estimons solide: la narratologie. Cela
veut dire qu’avant de projeter sur le texte antique une gamme
d’émotions et de critiques rationnelles contemporaines, nous
allons nous mettre en devoir d’interroger techniquement le texte, de telle manière
qu’il nous révèle lui-même, comme dans une radiographie osseuse, les articulations
des actions et des paroles des personnages qui en constituent le squelette consistant.
5
Cf. B. PRETE, « Anania e Saffira (Ac 5, 1-11). Componenti letterarie e dottrinali », dans Riv.Bibl. 36
(1988) 463-486.
6
di Ac 5, 1-11 e 13, 4 -12, 207.
45
C’est dire en d’autres termes que nous allons suivre une des façons de procéder en
approche narrative telle qu’annoncée par Jean-Nöel Aletti consistant à « présenter
les personnages majeurs du récit et l’évolution de leurs relations, avec les enjeux,
comme l’a fait R. A. Culpepper dans son Anatomy of the Fourth Gospel»7.
a) Ananie
Nous nous situons, pour commencer, au premier verset du récit. Ici, le lecteur
apprend que le personnage Ananie vend sa propriété – le narrateur parle de chorion «morceau de terre, champ » au v. 3 – et ne remet, en plein accord avec sa
femme, qu’une partie de la somme obtenue. Ce verbe8 grec enosphìsato («tenir pour
soi») dont Ananie est le sujet a l’acception péjorative de « s’approprier, mettre de
côté pour soi-même, soustraire, frauder». Il serait, d’après certains auteurs9, l’écho
de Jos 7, 16-26 qui raconte la faute d’Akân. Ce dernier avoue à Josué : « En vérité,
c’est moi qui ai péché contre le Seigneur… J’avais vu dans le butin une cape de
Shinéar d’une beauté unique, deux cents sicles d’argent et un lingot d’or… Je les ai
convoités et je les ai pris ; les voici dissimulés dans la terre au milieu de ma tente
et l’argent est dessous » (Jos 7, 21). Les parallèles peuvent difficilement être niés.
Néanmoins, les différences entre les deux récits sautent aux yeux. Akân a dissimulé
un objet destiné à Dieu, « mais Ananie et Saphire ont pris une partie de ce qu’ils
disent donner à la communauté. Akân avoue, mais Ananie et Saphire non. Les
enfants d’Israël lapident Akân, mais Ananie et Saphire meurent subitement »10.
Nous remarquons, par ailleurs, que le verbe nosphizein – « tenir pour soi » est souvent employé dans les textes grecs extrabibliques pour désigner le vol d’une
grande somme appartenant à la communauté. Dans cette optique, la fraude d’Ananie
et de Saphire est à considérer comme un attentat qui risque de briser la communion
et l’unité de l’église qui «n’avait qu’un cœur et qu’une âme» (4, 32) et de discréditer
le «témoignage» (4, 33). En d’autres termes, elle est vue comme une violation de
l’intégrité et de la communion de la communauté. Philippe Bossuyt et Jean
Radermakers le disent si bien en ces termes : « La leçon de ce texte des Actes n’est
pas de mettre en évidence la miséricorde divine, mais de souligner la gravité du
péché qui tue la koinônia, empoisonne la communauté et l’entraîne vers la mort »11.
Force nous est de constater qu’après avoir dissimulé une partie du prix de la
vente de leur propriété, les deux conjoints apportent le reste aux pieds des apôtres.
Outre l’expression de la soumission à l’autorité des apôtres, le geste de «déposer
7
J.-N. ALETTI, Quand Luc raconte. Le récit comme théologie, Paris, Cerf, 1998, 16.
Ce verbe se rencontre seulement ici et en Jos 7, 1 (LXX) et il indique la possibilité de l’influence du
récit du péché et du châtiment d’Akân sur notre récit.
9
C’est une analepse.
10
Y. SAOUT, Cette activité libératrice. Etude des Actes des Apôtres. Les disciples de Jésus devant le
pouvoir, l’avoir, le savoir, Paris, Mame, 193. Des chercheurs recourent à d’autres textes parallèles de
l’Ancien Testament pour éclairer Ac 5, 1-11: le châtiment de Nadab et Abihu (Lv 10, 1-5), la mort d’Abiyya,
fils de Jéroboam (1 R 14, 1-18, mais les ressemblances sont plus lâches, tandis que Jos 7 contient le verbe
« détourner » (= nosphizesthai), utilisé seulement là et en 2 M 4, 32 dans l’Ancien Testament, et en Ac 5,
2-3 et Tt 2, 10 dans le Nouveau Testament.
11
P. BOSSUYT et J. RADERMAKERS, Témoins de la Parole de la Grâce. Lecture des Actes des Apôtres,
200.
8
46
aux pieds des apôtres» équivaut à mettre ses propres biens ou soi-même à la disposition des apôtres et de la communauté tout entière (cf. Lc 8, 35)12. L’époux montre
devant tous le sacrifice qu’il a fait à l’exemple des premiers chrétiens ; mais à la
différence de ceux-ci qui donnaient tout, il ne remet qu’une partie du prix. Celle-ci
est présentée par les deux conjoints comme le prix entier du champ vendu. On voit
que leur faute réside dans « la fausse déclaration »13 : présenter comme totale une
offrande qui n’est, par contre, que partielle14. Pierre Gibert l’exprime mieux lorsqu’il
écrit : « Dans leur cas en effet, ce qui est grave, ce n’est pas d’avoir gardé une part
du prix de la vente de leur propriété, mais d’avoir ‘menti à Dieu’ »15. La cause
principale de leur mensonge serait «la vanité, le désir de se faire valoir auprès des
apôtres et des fidèles. Ils ont vendu leur propriété pour faire preuve de
désintéressement et s’acquérir la considération que méritait cet acte»16. Il semble
bien qu’Ananie et Saphire aient voulu passer aux yeux de la communauté et de ses
chefs pour meilleurs - plus généreux – qu’ils n’étaient de fait. Ils manquaient alors
de droiture. Leur faute est un péché contre la confiance fraternelle, la clarté mutuelle
dans la communauté. Par le fait de mettre à part une partie du prix de la vente de
leurs biens, ce couple affirme son indépendance secrète vis-à-vis de la communauté.
Or, aucune prescription apostolique n’obligeait les fidèles à vendre leurs biens et à
en remettre le prix aux apôtres «afin de subvenir aux besoins de leurs frères
indigents»17. La propriété individuelle demeurait libre; il était loisible à chacun de
disposer de son avoir à son gré, et de vivre de ses biens. Charles L’Eplattenier
l’exprime bien lorsqu’il écrit : « Vendre ses biens n’était pas une démarche
obligatoire ; les apôtres n’en avaient pas fait une loi. C’est dans la liberté que
chacun prenait sa décision en ce domaine. Donner une partie de ses biens et s’en
réserver l’autre, à condition de le faire ouvertement, n’aurait pas été jugé indécent !
Zachée n’avait-il pas agi ainsi, témoignant de sa libération par rapport à l’argent en
donnant la moitié de ses biens aux pauvres (Lc 19, 8) ? Mais Ananias a voulu jouer
sur les deux tableaux, se constituer en secret une prudente réserve tout en ayant
l’air de se ranger parmi les chrétiens exemplaires qui donnent tout »18. Philippe
Bossuyt et Jean Radermakers vont dans le même sens : « En fait, rien ne les
obligeait à tout donner ; il suffisait de le dire, de rester vrai »19.
12
Cf. L. TOSCO, Pietro e Paolo: Ministri del giudizio di Dio. Studio del genere letterario e della
funzione di Ac 5, 1-11 e 13, 4 -12, 24.
13
D. MARGUERAT, « Ananias et Saphira (Actes (5, 1-11) : le viol du sacré », dans LumVie 42/5
(1993) 57.
14
di Ac 5, 1-11 e 13, 4 -12, 23. Cf. J. TAYLOR, «Acts of the Apostles », in W. R. FARMER (éd.), The International Bible Commentary. A Catholical and Ecumenical Commentary for the Twenty-First Century,
Collegeville, Minnesota, 1998, 1518.
15
P. GIBERT, « Les premiers chrétiens d’après les Actes des Apôtres », 223.
16
E. JACQUIER, Les Actes des Apôtres, 150.
17
Idem. p.152.
18
C. L’EPLATTENIER, Les Actes des Apôtres, Genève, Editions Labor et Fides, 1992, 68.
19
2. Lecture continue, Bruxelles, Editions de l’Institut d’Etudes Théologiques, 1995, 198. Cf. P. GIBERT,
« Les premiers chrétiens d’après les Actes des Apôtres », dans Christus 18 (1971) 221, 223.
47
b) Pierre
L’examen du personnage Pierre, certes, contribue à l’intelligence du récit. Il
nous est présenté dans la plénitude des pouvoirs inhérents à son office. Nous
l’avons vu dans les chapitres précédents des Actes des Apôtres comme l’orateur
responsable et le représentant de toute la communauté ; il avait fait preuve, dans le
miracle du boiteux de naissance, du charisme des guérisons. Dans ce passage où
Pierre n’est pas appelé apôtre, il a les caractéristiques d’un prophète. Il nous apparaît
en possession d’une science surnaturelle. Par l’inspiration de l’Esprit, il lit dans les
cœurs et en dévoile les pensées les plus secrètes (cf. Mc 2, 8; Lc 6, 8; 7, 39; 22, 21).
Il sait qu’Ananie a remis seulement, comme nous l’avons déjà souligné, une partie
du prix de la vente de leurs biens. Il lui reproche ce « détournement ».
Au v. 3, on rencontre le réquisitoire de Pierre contre Ananie : « Pourquoi Satan
a-t-il rempli ton cœur au point que tu aies menti à l’Esprit Saint et détourné une
partie du prix de ton champ ? ». Mettons ces deux phrases en parallèles : Satan a
rempli ton cœur et tu as menti à l’Esprit Saint. Pierre semble dire que l’homme est
incapable de mentir à l’Esprit Saint s’il n’y a pas quelque chose qui le perturbe
intérieurement. Il discerne la présence de l’Esprit Saint. La présence manifeste de
celui-ci déployant une si grande puissance au milieu des disciples constituait la
gravité de ce mensonge. L’amour de l’argent, actif dans le cœur d’Ananie et de
Saphire, n’avait pas été jugé et les avait soustraits à l’influence divine de l’Esprit
Saint, en les poussant à préméditer cet acte, chose très grave aussi, qui montre que,
froidement, ils décidèrent ensemble de mentir à l’Esprit Saint, ce qui était mentir à
Dieu. Tout péché est un acte très grave, puisqu’il offense Dieu. Il est bon de s’en
souvenir, parce que les hommes sont habiles à justifier leurs fautes. Il faut avoir soin
de juger toute pensée mauvaise dès qu’elle apparaît ; sinon, on se familiarise avec
elle et on perd la conscience de la gravité du mal : « Chacun est tenté par sa
propre conscience, qui l’entraîne et le séduit. Une fois fécondée, la convoitise enfante
le péché, arrivé à maturité, engendre la mort » (Jc 1, 5).
Et l’expression de Pierre : « Satan a rempli ton cœur » rappelle beaucoup le
récit de la trahison de Judas : « le diable avait mis au cœur de Judas Iscariote, fils
de Simon, le dessein de livrer Jésus » (Jn 13, 2). Ce texte johannique semble vouloir
dire : comment Judas aurait-il pu trahir Jésus s’il n’avait pas été sous l’emprise de
Satan ? La Passion est un drame où se trouve engagé le monde invisible : derrière
les hommes est à l’œuvre la puissance diabolique (cf. Jn 6, 70 ; 8, 44 ; 12, 31 ; 13,
27 ; 16, 11 ; Ap 12, 4 ; 13, 2 ; Lc 22, 3 ; 1 Co 2, 8). Le verbe « remplir » le cœur
d’Ananie employé par Pierre est destiné à indiquer la plénitude de la grâce. Si les
disciples, après leur prière, furent tous « remplis » de l’Esprit Saint, Ananie est, au
contraire, « plein » de Satan. Celui-ci a pris possession de son cœur. C’est dire que
Satan cherche à remplir le cœur d’amertume, de ruse et de mensonge. Satan était à
l’œuvre et, par ce malheureux couple, il lance un défi direct au Saint Esprit présent
dans l’église.
L’on voit que l’action d’Ananie est, à en croire Pierre, inspirée par «Satan». Celuici est ici la personnification de la séduction du mal comme ailleurs dans les écrits
lucaniens (Lc 10, 18 ; 11, 18 ; 13, 16 ; 22, 3.31 ; Ac 26, 18). De même que Satan
a joué un rôle important aux débuts du ministère de Jésus (Lc 14, 1-13), ainsi il
assume un rôle parallèle au commencement de l’Eglise.
48
La dissimulation d’Ananie est ensuite dénoncée comme «mensonge» par Pierre.
Derrière le mensonge se cachaient la convoitise et la vanité. Ananie voulait garder
pour lui une partie de l’argent tout en se donnant la réputation d’avoir consacré au
Seigneur la somme entière, comme Barnabé l’avait fait. Telle est la pensée de la
chair, même chez un saint. Combien d’entre nous n’ont jamais connu dans leur
cœur des tentations coupables de ce genre?
La dureté que manifeste Pierre dans ce récit étonne. Il n’a dans aucune autre
circonstance un tel comportement. Pierre « est installé dans le rôle peu élégant
d’un inquisiteur tendant un piège à sa victime, pour établir sa complicité dans le
mensonge »20. Ananie ment non pas justement à Pierre, ou à la communauté, mais
à l’Esprit qui demeure dans la communauté et dans ses responsables21. Autrement
dit, il est coupable d’un mensonge délibéré et conscient envers la koinonia et,
encore plus, envers l’Esprit Saint, c’est-à-dire Dieu présent dans la communauté à
travers l’Esprit. Le mensonge et la fraude sont donc directement contre Celui-ci qui
est considéré dans les Actes des Apôtres comme le facteur de l’unité22 de l’église
rassemblée autour des Apôtres (2, 14-48; 4, 31). La transgression se révèle comme
un attentat satanique contre Dieu et son Esprit. Au delà des égoïsmes mesquins, le
texte met en lumière l’opposition au plan de Dieu.
Au v. 4b, Pierre interroge Ananie sur le motif qui l’a poussé à « mettre cet acte
dans son cœur » (littéralement). On voit qu’il attribue ici le mensonge non pas à
Satan mais au même Ananie. L’expression « mettre (quelque chose) dans le cœur
de quelqu’un » dans le sens de réfléchir ou décider a été employée en 1 Sm 21,
12 ; 29, 10 ; Ag 2, 19 ; Mal 2, 2 ; Jr 12, 11 ; Dn 1, 8 ; cf. Lc 1, 66 ; 21, 4. La
formule employée par Pierre : « Pourquoi as-tu placé cela en ton cœur ? » montre
bien que l’action de Satan ne prive pas Ananie de sa liberté. Il s’agit donc d’un
jugement prononcé par Pierre sous forme de dénonciation du cœur. « Ananie a
péché, écrit D. Marguerat, par manque de totalité de cœur »23.
Dans ce temps-là, où la présence de Dieu par l’Esprit Saint était si manifeste, un
tel péché ne pouvait recevoir le pardon sous le gouvernement de Dieu. Aussi, en
entendant Pierre, Ananie tomba et expira. En d’autres termes, la réaction de ce
dernier est, quand on lit le v. 5, le fait de tomber et de mourir. Le verbe grec pipto
rendu par tomber en français se rencontre souvent dans un contexte médical, mais
on ne le trouve qu’ici dans les Actes et en Jg 4, 21 (LXX). Il signifie littéralement que
la personne rend le souffle de vie et expire. Le participe présent akuon rendu en
français par « expira » exprime l’action simultanée comme une conséquence directe
de l’audition des paroles de Pierre. Celles-ci ne condamnent pas à mort Ananie,
mais elles impliquent quelque chose de semblable puisqu’à elles fait suite
20
C. L’EPLATTENIER, Les Actes des Apôtres, 70.
Cf. R. F. O’TOOLE, « ‘You Did Not Lie to Us (Human Beings) but to God’ (Acts 5, 4c) », dans Bib
76 (1995) 190.
22
D. MARGUERAT, « Ananie et Saphire, morts d’avoir menti », dans Biblia 38 (avril 2005) 16, écrit :
« Cet idéal de communion, comme le montre le premier sommaire (Ac 2, 42-47), est l’œuvre de l’EspritSaint dans le cœur des croyants. Ananie et Saphire ont contredit l’Esprit de communion ; ils ont fait
mentir la règle selon laquelle « entre eux tout était commun » (Ac 4, 32) ».
23
D. MARGUERAT, « Ananias et Saphira (Actes (5, 1-11) : le viol du sacré », 57.
24
21
49
immédiatement la mort. “La parole de Pierre, écrit Charles L’Eplattenier, apporte la
mort au lieu de la vie”24. Cette mort se présente comme “un châtiment divin”25. C’est
Dieu qui “intervient directement en frappant le coupable”26. Ainsi, “la communauté
ne met pas à mort le pécheur, mais dévoile le péché qui compromet socialement le
groupe, elle constate l’éloignement ou ‘la mise à distance’ dans laquelle le pécheur
s’est de fait situé, et elle annonce le jugement de Dieu à son endroit”27.
Si Dieu a manifesté sa grâce et son amour en nous sauvant et en faisant de nous
ses enfants, il est toujours le Dieu juste et saint qui a les yeux trop purs pour voir le
mal. La révolte délibérée contre Lui est punie sévèrement. On ne doit pas se moquer
de Dieu. Même si Luc est connu pour la place que la mansuétude divine occupe
dans son œuvre, nous ne devrons pas négliger l’accent qu’il met également sur la
crainte du pouvoir de Dieu de punir lorsqu’il se trouve devant un péché sans
pénitence et la révolte. Les hommes sont exhortés à le servir avec révérence et
crainte, car, est-il dit, « notre Dieu est un feu consumant » (He 12, 28.29). Il faisait
trembler et fumer la montagne de Sinaï ; il accompagnait son peuple dans le désert,
mais aussi il s’est révélé à nous comme Père. Mais il ne peut supporter le péché.
La manifestation de la puissance miraculeuse de Dieu est suivie de la crainte de
tous ceux qui ont appris ce qui s’est produit. Ceux qui apprennent sont sans doute
davantage les lecteurs de Luc que les contemporains d’Ananie. L’auteur des Actes
des Apôtres emploie phobos « crainte » non plus dans le sens de crainte révérencielle,
mais dans le sens de la peur salutaire que la mort d’Ananie devait inculquer. La
«grande crainte» est la typique conclusion lucanienne des récits de miracle et d’autres
passages où il est question d’une épiphanie divine ou angélique. Elle surgit lorsqu’un
événement supraterrestre fait irruption à l’improviste et mystérieusement dans le
monde des hommes en les mettant en contact direct avec le fascinant et terrible
mystère de Dieu (cf. Lc 1, 12.65; 2, 9; 5, 26; 7, 16; Ac 2, 43; 5, 5.11; 19, 17).
c) Des jeunes gens et l’ensevelissement
Des jeunes gens enveloppent Ananie dans un linceul et vont l’enterrer. Ils ont
parfois été considérés comme des « novices » par rapport aux « parfaits »28. En ce
cas, ce récit refléterait une communauté organisée comme celle de Qumrân, où les
parfaits avaient rénoncé à leurs biens propres, alors que les novices n’avaient pas
encore franchi ce seuil. Pierre jouerait alors le rôle de l’inspecteur (épiscope). Mais
le récit de Luc ne permet pas de détecter une telle organisation (d’autant plus qu’il
n’y a pas d’abandon systématique de la propriété des biens). Il demeure pourtant
possible que les jeunes soient des néophytes dans la foi.
La sépulture a lieu avant que Saphire soit au courant de la mort du mari. Ainsi,
l’épisode dramatique peut produire des effets. Ce sont ces mêmes jeunes qui ont
enterré la femme.
25
26
Ibidem
198.
27
CH. PERROT, « Ananie et Saphire. Le jugement ecclésial et la justice divine », dans L’Année
canonique 25 (1981) 121.
28
J. A. FITZMYER, Gli Atti degli Apostoli. Introduzione e commento, Brecia, 2003, 321.
50
d) Saphire
Saphire entre en scène. Elle n’est pas citée par son nom propre, mais par la
désignation de femme. Pierre l’interroge sur le motif qui l’a poussée à collaborer au
mensonge d’Ananie. Les propos de l’apôtre impliquent que la femme aurait pu
déconseiller et chercher à dissuader le mari d’accomplir un geste de ce genre. Noter
que ce n’est pas le fait d’avoir vendu le terrain qui est reproché à Ananie. Il n’était
même pas obligé de donner l’argent de la vente (5, 4). Mais, s’il décidait de le
donner, alors il devait tout donner. La tromperie n’a pas été simplement un mensonge
à Dieu ou à l’Esprit (5, 3.4), mais il a été une véritable mise à l’épreuve de l’Esprit de
Dieu. « Tenter » Dieu ou le mettre à l’épreuve a un arrière-fond vétérotestamentaire
(Ex 17, 2 ; Nb 20, 13.24 ; Ps 106, 32). Ici, Luc emploie le même verbe peirazein
utilisé à propos d’Israël en Dt 33, 8 (LXX). Kyrios se réfère à Yahvé dont l’Esprit a
été mis à l’épreuve. Leur péché contre l’unité porte atteinte à l’autorité divine confiée
aux apôtres comme la révolte de Coré, Datan et Abiram le fut pour le leadership de
Moïse dans le désert (Nb 16).
Au v. 9b, Pierre montre à Saphire les traces des pieds des jeunes qui viennent
de rentrer de l’enterrement de son mari. Ses propos introduits par la particule idu
(voici)29 impliquent qu’on est en présence d’une mort punitive. L’exécution est
divine. La punition d’Ananie et Saphire par la mort illustre jusqu’à quel point de
telles menaces à la communauté et à ses responsables offensent gravement Dieu.
Elle démontre clairement que l’Esprit est vraiment présent dans la communauté et
confirme l’autorité des apôtres. En d’autres termes, l’histoire dramatique d’Ananie et
Saphire devient une affirmation dramatique de la vigilance divine sur l’unité de la
communauté et un encouragement à ne pas perdre confiance en face de l’expérience
quotidienne d’infidélité et de tensions au sein de la communauté.
Juste après avoir entendu les paroles de Pierre, Saphire tombe à ses pieds. Le
fait de tomber aux pieds d’un apôtre veut dire qu’elle tombe là où toute la somme
aurait pu être déposée. Il semblerait rétablir l’autorité des apôtres que les deux
conjoints avaient tenté de méconnaître et de ridiculiser par leur fraude. A la base du
texte lucanien, il y a une forte préoccupation pour l’unité de l’église mise en danger
par les égoïsmes et les intérêts particuliers30.
Du narrateur, le lecteur apprend que les jeunes ont trouvé Saphire morte à leur
retour de l’enterrement de son mari. On voit que le jugement de Dieu et son exécution
associent aussi la femme à son mari dans la mort. Ayant menti à Dieu, l’homme et la
femme sont expulsés de leur « paradis ». Ce n’est donc pas un doublet, mais
l’expression de l’anti-communion s’opposant à la communion.
La «grande crainte», limitée en 5, 5b à la seule assemblée, s’empare maintenant
de tous ceux qui apprirent l’événement. L’on constate que le but pour lequel Dieu
avait infligé ce dur châtiment à Ananie et à Saphire serait la crainte31 qu’éprouvent
29
Cette particule assume cette fonction ici.
di Ac 5, 1-11 e 13, 4 -12, 209.
31
D. MARGUERAT, « La mort d’Ananias et Saphira (Ac 5, 1-11) dans la stratégie narrative de Luc »,
dans NTS 39 (1993) 221, écrit à ce propos : « L’effet pragmatique du récit est de provoquer la crainte,
l’effroi sacré. (…) Le lecteur sait depuis le premier sommaire que la crainte est la réaction humaine à
l’épiphanie de la puissance divine ».
30
51
toutes les personnes qui entendent parler de l’événement. Cette crainte “est
précisément la prise de conscience de la sainteté de leur assemblée, de la présence
au milieu d’eux du Dieu très Saint. Les Israélites qui autrefois avaient voulu gravir
ou simplement toucher la sainte montagne du Sinaï, lieu de la présence du Saint
d’Israël, avaient été frappés de mort (cf. Ex 19, 12). Il en va de même pour ceux qui
portent atteinte à la sainteté de l’assemblée messianique des derniers jours”32. La
crainte de Dieu devrait suffire pour préserver du mal, sans qu’il y ait besoin de la
produire par l’exécution du jugement. On voit dans les Psaumes et les Proverbes
tout ce qui se rattache à la crainte de Dieu, surtout en fait de bénédiction. Craindre
Dieu, ce n’est pas avoir peur de lui; c’est craindre de Lui déplaire en lui désobéissant;
c’est une crainte qui découle de l’amour dont nous sommes aimés de Dieu, que
nous aimons en retour. Plus nous aimons quelqu’un, plus nous éviterons de lui
déplaire.
C’est en décrivant la crainte suscitée par cette intervention divine que les Actes
emploient pour la première fois le mot ekklêsia. Ce terme grec est traduit tantôt par
“église”, tantôt par “assemblée”. Dans son oeuvre, Luc utilise souvent ce mot au
sens de “communauté locale”. En employant pour la première fois ce terme, dans le
passage que nous étudions, “il fait explicitement référence à l’”assemblée du désert”
dont il est question plus loin en Actes 7, 38 (cf. Dt 4, 10). Il entend signifier par là
que la communauté des croyants rassemblée à Jérusalem autour des apôtres est, en
fait, l’accomplissement messianique de l’assemblée convoquée jadis par le Seigneur,
au pied de la sainte montagne du Sinaï, pour recevoir le don de la Loi (cf. Ex 19, 1020)”33.
II. LE NARRATEUR
ET
SA PERSPECTIVE
Une lecture plus attentive montre que le texte recèle une richesse de sens qui
interdit les idées simples; elle requiert du lecteur une réflexion à la fois forte et
nuancée, respectueuse du texte et de la réalité qu’il évoque. A partir d’une lecture
narrative de la fraude d’Ananie et de Saphire, nous avons voulu montrer comment
ce récit, loin d’enseigner la bénédiction divine de la mort de ce couple, nourrit
plutôt une réflexion en profondeur sur les conséquences du mensonge à l’Esprit
Saint. Permettre l’introduction de la duplicité et de l’hypocrisie dans la communauté,
ce serait menacer son existence elle-même. L’unité exige des relations de confiance
mutuelle. Et si le comportement d’Ananie n’était dénoncé, il « sèmerait dans le
terrain ecclésial un germe de mort, avec pour conséquence de discréditer jusqu’à la
Parole de Dieu. C’est la vive conscience de ce danger qui motive la sévérité des
paroles de Pierre»34.
En outre, Ac 5, 1-11 est un exemple d’attribution à Dieu d’actions peu compatibles
avec sa perfection, et surtout avec sa miséricorde partout chantée. On ne retrouve
pas dans le cas présent les consignes de pardon ou d’indulgence dans les Evangiles
(cf. Lc 17, 3-4; Mt 18, 15-18). Beaucoup de lecteurs verront également une disproportion entre la faute commise et la peine infligée. Il ne serait donc pas de bonne
32
33
34
52
P. BOSSUYT, L’Esprit en Actes. Lire les Actes des Apôtres, Bruxelles, Editions Lessius, 1998, 27-28.
Idem, 27.
interprétation que de prêter au Seigneur, sans plus réfléchir, des sentiments que luimême réprouve chez les chrétiens. C’est une expression, maladroite peut-être, mais
significative, de la réalité du jugement, et d’abord des jugements dont Ananie et
Saphire ont fait l’expérience dans leur histoire: la mort de ce couple ne s’explique
que par le péché dont elle apparaît comme la conséquence. Notre texte évoque
ainsi la condamnation et l’extermination des deux pécheurs – une sorte de purification de l’église – et l’intimidation du peuple à la vue des coupables punis. Il forme
de ce fait les fidèles aux principales exigences de la vie chrétienne et communautaire.
De ce récit se dégagent ces idées fortes.
1. Correction d’une image
«unanimiste » et parfaite
de la première communauté
chrétienne
La mort très spectaculaire de deux disciples, Ananie
et Saphire, illustre le fait que le partage des biens
n’est pas une chose aisée même s’il ne s’agissait que
d’une pratique recommandée et non pas imposée :
malgré tout son désir d’unité et de partage, la première
communauté n’est pas à l’abri de nouvelles ruptures
de l’alliance entre les hommes et Dieu, l’Eglise naissante ne cesse de connaître le
drame du péché et du mal qui est susceptible de l’affecter en chacun de ses membres.
Ce récit, quelque peu étrange aux yeux de nombreux commentateurs, témoigne du
fait qu’il ne faut pas trop idéaliser la première communauté chrétienne, même si
Luc, le chroniqueur des Actes, ne cesse de la présenter comme une sorte d’idéal de
communion : l’Eglise, faite de membres pécheurs, n’atteindra peut-être jamais cet
idéal de perfection, mais elle n’en a pas pour autant le droit de s’installer dans des
pratiques contraires à la visée évangélique de l’union des cœurs et du partage
fraternel.
L’histoire de ce couple doit, toutefois, faire réfléchir ceux que scandalise le
péché des chrétiens et qui en prennent prétexte pour vivre en marge de l’église et
de ses manifestations paroissiales. En tant que lieu de la vie, l’Eglise n’est pas un
paradis terrestre et tout n’y est pas or pur, en dépit de la merveilleuse effusion de
l’Esprit dont elle est comblée. En tous temps elle a connu et connaîtra des ombres et
des lumières. Elle se découvre faillible. La présence en elle de misérables et de
pécheurs ne l’empêche pas d’être le «corps du Christ» et le lieu où agit son Esprit.
2. Le double caractère
du péché d’Ananie
et Saphire
Comme dans le récit de Gn 3, cet épisode met en scène
la complicité d’un homme et d’une femme dans un geste
qui rompt l’harmonie originelle décrite en 4, 32-35. Leur
péché avait deux caractères intimement liés: mentir à
l’Esprit saint, auquel on ne peut rien cacher, et en même
temps, le tenter, en essayant de voir s’il ignorerait leur acte. On ne doit pas tenter
Dieu, le mettre à l’épreuve pour savoir s’il est fidèle dans ce qu’il dit. On doit le
croire sans preuves. C’est ce que Satan voulut faire avec le Seigneur, lorsqu’il
l’engageait à se jeter depuis la faîte du temple, puisqu’il est dit au Ps 91, 11.12: « Il
donnera des ordres à ses anges à ton sujet, et ils te porteront sur leurs mains, de
peur que tu ne heurtes ton pied contre une pierre». Jésus lui répondit: «Il est encore
écrit: Tu ne tenteras pas le Seigneur, ton Dieu», ce qui signifie: «Tu ne feras aucune
chose qui aurait pour but de vérifier si ce que Dieu dit est vrai». On doit croire ce
que Dieu dit parce que c’est lui qui le dit. Si Dieu avait dit à Jésus de se jeter du haut
53
du temple, il aurait obéi, et Dieu l’aurait protégé, comme dit le Psaume. En obéissant
à Dieu nous sommes gardés.
Mentir à Dieu fait mourir (on a noté que c’est le fait d’entendre la parole de
vérité de Pierre qui fait mourir Ananie et la « prophétie » de la mort de Saphire qui
fait tomber celle-ci). Il semble bien que Luc ait voulu donner une leçon à la
communauté en lui montrant combien il est grave de « mentir » à l’Esprit (5, 3-4),
représenté par les apôtres.
3. L’église comme lieu
où s’exerce la puissance
de l’Esprit
Ac 5, 1-11 manifeste de façon énergique et évidente la
présence de l’Esprit saint dans la communauté et sa
seigneurie sur l’Eglise. Le péché d’Ananie et Saphire est
une négation de sa présence dans la communauté
chrétienne. La rupture de la communion constitue donc
une atteinte à l’Esprit Saint. C’est donc lui qui est le principe d’unité de l’Eglise,
jaillissant de la parole et conduisant à la vie et au salut. Cette communion s’exprime
et se réalise dans le partage des biens : le « cœur » du croyant participe déjà, en
ce partage, au renversement eschatologique dans le maintenant de la foi, mais ce
renversement demeure un engagement libre. S’il ne doit y avoir d’indigents dans
l’église, ce n’est pas en vertu d’un système économique, ni même d’une philosophie
sur la nature de l’homme, mais à partir d’un cœur qui accueille la parole comme
exigence de vie. La mise en commun revêt un caractère prophétique : elle ne
devient pas une « institution ». Ananie et Saphire sont libres face à l’Esprit, mais ils
ne peuvent mentir à l’Esprit quand ils ont choisi la voie de la mise en commun.
Intransigeant, le Saint Esprit ne tolère pas qu’on le trompe. « Quand la parole est
pervertie, commente Charles L’Eplattenier, quand l’hypocrisie s’insinue à la faveur
de la convoitise et de la vanité, l’Esprit-Saint provoqué peut réagir en consumant de
son feu les fauteurs de trouble »35.
La communauté découvre, avec stupeur et souffrance, qu’il y a dans son sein
des membres auxquels on ne peut pas se fier à fond : des gens baptisés, confirmés,
qui ont reçu le don des langues et qui ont en même temps l’esprit calculateur.
4. Aucun membre
de l’Eglise n’échappe
au regard divin
Le sens de cet événement effrayant est de dénoncer
avec la plus extrême sévérité la duplicité du cœur, le
désir de paraître et la tricherie préméditée. C’est dire
qu’un disciple du Seigneur Jésus évitera d’y tomber. Il
aura à discerner dans sa vie s’il y a quelque racine
d’hypocrisie. Les autres peuvent ne pas la voir et peut-être lui-même, il peut être
trompé, mais le Seigneur la voit. L’auteur de l’épître aux Hébreux le dit bien : « Il
n’est pas de créature qui échappe à sa vue ; tout est nu à ses yeux, tout est
subjugué par son regard » (4, 13). C’est ce dont Ananie et Saphire firent l’expérience.
Et qu’est-ce que le Seigneur veut dans la vie de l’homme? Il veut la sincérité et
la vérité. Vérité veut dire tout ce qui est vrai. Hypocrisie, c’est ce qui a apparence de
35
54
vérité. L’hypocrite semble être un agneau, il se présente sous un déguisement
d’agneau, mais dedans, c’est un loup ravisseur. L’hypocrisie peut se glisser dans nos
vies, dans l’Eglise de Jésus-Christ, et elle s’y glisse bien souvent.
5. La crainte
du Seigneur
Le défi de Satan n’a fait que servir les intérêts du Seigneur : le
texte le montre. Cet incident provoque une grande crainte chez
tous ceux qui en entendent parler et même dans toute l’assemblée.
Nous avons ici un élément qui fait défaut dans l’Eglise d’aujourd’hui – pour ne rien
dire des hommes en général. La crainte de Dieu dans le cœur des saints est une
chose très salutaire, et elle est tout à fait compatible avec le sentiment profond de
l’amour de Dieu. Paul avait cette crainte dans la lumière du tribunal du Christ (cf. 2
Co 5, 10.11), mais pour l’incrédule, il ne s’agira pas de crainte, ce sera une terreur
positive. Une sainte crainte, venant d’un sentiment profond de la sainteté de Dieu,
est très souhaitable.
6. Pape, évêques
et prêtres comme
instruments divins
Par l’intermédiaire de Pierre, Dieu vient à l’aide de son
« Eglise » menacée par une division interne. Le rôle que
joue Pierre dans le texte met en évidence la nécessité de
l’autorité du Pape, des évêques et des prêtres pour que
l’Eglise tienne. Ceux-ci constituent l’axe vertical de la
communauté autour duquel tournent donations et redistributions. Non seulement
ils répondent aux besoins à l’intérieur de la communauté, mais aussi ils sont chargés
d’assurer la vraie communion au sein de celle-ci.
55
Willy Moka, S.J.
Jesus’ Hour In the Fourth Gospel: A Reading of John 12:
20-36.
Willy Moka, S.J. *
Sommaire
Dans cet article l’auteur explore, de facon systematique, la signification de “l’heure de Jésus” dans l’Evangile de Saint Jean. En s’appuyant
sur la notion hébreux du temps, comme succession des évenements, il montre que
cette “heure” est celle de la mission salvifique de Jésus. L’arrivée des Grecs, qui marque
aussi l’arrivée de “l’heure de Jésus”, symbolize l’accession du monde païen au salut
apporté par Jésus.
Introduction
The “Hour of Jesus” is one of the most significant themes in
the fourth gospel. It is spoken of from the beginning of John’s
gospel, but it will reach its higher point in chapter 12 with the
arrival of the Greeks, which marks the coming of the hour. We first come across it
in chapter 2:4 where Jesus, responding to his mother’s request to provide wine for
the party, points out the fact that the hour has not yet come: “O woman, what have
you to do with me? My hour has not yet come.” In chapter 5:25, Jesus is predicting
the coming of the hour when the dead will hear the voice of the Son of God: “Truly,
truly, I say to you, the hour is coming, and now is, when the dead will hear the
voice of the Son of God, and those who hear will live.” And to give a picture of how
that hour will look like, Jesus calls Lazarus, in chapter 11:43, out of the tomb, and
thus anticipates his glory. This miracle seems to be a preview of the manifestation of
Jesus’ own glory. In chapters 7:30 and 8:20, John is speaking again about Jesus’
hour. Jesus cannot be arrested after his argument with the Jews during the feast of
Tabernacles or after rescuing the adulteress woman from being stoned, because the
“hour” has not yet come: “but no one laid hands on him, because his hour had not
yet come” (John 7:30). In chapter 12, the emphasis about the “hour” is on Jesus’
glorification: “The hour has come for the Son of man to be glorified” (John 12:23).
The account of the Last Supper begins with reference to the hour: “His hour had
come to depart out of this world to the Father” (John 13:1). And the first words of
chapter 17 are: “Father, the hour has come: glorify your Son so that your Son may
glorify you” (John 17:1). All these references to “hour” point at a particular moment
in the life of Jesus, a period well defined in chapter 13:1: “the hour to return to the
Father.” This return is made possible through his passion, death, and resurrection.
From what precedes, it clearly appears that “the whole life of Jesus is directed
towards this ‘hour’ which will be the high point of his life. But it will not be, as in
the synoptics, an hour of darkness - the Saviour delivered into the hands of sinners
- but the hour of his elevation on the cross, combined with his glorification.”1
*
Willy Moka is a Jesuit from the Democratic Republic of Congo in his third year of theology at
Hekima College.
1
Ignace de la Potterie, The hour of Jesus, (Middlegreen: St Paul Publications, 1989), p.22.
56
Jesus’ Hour In the Fourth Gospel: A Reading of John 12:20-36.
This paper intends to explore the meaning of the “hour of Jesus” through the
reading of John 12: 20-36. A better understanding of this “hour” requires a look at
the Hebrew conception of time. Thus the first point deals with the Hebrew concept
of time. The second point examines the specificity of “hour” in the reading passage
that leads this paper, from the coming of the Greeks to Jesus’ mission to draw all
people to himself. The third point is a reflection on the relationship between the
Hebrew and the African understandings of time.
1. The Hebrew
Concept of Time
Unlike the Greek conception of time, which is speculative,
the Hebrew understanding of time found in the Old Testament is qualitative, more concrete, and refers to a specific
moment or point at which something happened, or will
happen. This clearly appears in Exodus 9: 18: “Behold, tomorrow about this time I
will cause very heavy hail to fall, such as never has been in Egypt from the day it
was founded until now.” As it can be noticed from this passage, the Hebrew understanding of time “came from how it described the events of human life and God’s
interaction with people.”2 For the Hebrews, time is a succession of events that occur
and mark life, such as rain, harvest, commemorative feasts and festivals, etc. This
move from event to event has a goal, which is always the future. In this succession
the most important element is the quality of the event rather than the length of time
occupied by the event. To understand this, one has to get rid of scientific or philosophical interpretation of time, which is quantitative rather than qualitative.
For the Hebrews, there is a strong relationship between time and life. This
statement can be supported by Ronnie Littlejohn’s affirmation, according to which
“there was no time where there were no life events, and no life events where there
was no time. In the Old Testament, life was humanity’s form of existence (Job 1:21;
Psalm 90:3-12) and this was time.”3 In other words, the way one lives is time itself.
Therefore, says W. Hall Harris, it appears best to understand the “hour” as a period
of time starting at the end of Jesus’ public ministry and extending through the
passion week, ending with Jesus’ return to the Father through death, resurrection,
and exaltation. The hour begins as soon as the first events occur which begin the
process that leads to Jesus’ death.4 This comment of Harris helps us to grasp the
meaning of Jesus’ hour, mostly in John 12:20-36.
2. Specificity of the Hour
in John 12: 20-36
The coming of the Greeks
Now among those who went up to worship at the feast were
some Greeks. So these came to Philip, who was from Bethsaida
in Galilee, and said to him, Sir, we wish to see Jesus (vv.20-21).
There are different interpretations about the identity of these Greeks and the
reason why they first addressed Philip and asked him to see Jesus. The majority of
scholars are of the opinion that these Greeks were proselytes, and they should be
2
Ronnie Littlejohn, The Hebrew Concept of Time, in http://www.ovrlnd.com/Eschatology/
hebrewconceptoftime.html, consulted on October 10, 2005
3
Idem.
4
W. Hall Harris, The coming of the Gentiles marks the coming of the hour, in http://www.bible.org.
57
Willy Moka, S.J.
distinguished from the Hellenists of Acts 6:1. They are those born Greeks. According to J.A.T. Robinson, these Greeks are not Gentiles. They are Greek-speaking
Jews.5 Barrett does not agree on this. For him, these Greeks are not Greek-speaking
Jews but rather Gentiles. The fact that they went up to worship at the feast suggests
they were proselytes.6 W. Hall Harris comes up with a different view. According to
him,
These Greeks who had come up to worship at the feast were probably “Godfearers” rather than proselytes in the strict sense. Had they been true proselytes,
they would probably not have been referred to as Greeks any longer. Many came
to worship at the major Jewish festivals without being Jewish proselytes, for example, the Ethiopian eunuch in Acts 8:27, who could not have been a proselyte if
he were physically a eunuch.7
We can notice from the above views that the identity of the Greeks is not
certain, and neither is the reason why they first approached Philip. Some scholars
think that it is out of curiosity, and Philip was the first person they came across.
Some others think it is because of his name, which sounds Greek. Thus he could be
a good helper for the Greeks. But Philip does not give an answer. He rather goes to
see Andrew, and both of them go to report to Jesus. We are not told if the Greeks
met Jesus or not. They disappear from the scene, and the Gospel continues without
any mention of their visit. Jesus seems to ignore the request. According to Bultmann,
the discourse of Jesus in verses 23-33 can be understood as an indirect answer to
that request. The fact that the Greeks must turn to the disciples in order to reach
Jesus could also have a symbolic meaning: the access of the Greek world to Jesus is
mediated through the apostles.8
Bultmann thinks that this scene might be inspired by a later Christian usage. He
writes: “it is not impossible that a later Christian usage has served as a pattern for the
conception of this scene, according to which a Gentile, who wanted to join the
community, had to be recommended by two members of the Church.”9
The coming of the hour
Whatever the reason of the Greeks’ desire to see Jesus, their coming marks the
coming of Jesus’ hour. In declaring the coming of the hour (The hour has come for
the Son of Man to be glorified), Jesus also speaks of what is to be achieved in that
hour. He himself refers to it as the “glorification of the Son of Man”. The paradox of
this hour, says Bultmann, is plainly brought home: the hour of glorification is at the
same time the hour of the passion. As the seed of corn must die in order to produce
fruit, so also the way to the glorification of Jesus can lead only through death.10 This
ambivalence makes the hour a decisive hour and an hour of decision.
5
J.A.T. Robinson, cited by C.K. Barrett, The Gospel according to Saint John, (Cambridge: University
Press, 1978), p.421
6
C.K. Barrett, op.cit., p.421
7
W. Hall Harris III, Exegetical Commentary on John 12, in http://www.bible.org
8
Rudolf Bultmann, The Gospel of John: A Commentary, (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971), p.423
9
Idem.
10
Ibid, p.424
58
This hour is the fulfillment of the words of the prophet Zechariah, according to
which the Messiah will proclaim peace to the Gentiles (cf. Zech. 9: 10). This proclamation of peace aims at gathering the people of God: “I will bring them home
from the land of Egypt, and gather them from Assyria; and I will bring them to the
land of Gilead and to Lebanon, till there is no room for them” (Zech. 10:10). In
referring to the prophecy of Zechariah, John highlights the decisive turn which is
taken in Jesus’ ministry. The presence of these Greeks indicates that the moment
has come for Jesus to lay down his life. Thus, his wish and desire to gather all God’s
children who are scattered all over the world is being fulfilled: “I have other sheep,
that are not of this fold; I must bring them also, and they will heed my voice. So
there shall be one flock, one shepherd” (John 10:16). Commenting on the prophecy
of Caiaphas about Jesus’ death, John points out this gathering of God’s children:
He did not say this of his own accord, but being high priest that year he prophesied that Jesus should die for the nation, and not for the nation only, but to
gather into one the children of God who are scattered abroad (John 11:51-52).
It is through his death, resurrection, and exaltation that Jesus will bring to the
Father His scattered children. These three moments, or events, constitute what John
calls the hour of Jesus’ glory. This hour marks the universality of God’s love. Henceforth, salvation is no longer a prerogative of only Jews. It has been extended to the
whole humanity. The wall of separation, based on racial, religious, regional or
cultural divisions is broken. There is no longer Jews or Gentile; for all are saved by
the same saviour. In other words, this hour makes salvation available for everyone.
This implies that “the revelation and the worship will not be limited by blood, that
is, confined to the nation of Israel”11 but will be open to the whole world. The
reaction of the Jews to Jesus’ announcement of his approaching departure sheds
lights on this opening of salvation to all men: “The Jews said to one another, where
does this man intend to go that we shall not find him? Does he intend to go to the
dispersion among the Greeks and teach the Greeks?” (John 7:35) Before this event
happens, Jesus is first to be glorified, because, says Barrett, “the evangelization of
the Gentiles does not belong to the earthly ministry of Jesus; the way to it lies
through the crucifixion and resurrection, and the mission of the church”.12
Jesus explains his understanding of glorification by using the image of the seed
of wheat: “Truly, truly, I say to you, unless a grain of wheat falls into the earth and
dies, it remains alone; but if it dies, it bears much fruit” (John 12:24). This image is
familiar in the tradition of the New Testament. Through it, Paul expresses the transformation of the body at the final resurrection:
But someone will ask, “How are the dead raised?” You foolish man! What you sow
does not come to life unless it dies. And what you sow is not the body which is to
be, but a bare kernel, perhaps of wheat or of some other grain. But God gives it
a body as he has chosen, and to each kind of seed its own body.” (1Cor.15:35-38).
And Jesus Himself uses it to speak of the kingdom of God in the synoptic
gospels (cf. Mt13: 3ff and Mk 4: 26-29). While in the parable of the sower the seed
11
Bruno Barnhart, The Good Wine: Reading John from the Center (New York: Paulist Press, 1993),
p.299
12
C.K. Barrett, op. cit., p.422
59
Willy Moka, S.J.
is the Word of God, in John, with regard to the hour of Jesus, the seed is identified
with Jesus himself. The seed that should die so as to bear fruit is Jesus. Thus, “from
a law of creation, Jesus signifies the mystery whereby the new creation is realized.”13 The death of Jesus is necessary because it brings about new birth of the
children of God. A seed that does not fall into earth and does not die cannot
accomplish anything. Likewise, it is only by Jesus’ death that the salvation of the
whole world is accomplished. This death is not just to save individual souls, but the
multitudes. Thus, the hour of Jesus is also the fulfillment of Caiaphas’ prophecy:
“you do not understand that it is expedient for you that one man should die for the
people, and that the whole nation should not perish” (John 11:50). Through his
death, Jesus will become accessible for the Gentiles who represent the rest of the
world. His death, as well as his life, is to be shared by those who follow him:
“Whoever serves me must follow me, and where I am, there will my servant be
also” (John12:26). This passage raises the question of access to Jesus. Which way
one should follow to access Jesus? Bultmann handles the question in this way:
Whoever asks after access to the historical Jesus is directed to the way that leads
to the exalted Lord (…) The way to him is the way of service, which leads to the
acceptance of death as a man follows in his steps.14
In line with the understanding of the question of access to Jesus, Xavier LéonDufour affirms that to “follow”, in this case, is not the equivalence of “to believe”
like in John 8:12, for the adhesion of faith is already in the will to serve Jesus. It is
rather the equivalence of to follow Jesus unto death.15 The one who follows Jesus
by the way of service, will be rewarded by the Father.
The Hour of the Son’s Glorification
What is the meaning of this hour? “The hour is the hour of death; the hour in
face of which human fear trembles, and from which human fear desires to be
rescued.”16 Considering the human aspect of Jesus nature, it might be said that he is
afraid of the hour; that is why his heart is troubled: “Now my heart is troubled”
(John 12:27). He is anxious as the hour draws near, and he wonders what kind of
prayer he can address to his Father: “What shall I say? Father, save me from this
hour? No, it is for this very reason I have come to this hour” (John 12:27). To act
against this hour would destroy its significance. Jesus is aware of it. This hour is the
main reason of his coming to the world. It marks the highest point of his mission on
earth. That is why he is ready to face his death because all his life was directed
toward this hour. In other words, Jesus is not taken by surprise by the coming of the
hour. He knew what was going to take place, as it is well presented in John 18:4:
“Knowing everything that was to happen to him, Jesus came forward and said,
‘Who are you looking for?’” What matters at this moment is not how Jesus feels
emotionally, but rather the glorification of the Father’s name through Jesus’ death,
13
Xavier Léon-Dufour, Lecture de l’Evangile selon Jean, Vol.2 (Paris: Seuil, 1990), p.463 (The English
Translation is mine).
14
R. Bultmann, op. cit., p.426
15
Xavier Léon-Dufour, op. cit., p.465 (The English translation is mine).
16
60
which is the completion of his works for the Father’s glory, and which shows how
great is God’s love for humanity: “Father, glorify your name” (John 12:28). Following this line of thought, Bultmann notes that “the meaning of this hour can only be
that it does not have the man’s interest in view but the service of God.”17
The Father responds with a voice coming from heaven and saying: “I have
glorified it, and I will again glorify it” (John 12:28). The voice is differently interpreted by the crowd. Some say it is a thunder, and others say an Angel has spoken
to him (v. 29). But Jesus specifies that it is for them that this voice has come (v. 30).
This statement has been a source of controversies among the scholars. How could
this voice be for the crowd since it was an answer to Jesus’ prayer? Like in John
11:42 (I myself knew that you hear me always, but I speak for the sake of all these who
are standing around me, so that they may believe it was you who sent me), the
evangelist maintains that the Son does not need to be confirmed in his communion
with the Father. The purpose of this voice is to lead the crowd to faith so that they
may believe that the Father is glorified in the Son and the Son in the Father. This
reciprocal glorification between the Father and the Son clearly appears in John
13:31-32: “Now is the Son of man glorified, and in him God is glorified; if God is
glorified in him, God will also glorify him in himself, and glorify him at once”, and
in John 17:1: “Father, the hour has come: glorify your Son so that your Son may
glorify you”. It should be noted, at this point, that “when Jesus asks to be glorified
it is not for his own sake, cf. John 7:18; John 8:50, but the glory of the Son and of
the Father are one.”18
The Hour of Judgment of the World
The coming of Jesus’ hour also marks the judgment of the world: “Now is the
judgment of this world, now shall the ruler of this world be cast out” (John 12:31).
This passage strongly stresses the saving work of Jesus through his death, resurrection and exaltation, and his authority over the power of evil. Here judgment is not
to be understood as a court decision, but rather as a decisive victory over an enemy.
And the world Jesus is referring to represents the system that is opposed to him and
to the Father who sent him. In other words, the judgment is about this world, which
refuses to believe in the revelation brought by Jesus. The world is being judged by
its own actions, and this judgment goes together with the defeat of the enemy:
Satan’s loss of authority over this world, as it is described in the book of Revelation
12:10: “Now the salvation and the power and the kingdom of our God and the
authority of his Christ have come, for the accuser of our brethren has been thrown
down, who accuses them day and night before our God.” This victory is made
possible by the blood of the Lamb, which symbolizes the death of Jesus, and by the
testimony of those who accept to follow him unto death: “And they have conquered
him by the blood of the Lamb and the word of their testimony, for they loved not
their lives even unto death” (Rev. 12:11).
17
18
The New Jerusalem Bible, John chapter 17:1, note b.
61
Willy Moka, S.J.
The Hour of Drawing All Men to Jesus
After being lifted up, Jesus will draw all men to himself (cf. John 12:32). “All”
here means those who respond to the call of Jesus. He offers a possibility to all
human beings, and wants to draw them to himself, regardless of their nation, tribe,
tongue, etc. This can be realized only in those who believe in him, and to whom is
given the power to become children of God: “but to those who did accept him he
gave the power to become the children of God” (John 1:12). By becoming children
of God, they belong to Jesus, and those are the ones Jesus will draw to himself.
Then a question rises. How will Jesus draw to himself those who already belong to
him? Bultmann provides the following answer to the question: “by virtue of the fact
that he has overcome death for them, and given them a share in the glory that he as
the exalted Lord has with the Father beyond death.”19 This sharing of Jesus’ glory
with those who believe in him is out of his love for them, and out of the Father’s
love for him before the foundation of the world: “Father, I want those you have
given me to be with me where I am, so that they may always see my glory which
you have given me because you loved me before the foundation of the world”
(John 17:24).
From the above considerations, one can say that the complaint of the Jews, in
John 12:19, which is in fact a prophecy, is being fulfilled: “The Pharisees then said
to one another, ‘You see that you can do nothing; look, the world has gone after
him.’” This move of the world toward Jesus is already in John 11:45, where many
Jews believed in him after witnessing what happened the day of the resurrection of
Lazarus: “Many of the Jews therefore, who had come with Mary and had seen what
he did, believed in him.” The Samaritans also believed in him, not only because of
what the woman told them, but because of their personal experience and encounter with Jesus (John 4: 39-42). And the coming of the Greeks confirms that hour of
drawing all men to Jesus.
Who is the Son of Man?
This question is a reaction of the crowd to Jesus’ declaration of being lifted up.
According to their knowledge, the Son of Man should live forever. He will never
taste death: “We have heard from the law that the Christ remains for ever. How can
you say that the Son of man must be lifted up? Who is this Son of Man?” (John 12:34)
It is difficult to mention, in the Pentateuch, the passage that the crowd is referring
to. Perhaps they have in mind Psalm 89:36: “His line shall endure for ever, his
throne as long as the sun before me” or Daniel 7:14: “His dominion is an everlasting
dominion, which shall not pass away, and his kingdom one that shall not be destroyed”. But none of these texts is in the Pentateuch as such. However, this can be
understood by the common usage of Law as reference to the entire Old Testament.
From this perspective, Psalm 89:36 justifies the question of the crowd. They have
understood Jesus’ lifting up as a reference to his death, which contradicts the teaching of the law according to which the Son of Man (the Messiah) was to remain
forever. The second part of the question is an expression of the dilemma faced by
the crowd. They know and believe that the Son of Man will remain forever, and the
one who is supposed to be the Son of Man tells them that he has to be lifted up, that
is to say he is not going to remain in their midst. It becomes difficult for them to
62
reconcile their belief with what Jesus is telling them. In his effort to open their
minds to the intelligence of the event, Jesus brings in the issue of light: “The light is
for you for a little longer. Walk while you have the light… While you have the light,
believe in the light, that you may become sons of light” (John 12:35-36). This last
section appears as a warning, an instruction of a master to his disciples from whom
he is departing in a near future. It is up to them to take the opportunity offered. As
it can be noticed, the stress of Jesus is on light, and the word appears five times in
these two verses. A close look at the text reveals that Jesus is speaking of his
physical presence in the world. The reference to light recalls John 8:12, where he
presents himself as the light of the world: “I am the light of the world; he who
follows me will not walk in darkness, but will have the light of life.” So people have
to respond by coming to the light, which is in the world for a limited time. “Those
who refuse or delay will be overtaken by the darkness which is coming after the
light is taken away. The person who tries to walk in the darkness is unable to see
and thus does not know where he is going.”20
This warning, says W. Hall Harris, operates on at least two different levels. (1)
To the Jewish people in Jerusalem to whom Jesus spoke, the warning is a reminder
that there is only a little time left for them to accept him as their Messiah. (2) To
those later individuals to whom the Fourth Gospel was written, and to every person
since, the words of Jesus are also a warning: there is a finite, limited time in which
each individual has opportunity to respond to the Light of the world (i.e., Jesus);
after that comes darkness. One’s response to the Light decisively determines one’s
judgment for eternity.21
When we read the above passage we may say that the acceptance or the refusal
to come to the light is a free decision of the one who listens to Jesus. We are told,
in the second part of verse 36 that when Jesus had said this, he departed and hid
himself from them. This is the reaction of Jesus to their unbelief. The people to
whom he has spoken prefer to remain in the darkness, and that is why the light is
to be taken away.
3. The Hebrew and
the African Concepts
of Time
There are similarities between the Hebrew and the African understanding of time. We have seen, in the first part
of this paper, that the Hebrew concept of time is related
to events. It refers to a specific moment or point at which
something happened or will happen. This establishes a strong relationship between
time and life.
This understanding is not different from the way Africans perceive time. For
them, time seen in a theoretical way is not the main concern. Rather, they look at it
as a succession of events that happened, that are happening, and that will happen
in a near future. This understanding establishes a clear distinction between what
John Mbiti calls potential and real time.22 The former refers to the events that are
19
20
21
22
W. Hall Harris III, article cited
Idem.
Cf. J. Mbiti, Religions et Philosophie africaines (Yaounde: editions CLE, 1972), p.26
63
Willy Moka, S.J.
likely to happen, and the latter refers to the events that are taking place or took
place. The problem with this conception of time is that future does not exist because the events which are related to it have not yet happened. Therefore, they are
not part of the time. When Jesus says, “the hour has come”, it is very easy for an
African to understand because the event, which is the time, is taking place. In the
case of the passage we have been dealing with, the event, which marks time, is the
coming of the Greeks. It is taking place and constitutes time. Once the Son of man
is lifted up, the coming of the Greeks will be looked at as a past event, but still
significant and part of the real time. So, according to Mbiti, there is a reverse movement. People look more at past realities than at future events. This orientation of
time, determined by the two fundamental realities of present and past, he says,
dominates the African conception of the individual, of the community, and of the
universe. One has to experience time for things to have a meaning or become a
reality.23 It is only from this experience of time that Jesus can say: “unless a grain of
wheat falls into the earth and dies, it remains alone; but if it dies, it bears much
fruits” (John 12:24) or: “when I am lifted up from the earth, I will draw all men to
myself” (John 12:32).
The “When”, which is an expression of time, in this last passage, has a meaning
only in relation with the “being lifted up”. Likewise, the African concept of time is
always related to events. Time consists of events. Without events there is no time,
and without time there is no life. It is certain, says Mbiti, that the fundamental
concept of time constitutes the basis of life and comportments of Africans.24 It has a
great impact in the way they related to one another, and to God. Their religious
practices are conditioned by their understanding of time. This can be applied to
Jesus of John. His understanding of time fashions his behaviour vis-à-vis his society.
He delays to perform miracles at the demand of his mother because his time or hour
has not yet come (John 2:4). He cannot be arrested because his time has not yet
come (John 7:30).
From what has been said it is not too much to claim that the Hebrew understanding of time is similar to the African one. Both consider time as a succession of
events, and establish a strong relationship between time and life. Both understanding can help to understand the beliefs, the attitudes, the practices, and the way of
live of Africans, not only within their traditional milieu, but also within the modern
context.
Conclusion
Through the reading of John 12:20-36 I have tried to lead the
reader of the fourth gospel to grasp the meaning of the hour of
Jesus. It emerges from this reading that the hour of Jesus has a
religious meaning, which goes beyond the chronological understanding of time. It
means decisive stages, or moments, or events (passion, death, resurrection, and
exaltation) in God’s plan of salvation. Thanks to these events, salvation is no longer
limited to a particular group of people, but it is offered to everyone. However, the
response to it is left to the individual responsibility and cooperation.
23
24
64
Idem
Idem.
Bibliography
Barnhart, Bruno, The Good Wine: Reading John from the Center. New York: Paulist Press,
1993.
Barrett, C.K., The Gospel according to Saint John. Cambridge: University Press, 1978.
Brown, Raymond E. et al, ed. The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. London: Geoffrey
Chapman, 2000
Bultmann, Rudolf, The Gospel of John: A Commentary. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971.
Buttrick, G. Arthur. et al, ed. The Interpreter’s Bible, vol.VIII, New York: Abingdom Press,
1952
De la Potterie, Ignace, The hour of Jesus. Middlegreen: St Paul Publications, 1989
Guthrie, D., (ed), The New Bible Commentary, Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1970
Hall Harris, W., The coming of the Gentiles marks the coming of the hour, in http://
www.bible.org.
Léon-Dufour, Xavier, Lecture de l’Evangile selon Jean, Vol.2, Paris: Seuil, 1990.
Mbiti, J., Religions et Philosophie africaines (Yaounde: editions CLE, 1972)
Ngewa, M. Samuel, The Gospel of John. Nairobi: Evangel Publishing, 2003.
Richardson, Alan, The Gospel according to Saint John: The meaning of the history of Jesus, SCM
Press Ltd, 1959.
65
J.M. Vianney Paluku, AA
ITS RELEVANCE IN AFRICAN PEACE BUILDING
J.M. Vianney Paluku, AA *
Sommaire
Cet article traite de la question de la paix dans le livre de
l’Apocalypse. Cette question doit être comprise en relation avec le
jugement de Dieu et la victoire de Jésus Christ sur les forces du
mal. L’auteur invite les chrétiens Africains à construire un monde de justice, de paix
et d’amour afin de faire face à la situation de misère et de guerre que connait l’Afrique.
In the Ancient Israel, holy war was, according to Gerhard Von
Rad, understood as “an eminently cultic undertaking, that is, prescribed and sanctioned by fixed, traditional, sacred rites and observances”1. As a cultic act of religious community, its feature
was the demand for faith in Yahweh’s saving power (the Lord said to David): “I will
deliver your enemy into your grasp”(1Sam 24:5). Various passages sustain that God
manifests himself as the Savior of Israel2. Yahweh moves before Israel who fights in
his Name. Looking closely at John’s Revelation, one realizes that God appears as the
Greater Defender of Christians under persecution in the Roman Empire, through
Jesus Christ, the Savior. Then some questions rise up: Is John’s Apocalypse merely
a book of war? How shall we understand peace in the book of Revelation?
Anyone who reads for the first time John’s Apocalypse is certainly puzzled and
disconcerted. On one hand, the reader might have a pre-critical and mythical understanding of Revelation, which leads him to a pre-judgment of John’s message.
He/she becomes, consequently, an “outsider” reader for fear of John’s imagery and
eschatological views. On the other hand, Revelation, more than other New Testament writings, is doubtless the most difficult book to understand. Its apocalyptic
style makes it difficult to grasp and, indeed, the text is open to more than one line
of interpretation3. Though John’s Revelation is difficult, Montague discovered its
beauty as well as its complexity, as revealed in these words:
Introduction
“Where else in the scripture do we find such a wealth of biblical and poetic titles
applied to Christ: Key of David, Morning Star, Son of Man, King of kings, Lord of
lords, Alpha and Omega, the One Who Lives, the Lion of Judah, the One Who
Holds the Seven Stars, the Holy One, the True, the Amen and the Faithful Witness?
(…) where else is such a profound vision of God’s people as the New Jerusalem,
*
J.M. Vianney Paluku is an Assumptionist from the Democratic Republic of Congo in his second year
of theology at Hekima College.
1
G.-V. RAD, Holy war in Ancient Israel, Michigan. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1991,
p.51.
2
“The Lord your God who goes before you will himself fight for you, just as he took your part before
your very eyes in Egypt” (Deut 1:30). Read also Joshua 2:24; 1Sam 26:8; 23:4; 1Kgs 20:28…
3
Cf. Wilfried J. HARRINGTON, Revelation, Minnesota: The liturgical press, 1993, p XIII.
66
the God, watered by the river of life flowing from the throne of God and the
Lamb? (…)”4.
Apocalypse means revelation. Its content has both temporal and spatial aspects.
In the temporal aspect, the Apocalypse is understood as part of human history,
which may be outlined in greater or lesser detail, and it is concerned with an
eschatological judgment. This judgment leads “to the reward of the good and the
punishment of the wicked in a life beyond death”5. The content of Revelation is
spatial because of the supernatural world, which is above the visible one manifested in the actions of the angels or demons and described in the context of a
heavenly journey6. This aspect describes the way the apocalyptic message is received.
Over the centuries, John’s Apocalypse has been the cause of many misunderstandings. Many people assume that it is a symbolic code predicting the exact
persons and events that lead to the “terminus” of the world. The modern critical
scholars agree that Revelation is to be read in its own historical settings. Our attempt
consists of an understanding of Christian persecution in the Roman Empire at the
time of John. This will help us to grasp as much as possible God’s justice in the
victory of Christ and the faithful over the power of Satan and his followers. The
victory of the Lamb is to be understood not only as a destruction of the evil powers,
but also as at time of quietness and peacefulness experienced by Christians.
Our study will proceed as follows: after considering the history and the social
context of John’s community, the contentiousness of the Roman Empire will be
singled out as the root cause of persecution of the Christians. Then, the proclamation of God’s judgment will express the defeat of the Roman power and the empowerment of the just. An effort of contextualization will look at the African context
of conflict resolution and peace building. A short conclusion will end our reflections.
I. Socio-historical
Context of Revelation’s
Community
Authorship and Historical Background of Revelation
Christian tradition has identified John, son of Zebedee
as the author of the book of Revelation. An impressive
number of Church Fathers held that John, the Apostle of
Jesus, wrote the fourth Gospel and the book of Revelation. The earlier testimonies
were given by St. Justin who pointed at John, the apostle of Christ, as the one who
prophesied in Revelation. Opposing voices nevertheless were heard in the patristic
era. A critical research of Harrington7 reports that Cyril of Jerusalem and Gregory of
Nazianzus did not consider Revelation among the New Testament writings. Meanwhile John Chrysostom and Theodoret never referred to it. The Eastern Church also
4
George T. MONTAGUE, The Apocalypse. Understanding the Book of Revelation and the End of the
World, Michigan: Servant Publications, 1992, p.15.
5
John COLLINS, Daniel, 1-2 Maccabees with an Excursus on the Apocalyptic Genre, Wilmington:
Michael Glazier, 1981, p 131.
6
Cf. Idem
7
Cf. Wilfried J. HARRINGTON, Op. Cit., p. 8.
67
hesitated about its authenticity. In fact, this has been a matter of considerable controversy among biblical Scholars for centuries. John introduces himself thus:
“I, John, your brother and partner in hardship, in the kingdom and perseverance
in Jesus, was on the island of Patmos on account of the word of God and the
witness to Jesus”. (Rev. 1:9)
The author did not sign the book and he left only few indications, as to his
identity. He is simply called John. Nonetheless, it has been widely accepted that any
linkage of Revelation with the fourth Gospel is undoubtedly tenuous8. There are no
autobiographical or legendary elements, which attribute Revelation to John. He was
an itinerant prophet, native of Palestine, who knew Greek, Hebrew and Aramaic.
Regardless of the authorship, it is evident that the writer was in touch with the Old
Testament writings, especially the book of Exodus, Daniel and Psalms, as well as
the prophets like Ezekiel, Isaiah and Zechariah. This is due to the use of symbols
and images taken from the Old Testament. John used an apocalyptic style in which
“the past, the present and the future are mingled all together in such a way that it is
almost impossible to talk about the present or the past”9. As prophet, John’s function was “to mediate an intelligible message to his fellow Christians, a message that
he claimed was derived ultimately from God”10.
The majority of Scholars do agree that Revelation was written during the reign
of Domitian (81-96 CE) who has been characterized as a megalomaniac and tyrant
in as much as he fostered the imperial cult and obliged people to call him by a
divine title “Dominus et Deus Noster”, “Son of God”. This emperor-worship occurred during the first and second centuries, and provoked the persecution of Christians. They were oppressed and lived under tremendous tension. In the whole
Roman Empire, the imperial cult determined the relationship of the people to the
Emperor. Christians were to neglect the emperor–worship and “could acknowledge
as divine only the one true God (…), Jesus was the supreme and final sacrifice”11.
Therefore, one can realize that in John’s writing, the true worship of God is
clearly opposed to the false worship of the beast. The Roman emperor persecuted
to death all those who refused to worship him hence John’s revelation is God’s
response to the suffering of the persecuted members of the Christian community.
And along with this political background of the Roman Empire shows Judaism as
being exploitive, destructive and dehumanizing of the body of Christ12. Besides,
Harrington viewed that Christians were not an oppressed minority, they lived somehow peacefully in Asia. It is, he states,
“John’s unequivocally negative attitude to Roman Empire and to the Asian society
that reflected the values of the Empire (…) Christians were pitted unyieldingly
against the evil Empire. The political order was wholly corrupt; it belonged to the
satanic realm”13
8
Ibidem,, p.89.
John TICKLE, The book of Revelation. A Catholic interpretation of the Apocalypse, Missouri: Liguori
Publications, 1983, p. 19.
10
Adila Yarbro COLLINS, Crisis & Catharsis. The Power of the Apocalypse, Philadelphia: The Nestminster
Press, 1984, p.49
11
Wilfried J. HARRINGTON, Op. Cit., p. 10.
12
Cf. John TICKLE, Op. Cit., p. 14.
13
Wilfried J. HARRINGTON, Op. Cit, p. 10.
9
68
For John, Rome was wholly evil. He had a two-fold reason to attack the Roman
Empire. Firstly, Imperial Rome was an instrument of Satan and secondly, John wanted
to warn his fellow – Christians about their willingness to work within the contemporaneous society. Therefore, he stressed the “fatal fragility of the empire despite its
appearance of invincibility. It carries within itself the seed of its own destruction” 14.
John’s message was to persuade Christians to trust in the Lamb who was slain.
Christians in strife with Jews and Roman power
First and foremost, strong suspicions of a new religion or Christianity brought
conflict and controversies between followers of Jesus and other Jews. Christianity
was not accepted because it had no ancient tradition, no national identity and no
homeland or religious centre apart from the Jewish religion. The opposition between Christians and local Jews provoked a social crisis and that is why John said:
“I know your tribulation and poverty, but you are rich. I know the slander of those
who claim to be Jews and are not, but rather are members of the assembly of
Satan. Do not be afraid of anything that you are going to suffer. The dragon will
throw some of you in prison that you may be tested, and you will face an ordeal
for ten days. Remain faithful until death, and I will give you the crown of life”15.
In this controversial crisis, the local Jewish community helped the Roman authorities to take action against Christians.
During the Second Century, many Romans hated Christians. This hatred grew
up out of Christian’s exclusiveness, the refusal to respect any other gods but their
own God, and thus the avoidance of gentile political and social life16. Christians
were falsely accused of vices and crimes such as incest and cannibalism. Notice that
during early Christianity, Emperor Nero, using Christians as scapegoats, accused
them of setting fire to Rome. He took advantage of the already widespread hatred
against Jesus’ followers. Consequently, Christians were rejected by the Jews and
Gentiles alike.
As we stated above, Revelation does not seem to have been written in response
to an obvious and massive social crisis lived by all Christians, not even a regional
one, instead Christians were being ostracized and accused before the Roman authorities by their Jewish neighbors. They were often brought in court and were
condemned because of their perseverance and trust in Christ and this was considered as a stubborn disobedience. Persecution and execution of Christians deeply
affected John the prophet in shaping his book.
In John’s Revelation, Babylon is used to describe Rome as the second destroyer
of Jerusalem and the Temple. John used this symbol to mean that the destruction
was a traumatic event, which affected Christians. Later on, one realizes that John’s
message reflects on a heavenly Temple and a New Jerusalem to compensate for the
loss of the earthly Temple and city as a symbolic centre. The message to the
Philadelphians expresses that nostalgic situation in which John and his fellow Christians lived:
14
15
Ibidem, p. 13.
Revelation 2:9-10.
69
“The victor I will make into a pillar in the temple of my God, and he will never leave
it again. On him I will inscribe the name of my God and the name of the city of my
God, the new Jerusalem, which comes down out of heaven from my God, as well as
my new name”17.
The precarity of the relationship between Romans and Christians is often related
to the various numbers of images in the book of Revelation, chapters 11, 13 & 17.
These images refer to the political figures and events, symbolically and mysteriously, that allude to King Nero, though John never mentioned explicitly his name.
Nero represented the traumatic experience of the arrest, conviction, torture and
execution of Christians in Rome. For Collins, Nero’s treatment of Christians should
be understood in the context of “hostility to foreign cults and religious practices
thought to have a socially and politically dangerous character”18. The injustice and
spectacular brutality of the Romans weighed heavily on Christian minds. Pergamum
was one of the places where Roman governors held court proceedings and judicial
decisions. It is the place where Satan dwells (Rev. 2: 9). In short, John’s apocalypse
comes to respond to the socio- historical situation in which John and his fellow
Christians lived. John’s message of hope will be heard by Christians who are experiencing tribulations.
II. Humankind In
Cosmic Conflict
Apocalyptic texts, such as Revelation, can be understood as a
response to crisis, specifically in a socio-political situation.
They are essentially the religious expression of “deprived” or
“oppressed” groups. These texts are addressed to groups that
are in difficult circumstances, those people threatened constantly by hunger, massive unemployment, plague, devastating fire or other disasters19. This means that the
apocalyptic hope for the future is born of miserable circumstances of the present.
Revelation is, in any case, a result of the conflict between Christian faith in the Lamb
and pagan faith in the Beast. John’s literal anti-Roman tradition can be perceived in
the insurmountable opposition hereas between the servants of God and the servants of Rome whereby he emphasizes the suffering of the Christians. He showed
how the Roman Empire persecuted the Church.
The Suffering Church: The Woman and the Dragon
One could consider the twelfth chapter of the book of Revelation as John’s
reflection on the ancient world of Adam, Eve and the serpent in paradise: “I will put
enmity between you and the woman, and between your offspring and hers; he will
strike at your head, while you strike at his heel”20. Eve represents the mother of all
humankind and her children, a million of generations who have to watch out against
evil. John the prophet reflects on human history as under the wicked influence of
Satan who led the whole of humanity into disobedience resulting in the loss of its
16
Cf. Adela Yarbro COLLINS, Op.Cit., p. 87.
Rev. 3:12.
18
A.-Y. COLLINS, Op.Cit., p. 100.
19
Cf. Ibidem, p. 105.
20
Genesis 3:15
17
70
original privileges. The hostility between the woman and the Dragon is a symbol
rooted in the biblical allusions, it recalls the story of the temptation. John wants to
compare the caution of the angelic world as one “sign in heaven”, with another
“sign” of the woman, which is the world of human beings21. The dragon is that most
perfect creature that became jealous of God and that is why God changed its perfection to misery and banished it to earth. For John, persecution is continual temptation coming from the dragon to cause human beings, who had been promised a
glorious future, to break from God22.
The woman is clothed with the sun; she is in the pain of childbirth, in anguish
for delivery. Scholars agree that the child to be born is Jesus, the One who is to rule
all the nations with a rod of iron (Rev 12:5). John sets a relationship between the
symbols of the woman and that of the desert. In its biblical meaning, the desert is a
place of refuge and difficult trials, a place of encounter with God but also of diabolic temptation. On one hand, the desert represents, for the woman, a place of
refuge, as God extends His protecting wings and gives His providential care (v.6).
On the other hand, the Dragon knows that the child will be the Messiah, the shepherd -King who will attack the enemies of his flock with an iron rod. Consequently,
the Dragon tries to harm the little boy. Meanwhile the child is snatched up to God23
and the woman fled in the desert after she lost the fruit of her womb. The protection
against violence reaches her there, as “war arose” (v.7) and the dragon departed to
make war on the rest of her offspring (v.17). The dragon vomits a flood of water to
drown the woman, but the earth saves her and swallows the water 24.
In addition, John describes another sign which appears in heaven: The battle
between the rebellious angels and the faithful angels, led respectively by Satan and
the Archangel Michael. The result of the battle is unfavorable for the rebels who are
immediately driven out of heaven (v.12). At that moment, the Dragon pursued the
woman who fled in the desert for the second time. Furious, the dragon followed her
and wanted to persecute the just ones who observed the law of God and who
witnessed to Christ who must come. According to John, definite liberation comes
only in Jesus Christ who took the woman to live on “a great high mountain” (Rev
27:10) in the New Jerusalem. Corsini points it out in these words: “The woman ‘in
the desert’ (…) represents a period before the great event of the death and resurrection of Jesus. It is a symbol of humanity after the Fall, but it is also a symbol of the
Hebrew people, whose being chosen was not the conclusion of the divine salvific
intervention but only the proximate preparation and the prefiguring of the final act,
which takes place in Jesus Christ”25.
21
Cf. Eugenio CORSINO, The Apocalypse. The perennial Revelation of Jesus Christ, Dublin: Veritas
Publications, 1983, p. 214
22
Cf. Ibidem, p. 214.
23
According to HARTINGSVELD, “It is entirely in keeping with apocalyptic literature that we are not
told who snatches up the child or who takes care of the woman”. (HARTINGSVELD, Op. Cit., p. 48.)
24
Rev 12:13-16. The scholars trace in this allegorical account the exodus event that took place under
God’s protection.
25
E. CORSINI, Op. Cit., pp.222-223.
71
The corruption of political and religious Authority
In Rev. 13, John witnesses the two beasts, one from the sea and another one
from the earth that represent the Dragon. The beast symbolizes, as Pheme Perkins
explains, “the antichrist and false prophet of the end time in Jewish apocalyptic
visions at the same time as they are the final embodiment of the imperial power
opposed to the rule of God, the final beast of Daniel’s visions”26. The beast, which
emerges out of the sea, represents the Roman Empire, and the one from the earth
represents the priest craft of the state. The first is described with the number 666
and the second as a false prophet.
The beast of the sea is pictured in images from the book of Daniel (Dan 7:1-8).
The four beasts seen by Daniel are merged into one beast having ten horns, each
with a crown and seven heads, each of them bearing a blasphemous name. John
mingles the existing imagery from Daniel with the realities of the Roman EmpireThe heads of the dragon represent the Emperors who had been worshipped as
gods. The sea represents the nursery of anti-God powers coming from the Dragon;
the beast receives his powers, throne and authority. Gonzalez esteems that; “it is not
that political structures are by nature demoniac, but rather that the political structure
of the Roman Empire has been taken over by a demoniac force”27. The Roman
Empire was no longer the servant of God but a slave of the beast. The inhabitants
worshipped the Dragon because he has enthroned the beast. They bent their knees
before the beast in melodious song “Who is like the Beast?” Christians were unhappy
because of the imitation of what was said about the God of Israel “Who is a God like
you?”(Micah 7:18) or “Who among the gods is like you, O Lord?”(Ex.15). In fact,
Roman citizens were convinced that foreign power could not successfully make war
against the Beast. For John, anyone who takes part in the worship of the emperor
will never be written in the book of life and will never inherit eternal life.
The Roman Emperors did not so much speak against the Christians’ God, rather,
by taking to themselves the titles that belong only to God “they set themselves up
blasphemously in the place of God”28. In addition, there was the fact that they
persecuted Christians, John recalled Jeremiah’s prophecy and Jesus words respectively: “Those destined for captivity will go into captivity”(Jeremiah 5:2) and “All who
draw the sword will die by the sword”. This means that whatever is done to Christians will be done to the persecutors. John invites Christians to remain faithful to
God and warns them not to defend themselves with weapons of violence29.
The beast from the earth (13:11) is related to the dragon’s power, but only
through the sea beast. Its role is to lead human beings to worship the sea beast
(13:12). As we stated above, the sea beast represents the political structures of the
Roman Empire in which authorities have taken the titles and authority that belong
only to God. As for the beast from the earth, it is most likely related to the local
26
27
Pheme PERKINS, The book of Revelation, Minnesota: The liturgical Press, 1983, p. 58.
C-G. GONZALEZ & J.-L. GONZALEZ, Revelation, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox press, 1997,
p.86.
28
29
72
Ibidem, p.87
Cf. HARTINGSVELED, Op. Cit., p. 54.
religious and political structures, which express the imperial cult30. The beast from
the earth persuades people to give the Emperor the glory due to God alone”31. It
represents the false prophets, the priests of the state Temple, where the statue of the
divine emperor was put and on whose altar sacrifices were offered.
The earth beast is quite successful in so far as it urges construction of images of
the sea beast or the Emperor. In Rev. 13:15, the earth beast manages to have the
image speak as though it was alive. Actually, according to Gonzalez, it was the
priest who spoke through the statue, without being seen, and who performed some
miracles. Everybody was required to kneel before the images in fear of being threatened or killed. The priest placed a mark on the right hand or forehead of those who
had fulfilled their obligations. Consequently, Christians were denied any business
in the market places or any other activities because they refused to do so.
The destruction of Babylon, the Great City
At the time of persecution, Rome was viewed as the source of great idolatry and
other evils. And for this reason Christians were excluded from the majority of the
economic and social aspects of the community. The personification of Rome as a
woman reflects the imagery of harlotry as unfaithfulness, a woman who is the
negative counterpart of the woman clothed with the sun (Rev. 12:1-6). John depicts
Rome as a prostitute seated on a scarlet beast. This woman has committed fornication with “the kings of the earth”, with powerful leaders of many nations who have
traded with Rome (Rev17: 2). The Kings have received many gifts from Rome and
have become drunkards with all that they have received. John is carried by an angel
into the wilderness in the spirit whereby he saw a woman seated on a scarlet beast
that has seven heads and ten horns and is full of blasphemous names. It foretells the
destiny of Rome in so far as the woman holds in her hands a golden cup full of
perversities and lewd impurities32. Prostitution of the woman is understood as a
metaphor for idolatry. The angel, who invites John to come up, explains how God
is the God of the past, the present and the future. He is the Almighty, the Omnipotent and, in this regard, He is Unique. Whereas the beast is Nero, servant of Satan,
who “was” the Emperor, committed suicide and “he is not”33. Furthermore, the
seven heads represent the seven mountains on which the woman sits. This refers to
Rome, the city built on seven hills and the Emperors who ruled it, namely Augustus
Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Vespasian and Titus (27BC - 81CE). The ten
horns are the few who are invited to fight against the Lamb. The war is won by the
Lamb (Rev 17:13) who is Lord of lords and King of kings. These kings are the
governors of the Roman Empire.
In John’s view, the rebellion was not conceived by a human being, but rather
by God. It is clear that God and the lamb will carry out judgment over Rome, the
city that persecutes the Christians. Hence a special angel of the lord proclaims the
eminent fall of Babylon. Babylon has fallen (Rev 14:8; 17:2; 18:3), “It has become a
30
31
32
33
Cf. C.-G. GONZALEZ, Op. Cit., p- 89.
E. CORSINI, Op. Cit., p. 55.
Cf. HANTINGOLVELD, Op. Cit., p. 71.
Ibidem, p.72.
73
ruin where demons, evil spirits, and unclean birds dwell”34. In this context, the
people of God are urgently advised to leave the city before it is too late; otherwise
they will suffer along with the rest for the city’s sins. God has remembered Rome’s
crimes; the enemies are exhorted to pay her back what she gave to them. The
Emperor and the inhabitants of Rome will die and the city itself will be burned (Rev
17:16, 18:9,18). All in all, God has decided to bring about Rome’s downfall. The
kings, merchants and seafaring folk sing their song of lament. People keep a distance from the burning city and fear to suffer the same fate; they remember the
wishes of the past and express their sorrow in regard to Rome that became a heap
of ruins35. Rome has got her just reward after persecuting Christians, saints and
Apostles.
III. God’s Justice and
Experience of Peace in
the Victory of the Lamb
God’s redemptive plan and the Victory of the Lamb
In a vision, John is carried up to heaven. He is surprised
to see an open door in heaven where he is invited to
see what must take place (Rev 4:1). He describes the
heavenly worship around the throne of God and the Lamb who is also worthy of
worship. This refers to the “suffering (that) the church must endure and to the great
struggle leading to God’s final triumph“36. In heaven, John saw “the multitude fell
on their faces before the throne and worshipped (Rev 7:11). Twenty-four other
thrones and on them an equal number of elders represent the people of God who
are Israelites (twelve tribes) and the Church (twelve apostles). John saw the “four
living creatures full of eyes”(Rev 4:6). These creatures represent all living beings in
the sense that in the rabbinic tradition, “the greatest of wild animals was the lion,
the greatest of domestic animals was the ox, the greatest of birds was the eagle, and
the greatest of all was human creation”37. The living creatures bring to the throne the
worship of the entire creation in harmonious melodies: “Holy, Holy, Holy, the Lord
God the almighty, who was and is and is to come” (Rev 4:8). The twenty- four elders
fall down before the Lord and worship by singing a hymn that glorifies God for
having willed and created all things. “You are worthy, our Lord and God, to receive
glory and honor and power, for you created all things and by your will they existed
and were created “(Rev 4:11)
As John’s vision continues, he saw a book. It was so difficult to find some one
“worthy” to open it (Rev.5: 2-3). No body could break the seals. John wept bitterly
because “he realizes that without some one to open the seal, God’s plan will not
move forward”38. Then, there was a Lamb standing by as if it had been slaughtered.
It has seven horns and seven eyes. In this case, horns were a symbol of the plenitude of power and eyes, a symbol of wisdom which indicates the seven spirits of
God sent into the world. The Lamb has the fullness of knowledge. The Lamb is
34
35
36
37
38
74
HARTINGVELD, Op.Cit., p. 25.
Ibidem, p. 76.
C.-G. GONZALEZ, Op. Cit., p.39.
Ibidem, p. 40.
Ibidem, p. 43.
worthy of worship with God, the Father, who sits on the throne. The Lamb has the
power to open the book and thus he is worthy to be worshipped in a Liturgy of
praise.
Furthermore, John tries to understand the question of what will anticipate the
divine theophany, God coming forth in judgment. Revelation breaks into that pattern to answer the question of who can withstand this trial by describing the seals.
The believers receive an impression of a seal on their forehead, so that they may
survive the judgment. John’s vision of the seals explains the suffering or persecution
of the Church, the punishment or the judgment of the nations, ending in the triumph of God, the Lamb and his followers39. The first five seals describe war, international strife, famine pestilence and persecutions. The sixth seal reveals earth quakes,
eclipse of the sun and of the moon etc.
Before the storm breaks, the 144,000, who receive the imprint of the Living
God, will be received. This number represents different groups. According to
Hartingsveld, they are “the same people John saw standing with the Lamb on mount
Zion”, “the first people of the human race to be redeemed”, “they constitute a select
group”, “the true people of God”40. Thereafter John saw a multitude that no one can
number (Rev 7:9-17). They are people of God from all nations, tribes and languages. These people are not distinguished by extraordinary courage; they are
simple believers who remain faithful. They are blessed before God’s throne, robed
in white, with palm branches in their hands as a signs of victory and conquest. They
thank God for their rescue: “Salvation belongs to our God who is seated on the
throne and to the Lamb” (Rev 7:10). The unnumbered blessed of God are the ones
“who have come out of the great ordeal” and “who have washed their robes and
made them white in the blood of the Lamb” (Rev 7:13-14). Here John refers to the
suffering and persecution of Christians. The victory will be complete and the Lamb
will have become their Shepherd. “They will hunger no more, and thirst no more”
(Rev 7:16).
Proclamation of God’s Judgment: Destruction of the Evil Powers
The struggle, which starts off in Revelation chapter 12, is brought to conclusion
in chapters 19 and 20. The beasts are defeated (19:20), the Christian martyrs rise and
reign (20:4-6) and finally the dragon is defeated (20:10). There have been many
strifes, after which the evil powers have come back to plague the world, especially
the Christ’s faithful. However, John describes the real end in a few verses (Rev 20:
11-15) in which he gives the goals of all that has been done before and had the
way to the fulfillment of all the promises given to the faithful41. God appears on his
throne to execute judgment {(Rev 20:11) & (Dan 7:9)}. This judgment does not give
room to any exception. It is a “universal judgment of all those who are dead,
wherever they may be”42. In his vision, John realized that there are no elders, no
living creatures, no earth and no heaven. It is only God who remains on the throne,
for the final judgment. The disappearance of heaven and earth is the manifestation
39
40
41
42
Cf. MONTAGUE, Op. Cit., p. 101.
HARTINGSVELD, Op. Cit., pp33-34.
C.-G. GONZALEZ, Op. Cit, p.134.
Ph. PERKINS, Op. Cit., p.83
75
of God’s power, which is beyond all creation. It is the end of the human history.
After judgment, “all will have to be renewed when the judgment is over”43
John sees the dead come to life again in order to be judged. They stand before
God’s throne, both “great and small” (Rev20: 12). They are all judged according to
what they have done. Books are opened, and alongside of them, is the book of life.
Death loses its control over all human beings in such a way that all appear to be
judged at the end of history. People are judged on the basis of the content of the
books. The names in the books are said to have been there from the foundation of
the world. However, the “book of life”, as Gonzalez points it out, “is not a list of
good deeds done by various people. Nor is it a list of names of those who have
done more good than evil. Morality, as such, is not the immediate basis of the
judgment. In the presence of the Holy God, no creature can be counted perfectly
righteous”44. The book of life has to do with “faith in and faithfulness to Jesus”. It is
for “those who have faith in Jesus (who) have repented and received forgiveness.
They have conquered because they have followed the One who has conquered all
evil”45.
God’s judgment takes over all that is hostile to his will. This punishment implies
the destruction of both death as enemy and the underworld (Rev 20:14). Death is
swallowed up in victory46. The second death is an eternal punishment in the pool of
fire for those whose names are not written in the book of life (Rev 20:15). The
martyrs will not face this second death as they will have already received the grace
of resurrection.
The Church Perfected in Glory and the Eschatological Peace
After the destruction that has occurred, the final judgment has taken place for
the purpose of making way for the new establishment of God’s kingdom. John now
sees the new heaven and the new earth (Rev 21:1). As a place of danger, the sea is
no longer in the new earth. For John, heaven is totally new and earth has become
the habitation of the redeemed. In fact, the old heaven and earth have already fled
(Rev 20:11). The old earth has been damaged by sin, death and devil. The old
heaven also has been damaged; its stars have fallen down like leaves from the trees
(Is 34:4; Matthew 24:29; Rev 6:13-14).
The new creation should not be understood literally. It does not refer to a kind
of restoration from the ashes of the destructed world. It is rather “the judgment of
God which separates the good from evil, the just from the unjust and put each one
in his/her rightful place”47. Therefore through his Omnipotent judgment, heaven
and earth are also recreated and renewed. They represent God’s dwelling places
given to angels and human beings. In this renewal, Satan has no dwelling place
because he has been driven out from heaven by the hands of angels, and from earth
through the action of the Lamb.
43
C. G. GONZALEL, Op.Cit., p.134.
Ibidem, p.135.
45
Idem.
46
We can also read 1Corinthians 15:26,54-55.
47
CORSINI, Op. cit, p.391.
44
76
The new creation of heaven and earth results from the divine intervention,
which reaches out to the whole of reality. It is God who makes all things new (Rev
21:5). A new earth is part of the eschatological hope of Israel that is the hope for the
final end of history (Isaiah 11:1-9; 65: 17-25). St Paul expressed a renewed earth in
Romans 8:19-23. Furthermore, the new earth includes the heavenly Jerusalem, the
beloved city, which comes down from the new heaven to earth. Roman soldiers
have destroyed the old Jerusalem. This means that a New Jerusalem is a restored
Great City. All the faithful are the inhabitants of the City insofar as they are the
brides of the Lamb. In the new earth, the bride represents the heavenly Jerusalem,
the Holy City. This expresses the union between God and the faithful manifested in
the incarnated Verb. God is no longer hidden but He dwells among the redeemed
humanity.
In the peaceful City, God manifests Himself as the One who has conquered sin
and He is the one who wipes away the tears of those who suffered and mourned
(Rev 27:4). The originality of the New Jerusalem is found in the fact that God has
decided to dwell among men. For Corsini, the eschatological reality should not be
viewed in a chronological way where the present and the future are mutually opposed. John’s vision is rather an eschatological one that has entered into the divine
salvific plan in the glorious coming of Jesus Christ, the Prince of peace48. Thus John
believes that the coming of Christ changes radically the relationship of humanity
with the Living God. In a concrete way, John uses the images of a “marriage”
between a man and a woman (Rev19:9). God is in the midst of the City as the Light,
the Radiance and the Glory.
IV. John’s Hope
and Peace in Africa
When we read carefully John’s apocalypse, we realize
that his vision is dominated with war, for example, the
battle of the angels, the Dragon and the Woman, the fall
of Babylon, Christian persecution… Besides, John’s message of hope will be shaped by his vision of God’s power and the victory of his Son
over the diabolic plans of human beings. But, then, has Revelation anything to say
to African people? Of course, yes! If we reinterpret the symbols of war in the perspective of our great need of peace. Therefore, three elements form the core of this
section: a) Revelation today: the eradication of dictatorship of evil powers. b) Understanding African problem of war, and c) the African true peace in God’s justice.
Revelation today: the eradication of dictatorship of evil powers
John was convinced that the end of the world was very near. As Paul proclaimed the “coming soon of Christ” (1Thess 4:15; 1Cor 15:7), John and his fellow
Christians expected the eminent end of the world in the near future. Later on Paul
realized that he could die before the eschatological end (2Tim 4:6-8). In the same
way, the early Christians came to know that their own notion of time was different
from God’s time (2 Pet 3:3-10). Nevertheless, the relevance Revelation lies today in
its prophetic critic of dictatorial power in the Roman Empire. He strictly prohibited
the deification of human being, that is, the Roman Emperor, whereas Paul invited
Christians to obey the Roman government as God’s servant (Rom 13: 1-7). For John,
the persecution of Christians proved that the emperor worship has exceeded the
authority of the leaders.
77
He predicated the fall of the mighty Empire in the sense that the Emperor who
had been venerated as a god should be judged as well as the priest who enforced
the emperor cult as a state religion. Finally, all those who gave room to the veneration of humankind were judged. Though the literary form of Revelation is disconcerted, it offers not an esoteric message, but a clear vision of the coming of God’s
kingdom in the world dominated by human ideology. Hence it is a challenge to the
political power and idolatries.
John’s hope is the establishment of God’s universal kingdom on earth, or call on
Christians to gather all nations in communion one another. This possibility is to be
understood in the light of the mystery of salvation in Jesus Christ. He claimed
faithfully that it is through Jesus life, death and resurrection that God’s universal
kingdom will come49. Consequently, the Christians are called to participate in Jesus
victory over evil by witnessing to the truth until death. More than ever, people
should resist and challenge the effects of the dominant ideologies and any other
absolute power. More specifically, Christians should fight against the powers of this
world opposed to God’s rule. In this way, truth should prevail over the evil rules of
the passing world so that people may worship the true God and eradicate in effect
any kind of dictatorship.
Moreover, John’s prophecy uses images in a way that conforms to truth. It calls
the church to continually witness to truth and worship the one true God: “The
worship of the true God is the power of resistance to the deification of military and
political power (the beast) and economic prosperity (Babylon). It is what can prevent movements of resistance to injustice and oppression from dangerously
absolutizing themselves”50. John’s vision of the God is an invitation of all the members of the mystical body of Christ to courageously face injustice, oppression and
inhumanity in as much as the true worship of Yahweh is absolutely inseparable
from justice, peace and truth in all human aspects of life. It is undoubtedly the
“condition sine qua non” of humankind to share in the victory of God and his
Anointed One.
Understanding the African problem of war and restlessness
A keen observation would lead us to affirm that most wars fought during the
last decades took place in poor countries. Millions of arms and light weapons 51
48
E. CORSINI, Op.Cit., p. 395.
Richard BAUCKHAM, The theology of the book of Revelation, New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1993, p. 145.
50
Ibidem, p. 160.
51
The proliferation of weapons at the end of the Cold War has encouraged to some extent potential
belligerents to rely to military solution in conflict rather than to political one. According to THOMPSON,
“For decades the Soviet Union exported the most weapons, while the United States was second (…)
However, between 1985-1995, the United States supplied more that $42 billion worth weapons to parties
involved in 45 of the 50 global conflicts”. One could realize that the American weapons were selling on
both sides of a particular war, especially in countries Turkey, Somalia, Indonesia, Liberian, Zaire, Haiti,
Guatemala, Colombia, Mexico and the Philippines. He continues: “The U.S government, under Presidents
Bush and Clinton, has vigorously supported the United States Arms Industry easing restriction and fees of
foreign weapons purchases, financially assisting friendly in buying American armaments and aiding the
49
78
were brought to illiterate soldiers to fight against themselves. The world leaders
have failed to recognize the horror and suffering of the lesser developed countries,
especially in Africa, and therefore, incapable to act for the welfare of all humankind.
The senselessness killing of human beings expresses the arrogance firmly rooted in
the unwilling of African leaders. It is mostly eight out of ten African countries that
are suffering from large scale violent conflict. Poverty and socio-political and economic inequalities predispose to conflict. The consequences of war
Strictly speaking, Africa has never been in peace, from the period of slavery to
the actual neo-colonialism. The outcomes of the peacelessness are most likely extreme poverty, poor governant services, unemployment and economic stagnation.
But the real causes of Africa’s underdevelopment and backwardness lies in the
undemocratic governance and in the manner in which Africa is integrated into the
global world and by the interests of the elite who are in control of the world. In
their trials and efforts, the Africans are unfortunately led by narrow-minded leaders
who are animated by their own interests. These leaders think that African salvation
shall come forth from wealth countries. That is why Museveni explains Africa’s
backwardness in the fact that “Africa, he said, is like a man who falls and cannot get
up on his own but has, instead, to wait for someone to help him get up and walk
him”52.
The weak political structures and the undemocratic leaders, resulting from the
colonial legacy in Africa are the agents of African restlessness. Hence the bad governance in Africa is due to the African leaders and specifically to political one. Thus,
Abayo declared: “Political leaders in Africa obviously bear strong blame for Africa’s
under-development. They collaborate with the destructive force of neo-colonialism
and imperialism whose intent and purpose is to exploit the human and natural
resources of the continent”53.
War in Africa has disrupted the process of economic development whereby
many countries allocate their resources for military build up. Once in power the
African leaders use all the possible means to remain in power. That is why the
African political economic development is dominated and manipulated by warlords, who have no leadership qualities. Moreover, war in Africa has affected the
growth of children in the fact that they are enrolled in military service and killed by
the opponents of the warlords. Most African government lack remarkable leaders
with the desired qualities to orient the destiny of the people.
U.S Defense Industry in research and development”. Furthermore, Thompson realizes that superpower
countries are spending an amount of dollars in terms of self defense, while it is undeniable that poor
countries are not able to provide the least of food to their people. He realized that the United States
Defense Department Budget was $263 billion in 1995, while Russia spent about $180 billion., Japan $54
billion, France $ 40 billion, United Kingdom $35 billion, Germany $34 billion, and China $29 billion. [J.
Milbum THOMPSON, Justice and Peace. A Christian primer, New York: Orbis books- MaryKnoll, 1997,
pp. 157-161.].
52
Yoweri Kaguta. MUSEVENI, What is Africa’s problem, Kampala: NRM Publications, 1992, p. 164.
53
Omar Jibich ABAYO, The Power Base Behind Underdevelopment in Post-independent Africa. A
Tentative Approach Through scenario Building, Nairobi: Igena Printers and stationers, 1999, p.144.
79
The African true peace in God’s justice
As we stated above, Revelation was written in the stress of active persecution of
the Church. African people experience today the same atmosphere of violent crisis.
The contrast between the throne of God and the throne of the Dragon reveals the
exercise of authority. God’s authority is visible in the Lamb, the Son of Man who
came not to be served but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for the multitude(Mk
10:42-45). Thus God’s victory and justice is ultimately in the death of the Lamb, the
Prince of Peace. His voice is the cry of the poor, the afflicted and the powerless. The
God of justice is the one seated on the throne. He is a God of life, who invites all
humankind of unending life in his Kingdom. He wills the salvations of all.
Then, in that light, Christians should ask themselves whether they are following
the steps of Jesus, their master. It would appears clearly to us that faithfulness to the
“epiphany of Christ”, in total self-giving, demands that we may take a stand over the
evil powers and being peacemakers in Africa (Mt 5:9). African Christians are called
to more sense of peacefulness and being involved in the social structures just a
“God in the form of Jesus Christ, involved himself in the economy, in politics in the
way we treat the mentally ill, in challenging militanism”54. The peacemakers are
God’s children who spell out the social injustices and give a message of hope to the
people. In this way, Micah is perhaps the prophet whose contribution can meaningfully be given to Africans, as the one who dreamt a warless world: “Nation shall not
lift up sword against nation. Neither shall they learn war any more. They shall sit
every man under his own vine and under his own fig tree, and none shall make
them afraid”. (Micah 4: 2-3).
During his earthly life, Jesus followed the tactic of nonviolence. When Roman
soldiers came out against him, equipped with lanterns, torches and weapons, Jesus
did not fight, but he stepped forward and said: “whom do you seek?” They answered him “Jesus of Nazareth”. Jesus said: “I am he”(John 18: 3ff). The soldiers
withdrew and fell down without knowing that they were to deal with the Son of
God. Then, a soldier officer slapped in Jesus face by saying: “Is that how you
answer the high priest?” Instead of reacting violently, Jesus’ answer was “if I have
spoken wrongly, bear witness to the wrong; but if I have spoken rightly why do
you strike me?” (John 19: 3ff). Thus African peacekeeping are bound to the imperative of nonviolence. They are called to establish a Kingdom of peace in which “the
wolf shall be a guest of the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the kid; the
calf and the young lion shall browse together, with a little child to guide them (…)
for the earth shall be filled with knowledge of the Lord…”(Is 11:6-9).
Jesus’ attitudes of non-violence is ultimately an invitation for Africans to act
ceaselessly in God’s justice. As one could say there is no peace without justice, war
in Africa is a result of a great lack of justice against one another and also against the
historical community. It shows forth the limit and lowlessness of human beings
rooted in the subconscious and their inevitable animality. Doing justice is neither
violence nor passivity. Justice is founded in God who justified the multitude through
54
Dorothee SOLLE, Of War and Love, Translated from the German by Rita and Robert Kimber, New
York: Orbis Books-Mary Knoll, 1983, p. 11.
80
the death and resurrection of Christ (Rom 3: 21-26; Gal 2: 15-21) who is our peace
“(Eph 2:14). Therefore, we should always remember that justice is most likely the
servant of peace. In a concrete way, action for justice and peace, says Camara,
“wishes to exercise liberating moral pressure to help, in a peaceful but effective
way: - to change the socio-economic, political and cultural structures of the underdeveloped countries; - to induce the developed countries to integrate their underdeveloped strata and to revise radically the international policies governing trade
with the underdeveloped countries”55.
African Christians have to proclaim the “Gospel of peace”(Eph 6:15) and to call
all people to the beatitude of being “peacemakers”(Mt 5:9). In her social teaching,
the Church urges all Christians to build peace wherever they may be. It requires to
believers and all persons of good will to take up the cause of peace and bring about
this fundamental good. Paul VI wished to celebrate on January 1st, each year, a
world day of peace, as a sign of hope and promise, in order that peace will dominate the unfolding of history yet to come. [Paul VI, Insegnamenti, V (1967), 620].
Nonetheless, one could notice that human principles of justice are so limited to
foster the real peace. It is only God who can bring about the true peace. That is
why, John, in his apocalyptic message, foresees human salvation in God justice,
manifested in the victory of Jesus, the Lion of Judah.
Finally, the message of the Lion of Judah invites the Africans to practice justice
that goes beyond the natural one in order to encompass love: “Love your neighbor
as yourself” and “do unto others, what you would like them to do unto you”. More
radically, Christ invites us to love even our enemies. This means that, in a world in
profound mutation, all humankind are called to cultivate a “civilization of love”
(John Paul II) where the God of justice, in an eschatological end, will be all in all.
Thus, the basis of our commitment as African Christians should be, more than ever,
our faith in Jesus Christ, the Crucified and Risen One, Who recommends us to
participate in the process of opening up the future for all and to make that God’s
kingdom may be operative as an alternative reality of hope56.
Conclusion
Revelation is undoubtedly animated by an “intense outpouring of
emotion and enthusiasm, and written in the face of a truly dramatic and pressing crisis”57. John the prophet is gifted with an
extraordinary power of imagination. His prophecy is the fate of all humanity rooted
in the light of the redemptive incarnation. Its purpose can be summarized as follows: “These words are trustworthy and true. And the Lord, the God of the spirits of
the prophets, has sent his angel to show his servants what must soon take place. And
behold, I am coming soon”. (Rev 22:6-7). Revelation gives insights into the future of
God’s plan that of the victory and triumph of his justice. John’s message strengthens
Christians to endure suffering along their pilgrimage in this passing world. He shows
that Christian life is about to be more difficult for the followers of the Lamb, rather
than easier. He exhorts the Christians to remain faithful and to believe in Christ’s
presence in their midst.
55
Dom Helder CAMARA, Spiral of Violence, New Jersey-Denville: Dimension Books, 1971, p. 63.
Cf. D. Preman NILES, Resisting the threats to life. Covenanting for justice, peace and the integrity of
creation, Geneva: WCC Publications, 1989, p. 41.
57
Andre FEUILLET, The Apocalypse, Staten Island: Alba House, 1965, p. 134.
56
81
Although evil structures and corrupted humanity characterized the Roman Empire, John presents a clear prophecy: either remain faithful to God or be condemned. In my own view, whoever reflects on these violent images, symbols and
narratives may discover that they help us to understand the issue of war between
the Roman leaders and early Christians. The dominion of the Roman Empire over
the world is a clear expression of limited earthly power. The Kingship of God and
Christ are opposed to the kingship of the dragon and the beast, the representative
of Satan. The victory of the Lamb is the victory of the faithful who have been
redeemed by the blood of the Lamb.
Though he doesn’t explain clearly the question of peace, John’s view of peace
is to be understood within God’s judgment and the victory of Jesus Christ over the
evil powers. In other word, peacefulness is viewed in an eschatological way. Christians in Africa are particularly invited to build a world of justice, peace and love in
order to overcome their situation of misery and war. Their sense of peace should be
rooted in God through Jesus Christ and their notion of justice must go beyond a
simple human understanding of the principles justice as the road to peace. God,
who is the Master of human destiny, is the initiator of peace. It is only through His
judgment that humanity might learn how to build real peace and justice.
Bibliography
Adila Yarbro COLLINS, Crisis & Catharsis. The Power of the Apocalypse, Philadelphia: The Nestminster
Press, 1984.
Andre FEUILLET, The Apocalypse, Staten Island: Alba House, 1965.
C-G. GONZALEZ & J.-L. GONZALEZ, Revelation, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox press, 1997.
D. Preman NILES, Resisting the threats to life. Covenanting for justice, peace and the integrity of
creation, Geneva: WCC Publications, 1989.
Dom Helder CAMARA, Spiral of Violence, New Jersey-Denville: Dimension Books, 1971.
Dorothee SOLLE, Of War and Love, Translated from the German by Rita and Robert Kimber, New
York: Orbis Books-Mary Knoll, 1983
Eugenio CORSINO, The Apocalypse. The perennial Revelation of Jesus Christ, Dublin: Veritas Publications, 1983.
George T. MONTAGUE, The Apocalypse. Understanding the Book of Revelation and the End of the
World, Michigan: Servant Publications, 1992.
G.-V. RAD, Holy war in Ancient Israel, Michigan. William B. Erdmans Publishing Company, 1991
John COLLINS, Daniel, 1-2 Maccabees with an Excursus on the Apocalyptic Genre, Wilmington:
Michael Glazier, 1981.
John TICKLE, The book of Revelation. A Catholic interpretation of the Apocalypse, Missouri: Liguori
Publications, 1983.
J. Milbum THOMPSON, Justice and Peace. A Christian primer, New York: Orbis books- MaryKnoll,
1997
Richard BAUCKHAM, The theology of the book of Revelation, New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1993
Omar Jibich ABAYO, The Power Base Behind Underdevelopment in Post-independent Africa. A
Tentative Approach Through scenario Building, Nairobi: Igena Printers and stationers, 1999
Pheme PERKINS, The book of Revelation, Minnesota: The liturgical Press, 1983.
Wilfried J. HARRINGTON, Revelation, Minnesota: The liturgical press, 1993
Yoweri Kaguta. MUSEVENI, What is Africa’s problem, Kampala: NRM Publications, 1992.
82
Documents
Nshimbi Kabamba Emmanuel, SJ
*
Sommaire Depuis l’époque médievale, les femmes ont joué un rôle important pour
la vie de l’Eglise. Mais elles ont été aussi victimes de fausses accusations.
Par exemple, leur engagement religieux a conduit certains à les accuser
d’hérétiques. Pourtant, les femmes ont pris une part active dans la lutte contre l’hérésie.
Aujourd’hui encore, l’Eglise bénéficie des fruits de leur travail. Nous sommes donc
invités à reconnaitre le rôle des femmes dans l’édification de l’Eglise.
Introduction All too often, women have found themselves under the yoke of men.
But despite the suppressive pressure that men have exerted on women,
they still continue to survive. This we may argue was certainly the
case in the medieval period. Medieval religious women in particular were not spared
from the suppressive and domineering hand of religious men who were at times too
quick to accuse women of being authors of heresy. Yet women played a major role
in combating heresy. Despite the bias against medieval religious women, they managed to live through it and also inculcated it into their religious experience thereby
making valuable contributions to the Church. In this article we shall discuss some
challenges and contributions of medieval religious women. We shall pay special
attention to the period between 1100 and 1400.
Our way of procedure will be such that we shall begin by considering the
context and background of medieval religious women. Then we shall face the
challenges proper of medieval religious women after which we shall move on to
investigate their contributions to the Church. Before we conclude, we shall consider
the role of the general concept of mysticism in the challenges and contributions of
medieval religious women.
2. Context and
Background of Medieval
Religious Women
Wandering preachers played a major role in attracting
women to engage deeply into religion. Most of these
preachers had a band of both women and men following them wherever they went. The preachers taught and
imitated the apostolic life in penitence and poverty. For some reason many women
were attracted to the message that the preachers, who were men apparently, had to
*
Nshimbi Kabamba Emmanuel is a Jesuit from Zambia in his second year of theology at Hekima
College.
83
offer. “Women flocked after wandering evangelists, such as Norbert of Xanten (d.
1134) and Robert of Arbrissel (d. 1116-1117), and these preachers – ambivalent
about itinerant preaching even for themselves and clearly hostile to it as a form of
female piety – founded monasteries for them.”1 This initiative led to the establishment of double monasteries whereby male and female religious lived side by side
in different houses but under the same rule and superior or head. Women as well as
men could be put at the head of double monasteries. In the event that a woman was
at the head of a double monastery all men or priests attached to that particular
monastery were subordinate to her.2
Women could also hear confessions from nuns they were in charge of, they
could bestow blessings, they could preach and they could also administer communion in ritual practices that could be termed as “masses without priests”.3 These quasi
clerical roles were withdrawn as it were from women following the emergence of
quasi women religious movements such as the Beguines, and the veneration of
holy women that was becoming popular.4 One reason for the withdrawals, we may
suggest, is a possible tendency in men that feared losing authority that they were so
much interested in.
The fact that women and men were equal as far as salvation was concerned did
not imply that women and men were equal in earthly matters pertaining to the
running of the Church. Women were considered weak physiologically and spiritually.5 “Innocent III, for example, in a letter to the bishops of Burgos and Palencia
(later introduced into canon law), expressed his surprise at the fact that some abbesses
dared to bless their nuns as did priests, to hear confession and after reading of the
Evangelics, even to preach in public.”6 Women were no longer allowed to bless, to
hear confession, and to preach. In particular we are told that women were not
allowed to preach in public especially because their voices were dangerous and
they “would stimulate lust in their listeners.”7 What was proper to women therefore,
was a life of solitude. Apparently, they were prohibited to leave double monasteries
to such an extent that they could not even visit the sick.8
3. Medieval Religious
Women’s Challenges
Double Monasteries
With restrictions for women in force, challenges for
double monasteries were inevitable. Double monasteries needed to survive and the nuns needed some food
1
Caroline Walker Bynum, “Religious Women in the Later Middle Ages,” in Jill Raitt, (ed.), Christian
Spirituality: High Middle Ages and Reformation (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1987), p. 121.
2
Shulamith Shahar, The Fourth Estate: A History of Women in the Middle Ages (London: Routledge,
1983), p. 31.
3
Caroline Walker Bynum, op. cit., p. 128.
4
Ibidem.
5
Caroline Walker Bynum, Jesus as Mother: Studies in the Spirituality of the High Middle Ages (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1982), p. 135.
6
Shulamith Shahar, op. cit., p. 32.
7
Jo Ann McNamara, “The Rhetoric of Orthodoxy: Clerical Authority and Female Innovation in the
Struggle with Heresy,” in Ulrike Wiethaus (ed.), Maps of Flesh and Light: The Religious Experience of
Medieval Women Mystics (Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1993), p. 10.
8
84
to eat and some other basic necessities. But they were not allowed to go out, not
even to beg. Consequently, economic strains emerged on male counterparts because they were overburdened with supporting the houses as only they could go
out to beg and preach. Additionally, the very fact that priests were required on
several occasions to go out and visit the poor and to preach, among many other
things, resulted into shortage of manpower for the nuns. There were not enough
priests available to attend to the sacramental needs and spiritual direction for the
nuns, whose numbers were still growing rapidly.9
Moreover, priests also did not want to avail themselves to the religious women’s
houses for fear of sexual temptations. The nuns were viewed as temptresses.10 The
priests, however, did not view themselves as possible sources of temptation to the
nuns. Such was the male religious’ attitude toward nuns that contributed to the
curtailing of the Premonstratensians’ nunneries that existed in the form of double
monasteries in 1137. We should also not overlook the fact that the moral code in the
Premonstratensians’ double monastery was violated at times. So no more
Premonstratensians’ nunneries were to be opened, and only the already existent
ones could take in religious female candidates. Further these nunneries were not
allowed to take in any more candidates by the year 1270, and nuns who inhabited
them were encouraged to join other nunneries or orders.11
We do notice excessive bias against women in the Premonstratensians’ order in
the declaration that follows: “Since nothing in this world resembles the evil of
women and since the venom of the viper or the dragon is less harmful to men than
their proximity, we hereby declare that for the good of our souls, our bodies and
our worldly goods we will no longer accept sisters into our order and we will avoid
them as we do mad dogs.”12 Women bore the responsibility of everybody’s sin. Men
were not just ready to take up any responsibility for the violation of the double
monastic moral code. It would appear that the Biblical image of Eve through whom
sin affected humanity played a major role in the formation of men’s tendencies.13
Dependent But Single Nunneries
Besides double monasteries, single nunneries were founded in the thirteenth
century but they continued to be in close collaboration with corresponding monasteries. A leader of a particular monastery was also responsible for a nunnery with
which his order shared the same rule. But challenges that occurred in double monasteries related to morality, organization and economics resurfaced. For that reason,
leaders of monasteries that were in charge of nunneries sought exemption from the
responsibility, while some argued at the same time that it was against the order of
nature to allow women to rule themselves.14
9
Caroline Walker Bynum, “Religious Women in the Later Middle Ages,” in Jill Raitt, (ed.), Christian
Spirituality: High Middle Ages and Reformation (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1987), pp. 122-123.
10
11
Ibidem, pp. 34-35.
12
Ibidem, p. 36.
13
Jo Ann McNamara, op. cit., p. 10.
14
85
Women had to be under men. As such, even though the Dominican order was
exempted from material responsibilities of corresponding nunneries, the brothers
were entrusted with the instruction and jurisdiction of the nunneries in 1267. Likewise, Franciscans felt overburdened by the corresponding nunnery of the Poor
Clares, but the pope at the time did not allow them to be exempted from their
obligations to the nunnery. Instead he appointed a Cardinal to be at the head of the
Franciscan order who took responsibility for the Poor Clares.15
The Beguine Religious Movement
Partly due to the termination of Premonstratensians’ nunneries and the reluctance of other male orders to support their female counterparts there arose in the
thirteenth century a religious movement that was not necessarily ecclesiastical. Such
is the Beguine religious movement. The Beguines spread in some parts of Belgium,
France and Germany; by and large in the northern part of Europe. They were
religious women in a sense that they offered to imitate the life of Christ. Their lives
were penitent, prayerful, chaste, poor, and laborious. They normally labored among
the poor and the sick.16 The movement actually offered religious women an opportunity to do things that they could not do as restricted nuns.
The movement was not spared from the suspicious men either. Thus Marguerite
Porete, a Beguine and a mystic, and author of a book entitled Mirror of simple Souls,
was burned at the stake after being accused of the Free Spirit heresy in 1310. She
stated that soon as the soul is annihilated it becomes free so much that it stands
above the law of virtue. The soul returns “to the first Being, in which nothing
became everything.”17 The Beguines were then partly suppressed in the following
year by the Council of Vienne that took place from 1311 to 1312.18
Mysticism
“The female mystic was a woman who approached a male God personified in
flesh. She turned to him as his bride, his widow and sometimes even his bereaved
mother.”19 From the early fourteenth century onwards, mysticism that was earlier
appreciated by both religious men and women was increasingly viewed with suspicion and levity was also suspected in women’s Eucharistic devotions.20 Women fell
prey to accusations of heresies resulting from their deep religious commitment. In
Reims, a girl was burned to death because she was accused of Catharism after her
seducer failed to penetrate her due to her steadfast commitment to purity earlier on
about the end of the twelfth century.21 Catharism is a dualist heresy that regarded
the material world as evil.22
15
Ibidem, p. 35.
Ibidem, p. 52.
17
Alois Maria Haas, “Schools of Late Medieval Mysticism,” in Jill Raitt, (ed.), Christian Spirituality:
High Middle Ages and Reformation (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1987), p. 143.
18
Ibidem, p. 128.
19
20
Caroline Walker Bynum, op. cit., pp. 128-129.
21
22
Norman P. Tanner, The Councils of the Church: A Short History (New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company, 2001), p. 56.
16
86
4. Contributions of
Medieval Religious
Women to the Church
Mystics Combatting Heresy
The same medieval religious women’s mystical experiences that were later suspected of breeding heresies
and levity played a major role in fighting heresies. Members of the Order of Preachers who were responsible for combating heresies combined their theological studies with the training of female mystics and “These collaborations eventually produced a body of literature which prudently balanced
divine revelation and received orthodoxy.”23
We suggest that Mary of Oignies (1177-1213), a Beguine, and Hildegard of
Bingen (1098-1179), an abbess in Germany, are both mystics who contributed to a
good fight against Catharism. Mary’s “creative concept of the union of flesh and
spirit was a formidable weapon against the Cathars who condemned the flesh as
irretrievably impure, the enemy and prison of the spirit.”24 To show that the flesh
was not necessarily evil but an agent of purification Mary dedicated her life to the
service of lepers.25 Abbess Hildegard maintained that a woman’s body or flesh was
an image of God and thus flesh as such is not evil. She went on to show that Jesus
Christ the Son of God was an integration of flesh and spirit.26 Against the Cathars we
would agree that the very flesh of Jesus with which some women identified to the
point of developing the stigmata could not be evil. Indeed, “Hildegard of Bingen
(together with Mary of Oignies) still confronts us, after (more than) eight centuries,
as an overpowering, electrifying presence—and in many ways an enigmatic one.”27
Inculturation
Although the term inculturation did not exist at the time, the Cistercian nuns in
Germany did something of the kind by recording their mystical experiences, their
relationship with God, in the vernacular in the thirteenth century. The vernacular
served a major role in propagating religious material in the sense that many people
could easily read and understand what was implied. In this way Cistercian nuns
converted large numbers of people especially women who tended to imitate the
attractive literal spirituality. As an example, the vernacular religious literature “influenced the subsequent beguines…and also late medieval bourgeois spirituality in
general by supplying a vocabulary and a nomenclature for spiritual experience,
which until then was usual only in monastic circles. This was audaciously novel.”28
We may also want to suggest that the same pattern of Cistercian thought was going
through the mind of Martin Luther when he decided to translate the Holy Bible into
the vernacular against the convictions of the Church.
23
24
25
26
27
Ibidem, p. 13.
Ibidem, p. 15.
Ibidem, p. 14.
Peter Dronke, Women Writers of the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984),
p. 144.
28
Alois Maria Haas, op. cit., p. 141.
87
Education, Health and Reform
Although women, particularly nuns, were not allowed to preach and to leave
the nunnery like some of their male counterparts, they got involved in teaching
children of the nobility within the premises of the nunneries. The nuns’ involvement in education in addition to being a service to surrounding communities also
generated income for the nunneries to such an extent that some nunneries became
self sufficient. What is more, not only did these nunneries accumulate income from
the teaching apostolate but they engaged in works of charity such as giving alms.29
The more mobile Beguines were able to take care of the sick and the poor.30
Medieval religious women were also reformers of the Church. For instance, in
the thirteenth century when Benedictine monasticism for men was eclipsed by the
Friars we are informed that Santuccia Carabotti of Italy found a durable solution by
establishing a monastery in Gubbio which lived under a strict interpretation of the
Benedictine Rule. In this way, she preserved the rule and guarded it from possible
oblivion. She was further consulted on the reformation and supervision of 24 other
monasteries, exercising full leadership as it were.31
We may also add to the list of women reformers, Catherine of Siena (1333/471380). She was a reformer in her own rite of the papacy. In her concern for the
tradition of the Church, she persuaded Pope Gregory XI to leave Avignon in 1377
for Rome where the papacy was originally established. Although the pope died
early in 1378 only a few months after his arrival in Rome, Catherine kept her support for the papacy in Rome during the schism that followed a disputed papal
election.32 Her efforts were not in vain. To date, the papacy, the symbol of unity for
us Christians and Catholics, is still based in Rome living up to its traditional foundations.
Feast of the Corpus Christi
Effectively, women’s monasteries formed networks amongst themselves resulting in the strengthening of their beliefs translated in the writings of the lives of the
sisters and their visions. These productions were not only beneficial to the religious
women, but also to the male religious. The collections tended to be material for
spiritual instruction in both male and female religious houses.33 Through Juliana of
Cornillon (1192-1258), otherwise called Juliana of Liège, an affective devotion to
the body of Christ and adoration were developed. Similarly, other religious women
devoted themselves to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. Thus “It was a woman, Juliana of
Cornillon, who got the feast of Corpus Christi added to the liturgical calendar, and
the cult of the Sacred Heart had its origins in the devotions of certain religious
women in Flanders and Saxony.”34
29
30
31
32
33
34
88
Ibidem, p. 52.
Carolyn Walker Bynum, op. cit., p. 122.
Alois Maria Haas, op. cit., p. 167.
Carolyn Walker Bynum, p. 123.
Ibidem, pp. 131-132.
5. The Role of Mysticism
Mysticism enabled women to endure suffering in a male dominated society. It
enabled women to transcend terrestrial shortcomings in that it freed and inspired
them.35 In any case, the capacity of women to incorporate into their spirituality the
daily experiences of suffering, dejection, etc. may not be overstated. The seemingly
problematic situation of women was interpreted positively by the same women in
the light of the suffering Christ. For some this explains why more women than men
in the medieval period bore the stigmata. The women were in touch with suffering
than anybody else. Their situation also drove them to focus on penitential asceticism, and fasting that could still lead to suffering through a disease that had to be
endured in patience.36 On the whole, this spirituality had to do with a lot of affection or emotion. In this kind of spirituality, women tended to feel with the other, to
partake in the suffering of the other; and the other was the humanity of Jesus that
ultimately led to union with the Christ of glory, God, who is love.37 As it were, “The
most important contribution of women to spiritual creativity in the Middle Ages was
in the sphere of Christian mysticism.”38
6. Conclusion
We have attempted to show some of the challenges that some medieval religious women met with and the contributions that they made to the Church between
1100 and 1400. Our investigation has not been exhaustive but it does give us an
idea of how things used to be in those days. We may agree that in general terms
medieval religious women were marginalized by the male dominated society but
they turned the marginalization, the oppression, into an effective spiritual weapon.
Hence they survived and some of their groups continue to survive up to today.
Their driving force was the fact that they could identify with the humanity of Jesus
who suffered, died, and rose again. Their identity in the humanity of Jesus enabled
them to transcend their social difficulties in a very positive and Christian way.
Religious women’s contributions to the Church in the medieval period and the
Church today may not be overstated. They took a very active role in the fight
against heresies such as Catharism for they performed with conviction. They were
theologians in their own rite. They got involved in educating children and attending
to the sick. Their powerful and affectionate spirituality enabled them to be creative
and through their emotional and affectionate experiences we graciously received
feasts of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the Corpus Christi that the Church has kept
in its liturgical calendar ever since to enable human beings to come into close
contact with God. Women were not dormant members of the society but they took
35
Ulrike Wiethaus, ed., “Introduction,” in Maps of Flesh and Light: The Religious Experience of Medieval Women Mystics (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1993), p. 2.
36
Caroline Walker Bynum, op. cit., p. 131.
37
Ellen Ross, ‘“She Wept and Cried Right Loud for Sorrow and for Pain’: Suffering, the Spiritual
Journey, and Women’s Experience in Late Medieval Mysticism,” in Ulrike Wiethaus (ed.), Maps of Flesh
and Light: The Religious Experience of Medieval Women Mystics (Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University
Press, 1993), pp. 46-47.
38
89
an active role in the reformation of the Church’s religious institutions, and in Church
politics with regard to the papacy. All these achievements and contributions were
made possible by that tremendous gift that was especially unique and granted by
grace to medieval religious women, that gift that is said to be the most important
contribution to the Church by religious women at the time, the gift of mysticism that
we ought to continue cultivating today.
Bibliography
Bynum, Caroline Walker. Jesus as Mother: Studies in the Spirituality of the High Middle
Ages. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982.
Bynum, Caroline Walker. “Religious Women in the Later Middle Ages.” In Jill Raitt, ed.
Christian Spirituality: High Middle Ages and Reformation. London: Routledge &
Kegan Paul, 1987, pp. 121-139.
Dronke, Peter. Women Writers of the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1984.
Haas, Alois Maria. “Schools of Late Medieval Mysticism.” In Jill Raitt, ed. Christian
Spirituality: High Middle Ages and Reformation. London: Routledge and Kegan P a u l ,
1987, pp. 140-175.
McNamara, Jo Ann. “The Rhetoric of Orthodoxy: Clerical Authority and Female
Innovation in the Struggle with Heresy.” In Ulrike Wiethaus, ed. Maps of Flesh
and Light: The Religious Experience of Medieval Women Mystics. Syracuse, New
York: Syracuse University Press, 1993, pp. 9-27.
Ross, Ellen. ‘“She Wept and Cried Right Loud for Sorrow and for Pain’: Suffering, the
Spiritual Journey, and Women’s Experience in Late Medieval Mysticism.” In
Ulrike Wiethaus, ed. Maps of Flesh and Light: The Religious Experience of
Medieval Women Mystics. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1993,
pp. 4559.
Shahar, Shulamith. The Fourth Estate: A History of Women in the Middle Ages. London:
Routledge, 1983.
Tanner, Norman P. The Councils of the Church: A Short History. New York: The
Crossroad Publishing Company, 2001.
Wiethaus, Ulrike, ed. “Introduction.” In Maps of Flesh and Light: The Religious
Experience of Medieval Women Mystics. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse
University Press, 1993, pp. 1-8.
90
Book Reviews
Jean Marie Quenum, S.J.
LE DIEU DE LA SOLIDARITÉ QUI VIENT À L’AFRICAIN
Abidjan: Editions UCAO, 2005, 253 p.
Reviewer: Paul Tang Abomo, SJ
L’ouvrage est la reprise de la thèse de doctorat de l’auteur sur la réunion spirituelle
de l’humanité. C’est une présentation synthétique de la pensée de Henri de Lubac
qui, en revisitant la tradition théologique occidentale, utilisa toutes ses ressources
humaines au service de l’intelligence de la foi, des questions de l’homme, et du
dialogue avec les cultures entendues comme réseaux de sens mettant en jeu les
rites, les mythes, les idéologies, les utopies d’une époque. Cette synthèse a une
visée pédagogique et voudrait situer l’Afrique dans le pluralisme de la pensée
théologique autour de la Tradition et l’Ecriture. En entrant en dialogue avec de
Lubac, Jean Marie voudrait exprimer l’identité africaine du Dieu qui se dévoile dans
l’acte de salut de la nouvelle création instaurée par la mort et la résurrection du
Christ qui recrée l’univers. Le livre se divise en six chapitres.
Le premier chapitre est une anthropologie en débat. D’un côté, la tradition
chrétienne situe l’homme devant Dieu. Il y apparaît comme un être en solidarité et
en communion avec Dieu et avec ses semblables. En s’unissant au Christ, le chrétien
tend vers la ressemblance divine. Comme sacrement de Jésus dans l’histoire, il doit
s’insérer dans le peuple de Dieu qui le lie avec ses frères en humanité. Ce passage
de l’individualisme à la communion fraternelle dans le Christ est assuré par l’Esprit
Saint qui agit dans l’Eglise, lieu par excellence de la réunion spirituelle qui englobe
toutes les personnes humaines dans leur particularité. D’un autre côté, la conception moderne fondée sur la science et la technologie, évacue Dieu du champ social.
L’homme y est conçu comme une monade autocentrée, réduite à une valeur
marchande. L’apport de Henri de Lubac à la modernité est la reconnaissance de la
grandeur incomparable de l’homme au delà des finalités mercantiles et son ouverture
à la transcendance. A travers l’incarnation, Jésus se rend solidaire de l’homme et
l’invite a son tour à s’ouvrir à l’autre.
La deuxième partie aborde le mystère de Trinité selon une double dialectique.
D’un point de vue descendant, l’auteur montre comment Dieu a commencé à se
révéler à l’humanité dans la création, première étape de la réunion spirituelle. Cette
révélation s’est achevée dans l’incarnation et la rédemption du Christ dont L’Esprit
continue à assurer la présence dans l’Eglise. Par l’accueil de l’Esprit et la communion mutuelle de ses membres, L’Eglise a vocation d’être unie au Fils qui est chemin
vers le Père. A l’inverse, le Fils éternel, en assumant sa mission temporelle, met à la
portée de ses frères en humanité la relation qui l’unit au Père. Le monde devient
alors le lieu de réunion de tous les frères du Fils liés entre eux par l’Esprit Saint pour
participer à la plénitude de la vie de Dieu.
91
Book Reviews
La troisième partie met en lumière les liens entre l’Esprit et l’Eglise. L’Esprit est la
personne divine qui réalise la communion d’une humanité sanctifiée par le mystère
pascal du Christ. Elle manifeste la victoire du Crucifié ressuscité sur toutes les forces
de division et de destruction qui s’opposaient au Père. Il régénère l’humanité pour
la faire entrer dans la communion de l’amour divin. L’Eglise est le lieu privilégié de
cette régénération. Elle actualise par des signes l’expérience d’union et d’incorporation
avec le Fils. Elle instaure une fraternité sans frontières en vue de la communion
entre les membres de l’humanité, de toute origine, de tout temps et de toute nation.
A la suite du Christ qui, par sa croix, a renoncé à se prendre comme fin en soi,
l’Esprit nous invite à renoncer à nous mêmes et à apporter notre pierre à l’édification
de l’unité de la communauté humaine.
La quatrième partie a le souci de l’écologie. L’auteur s’interroge sur le rapport
que nous devons avoir avec la création. Considérée jadis par les religions
traditionnelles comme sacrée, la nature fait aujourd’hui l’objet d’un pillage
systématique pour satisfaire les besoins de plus en plus croissants de la ville. Le
meilleur symbole apte a rétablir l’unité dans la création est celui du Corps du Christ:
un milieu de vie et un environnement de salut perçus par tous comme un lieu
d’échange fraternel, non-violent ou le dialogue d’amour et la communion priment
sur la guerre de tous contre tous et le ressentiment contre Dieu.
La cinquième partie ouvre la perspective d’une vision africaine de la réunion
spirituelle. Pour l’Africain au sud du Sahara, la vie est un drame intense au cours
duquel l’humanité vivante est en lutte contre les forces de la mort. Etre cosmique, il
dépend de son environnement et du Créateur qui est le détenteur de vie en plénitude.
Par son corps il se manifeste de manière tangible à autrui avec qui il est appelé à la
gestion des forces vitales de l’univers dans un esprit de liberté et d’amour. Dans le
contexte actuel de mondialisation caractérisé par des hégémonies nationalistes et
des conflits de religion, l’Afrique peut apporter au reste du monde son souci de
l’environnement, son esprit d’accueil et de solidarité, la tolérance d’une religion peu
expansionniste et pas du tout prosélyte.
Pour terminer, l’auteur tente de donner une âme au phénomène de la
mondialisation. Il propose trois images qui jouent comme des paradigmes: la
Pentecôte, le festin eschatologique et l’humanité comme temple de l’esprit. Ces
types ont en commun certains traits distinctifs: le respect de chacun dans son origine,
le don de soi à l’exemple du Fils, le partage, l’amitié, l’union des coeurs dans la
famille unique que le Père rassemble par l’esprit. Vivre de la foi trinitaire implique
un effort de renonciation à soi par amour pour autrui pour créer un monde d’échange,
de dialogue et de solidarité au sein du village global.
Le livre est traité de théologie dogmatique en contexte. Il exhume pour le
resituer dans le monde actuel le ‘fossile’ du Dogme de la Trinité momifié depuis les
Pères de l’Eglise. Le style est spiroïdal et peut donner l’impression de se répéter.
Mais c’est un procédé didactique de récapitulation du chemin parcouru pour projeter
le lecteur ailleurs et plus loin. Nonobstant de légères erreurs d’édition, le livre
comble les espérances que suscite un titre si ambitieux. L’auteur met bien en lumière
les chaînes de solidarités nécessaires à la réunion spirituelle de l’humanité qui situe
l’homme devant lui-même, la nature et le Dieu trinitaire.
92
Hekima Review, No. 34, Decemebr 2005
Book Reviews
Ghislain TSHIKENDWA MATADI, SJ
DE L’ABSURDITE DE LA SOUFFRANCE A L’ESPERANCE
Une lecture du livre de Job en temps du VIH/SIDA
Ed. Mediaspaul, 2005, 254pp.
Reviewer :LuzoloNdolJean-Pierre,sj
La pandémie du VIH/SIDA, pudiquement appelée la « maladie du siècle »
peut être perçue comme le summum des malédictions de l’Afrique.
En réponse à l’appel lancé par le Réseau Jésuite Africain contre le SIDA, et en
qualité de quelqu’un qui s’intéresse au problème de la souffrance, le Père Ghislain
TSHIKENDWA, loin de livrer des statistiques ou des données scientifiques sur le
SIDA s’attelle, dans son second livre, à une réflexion sur le livre de Job à la lumière
de la pandémie du SIDA en Afrique en vue de témoigner de l’amour de Dieu dans
la souffrance des hommes.
A la lumière de l’expérience de Job, et prenant soin d’inclure des aspects
socioculturels et spirituels de l’Afrique, l’auteur comprend le SIDA non pas comme
une punition de Dieu comme le pense une certaine théologie de rétribution établissant
un lien nécessaire de cause à effet entre le péché et la maladie et provoquant la
honte et l’exclusion des sidéens, tout comme l’entourage de Job s’est comporté à
son égard. Job devient ainsi ce modèle dont la ‘situation-limite’ de souffrance peut
aider les sidéens à approfondir leur relation avec Dieu et avec l’Afrique religieuse et
souffrante et à inventer un langage capable de dire Dieu et de L’aimer même en
face de l’absurdité de la souffrance.
La réflexion spirituelle et théologique que nous livre l’auteur s’est aussi nourrie
de son expérience humaine et chrétienne dans un contexte de l’Afrique caractérisée
par la souffrance. Il ne s’agit pas d’une simple justification de la justice de Dieu face
à l’absurdité de la souffrance humaine, mais bien plus d’une lecture du livre de Job
en temps de VIH/SIDA pour faire naître l’espérance dans des coeurs tentés par le
désespoir et le découragement.
Le livre est divisé en quatre parties. La première nous fait plonger dans l’expérience
de Job et nous fait mieux connaître la conception africaine de la mort et de la
souffrance, en essayant de répondre aux questions existentielles: Quel est le sens
réel de la souffrance ? Qui est, dans la conception africaine, la cause de la mort?
Est-ce Dieu, est-ce les ancêtres ou les sorciers ? Par la compréhension de la relation
étroite entre la vie et la mort dans l’anthropologie et la mythologie africaine, l’auteur
nous montre, d’une part, comment la conception africaine de la mort et de la
souffrance peut aider à mieux comprendre la conception de la mort et de la souffrance
telle que décrite dans le livre de Job; comment elle peut non seulement augmenter
la douleur et les peines des malades du SIDA, mais qu’elle peut aussi favoriser la
propagation de la pandémie, et d’autre part, comment l’expérience de Job peut
aider les malades à ne pas céder au désespoir.
La deuxième partie analyse le drame de Job à travers un jeu de contradictions
apparentes dans ses lamentations au Maître de la vie et de l’histoire. Malgré la
‘situation-limite’ de son existence marquée par la mort de ses enfants et de sa
souffrance physique atroce, Job défend, avec courage et au plus fort de l’épreuve,
93
Book Reviews
son intégrité, sa confiance et sa dignité d’enfant de Dieu contre la théologie de la
rétribution. Ainsi peut-il servir de modèle aux innocents sidéens. Les lamentations
de Job constituent en elles-mêmes une belle prière capable de libérer et de purifier
intérieurement pour faire voir à nouveau la face de Dieu et retourver la dignité et la
vérité propres.
La troisième partie fait passer des ouies-dires sur Dieu à l’expérience personnelle
de Dieu. La réponse de Job à Dieu exprime son désir profond de faire l’expérience
de sa rencontre avec Dieu au milieu de la souffrance; car ni la souffrance ni la mort
ne peuvent séparer un croyant de Dieu, par contre dans le dialogue avec Lui s’éclaircit
le mystère de l’absurdité de la souffrance. Pour les malades du SIDA et ceux qui les
assistent sincèrement, la souffrance même non méritée peut devenir un chemin
d’espérance qui les amene vers eux-mêmes et vers la rencontre du Dieu aimant.
La dernière partie développe ce que l’auteur appelle une «théologie de l’espoir
et de la vie» en ce temps du VIH/SIDA en Afrique. Il suggère que le livre de Job
traite aussi et en grande partie du discours sur Dieu, c’est-à-dire, de la théologie afin
de construire un discours cohérent sur ce Dieu dans une situation de grande épreuve
comme celle de la pandémie du SIDA. L’auteur distingue la théologie développée
par les amis de Job, théologie coupée de la réalité et construite sur sagesse
traditionnelle selon laquelle la souffrance est la rétribution de Dieu aux pécheurs.
La théologie développée par Job lui-même, c’est-à-dire une théologie de la vie dont
la consistance vient non seulement de ce qu’il a entendu mais aussi et surtout de ce
que ses yeux ont vu (Job 42 :5). C’est une théologie qui promeut un langage
cohérent en ce temps de la pandémie du VIH/SIDA parce que Job défend la dignité
de tout être humain et surtout la dignité de toute personne qui souffre; c’est une
théologie de la vie dont la mission est :1) de susciter l’espérance et de lutter contre
l’afro-pessimisme ; 2) de défendre la dignité de tout malade et de tout souffrant
quels que soient son sexe, sa race et sa culture ; 3) de promouvoir le dialogue
entre la médecine moderne et la médecine traditionnelle et de réagir contre un
discours valorisant la magie et la sorcellerie ; 4) de s’inspirer des rites d’initiation
africaine et de considérer la mort comme un passage à la vie ; 5) de promouvoir la
dignité de la sexualité humaine. Ceci ne veut nullement dire que le SIDA ou la mort
seront supprimés, mais plutôt que la souffrance et la mort peuvent devenir des lieux
de la théologie, des moyens de croissance permettant de poser des vraies questions
sur l’espérance et la justice chrétiennes.
Dans la partie annexe, l’auteur joint, d’une part, la lettre du Réseau Jésuite a
l’Assistance des Jésuites d’Afrique et de Madagascar, et le dernier message du SCEAM
sur le SIDA, et d’autre part, faisant sien le souci d’AJAN, il souhaite que la pandémie
du SIDA devienne une occasion pour approfondir notre manière de vivre, de croire
et de faire la théologie.
94
Poetry
ParolesMuettes
Richard TAMBWE, S.J. *
Laissez ces paroles
Me parler une à une
Par ordre de sagesse
Au sein de cette bibliothèque
Des mots qui se côtoient en silence
Je voudrais entendre la voix rauque
De ces auteurs qui parlent depuis des siècles
Que l’on écoute en prêtant oreille
Qu’on ne comprend qu’en silence
Au milieu des vociférations en langues étrangères
Des aboiements des chiens enragés
Des musiques tonitruantes des fous joyeux
Ces paroles en des réceptacles poussiéreux
Sont rangées sous la rubrique des sages
Dès qu’elles disent une chose
L’esprit qui écoute se met en marche
A la découverte du monde et des normes
Dès qu’elles s’arrêtent
L’esprit recommence
L’itinéraire de chez soi
Dans la Compagnie des Saints
Laissez ses paroles m’envahir
Lui qui répète depuis des siècles
Le même message d’amour et de bien
Avec la même véhémence juvénile
Lui qui chante du même ton
Le rythme des chansons qui se dansent longtemps
*
Richard Tambwe is a Jesuit from the Democratic Republic of Congo in his first year of theology at
Hekima College.
95
Poetry
Je voudrais goûter le poème millénaire
De ces chantres du bonheur
Qui continuent de rêver
D’un monde plus juste
Au milieu des projets utopiques
Et des œuvres surréalistes
Ces lignes se croisent et se brisent
S’intensifient et s’estompent
Dans une exubérante architecture
Dès qu’elles s’élancent et s’exposent
Elles s’imposent en silence
Tout le monde admire
Personne ne les dénigre…
Laissez-moi vivre dans cette Bibliothèque
Conversant tour à tour en silence
Avec ces paroles et ces lignes muettes
Qui disent tout
Même ce que je ne veux pas entendre…
J’ai écouté par mes yeux
Et l’appétit est né
Mes yeux m’ont nourri
Et la faim en moi s’est accrue…
Et le voyage entrepris
M’a amené de ville en ville
Sur tous les Continents
Et nulle part en réalité…
Et la connaissance a grandi
Mes yeux m’ont nourri
Et ma faim s’est accrue…
Viens et vois
Ces paroles muettes
Et la musique t’enivrera
Tu découvriras d’autres paysages
Rencontreras d’autres personnes
Et ton cœur se réjouira…
96

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