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MULTIPLE FRENCH TRANSLATIONS FOR JUST ONE ENGLISH FORM: THE CASE OF
TRANSLATING TENSE AND ASPECT BETWEEN THE TWO LANGUAGES
MAK‟ONIARE, ODUOR K‟OOKO
C50/64957/2013
A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN
TRANSLATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI.
NOVEMBER 2014
DECLARATION
This research project is my original work and has not been presented to any other university for
examination for any degree or award.
…………………………………
………………………
Oduor K‟Ooko Mak‟Oniare
Date
Reg No. C50/64957/2013
This research project has been submitted for examination with our approval as the University
Supervisors
………....................................
Dr. Alfred Buregeya
…………… .........
Date
……………… ...........................
Dr. Omondi Odero
…………………..…
Date
ii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this Project Report to my family. My wife Truphosa has been extremely supportive
over the Report writing. She has done housework without complaining when I have had to
devote all my days and nights to serious study. My daughters Shirley, Joice, Helda and Naomi,
and my son Lucas have all shown their cooperation by treating my reading material with great
care and ensuring none was misplaced. They have borne the inconvenience of my keeping their
surroundings lit while they slept.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to acknowledge the staff of the Center for Translation and Interpretation of the
University of Nairobi for their unfailing cooperation throughout the period leading to the
finalization of this report. The Director has ensured that our route towards the ultimate goal of
realizing this study report is cleared of all obstacles, ensuring that we get all necessary
information and guidance in good time. The Lecturers have worked tirelessly to ensure that we
received the necessary guidance for academic performance while the administrative staff has
made sure that learning is well facilitated and that all necessary information is available for the
completion of this study. The University of Nairobi Library Staff have been very helpful in
aiding me to locate literature from the University Repository and Library bookshelves. I wish
to especially acknowledge Dr Alfred Buregeya and Dr Omondi Odero, my supervisors, who
have guided me closely in shaping up this study. Their well thought-out and articulated pieces
of advice have gone a long way in giving proper form and substance to this study. I also wish to
mention the Projects Coordinator, Dr Schroeder, who has made sure that the projects schedule
was observed during the report writing. I further acknowledge my colleagues in the Master of
Translation and Master of Interpretation classes with whom I have been privileged to work in
the duration of writing this report. They have been of great support, demonstrating great
dedication to teamwork, ever ready to share with me their deepest academic thoughts and never
tiring in encouraging me to press on to realize this work.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION………………………………………………………………………………..ii
DEDICATION
…………………………………………………………..………………….iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………..….…..iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………………..v
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS…………………………………………………………………viii
ABSTRACT…………………………………………..………………………………………..ix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ……………………………….…………………..……..1
1.1 Definition of Terms …………………………..……..…………………………..………..…1
1.2 Background to the Study .…………………..…………..………………….…….....…….…7
1.3 Statement of the Problem …………………………………………………………..…..….12
1.4 Research Questions ……………………………………………….………………..…...…12
1.5 Objectives of the Study ………………………….…………….……..………….…...……13
1.6 Rationale .…………….………………………………………..………………………..….13
1.7 Scope and Delimitations.……….…………………………………..…………...…….……14
1.8 Conceptual Framework: Translation Equivalence…...………………..………………..….14
1.9 Literature Review……………….………………………….………..………….….…..…..15
1.10 Research Methodology…………..………………..……………………..................……20
1.11 Format of the Study…………………………………..……………………...…….…...…22
CHAPTER TWO: PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS ….………..23
2.1 Presentation of Translation of Tense and Aspect from English into French………………23
2.2 Translation of the English simple past into its French Equivalents……………...……...…32
2.3 Translation of the English Past Progressive into its French Equivalents………….…..…...37
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2.4 Translation of the English present perfect into its French Equivalent…….………........39
2.5 Translation of the English past perfect into its French Equivalents…..................................42
CHAPTER THREE: PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS:
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ………………………………………………….………….….45
3.1 Distribution of the French Verb Forms…………………………………………………….45
3.2 Distribution of the French Equivalents of the English Simple Past………………………..45
3.3 Distribution of the French Equivalents of the English Past Progressive……………..….....49
3.4 Distribution of the French Equivalents of the English Present Perfect…………………….51
3.5 Distribution of the French Equivalents of the English Past Perfect…….………………....52
CHAPTER FOUR: CONCLUSION ………………...……………………………………… 55
4.1 Summary of Findings ………………....…………………………………………………...55
4.2. Final Remarks………………………………………….…………....…………………......58
4.3 Suggestion for Further Research ………………………....……………………………….
59
REFERENCES ………………………………………………….. ……...…….……….
…….60
APPENDICES
…………………………………………..………………..…….……….….... 64
Appendix I…………Book Excerpt- The Guns of Navarone
Appendix II……….. Book Excerpt- Les Canons de Navarone
Appendix III……… Book Excerpt-The Hound of the Baskervilles
Appendix IV……… Book Excerpt- Le Chien des Baskerville
Appendix Va..... Table -Translation of English Simple past into French
Narrative: The Guns of Navarone/ Les Canons de Navarone
Appendix Vb …..Table- Translation of English Simple Past into French
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Narrative: The Hound of the Baskervilles/ Le Chien des Baskerville
Appendix Vc…..Table- Translation of English Past Progressive into French
Appendix Vd ….Table- Translation of English Past Progressive into French
Appendix Ve … Table- Translation of English Present Perfect into French
Appendix Vf …..Table- Translation of English Present Perfect into French
Appendix Vg…..Table- Translation of English Past Perfect into French
Appendix Vh…. Table- Translation of English Past Perfect into French
vii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
L1.......................................................................................................................First language
L2 ....................................................................................................................Second language
ST.......................................................................................................................Source text
TT........................................................................................................................Target text
VP........................................................................................................................Verb phrase
viii
ABSTRACT
The study set out to investigate the problems encountered by translators in the translation of
tense and aspect from English to French in the light of the fact that for one English verb form,
multiple French equivalents exist. Using two existing English-French parallel text pairs, an
analysis of the manner in which the translators had translated the English simple past, the past
progressive, the present perfect and the past perfect verb forms, which carry both tense and
aspect, to French was carried out.
Verb phrases headed by each English verb form being studied were first identified in the
English text and tabulated. Corresponding French translations for these phrases were identified
in the French text and also tabulated. Possible sources of difficulty to the translator were noted.
It was confirmed that English verb forms had multiple French translations. Non translation was
frequently used as a translation strategy where source text elements were found to be
unnecessary for inclusion in target message and where the elements were culture specific and
not translatable to target language, while change of voice (modulation) and transposition were
used where stylistic differences between the two languages so demanded. These strategies were
noted as possible sources of difficulty to the translator.
The study concluded that the challenges created in the application of the strategies of
transposition, non translation and change of voice (modulation) called for acquisition of
linguistic as well as literal and cultural knowledge with regard to both target and source texts.
ix
CHAPTER ONE:
INTRODUCTION
Definition of Terms 1.1
The
terms
tense,
aspect,
perfectivity,
imperfectivity,
habituality,
continuousness,
progressiveness, tense and aspect systems, functions of tense, functions of aspect, grammatical
aspect, lexical aspect, English tense and aspect system and French tense and aspect system have
been defined below to aid the reader in following the development of the study. In addition to
the above, brief explanations of aspectual oppositions as posited by Comrie (1976) and Crystal
(2008) as well as differences in the English- French aspectual systems as viewed by various
scholars have been provided.
Tense:- Crystal (2008:479) defines tense as “a category used in the grammatical description of
verbs (along with aspect and mood), and which refers to the way the grammar marks the time at
which the action denoted by the verb took place” while according to Comrie (1976:1) “tense
relates the time of the situation referred to some other time, usually to the moment of
speaking.”
Aspect:- Crystal (2008:38) defines aspect as “a category used in the grammatical description of
verbs, referring primarily to the way the grammar marks the duration or type of temporal
activity denoted by the verb.” Comrie (1976:1-2) defines aspects as “different ways of viewing
the internal temporal constituency of a situation.”
Perfectivity: - According to Crystal (2008:356), perfectivity is “the viewing of a situation as a
whole, regardless of the time contrasts which may be a part of it.” According to Comrie
(1976:21), perfectivity is “the lack of explicit reference to the internal temporal constituency of
1
a situation.” Imperfectivity:-According to Crystal (2008:237) imperfectivity is “a term used in
the grammatical analysis of aspect, referring to those forms of the verb which mark the way in
which the internal time structure of a situation is viewed.” According to Comrie (1976:24),
imperfectivity is characterized by explicit reference to the internal temporal structure of a
situation.
Habituality: - According to Crystal (2008:223), habituality refers to a situation in which an
action is viewed as lasting for an extended period of time.”
According to (Comrie 1976:28), habituals describe a situation which is characteristic of an
extended period of time such that the situation referred to is viewed not as an incidental
property of the moment but as a characteristic feature of the whole period.
Continuousness:- According to Crystal (2008:110), continuousness is a term used in the
grammatical description of verb forms, referring to a contrast of a temporal or a durative kind,
and thus handled sometimes under the heading of tense and sometimes under aspect. According
to (Comrie 1976:26), “continuousness can be defined as imperfectivity that is not habituality.”
Progressiveness: - Crystal (2008:390) defines progressiveness as “a term used in the
grammatical description of verb forms, referring to a contrast of a temporal or durative kind,
and thus handled sometimes under the heading of tense and sometimes under aspect. Aspectual
Oppositions: - According to Comrie (1976: 25), aspect manifests itself in oppositions which
can be classified as illustrated in the Figure: 1 below.
2
Aspectual oppositions
Perfective
Imperfective
Habitual
Continuous
Non progressive
Progressive
Fig: 1.1 Aspectual Oppositions
Perfective and imperfective:-“The difference between perfective and imperfective meaning is
that the perfective looks at the situation from outside, without necessarily distinguishing any of
the internal structures of the situation , whereas the imperfective looks at the situation from the
inside, and as such is crucially concerned with the internal structure of the situation, since it can
both look backwards towards the start of the situation, and look forward to the end of the
situation, and indeed is equally appropriate if the situation is one that lasts through all time,
without any beginning and without any end.” (Comrie 1976:4)
Progressive and non progressive:-According to (Comrie 197:37) “non-progressive “refers to a
more or less permanent state of affairs whereas the progressive refers to a more temporary
state.” For example; „I live at Kayole A1-162‟ means that is where I normally live but „I am
living at Kayole A1-162‟ means that I am temporarily living there, perhaps when my usual
place of residence is being renovated.
Tense and Aspect Systems:-The understanding of English and French tense and aspect systems
is important for the translator who has to work within and between the two systems. Yashuhiro
3
and Ping (2011:1) consider tense and aspect systems as systems for expressing temporal
concepts.
Functions of tense: - Borik (2006:20) refers to tense as a category that determines temporal
location of an eventuality described in a sentence while Yashuhiro and Ping (2011:1) observe
that tense is used to put the time of the event in question with respect to the time of speech or to
reference time- some time other than speech time. We use past tense when event time is prior to
speech time and future tense when speech time is prior to event time. When the two overlap,
we use present tense. In the above cases, reference time and speech time overlap. When they
do not, we use other tenses such as the pluperfect (event time prior to reference time and
reference time prior to speech time) or the future perfect (speech time prior to event time and
event time prior to reference time.) The above representation of reference time in the use of
tense identifies tense as a deictic feature of language (Griffiths 2007:96). From the foregoing,
one may infer that effective transfer of tense is imperative for the production of effectively
communicative target text in translation.
Functions of aspect: - According to Borik (2006:21), aspect defines the temporal properties of
the described eventuality and characterizes the way the eventuality or situation unfolds. It
characterizes how a speaker views the temporal contour of a described situation, for example as
beginning, continuous or complete. Yashuhiro and Ping (2011:1) observe that aspect unlike
tense does not need a reference point of time in its function.
Aspect is subdivided into Grammatical and lexical types. A brief comparison is provided
below.
4
Grammatical aspect:- Grammatical aspect is concerned with different ways of viewing the
internal temporal constituency of a situation (Comrie 1976:3) or of encoding the time profiles
of states and events within an interval of time (Griffiths 2007:100) and is expressed through
morphological markers. These morphological markers take the form of verb inflections such as
the –ed in English simple past and periphrasis such as „be‟ + ing as observed by Yashuhiro and
Ping (2011:3). In French, the grammatical aspect markers are the passé simple and the passé
composé for the perfective aspect and the imparfait and the periphrase „être en train de‟ for the
imperfective. The English simple past carries the perfective while the progressive represents a
situation in progress.
Lexical aspect: - According to Ayoun (2005:84) Lexical aspect refers to the inherent semantic
properties of the verb phrase or predicate which according to Von Stechow (2009) are
determined compositionally from the meanings of the parts of the phrase.
There are four categories based on Vendler1967 - Mourelatos 1978 hierarchy:
1) States- situations not involving change over time; do not have salient end points, e.g.
need something.
2) Activities- situations that involve change over time but lack a specific outcome e. g. to
laugh.
3) Accomplishments- situations that have duration and that involve an end result e.g. to fix
a computer.
4) Achievements - situations which involve an instantaneous change e.g. to notice
something.
5
The four classes above are related, according to Griffiths (2006:69) who observes that
accomplishments contain activities and achievements which in turn contain states.
Yashuhiro and Ping (2011:3) refer to achievements as the characteristics of what is inherent in
the lexical items which describe the situation e. g. know is inherently stative (i.e. continuous
and homogenous) while jump is inherently punctual (i.e. momentary and instantaneous)
English tense and aspect system:-English tense and aspect system involves 4 ordered choices:
1. Present- Past
2. Future- non- future
3. Perfect-non-perfect
4. Progressive- non-progressive
According to Shirai and Li (2011: 55), the English past tense form conveys simultaneously
both tense and perfective aspect. The progressive aspect being expressed either by lexical
means through the use of temporal adverbials as in (10) or by the use of the auxiliary be+...ing
as in (11)
(10) In the midst of
(11) John is playing with the baby.
In English, tense and aspect are tightly interwoven. Here we operate with a fused tense aspect
system. The meanings of this system are expressed by verbal inflection, auxiliary or a
combination.
French tense and aspect system: -According to Binnick (2009), French passé simple and
imparfait verb forms are markers of both tense and aspect. As illustrated by sentences (12) and
6
(13) below, the passé simple represents the perfective aspect in the past tense while the
imparfait represents the imperfective aspect in the past tense.
(12) Jean lut le journal.
(13) Quand je suis entré, Jean lisait le journal.
The above French forms only loosely correspond to the English simple past and progressive as
inherent semantic characteristics of predicates being translated always determine the suitability
of choice of equivalent form in inter language translation.
French-English aspectual systems differences: -According to Ochesel (2012),”the main
aspectual distinction in English is between the perfective and the progressive. The perfective is
realized through the morphology of the simple past and of the present/past perfect which accept
all situation types, while the progressive is realized through the past progressive
be + ing
which can only be used with eventive situation types. In contrast, the main aspectual distinction
in French is between the perfective and the imperfective. The perfective is realized through the
morphology of the passé composé or of the passé simple. The imperfective is realized through
the morphology of the imparfait. Neither aspect is dominant because both apply equally to all
situation types. Thus, the passé composé / passé simple and the imparfait are used for states,
activities, achievements and accomplishments. If the perfective is the dominant viewpoint in
English, French is characterized by a symmetry that opposes the perfective and the
imperfective.
1.2 Background to the Study
The subject of tense and aspect and their importance in communication has been a
preoccupation for scholars, as is attested by their observations found in the literature. Vinay and
7
Darbelnet (1958:75) observe that “the correspondence of aspect between languages is never
absolute.” According to Nida and Taber (1982:116), aspects and tenses are among
morphological categories which pose problems in translation. Givon (1984:269) is cited in
Celce–Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999:161), observing that “Tense-aspect-modality is one
of the major devices coding the correctness/ coherence of sentences in their wider discourse
context”. Salkoff (1999:38) is of the view that French- English tense equivalence is an aspect of
the syntax of the French verb that creates difficulties in translation.
Tense and aspect are grammaticalised in verbs through inflections as in the English and French
simple forms such as present, simple past, présent, imparfait and passé simple or through
periphrases as in the English compound forms of progressive, present perfect and past perfect
and in the French compound forms of passé composé, plus que parfait, passé anterieur and
conditionnel passé.
According to Olshtain and Celce-Murcia (2001), in Schiffrin, Tannen and Hamilton (2001:705724), the English tense- aspect combination is useful in creating temporal continuity in a text.
The above observation is in agreement with the opinion of Ocheşel (2012) that the English and
French tense-aspectual systems display some crucial differences that cause problems in the act
of translation.
Andrews (1999) attributes the difficulties in understanding the distinction between the passé
composé and the passé simple on the one hand, and the imparfait on the other encountered by
English-speaking learners of French, to the fact that the aspectual functions performed by the
various past tense forms do not overlap in the two languages.
8
“Apart from the English set of progressive and emphatic forms, the list of tenses of the English
and French languages is about equal; however, the distribution of the tasks they have to
perform is not comparable. This, added to the fact that English can express every tense in the
progressive form, gives its conjugation a different orientation” (Vinay and Darbelnet
1958:130). The emphatic forms involve the use of the „do‟ auxiliary whereas the progressive
combines with the auxiliaries „will‟ and „be‟ to express all English tenses.
According to Smith (2009), cited in Meier, Aristar-Dry and Destruel (2009:188-189), French
past tenses code aspectual as well as temporal information with the imparfait (conveying the
imperfective) and the plus- que- parfait (representing the perfective) viewpoint. This is similar
to the observation of Shirai and Li, (2011:55), that the English past tense form conveys
simultaneously both tense and perfective aspect, the imperfective being expressed with the past
progressive.
According to Jaye (1999), there are two ways of marking imperfectivity at the VP level in
French: the periphrastic construction être en train de and the past imparfait tense. The
periphrastic construction means literally to be in the process of and denotes clearly the interior
region of an eventuality. Jaye uses sentences (1) a. and (1) b. below to illustrate the above
statements.
(1) a. Marie est en train de courir.
Mary is running.
b. Marie courait.
Mary was running.
9
While the periphrase marks imperfectivity in the present tense, the imparfait applies in the past
tense.
According to Radford et al. (1999: 287-288), the English verb has five forms. These are the –s
form, the – d form, the base form, the –n form and the –ing form. Of interest to this study are
the –d form related to the simple past, the –ing form related to the past progressive and the –n
form related to the present and past perfect forms.
The study proceeds to illustrate the four verb forms mentioned above.
The English simple past is the –d form and marks the past tense and simple aspect as in
sentence (2) below.
(2). John walked to the market yesterday.
The –ing form is the present participle. It is a non-finite form used to mark the past progressive
aspect in combination with the auxiliary „be‟ as illustrated in sentence (3) below.
(3). He was going home after nightfall when he was accosted by thugs.
The –n form is the past participle. This is a non finite form of the verb which does not mark
tense by itself but is used in combination with the auxiliary „have‟ to form the present perfect
form as in (4) and the past perfect form as in (5)
(4). Grandmother has gone to the market.
(5). By the time Mary reached the railway station, the train had departed.
The two forms in (4) and (5) above carry both tense and aspect.
10
The study uses the four verb forms above and their French translations in two parallel text pairs
to explore the thesis of multiple French equivalents for just one English form.
The English past simple moves the narrative forward while the past progressive does not
(Vikner and Vickner 1997). This is expressed in examples at (6) and (7) below.
(6) John looked at Mary. She smiled.
In the above case, Mary started smiling when John looked at her. In the example past smiled
therefore moves the narrative forward in time.
(7) John looked at Mary. She was smiling.
In the above example, Mary had already started smiling when John looked at her. The
progressive was smiling does not therefore move the narrative forward in time.
French passé simple and imparfait yield similar results to the English simple past and past
progressive as demonstrated in examples (8) and (9) below.
(8) John regarda Mary. Elle sourit.
John looked at Mary. She smiled. (passé simple)
(9) John regarda Mary. Elle souriait. (imparfait)
John looked at Mary. She smiled
The similarity of the roles of the English simple past and the French passé simple on the one
hand and the past progressive and the French imparfait on the other demonstrated above does
not hold universally (Michaelis 1998:15) but depends on the Vendler class of the situation in
question as has been acknowledged by Vickner and Vickner (1997).
According to Fayol, Abdi and Gombert (1989), the choice of French past tense verb inflection
by children and adults is dependent on the characteristics of the process in question and
context. This position is similar to the findings of Vikner and Vikner (1997) that the English
11
past progressive translates by preference to the imparfait while the simple past may translate to
either the imparfait or the passé simple depending on the lexical aspect obtaining in the
situation under consideration. (Fig: 1.2)
English
situation
French
Danish
type
Past progressive
Processes
Imparfait
Simple past
States
Simple past
Passé simple
Events
Fig 1.2 Aspects in the past tense in English, French and Danish
From the above, one may infer that the French equivalent of the English simple past form is a
function of the lexical aspect of the situation in question.
1.3 Statement of the Problem
From issues discussed and illustrated in the preceding section, the study sought to bring to light
the specific aspects of the thesis that just one English form could be translated by multiple
French equivalents as far as tense and aspect are concerned.
1.4 Research Questions
The study sought to address the following specific questions:
1) What are the multiple French equivalents for the English simple past verb form?
2) What are the multiple French equivalents for the English Past Progressive verb form?
12
3) What are the multiple French equivalents for the English Present Perfect verb form?
4) What are the multiple French equivalents for the English Past Perfect verb form?
5) What are some of the problems encountered in translation of English tense and aspect
markers to French?
1.5 Objectives of the Study
The aim of the study was to describe the difficulties in translating tense and aspect from
English into French.
The specific objectives were:
1) To identify multiple French equivalents for the English simple past verb form.
2) To identify multiple French equivalents for the English Past Progressive verb form.
3) To identify multiple French equivalents for the English Present Perfect verb form.
4) To identify multiple French equivalents for the English Past Perfect verb form.
5) To identify some of the problems encountered in translation of English tense and aspect
markers to French.
1.6 Rationale
Scholars are in agreement that tense and aspect are important factors in realizing the
communicative use of text. Nida and Taber (1982: 116) observe that tense and aspect could be
problematic in translation while Givon (1984:269) in Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999)
consider tense and aspect concept an important linguistic coding device for coherence of
13
sentences in discourse. According to (El-Zeini, 1994: 214) cited in Mansour, (2011), the
incorrect use of tense in translation can lead to a change in meaning. According to Ocheşel
(2012), English and French tense-aspectual systems display some crucial differences that cause
problems in the act of translation. This study, in view of the foregoing, sought, through content
analysis of parallel text pairs, to investigate the potential problems of English French temporal
translation and to propose possible remedies translators could take recourse to. The study
findings were therefore expected to contribute knowledge in, and have a positive impact on, the
quality of English-French translation.
1.7 Scope and Delimitations
Through content analysis of text pairs, the study investigated the challenges posed to EnglishFrench translation as a result of the existence of multiple French equivalents for each of the
English simple past, past progressive, present perfect and past perfect verb forms. Due to time
constraints, the content analysis of text was limited to two narratives, that is, chapter one of The
Guns of Navarone/ Les Canons de Navarone and; chapters one and two of The Hound of the
Baskervilles/ Le Chien des Baskerville. Time constraints prevented the study from extending
the investigation to expository text data.
1.8 Conceptual Framework: Translation Equivalence.
The conceptual framework of the study is premised on the proposition that some of the
difficulties encountered in the translation of tense and aspect from English to French are a
function (F) of the existence of multiple French equivalents for just one English form, a
phenomenon related to aspect hypothesis as attested in an experiment by Fayol, Abdi and
Gombert (1989) and whose existence is supported by Andrews‟ 1999 observation that “the
14
aspectual functions performed by the various past tense forms do not overlap in the two
languages.” Mathematically, this relationship may be represented as:
F (Existence of multiple French equivalents for just one English form)
Difficulty in
translating the English form into French.
A diagrammatic representation of this model is given below.
French equivalents of
English simple past:
1) passé simple
2) imparfait
English past progressive:
1) impafait
2) être en train de
English present perfect:
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Problems in
translating the English
form to French
1) nontranslation
2) transposition
3) change of
voice
passé compose’
imparfait
present
plus que parfait
venir de +
infinitive
French equivalents for
English present perfect:
1) Plus que parfait
2) Passé anterieur
Fig 1.3: Conceptual Framework: Translation equivalents
15
1.9. Literature Review
In this section, the study reviews the work that has been done in the area of temporal transfer
between English and French.
1.9.1 The English Simple Past and its French Equivalents.
According to Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999:113-114), the simple past tense states
facts, adding a sense of remoteness to an event in terms of time or in terms of whether the
event is over and done with. This verb form, according to Bellos (2001), can be translated to a
possible four French verb forms of imparfait, passé simple, passé compose and présent.
Ocheşel (2012) observes that this verb form can be translated into the French passé simple and
the imparfait.
The foregoing mapping of forms is illustrated below.
English
French
passé simple
Simple past
passé compose
imparfait
présent
Fig: 1.4 French Equivalents of English simple past-study prediction
1.9.2 The English Past Progressive and its French Equivalents
According to Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999: 117), the English past progressive may
represent an action in progress at a specified point of time in the past, past action simultaneous
with some other event that is usually stated in the simple past, repetition or iteration of some
16
ongoing past action or social distancing. This form according to Ocheşel (2012) takes the
French equivalents of the unmarked imparfait and the marked periphrase „être en train de.‟
The foregoing mapping of forms is illustrated below.
English
French
imparfait
Past progressive
être en train de (périphrase)
Fig: 1.5 French Equivalents of English past progressive-study prediction
1.9.3 The English Present Perfect and its French Equivalents
Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999: 116) define the English present perfect as a
verb form representing a situation that began at a past point in time and continues into the
present or an action occurring or not occurring at an unspecified prior time that has current
relevance. According to Ocheşel (2012), the English present perfect combines the present tense
with the perfect aspect, relating a past situation to the present moment as the reference point. In
this case, the English present perfect corresponds to the French passé composé. In addition to
the above, the English present perfect may also translate into the French present, imparfait, plus
que parfait and the periphrase „venir de +infinitive.‟
The above relationships can be schematically illustrated below.
17
English
French
passé composé
imparfait
Present perfect
présent
plus que parfait
venir de +infinitive (périphrase)
Fig: 1.6 French Equivalents of English present perfect-study prediction
1.9.4 The English Past Perfect and its French Equivalents
Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999: 116) observe that the English past perfect represents
an action completed in the past prior to some other past event or time. This is in agreement with
Ocheşel (2012), who likens the function of this verb form, to that of its French counterpart, the
plus-que-parfait. The English past perfect can sometimes be translated into a French form
known as the passé antérieur in which the auxiliary occurs in the passé simple rather than the
imparfait.
The English past perfect maps on to its equivalent French forms as illustrated below.
English
French
plus que parfait
Past perfect
passé antérieur
Fig: 1.7 French Equivalents of English past perfect-study prediction
18
1.9.5 The Problems in Translation of English Tense and Aspect Markers to French.
The observation of Fayol, Abdi and Gombert (1989), that the choice of French past tense verb
inflection by both adults and children is dependent on the characteristics of the process in
question and the opinion of Vikner and Vikner (1997) that the English past progressive
translates by preference to the imparfait while the simple past may translate to either the
imparfait or the passé simple depending on what lexical aspect obtains in the situation under
consideration, may be construed to support the aspect hypothesis defined by Andersen &
Shirai (1994:133) as cited in Gass and Selinker (2001:155) thus: “First and second language
learners will initially be influenced by the inherent semantic aspect of verbs or predicates in
the acquisition of tense and aspect marker.”
The aspect hypothesis is pertinent to the work of a translator in transferring tense and aspect
between languages, whether he or she works from L1 to L2 or vice versa. The translator‟s
choice of the tense and aspect marker in the TL is influenced by the lexical aspect of the
situation under consideration and inter-language disparity in the use of corresponding verb
forms. This idea is supported by Michaelis (1998:15) who uses phrases (9a) and (9b) with
imparfait and English progressive form to demonstrate that aspectual categories are not
commensurate across languages.
(9a) Il avait d’argent. but not
(9b) He was having some money.
From the foregoing, the translator faces the challenge of deciding which French form is
equivalent to which English form in which context. This means that the possible translation
19
difficulties that lead to non translation, transposition and choice of an inappropriate equivalent
are ever present in any translation task between English and French.
1.10 Research Methodology
The study opted to use parallel text pairs of two narratives, consequently dispensing with the
need for translation and sampling design.
1.10.1 Content Analysis
Content analysis, which according to (Krippendorff 1980, Downe-Wamboldt 1992,
Sandelowski 1995) in Ello and Kyngas (2008) is a systematic and objective means of
describing and quantifying phenomena, was used in analyzing data in this study. An approach
based on inductive data moving from the specific to the general, so that particular instances are
observed and then combined into a larger whole or general statement was employed.
1.10.2 Data Source
Two parallel text pairs consisting of the first chapter of The Guns of Navarone/ Les Canons de
Navarone and the first two chapters of The Hound of the Baskervilles/ Le Chien de
Baskervilles were used as data. The translation of tense and aspect markers from English to
French in each parallel text pair was analyzed through content analysis as explained in section
1.10.3 below.
1.10.3 Analysis of Results.
The study data was systematically analyzed for patterns of temporal transfer between the two
languages. The unit of analysis, the verb phrase in the texts was treated as explained below.
20
The analysis was carried out on The Guns of Navarone/ Les Canons de Navarone text pair
found on appendices I and II before being carried out on the text pair The Hound of the
Baskervilles/ Le Chien des Baskerville on Appendices III and IV. The procedure followed is
clarified in the steps below.
1) In the English text, verb phrases headed by tense and aspect markers; the simple past,
the past progressive, the present perfect and the past perfect respectively, were
identified, extracted and tabulated in column 1 of the tables in Appendices Va, Vb, Vc,
Vd, Ve, Vf, Vg and Vh.
2) The Equivalent French verb phrase for each of the English verb phrase entries in 1)
above was identified in the corresponding French text and entered in column 2 of the
tables in Appendices Va, Vb, Vc, Vd, Ve, Vf, Vg and Vh respectively.
3) An indication as to whether the corresponding French verb phrase in 2) above was a
tense, aspect or tense and aspect marker was made in column 3.
4) The corresponding equivalent French verb form to the English verb form in 1) above
was entered in column 4.
5) The observed translation difficulties were noted in column 5.
Data analysis was aimed at the investigation of the distribution of French equivalents of each of
the four English forms under study and the problems their existence posed to translation
exercise. Descriptive statistics were used.
21
1.11 Format of the Study.
In Chapter Two, the study gives a presentation of the translation of verb phrases in the parallel
text pairs used in the study, providing a view over the preliminary stages of the analysis.
Chapter Three gives the analysis as presented by the use of descriptive statistics. Frequency
tables of the French equivalents of English verb forms realized in the study and descriptive
notes are provided for each of the parallel text pairs.
Chapter Four takes the reader through the summary of findings of the study as well as its
discussions, conclusions and recommendations.
22
CHAPTER TWO:
PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS
2.1 Presentation of the Translation of Tense and Aspect from English into French
In this chapter, the study makes a presentation of the translation into French of the English
simple past, past progressive, present perfect and past perfect- four verb forms which carry
tense and aspect- using parallel text pairs from two narratives. The first text pair consists of
chapter one of The Guns of Navarone and its French translation, Les Canons de Navarone,
while the second one consists of chapters one and two of The Hound of the Baskervilles and its
French translation, Le Chien des Baskerville.
Data provided in Tables: 2.1 to 2.8 below is representative of the data that was analysed in the
study. It has been included here to aid the reader in the understanding of the presentation of
translation of the English verb forms into French, the subject matter of this chapter, and the
descriptive statistics tabled in Chapter Three.
23
Table 2.1: Translation of English Simple past into French
English Verb phrase
Equivalent French
verb phrase
when we passed over
quand nous avons
passé au-dessus,
the big dinghy was out
and
Torrance repeated.
le grand youyou était
a la mer et l’eau
Tense/
Aspect/
Tense& Aspect
Tense & Aspect
Equivalent
French verb
form
Passé
composé
Tense & Aspect
imparfait
Observed
translation
difficulties
Non translation
nodded again
Non translation
touched his sleeve
Non translation
looked across at the
burly Australian
Tense & Aspect
Passé simple
smiled faintly
dit Jensen en
regardant
l’Australien
avec un léger sourir
Tense & Aspect
Passé simple
Torrance growled.
grommela Torrance
Tense & Aspect
Passé simple
carried conviction,
avec une conviction
persuasive
brooked no argument
n’admettait pas
qu’on la discute.
Tense & Aspect
imparfait
Jensen persisted
insista Jensen.
Tense & Aspect
Passé simple
jerked a big thumb
over his shoulder
dit Torrance en
désignant de son
gros pouce les
hommes qui se
tenaient derrière lui
Tense & Aspect
Passé simple
Verb replaced
by a
preposition in
TT
24
Table 2.2: Translation of the English Simple Past into French
English Verb phrase
Equivalent French
verb phrase
was usually very late in
the mornings
se levait
habituellement fort
tard
ne dormait pas de la
nuit,
stayed up all night
stood upon the
hearthrug
picked up the stick
was a fine, thick piece
of wood,
was a broad silver
banc, nearly an inch
across
‘To James Mortimer, M
R C S, from his friends
of the CCH’, was
engraved upon it
was just such a stick as
the old-fashioned
family practitioner
used to carry
How did you know
Tense/
Aspect/
Tense & Aspect
Tense & Aspect
Equivalent
French verb
form
Imparfait
Observed
translation
difficulties
Tense & Aspect
Imparfait
Use of different
verb
Non translation
ramassai la canne
Tense & Aspect
Passé simple
C’était un beau
morceau de bois
solide
une bague d’argent
qui avait pas moins
de deux centimètres
portait cette
inscription datant de
1884. A James
Mortimer,M.R.C.S.
ses amis du C.CC.H
Une belle canne
idéale pour un
médecin a I’
ancienne mode
Comment savezvous
Tense & Aspect
imparfait
Tense & Aspect
imparfait
Tense & Aspect
imparfait
Verb not used
in translation
Tense & Aspect
present
said he
Non translation
Perfectly sound!’ said
Holmes
said Holmes, pushing
back his chair and
lighting a cigarette
Non translation
gave me keen pleasure
S’exclama Holmes
en repoussant sa
chaise et en
allumant une
cigarette
ce langage me causa
un vif plaisir
Tense & Aspect
Passé simple
Use of different
verb
Tense & Aspect
Passé simple
Use of different
verb in TT
25
Table 2.3: Translation of the English Past Progressive into French
English Verb phrase
Equivalent French
verb phrase
was sitting behind this
when the door
was speaking the slow
drawl heavy with
controlled anger.
était assis derrière
cette table
disait, maitrisant sa
colère
were talking about it on
the way home
were lurking in your
cave somewhere in the
White Mountains at the
time
en avons parlé en
revenant
vous cachiez à
l’époque dans votre
caverne des
montagnes
Blanches
commençait à
ralentir
se rayait des
premières teintes
grises qui précédent
l’aurore.
was beginning to slow
down now
was already beginning
to streak in the first
tenuous greys of the
false dawn
were beginning to pock
the roadway
Tense/
Aspect/
Tense& Aspect
Tense & Aspect
Equivalent
French verb
form
imparfait
Tense & Aspect
imparfait
Tense& Aspect
Tense & Aspect
Passé
composé
imparfait
Tense & Aspect
imparfait
Tense & Aspect
imparfait
Tense & Aspect
26
Observed
translation
difficulties
nontranslation
Table 2.4: Translation of English Past Progressive into French
Narrative: The Hound of The Baskervilles/ Le Chien des Baskerville
English Verb phrase
Equivalent French
verb phrase
was sitting with his
back to me
was doing
were whimpering in a
cluster at the head of a
deep dip o goyal
were not encouraging.
was evidently having a
serious effect upon his
health
was sitting up late
was standing in front of
him
me tournait le dos
Tense/
Aspect/
Tense & Aspect
Tense & Aspect
Equivalent
French verb
form
imparfait
que je l’examine
Tense & Aspect
présent
geignaient en groupe
au bord d’une
profonde déclivité de
terrain, d’un goyal
comme nous disons
n’avaient rien
d’encourageant
n’en compromettait
pas moins gravement
sa santé
n’étais pas encore
couché
me tenais à coté de
lui
Tense & Aspect
imparfait
Tense & Aspect
imparfait
Tense & Aspect
imparfait
Tense & Aspect
Plus que
parfait
imparfait
Tense & Aspect
27
Observed
translation
difficulties
Use of a
different verb
Use of a
different verb
Equivalent used
Table 2.5: Translation of English Present Perfect into French
English Verb phrase
Equivalent French
verb phrase
Things haven’t gone too
well tonight.
Cela n’a pas trop
bien marché, cette
nuit.
avez fait de votre
mieux
Ne regrettez pas
d’en avoir manqué
les deux premiers
actes
a toujours été un
partenaire éventuel
soit pour l’Axe, soit
pour les Allies
avons eu deux
cuirassés coulés,
huit croiseurs mis
hors de service –
dont quatre ont
sombré – et plus
d’une douzaine de
destroyers détruits
navires plus petits
que nous avons
perdus
ont été noyés au
cours de ce jeu
prévoyant depuis
longtemps que
Kheros serait
attaquée
’ve done your very best
Sorry you’ve missed the
first two acts
’s always been a
potential partner for
either Axis or Allies
We've had two
battleships wrecked,
eight cruisers out of
commission
--four of them sunkand over a dozen
destroyers gone
number of smaller
vessels we've lost.
've been drowned in
the course of the game
we've seen this attack
on Kheros coming for a
long time now
Tense/
Aspect/
Tense & Aspect
Tense & Aspect
Equivalent
French verb
form
Passé composé
Tense & Aspect
Passé composé
Use of past
participle
Tense & Aspect
Tense & Aspect
Passé composé
Tense & Aspect
Passé composé
Tense& Aspect
Passé composé
Tense& Aspect
Passé composé
Tense& Aspect
Passé composé
Tense& Aspect
Conditionnel
Passé
28
Observed
translation
difficulties
Table 2.6: Translation of the English Present Perfect into French
English Verb phrase
Equivalent French
verb phrase
have been so
unfortunate as to miss
him
has been so knocked
about
avons eu la
malchance de le
manqué
se trouve
aujourd’hui dans
un tel état que
dont il a soigné
les membres
has possibly given
some surgical
assistance
has made him a small
presentation in return
Has anything escaped
me
There has been a
presentation
‘Has been in the habit
of carrying this stick
behind his master
has held it tightly by
the middle and the
marks of his teeth are
very plainly visible
you have disarranged
our little deductions
i have heard your
name mentioned in
connection with that
of your friend.
Tense/
Aspect/
Tense & Aspect
Tense & Aspect
Equivalent French Observed
verb form
translation
difficulties
Plus que parfait
Tense & Aspect
présent
Tense & Aspect
Passé compose
lui a offert un
petit cadeau pour
le remercier
Une petite chose
m’aurait-elle
échappé
il y a eu
Tense & Aspect
Passé compose
Tense & Aspect
Conditionnel
Passé
Tense & Aspect
Passé compose
a été dressé à
tenir cette canne
derrière son
maitre
la serre fortement
par le milieu, et
les traces de ses
dents sont visibles
vous avez
simplement
bouleversé nos
petites
déductions
Votre nom ne
m’est pas
inconnu ; est
associé a celui de
votre ami
Tense & Aspect
Passé compose
Tense & Aspect
présent
Tense & Aspect
Passe compose
Tense & Aspect
présent
29
Use of
paraphrase
different verb
used in TT
Table 2.7: Translation of the English Past Perfect Form to French
English Verb phrase
Equivalent French
verb phrase
Tense/
Aspect/
Tense& Aspect
Tense & Aspect
how much practice
Jensen had required to
achieve that sailorly
effect
Jensen had done exactly
that
had been unable to
establish a mission, far
less recapture, at some
period of the war…
combien Jensen avait
du se s’exercer pour
acquérir cette
démarche de marin
avaient moins encore
pu reconquérir
depuis le début de la
guerre
Tense & Aspect
had been sitting behind
them
had spoken in the last
minutes
assis derrière eux
Aspect
Equivalent
French verb
form
Plus que
parfait
Observed
translation
difficulties
Noun replaced
by verb
Non translation
n’avait parlé au cours
des dix dernières
minutes
had sunk into some
s’était plonge dans
private reverie
une rêverie
he’d learnt all these long avait appris
years ago in that little
longtemps
upland village
auparavant dans ce
village d’éleveurs de
moutons
had taken over nearly all ont occupé presque
the island of the
toutes les Sporades ;
Sporades
les Italiens
had retaken nearly all
avions reconquis
the larger islands except presque toutes les
Navarone
grandes iles excepte
Navarone
had lit them
les allumait
Plus que
parfait
Verb replaced
with adjective
Tense & Aspect
Plus que
parfait
Tense & Aspect
Plus que
parfait
Plus que
parfait
Tense & Aspect
Tense& Aspect
Passé
composé
Tense & Aspect
Plus que
parfait
Tense & Aspect
imparfait
30
Table 2.8: Translation of the English Past Perfect Form to French
Narrative: The Hound of the Baskervilles/ Le Chien des Bakersville
English Verb phrase
When they had
brought her to the
Hall the
had been done in
if he had seen the
hunt
had indeed seen the
unhappy maiden,
with the hounds
upon her track
Equivalent
French verb
phrase
Ils la conduisirent
au manoir
Tense/
Aspect/
Tense& Aspect
Tense& Aspect
Equivalent
French verb
form
Passé simple
Non translation
s’il avait vu la
meute
qu’il avait bien
aperçu
l’infortunée
jeune fille suivie
de molosses
Tense& Aspect
Plus que parfait
Tense& Aspect
Plus que parfait
had seen,
had finished reading
this singular
narrative
had resided at
Baskerville Hall for a
comparatively short
period
extreme generosity
had won the
affection and
respect of all
who had been
brought into contact
with him
had begun to show
signs of some strong
emotion
Observed
translation
difficulties
Non translation
eut terminé la
lecture de ce
singulier
document
n’eut résidé a
Baskerville Hall
qu’un temps
relativement
court
sa générosité lui
avaient gagné
l’affection et le
respect de tous
ceux
qui l’avaient
approché
Tense & Aspect
Passe anterieur
Tense & Aspect
Passe anterieur
Tense & Aspect
Plus que parfait
Tense & Aspect
Plus que parfait
commençait a
manifester une
forte émotion
Tense& Aspect
imparfait
31
Change of voice
Through content analysis, the study found that translation into French of the verb phrases
headed by the English simple past, the past progressive, the present perfect and the past perfect
verb forms in The Guns of Navarone, undertaken by Helene Claireau (1966) and in The Hound
of the Baskervilles, undertaken by Bernard Tourville (1956), had realized multiple equivalents
for the verb forms. There was also a frequent occurrence of non-translation, a translation
technique which, according to Armstrong (2010:159), is the omission from the target text, of
elements in the source text that may weary the reader or information difficult to translate
directly as it is culture specific or both.
Detailed presentations of the translation of the above forms into French as well as the potential
difficulties to translation noted during the analysis process are given in the following sections.
2.2 Translation of the English Simple Past into its French Equivalents
In the following paragraphs is a presentation of the translation into French of the English
simple past form in the two parallel text pairs.
The study found that the English simple past form in the parallel text pair The Guns of
Navarone/ Les Canons de Navarone had been translated as presented below.
The simple past had been translated to the passé simple equivalent, as demonstrated by phrases
14) and 15). This is in agreement with the idea of Vikner and Vikner (1999) that an eventive
situation type such as represented by these two phrases is best presented by the passé simple, a
verb form which defines perfective situations.
14) scratched noisily across the rusted metal
15) gratta bruyamment le métal rouillé
The simple past had been translated to the imparfait as demonstrated by phrases 16) and 17)
below, in agreement with the observation of Vikner and Vikner (1999) that stative situation
32
types such as represented here are presented by the imparfait, a verb form which defines
imperfective situations.
16) glinted softly on the golden braid
17) scintillait sur le galon doré de ses pattes d‟épaule
The simple past had been translated to the passé composé as demonstrated by phrases 18) and
19) below.
18) we began to establish missions on these islands
19) nous avons commencé à établir dans ces iles des missions
The simple past had been translated to the plus que parfait as in phrases 20) and 21) below.
20) was already almost lost to sight
21) avaient déjà presque perdu de vue le général
The simple past had been translated to the présent as presented in 22) and 23) below.
22) was only yesterday
23) ce n‟est qu‟hier
The simple past had been translated to the participe présent as in 24) and 25) below
24) swung around on Jensen.
25) se tournant brusquement vers Jensen
Phrases that identify the speaker of direct speeches such as (26), (27) and (28) below were
subjected to the technique of non-translation.
26) Jensen acknowledged,
27) He stopped,
28) Vlachos nodded
33
As attested by phrases (14) to (28) above, the study found that the English simple past verb
form in The Guns of Navarone/ Les Canons de Navarone parallel text pair had been translated
into the French passé simple, imparfait, passé composé, plus que parfait and présent forms as
well as to non finite forms such as participe présent and gerondif. In some cases, the verb
heading the verb phrase in the source text has been replaced by another verb in the target text,
while in other cases it has been replaced by adjectives or nouns in a process known as
transposition. In an appreciable number of occasions it had not been translated at all.
The study found that the English simple past form in the parallel text pair The Hound of the
Baskervilles / Le Chien des Baskerville had been translated as presented below.
The simple past had been translated to the passé simple equivalent, as demonstrated by phrases
29) and 30). This is in agreement with the opinion of Vikner and Vikner (1999) that an eventive
situation type such as represented by these two phrases is best presented by the passé simple, a
verb form which defines perfective situations.
29) gave me keen pleasure
30) ce langage me causa un vif plaisir
The simple past was translated to the imparfait, with an equivalent being used as demonstrated
by phrases 31) and 32) below.
31) I was right
32) J‟avais raison
The simple past was translated to the passé composé as demonstrated by phrases 33) and 34)
below.
34
33) He left
34) Il a quitté ses fonctions
The English simple past had been translated to the plus que parfait, sometimes with the change
of verb, voice or subject as demonstrated in phrases (35) and (36) below, a style requiring great
command of the grammar of the two languages.
35) Sir Charles‟s footmarks were easily traced down the Alley
36) Sir Charles avaient laissé des empreintes visibles dans l‟allée
The English simple past had been translated to the présent as demonstrated by phrases (37) and
(38) below.
37) it was not merely for the purpose of examining my skull
38) ce n‟est pas uniquement dans le but d‟examiner mon crane
The non translation technique had been applied in omitting phrases such as (39) below.
39) said he at last
A participe présent was used in the target text to translate the simple past headed phrase in the
source text as shown in phrases (40) and (41) below.
40) some sense came back to their crazed minds and the whole of them,
41) de bon sens ayant filtré dans leurs folles cervelles
As attested by phrases (29) to (41), the English simple past verb form in the parallel text pair
The Hound of the Baskervilles/ Le chien des Baskerville had been translated into the French
passé simple, imparfait, passé composé, plus que parfait and présent forms as well as to non
finite forms such as participe présent.
In some cases, the verb heading the verb phrase in the source text had been replaced by another
verb in the target text, while in other cases it had been replaced by an adjective, a participe
35
présent or a noun in the process of transposition. There had also been a change of verb, voice
and subject and incidents of non-translation of the English form.
As in the preceding presentations, the study found that the English simple past verb form in
the two parallel text pairs had, overall, been translated into the French passé simple, imparfait,
passé composé, plus que parfait and présent forms as well as to non finite forms such as
participe présent and gerondif. In some cases, the verb heading the verb phrase in the source
text had been replaced in the target text by another verb, while in other cases it had been
replaced by an adjective or a noun in a process known as transposition. In an appreciable
number of occasions, it had not been translated at all.
The above finding can be schematically illustrated as below.
English
French
passé simple
imparfait
passé compos é
simple past
présent
plus que parfait
participe présent
gerondif
non-translation
Fig: 2.1 French Equivalents of English simple past-realized
36
The study had, based on the Literature, predicted only the imparfait, the passé composé and the
présent forms as French equivalents of the English simple past but the analysis of the two
parallel text pairs realized an additional three French verb forms: the plus que parfait, the
participe présent the gerondif and many instances of non translation.
2.3 Translation of English Past Progressive into its French Equivalents
In the following paragraphs is a presentation of the translation into French of the English past
progressive form in the two parallel text pairs.
In The Guns of Navarone/ Les Canons de Navarone parallel text pair, the English past
progressive had been translated to the French equivalents of imparfait and passé composé. The
presentation of these translations is given below.
The English past progressive had been translated to the imparfait as demonstrated by phrases
(42) and (43) below.
42) was beginning to slow down now
43) commençait à ralentir
The English past progressive had been translated to the passé composé as demonstrated by
phrases (44) and (45) below.
44) were talking about it
45) en avons parlé
The technique of non translation was applied in omitting the translation of a phrase such as (46)
below in the target text.
46) were beginning to pock the roadway
37
As per phrases (42) to (46) above, the study found that the past progressive in The Guns of
Navarone/Les Canons de Navarone parallel text pair had been translated to the imparfait and
passé composé, with some incidents of non translation.
The English past progressive in The Hound of the Baskerville/ Le chien des Baskerville parallel
text pair, had been translated to its French equivalents as presented below.
The English past progressive had been translated to the imparfait as demonstrated by phrases
(47) and (48) below, a different verb being used to effectively transfer the sense of the source
text to target language.
47) was sitting with his back to me
48) me tournait le dos
The English past progressive had been translated to the subjunctive présent as demonstrated by
49) was doing
50) que je l‟examine
The English past progressive had been translated to the plus que parfait as demonstrated by
51) was sitting up late
52) n‟étais pas encore couché
According to phrases (47) to (52) above, the study found that the past progressive in The
Hound of the Baskervilles/ Le Chien des Baskerville parallel text pair had been translated to the
imparfait, plus que parfait and subjunctive présent, with some incidents of non translation.
38
As per the presentation of the translation of the English past progressive into French made
above, the study found that this English verb form in the two parallel text pairs under study
had been translated overall to the imparfait, passé compose, plus que parfait and subjunctive
présent with some incidents of non translation.
The above finding can be schematically illustrated below.
English
French
imparfait
passé composé
past progressive
plus que parfait
subjunctive présent
non translation
Fig: 2.2 French Equivalents of English Past Progressive-realized
Of the two forms, the imparfait and the periphrase „être en train de‟, predicted in the study
design as the possible French equivalents of the English past progressive, only the imparfait, in
addition to three other verb forms, the passé composé the plus que parfait and the subjunctive
présent were realized, with cases of non translation.
2.4 Translation of the English Present Perfect into its French Equivalents
The presentation of the translation into French of the English present perfect form in the two
parallel text pairs used in this study is made in the following paragraphs.
In The Guns of Navarone/ Les Canons de Navarone parallel text pair, the study found the
English present perfect form had been translated into its French equivalents as presented below.
39
The English present perfect had been translated to the passé composé as demonstrated by
53) We've had two battleships wrecked.
54) Nous avons eu deux cuirassés coulés.
The English present perfect had been translated to conditionnel as demonstrated by phrases
55) we've seen this attack on Kheros coming for a long time now
56) prévoyant depuis longtemps que Kheros serait attaquée
The English present perfect had been translated by a participe as demonstrated by phrases (57)
and (58) below.
57) Sorry you‟ve missed the first two acts
58) Ne regrettez pas d‟en avoir manqué les deux premiers actes
According to phrases (53) to (58) above the study determined that the English present perfect
form in The Guns of Navarone/Les Canons de Navarone parallel text pair had been translated
to the passé composé and conditionnel and also to a tenseless phrase with the use of a participe.
In The Hound of the Baskervilles/ Le Chien des Baskerville parallel text pair, the English
present perfect had been translated to the passé composé as demonstrated by phrases (59) and
(60) below.
59) has practiced in town before going to the country.
60) à exercé en ville avant de devenir médecin de campagne.
The English present perfect had been translated to the imparfait as demonstrated by phrases
61) has for some time been impaired
40
62) s‟était depuis quelque temps dérangé
The English present perfect had been translated to the présent as demonstrated by phrases (63)
and (64) below.
63) I have heard your name mentioned in connection with that of your friend.
64) Votre nom ne m‟est pas inconnu ; est associé a celui de votre ami
The English present perfect had been translated to the conditionnel passé as demonstrated by
65) Has anything escaped me
66) Une petite chose m’aurait-elle échappé
Non-translation had been applied as a technique of translation in omitting to translate phrases
such as (67) below.
67) have been unhappy in their deaths
According to phrases (68) to (76) above, the study determined that the English present perfect
form in the parallel text pair The Hound of the Baskervilles/ Le chien des Baskerville had been
translated to the French passé composé, imparfait, present, and conditionnel passé. There was
also a case of non-translation of the form into French.
As per the presentation above, the study found that the English present perfect form in the two
parallel text pairs had been translated to the passé composé, imparfait, présent, conditionnel
passé and a tenseless phrase with the use of a participle passé. There was also a case of nontranslation of the form into French.
41
The above findings can be schematically illustrated below.
English
French
passé compose
imparfait
present perfect
présent
conditionnel passé
participle passé
non-translation
Fig: 2.3 French Equivalents of English present perfect-realized
Of the five verb forms predicted by the study as equivalents of the English present perfect, only
the passé composé, the imparfait and the présent were realized from the two parallel text pairs.
The plus que parfait and the periphrase „venir de + infinitive‟ were not realized. However, the
conditionnel passé, the participe passé, and cases of non-translation not predicted in the design,
were realized.
2.5 Translation of the English Past Perfect into its French Equivalents
The presentation of the translation into French of the English present perfect form in the two
parallel text pairs used in this study is made in the following paragraphs.
In The Guns of Navarone/ Les Canons de Navarone parallel text pair, the English past perfect
had been translated to its French equivalents as presented below.
The English past perfect had been translated to the plus que parfait, with transposition being
incorporated for stylistic effects such as demonstrated in phrases (68) and (69) below.
68) how much practice Jensen had required to achieve that sailorly effect
69) combien Jensen avait du se s‟exercer pour acquérir cette démarche de marin
42
According to Armstrong (2010: 150), transposition is the replacement of a source language
word or structure with a target language word or structure from a different category.
The English past perfect had been translated into imparfait as demonstrated in phrases (70) and
(71) below
70) had lit them
71) les allumait
The English past perfect had been translated to the passé composé as demonstrated by phrases
72) had taken over nearly all the island of the Sporades
73) ont occupé presque toutes les Sporades ; les Italiens
The English past perfect had been translated by transposing the verb phrase to an adjectival
phrase as demonstrated by phrases (74) and (75) below.
74) had been sitting behind them to take his place
75) assis derrière eux
The technique of non-translation had been applied in not translating phrases such as (76)
below.
76) Jensen had done exactly that
According to phrases (68) to (76) above, the study found that the English past perfect in The
Guns of Navarone/Les Canons de Navarone parallel text pair had been translated to the French
plus que parfait, imparfait, passé compose and an adjectival phrase reflecting aspect but no
tense. The technique of non-translation had also been applied.
The study found that in The Hound of the Baskervilles/ Le Chien des Baskerville parallel text
pair, the English past perfect had been translated into its French equivalents as presented below.
43
The English past perfect had been translated into plus que parfait as demonstrated by phrases
77) had given him no sign of my occupation
78) n‟avais rien fait qui put le renseigner sur mon occupation
The English past perfect had been translated into imparfait as demonstrated by phrases (79) and
(80) below.
79) I had hardly expected so dolichocephalic a skull
80) je n‟espérais pas rencontrer un crane pareil
The English past perfect had been translated into the passé antérieur as demonstrated by
81) had finished reading this singular narrative
82) eut terminé la lecture de ce singulier document
The English past perfect had been translated into the passé simple as demonstrated by phrases
83) When they had brought her to the Hall the
84) Ils la conduisirent au manoir
The use of the infinitive in the translation of the English past perfect causes the loss of tense as
demonstrated by phrases (85) and (86) below.
85) had made to give publicity to his methods
86) pour vulgariser ses méthodes
44
Non-translation had been employed in the translation of the English past perfect to exclude
from target text the elements of source text such as phrase (87) below.
87) of what he had seen
According to phrases (77) to (87) above, the study found that the English past perfect in the
parallel text pair The Hound of the Baskervilles/ Le chien des Baskerville had been translated
into the French plus que parfait, imparfait, passé anterieur, passé simple and an infinitive. The
technique of non-translation had also been applied.
The presentation of the translation of the English past perfect into French given above, the
study found that this verb form in the two parallel text pairs had been translated into plus que
parfait, imparfait, passé composé, passé anterieur, passé simple, infinitive and an adjectival
phrase with occasions of non-translation.
The above summary can be schematically illustrated below.
English
French
plus que parfait
imparfait
passé compose
past perfect
passé anterieur,
passé simple
adjectival phrase
infinitive
non-translation
Fig: 2.4 French Equivalents of English past perfect-realized
45
Only two verb forms, the plus que parfait and the passé anterieur had been projected by the
study as the French equivalents of the English past perfect but in the two parallel text pairs
analyzed, an additional five forms, the imparfait, the
passé composé, the passé simple,
adjectival phrase and infinitive as well as occasions of non-translation were realized.
46
CHAPTER THREE:
PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS- DESCRIPTIVE
STATISTICS
3.1 Distribution of the French Verb Forms
In addition to the verbal representation made in Chapter Two, the study used descriptive
statistics to present its findings. This was deemed necessary to give the reader a clear
perception of the distribution of French equivalents of the English verb forms that had been
translated. Frequency tables were used to show the distribution of the French equivalents of the
English verb forms in the two parallel text pairs, starting with The Guns of Navarone/ Les
Canons de Navarone texts.
3.2 Distribution of the French Equivalents of the English Simple Past.
The study determined the distribution of the French equivalents of the English simple past in
the two parallel text pairs to be as depicted in Tables 3.1 and 3.2 below.
Table 3.1: French Equivalents of the English Simple Past:
The Guns of Navarone/ Les Canons de Navarone texts
Equivalent French Form
Frequency
Percent
passé simple
189
64
imparfait
42
14.3
passé composé
25
9
plus que parfait
2
0.5
présent
1
0.2
non-translation
32
11
present participle used in TT
2
0.5
Total
293
100
47
According to Table 3.1 above, of the 293 occurrences of the English past simple form in the
narrative, The Guns of Navarone/ Les Canons de Navarone, 189 or 64 percent had been
translated into the passé simple, 42 or 14.3 percent into the imparfait and 25 or 9 percent into
the passé composé, these three most frequent equivalents together accounting for 87 percent of
the translations of this English form into French. Four of the occurrences had been translated
into the plus que parfait, the présent, as well as the participe forms, accounting for 1.2 percent
of the translations. The remaining 11 percent of the English past simple occurrences had not
been translated into French at all due to stylistic differences between the two languages. For
example while English has the tendency of identifying the speaker of quoted speech, French
uses context to achieve the same end.
Table 3.2: French Equivalents of the English Simple Past :
The Hound of the Baskervilles/ Le Chien des Baskerville texts
Frequency
percent
passé simple
115
45
imparfait
75
28
passé composé
26
10
plus que parfait
24
9
présent
8
4
non-translation
9
4
present participle used in TT
0
0
Total
257
100
48
According to Table 3.2 above, of the 257 occurrences of the English simple past tense form in
the narrative, The Hound of the Baskervilles/ Le chien des Baskerville, 115 of 257 or 45
percent had been translated into the passé simple, 75 of 257 or 28 percent into the imparfait, 26
of 257 or 10 percent into the passé composé and plus que parfait respectively, making these
four the most frequent French equivalents for the English simple past used in the translation
task. Further, 8 of 257 or 4 percent were translated into the présent form. Nine or 4 percent of
the occurrences were however not translated due to stylistic differences between French and
English.
3.3 Distribution of the French Equivalents of the English Past Progressive
The study determined the distribution of the French Equivalents of the past progressive in the
two parallel text pairs to be as in Tables 3.3 and 3.4 below.
Table 3.3: French Equivalents of the English Past Progressive :
Frequency
Percent
imparfait
5
72
passé composé
1
14
etre en train de
0
0
présent
0
0
Plus que parfait
0
0
non-translation
1
14
Total
7
100
49
According to Table 3.3 above, five of the 7 occurrences or 72 percent of the English past
progressive form in the narrative, The Guns of Navarone/ Les Canons de Navarone, have been
translated into the imparfait, 14 percent or one occurrence has been translated into passé
composé and 14 percent or two occurrences have not been translated due to stylistic differences
between the two languages.
Table 3.4: French Equivalents of the English Past Progressive :
The Hound of the Baskervilles/ Le Chien des Baskerville text
Frequency
Percent
imparfait
5
71
passé compose
0
0
être en train de
0
0
présent
1
14.5
plus que parfait
1
14.5
non translation
0
0
Total
7
100
According to Table 3.4 above, of the 7 occurrences of the English past progressive form
encountered in the Hound of the Bakesvilles/ Le chien des Bakesville narrative 5 or 75 percent
had been translated into the passé composé and 1 or 14.5 percent translated into each of the
présent and the plus que parfait forms respectively. This implies that the past progressive is by
preference translated to passé composé but may also occasionally be translated to the présent
and plus que passé forms.
50
3.4 Distribution of the French Equivalents of the English Present Perfect
The study determined the distribution of the French equivalents of the English present perfect
in the two parallel text pairs to be as in Tables 3.5 and 3.6 below.
Table 3.5: French Equivalents of the English Present Perfect :
The Guns of Navarone/ Les Canon de Navarone text
Frequency
Percent
passé composé
16
88
imparfait
0
0
présent
0
0
Plus que parfait
0
0
Venir de + infinitive
0
0
conditionnel passé
1
6
use of participe
1
6
Total
18
100
According to Table 3.5 above, 16 or 88 percent of the occurrences of the English present
perfect verb form in the narrative, The Guns of Navarone/ Les Canons de Navarone had been
translated into the passé composé, one occurrence or 6 percent had been translated into the
conditionnel passé and another one occurrence or 6 percent had been translated into the
participe. From the foregoing, one may observe that the English present perfect is by preference
translated into the passé composé- the conditionnel passé and the participe also being possible
French equivalents.
51
Table 3.6: French Equivalents of the English Present Perfect :
Hound of the Baskervilles/ Le Chien des Baskerville texts
Frequency
Percent
passé composé
27
64
plus que parfait
7
16
imparfait
3
7
présent
3
7
venir de + infinitive
0
0
conditionnel passé
1
2
non translation
2
4
Total
43
100
According to Table 3.6 above, of the 43 occurrences of English present perfect form in the
Hound of the Bakersvilles/ Le chien des Bakersville, 24 or 64 percent had been translated into
the passé composé, 7 or 16 percent into the plus que parfait, the two accounting for 80 percent
of the translations and 3 or 7 percent into each of the imparfait and présent forms respectively.
The conditionnel passé and non-translation featured as equivalent forms in seven and four
percent of the occurrences respectively.
3.5 Distribution of the French Equivalents of the English Past Perfect
The study determined the distribution of the French equivalents of the English past perfect in
the two parallel text pairs to be as in Tables 3.7 and 3.8 below.
52
Table 3.7: French Equivalents of the English Past Perfect:
Frequency
Percent
plus que parfait
13
71
imparfait
1
6
passé composé
1
6
passé antérieur
0
0
passé simple
0
0
verb replaced by adjective
1
6
non translation
2
11
Total
18
100
According to Table 3.7 above, thirteen out of 18 occurrences or 71 percent of English past
perfect form in the text of the narrative, The Guns of Navarone/ Les Canons de Navarone had
been translated into the plus que parfaitt, making this the preferred French translation of the
above English verb form. One occurrence or 6 percent has been translated to the imparfait and
passé composé respectively. In the translation of one of the English past perfect forms, a verb
had been replaced by an adjective in a process of transposition in which one word category
maybe translated to another word category. In two or 11 percent of the occurrences, the forms
had not been translated.
53
Table 3.8: French Equivalents of the English Past Perfect The Hound of the Baskervilles/ Le Chien des
Baskerville texts
Frequency
percent
plus que parfait
24
70
imparfait
3
9
passé antérieur
2
6
passé simple
2
6
infinitive used
1
3
non translation
2
6
Total
34
100
According to Table 3.8 above, out of the 34 occurrences of the English past perfect in The
Hound of the Baskervilles/ Le chien des Baskerville texts, 24 or 70 percent had been translated
into the plus que parfait, 3 or 9 percent into the imparfait, 2 or 6 percent into passé simple, 1 or
3 percent had been translated with the aid of an infinitive and 2 or six percent had not been
translated due to difference in stylistics between English and French.
54
CHAPTER FOUR:
CONCLUSION
Using the English simple past, past progressive, present perfect and past perfect verb forms
which carry both tense and aspect, the study set out to investigate the difficulties posed to
translation of tense and aspect from English to French by the existence of multiple French
equivalents for one English form. Through content analysis of two existing English-French
parallel text pairs, the study sought to identify the French equivalents of English simple past,
past progressive, present perfect and past perfect verb forms and potential sources of difficulty
to the English- French translator. A conclusion of the study findings is given in the following
sections.
4.1 Summary of Findings
The summary of findings is discussed in relation to the study objectives which were: To
identify multiple French equivalents for the English simple past verb form; To identify multiple
French equivalents for the English Past Progressive verb form; To identify multiple French
equivalents for the English present perfect verb form; To identify multiple French equivalents
for the English past perfect verb form and; To identify the difficulties encountered in the
translation of the foregoing English tense and aspect markers to French.
4.1.1 Multiple French Equivalents for the English Simple Past Verb Form
From the analysis of the Guns of Navarone/Les Canons de Navarone parallel text pair, the
study established that the passé simple, the imparfait and the passé composé representing 64, 14
and 10 percent respectively of the translation of occurrences of English past simple into French
55
had been the most preferred forms of translation. This observation was confirmed by the
outcome of the analysis of The Hound of the Baskervilles/ Le chien des Baskerville text pair
which established that 45, 28 and 10 percent of the English simple past occurrences had been
translated into passé simple, the imparfait and the passé composé respectively. Translation into
the plus que parfait and present had also been undertaken. There had also been an incidence of
change of voice on translation.
Eleven percent and 9 percent of the English simple past occurrences in the Guns of
Navarone/Les Canons de Navarone parallel text pair and in the Hound of the Baskerville/ Le
chien des Baskerville text pair respectively had not been translated into French, the tense and
aspect sense of these occurrences being lost during the transfer of the message from source text
to target text.
4.1.2 Multiple French Equivalents for the English Past Progressive Verb Form
From the analysis of the The Guns of Navarone/Les Canons de Navarone parallel text pair, the
study found that 72 percent of the past progressive occurrences had been translated into the
imparfait and 14 percent into the passé compose. In 14 percent of the occurrences, the nontranslation strategy had been applied.. The position that the English past progressive is by
preference translated into the imparfait was further confirmed by the results of the analysis of
The Hound of the Baskervilles/ Le chien des Baskerville parallel text pair which showed that
71 percent of the occurrences of the past progressive encountered had been translated into the
imparfait with the présent and the plus que parfait each accounting for 14.5 percent of the
translations.
56
There were incidences of non-translation and change of verb in the target text.
4.1.3 Multiple French Equivalents for the English Present Perfect Verb Form
The analysis of The Guns of Navarone/ Les Canons de Navarone parallel text pair showed that
the English present perfect form had been translated to the French passé composé form 88
percent of the time, to the the conditionnel passé 6 percent of the time and to a participial
phrase 6 percent of the time. This was in similarity to results of the analysis of the translation of
the English present perfect form in The Hound of the Baskervilles/ Le chien des Baskerville
parallel text pair which gave a result of preference of 64 percent for translation into the passé
composé, 16 percent into the plus que parfait and 7 percent into the imparfait, 7 percent into the
présent and 2 percent into the conditionnel passé.
There were also incidences of non-translation and transposition in the two text pairs.
4.1.4 Multiple French Equivalents for the English Past Perfect verb form
The analysis of parallel text pair The Guns of Navarone/ Les Canons de Navarone revealed that
71 percent of the occurrences of the English past perfect form had been by preference translated
into the plus que parfait, with translation to passé compose and imparfait accounting for 6
percent each, the verb having been replaced by an adjective in 6 percent of the occurrences and
translation of the form having been omitted in 11 percent of the occurrences. This position was
confirmed through the analysis of the parallel text pair The Hound of the Baskervilles/ Le chien
des Baskerville, where out of the 34 occurrences of the English past perfect, 24 or 70 percent
had been translated into the plus que parfait, 3 or 9 percent into the imparfait, 2 or 6 percent
into the passé simple, and one or three percent translated with the aid of an infinitive. The
57
translation of 2 occurrences or six percent had been omitted due to difference in stylistics
between English and French.
Incidences of transposition had also been noted in the two parallel text pairs.
4.1.5 The Problems in Translation of English Tense and Aspect Markers to French.
The analysis of The Guns of Navarone/ Les Canons de Navarone parallel text pairs revealed
that occasionally a verb in ST had been translated by a different verb, an adjective or a
participle (transposition) in the TT. Non translation, use of an equivalent in target text to
translate culture specific expressions and change of voice (modulation) were also noted as
potential sources of difficulties for the translator. The analysis of parallel text pair The Hound
of the Baskervilles/ Le Chien des Baskerville revealed a similar range of potential problems. A
translator would need to have a very good command of both English and French to know
exactly when to employ which word category in the use of the transposition strategy and when
to employ the non translation strategy.
4.2. Final Remarks
From the analysis of parallel text pairs undertaken, the study makes the following observations.
Although each of the English tense and aspect markers chosen for the study had multiple
French equivalents, the full range of those equivalents was indeterminate from the analysis of
relatively short text pairs extracted from a couple of works such as have been used. Each of the
English verb forms used in the study had preferred French equivalents as is discernible from
the frequency tables in Chapter Four, other equivalents occasionally appearing due to
differences in stylistics between the two languages.
58
In order of preference, the English simple past was translated to the French passé simple, the
imparfait non-translation and the passé compose, the English past progressive was by
preference translated to the French imparfait, the English present perfect was by preference
translated to the French passé compose, some rare equivalents being encountered while the
English past perfect was by preference translated to the French plus que parfait, also with some
rare equivalents being encountered. The possible occurrence of rare equivalents implies that a
translator working into French from English must ever be on the lookout for signs of stylistic
differences which may call for the use of these equivalents. To discern these differences, he/
she would need to understand very well the inherent semantics of the characteristics of the
situation represented by the verb predicate, otherwise, he / she would find difficulties in
choosing the right equivalent.
The fact that the range of French equivalents for each of the four English verb forms; the
simple past, the past progressive, the present perfect and the past perfect as determined in this
study is not identical to that predicted based on the literature implies that there is need to try
and find exhaustive ranges for these equivalents.
4.3 Suggestion for Further Research.
This study, due to time constraint, limited data for analysis to three chapters from two
narratives. A study of similar but extensive nature covering longer narrative and expository
texts would be of great benefit to the translation and interpretation community as it might help
identify a more exhaustive range of French equivalents for each of the four English verb forms
than this study has been able to do.
59
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415, 434.) Dordrecht, Holland: D Dreisel Publishing Company.
61
Nida, E. and Taber, C. (1982). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leyden: E J Brill.
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Vinay, J.P., Darbelnet, J. (1995). Comparative Stylistics of French and English, A methodology
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APPENDICES
64
Appendix I
Book Excerpt-THE GUNS OF NAVARONE
ONE
The match scratched noisily across the rusted metal of the corrugated iron shed, fizzled,
then burst into a sputtering pool of light, the harsh sound and sudden brilliance alike strangely
alien in the stillness of the desert night. Mechanically, Mallory‟s eyes followed the cupped
sweep of the flaring match to the cigarette jutting out beneath the Group-Captain‟s clipped
moustache, saw the light stop inches away from the face, saw too the sudden stillness of that
face, the unfocused vacancy of the eyes of a man lost in listening. Then the match was gone,
ground into the sand of the airfield perimeter.
„I can hear them‟, the Group-Captain said softly. „I can hear them coming in. five
minutes, no more. No wind tonight – they‟ll be coming in on Number Two. Come on, let‟s
meet them in the interrogation room.‟ He paused, looked quizzically at Mallory and seemed to
smile. But the darkness deceived, for there was no humour in his voice. „Just curb your
impatience, young man-just for a little longer. Things haven‟t gone too well tonight. You‟re
going to have all your answers, I‟m afraid, and have them all too soon.‟ He turned abruptly,
strode off towards the squat buildings that loomed vaguely against the pale darkness that
topped the level horizon.
Mallory shrugged, then followed on more slowly, step for step with the third member of
the group, a broad, stocky figure with a very pronounced roll in his gait. Mallory wondered
sourly just how much practice Jensen had required to achieve that sailorly effect. Thirty years
at sea, of course – and Jensen had done exactly that – were sufficient warrant for a man to
dance a hornpipe as he walked; but that wasn‟t the point. As the brilliantly successful Chief of
Operations of the Subversive Operation Executive in Cairo, intrigue, deception, imitation and
disguise were the breath of life to Captain James Jensen, DSO, RN. As a Levantine stevedore
agitator, he had blasphemously out-camel-driven all available Bedouin competition: and no
more pathetic beggar had ever exhibited such realistic sores in the bazaars and market-places of
the East. Tonight, however, he was just the bluff and simple sailor. He was dressed in white
65
from cap-cover to canvas shoes, the starlight glinted softly on the golden braid on epaulettes
and cap peak.
Their footsteps crunched in companionable unison over the hard-packed sand, rang
sharply as they moved on to the concrete of the runway. The hurrying figure of the GroupCaptain was already almost lost to sight. Mallory took a deep breath and turned suddenly
towards Jensen.
„Look, sir, just what is all this? What‟s all the flap, all the secrecy about? And why am I
involved in it? Good lord, sir, it was only yesterday that I was pulled out of Crete, relieved at
eight hour‟s notice. A month‟s leave, I was told. And what happened?‟
„Well,‟ Jensen murmured, „what did happen?‟
„No, leave,‟ Mallory said bitterly. „Not even a night‟s sleep. Just hours and hours in the
SOE Headquarters. Answering a lot of silly, damnfool questions about climbing in the
Southern Alps. Then hauled out of bed at midnight, told I was to meet you, and then driven for
hours across the blasted desert by a mad Scotsman who sang drunken songs and asked
hundreds of even more silly, damnfool questions!
„One of my more effective disguises, I‟ve always thought,‟ Jensen said smugly.
„Personally, I found the journey most entertaining!‟
„One of your –„Mallory broke off, appalled at the memory of things he had said to the
elderly bewhiskered Scots captain who had driven the command vehicle. „I – I‟m terribly sorry,
sir, I never realized-„
„Of course you didn‟t!‟ Jensen cut in briskly. „You weren‟t supposed to. Just wanted to
find out if you were the man for the job. I‟m sure you are – I was pretty sure you were before I
pulled you out of Crete. But where you got the idea about leave I don‟t know. The sanity of the
SOE has often been questioned, but even we aren‟t given to sending a flying –boat for the sole
purpose of enabling junior officers to spend a month wasting their substance among the fleshpots of Cairo,‟ he finished dryly.
66
Appendix II
Book Excerpt-LES CANONS DE NAVARONE
PRELUDE : DIMANCHE
L‟ Allumette gratta bruyamment le métal rouille de la baraque en tôle ondulée, grésilla,
puis projeta un petit cercle de lumière vacillante, clarté soudaine et bruit également surprenant
dans le silence et l‟obscurité de la nuit. Machinalement, les yeux de Mallory suivirent le
mouvement de l‟allumette enflammée jusqu'à la cigarette qui saillait sous la moustache en
brosse a dents du général de brigade : il vit la lumière s‟arrêter a quelques centimètres d‟un
visage brusquement immobile, il vit le regard fixe de l‟homme absorbe par le soin d‟écouter.
Puis l‟allumette disparut, écrasée dans le sable du terrain d‟aviation.
Je les entends, dit doucement le général. Je les entends qui arrivent. Dans cinq minutes,
pas plus. Pas de vent, ce soir ; ils atterriront au n0 2. Allons les accueillir dans la salle des
interrogatoires.
Il s‟arrêta, jeta sur Mallory un coup doeil railleur et parut sourire. Mais ce devait être un
jeu d‟ombre trompeur, car il n‟y avait aucune gaieté dans sa voix.
Maitrisez votre impatience, jeune homme, rein qu‟un bref moment encore. Cela n‟a pas
trop bien marche, cette nuit. Vous recevrez toutes les réponses que vous attendez, et je crains
que ce ne soit que trop tôt.
Brusquement, il sortit en direction des bâtiments trapus qui se détachaient vaguement
sur les pales ténèbres de l‟horizon.
Mallory haussa les épaules puis le suivit, d‟un pas plus lent, avec le troisième membre
du groupe, une large silhouette courtaude au dandinement très prononce. Mallory se demanda
avec aigreur combien Jensen avait du se s‟exercer pour acquérir cette démarche de marin.
Trente ans suffisaient à l‟expliquer, mais la n‟était pas la question. En sa qualité de chef du 3e
bureau des « Operations subversive » (S.OE) au Caire, le capitaine de vaisseau James Jensen
avait brillamment réussi et mérite la médaille des Services distingues de la Marine royale ;
l‟intrigue, la tromperie, l‟imitation et le déguisement étaient toute sa vie : il avait, en tant
qu‟agitateur levantin, d‟Alexandrette a Alexandrie, gagné le respect craintif des docker ;comme
67
chamelier, il avait triomphalement concurrencé les Bédouins les plus experts ; et aucun
mendiant pathétique n‟avait jamais exhibé de plaies plus convaincantes dans les bazars et les
marches de l‟Orient.
Ce soir, cependant, il n‟était qu‟un marin simple et bourru. Vêtu tout de blanc depuis la
coiffe de casquette jusqu‟aux souliers de toile, la lueur des étoiles scintillait sur le galon dore de
ses pattes d‟épaule et de sa visière.
Leurs pas foulèrent le sable à l‟unisson avant de retentir sur le ciment de la voie de
départ. Ils avaient déjà presque perdu de vue le général. Soudan, Mallory se tourna vers Jensen.
Dites-moi, commandant, qu‟est-ce que tout cela signifie au juste ? pourquoi ce mystère,
ce secret ? et pourquoi y suis-je mêle ? Bon Dieu ! ce n‟est qu‟hier qu‟on m‟a fait quitter la
Crète, avec huit heures de préavis. J‟avais un mois de permission, m‟a-t-on dit, et voila ce qui
se passe !
Eh bien ! murmura Jensen, qu‟est-il arrive ?
Pas de permission, dit Mallory avec amertume. Pas même une nuit de sommeil. Rien
que des heures et des heures dans le bureau de l‟état-major à répondre à un tas d‟inepte
questions au sujet d‟ascensions dans les Alpes méridionales. Puis tiré de mon lit a minuit avec
l‟ordre de vous rejoindre ; âpres quoi, des heures a travers ce satane désert dans une voiture
conduite par un Ecossais fou qui a chanté des chansons d‟ivrogne et m‟a posé des centaines de
questions encore plus idiotes !
L‟un de mes déguisements les plus réussis, dit Jensen avec suffisance. Personnellement,
j‟ai trouvé ce voyage très amusant !
L‟un de vos…
Mallory ne put achever, épouvanté au souvenir de ce qu‟il avait dit au vieux capitaine
écossais moustachu qui avait conduit le véhicule.
Je… Je vous demande infiniment pardon, commandant. Je ne me doutais pas…
68
Appendix III
Book Excerpt-THE HOUND OF THE BASKERVILLES
1. Mr Sherlock Holmes
Mr Sherlock Holmes, who was usually very late in the mornings, save upon those not
infrequent occasions when he stayed up all night, was seated at the breakfast table. I stood upon
the hearthrug and picked up the stick which our visitor had left behind him the night before. It
was a fine, thick piece of wood, bulbous-headed, of the sort which is known as a „Penang
lawyer‟. Just under the head was a broad silver banc, nearly an inch across. „To James
Mortimer, M R C S, from his friends of the CCH‟, was engraved upon it, with the date „1884‟.
It was just such a stick as the old-fashioned family practitioner used to carry – dignified, solid,
and reassuring.
„Well, Watson, what do you make of it?‟
Holmes was sitting with his back to me, and I had given him no sign of my occupation.
„How did you know what I was doing? I belief you have eyes in the back of your head.‟
„I have, at least, a well-polished, silver-plated coffee-pot in front of me,‟ said he. „But,
tell me, Watson what do you make of our visitor‟s stick? Since we have been so unfortunate as
to miss him and have no notion of his errand, this accidental souvenir becomes of importance.
Let me hear you reconstruct the man by an examination of it‟.
„I think,‟ said I, following so far as I could the methods of my companion, „that Dr
Mortimer is a successful elderly medical man, well-esteemed, since those who know him give
him this mark of their appreciation.‟
„Good!‟ said Holmes. „Excellent!‟
„I think also that the probability is in favour of his being a country practitioner who
does a great deal of his visiting on foot.‟
„Why so?‟
69
„Because this stick, though originally a very handsome one, has been so knocked about
that I can hardly imagine a town practitioner carrying it. The thick iron ferrule is worn down, so
it is evident that he has done a great amount of walking with it.‟
„Perfectly sound!‟ said Holmes.
„And then again, there is the “friends of the CCH”. I should guess that to be the
Something Hunt, the local hunt to whose members he has possibly given some surgical
assistance, and which has made him a small presentation in return.‟
„Really. Watson, you excel yourself,‟ said Holmes, pushing back his chair and lighting
a cigarette. „I am bound to say that in all the accounts which you have been so good as to give
of my own small achievements you have habitually underrated your own abilities. It may be
that you are not yourself luminous, but you are a conductor of light. Some people without
possessing genius have a remarkable power of simulating. I confess, my dear fellow, that I am
very much in your debt.‟
He had never said as much before, and I must admit that his words gave me keen
pleasure, for I had often been piqued by his indifference to my admiration and to the attempts
which I had made to give publicity to his methods. I was proud, too, to think that I had so far
mastered his system as to apply it in a way which earned his approval. He now took the stick
from my hands and examined it for a few minutes with his naked eyes. Then, with an
expression of interest, he laid down his cigarette, and, carrying the cane to the window, he
looked over it again with a convex lens.
„Interesting, though elementary.‟ Said he, as he returned to his favourite corner of the
settee. „There are certainly one or two indications upon the stick. It gives us the basis for
several deductions.‟
2. The Curse of the Baskervilles
„I have in my pocket a manuscript,‟ said Dr James Mortimer.
„I observed it as you entered the room,‟ said Holmes.
„It is an old manuscript.‟
„Early eighteenth century, unless it is a forgery.‟
70
„How can you say that, sir?‟
„You have presented an inch or two of it to my examination all the time that you have
been talking. It would be a poor expert who could not give the date of a document within a
decade or so. You may possibly have read my little monograph upon the subject. I put that at
1730.‟
„The exact date is 1742.‟ Dr Mortimer drew it from his breast-pocket. „this family paper
was committed to my care by Sir Charles Baskerville, whose sudden and tragic death some
three months ago created so much excitement in Devonshire. I may say that I was his personal
friend as well as his medical attendant. He was a strong-minded man, sir, shrewd, practical, and
as unimaginative as I am myself. Yet he took this document very seriously, and his mind was
prepared for just such an end as did eventually overtake him.‟
Holmes stretched out his hand for the manuscript and flattened it upon his knee.
„You will observe, Watson, the alternative use of the long s and the short. It is one of
several indications which enabled me to fix the date.‟
I looked over his shoulder at the yellow paper and the faded script. At the head was
written: „Baskerville Hall‟, and below, in large scrawling figures: „1742‟.
„It appears to be a statement of some sort.‟
„Yes, it is a statement of a certain legend which runs in the Baskerville family.‟
„But I understand that it is something more modern and practical upon which you wish
to consult me?‟
„Most modern. A most practical, pressing matter, which must be decided within twentyfour hours. But the manuscript is short and is intimately connected with the affair. With your
permission I will read it to you..‟
Holmes leaned back in his chair, placed his finger-tips together, and closed his eyes,
with an air of resignation. Dr Mortimer turned the manuscript to the light, and read in a high,
crackling voice the following curious, old-world narrative.
„Of the origin of the Hound of the Baskervilles there have been many statements, yet as
I come in a direct line from Hugo Baskerville, and as I had the story from my father, who also
had it from his, I have set it down with all belief that it occurred even as is here set forth. And I
would have you believe, my sons, that the same Justice which punishes sin may also most
graciously forgive it, and that no ban is so heavy but that by prayer and repentance it may be
71
removed. Learn then from this story not to fear the fruits of the past, but rather to be
circumspect in the future, that those foul passions whereby our family has suffered so
grievously may not again be loosed to our undoing.
„Know then that in the time of the Great Rebellion (the history of which by the learned
Lord Clarendon I most earnestly commend to your attention) this Manor of Baskerville was
held by Hugo of that name, nor can it be gainsaid that he was a most wild, profane, and godless
man. This, in truth, his neighbours might have pardoned, seeing that saints have never
flourished in those parts, but there was in him a certain wanton and cruel humour which made
his name a byword through the West. It chanced that this Hugo came to love (if, indeed, so
dark a passion may be known under so bright a name) the daughter of a yeoman who held lands
near the Baskerville estate. But the young maiden, being discreet and of good repute, would
ever avoid him, for she feared his evil name. So it came to pass that one Michaelmas this Hugo,
with five or six of his idle and wicked companions, stole down upon the farm and carried off
the maiden, her father and brother being from home, as he well knew. When they had brought
her to the Hall the maiden was placed in an upper chamber, while Hugo and his friends sat
down to a long carouse as was their nightly custom. Now, the poor lass upstairs was like to
have her wits turned at the singing and shouting and terrible oaths which came up to her from
below, for they say that the words used by Hugo Baskerville, when he was in wine, were such
as might blast the man who said them. At last in the stress of her fear she did that which might
have daunted the bravest or most active man, for by the aid of the growth of ivy which covered
(and still covers) the south wall, she came down from under the eaves, and so homeward across
the moor, there being three leagues betwixt the \Hall and her father‟s farm.
72
Appendix IV
Book Excerpt-LE CHIEN DES BASKERVILLES
CHAPITRE PREMIER
MONSIEUR SHERLOCK HOLMES
M. Sherlock Holmes se levait habituellement fort tard, sauf lorsqu’il ne dormait pas de la
nuit, ce qui lui arrivait parfois. Ce matin-la, pendant qu’il était assis devant son petit
déjeuner, je ramassai la canne que notre visiteur avait oubliée la veille au soir. C’était un
beau morceau de bois solide terminé en pommeau. Juste au-dessous de ce pommeau, une
bague d’argent qui avait pas moins de deux centimètres de haut portait cette inscription
datant de 1884. A James Mortimer,M.R.C.S. ses amis du C.CC.H. Une belle canne idéale
pour un médecin a I’ ancienne mode digne rassurante…
“Eh bien, Watson, que vous suggère cette canne?”
Holmes me tournait le dos, et je n’avais rien fait qui put le renseigner sur mon occupation
du moment.
Comment savez-vous que je l’examine? vous devès avoir des yeux derrière la tête!
-Non, mais j’ai en face de Moi une cafetière en argent bien astiquée. Dites, Watson,
que pensez-vous de la canne de notre visiteur? Nous avons eu la malchance de le manqué,
nous ignorons le but de sa démarche : ce petit souvenir prend donc de l’importance.
Allons, Watson,, reconstituez l’homme d’après la canne! Je vous écoute.”
Je me mis en devoir de me conformer de mon mieux aux méthodes de mon
ami.
“Selon moi, dis-je, ce docteur Mortimer est un médecin d’un certain âge, a
mœurs patriarcales, aise, apprécie, comme en témoigne le geste de ceux qui lui ont offert
cette canne.
-Bon! Excellent!
73
-Je pense qu’il y a de fortes chances pour que le docteur Mortimer soit un médecin
de champagne qui visite a pied la plupart de ses malades.
-Pourquoi, s’il vous plait?
-Parce que cette canne, qui a l’origine était très élégante, se trouve aujourd’hui
dans un tel état que j’ai du mal a me la représenter entre les mains d’un médecin de ville.
Le gros embout de fer est complètement use; il me parait donc évident que son
propriétaire est un grand marcheur.
-Très juste!
-D’autre part, je lis : “ses amis du C.C.H.”. je parierais qu’il s’agit d’une societe locale
de chasse1 dont il a soigné les membres, et qui lui a offert un petit cadeau pour le
remercier.
-En vérité, Watson, vous vous surpasses! S’exclama Holmes en repoussant sa
chaise et en allumant une cigarette. Je suis oblige de dire que dans tous les récits que vous
avez bien voulu consacrer a mes modeste exploits, vous avez constamment sous-estime
vos propres capacités. Vous n’êtes peut-être pas un conducteur de lumière. Certaines
personnes dépourvues de génie personnel sont quelquefois douées du pouvoir de le
stimuler. Mon cher ami, je vous dois beaucoup!”
Jamais il ne m’en avait tant dit! Je conviens que ce langage me causa un vif plaisir.
Souvent en effet j’avais éprouvé une sorte d’amertume devant l’indifférence qu’il
manifestait a l’égard de mon admiration et de mes efforts pour vulgariser ses méthodes.
Par ailleurs je n’étais pas peu fier de me dire que je possédais suffisamment à fond son
système pour l’appliquer d’une manière qui avait mérite son approbation. Il me prit la
canne des mains et l’observa quelques instants { l’ œil nu. Tout a coup, intéresse par un
détail, il posa sa cigarette, s’empara d’une loupe, et se rapprocha de la fenêtre.
“Curieux, mais élémentaire! Fit-il en revenant s’asseoir sur le canapé qu’il
affectionnait. Voyez vous, Watson, sur cette canne je Remarque un ou deux indices : assez
pour nous fournir le point de départ de plusieurs déductions.
74
CHAPITRE 11
LAMALEDICTION DES BASKERVILLE
« J’ai dans ma poche un document…, commença le docteur Mortimer.
-Je l’ai remarqué quand vous êtes entré, dit Holmes.
-C’est un manuscrit ancien.
-Qui date du début du xviii siècle, s’il ne s’agit pas d’un faux.
-Comment pouvez-vous le dater ainsi, monsieur ?
-Pendant que vous parliez, vous en avez présente quelques centimètres a ma
curiosité. Il faudrait être un expert bien piètre pour ne pas situer un document à dix
années prés environ. Peut-être avez-vous lu la petite monographie que j’ai écrite sur ce
sujet ? je le situe vers 1730.
-La date exacte est 1742, dit le docteur Mortimer en le tirant de sa poche
intérieure. Ce papier de famille m’a été confié par Sir Charles Baskerville, dont le décès
subit et tragique, il y a trois mois, a suscité beaucoup d’émotion dans le Devonshire. Je
peux dire que j’étais son ami autant que son médecin. Sir Charles Baskerville avait l’esprit
solide, monsieur ; sagace et pratique ; il n’était pas plus rêveur que moi. Néanmoins il
attachait une grande valeur à ce document, et il s’attendait au genre de mort qui
justement l’abattit. »
Holmes tendit la main pour prendre le manuscrit qu’il étala sur ses genoux.
« Vous remarquerez, Watson, l’alternance de l’s long et de l’s court. C’est ce détail
qui m’a permis de le localiser dans le temps. »
Par-dessus son épaule je considérai le papier jauni { l’écriture décolorée. L’en-tête
portait « Baskerville Hall », et au-dessous, en gros chiffres griffonnes : 1742. »
« on dirait une déposition, ou une relation ?
75
-En effet. C’est la relation d’une certaine légende qui a cour dans la famille des
Baskerville.
-Mais je suppose que c’est sur quelque chose de plus moderne et de plus pratique
que vous désirez me consulter ?
-Tout a fait moderne. Il s’agit d’une affaire pratique, urgente, qui doit être réglée
dans les vingt-quatre heures. Mais le document est bref et il est étroitement lie a l’affaire.
Avec votre permission je vais vous le lire. »
Holmes s’adossa a sa chaise, ressembla les extrémités de ses doigts et ferma les
yeux d’un air résigne. Le docteur Mortimer approcha le document de la lumière, et d’une
voix aigue, crépitant, entreprit la lecture du curieux récit que voici :
« Sur l’origine du chien des Baskerville, plusieurs versions ont circulé. Toutefois,
comme je descends en ligne directe de Hugo Baskerville, et comme je tiens l’histoire de
mon père, de même que celui-ci la tenait du sien, je l’ai couchée par écrit , en croyant
fermement que les choses se sont passées comme elles m’ont été rapportées. Et je
voudrais, mes enfants, que vous pénètre le sentiment que la même Justice qui punit le
pèche peut aussi le pardonner par grâce, et que tout châtiment, même le plus lourd, peut
être levé par la prière et le repentir. Je souhaite que cette histoire vous enseigne au moins
(non pas pour que vous ayez a redouter les conséquences du passe, mais pour que vous
soyez prudents dans l’avenir) que les passions mauvaises dont notre famille a tant
souffert ne doivent plus se donner libre cours et faire notre malheur.
« Apprenez donc qu’au temps de la Grade Révolte (dont l’histoire écrite par le
distingue Lord Clarendon mérite toute votre attention) le propriétaire de ce manoir de
Baskerville s’appelait Hugo ; indiscutablement c’était un profanateur, un impie, un être a
demi sauvage. Certes, ses voisins auraient pu l’excuser jusque-là, étant donne que le pays
n’a jamais été une terre de saints ; mais il était possède d’une certaine humeur impudique
et cruelle qui était la fable de tout l’Ouest. Il advint que ce Hugo s’éprit d’amour (si l’on
peut baptiser une passion aussi noire d’un nom aussi pur) pour la fille d’un petit
propriétaire rural des environs. Mais la demoiselle l’évitait avec soin tant la fâcheuse
76
réputation de son soupirant. ce Hugo, avec l’assistance de cinq ou six mauvais
compagnons de débauche, l’enleva de la ferme pendant une absence de son père et de ses
frères. Ils la conduisirent au manoir et l’enfermèrent dans une chambre du haut, après
quoi ils se mirent a table pour boire et festoyer comme chaque soir. Bien entendu, la
pauvre fille ne pouvait manquer d’avoir les sangs retournes par les chants et les jurons
abominables qui parvenaient d’en bas a ses oreilles ; il parait que le langage dont usité
Hugo Baskerville, quand il était gris, aurait méritéde foudroyer son auteur. Mais dans sa
peur elle osa ce devant quoi auraient hésite des hommes braves et lestes ; en s’aidant du
lierre qui recouvrait (et recouvre encore) le mur sud, elle dégringola le long des
gouttières et courut a travers la lande dans la direction de la ferme de son père, que trois
lieues séparaient du manoir de Baskerville.
77
Appendix Va:
Table -Translation of English Simple past into French
English Verb phrase
Equivalent French verb
phrase
Tense/
Aspect/
Tense & Aspect
`
78
Equivalent
French verb
form
Observed
translation
difficulties
Appendix Vb :
Table-Translation of the English Simple Past into French
English Verb phrase
phrase
Tense/
Aspect/
Tense & Aspect
79
Equivalent
French verb
form
Observed
translation
difficulties
Appendix Vc:
Table-Translation of English Past Progressive into French
English Verb phrase
phrase
Tense/
Aspect/
Tense & Aspect
80
Equivalent
French verb
form
Observed
translation
difficulties
Appendix Vd:
Table- Translation of English Past Progressive into French
English Verb phrase
phrase
Tense/
Aspect/
Tense & Aspect
81
Equivalent
French verb
form
Observed
translation
difficulties
Appendix Ve:
Table-Translation of English Present Perfect into French
English Verb phrase
phrase
Tense/
Aspect/
Tense & Aspect
82
Equivalent
French verb
form
Observed
translation
difficulties
Appendix Vf:
Table-Translation of English Present Perfect into French
English Verb phrase
phrase
Tense/
Aspect/
Tense & Aspect
83
Equivalent
French verb
form
Observed
translation
difficulties
Appendix Vg:
Table-Translation of English Past Perfect into French
English Verb phrase
phrase
Tense/
Aspect/
Tense & Aspect
84
Equivalent
French verb
form
Observed
translation
difficulties
Appendix Vh:
Table-Translation of English Past Perfect into French
English Verb phrase
phrase
Tense/
Aspect/
Tense & Aspect
85
Equivalent
French verb
form
Observed
translation
difficulties

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