discobolul

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discobolul

Discobolul – Revista UNEFS de cultură, educaţie, sport şi kinetoterapie Anul VII nr.3 (25) 2011
UNIVERSITATEA NAŢIONALĂ DE EDUCAŢIE FIZICĂ ŞI SPORT
DISCOBOLUL
REVISTĂ AFLATĂ ÎN EVIDENŢA CNCSIS
ANUL VII NR. 3 (25)
Septembrie 2011
APARE TRIMESTRIAL
ISSN 1454-3907
COLECTIVUL DE REDACŢIE
PREŞEDINTE ONORIFIC: Acad. VLADIMIR PLATONOV
RECTOR AL UNIVERSITĂŢII NAŢIONALE DE EDUCAŢIE FIZICĂ ŞI SPORT,
UKRAINA
PREŞEDINTE: Prof. univ. dr. VIOREL COJOCARU
RECTOR AL UNEFS, BUCUREŞTI
DIRECTOR ONORIFIC: Prof. univ. dr. CONSTANTIN POPA
MEMBRU AL ACADEMIEI ROMÂNE
REDACTOR ŞEF: Prof. univ. dr. NICOLAE VINŢANU-UNEFS BUCUREŞTI
REDACTOR ŞEF ADJUNCT: Prof. univ. dr. GHEORGHE BURNEI,
ŞEF CLINICĂ ORTOPEDIE PEDIATRICĂ SPITALUL CLINIC DE
COPII “M. C. CURIE” BUCUREŞTI
Conf.univ.dr. SORIN ŞERBĂNOIU - UNEFS Bucureşti
SECRETAR ŞTIINŢIFIC: Conf.univ.dr. BERNARD MASSIERA,
UNIVERSITATEA SOPHIA-ANTIPOLIS, NICE, FRANŢA
REDACTORI COORDONATORI:
Prof.univ.dr.habil. VEACESLAV MANOLACHI–UNIVERSITATEA DE STAT DE
EDUCAŢIE FIZICĂ ŞI SPORT-MOLDOVA
DI CARLO MARIO, DOCENT, UNIVERSITATEA DIN PADOVA – ITALIA
Lect.univ.dr.GUTIERREZ OSCAR, UNIVERSITATEA MIGUEL HERNANDEZ
SPAIN
REFERENŢI ŞTIINŢIFICI:
Prof.univ.dr. AURA BOTA - UNEFS BUCUREŞTI
Prof.univ.dr. DAN DELIU - UNEFS BUCUREŞTI
Prof.univ.dr. VASILICA GRIGORE - UNEFS BUCUREŞTI
Prof.univ.dr VASILE MARCU –UNIVERSITEA DIN ORADEA
Prof.univ.dr. GHEORGHE MARINESCU - UNEFS BUCUREŞTI
Prof.univ.dr. DORINA ORŢĂNESCU –UNIVERSITATEA DIN CRAIOVA
Prof.univ.dr. FLORIN PELIN - UNEFS BUCUREŞTI
Prof.univ.dr. GLORIA RAŢĂ – UNIVERSITATEA VASILE ALECSANDRI DIN BACĂU
Prof.univ.dr. SILVIA TEODORESCU - UNEFS BUCUREŞTI
Conf.univ.dr. ALEXANDRU BUZESCU - UNEFS BUCUREŞTI
Conf.univ.dr. DENIS PARISOT–UNIV. SOPHIA ANTIPOLIS, NICE
Conf.univ.dr. DOINA CROITORU, UNEFS BUCUREŞTI
Conf.univ.dr. RUXANDRA EL-BSAT, UNEFS BUCUREŞTI
Conf.univ.dr. MONICA STĂNESCU, UNEFS BUCUREŞTI
TEHNOREDACTOR: Asist. univ. drd. CĂTĂLIN PĂUNESCU
CS. drd. MIHAELA PĂUNESCU
TRADUCERE LIMBA ENGLEZĂ: Lector Univ. dr. MANON POPESCU
Discobolul – Revista UNEFS de cultură, educaţie, sport şi kinetoterapie Anul VI nr.3 (25) 2011
1
CUPRINS
Studiu privind manifestările afective ale atleţilor specializaţi pe probe de semifond-fond
în situaţii de stres competiţional
Alexe Cristina Ioana, Professeur C.S. Ştiinţa Bacău – CTC N.V.Karpen Bacău, Grigore
Vasilica, prof. univ. dr., Université Nationale d’Education Physique et Sport Bucarest,
Alexe Dan Iulian, lector univ. dr. Université „Vasile Alecsandri” de Bacău,
FSMSS.................................................................................................................................5
Organizarea formării profesionale în fotbalul francez
Hugo Juskowiak, Doctorand în sociologia sportului, Université d’Artois.......................13
Efortul fizic- modificări şi stimul de adaptare morfo-funcţională şi psihică pentru
studenţii practicanţi ai gimnasticii aerobice şi fitnessului
Lect.univ. drd. Ciomag Rela-Valentina, Drd UNEFS, Bucuresti.....................................27
Diferenţieri ale educaţiei fizice din mediul rural de cel urban în şcolile gorjene
Badea-Miss Georgian, Lector universitar dr. Universitatea "Constantin Brâncuşi" din
Târgu-Jiu............................................................................................................................32
Studiu privind percepţia şi atitudinea faţă de sport a elevilor de liceu din medii
multiculturale şi multietnice, cazul municipiului cluj-napoca
Prof.univ.dr. Grigore Vasilica, András Álmos , Drd. UNEFS...........................................42
Dezvoltarea expresivităţii corporale prin mişcare şi dans în lecţia de educaţie fizică
Lect. univ. dr. Carmen Aneta Isac, Universitatea de Nord Baia Mare, Prof. univ. dr. Emilia
Florina Grosu; Conf. univ.dr. Popovici Cornel Facultatea de Educaţie Fizică, Universitatea
Babeş Bolyai.........................................................................................................................49
Sistemul mijlocelor educaţiei fizice şi sportului pentru învăţământul primaR
Cuceu Marinică Dorel, Asist. univ. Drd Universitatea de Nord – Baia Mare ….….……...54
Importanța potențialului biomotric a jucătorilor de handbal în sportul de performanță
Piţigoi Gabriel, Universitatea de Medicină și Farmacie, ”Carol Davila”, București......59
Studiu privind manifestarea anxietăţii precompetiţionale la sportivii de înaltă
performanţă în Karate Do
Macovei Sabina, Lambu Elena Andreea, Toniţa Florentina, UNEFS, București.............65
Organizarea şi conducerea lecţiilor de educaţie fizică în mediul ambiant, la nivelul
învăţământului gimnazial
Stănculescu/ Morrison Laura Mihaela, Drd. UNEFS, București.....................................71
2
Aplicații ale exercițiilor specifice atletismului și de tonus și postură corporală în
tratamentul obezității – program de recuperare
Marius Stoica, conf. univ. dr. UNEFS Bucureşti.............................................................75
Relaţia volum, intensitate şi mijloace specifice în perioada competiţională în haltere de
performanţ
Ulăreanu Marius Viorel, Asist.univ.drd., Potop Vladimir, Conf.univ.dr. , Universitatea
Ecologică, București …………………………..........................................................................81
Jocul de Hnadbal la elevii de clasa a V-a
Conf.univ.dr.Marina Igorov, U.N.E.F.S.Bucureşti………………………...…….………87
Terapia manuală în deficitul de mobilitate al coloanei vertebrale lombare
Prof.univ.dr. Creţu Antoaneta, Assist.univ.dr. Gherghel Carmen, UNEFS
București..………………………………………………………………………...………95
3
CONTENTS
Etude concernant les manifestations affectives des athletes specialistes des epreuves de
demi-fond en situations de stress de competition
Alexe Cristina Ioana, Professeur C.S. Ştiinţa Bacău – CTC N.V.Karpen Bacău, Grigore
Vasilica, prof. univ. dr., Université Nationale d’Education Physique et Sport Bucarest,
Alexe Dan Iulian, lector univ. dr. Université „Vasile Alecsandri” de Bacău,
FSMSS.................................................................................................................................5
Organisation de la formation au metier de footballeur professionnel en France
Hugo Juskowiak, Doctorant en sociologie du sport, Université d’Artois........................13
Physical effort – adjustments and morph-functional and physical alteration stimulus for
practicing students of aerobics and fitness
Lect.univ. drd. Ciomag Rela-Valentina, Drd UNEFS, Bucuresti.....................................27
Differences of physical education beetwen the rural and the urban schools in Gorj county
Badea-Miss Georgian, Lecturer, Ph.D. "Constantin Brâncuşi" University of TârguJiu.......................................................................................................................................32
Study concerning the perception and attitudes toward sports of high school students from
a multicultural and multiethnic medium, the case of Cluj-Napoca
Prof.univ.dr. Grigore Vasilica, András Álmos , Drd. UNEFS...........................................42
The development of corporal expressivity through movement and dance in the physical
education lesson
Lect. univ. dr. Carmen Aneta Isac, North University Baia Mare, Prof. univ. dr. Emilia
Florina Grosu; Conf. univ.dr. Popovici Cornel, Faculty of Physical Education, Babeş
Bolyai University...............................................................................................................49
Le system de moyens en education physique et le sport pour l'enseignement primaire
Cuceu Marinică Dorel, Asist. univ. Drd Université du Nord – Baia Mare ….….....……...54
The importance of the biomotric potential of the handball players in sports performance
Piţigoi Gabriel, Medicine and Pharmacy University, ”Carol Davila”, Bucharest.............59
Étude sur la manifestation de l’anxiété précompétitive chez les sportifs de haute
performance en karaté do
Macovei Sabina, Lambu Elena Andreea, Toniţa Florentina, UNEFS, București.............65
The organisation and management of physical education lessons within the primary
school environment
Stănculescu/ Morrison Laura Mihaela, Drd. UNEFS, București.....................................71
4
Applications of the athletic exercises and the tone and body posture exercises in obesity
treatment – recovery program
Marius Stoica, Ph.D. UNEFS Bucureşti...........................................................................75
Relationship of volume, intensity and specific means during competitive period in
performance weightlifting
Ulăreanu Marius Viorel, Teaching Assistant, PhD student, Potop Vladimir, Associate
Professor, PhD – Ecological University of Bucharest................................................................81
Jeux handball aux eleve de la classe V
Conf.univ.dr.Marina Igorov, U.N.E.F.S.Bucureşti………………………...…….………87
Manual therapy for lumbar spine segmental motion impairments
Professor Creţu Antoaneta Ph D, Assistant Gherghel Carmen Ph D, NUPES
Bucharest………………………………………………………………………...………95
5
ETUDE CONCERNANT LES MANIFESTATIONS AFFECTIVES
DES ATHLETES SPECIALISTES DES EPREUVES DE DEMI-FOND
EN SITUATIONS DE STRESS DE COMPETITION
Alexe Cristina Ioana, professeur
C.S. Ştiinţa Bacău – CTC N.V.Karpen Bacău
Grigore Vasilica, prof. univ. dr.
Université Nationale d’Education Physique et Sport Bucarest
Alexe Dan Iulian, lector univ. dr.
Université „Vasile Alecsandri” de Bacău, FSMSS
Abstract:
Parmi les nombreux facteurs qui interagissent avec la performance sportive
en athlétisme, le stress en est un qui a des effets des plus importants sur la
manière dont les athlètes se comportent à l’entrainement, mais surtout en
compétition. Ayant comme point de départ l’une des définitions du stress, selon
laquelle il s’agit d’une «situation stressante qui peut être un agent physique
nocif ou un stimulus à forte signification affectogène»1, on met en évidence le
rôle que les facteurs ou les situations entrainant le stress peuvent avoir dans
l’influence de l’affectivité de la personne.
Dans les périodes de compétition, en fonction de l’objectif proposé,
l’implication des sportifs se caractérise par des états psychiques limites
(«manifestations subjectives sur un grand fond de tension provoquée par les
situations particulièrement difficiles dans lesquelles se trouve le sportif2»). Ces
états déterminent des conduites spécifiques, qui ont des fonctions affectives,
manifestées par l’enthousiasme, la confiance en soi, la bonne humeur exagérée,
la responsabilité, soit par l’anxiété, la peur de la compétition, de l’adversaire,
l’apathie, la furie, l’intériorisation excessive, l’absence de communication, la
disposition diminuée, etc.
Mots clés : athlétisme, performance, stress de compétition, affectivité
Rezumat:
Din multitudinea de factori care interacţionează cu performanţa sportivă în
atletism, stresul este unul dintre cei care au efecte dintre cele mai puternice
asupra manifestării atleţilor în antrenament, dar mai ales în competiţie. Plecând
de la una dintre definiţiile date conceptului de stres, conform căreia acesta este
„situaţia stresantă care poate fi un agent fizic nociv sau un stimul cu
semnificaţie afectogenă puternică”3, se evidenţiază astfel rolul pe care factorii
sau situaţiile provocatoare de stres îl au în influenţarea afectivităţii la om.
În perioadele competiţionale, în funcţie obiectivele propuse, implicarea
sportivilor este caracterizată de stări psihice de limită („manifestări subiective
pe un fond mare de tensiune, provocat de situaţii deosebit de dificile în care
sportivul se află”4). Aceste stări determină conduite specifice, care au şi funcţii
afective, manifestate fie prin entuziasm, încredere în sine, bună dispoziţie
exagerată, responsabilitate, fie prin anxietate, teamă de competiţie, de adversar,
apatie, furie, interiorizare excesivă, lipsă de comunicare, dispoziţie scăzută, etc.
Cuvinte cheie: atletism, performanţă, stres competiţional, afectivitate.
1
Holdevici, I., (1993), Psihologia succesului, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti, p.34;
Epuran, M., Holdevici, I., Toniţa, F., (2001), Psihologia sportului de performanţă, Editura F.E.S.T., Bucureşti, p.107;
Holdevici, I., (1993), Psihologia succesului, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti, p.34;
4
Epuran, M., Holdevici, I., Toniţa, F., (2001), Psihologia sportului de performanţă, Editura F.E.S.T., Bucureşti, p.107;
2
3
6
Introduction:
En conformité avec la littérature du domaine de la psychologie, l’affectivité au niveau
des sportifs se caractérise, surtout pendant les compétitions sportives, lorsque les sollicitations
physiologiques et psychiques sont très importantes par:
 Modifications organiques (au niveau de la circulation, de la respiration, de la
régulation hormonale, de l’activité enzymatique et de l’activité musculaire);
 Modifications de conduite (comportements et attitudes spécifiques);
 Expressions émotionnelles (états affectifs subjectifs des sportifs).
Selon M.Golu (2000), sur le fond d’une indifférence affective, la performance dans toute
activité se voit réduite, il en arrive de même pour des émotions trop fortes. (affects).
But:
Déterminer le profile affectif en situation de stress de compétition avant le déroulement
d’une compétition à objectif au niveau des athlètes spécialisés dans les épreuves de demi-fond.
Hypothèse:
Le stress de compétition avant le début d’une compétition à objectif détermine la
croissance au-dessus des valeurs normales du degré de manifestation des états affectifsémotionnels au niveau des athlètes spécialisés dans les épreuves de demi-fond.
Méthodes et instruments de recherche
Pour réaliser cette recherche nous avons fait appel aux méthodes suivantes : méthode de
la documentation, méthode de l’observation, méthode de la conversation, méthode de l’enquête,
de l’expérience, méthode mathématique, statistique.
L’instrument de recherche utilisé a été représenté par le test P.O.M.S. (profile des états
d’âme), qui a été mis en application sous la forme d’un questionnaire.
Contenu:
Le test P.O.M.S. (profile des états d’âme) a été mis en application sous la forme d’un
questionnaire, ayant pour but d’analyser des situations de la vie courante des athlètes et les
changements sensibles qui sont survenus avant une compétition sportive avec un grand intérêt
pour les sportifs. Sur les indications, les scores obtenus ont été transformés en une fiche de
profile qui comprend des scores T pour chaque variable. La représentation graphique des
données met en évidence des graphiques de type "iceberg", sa partie visible étant délimitée par
une ligne qui se trouve au niveau de 50 points.
La compétition soumise à notre recherche a été représentée par le Championnat National
de Seniors et Jeunes – Coupe de Cristal, déroulé à Bucarest, les 18-19 février, 2011. Cette
compétition a eu une signification particulière pour les athlètes, étant la compétition d’objectif,
le but étant d’obtenir des médailles (objectif de place) et des résultats supérieurs (objectif de
performance comme temps enregistré).
Les sujets de la recherche ont été représentés par 9 athlètes de performance spécialisés
dans les épreuves de demi-fond/fond (6 garçons et 3 filles), ayant une moyenne d’âge de 22,67
ans (minimum 19 ans, maximum 26 ans), ayant une expérience dans la pratique de l’athlétisme
de 5 à 14 ans et une spécialisation dans les épreuves de demi-fond/fond de minimum 4 ans.
Les performances sportives des sujets vont de bonnes (médaille au niveau national) à
très bonnes (multiples champions nationaux et balkaniques, médaillés à diverses compétitions
internationales pour juniors et jeunes).
L’application du test POMS s’est déroulée sous la coordination de deux spécialistes en
psychologie sportive (le psychologue du lot de demi-fond/fond de la Fédération Roumaine
d’Athlétisme et un universitaire, titulaire en psychologie sportive).
LES VARIABLES PSYCHIQUES soumises à l’analyse pour cette recherche ont été :
 Tension-anxiété (T-A, code T) – variable mise en évidence par les adjectifs qui
décrivent une tension somatique („tension”, „à bord”) de même que par des manifestations
psychomotrices observables („faible”, „inquiet”). Les adjectifs qui se rapportent à l’état diffus
d’anxiété sont : „anxieux, embarrassé/gêné”.
7
 dépression-déprime (D-D, code D) représente un état dépressif accompagné d’un
sentiment de non-concordance, étant décrit par des échelles qui indiquent des sentiments se
rapportant au manque de valeur personnelle, à l’inutilité dans la tentative de s’adapter
(„incapable, sans espoir, désespéré”), un sentiment d’isolement émotionnel envers les autres
(triste, seul, sans aide, misérable), tristesse (fâché, malheureux) et culpabilité (coupable, triste
pour ce qu’il a fait);
 tristesse-hostilité (S-O, code A) – variable qui exprime une disposition de fureur et
d’antipathie envers certaines personnes ou situations („furieux, en colère, prêt pour le combat”),
soit des sentiments de furie intense et visible („boudeur”, „énervé”), soit des sentiments
d’hostilité plus légers/réduits : („Indigné”, „méchant”) etc.;
 vigueur-activité (V-A, code V) – variable définie par des adjectifs qui suggèrent une
disposition émotionnelle de vigueur, effervescence et un niveau élevé d’énergie ;
 fatigue-inertie (O-I, code F) – variable qui souligne un état de fatigue, d’inertie et un
niveau réduit d’énergie;
 confusion-consternation (C-C, code C) variable caractérisée par la désorientation et
la confusion dans les pensées. Peut représenter, conformément aux psychologues, un critère de
l’efficacité cognitive, un possible produit de l’état d’anxiété ou des états ressemblants.
Résultats:
L’analyse du coefficient de variabilité et de l’écart standard pour l’âge des sujets soumis
à la recherche a mis en évidence le fait que de point de vue des deux paramètres calculés, le
groupe en est un homogène. Suite aux transformations des points obtenus aux six variables en
scores T (tableau no.1) conformément à la fiche de profile et en tenant compte de la limite de
valeur imposée 50 (repère), l’application du test POMS concernant le profile des états affectifémotionnels exprimés par les sujets de notre recherche dans la période de compétition, avant la
compétition à objectif (de grande importance pour les athlètes soumis à notre analyse) a mis en
évidence les aspects suivants :
 l’analyse de la moyenne souligne des valeurs sous la limite des 50 points pour deux
des six variables: D-D (43,89) et O-I (45,33). Cet aspect indique qu’au moment du test, en
moyenne, les sujets n’étaient ni en état de fatigue, ni en état dépressif, se caractérisant par un
sentiment optimum de valeur personnelle. – tableau no.1, graphique no.1
Tableau no. 1
Analyse des scores T obtenus par les sujets au test POMS
Scores T
Variable
Sujet
Genre
T-A
(code T)
D-D
(code D)
S-O
(code A)
V-A
(code V)
O-I
(code F)
C-C
(code C)
G.I.
M
47
42
47
51
40
50
S.A.
F.C.
I.C.
B.C.
C.V.
B.A.
M
F
M
F
M
F
63
52
51
55
55
55
48
44
41
45
39
40
64
54
62
70
51
64
52
63
55
60
57
63
54
41
45
40
41
43
55
52
44
50
39
53
V.C.
M
65
50
80
65
55
55
63
56,22
47
65
6,16
10,96
18
46
43,89
39
50
3,72
8,48
11
68
62,22
47
80
10,26
16,48
33
65
59,00
51
65
5,45
9,24
14
49
45,33
40
55
5,94
13,10
15
59
50,78
39
59
6,08
11,97
20
G.A.
M
Moyenne
Min
Max
S
Cv
Ampl
8
 l’analyse des valeurs individuelles pour la variable O-I (code F) du tableau no.1 souligne
pourtant l’existence de deux scores T au-dessus de la valeur repère (50) pour les sujets S.A.
(54) et V.C. (55), fait qui confirme un léger état de fatigue et une manque d’énergie. Cela est dû
au grand volume de travail du sujet S.A. (son désir de courir dans les compétitions en salle, il a
opté pour la compétition analysée pour une épreuve plus courte – 1500 m, par rapport à
l’épreuve de spécialisation – 10.000m, pour laquelle il s’est préparé et qui ne se déroule pas sur
terrain couvert) et d’une adaptation insuffisante aux conditions de la compétition pour le sujet
V.C.
 déterminer l’écart standard (S) et le coefficient de variabilité (Cv) met en évidence un degré
élevé d’homogénéité des valeurs enregistrées par les sujets de même que la dissémination des
données en est une moindre, la moyenne arithmétique étant représentative dans notre cas;
 le graphique no.1 indique le fait que le profile de „iceberg”, spécifique à ce test POMS,
souligne des valeurs supérieures pour la variable S-O (code A, caractérisée par des dispositions
d’hostilité, furie et des états „prêt pour le combat”) et pour la variable V-A (code V,
caractérisée par une disposition émotionnelle élevée);
Graphique no.1
Moyenne des valeurs obtenues par les sujets de la recherche
concernant le profile des états affectifs émotionnels
80
70
62,22
Scor T
60
59,00
56,22
50,78
50
45,33
43,89
40
30
T-A
D-D
S-O
V-A
O-I
C-C
moyenne
 L’analyse des valeurs individuelles des sujets, rapportées au critère „genre”: masculin /
féminin, (tableau no.1, graphique nr. 2 et 3), met en évidence le fait que des 9 sujets, 6 ont un
au profil „iceberg” prédominant pour la variable S-O (code A, 4 sujets de genre masculin, 2
sujets de genre féminin) et 3 ont un profile „iceberg” prédominant pour la variable V-A (code
V, 2 sujets de genre masculin et 1 sujet de genre féminin);
 L’analyse de la variable C-C (code C) montre un score de 50,78, ce qui indique un léger
état de confusion avant le début de la compétition ce qui peut représenter, selon les
psychologues, un critère de l’efficacité cognitive, un possible produit de l’état d’anxiété ou des
états similaires. Des valeurs antérieurement présentées (tableau no.1) on observe cet aspect
chez 5 des 9 sujets, ayant une valeur élevée chez le sujet G.A.;
9
 L’analyse des valeurs individuelles de la variable V-A (code V) nous fournit les détails
suivants:
- tous les sujets ont dépassé la valeur repère de 50 (tableau 1);
- 2 sujets de genre masculin et 2 sujets de genre féminin ont des valeurs élevées (63, et
respectivement 65) ce qui indique un niveau élevé d’activation, de vigueur avant la
compétition;
 L’analyse de la variable S-O (code A) met en évidence les aspects suivants:
- a l’exception du sujet G.I., les autres huit ont obtenu des scores individuels qui les ont
classés au-dessus de la valeur repère 50, fait qui détermine l’orientation du profile „iceberg”
vers cette variable (graphique no.1), soulignant des états d’hostilité – tristesse – irritation avant
le début de la compétition proprement-dite;
- la plus grande valeur a été enregistrée par le V.C. – score 80, ce qui indique un niveau élevé
de furie, d’hostilité, de mécontentement, de rage que nous mettons en relation avec
l’inadaptation adéquate aux conditions spécifiques.
Graphique no. 2
Valeurs enregistrées par les sujets de genre masculin au test POMS
80
80
70
60
50
40
30
T-A
D-D
S-O
V-A
O-I
C-C
G.I.
47
42
47
51
40
50
S.A.
63
48
64
52
54
55
I.C.
51
41
62
55
45
44
C.V.
55
39
51
57
41
39
V.C.
65
50
80
65
55
55
G.A.
63
46
68
65
49
59
10
Graphique no .3
Valeurs enregistrées par les sujets de genre féminin au test POMS
80
70
60
50
40
30
T-A
D-D
S-O
V-A
O-I
C-C
F.C.
52
44
54
63
41
52
B.C.
55
45
70
60
40
50
B.A.
55
40
64
63
43
53
 Concernant les valeurs enregistrées pour la variable tension-anxiété (T-A, code T) nous
notons les suivantes : (tableau no.1):
- a l’exception du sujet G.I., les autres huit ont obtenu des scores individuels qui les ont classé
au-dessus de la valeur repère 50 (graphique no. 4), mettant en évidence des états d’anxiété,
d’inquiétude, de tension avant le début de la compétition proprement-dite ;
- la plus grande valeur a été enregistrée par le sujet V.C. – score 65, suivi par S.A. et G.A.,
chacun ayant un score de 63 (graphique no. 4).
 De la synthèse des données présentées dans le tableau no.1 on observe :
- les états psychiques les plus intensifiés correspondent à la tension-anxiété (T-A, code T),
tristesse-hostilité (S-O, code A) et de la vigueur-activation (V-A, code V)
- les intensifications les plus évidentes des états affectifs-émotionnels sont présentes chez les
sujets S.A. et V.C. (graphique no. 5)
11
Graphique no. 4
Valeurs enregistrées par les sujets pour la variable Tension-Anxiété (T-A, code T)
80
70
65
63
63
60
52
55
55
55
51
50
47
40
30
G.I.
S.A.
F.C.
I.C.
B.C.
C.V.
Tension-Anxiete
B.A.
V.C.
G.A.
Graphique no. 5
Analyse comparative des 6 variables chez les deux sujets S.A. et V.C.
Ayant les plus grandes croissances enregistrées au profile des états affectifs-émotionnels.
90
80
80
70
64
60
50
40
30
S.A.
T-A
V.C.
D-D
S-O
V-A
O-I
C-C
12
L’analyse et le traitement des données suite à l’application du test POMS, souligne le
fait que le stress avant une compétition importante a modifié, dans le sens de l’intensification
des états affectifs-émotionnels des athlètes, environ 60% des scores individuels analysés
(59,26% représentant 32 valeurs);
Conclusions
L’application d’un test psychique spécifique en conditions spéciales (avant une
compétition à objectif) chez les athlètes de performance ayant une expérience de compétition,
spécialisées en épreuves de demi-fond/fond, a mis en évidence des croissances au-dessus des
valeurs normales du degré de manifestation de certains états affectifs-émotionnels, dus au stress
de compétition.
Ce fait confirme partiellement notre hypothèse, l’orientation des états affectifs visés par
l’application de la recherche nous indiquant une croissance visible des états d’hostilité, de
vigueur, de tension et d’anxiété, pendant que des états tels que la dépression-déprime (D-D) et
la fatigue-inertie (O-I) n’ont pas dépassé le seuil spécifique, pris comme repère dans notre
discussion (valeur standard de 50, voir le tableau no.1 et le graphique no.1).
A notre avis, dans l’athlétisme de performance, surtout au niveau des compétitions de
valeur, à niveau élevé de stress et de tension psychique, l’influence des états affectifs peut être
très grande et le succès dépend de la manière dont le sportif réussit à contrôler et régler ces
états. De même, nous sommes d’avis que les entraineurs d’athlétisme devraient orienter leur
activité vers la diminution, autant que possible, des effets négatifs de certains états affectifs qui
apparaissent dans des conditions spécifiques de compétitions, chez les athlètes qu’ils
coordonnent, en même temps que sur la stimulation des états positifs, mobilisateurs.
Bibliographie
Crăciun, M., (2005), Psychologie Educationnelle. Cours pour les étudiants de la Faculté
d’Education Physique et Sport, Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca;
Hanin, Y.,L., (2000), „Emotions in Sport - Anger, Aggressive Behavoir, and Athletic
Performance”, traducere MEC, ANS, INCS în Biblioteca Antrenorului nr.5/2003, Bucureşti;
Holdevici, I., (1993), Psychologie du succès, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti;
Epuran, M., Holdevici, I., Toniţa, F., (2001), Psihologia sportului de performanţă, Editura
F.E.S.T., Bucureşti,
Golu, M.,(2000), Fondements de la psychologie, vol. 1, Editura Fundaţiei România de Mâine,
Bucureşti;
Rioux, G., (1980), Déterminants psychologiques de la performance, Editeur J.Vrin, Paris;
13
ORGANISATION DE LA FORMATION AU METIER DE
FOOTBALLEUR PROFESSIONNEL EN FRANCE
Hugo Juskowiak
Doctorant en sociologie du sport,
Université d’Artois, Faculté des Sport et de l’Education Physique
Chemin du marquage 62800 Liévin.
Dirigé par Mr Didier Demazière et Co - dirigé par Mr Williams Nuytens
Résumé
L’organisation de la formation au métier de footballeur en France est
marquée par la multiplicité des structures. Si, pour les jeunes de plus de quinze
ans, les centres de formation semblent constituer une étape incontournable, la
période de préformation pour les jeunes footballeurs de 11 à 15 ans peut se
dérouler selon des modalités très variées. Les jeunes peuvent être pris en charge
soit au sein de l’institution scolaire (SSS), soit dans les clubs professionnels, soit
dans le giron fédéral (Pôle Espoir), ou encore dans le secteur privé (académie).
Derrière l’objectif commun annoncé de formation du futur joueur et derrière les
divers partenariats qui peuvent se tisser, chaque structure semble en réalité
guidée par une logique bien précise qui la différencie des autres: visée sportive
pour les clubs, économique pour les académies, paternaliste pour la fédération
et visée éducative pour l’Education Nationale.
Mots-clés: Organisation, formation, préformation, football.
Introduction
Dès le lendemain de la seconde guerre mondiale, le recrutement et la formation des
jeunes footballeurs revêtent «caractère moins aléatoire et empirique5». Cette rationalisation de
la formation se poursuit durant toute la seconde moitié du vingtième siècle pour aboutir à ce
qu’Hassen Slimani nomme un véritable «marché6» de la formation. En guise d’illustration, en
2009, ce sont près de 3200 jeunes qui ont postulé au concours d’entrée du centre de
préformation fédéral de Liévin, l’une des douze structures de préformation fédérale françaises
prenant en charge les jeunes apprentis footballeurs âgés de 13 à 15 ans. Seuls les vingt
meilleurs ont été retenus et d’après l’expérience de l’équipe d’encadrement en place «seuls un
ou deux d’entre eux pourraient signer un contrat professionnel dans quelques années7».
L’objectif de cet article n’est pourtant pas tant de discuter de cette sélection extrême qui
se met en place dans la formation au métier de footballeur mais plutôt d’analyser les structures
qui rendent possible son existence. Il ne s’agit pas d’affirmer que ces processus d’élection, de
sélection et d’éviction doivent être mis de côté – ils constitueront en effet le cœur de mon
travail de thèse8 – mais ils ne peuvent pas être analysés clairement s’il est fait l’économie d’un
état des lieux plus global. Le présent papier se propose donc de détailler et de questionner
5
A. Wahl., (1995). Les footballeurs professionnels des années trente à nos jours, Paris, Hachette, p119.
Slimani, H., (2002). «Le système de formation à la française » in Demazière, D., & Nuytens, W., (2002).
Panoramiques. Un monde foot, foot, foot. Corlet, 160p
7
Extrait d’entretien avec un éducateur du centre mené le 15 mai 2009.
8
Thèse de Doctorat en sociologie du sport en cours codirigée par Mr Didier Demazière (Laboratoire Printemps,
Université de Versailles/Saint-Quentin), & Mr Williams Nuytens (atelier Sherpas Université d’Artois) portant sur la
formation des joueurs de football professionnels dans la région Nord/Pas-de-Calais.
6
14
l’organisation des filières de formation françaises au métier de footballeur professionnel.
L’analyse sociologique que je tente de mettre en place ne doit donc pas être rapprochée d’une
lecture globalisante ou déterministe puisque cette focale institutionnelle constitue un préalable
incontournable avant de se rapprocher des individus (joueurs, éducateurs, personnels
administratif et médical, etc.) qui font vivre la formation footballistique au quotidien.
Il sera donc fait état dans un premier temps de l’ensemble des structures françaises
participant à la formation des joueurs de football. Cette partie, essentiellement descriptive,
s’articule dans un second temps avec une analyse socio-historique questionnant notamment les
logiques présidant au foisonnement des organes de formation dans le football.
1) Le bilan des structures de formation en football
1.1) Un état des lieux des différentes structures de formation du footballeur
Lorsqu’il s’agit de fragmenter artificiellement la carrière d’un joueur, il est d’usage, en
France, de mettre en évidence trois périodes. La première, pour laquelle le point de départ est
relativement flou, se termine généralement vers l’âge de quinze ans: il s’agit de la période de
préformation. Le jeune joueur entre ensuite, à quinze ans, en période de formation. Celle-ci,
dans le cadre d’une trajectoire sportive optimale, se termine vers l’âge de vingt ans par la
signature d’un contrat professionnel. A partir de l’âge de vingt ans et de l’intégration dans
l’effectif professionnel, la plupart des éducateurs font référence à l’insertion dans une période
de post-formation. Celle-ci n’est pas définie légalement, peut s’étendre sur plusieurs années et
vise essentiellement la maturation du joueur. A chaque période – nous insisterons
principalement dans notre propos sur la préformation et la formation – correspondent certaines
structures de formation particulières. Le tableau suivant en propose une rapide synthèse.
Tableau 1. Les différentes structures de préformation et de formation dans le football
français.
11 – 15 ans
(Préformation)
 Classes Foot
ou Classe à Horaires
Aménagés
 Section sportives scolaire (probatoire,
locale ou régionale)
 Section sportive «élite»
 Centre de préformation des clubs
 Centre de préformation fédéral
 Centre de perfectionnement des 13 ans
 Club amateur
 Académie de football
15 et plus
(Formation)

Sections sportives régionales

Centre de formation des
professionnels

Club amateur
clubs
Une interrogation est immédiatement saillante à l’esprit lors de la lecture de ces
données: Pourquoi assiste-t-on à une telle multiplication des structures de formation alors que
l’objectif qu’elles affichent est identique, à savoir former les futurs joueurs de football
professionnels de demain? Chacune d’entre elles se devrait de posséder des caractéristiques
propres la différenciant de ses voisines. L’hypothèse principale est alors celle d’une
différenciation des logiques sous jacentes de formation. Ainsi, les académies de football
répondraient à une logique entrepreneuriale axées à la fois sur le football et l’entreprise. L’Etat
s’orienterait davantage vers une logique éducative participant à la construction du citoyen
sportif de demain. Les clubs professionnels seraient plutôt centrés sur une logique compétitive
où l’accent serait mis en priorité sur les résultats sportifs. La logique paternaliste correspondrait
davantage au comportement de la Fédération Française de Football (FFF) en espérant former un
footballeur français de très bon niveau se sentant redevable des instances de formation nationale
15
et, de fait, désireux de rester dans le championnat de France tandis que le fonctionnement du
club amateur se rapprocherait davantage de la logique désintéressée et/ou de la gratification
symbolique. Mais les logiques de chaque instance ne sont pas aussi tranchées et chaque
structure pourrait trouver un intérêt à tisser des partenariats avec les autres.
Poser de telles hypothèses peut sembler risqué à ce stade de l’argumentation. Tenter d’y
répondre immédiatement serait encore plus ardu. Si ces pistes de réflexion seront abordées dans
la seconde partie, nous ne pouvons pas faire l’économie, dans un premier temps, d’une
description rigoureuse de ces différentes structures.
1.2) Description des différentes structures de préformation dans le football français
1.2.1) Sections sportives scolaires «premier cycle» (SSS), Classes Foot et Classes à
Horaires Aménagés (CHA): la préformation dans le milieu scolaire.
Les SSS ont pour ancêtres les sections sport-étude crées en 1974. Elles prennent leur
dénomination actuelle avec la parution de la circulaire n96-291 du 13 décembre 1996 publiée
au Bulletin Officiel de l’Education Nationale (BOEN) n47 du 26 décembre 1996. Les Classes
Foot et les CHA sont des embryons de SSS qui n’ont pas encore reçu l’agrément définitif du
Ministère de l’Education Nationale (MEN). Leurs modalités d’action sont précisées dans la
Charte des sections sportive scolaire du 13 juin 2002 – parue au BOEN n25 du 20 juin 2002 –
qui définit notamment les objectifs, les conditions d’ouverture et les modalités de
fonctionnement de ce dispositif. «La section sportive scolaire offre à des élèves motivés un
complément de pratique sportive approfondie, en liaison avec les organes fédéraux et leur
permet de suivre une scolarité normale [et] d’accéder à des performances sportives de niveau
départemental, voire régional, ou le cas échéant, d’aborder le haut niveau de pratique
sportive9». Même si les sections scolaires n’entrent pas dans le cadre du sport de haut niveau ni
dans les filières d’accès au haut niveau – constitué des pôles et des centres de formation des
clubs professionnels –, elles «constituent un dispositif de réussite et de valorisation des
compétences et aptitudes des jeunes[…] et peuvent néanmoins donner à l’élève la possibilité
d’atteindre un haut niveau de pratique10». Leur inscription reste essentiellement scolaire: elle
doit être gérée par un enseignant d’Education Physique et Sportive (EPS), elle doit être intégrée
dans le projet éducatif de l’établissement d’accueil, elle ne peut se substituer ni aux horaires
normaux d’enseignement d’EPS – l’utilisation des infrastructures sportives est d’ailleurs
prioritairement accordée aux enseignements traditionnels d’EPS – ni à la participation à
l’association sportive, etc. La formation du jeune se doit donc d’être équilibrée: «les temps de
repos doivent alterner de façon équilibrée avec les temps d’études, les durées de pratique
sportive et les périodes de compétitions11». En outre, une attention toute particulière est portée à
la santé des adolescents fréquentant les sections sportives scolaires. Il est attendu que se
développe une liaison constante entre les enseignants, les médecins de l’Education Nationale et
les médecins assurant le suivi médico-sportif. La réglementation en matière de santé est
d’ailleurs renforcée par la circulaire n2003-062 du 24 avril 2003 – BOEN n22 du 29 mai 2003 –
qui redéfinit les modalités de l’examen et du suivi médical des élèves des sections sportives
scolaires.
D’après la FFF, l’objectif des SSS «premier cycle» est de «permettre aux enfants de 11 à
15 ans, qui en manifestent l'envie et les aptitudes, de pouvoir, à proximité de leur domicile,
bénéficier d'une structure normale, adaptée et valorisée par l’acquisition progressive d’une
pratique d’excellence, la vie en collège, en club, en famille, l’aménagement adapté du temps
scolaire et sportif (avoir fini l’école et le football avant 17h30) [et] des rythmes de pratique
9
Charte des sections sportive scolaire du 13 juin 2002 – parue au BOEN n25 du 20 juin 2002. Article 2.
Ibid. Article 1.
11
Ibid. Article 8.
10
16
équilibrés (tenant compte des besoins de l’âge et des exigences de l’EPS)12». Les jeunes
pratiquent une activité chaque jour: séance d’EPS ou spécifique football.
Les contenus sont essentiellement de deux ordres: technique – 50 à 60% du volume – et
tactique – 30 à 40% du temps de formation. Les «apprentissages» techniques développent la
maîtrise individuelle – «le joueur – le ballon» –, l’aisance, la coordination, le bagage
technique. Les «fondamentaux» tactiques visent principalement la maîtrise des situations de
base en nombre réduit – «partenaire, adversaire, espace, etc.» –, ainsi que les rudiments de la
gestion offensive et défensive. Les contenus se caractérisent également par un
«accompagnement des qualités physiques de base: coordination, vitesse, aérobie, etc.».
L’admission dans les sections sportives scolaires se fait sur concours et sur décision de la
commission d’admission – qui prend en compte les tests spécifiques en football et le dossier
scolaire.
1.2.2) Sections «élite» et centres de préformation des clubs: la préformation au sein
des clubs professionnels de football.
Les sections sportives «élite» et les centres de préformation des clubs professionnels
recouvrent quasiment les mêmes réalités. La seule différence notoire est que les premières ont
reçu l’aval du Ministère de l’Education Nationale (MEN) et que des partenariats sont tissés
entre les clubs et les collèges environnants pour la formation scolaire des jeunes apprentis
footballeurs. Même si les sections élite sont étiquetées en tant que «section scolaire», leur
ouverture ainsi que leur fonctionnement sont majoritairement gérés par les clubs professionnels
auxquels elles sont rattachées. Elles concernent les enfants âgés de 13 à 15 ans (classes de
quatrième et de troisième). Les premières sections «élite» ont été labellisées, sur proposition de
la Direction Technique Nationale (DTN), par le bureau du conseil fédéral de la FFF en mars
2005. Il s’agit des sections des clubs de Bordeaux, Auxerre, Le Havre, Lens, Montpellier,
Nancy, Nantes, Rennes et Sochaux. Le «statut et la dénomination de section «élite» sont […]
accordées chaque année par la FFF sur proposition de la DTN13». La labellisation d’une section
nécessite la réunion d’un certain nombre de critères: l’inscription dans un schéma régional de
football en milieu scolaire, l’association à un club professionnel possédant un centre de
formation agrée et le respect du cahier des charges établit par la DTN. La reconnaissance d’une
section offre certaines possibilités comme l’aménagement du temps scolaire ou le recrutement
élargi des jeunes footballeurs.
L’objectif affiché par la FFF est de «réparer les garçons de 13 et 14 ans aux exigences de
la formation de haut niveau, dans des conditions optimales, en privilégiant les principes de la
préformation14». A partir d’un recrutement local, voire régional, il s’agit de mettre en place une
acquisition renforcée de la pratique pour le haut niveau, d’adapter la préformation au cadre de
la scolarité, de maintenir un équilibre de vie harmonieux entre le collège, la section, le club et,
enfin, de préserver le contact familial régulier. Le cadre des sections « élite » est censé offrir
des infrastructures de qualité – celles du club professionnel – avec hébergement, terrains, centre
médical, etc. Les pensionnaires des sections «élite» s’entraînent à un rythme de quatre à cinq
séances par semaine sous la direction d’un encadrement qualifié. Le suivi médical des jeunes
est règlementé15. En ce qui concerne la scolarité, les cours d’EPS au collège sont aménagés16 et
12
www.fff.fr. Rubrique DTN. Rubrique Jeunes.
Règlement des pôles «espoirs» et des sections sportives scolaires «élite».
www.fff.fr. Rubrique DTN. Rubrique Jeunes.
15
Articles R-221.2 et R-221.11 du Code du sport, Arrêté du 16 juin 2006 modifiant l’arrêté du 11 février 2004 fixant la
nature et la périodicité des examens médicaux prévus aux articles L. 3621-2 et R. 3621-3 du code de la santé publique,
Arrêté du 11 février 2004 fixant la nature et la périodicité des examens médicaux prévus aux articles L. 3621-2 et R.
3621-3 du code de la santé publique, Décret n2007-41 du 11 janvier 2007 portant publication de l’amendement à
l’annexe de la convention contre le dopage, adopté par le groupe de suivi lors de sa 24e réunion les 14 et 15 novembre
2006 à Strasbourg
16
Instruction n06-138 du 1er août 2006 relative aux élèves, étudiants et personnels sportifs de haut niveau et sportifs
espoirs.
13
14
17
la FFF rappelle que le suivi et le soutien scolaire sont indispensables. Au final, les sections
«élite» fonctionne sous une double-tutelle: celle de l’Education Nationale et celle de la
fédération. L’admission dans cette voie de préformation se fait, après décision de la
commission d’admission, sur la base d’un concours organisé par le club en collaboration avec
la Ligue régionale. Comme en ce qui concerne les SSS classiques, les contenus sont
essentiellement de deux ordres: technique – 50 à 60% du volume – et tactique – 30 à 40% du
temps de formation. Les «apprentissages» techniques développent la maîtrise individuelle – «le
joueur – le ballon» –, l’aisance, la coordination, le bagage technique. Les «fondamentaux»
tactiques visent principalement la maîtrise des situations de base en nombre réduit –
«partenaire, adversaire, espace, etc.». En ce qui concerne le développement physique, les
sections élite ne se contentent plus d’un simple «accompagnement» des qualités mais
s’orientent davantage vers développement des fondamentaux athlétiques. La seconde différence
notoire avec les SSS réside en un éveil à la spécialisation défenseurs et attaquants.
1.2.3) Les centres de préformation fédéraux ou «pôles espoirs»; la préformation
prise en charge par la Fédération Française de Football.
Les pôles sont créés par la circulaire 95-244 du 7 novembre 1995 du MEN – conjointe
avec la circulaire 95-174 du Ministère de la Jeunesse et des Sports (MJS). Dans le domaine de
la formation de l’élite sportive, ils succèdent aux sections sport-études (1974-1984) et aux
Centres Permanents d’Entraînement et de Formation (1984-1995). Ces pôles font partie
actuellement partie des filières d’accès au sport de haut niveau – avec les pôles France et les
centres de formation des clubs professionnels– et sont régis par le décret n2002-1010 du 18
juillet 2002. Chaque fédération est libre d’élaborer comme elle le souhaite ses filières d’accès
au haut niveau. Cependant, cette organisation particulière doit être validée par la Commission
Nationale du Sport de Haut Niveau (CNSHN). A titre d’exemple, la FFF n’a pas mis en place
de pôle France pour les garçons et s’appuie sur la relation entre le pôle espoir – nommé centre
de préformation fédéral – et le centre de formation du club professionnel. Le cahier des charges
de ces structures insiste particulièrement sur trois domaines que sont la préparation sportive, la
formation scolaire, universitaire ou professionnelle et le suivi personnalisé de l’athlète.
Les filières d’accès au haut niveau en football auraient pu compter, à l’heure actuelle,
treize centres de préformation fédéraux. En effet, le pôle de Madine en Lorraine, a fermé ses
portes à la fin de l’année scolaire 2006. Les deux principales raisons mobilisées pour expliquer
la courte existence du centre – 1997 à 2006 – sont à la fois économique et sportive. Les soucis
rencontrés avec le gestionnaire privé de la structure ainsi que la concurrence des clubs de Metz
et de Nancy dans le recrutement des jeunes, n’ont pas permis à la fédération et aux dirigeants
du pôle de faire rayonner le centre comme ils le souhaitaient. Le fonctionnement –
administratif, sportif et financier – des autres centres de préformation fédéraux est actuellement
à l’étude dans droite ligne des pistes du rapport Besson qui préconise, entre autre, «une
diminution du nombre de centres17».
D’après la FFF, les centres de préformation proposent les mêmes contenus que les
sections «élite» des clubs professionnels: d’une part, des apprentissages techniques pour 50% à
60% du temps qui visent la maîtrise individuelle, l’aisance, la coordination, le bagage; d’autre
part, des fondamentaux tactiques qui comptent pour 30% à 40% du volume de formation et qui
s’orientent vers la maîtrise des situations de base et les principes de gestion offensive et
défensive. Comme pour les sections scolaires, les pôles visent également le développement des
fondamentaux athlétiques et l’éveil à la spécialisation défenseurs/attaquants. L’objectif annoncé
est également identique aux sections: il s’agit de «préparer les garçons de 13 et 14 ans aux
17
Besson, E., (2008). Accroître la compétitivité des clubs de football professionnel français. Rapport pour le
Secrétariat d’Etat chargé de la prospective, de l’évaluation des politiques publiques et du développement de
l’économie numérique.
18
exigences de la formation de haut niveau, dans des conditions optimales, en privilégiant les
principes de la préformation». Les principes d’acquisition renforcée de la pratique pour le haut
niveau et de maintien d’un équilibre de vie harmonieux entre le collège, la structure, la famille
et le club sont également maintenus à l’identique.
1.2.4) Les académies de football et les clubs amateurs : la préformation du secteur
privé et du secteur amateur.
Le passage par une académie de football n’est pas une modalité de préformation très
développée à l’heure actuelle puisqu’il n’en n’existe que deux sur le territoire français. Elles
sont l’œuvre de deux anciens illustres footballeurs professionnels, à savoir Fabien Barthez et
Bernard Diomède. Le premier a crée en 2008 une académie spécialement dédiée aux gardiens
de but qui se situe à Bagnères-de-Luchon dans les Pyrénées. Le second, également en 2008, a
mis en place, en collaboration avec Elie Baup, une structure privée accueillant des jeunes
joueurs de la région Parisienne. Ces deux structures sont labélisées par la FFF et ont également
tissé des liens avec le MEN puisque les jeunes académiciens sont accueillis par le collège de
Bagnères-de-Luchon (pour l’académie de Barthez) et le groupe scolaire Saint-Nicolas d’Issyles-Moulineaux (pour l’académie de Diomède). Les objectifs affichés restent relativement
larges et imprécis puisqu’ils visent à la fois l’acquisition de compétences scolaires, sportives et
comportementales, aussi bien pour l'avenir professionnel dans le football que dans le monde de
l'entreprise. La grande jeunesse de cette voie de préformation ne permet pas de dresser de bilan
plus précis sur les objectifs visés et les résultats réellement obtenus.
Les quelques dix-huit mille clubs amateurs français – ainsi que les centres de
perfectionnement – gèrent l’ensemble des joueurs qui n’ont pas postulé ou qui n’ont pas été
retenus dans l’une des structures de préformation citées ci-dessus. Ils ne constituent pas, à
proprement parler une réelle structure de préformation puisqu’ils ont en charge l’ensemble des
pratiquants de masse depuis l’école de football jusqu’à la catégorie vétéran. Cependant, bien
que de plus en plus improbable, il est toujours possible d’assister à l’éclosion au plus haut
niveau d’un joueur issu directement des rangs amateurs et n’ayant jamais intégré un centre ou
une section. C’est la raison pour laquelle nous considérons le club amateur comme la plus vaste
structure, à la fois de préformation mais également de formation.
1.3) Description des différentes structures de formation dans le football français
1.3.1) les sections sportives scolaires «second cycle»: la formation dans le milieu
scolaire
Les sections scolaires «second cycle» sont le pendant, au lycée des sections scolaires
«premier cycle». Elles sont donc régies par les mêmes textes. L’une des principales différences
tient en l’élargissement du bassin de recrutement. L’objectif affiché des sections scolaires en
lycée est de «permettre à des jeunes de 15 à 18 ans de suivre une formation de footballeur de
qualité, dans le temps d'une scolarité adaptée et complète». La mission première de ces
sections n’est pas de former des footballeurs d’élite. Tout au plus, peuvent-elles donner aux
jeunes les moyens d’accéder à la formation des élites. Une pratique soutenue du football devrait
leur permettre à la fois d’évoluer, au final, dans un club de niveau national, mais également de
favoriser une meilleure approche à la formation en se préparant aux différents diplômes
d’éducateur. En parallèle, les jeunes vont bénéficier dans ces sections d’une scolarité normale et
complète. Le cadre de fonctionnement prévoit 4 à 5 entraînements par semaine par un
encadrement qualifié sur les infrastructures du lycée et les installations sportives annexes. Les
moyens matériels mis à disposition sont donc de qualité mais non nécessairement de très haut
niveau. Il en va de même en ce qui concerne le suivi médical. La FFF précise que les jeunes
auront droit à un «suivi médical réglementé de base».
19
Le recrutement en section «second cycle» est identique à celui des sections «premier
cycle» puisque les jeunes sont sélectionnés sur concours organisé par la Ligue régionale et leur
affectation ne sera validée qu’après validation de la commission d’admission. Les contenus
techniques et tactiques sont maintenus mais connaissent quelques évolutions. Le
développement des fondamentaux techniques fait place à une spécialisation des acquisitions.
Sur le plan tactique, les apprentissages s’orientent davantage sur le jeu d’équipe que sur
l’attitude propre du joueur. Sur ces deux axes de contenus de formation vient se greffer un
travail athlétique censé accompagné le passage «de l’adolescent à l’athlète de haut niveau».
1.3.2) Les centres de formation des clubs professionnels de football
« En matière de formation, l’Etat et les fédérations sportives délégataires investies d’une
mission de service public ont la responsabilité commune de formation (scolaire et sportive) des
jeunes sportifs, à travers le dispositif national de préparation et d’accession au sport de haut
niveau, constitué des filières d’accès au sport de haut niveau comprenant les pôles et les centres
de formation agréés des clubs professionnels18». Les centres de formation des clubs
professionnels sont donc considérés par le MJS comme faisant partie des filières d’accès au
sport de haut niveau; du moins depuis leur création par la circulaire 95-244 du 7 novembre
1995 du ministère de l’Education Nationale – conjointe avec la circulaire 95-174 du ministère
de la Jeunesse et des Sports. La création officielle – puisque certaines initiatives privées des
clubs Nantais et Auxerrois remontent à la fin des années soixante – des centres de formation
des clubs professionnels remonte, quant-à elle, à l’instauration de la Charte du football
professionnel en 1973. Cette obligation a été levée par la Commission Nationale Paritaire de la
Charte le 12 juin 2003 qui a décidé de remettre en cause l’obligation, pour chaque club
professionnel, de posséder un centre de formation, en permettant aux clubs de déléguer la
formation à des organismes extérieurs. La Charte du football précise dorénavant que «les clubs
disputant le championnat de football professionnel de Ligue 1 ont le libre choix dans
l’organisation de leur formation19». Cependant, les risques encourus – perte de protection des
différents contrats admis par la charte autour des statuts spécifiques (aspirant, stagiaire, élite) et
protecteurs pour les clubs, perte du principe d’obligation pour le joueur de football de signer le
premier contrat professionnel dans son club formateur, perte de la possibilité de percevoir
légalement des subventions publiques pour la formation – n’ont pas encore conduit les clubs à
franchir le pas de la délocalisation de la formation.
Les centres sont répartis en deux catégories en fonction d’un certain nombre de
variables. Sont ainsi fondamentaux les critères de moyens – hébergement, structures sportives
et hébergement – et les critères d’efficacité – nombre de contrats professionnels, nombre de
matchs joués, nombre de sélections nationales FFF et niveau de diplôme obtenu par les
pensionnaires du centre ainsi que le niveau de contrat des éducateurs. Cette répartition
conditionne le nombre maximal de jeunes que le club peut accueillir en formation. Le suivi du
fonctionnement des centres agréés est réalisé conjointement par la Ligue de Football
Professionnelle (LFP), la FFF et la DTN, les services régionaux de la jeunesse et des sports
(DRJS) et ceux de l’éducation nationale (rectorats).
Comme pour les sections scolaires «second cycle», les centres de formation des clubs
professionnels visent des acquisitions techniques – des fondamentaux à la spécialisation –,
tactiques – de l’attitude du joueur au jeu d’équipe –, et athlétique – de l’adolescent à l’athlète de
haut niveau. Vient se greffer à ces trois domaines de formation un développement de l’esprit de
18
Site internet du MSJSVA (http://www.sports.gouv.fr/sports_1/sport-haut-niveau-sport-professionnel_69/sportprofessionnel_409/sport-professionnel_832.html) complété par les articles L. 211-4 et L. 211-5 du code du sport
19
Article 102 de la Charte du football professionnel. Politique de formation.
20
«compétiteur», censé balayé un ensemble de contenus courant «de la connaissance du mental à
la culture de compétition».
1.4) Bilan des structures de préformation et de formation
Cette carte «bilan» permet d’émettre un certain nombre de remarques. Le territoire
semble inégalement couvert en matière de structures de formation au football. Une grande
moitié nord – au dessus de la ligne Lyon-Bordeaux – regroupe l’essentiel des pôles et des
sections. Le détail des structures laisse apparaître, dans la grande majorité des cas, une
complémentarité entre les centres de formation des clubs professionnels et les sections
scolaires «second cycle». Autrement dit, là où sont formés les futurs footballeurs sont absents
les lycéens footballeurs; et réciproquement, là où est visée la fabrication d’un citoyen lucide,
cultivé, autonome et bon pratiquant de football, sont absents les futurs professionnels. Les
sections «élite» sont nécessairement associé à un club possédant un centre de formation alors
que la réciproque n’est pas vraie. De nombreux clubs professionnels mettent en place un
programme de préformation qui, non labellisé par la FFF, ne rentre pas dans le cadre des
sections «élite». C’est ce que nous avons nommé plus haut dans le tableau récapitulatif «centre
de préformation des clubs». Seules les ligues Midi-Pyrénées et Nord/Pas-de-Calais possèdent
l’association des quatre structures suivantes: section scolaire «second cycle», centre de
formation d’un club professionnel, section «élite» et centre de préformation fédéral.
Figure 1Organisation de la formation en football
Le tableau ci-dessus reprend les principales informations développées dans cette
première partie descriptive. Il permet de rappeler quelles sont les structures engagées dans la
préformation et la formation des footballeurs et quel est leur agencement dans le temps. Mais il
permet également de faire ressurgir la question que nous posions initialement et qui va être
abordée dans la seconde partie de ce papier, à savoir: quelle(s) logique(s) préside(nt) à la
multiplicité des structures alors que l’objectif annoncé de formation du futur joueur de football
semble identique pour chacune d’entre elles?
21
2) Analyse socio-historique de la formation footballistique
2.1) 1945 – 1970, une formation sous le sceau de l’empirisme ?
Un rapport de 2005 sur la professionnalisation des jeunes sportifs avance que
«l’instauration du système de formation français est née d’une réponse à la crise ouverte par les
déconvenues sportives (faible bilan aux Jeux Olympiques de Rome en 1960, absence de la
qualification pour les Coupes du Monde de 1970 et 1974). Une véritable mise en administration
du sport par l’Etat s’est opérée dans le but de tenir une place de rang sur l’échiquier sportif
mondial. Dans les mesures prises, citons entre autres le contrôle accru (mais aussi un soutien
financier et humain) du monde fédéral, la réglementation de l’encadrement sportif ou la
construction de centres spécialisés pour préparer les athlètes aux épreuves sportives
majeures20».
Il semble difficile de relier mécaniquement l’émergence de la mise en place d’une
formation professionnelle rationnelle avec la déroute sportive des années soixante et soixante
dix. Ainsi, Jean-Paul Clément, précise qu’ «en France, l’avènement de la Ve République en
1958 et la notion gaullienne de «grandeur de la Nation» qui fonde dans une large mesure la
politique étrangère de la France attachée à retrouver son prestige sur la scène internationale
après les péripéties de la décolonisation, conjuguées au choc ressenti par l’humiliante (et réelle)
déroute des athlètes français au J.O. de 1960 à Rome (révélateur pour beaucoup de «l’état»
physique (pour le moins) de la Nation) accélèrent la nationalisation de la politique sportive. Les
pressions sur les fédérations récalcitrantes s’accentuent pour mettre en place un système destiné
à révéler les jeunes talents21». A demi-mots, il nuance alors doublement cette vision qui
assimile déroute aux J.O. de Rome et mise en place d’une formation rationnelle.
Deuxièmement, tout en reconnaissant le traumatisme réel créé par la déroute de 1960, il avance
l’argument selon lequel cet échec ne serait pas le seul ingrédient à l’origine de la mise en place
d’un nouveau système de formation. Tout au long de l’article, il fait appel «aux mutations de la
société française dans tous les domaines, scientifiques, politiques, économiques, idéologiques »
ainsi qu’à la «décolonisation» pour éclairer les nouvelles orientations en matière de formation
sportive. L’instauration d’un nouveau mode de construction du footballeur apparaît alors
comme la réunion de plusieurs facteurs à la fois idéologiques, symboliques, et économiques.
Le dernier argument remettant en cause le lien explicatif unique entre déroute aux Jeux
Olympiques et mise en place de la formation rationnelle du footballeur serait celui du décalage
temporel. Comme les échanges monétaires sont antérieurs à l’instauration officielle du
professionnalisme dans le football en 1932, certaines politiques de formation des joueurs sont
antérieures aux années 1960 et à l’avènement de la Ve République. Dès lors, il ne faut pas
considérer que cette période des années 1960 et 1970 constitue le point de départ unique et
officiel d’une réelle formation des footballeurs et qu’auparavant aucune action n’était menée
dans ce domaine. Hassen Slimani affirme ainsi que « certains clubs n’ont pas attendu
l’autorisation de la direction fédérale pour mettre en place leur propre système de recherche [et
de formation] des jeunes talents. Très tôt, des réseaux plus ou moins formels de clubs amateurs
alimentent les équipes professionnelles. Dès la fin des années 1950 à Saint-Etienne, au cours
des années 1960 à Nantes et au Cavigal de Nice, en 1966 au «conservatoire» de l’AS Nancy, à
Lyon, à Valenciennes, etc. la détection et la formation sur le tas sont effectives22 ». Les travaux
de Wahl, entre autres, remettent donc en cause cette vision classique et erronée selon laquelle la
20
Falcoz, M., Sallé, L., & Walter, E., (2005). La professionnalisation des jeunes sportifs. Analyse des centres de
formation des clubs sportifs de la région de Champagne-Ardenne. Rapport commandité par le Conseil Régional de
Champagne-Ardenne, 65p. P13.
21
Clément, J.P., (1995), «Les mutations de la Société française et l’évolution du Sport de 1945 à nos jours» in Arnaud,
P., Clément, J.P., & Herr, M., (1995). Education physique et sport en France. 1920-1980. Clermont-Ferrand,
AFRAPS, 293p.
22
Slimani, H., (2002). «Le système de formation à la française» in Demazière, D., & Nuytens, W., (2002).
Panoramiques. Un monde foot, foot, foot. Corlet, 160p.
22
politique Gaullienne se développerait sur un espace vide, un rien, une table rase. Dans ce cas,
ce ne serait ni 1960 avec la débâcle de Rome, ni même 1958 avec l’arrivée du Général de
Gaulle au pouvoir qui constituerait la mise en place d’une réelle formation dans le monde
sportif en général et dans celui du football en particulier. Olivier Chovaux affirme également
que «si 1958 constitue dans bien des domaines une année de ruptures, il est plus délicat de la
considérer comme telle dans le domaine du sport. Il faut plutôt comprendre la nomination de
Maurice Herzog au poste de Haut-commissaire à la Jeunesse et aux Sports dès septembre
comme la volonté de donner à ce secteur hydride une impulsion et cohérence nouvelles, sans
renier toutefois le processus d’étatisation de ce secteur, amorcé sous le Front populaire. Ce qu’il
est justifié d’attribuer à de Gaulle concerne la volonté de redorer le blason français post Jeux
Olympiques et de redonner au pays une place incontournable sur l’échiquier géopolitique
international au même rang que les Etats-Unis ou l’URSS. Il est également, au travers de la
politique de Maurice Herzog, à l’origine de la refonte des structures de formation, de contrôle et
de promotion de l’activité sportive. Pour autant, les envies, les principes, les prises de
conscience et les premières actions effectives de reconstruction du monde sportif sont déjà
présentes bien avant les années 1960. Il faut alors bien garder à l’esprit que la déroute, certes
réelle, de 1960 est avant tout utilisée comme élément justificateur d’une nouvelle politique et
que les cadres de la IVe République, tout comme Maurice Herzog dès 1958, avaient pleinement
conscience de ce futur échec et avaient déjà mis en œuvre certaines réformes visant une
modification de l’organisation des sports en France. Ainsi, dans le domaine particulier que
constitue le football professionnel, les premières attentes et les premières réflexions en termes
de formation datent en réalité de l’immédiat après-guerre.
En effet, Alfred Wahl remarque qu’ «en instaurant le professionnalisme, les dirigeants
du football ont aussi donné naissance à un véritable métier […] [mais] qui n’avait aucune
tradition, ni de règles relatives à son apprentissage, à l’embauche, etc.23». Il cite ainsi l’exemple
du demi-aile Montpelliérain Roger Angles qui affirme avoir appris le football en regardant ses
ainés, les meilleurs anciens pour développer sa propre pratique. Les ex-professionnels de l’entre
deux guerres sont ainsi incapables de situer réellement le moment de leur apprentissage ou de
leur formation. Quatre éléments se dégagent majoritairement dans les propose des joueurs de
l’époque. Ce sont ainsi l’observation des joueurs plus âgés – «les yeux ça compte24» –, ce qui
vient confirmer le point de vue du joueur Angles, mais ce sont également le football de rue –
pratiqué sur les terrains vagues, dans un cadre informel –, les jeux de ballons dans les cours
d’école – sans préciser pour autant si ces moments de pratiques sont simplement tolérés par le
maître pendant les récréations ou initiés par lui dans le cadre du temps scolaire – ou encore
l’apprentissage au sein des patronages. Le recrutement dans les différentes équipes est à
l’image de la formation ou de l’apprentissage. Il se fait de manière empirique, ce qu’Alfred
Wahl justifie par la «jeunesse du football» et le «provincialisme de la société française» de
l’époque. Les joueurs sont ainsi repérés sur le tard – après l’âge de vingt ans pour la majorité
d’entre eux – et majoritairement lorsqu’ils participent à des sélections régionale. Puisqu’il
n’existe pas de système de formation, le recrutement de ces années d’avant-guerre s’effectue
essentiellement sur des critères affinitaires et de notoriété locale.
Après 1945, le recrutement apparaît beaucoup moins empirique. Si les critères anciens
semblent toujours en vigueur – l’entrée précoce au club, la notoriété locale et les relations
affinitaires fonctionne encore –, nous assistons à la mise en place de sélections de jeunes ainsi
qu’à l’organisation du concours du jeune footballeur, au niveau régional dans un premier temps,
puis ensuite au niveau national. Il nous semble encore difficile de qualifier ce football d’aprèsguerre d’un réel football de formation, mais nous pourrions alors évoquer le passage d’un
football de recrutement – des vedettes confirmées et des étrangers venus de Grande-Bretagne,
de Yougoslavie puis d’Amérique latine – à un football de recrutement plus précoce. Cela
23
24
Wahl, A., (1995). Op Cite. p71.
Ibid. p72.
23
permet sans doute d’entrevoir les raisons pour lesquelles les équipes de Nantes ou de SaintEtienne doivent attendre la période 1965 – 1970 pour obtenir avec leurs jeunes des résultats
significatifs au niveau national et européen malgré une politique de recrutement précoce mise
en œuvre près de quinze ans plus tôt.
2.2) De 1970 à nos jours, une politique de formation sous tensions
«L’invention de la «formation intégrée» alliant les apprentissages footballistique et
scolaire, date du début des années 1970. Elle ne relève pas seulement d’un souci fédéral de
mettre en place une formation rationalisée semblable à celle que possèdent d’autres corps de
métier Dans ce cas, elle aurait du l’être dès l’instauration du professionnalisme en 1932 ou au
lendemain de la seconde guerre mondiale. Si elle a pour mission explicite de relever le niveau
du football français au regard des dix dernières années au cours desquelles l’équipe de France
ne participe à aucune phase finale de compétitions internationales, elle a pour objectif de
restaurer une autorité fédérale doublement fragilisée25».
Les années 70 semblent constituer un tournant majeur dans l’implication de nombreuses
instances dans le sport. Si celui-ci a toujours plus ou moins été instrumentalisé, utilisé ou
détourné à des fins de contrôle ou de propagande, l’activité sportive en générale et le football en
particulier de cette période du début des années 70 apparaissent comme le lieu de cristallisation
d’un certains nombres d’enjeux simultanés, aussi bien de la part des clubs, que des joueurs, de
la fédération ou de l’Etat français. L’état actuel de la formation semble résulter d’une coconstruction historique débutée dans les années 70 résultant d’une prise de conscience
simultanée des différents acteurs de l’intérêt à obtenir le pouvoir dans le champ du football
professionnel français.
Nous pourrions ainsi qualifier l’intérêt de l’Etat français d’intérêt «éducatif»: contrôler
les masses sportives en les éduquant et légitimer ses actions en affichant ses réussites. Cela
passe nécessairement par le tissage d’un lien entre la masse et l’élite, ainsi que par la
reconnaissance du sport d’élite et de compétition comme produit du service public. Il est
d’ailleurs intéressant de remarquer qu’à partir de la loi Mazeaud de 1975, le qualificatif
employé pour décrire les meilleurs pratiquants n’est plus celui d’«élite» - qui se réfère avant
tout à l’attachement au club – mais plutôt celui de «haut niveau» qui suppose que les meilleurs
sportifs français sont issus de la base de la pyramide sportive grâce à une politique facilitatrice
de l’Etat. Les moyens mis en œuvre agissent à trois niveaux distincts: la formation mais aussi la
reconnaissance et l’encadrement des pratiquants de haut niveau. La politique d’éducation des
jeunes et d’encadrement des meilleurs sportifs est sans doute l’élément le plus caractéristique
dans la volonté de reprise de contrôle de l’Etat dans le monde sportif. Ainsi, l’INSEP est créé
dès 1975 par fusion de l’INS (Institut National des Sports) et des ENSEPS (Ecole Normale
Supérieure d’Education Physique et Sportive) pour encadrer et préparer les sportifs de renom
aux compétitions internationales. Quasiment en parallèle, sont fondées les «sections sportétude» – par la circulaire 74 – 136 du 8 mai 1974. Celles-ci ont pour but de fournir aux enfants
un apprentissage à la fois sportif et scolaire et de permettre de mettre en pratique le principe
selon lequel de la masse sortent nécessairement les meilleurs éléments. La reconnaissance des
sportifs de haut niveau intervient à la sortie des premières promotions de l’INSEP puisqu’une
première liste ministérielle recense, en 1982, 2938 athlètes de haut niveau dont 235
internationaux. Il faut attendre la loi Avice de 1984 pour assister à une clarification des critères
de reconnaissance et bâtir des listes réellement significatives. L’analyse l’historique du
développement des sections proposant une alliance entre scolarité et pratique sportive, laisse
entrevoir un brouillage identitaire. Tantôt orientées vers le pôle éducatif, tantôt orientées vers le
pôle compétitif ces sections laissent planer un doute sur les motivations réelles de l’Etat
25
Slimani, H., (2002). Op Cite. p79.
24
français: s’agit-il de former de bons élèves équilibrés par la pratique sportive, ou alors de
repérer dans ces classes les futures perles de telle ou telle discipline? Ainsi, les «sections sportétude» sont réaménagées en «section scolaire de haut niveau» par la circulaire 88 – 026 du 27
janvier 1988. Elles perdent leur qualificatif de haut niveau deux ans plus tard lorsque la
circulaire 90 – 047 du 12 mars 1990 inaugure les «sections sportives». La dernière circulaire en
date – circulaire 96 – 291 parue au BO 47 du 26 décembre 1996 – abroge celle de 1990 pour
permettre la création des «sections sportives scolaires». Cette réforme fait suite à un texte de
1995 qui réorganise les filières d’accès au haut niveau notamment par la création des pôles
Espoirs et des pôles France. Si un équilibre semble avoir été trouvé depuis une dizaine
d’années, un doute subsiste encore quant-à la mission réelle de ces sections.
Dans un article de 2002, Hassen Slimani démontre de quelle manière la fédération doit
sans cesse lutter pour tenter de conserver une certaine forme de domination sur le monde du
football. Dans les années soixante, c’est sur fond de contestation du contrat à vie qu’un certain
nombre de joueurs tentent de s’émanciper de la tutelle fédérale. Cette vague contestatrice prend
forme notamment dans la création de l’Union Nationale des Footballeurs Professionnels
(UNFP), sorte de syndicat des joueurs de football. Face à ce mouvement de protestation et suite
à la grève des joueurs de 1972, «le pouvoir de la fédération est renforcé suite à l’intervention de
l’Etat qui arbitre ce conflit26». Cela permet également à l’Etat comme nous l’avancions
précédemment d’étendre ses prérogatives éducatives de manière officielle sous couvert de
protéger le fonctionnement du monde du football professionnel. Ainsi, par la Charte de 1973, si
un certain nombre de droits sont accordés aux joueurs, le point le plus important est sans doute
constitué par l’obligation faite à tous les clubs de posséder un centre de formation. La puissance
publique fixe les objectifs à atteindre et donne en quelque sorte une légitimité par délégation de
pouvoir à la fédération pour mener à bien cette mission. Le pari est de former des joueurs qui se
sentiront redevables de la formation et de la consécration que leur procurent les clubs. Ce
fonctionnement est à double tranchant car il permet également aux footballeurs de se sentir plus
compétent et de manière plus précoce pour s’émanciper d’autant plus vite du giron de la
fédération. Autre biais non prévu par les cadres fédéraux et publiques, la rationalisation de la
formation des joueurs est à l’origine de ce qu’Hassen Slimani nomme «un marché public de la
formation27». Si les critères de sélection et d’élection étaient auparavant obscurs et donnaient
les pleins pouvoirs à certains clubs avancés dans le domaine de la formation comme Auxerre ou
Nantes, la clarification et l’objectivation des critères permettent d’afficher aux yeux de tous les
compétences de tel ou tel joueur. Se met alors en place un fonctionnement du football français à
deux vitesses entre les clubs qui forment et les clubs qui recrutent et qui gagnent. En voulant
réaffirmer son autorité, la fédération, par l’intermédiaire de l’Etat, a créé une sorte de formation
publique libéralisée. Face à cela, jugeant que les principes économiques ont pénétré le domaine
de la formation, l’action de la fédération ne peut se faire qu’en amont, auprès des plus jeunes
joueurs. C’est pour cette raison le premier centre fédéral de préformation fédéral voit le jour à
Clairefontaine lors de la saison 1988 – 1989. Le risque est de voir se développer le même
schéma que pour la formation et d’obtenir aux travers d’une lecture facilitée des compétences
accrues des jeunes joueurs un marché public de la préformation.
Si la fédération tente de lutter contre le marché et la compétitivité outrancière, les clubs
de football professionnels semblent rechercher avant tout les profits sportifs et économiques.
Leur intérêt serait donc «sportif et/ou économique». Certains clubs comme Nantes ou Auxerre
n’ont pas attendu les décisions de la Charte de 1973 et ont organisé très tôt la détection et la
formation des jeunes joueurs. Ce sont d’ailleurs ce clubs qui trustent les titres et les diverses
récompenses dans les années 60 et 70. Cette forme de réussite pouvait en quelque sorte gêner la
fédération par l’augmentation du pouvoir sportif et symbolique des clubs et par l’émancipation
des joueurs les plus-en vue. En dictant à tous des principes de formation fixés par l’Etat et la
26
27
Slimani, H., (2002). Op Cite.
Ibid.
25
Fédération, la Charte devait tout solutionner. Mais la création de ce marché public de la
formation associée à l’arrivée massive d’argent dans le football au début des années 1980 ont
permis l’émergence de clubs très riches. Les clubs les mieux dotés financièrement pouvaient
alors se permettre l’achat des meilleurs joueurs. Les clubs formateurs devenaient alors, en
quelque sorte, les esclaves des clubs les plus compétitifs. Cette bascule ne règle donc pas le
souci de la fédération toujours en proie à la concurrence des clubs et des joueurs. Cette
contestation fédérale s’en trouve même s’en doute accrue par la levée progressive des tabous
liés à l’argent et la mobilité facilitée des joueurs. Aujourd’hui, cette scission entre clubs
formateurs et clubs jouant la gagne ne semble plus réellement exister. Les conditions de
rémunérations des cadres et des joueurs, les conditions d’imposition, les lois sur les transferts,
font que les anciens clubs acheteurs ne peuvent plus réellement lutter avec les meilleurs clubs
européens. Ils entrevoient dès lors l’intérêt de former les plus jeunes joueurs. D’autant plus que,
malgré la levée de l’obligation faite à tous les clubs de posséder un centre de formation en
2003, il existe de nombreuses sanctions financières pour les clubs ne possédant pas une voie
d’accès au haut niveau reconnue par la Fédération. Exemple est même pris sur les démarches de
la fédération puisque de nombreux clubs mettent en place des centres de préformation,
notamment le PSG. Depuis le milieu des années 90, les travaux scientifiques sur l’importance
de la précocité du recrutement et les résultats de l’INF Clairefontaine entre autres, ont poussé
les clubs professionnels à bâtir des structures de préformation identiques à celle mises en place
par la Fédération. Certains clubs comme Lens ou Lille vont même plus loin en tissant de réels
partenariats avec l’Education Nationale par l’intermédiaire des «sections sportives élite». Quel
objectif recouvre ce lien entre le club et l’école? Pour le club, est-ce fait dans un objectif de
légitimation du club? Dans celui de former des joueurs plus mûrs, plus matures, plus
«intelligents»? De séduire le public des classes moyennes? De préparer la reconversion des
futurs exclus de la formation? Pour l’EN, cela permet-t-il d’étendre son action éducative? De
tisser, par le biais du football, un lien plus fort entre les jeunes et les valeurs de la République?
La Fédération tente elle-aussi de tisser certaines relations. Face à la mise en place des
structures de préformation des clubs professionnels, nous assistons à l’éclosion des centres de
perfectionnement. Ce sont des regroupements des jeunes joueurs supervisés dans le cadre des
concours d’accès aux centres fédéraux de préformation mais qui n’ont pas été retenus. Encadrés
et organisés dans les clubs amateurs (Calonne et Marles pour le District Artois), cela permet de
sans doute de garder les jeunes dans le giron de la préformation fédérale et d’éviter une fuite
trop rapide vers le monde professionnel.
Conclusion
L’organisation de la formation au métier de footballeur en France est marquée par la
multiplicité des structures. Si, pour les jeunes de plus de quinze ans, les centres de formation
semblent constituer une étape incontournable – 90% des joueurs professionnels transitent en
effet dans ces centres28 – la période de préformation pour les jeunes footballeurs de 11 à 15 ans
peut se dérouler selon des modalités très variées. Les jeunes peuvent être pris en charge soit au
sein de l’institution scolaire (SSS), soit dans les clubs professionnels, soit dans le giron fédéral
(Pôle Espoir), ou encore dans le secteur privé (académie). Derrière l’objectif commun annoncé
de formation du futur joueur et derrière les divers partenariats qui peuvent se tisser, chaque
structure semble en réalité guidée par une logique bien précise qui la différencie des autres:
visée sportive pour les clubs, économique pour les académies, paternaliste pour la fédération et
visée éducative pour l’Education Nationale.
Ce processus de diversification mais également de rationalisation de la formation puis de
la préformation que nous venons de détailler «réunit concrètement des conditions favorables à
28
Demazière, D., & Csakavary, B., (2002). «Devenir professionnel», Demazière (Didier) & Nuytens (Williams), Revue
Panoramiques, n°61, pp 85-91
26
l’acquisition d’un capital footballistique très performant, procurant désormais aux footballeurs
les moyens de revendiquer de plus en plus tôt la libre disposition de leur force de travail et la
possibilité de faire valoir leurs compétences sur un marché de plus en plus ouvert29» Ce constat
ouvre deux modes de lecture totalement opposé d’une même réalité. Certains voient dans cette
ouverture des possibles une plus grande offre de formation et une chance pour les jeunes de
faire état de leurs compétences auprès de différents acteurs. Cela individualise et multiplie les
parcours envisageables en opposition à une trajectoire optimale unique qui imposerait un seul
mode de recrutement et de fonctionnement. D’autres envisagent cette rationalisation de la
formation du footballeur selon un autre versant. L’ouverture du marché de la compétence
footballistique est synonyme d’attente de résultats, de pression constante, d’évaluations
multiples et continues, en un mot, d’incertitude. Si ce mode de fonctionnement renforce ceux
qui parviennent au sommet de la pyramide sportive, il peut également se révéler extrêmement
destructeur pour les jeunes apprentis qui en sont exclus, généralement plus nombreux que les
quelques élus.
Biographie
Besson, E., (2008). Accroître la compétitivité des clubs de football professionnel français.
Rapport pour le Secrétariat d’Etat chargé de la prospective, de l’évaluation des politiques
publiques et du développement de l’économie numérique.
Clément, J.P., (1995), «Les mutations de la Société française et l’évolution du Sport de 1945 à
nos jours» in Arnaud, P., Clément, J.P., & Herr, M., (1995). Education physique et sport en
France. 1920-1980. Clermont-Ferrand, AFRAPS, 293p.
Demazière, D., & Csakavary, B., (2002). «Devenir professionnel», Demazière (Didier) &
Nuytens (Williams), Revue Panoramiques, n61, pp 85-91
Falcoz, M., Sallé, L., & Walter, E., (2005). La professionnalisation des jeunes sportifs.
Analyse des centres de formation des clubs sportifs de la région de Champagne-Ardenne.
Rapport commandité par le Conseil Régional de Champagne-Ardenne, 65p. P13.
Slimani. H., (2002). «Le système de formation à la française» in Demazière, D., & Nuytens,
W., (2002). Panoramiques. Un monde foot, foot, foot. Corlet, 160p
Wahl. A., (1995). Les footballeurs professionnels des années trente à nos jours, Paris,
Hachette, p119.
29
Slimani, H., (2002). Op Cite. p79.
27
PHYSICAL EFFORT – ADJUSTMENTS AND MORPHFUNCTIONAL AND PHYSICAL ALTERATION STIMULUS FOR
PRACTICING STUDENTS OF AEROBICS AND FITNESS
Lect.univ. drd. Ciomag Rela-Valentina
D.E.F.S. al A.S.E. BUCUREŞTI,
Drd UNEFS, Bucuresti
Abstract:
No matter the activity (physical education, sport practice, hobbies or Kino
therapy), physical effort requires alteration and re-alteration mechanisms, at
higher and higher levels, the process needing a careful management from
specialists running these kinds of activities. Physical effort is conditioned by
skeletal muscles, which accomplish mechanical labor, and on the other hand, the
organs and support systems which amplify the activity for supporting the
subject’s performance. As a form of education by training, aerobics and fitness
aim for optimizing the subject’s biometrical potential, of its cognitive, affective
and social related components. If other types of movement mostly follow “the
biological machine” aerobics and fitness create the premises for developing
different dimensions of the subject’s personality, along with aesthetic modeling.
Key words: physical effort, body aesthetics, gestures, acquired knowledge,
information, health, physical and psychical stamina.
Rezumat
Indiferent de activitatea în care este prestat (educaţie fizică, antrenament
sportiv, activităţi de timp liber sau kinetoterapie), efortul fizic solicită
mecanismele de adaptare şi readaptare, la niveluri din ce în ce mai înalte,
procesul necesitând o dirijare atentă din partea specialiştilor care conduc aceste
activităţi. Efortul fizic este condiţionat pe de o parte de muşchii scheletici, care
realizează lucru mecanic şi pe de altă parte, de organele şi sistemele-suport care
amplifică activitatea pentru asusţine prestaţia subiectului. Ca formă a educaţiei
prin mişcare, Gimnastica aerobică şi Fitnessul vizează optimizarea potenţialului
bio-motric al subiectului, a componentelor sale cognitivă, afectivă şi socialrelaţionară. Dacă alte tipuri de mişcare, exerciţiu urmăresc predominant
„maşina biologică”, atât Gimnastica aerobică, cât şi Fitnessul creează
premisele dezvoltării diferitelor dimensiuni ale personalităţii subiectului, alături
de modelarea estetică.
Cuvinte cheie: efort fizic, estetică corporală, gesturi, deprinderi, cunoştinţe,
sănătate, tonus fizic şi psihic.
Introduction:
Physical effort gears the subject’s body as a dynamic system, in all stages of
development, each ontogenetic stage corresponding to certain of its “profile”, which leads to
growing processes development, potential optimizing, regeneration, etc. We present in the
following a synthesis of the main definition aspects of effort, from the works of known authors:
Astrand, O. , Demeter, A., Dragnea, A. şi Teodorescu, S., Bota, C., Drăgan, I. Many authors
define effort from a physiological, psychological, or practice theory perspective, or as “process
of mobilizing forces, to overcome an obstacle”, or as “opposite factor of staying” Demeter, A.
(1983), or as “overcoming biological stimulus which obligates the body to respond by
electrical, biochemical, mechanical, thermal manifestation” Bota, C. (2002), or as “a process of
28
conscious defeat of the demands in order to achieve a better training level” Dragnea, A. (2002).
Of all these points of view comes the idea that effort is a stress factor, which modifies the
homeostatic parameters, to values far superior to those of normal conditions. This way, the
body reacts to this stress, more or less intense, more or less generalized, depending on its
characteristics.
The effort can be characterized by quantity, but also quality, depending on the effects on
subjects’ bodies.
The effort, the tiredness, the regeneration, represents a cycle of physiological
phenomenon associated to organic movement. Repetition of this cycle leads to an increase in
effort capacity, meaning the capacity to produce more mechanical labor, for as much time as
possible. The notion of effort capacity is associated to the growth of motoric qualities level
(physical condition).
No matter the activity (physical education, sport practice, hobbies or Kino therapy),
physical effort requires alteration and re-alteration mechanisms, at higher and higher levels, the
process needing a careful management from specialists running these kinds of activities.
Physical effort is conditioned by skeletal muscles, which accomplish mechanical labor, and on
the other hand, the organs and support systems which amplify the activity for supporting the
subject’s performance.
To synthesize, physical effort can be asserted as tense state of body muscle, conditioned
by the morph functional and energetic capacities as well as mobilizing physical processes Bota,
A. (2007).
In case the subject is dealing with a task that supposes physical effort, the human body
reacts by a series of functional system adjustments, which mainly gears the physiological and
physical sphere. Any movement claims the activation of skeletal muscle system, and the cardio
vascular system and breathing system create the base for the development of this activity on the
long term.
When the body is subject to physical effort a few times a week, each of these
physiological systems suffer specific adaptation which improve functional efficiency and its
capacity to adapt. The amplitude of these modifications is dependent of the lesson’s intensity
and stimulus time, work charging and initial level of physical condition. Lack of continuous
adaptation stimulus installs un-adaptation phenomenon—un-training, which install quickly.
This process reversibility expresses by muscle atrophy, decrease of contractile proteins,
especially slow muscle fibers, closing of articular angles, impossibility to continue a long time
effort, etc.
Even if in maintenance aerobics the adaptive processes are not as spectacular as
professional sports it follows the same pattern obviously at different scale. Adaptive
phenomenon occurs at optimum level, if scheduled according to effort parameters. As a form of
education by training, aerobics and fitness aim for optimizing the subject’s biometrical
potential, of its cognitive, affective and social related components. If other types of movement
mostly follow “the biological machine” aerobics and fitness create the premises for developing
different dimensions of the subject’s personality, along with aesthetic modeling.
Through these activities progressive modifications are achieved for the cognitive
processes (thought, attention, memory, imagination) as well as those affective ones. Intellectual
activities are stimulated which is responsible for getting the knowledge about skills, activities,
movement, fitness in general. Affectively the influence of maintenance aerobics occurs upon
the attitudes, interests, motivation and values.
Beyond these influences, physical effort is responsible for secretion of brain-substances
(endorphins) , whose effect is inner happiness, even exultance. Many subjects, although
clinically healthy, don’t know what it feels like to really feel well, physically and psychically,
until they are active, through which the body optimizes internal parameters. Glasser W. (1976)
says that physical exercise induces a form of good addiction, followed by depression, in
subjects that stopped practicing. The euphoria, self “abandonment”, wellness are explained by
29
raised endorphins, similar to opium. These are found in nervous cells at the base of the
hypothalamus and in endocrine cells in pituitary anterior lobe.
Parallel, training is associated to emotional discharge, the effect of catharsis
(therapeutic effect by discharging a suppressed memory) and the possibility to relax. The idea
that systematic training influences the balance of personality occurs, the feeling of joy to be
alive, and the qualities that influence professional performance.
The experts’ mission in our field is to train, guide and counsel the youth’s interest in
different forms of learning and physical practice as to options, necessities, or its motivation.
Different working ways from motoric activities of free time can provide “personalized routes”,
led by experts, so that temporary satisfaction is associated with long term benefits: health,
professional performance, social success, personal achievement, etc.
Physical education and sport are imposed as an important antidote, active and accessible
at the same time. This represents one of the most important ways of balancing the human body,
relief of inner tension and raising the body’s adapting possibilities.
By the idea issued today in scientific pedagogy, to look at physical exercise as a way to
develop personality and to prepare professionally and modern demands, this work assumes the
role to highlight multiple valences of movement, physical exercise in general and aerobics and
fitness especially.
I was especially interested in aerobics and fitness because by content, form and effect
both offer favorable conditions to simultaneously develop basic or specific motoric skills,
motoric qualities, as well as adjacent psychical processes and personality traits.
Aerobic and fitness are ways of physical education as well as a healthy lifestyle
education. Here is why I wanted to highlight the educational role of the two disciplines. The
practitioners know and assume the motoric reality, driving conscious their moves, body
aesthetics, preparing for work and life, improving their motor capacity and realizing the
benefits of physical activity.
In this complex process the practitioner is active: observing, thinking, re-updating
creatively, and acting related to others. Perfecting the motoric capacity and harmonious
physical development are correlated to influencing the development of personality in its
integrity.
Based on the data supplied by the literature in this field, as well as a few results from
own experience, I expressed a few theoretical general considerations accompanied by a few
experiments whose efficiency was confirmed by practice. Far from considering the issue
solved, my goal was to continue this research to further add opinions.
Body activities should constitute the objective of scientific progress and quality
improvements, integrated with the science of human improvement. During our activity with
female students at ASE Bucharest, in Physical Education class, as well as sports activities, we
based our activity on the following coordinates of physical processes and complex personality
development:
- Maintaining and improving harmonious and aesthetic development of female students
with repercussion to maintaining a healthy life tone, according to modern demands
- Preparing the female students theoretically, practically, for fulfilling the important role
of tomorrow’s woman in society, that of a mother facing multiple family and society issues,
forced to share the precious time between children education, household chores, work duties
,etc. Women have to be prepared to face demands of an intensive work and maintain at
optimum level, the capacity to work long term.
- In our activity we pursue to develop in young students a healthy conception about
movement, to enliven the interest and desire to exercise. We try to ensure special attention to
guiding female students to freely exercise a few hours a week
- Also, we want to enliven to young girls the capacity of self-knowledge of their somatic
development, the identification and correcting certain physical deficiencies. The female
30
students already know the main muscles and a minimum of corresponding exercises, which
they can perform individually based on their needs and desires
- I insisted on knowing the basic eating habits rules, the decisive associated role
between eating habits and physical exercises for a healthy life style diet
Knowing that physical activity, in this case aerobics and fitness, represents a form of
social and professional integration of young people, by its formative function of perception and
intellectualization of the motoric act, we can highlight the importance of self-regulating the
motoric behavior, not only in class, but beyond it, in life with the purpose of maintaining
healthy and assuring work capacity, and a high quality of life.
Researchers showed in time the negative tendencies about movement, especially of
resistance indicators of youth. These are generated by inappropriate eating habits and
sedentariness more and more present. It is thought that to restore balance and assure an
optimum evolution of the body it is necessary to increase the efficiency of physical education in
youths, as early as possible, of the capacity and habit to systematically exercise.
The problem of outdoor activities is an important issue materialized in fundamental
research, but especially in clinical studies, whose results were unanimously recognized. We
mention that in this area the works of the institute founded by Dr. Kenneth Cooper in 1970 with
areas belonging to the study of physiology of physical effort, the causes of obesity, arterial
hypertension, bacterial diseases, behavioral changes, children health, nutrition and aging effect,
etc.
Specialty literature quotes medical research with the purpose of identifying the effects of
outdoor practicing over the people with different conditions, highlighting cases of multiple
scleroses, rheumatic arthritis and lupus erythematous, following adapted programs and
adjusted, timed and frequented doses, finding that the main effect was reducing the chronicle
fatigue.
Last years’ studies show that people’s health state is encumbered in an alarming way by
stress, a disease of modern society. A major part of the population, younger and younger,
suffers from affection, behavioral or even psychical distress (depression, panic attacks, etc.)
In combating this scourge and its effects must be taken into account that a human being
is a dynamic, evolving, and energy-informational in nature, capable of continuous adjustment
and optimization of behavior, actions and self-control. Literature data offers sufficient
arguments on the role of movement in the construction and development of individual mental,
psychological balance being determined to a large extent on physical activity.
Prof. univ. dr. I., Haţieganu emphasized that physical education has become a concern
for all universities and almost all European countries, university physical education is evolving
and put together the science education in order to achieve full education. Current needs of
social life have contributed to the doors of universities from almost all countries to open up and
make it possible to introduce physical education.
On university physical education goals, we believe that these aspects should be updated
on the pace and style of contemporary life, adding the following (Bachner, L. 2002):
 formation of a healthy lifestyle to practice air movement free, revival of tourism
activities, excursions and camps in life;
 alternative to harmful ways of spending free time in various places, by favorite sport;
 removing vicious drug habits, tobacco, alcohol, by making exercise fun, to offset
interest on these harmful habits;
 formation of groups of friends to be interested in these objectives that maintain a
balanced lifestyle and to attract as many students to this way of existence;
 belief that exercise training is the cheapest medicine and implementation of this ideal
future students, to be trained since little in this direction;
 assessment of physical activity by the possibility of knowing your own body as
aesthetic, psychological and functional modeling and its possibilities.
31
Fitness as gymnastics, they are part of "en vogue" activities, became so popular in
today's youth that’s why practicing this type of motion; in all gyms and health clubs there is
necessary equipment and instructors who specialize in coordinating the activity.
With its rich content and the amount of resources behind these sports, we could say that
the practice of aerobic fitness and gym has lots of advantages. Achieving the desired effects can
be achieved on sustained training, targeted methodological point of view, based on practical
experience and the results of scientific research. The quality of the educational process is
influenced by the provision of educational training. Leverage in this regard is many, gymnastic
and fitness being in which practical activities is materialized: gestures and driving behaviors,
the influences of education, knowledge, skills and abilities of students.
Starting from this idea, the criteria to be selected instructive exercise in organizing
education are:
 efficiency;
 use value;
 control influences.
Thus the choice of exercises used in aerobics and fitness, you must take into account the
needs, objectives and scope of those two disciplines. Among them are those whom we can
accurately determine and direct, influence and for which there is scope for the application
possibilities. The knowledge, skills, abilities must have use-value, finding a concrete
application performance requirements of various professions in life and social activity.
Bibliografie
Astrand, O. (1992) – Endurance in sport, The encyclopedia of sport medicine
Bachner, L. (2002) – Forme diferenţiate de conţinut şi organizare a educaţiei fizice şi
sportului la studenţi. ANEFS, Teză de doctorat, Bucureşti
Bota, A. (2007) – Kinesiologie, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti
Bota, C. (2002) - Fiziologie generală – aplicaţii la efortul fizic, Editura Medicală, Bucureşti
Carta Europeană a Sportului,site: http.//ec.europa.eu/sport/Index
Demeter, A. (1983) – Fiziologia şi biochimia dezvoltării calităţilor motrice, Editura SportTurism, Bucureşti
Dragnea, A., Teodorescu, S. (2002) – Teoria educaţiei fizice şi sportului, Ed. A doua
(revăzută), Editura FEST, Bucureşti, pp. 166-173
Drăgan, I. (1994) – Medicină sportivă aplicată, Editura Editis, Bucureşti
32
DIFFERENCES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
BEETWEN THE RURAL AND THE URBAN SCHOOLS IN GORJ COUNTY
Badea-Miss Georgian
Lecturer, Ph.D.
"Constantin Brâncuşi" University of Târgu-Jiu
Physical and sportive education
Abstract
Across the Romanian education, we find side effects of the reform, which
affected the fairness and increased the distance that exists between rural and
urban, disparities between students from urban and rural areas, between the
participation rates, the graduation, the prosecution cycles higher education, not
to mention the discrepancies in terms of material conditions in general and the
conduct of teaching.
Our scientific approach seeks to investigate the reality of discipline physical
education at primary and secondary students from rural areas, in the Gorj
county, but other noteworthy aspects of all the priority activities, in educating
students, as required model of a modern society integrated into European
culture.
Keywords: physical education, rural, questionnaire
Rezumat
Pe ansamblul învăţământului românesc, întâlnim apariţia unor efecte
secundare ale reformei, care au afectat echitatea şi au accentuat distanţa care
există între mediul rural şi mediul urban, discrepanţele dintre elevii din mediul
urban şi mediul rural, între ratele participării, ale absolvirii, ale urmării
ciclurilor superioare de învăţământ, ca să nu mai vorbim de discrepanţe în ceea
ce priveşte condiţiile materiale în general şi cele privind desfăşurarea procesului
didactic.
Demersul nostru ştiinţific caută să investigheze realitatea acestui fapt la
nivelul disciplinei educaţie fizică din învăţământul primar şi gimnazial, din
mediul rural, în judeţul Gorj, dar şi alte aspecte demne de semnalat ale întregii
acestei activităţi prioritare, după părerea noastră, în educarea elevilor, conform
cerinţelor de model ale societăţii moderne, integrate în cultura europeană.
Cuvinte cheie: educaţie fizică, mediul rural, chestionar
Introduction:
When we wish such research in the rural education, our cultural memory attached in
terms of its social significance of two imagery. The first is that of the teacher from the country,
the apostle of the nation, one that educates not only children but also a community educator and
a leader of it. He gives evidence of sacrifice, patriotism, love of people and belief in his
mission. The second picture is of children from the country, who then goes to town to learn the
book, urged the teacher and parents sacrifice and then succeed in life, culture, politics. Is it
resembles the traditional image of the situation now? Have them restored and returned to reality
or we must turn to something else? We believe that worthy direction to follow, in terms of
physical education must move away from these powerful images, do not want to come back to
rural education in this century, but its development process, to bring the requirements of
modern society, like those of urban environment.
33
Physical education can contribute to obtaining essential both sports performance and
especially, to the harmonious development of the younger generation and thus to her health.
Marginalized for years, in terms of importance as a subject, physical education provides young
generation, have good prospects for asserting the complex individual personalities, character,
values, by: developing the habit of making movement, posture education attitudes, approach a
non-sedentary lifestyle, models, “heroes”, educating the positive traits of character - notions
that physical education is currently operating, regardless of from which the student or teacher urban or rural.
We wish, with our scientific research, to determine what differentiates mission of a
teacher in rural area than urban areas in the overall objectives of physical education and sports.
All these premises from which we start our scientific study, on the realities, requirements,
approaches and future directions in teaching physical education in primary and secondary rural
county of Gorj, is not complete without a picture of the school network, the base material,
human realities - teachers and students, the traditions and history of school in our great sculptor
district Constantin Brâncuşi. The school network in the county has undergone several changes
in recent years, in most cases they were caused by lower school classes, which is common
throughout the country.
The structure of the school network covers the school year 2010 - 2011 a total of 115
schools with legal personality. At the beginning of the current school year, the County School
Inspectorate management announced that in addition to the 19 primary schools have been
abolished from 1 September 2010 will be merged with 22 other schools, kindergartens and
schools with classes V-VIII.
According to the administrative organization of the Romania territory, Gorj County, has
a total area of 5602 km², 9 cities and 61 municipalities with a total of 414 villages. In urban
areas they are 31 schools on all three levels (primary, secondary and high school) and in rural
areas, currently operates 83 schools in 61 municipalities serving populations of students of the
441 villages . From a simple statistical calculation we see that a rural school serving the
children's population of approximately five villages, the distances between these villages can be
over 10 km. Quality of education can thus be reduced if not carrying those (especially primary
and secondary) in physical education activity is more pronounced.
Another direction towards which we focused our scientific research has been manning
the situation on the school network of Gorj county employing teachers in general but especially
on physical education in primary and secondary education in rural areas.
The management of the Gorj County School Inspectorate, in the 2010-2011 school year,
reduced the total number of positions with 267 chairs, some of them were physical education
and sport. On the basis of these reductions were the positions and requirements MECTS the
proposed new Education Law to increase to 18 hours teaching norm for teachers with first
degree, making hours of sport by primary teachers, rather than substitute teachers and reduce
class parallel in schools with small herds.
A summary statement of the number of physical education norms in Gorj County school
is as follows (according to information provided by the control specialist), of the approximately
183 norms, each norms corresponding a teacher, 31 are qualified substitute teachers, one retired
and the remaining 151 teachers are holders or transferees in Gorj schools. The percentage of
holder is 82%, represent a good coverage, but a number of 88 of them are older than 50 years,
representing a rate of 58%.
In rural schools, teaching a total of 77 teachers who are holding 59 and 18 are qualified
substitute teachers, 51 physical education teachers teach in urban and 33, representing a 20%
provide children and juniors performance at the sports clubs and the Sports School in Târgu-Jiu.
34
Age distribution of holders teachers
of rural in Gorj county
The age distribution analysis shows that the number of teachers newcomers is
extremely small, about 8% of all holders in rural education, which is determined by the
educational policy of appointment as the County School Inspectorate and the competition out of
a very small number positions, although approximately one quarter are substitute teachers, so
there are a significant number of free chairs, but are occupied by specialized personnel
replacement, the majority being under 30 years. So, we conclude that the problem is not lack of
teachers, but the low number of vacancies. Also, a significant number of teachers is over 50
years, 39%, 8 of whom were on the verge of retirement.
We formulated such a broad picture of rural education in Gorj county, custom on
physical education and sport, we intend to continue our research study on the vision of teachers
(holders and substitute). Our research study has primary goal capturing the main issues of
relevance mainly to teaching physical education in general, the concrete realities of activities,
distinctions on the teaching of rural versus urban, and a comprehensive professional opinions
on sport and physical education in Gorj’s schools rural.
Setting these goals in our approach we want to demonstrate scientific hypothesis
underlying our research, namely that teaching physical education in primary and secondary
education in rural areas did not differ significantly from that in urban areas in all major aspects
of this work, both administrative and organizational aspect and the socio-bio-motricity level of
students, facilities or of the country sports teacher perceptions.
In demonstrating the proposed hypothesis we used a series of scientific research
methods and teaching notes, conversations domain specialists, documentation, and to carry out
the proposed investigation, direct questionnaire method was useful for general knowledge of
issues, or broader knowledge deep relationships between several variables. Thus, we used direct
surveys, new problems created by our research and applied as a group, participants circle
methodically organized by the County School Inspectorate, in the city Novaci on May 20th this
year.
The scientific content of our study we analyze the responses given to the 43
questionnaires by teachers teaching hours in primary and secondary education, 22 of them they
are rural and 21 urban.
I want anonymous questionnaire, the teacher who completed the driver remains
unknown to scientific research coordinator, thus ensuring the full cooperation of respondents.
As identification data we wanted respondents to tell us only level at which the standard of
teaching (primary and / or secondary and / or high school), the environment unit (-s) school
(urban / rural), employment as the holder or supply skilled / unskilled.
35
Further analyze the responses to the questionnaire of 12 questions which they
considered significant in capturing some aspects of teaching physical education:
 High
Question 1. The curriculum requirements for physical
 Average
education and sport to the level your students, you think they are ...
 Low
This question wanted to capture how physical education teachers consider the
current school curriculum requirements, were seen in rough parity with those in urban areas in
choosing the answer: 31 needs to be answered on average, 12 to as high level students. Note
that this question is no teacher respondents did not feel as weak school curriculum requirements
in relation to their potential students.
Question 2.
Interest your students for physical education is ...
 High
 Average
 Low
By this question we highlight two
aspects of teaching physical education in
school: once in the student and then as the
teacher. Regarding student can capture its
seriousness, how the school, their interest
in school physical education in general and
specifically. Regarding the teacher, you
can find the answer to the question of how
the teacher draws its students at physical
education? ", we can offer some clues
about how the professor carries lessons and
if he uses means attractive to students the
wide possibilities offered by physical
exercise.
The analysis of responses to this
question, the vast majority of teachers surveyed said that student interest was high for this
subject, especially those in rural areas, few have responded Environment, and only one as weak
in urban areas, may prove so interest in physical education lessons in rural areas is higher
among the school population.
 Important
Question 3. Findings at your unit leadership on physical education as
 As any
a subject in the curriculum is to be ....
 Not important
Most answers to this question provides a physical education lecturer deserved place in
the management of the schools, the majority answers are important to the assessment, due to
our view and the large number of physical education teachers who are also directors of schools.
One teacher said that rural areas are not important in the assessment of physical education in
school management was justified by analyzing the new answer to a question about the facilities
and working conditions (question. 11) who responded that insufficient. It also notes the greater
share of rural than urban school leadership in assessing the importance of physical education.
36
Question 4. Percentage of students exempted from
physical education classes is about ...
 Under 5 %
 5-10%
 Over 10%
The answer to this question is eloquent
regarding the health of children in the county. An
overwhelming majority of teachers have said that
they exempted a number of physical education
than 5%, which represents a number of 25-30
students per class than a student. This is good for
the school population of Gorj, the Primary and
secondary level, it would be interesting to watch
compared to school population and the high
school level, where our number of signals exempt
from physical education is much more reason
may to reduce the number of hours school sport
curriculum required by the governing ...Only in
urban areas exist in the responses of two teachers,
more than an average exempted from physical education class, the answers to those from rural
areas who have chosen to reply in full below 5%, which leads us to note environmental
influences on students' health in rural areas than urban.
 Under 5 %
 5-10%
 Over 10%
Sports equipment is a requirement of this discipline, such as manuals, books,
collections, maps, computers, etc.. the other, ultimately reflected in the parents or the school
budget. Overall, students are present at physical education equipment in most schools there and
in urban and rural teachers who have pupils per hour without equipment, in 25% of teachers
interviewed. A higher value found in rural areas, therefore the material and social probable
poorer families in the countryside but the phenomenon is also found in some urban schools.
Question. 5 Percentage of students without
the equipment present physical education classes is about ...
Question 6.
Teaching activity has priority purposeful
!! Choose only 3 answers
On this question of the teachers
surveyed were advised to choose from 5
different answers only 3, according to the
priority given by them on priority purpose of
teaching in physical education lesson.
Ensuring optimal health status and
attracting students to practice physical
exercises have been chosen by most
respondents as their business priorities, as is
the option to reply 5), guiding talented students
to specialized schools (LPS, CSS, etc. .)
approximately 50% of teachers consider to be
 1) curriculum requirements
 2) bio-motricity progress of students
 3) to ensure optimal health
 4) to attract students in physical
exercise
 5) guiding talented students to
specialized schools (LPS, CSS, etc.)
37
important to sports performance through the guidance of students.
Also, strict fulfillment of the requirements for physical education curriculum is not
regarded as an important purpose for teaching the vast majority of those interviewed said it
eloquently when read in conjunction with the first question.
Question 7. Representative school
teams are formed on the following coordinate sports ...
Girls
Boys
 athletics
 athletics
 basketball
 basketball
 football
 football
 handball
 handball
 voleyball
 voleyball
_________ ___________
The analysis of responses to this question a good thing for the sport, that there is no
teacher who does not even have a team representative in coordination to be a sport for girls or
boys. In addition to athletics (A), Basketball (BK), football (FB), handball (HB), volleyball
(VO), the other representative of the school teams there are two teachers, one urban and one
rural coordinating teams chess and table tennis.
Over 65% of respondents representative of the school teams prepare girls and boys in
athletic competitions (crosses, triathlon, etc..), 72% in boys soccer teams prepare, coordinate
around 50% of girls handball teams and boys. Very small percentage of the total number of
teams in the basketball (7%) and volleyball (8%) in the answers given by respondents can be
explained, in addition to material conditions, and small percentage of teachers employed in the
county with specialization basketball or volleyball - the total of 183 posts covered by the
owners or substitute, only 10 people declared specialized basketball (5%) and volleyball and
less. However, the 43 teachers interviewed is an amount of 176 boys and girls teams in
different sports, ie an average of four coordinated teams.
Report of the school representative teams from different sports teams with 89 urban
and rural areas is equal to 87, with no major differences in the number of teams or any sporting
disciplines that representation.
 very good
Question 8. Working with specialized units (CSS, LPS, etc..)
 satisfactory
for detecting and guiding students for work performance is ...
 none
38
Closely linked to the previous
question, that question the majority of those
surveyed believe the collaboration with the
departments responsible for sport performance
at least as satisfactory, only one said that there
is no such collaboration, is also in urban areas
(where they operate most of these units),
although earlier responses it prepares six teams
(three teams in as many boys and girls). The
distribution by area (urban / rural) is similar,
this criterion cannot distinguish responses.
URBAN
RURAL
Question 9. Choose  1) Communication
 1) Communication
three of the terms listed feel  2) Methods
 2) Methods
that recommends a good  3) Degree
 3) Degree
teacher teaching physical  4) Creativities
 4) Creativities
education based on school  5) Patience
 5) Patience
area
 6) Perseverance
 6) Perseverance
 7) Sport results obtained
 7) Sport results obtained
 8) Sportman.
 8) Sportman.
!! Choose only 3 answers
9) Another ______________
9)Another ______________
With
this
question
the
respondents wanted to offer an opinion
about the qualities of a teacher teaching
regardless of where they teach. Most have
provided answers only to the environment
in which they teach, not understanding the
question requirements. In addition to the
terms listed questionnaire offered the
possibility of introducing other terms and
defining a good teacher teaching physical
education according to the school, but
none of those interviewed had not done
so, for which, Section 9) we excluded
from our analysis. However, we found
that for the eight characteristics of good
teacher, emerges as the number of choices
of respondents, a communication) and method 2), and the results obtained with seven school
teams).
There are major differences between school environments than in the period patient 5),
double the options in urban areas compared to rural areas, we suggested a slight difference
between the two teaching environments in which students or their attitude to the possibilities.
Yes No
Question 10. What makes you 1)
The
training
of
teachers 

think that is different teaching 2) The potential socio-bio-motoric pupils 

in urban areas by rural area for 3) basic infrastructure and school equipment; 


physical education and sport
4)
differences
in
school
curricula 


5) There are no differences
The questioning by the question, according to discipline teachers physical education in
urban and rural areas the differences noticed in choosing teaching as a positive or not the
authors of the questionnaire replies.
39
All subjects were subjected to our survey noted that there is no differentiation on the
urban / rural areas in terms of curriculum. However, only one teacher in rural areas has opted
for the answer 5) There are
differences, the rest thought that
there may be something to
differentiate between the two
teaching environments. The vast
majority, 36 teachers, ie 84%,
believes that basic infrastructure and
materials
are
crucial
in
differentiating teaching physical
education activity. Nearly half of
teachers surveyed group chosen to
differentiate the two areas of
teaching socio-bio-motor potential of
students and only 3 or 7%, believes
that the training of teachers is crucial
in differentiation.
Question 11. The material and working
conditions for teaching physical education
discipline in your educational establishment is ...





Very well

Satisfactory

Not enough
We
follow a
clear
recognition by this question, a
priori, the superiority of working
conditions and the material from
urban to rural areas. By analyzing
the responses, an option for a
number from 1 - very good 5 insufficient, average annual values
are around 3 - satisfactory, with 2.5
in urban areas and 3.2 in rural areas
can not prove the assumption us
that there is a clear difference
between the two areas on the base
material and working conditions.
However there are 10 responses
from urban and rural areas only 4 of them recognize that good and almost sufficient weight
responses are reversed with 6 responses to two rural from urban. Half of respondents say that
sufficient conditions and material basis.
Although there are differences between environments in terms of the facilities and
working conditions for teaching the discipline of physical education units surveyed, these
differences are not significant, however, we conclude that the response rate of 83% reveals that
the school has gorjean facilities for physical education and sport at least sufficient. There is a
fairly large proportion of responses, in our view, indicating a deprivation of students and
teachers as an educational instrument, particularly in rural areas, but we hope that it will
gradually decrease, and this indicator to look for at least each school averages.
40
However, we believe necessary to address the issue of future sporting materials and
Gorj, in a study of their only objective can not draw a conclusion from the appreciative
responses of teachers.
Question 12. From a professional perspective on this
scale as you think
! Check the figure chosen





Pleased


Disappointed
How to complete this
anonymous questionnaire is based on
a maximum level of sincerity to this
question, the self-assessment from a
professional, by clicking a number
from 1 - 5 satisfied disappointed
teacher subject of our research.
As can be observed from the
graph, the responses are concentrated
around the values 1 and 2, over 80%,
with only two teachers in rural areas
almost disappointed that the pursuit of
answers to previous questions show
that they have a material basis and
poor working conditions, and one of
them having over 10% students of physical education at present without the equipment, both in
education as teachers permanently.
We can say that in general population sample said almost satisfied in terms of work,
with all the vicissitudes of recent years in terms of salary, personnel policy and social situation
in the country, both the urban and those in rural areas.
In conclusion, the 43 sports teachers, either holders or qualified substitute, subject to
our achievement of this research survey, representing a sample considered by us as significant
as a percentage of 34% of all who teach physical education in Gorj schools have appreciated
the importance of discipline and physical education at primary and secondary school sport (a
total of 147 representative school teams in different sports), the good level of interest in the
discipline, health and the suitability of the students, the material and working conditions. Our
research hypothesis we consider to be demonstrated, teaching physical education in primary
and secondary education in rural areas did not differ significantly from that in urban areas in all
major aspects of this work, both administratively and organizational and socio-bio-motricity
level and curriculum requirements of students, facilities or sports teacher perceptions of the
country, the answers to all questions included in our questionnaire. Although the main response
on the differentiation of teaching in urban areas at the discipline of physical education and sport
has been linked to infrastructure and machinery, the question is not strictly linked to its
assessment have reported significant differences between the two areas. This lack of clarity, we
want a future ruled by a study on the issue of base materials and school sports in the county,
could not reach a conclusion only objective appreciation of teachers' responses.
"Physical education teachers should be made really worth. It must feel that it is as
useful as the teacher of mathematics or foreign languages and need to know to attract the child
to physical education class, but also to the school sporting events”, Octavian Morariu's
statement, Chairman Olympic and Sports of Romania that we want to conclude our research,
with special thanks to our inspector and all respondents to our questionnaire.
41
REFERENCES
CÂRSTEA, Gheorghe (2000) - Teoria şi metodica educaţiei fizice şi sportului, Editura ANDA, Bucureşti;
Centrul de informare, documentare şi iniţiere în managementul afacerilor mici şi mijlocii –
proiect nr. RO 0007.02.01.01.2097-finantat in cadrul programului PHARE 2000, Coeziune
Economica si Sociala - Monografia Socio – Economica A Judeţului Gorj.
DRAGNEA, A. (coord.) (2002) - Teoria educaţiei fizice şi sportului, Bucureşti, Editura FEST;
DRAGNEA, A., BOTA, A. (1999) - Teoria activităţilor motrice, Bucureşti, Editura Didactică
şi Pedagogică
DRAGNEA A., TEODORESCU S. (2002) - Teoria sportului, Bucureşti, Editura FEST;
DRAGNEA, A. (2006) - Lecţia de educaţie fizică şi activităţile sportive, ANEFS ;
DRAGAN, I. (1989) – Selecţia şi orientarea medico-sportivă, Ed. Sport-Turism, Bucureşti.
Ghidurile metodologice de aplicare a programelor de educaţie fizică şi sport (2000) (2001)
MEC-SNEE
Ministerul Educaţiei Naţionale, Consiliul naţional pentru curriculum (1999) - Curriculum
naţional – Programe şcolare pentru clasele a V-a – a VIII-a, volumul 9, Bucureşti.
Ministerul Educaţiei Naţionale, Serviciul naţional de evaluare şi examinare (1999) - Sistemul
naţional şcolar de evaluare la disciplina educaţie fizică şi sport, Ed. Şcoala Românească,
Bucureşti;
Protocol privind asigurarea cadrului de colaborare în vederea dezvoltării continue şi
funcţionarii performante a sistemului naţional de educaţie fizică şi sport între MedCT – ANS
şi COSR (iulie 2008);
STOICA, A. (2003) Evaluarea progresului şcolar. De la teorie la practică, Bucureşti,
Humanitas Educaţional
ŞERBĂNOIU, S. (2004) - Metodica educaţiei fizice, Bucureşti, Editura Cartea Universitară
42
STUDY CONCERNING THE PERCEPTION AND ATTITUDES
TOWARD SPORTS OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS FROM A
MULTICULTURAL AND MULTIETHNIC MEDIUM, THE CASE OF
CLUJ-NAPOCA
Prof.univ.dr. Grigore Vasilica30,
András Álmos31, Asistent univ. UBB,
Drd. UNEFS
Abstract
Time spent in sport activities at school and at university produces
beneficial effects on health and education, effects that need to be strengthened.
Sport has an important contribution to economic and social cohesion and the
formation of better integrated societies. The most important factor that
contributed to the development of sport, as we know it today- so diverse and
widespread-, was its addressability. In a multicultural society, like Romania, the
notion of ethnicity and the relationship of these elements are essential in terms of
mutual understanding and leaving together. This researches goals were the
followings: to create a clear picture of the phenomenon of sport among high
school students in a multicultural and multiethnic environment. The methods
used in this research were: bibliographic study and questionnaire survey. The
research subjects (n=1570) were high school students (9-12 grades) from
educational institutions, were the teaching language was Romanian and
Hungarian.
Key words: perception of sports, attitudes toward sport, multicultural
environment, intercultural, interethnic relationships
Rezumat
Timpul petrecut în practicarea activităţilor sportive la şcoală şi la
facultate produce efecte benefice pentru sănătate şi educaţie, efecte care trebuie
să fie consolidate. Sportul are o contribuţie importantă la coeziunea economică
şi socială, precum şi la formarea unor societăţi mai bine integrate. Cel mai
important factor, care a contribuit la dezvoltarea sportului aşa cum îl cunoaştem
azi, atât de divers şi de răspândit, a fost adresabilitatea. Într-o societate
multiculturală, cum este şi România, noţiuni ca etnie, etnicitate şi relaţionarea
acestor elemente devin esenţiale din punct de vedere al înţelegerii reciproce şi al
conlocuirii. Scopurile cercetării erau: de a crea o imagine clară asupra
fenomenului sport în rândul elevilor de liceu într-un mediu multicultural şi
multietnic. Metodele folosite în această cercetare erau: studiul bibliografic şi
ancheta prin chestionare. Subiecţii cercetării erau elevi de liceu (clasele IX-XII)
din instituţii de învăţământ cu limba de predare română şi maghiară, pe un
eşantion de 1570 de elevi.
Cuvinte cheie: percepţie despre sport, atitudine faţă de sport, mediu
multicultural,interculturalitate, relaţii interetnice
Introduction
In The White Paper on Sport32 the term of sport is used based on the definition
established by the Council of Europe: "all forms of physical activity which, through
30
Universitatea Naţională de Educaţie Fizică şi Sport Bucureşti, Constamtin Noica, 140, sector 6, Bucureşti
Tel: 0744381486, [email protected]
31
Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai, Facultatea de Educaţie Fizică şi Sport Cluj-Napoca
43
participation in more or less organized way, aim at expressing or improving physical and
mental development of social relations or obtaining results in competition at all levels." So the
values transmitted trough sport help developing knowledge, motivation, skills and readiness
for personal effort.
The true dimension of contemporary sport is the social life, which places it among the
major concerns like the economic, ideological, scientific, cultural, defense and public order,
integrating a global conception in which the sport plays an adjusted subsystem role on different
levels. (Dragnea A. et al. 2000)
The most important factor that contributed to the development of sport, as we know it
today- so diverse and widespread-, was its addressability. Namely practicing physical exercise
as a sport, it addresses the entire population, all ages, thousands of practitioners and audiences
are involved emotionally in the competitions. If we make a connection between contemporary
society and sport we can derive that the phenomenon of practicing physical exercises has
extended an unprecedented scale, engaging-in various and attractive forms - a large
population33.
Sport is one of the most dynamic social activities aimed at the improvement of human
being in all its aspects. In a world subjected to a daily changing political and socio-economic
transformation, different religions, multiple cultures and ethnicities the universal language
perceived by the whole humanity is sport. The sports phenomenon, by its functions, creates a
correspondence between practicing different branches of sport and its effects on the participants
or upon the social life as whole. As part of life, the world of sports is also connected to the real
world of social life shared by all, reaching a high level of understanding in cultural layers of the
world, motivated in terms of socio-cultural, level that appropriately reflects the value of a
society’s concept.
Multiculturalism and multi-ethnicity
Multicultural education encourages the integration of ethnic, linguistic and cultural
diversity in the educational processes. The underlying philosophy of this education is the
knowledge of their own culture and ethnicity and culture belongings which would result in
improved academic achievement and would allow equal opportunities and would diminish
racial prejudice and discrimination. The term of intercultural unlike multiculturalism reflect
more clearly the relationship between individual visions, social and groups about US and
THEM. It is a known fact that at the contact of two cultures, always overcomes the superior
culture by imposing their structures and value systems. In a multicultural society, like Romania,
the notion of ethnicity and the relationship of these elements are essential in terms of mutual
understanding and leaving together. Joe Pitts34 makes the idea that "diversity is one of those
elements that bring greatness of a country and a culture, because people learn from each other. I
believe that ethnic diversity, like religion, is something that enriches society, giving a specific
coloring, a range of attributes that can only stimulate progress."35 So in every society people,
belonging to majority and minority ethnic groups, live together and therefore there establish
certain relationships between them from the necessity of communication and social integration,
to assure stability and balance of the social system. The expansion of diversity - social,
economic, demographic, cultural- represents a frequently and assiduously discussed topic,
supported with multiple arguments in the social sciences. Diversity self-imposes, it is
32
Comisia Europeană (2007). Cartea albă privind sportul [Electronic version]. Luxemburg: Oficiul pentru Publicaţii
Oficiale ale Comunităţilor Europene
33
Cîrstea Gh., (2000). Sociologia sportului. Bucureşti: Fundaţia pentru Educarea şi Formarea prin Sport a Tineretului
34
Member of U.S. Congress
35
Pitts, J. (2000). Modalităţi practice de rezolvare a unor problem interetnice. În Năstase, L., Salat, L. (editori) Relaţii
interetnice în România postcomunistă. Simpozion: “Modelul românesc de relaţii interetnice.Ultimii zece ani, următorii
zece ani”.Bucureşti, 7-8 iulie 2000, pg. 63
44
inevitable, is an intrinsic attribute of the social, nature and culture. Diversity has always existed,
exists and will exist regardless of the will of individuals or groups. (Anca Nedelcu 2008)
Diversity in which we live can be seen as a source of conflict, but also as enrichment, as
a problem (to be solved), but also as a resource (generating development). This diversity
requires special educational policies addressing inter-human relationships between different
cultures and ethnicities. Through education the personal identity is formed. It builds both
hereditary and socially (belonging to the family culture from which the individual comes from),
but also by external influences which bear the mark of society in which it builds.
Regarding the principles of the intercultural ideal, identification of vulnerabilities come
from inside, in a summary made by Mihaela Miroiu36: "A huge segregation occurs between
students. It is made upon ethnic, religious, health and deviance criteria’s. Ethnic and religious
separation is largely the result of ethnocentrism and the temptation of the majority ethnic group
to assimilate the minority. As a response to this attempt, to erase the differences through its
annihilation, the minority are producing segregation policies to preserve their identity. The
result is an increasingly separatist education, with small bridges of intercultural
communication."
Framed in a geographical, historical, complex and dynamic cultural context, Romania is
a place where is no exception to the current trend of emphasizing the diversity of social
structures. Its constitutional cultural plurality was creatively enriched by its historical contexts
accumulation, contexts rich in contacts, mutual cultural interaction and loans. So this is what
made Romania a multicultural country, even if - in comparison with many European countries has a demographic structure that is characterized by high ethnic homogeneity (the majority of
the total population is 89.4%). It is a multicultural country, with multiple insertions of the
neighbor states cultures, but without ethnically segregated areas and without a vacuum
characterized by the majority population. In this way, Cluj-Napoca is a multicultural city with
an important tradition. This urban center is distinguished by the presence of Orthodox Christian
denominations (69.20%), Reformed (12.19%), Greco (5.81%) and Roman Catholics (5.52%),
Pentecostal (2.60%), Baptist (1.19%), Unitarian (1.06%), Advent (0.31%) and Jewish (0.07%)
and Muslim (0.12%). The presence of these religious communities is complemented by a
diversity of ethnicity, the presence of ethnic Romanian population (79.39%), Hungarian
(18.96%), Rroma (0.95%), German (0.23%), Hebrew (0.07%), Greek (0.05%), Ukrainian
(0.05%), Armenian, Arabic and Chinese.37
Purpose
The research goal is to create a clear picture of the phenomenon of sport among high
school students in a multicultural and multiethnic environment. Also the scientific purpose of
this study is to get objective and relevant data about sports, sports participation. The
opportunity of this research is that in Romanian educational system is possible that national
minority, with a native language other than Romanian states official language, to study all
subjects in their native language (exception of the Romanian language and literature). Thus, in
Cluj-Napoca there are pre-university educational institutions where the language of instruction
is Hungarian, where the vast majority of students are Hungarians. From this it follows that there
is an institutional, learning, socializing segregation in the institutionalized education between
the two ethnic groups-Romanian and Hungarian (for example). The possibility of inter-ethnic
socialization in this context is reduced to extra-curricular activity, in the leisure time of
students, which is more or less organized by the school.
36
Quoted by Nedelcu Anca (2008). Fundamentele educaţiei interculturale.Diversitate, minorităţi, echitate. Iaşi:
Polirom, pg. 77
37
Data from the 2002 Population Census
45
Methodology
The first research method used was the study of documents related to sports phenomena,
sports training, social groups (groups of students and athletes) and last but not least information
about multicultural and multiethnic environments. The second research method used was a
survey based on a questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed to collect objective
information such as age, ethnicity, gender and language, but also subjective information related
to the topics addressed in this study. Since the study was conducted in schools were teaching
was in Romanian and Hungarian languages, the questionnaire was designed in Romanian and
Hungarian languages, to. The questionnaire contains 12 closed and open questions. The
questionnaire was designed in August-September 2010. Application of a representative sample
survey was done between October 1 to November 15, 2010, and during processing and
analyzing the results of November 15 to December 5, 2010. Data processing was done using
Microsoft Excel statistical program from the Microsoft Office software package. In our study
the subjects (n=1570) were high school students (IX-XII grades) from educational institutions
were the instruction language was Romanian and Hungarian (762 subjects in schools with
Romanian teaching language, and 808 subjects from schools with Hungarian teaching
language). The age of subjects was between 14 and 20 years, mean age was16.3 years (in
institutions with Romanian instruction language) and 16.5 years (institutions with Hungarian
instruction language).
In this study, we started from the following premises:
Sport is one of the most dynamic social activities aimed at the improvement of human
being in all its aspects.
One of the most important factors of sport- is its addressability has contributed to the
development of modern sport, so diverse and widespread, otherwise made physical exercise as
a sport, it addresses the entire population of all ages. Trough its forms of practice (sports for all,
adapted sports and sports performance, etc..) sport helps the socialization process of the
children by learning roles in the game, on the other end, the elders seek, among other things, to
restore contact with the social world. The sport is practiced mainly in groups, facilitating
interaction between individuals. Through its content and organization creates a psycho-social
environment that allows the emergence and manifestation of all types of interaction, from
cooperation to adversity.
Results
The processing and interpretation of the data obtained through the questionnaire
survey was performed with Microsoft Excel Program. All graphics are presented for both
schools, with Romanian and Hungarian instruction language, therefore the percentage is
presented as follows: schools with Romanian instruction language in percentage (%)—
schools with Hungarian instruction language in percentage (%).
Item no.1: “Do you practice a sport branch at a competition level?”. After data
processing we can state that: only 20.16% and 19.23% are practicing a sport at competitive
level, and 78.38%--76.14% are not, 1.46% and 4.55% didn’t know. By analyzing the results we
can state that very few of the sample population are practicing a branch of sports at a
completion level.
46
Chart nr.1 Sport disiplins parcticed at competional level
5,88%
7,24%
Karate
16,99%
16,45%
Basketball
5,88%
Track and field
3,29%
11,11%
Badybuilding-fitness
3,95%
3,92%
3,95%
Tennis
3,92%
3,95%
Sw imming
2,61%
1,32%
Judo
26,14%
Volleyball
12,50%
13,07%
Handball
7,24%
23,53%
Football
7,89%
0%
5%
10%
15%
Schools w ith Romanian language teaching
20%
25%
30%
Schools with Hungarian language teaching
In Chart no. 1 are presented in the different branches of sport practiced at competition
level.
Among those who were practicing competition sports 11.84% -16.99 practice it in sports
associations, 73.03% -32.68% were engaged in sports clubs, and 13.16% -58.82% in sport
activities organized by the school.
The periods of time, namely for how long they were practicing competitive sports,
which are the followings: between 1-12 months 24.18% -27.63%, between 1-2years 17.76% 24.18%, 3-4 years 21.05% -17.65%, 5-6 years 8.55% -13.07% and over 6 years 24.34%20.92%.
Item no.2: "What is your favorite sport?". After processing the data we obtained the
following results: the most preferred sports for students from schools with Romanian
instruction language are: volleyball (24.57%), swimming (22.43%), soccer (18.69%), basketball
(17,22%). The students in schools with Hungarian instruction language: soccer (29.56%),
volleyball (28.18%), swimming (27.92%), bodybuilding and fitness (20.75%), basketball
(14.47 %).
Item no. 3: "What sport would you practice if you would have the opportunity?". The
results were the following: in schools with Romanian instruction language the sport activities,
were structured as follows: swimming (23.60%), volleyball (19.10%), tennis (17.46%), soccer
(13.92%), and basketball (13.37%). In schools with Hungarian instruction language: swimming
(31.95%), bodybuilding and fitness (21.6%), soccer (21.35%), volleyball (18.89%), tennis
(12.81%), and basketball (11.25%).
Item no. 4: "Would you practice your favorite sport in a multiethnic and multicultural
group?". Analyzing this item we can deduce the followings: 77.45% - 67.82% of students
surveyed would practice their favorite sport in a multiethnic and multicultural group, only
4.77% -9.96% are against it and 17.77% - 22.22% doesn’t know.
Item no. 5: "Why do you practice (or are practicing) your favorite sport?". After
processing, the results are as follows: 80.65% -76.49% of respondents consider that sport is
healthy, 45.60% -56.57% believe that sport is a way to spend leisure time, 62.42% of the
subjects from in schools with Hungarian instruction language believes that sport is a way to
relax, while those from schools with Romanian instruction language only 24.62% feel the same,
38.57% -48.47% of respondents considered that by practicing sport you can meet other people.
Item no. 6: "Do you have friends who belong to a different ethnic group than yours?".
Summarizing and analyzing the data, we obtained the following results: 64.86% -80.13% of
47
respondents answered yes, that they have friends of other ethnicities than their own; 25.14% 17.07% answered negatively, they don’t have friends of other ethnicities, and 10% -2.8% didn’t
know. The subjects from educational institutions with Romanian language instruction, in a
proportion of 50.11% have Hungarian ethnic friends and 23.13% have Rroma (gypsy) friends.
The subjects from educational institutions with Hungarian language instruction, in a proportion
of 74,4% have Romanian ethnic friends.
Item no. 7: "If you would have the opportunity to practice your favorite sport, which
group would you prefer to practice it?". The results are as follows: 66.63% -68.68% of the
subject would choose the group of there friends, the second place goes for athletes group
(23.25% -33,20%), followed by school peer group (20.63% -21.64%), and the last is a
multiethnic and multicultural group (13.75% -18,95%).
Item no.8: "If you would have the opportunity to practice your favorite sport in a
multiethnic and multicultural group, what would be your choice?". After processing the data it
can be presented the followings: 78.13 -67.89% of respondents would agree to practice there
favorite sport, if they could, in multicultural and multi-ethnic group, 2.27% -3.54% were
against and 19.60% -28.57% don’t know.
Item no. 9: "What would be your attitude to practice your favorite sport in a multiethnic
and multicultural group?". According to the results of this item, we present: 24.51% -25.42% of
the subjects had a positive attitude as regards practicing there favorite sport in a multiethnic and
multicultural group, 53.66% -47.38% of students would present a positive attitude and
behavior, and 18.29% -25.03% would be indifferent regarding the issues addressed in this
question.
Item no. 10: "Your parents would agree to practice your favorite sport in a multiethnic
and multicultural group?". From the perspective of the subjects in 75.30% -72.33% proportion,
their parents would agree with this idea and only 0.53% -1.26% would not agree; 24,17% 26,42% of the student didn’t know there parents decision.
Item no. 11: "What language, besides your mother tongue, can you speak?".
Summarizing and analyzing the data collected, it refers to the following: 88.53% -87.53% of
students surveyed knows to speak English. Students from schools with Romanian instruction
language have a major share in terms of speaking in French (46.93%) and Spanish (27.27%).
With regard to students in schools with Hungarian instruction language 77.33% know how to
speak Romanian and 27.58% in German.
Item no. 12: "In what language would you like to communicate if you would practice
your favorite sport in a multicultural and multi-ethnic group?". After processing the data we can
conclude the following: 64.49% -77.22% of the subjects want to communicate in their native
language, while only 56.12% -48.06% would be willing to communicate in English.
Conclusions
In the pre-university educational institutions at high schools level, schools with
Romanian instruction language the majority of the students are Romanian’s, and in schools
with Hungarian instruction language are Hungarian’s.
From the research subjects, very few high school students are practicing sport at
competition level (20.16% of students from schools with Romanian instruction language, and
19.32% of students from schools with Hungarian instruction language). In addition from those
students who are practicing competition sports in schools with Romanian language teaching are
practicing it in sport clubs (73.03%), and in schools with Hungarian language teaching in
school-based organizational forms (58.82%).
All students have a favorite sport, or more, and the ratio between the two ethnic groups
is almost identical. The variety of sports that students would practice is very high, but the
highest is swimming (23.60% and 31.95%).
48
Students would be willing to practice their favorite sport in a multiethnic and
multicultural group (77.45% and 67.82%), and also realize that practicing sports is healthy.
They also consider that it is a pleasant way to spend free time, gives you the opportunity to
know other people, otherwise to socialize with there colleagues.
Because Cluj-Napoca is a multicultural and multiethnic center, but also because of
history and the region, students in their friends group have people with other ethnic identity, so
Romanian students have Hungarian friends (50.11%) and Rroma (23.13%) and Hungarian
students have Romanian friends (74.40%). Also nearly 70% of students surveyed would choose
as the target group of their friends to practice their favorite sport. But also the students would
agree to practice their favorite sport in a multiethnic and multicultural group with a positive
attitude, and there parents attitude towards the agreement to practice there favorite sport is also
positive.
Students know how to communicate in other languages than their mother tongue such as
English, but in a multicultural and multiethnic group mostly they would like to communicate in
their native tongue (64.49% -77.22%), but also almost at equal level the would communicate in
English (56.12% -48.06%).
Bibliography
Andreescu, G. Schimbări în harta etnică a României, Cluj-Napoca: Centrul de Resurse pentru Diversitate
Etnoculturală, 2005
Cîrstea Gh.Sociologia sportului. Bucureşti: Fundaţia pentru Educarea şi Formarea prin Sport a
Tineretului, 2000
Clujul Multicultural-startegii de dezvoltare a municipiului Cluj-Napoca, Proiect realizat de Centrul de
Resurse pentru Diversitate Etnoculturală în parteneriat cu Primăria Municipiului Cluj-Napoca, [Electronic
version], surs http://www.edrc.ro/docs/docs/Strategia-Cluj.pdf, 10.10.2010
Comisia Europeană Cartea albă privind sportul [Electronic version]. Luxemburg: Oficiul pentru
Publicaţii Oficiale ale Comunităţilor Europene, 2007
Dragnea, A. et.al. Teoria educaţiei fizice şi sportului. Bucureşti: Cartea şcolii, 2000
Fati, S. Transilvania—o provincie în căutarea unui centru.Centru şi periferie în discursul politic al elitelor
din Transilvania 1892-1918. Cluj-Napoca: Centrul de Resurse pentru Diversitate Etnoculturală, 2000
Furtună, C. Sociologie generală. Bucureşti: Fundaţia România de Mâine, 2005
Gagea, A. Metodologia cercetării ştiinţifice în educaţie fizică şi sport. Bucureşti: Fundaţia „România de
Mâine”, 1999
Ion, Ş. Introducere în sociologia educaţiei fizice şi sportului. Braşov: Universitatea Transilvania, 2006
Mureşan, C. Evoluţia demografică a României. Tendinţe vechi, schimbări recente, prespective. ClujNapoca: Presa Universitară Clujeană, 1999
Nastasă, L., Salat, L. editori Maghiarii din România şi etica minoritară (1920-1940). Cluj-Napoca:
Fundaţia Centrul de Resurse pentru Diversitate Etnoculturală, 2003
Năstase, L., Salat, L. (editori) Relaţii interetnice în România postcomunistă. Simpozion: “Modelul
românesc de relaţii interetnice.Ultimii zece ani, următorii zece ani”.Bucureşti, 7-8 iulie 2000
Nedelcu, A. Fundamentele educaţiei interculturale. Iaşi: Polirom, 2008
Pitts, J. Modalităţi practice de rezolvare a unor problem interetnice. În Năstase, L., Salat, L. (editori)
Relaţii interetnice în România postcomunistă. Simpozion: “Modelul românesc de relaţii interetnice.Ultimii
zece ani, următorii zece ani”.Bucureşti, 7-8 iulie 2000
Rotariu, T., Iluţ, P. et.al Sociologie. Ed. a II-a. Cluj-Napoca: Mesagerul, 1996
49
THE DEVELOPMENT OF CORPORAL EXPRESSIVITY THROUGH
MOVEMENT AND DANCE IN THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION LESSON
Authors: Lect. univ. dr. Carmen Aneta Isac
North University Baia Mare
Prof. univ. dr. Emilia Florina Grosu;
Conf. univ.dr. Popovici Cornel
Faculty of Physical Education,
Babeş Bolyai University
Abstract:
The movement is a universal mean of communication, all children move in a
certain way or another. Few experiences engage a person so well, in his/hers
personality, like dance, the body, emotions and the intellect do it. Moving
together with others in the same rhythm usually helps forming relationships. Due
to communicating through movement, the child becomes more self-conscious and
more capable to interact with others. Through the techniques that he / she uses,
the teacher works for developing trust and relationships, sensory-motive and
perceptual development, as well as a corporal scheme and the development of
self-concept.
Key words: movement, movement language, corporal expressivity
Rezumat:
Mişcarea este o modalitate universală de comunicare, toţi copiii se mişcă
într-un fel sau altul. Puţine experienţe angrenează atât de bine persoana, în
personalitatea ei, precum o face dansul, corpul, emoţiile şi intelectul. Mişcarea
împreună cu alţii în acelaşi ritm, de obicei ajută la formarea relaţiilor. Datorită
comunicării prin mişcare, copilul devine mai conştient de propria persoană şi
mult mai capabil de a interacţiona cu ceilalţi. Prin tehnicile folosite, profesorul
lucrează pentru dezvoltarea încrederii şi a relaţiilor, dezvoltarea senzoriomotorie şi perceptuală, precum şi a schemei corporale şi devoltarea conceptului
de Sine.
Cuvinte cheie: mişcare, limbajul mişcărilor, expresivitate corporală
Introducere:
The dance begins with impressions, sensorial or psychic images that can be at the origin,
objectives or subjects, it has to be an image-stimulus. The movement in dance is characterized
by:
- Communicating sense, through the corporal movement of certain states, attitudes, feelings,
facial and corporal expressivity
- Elegance and plasticity
- Unity and fluency in movement
- Precision in segment coordination
- Variety in dynamism, imposed by the rhythm and musical tempos
- Concordance between particularities of form and content of the musical background
The next techniques should occupy an important place, before reaching the possibility to
“express” through the body.
- Base techniques of corporal expression:
Exercises for muscular and mental decontraction
- Static muscular relaxation (it does not involve any movement)
50
- Dynamic relaxation: ex. To slowly lift an arm to vertical, attentive to every muscular effort
and then letting the arm fall like an alive mass
- Focus exercises (focusing the attention only on the expression)
- Exercises of the extremes (not only imagining, but living in a physic and psychological
way)
- Creating senses for perceiving (the taste of an apple, the shape of a glass, the body’s
position etc.)
- Exercises for acknowledging corporal instruments (open and closed positions)
Reaching an authentic corporal expression
The objective of this study: finding means that will lead to the “reconstruction” of our
sensibility, receptive to the aesthetic values, following that through the learning of creativity –
mimic units by the students, by forming a capacity to reproduce affective feelings through
movement, one would favor the quick adaptation to society’s rapid changes, a profound
knowledge of one’s body, the development of one’s capacity to orient in space and time,
balance.
Hypothesis:
We consider that the development of each individual’s expressivity potential, in the
frame of a learning process based on the acknowledgment of creative-aesthetic mechanisms,
has as a result an increase in the efficiency of motive learning, of developing personality and
individual manifestations in every situation.
Objectives:
-the completion of specialty information regarding the place and the role of aesthetics and
expressivity in the motive learning in corporal activities
-development of the learning methods system, used for the motive learning, by using the
methods used in corporal expressivity
-improving learning in the acknowledgement through imitation-mimic and adapting the
corporal moves to different rhythms
Tasks:
-insuring a common base of theoretical knowledge and an homogenous level of perceptivemotive development of those who participate in this study
-the creation, by the teacher, of verbal-intuitive learning units
-the students’ acknowledgement of this learning units, as it will favor the manifestation of
aesthetics behavior.
Methods:
1.
2.
Psychodiagnostic methods
“Tree of life” test
The “Bruininks – Oseretsky” test for evaluating balance
Temper questionnaire
Methods for evaluating the psychomotive capacity
Means to develop corporal expressivity through movement and dance:
o
Exercises for learning parts of the body
Exercises of walking and running with role in forming the expression capacity
Exercises of improvisation: -after a given theme
after a musical theme
-
51
Exercises for space orientation
Exercises for acknowledging the space, with accent on areas, direction, levels, trajectories
Exercises for expressing emotions
Exercises for educating rhythmicity and motive musicality
Evaluation system: the following things were taken into consideration:
- the memory of combinations
- tempo’s precision
- fidelity in the imitation of gestures
- interpretation, etc
This study has been applied to 5th – 8th grades at “George Cosbuc” College in Baia Mare
and consisted in two groups of children: the experimental group to which the mandatory
scholar curriculum and the above exercises were applied and the control group to which the
mandatory scholar curriculum was applied. The number of participating children in each group
was of 25 and the experiment has been conducted for one year.
Results:
Tree test: the meaning of each tree model is rendered by three dimensions: 1. the sociocultural perspective (rational aspects, adaptation – integration etc), 2. psychological and
psychoanalytic perspective (conscious – unconscious relation, complexes and inhibitions), 3.
psychopathologic perspective (anxiety, psych liability, psychomotor instability, etc). The results
showed that the tendencies towards aggression and nervousness that were registered at the
initial testing of both groups were resolved, almost integral, through the lesson’s theme in
which the children had to work in a collective, to relate to one another, to resolve problems.
The socializing problems have improved during the year, in a higher percentage for the GE at a
socializing rate of 91, 66 over the GC‘s 87, 5 rate, and at relative socialization it dropped from
41, 66 to 8, 33 for both groups.
Graficul rezultatelor obţinute la testul "Arbore" de către cele două loturi Le şi Lctestări iniţiale şi finale
25
20
15
Le I
Le F
10
Lc I
Lc F
5
de
a d a p ta re
relativ b u n ă
b u nă
so ciab il
so ciab il
s o c ia lb il
in s tab ilitate
stab il
p re z en te
p re z en te
in fe rio ritate
p o z itivă
h ip erem o tiv
ec h ilib rat
in tro v ertit
ex tro ve rtit
lim in ară
-5
v ârs te i
0
The “Bruininks – Oseretsky” test for evaluating balance
The test has been taken after a model of Valentina Horghidan. We have assumed this
test in the idea that for a corporal expressivity the psychomotor representations are important.
For succeeding a restoration of feelings through movement one has to have a motor
representation of the act.
52
After applying this test, we have observed a significant improvement in the balance’s
quality at the GE over the GC due to the special program they were subjected to, with 0.04
seconds.
Curba de Boltire a celor două loturi
experimental şi de controltestări iniţiale şi finale
10
8
6
Lexp.1,2
4
Lcontrol 1,2
2
0
1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
2
3
4
Temper questionnaire
The questionnaire investigates one of the following polar traits:
Extraversion – introversion
Rigidity – plasticity (mobility)
Emotional hiperreactivity – emotional balance
The tempo of reaction (fast - slow)
Activism (high - low)
Honesty when answering the questionnaire’s questions
Graficul rezultatelor obţinute la "Chestionar de temperament"
lotul experimental şi lotul de control
424
409
385
337
341
330
287
282
291 283
cls a-V-a (lot experimental)
cls a VII-a (lot experimental)
cls a-V-a (lot de control)
S in ceritate
cls a VII-a (lot de control)
T em p o u l
reacţiei
R ig id itate
432
213196211
192
Hip erreactivitate
em o ţio n ală
207
173
130 132
412
380
306
A ctivism
432
369
E xtraversie
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
The first trait that counted was that of honesty, its score had to be in a mean of 8 – 12 points for
average and 13-20 points for great.
53
From the above graphic, we can observe an increase of these indices more significant in
the GE, rather than the GC. At the rigidity and emotional hiperreactivity indices we can observe
a light decrease in both groups, from a mean of 9 to one of 8.
Conclusions:
The results permit us to affirm that forming through exercises of imagination, mimic,
expressivity, expression, kinesis of a new baggage of information considering the internal
psychic aspects for the growing child, offers the possibility for him to adapt with easiness to the
outside world, to socialize easier. Educating expressivity can be practiced individually or in a
group. For younger children it is more practical to exercise in groups, because that group
cohesion is realized. For older children, one can practice individual exercise.
Bibliography
Berescu,Gheorghe, (1978),Ethic and aesthetic in educative action, Ed. Ştiinţifică şi
Enciclopedică, Bucharest.
Bernard, Michel (1986), L, expresivité du corps. Ed. Universitaires, Paris.Caluschi, Mariana şi
colab, (1994)-Psychotests,Ed. Ştiinţifică şi Tehnică, Bucharest.
Doriana Ciobanu, Mirela Dan, Isabela Lozincă, Vasile Marcu, Zoltan Pasztai, Vasile
Pâncotan, Valentin Serac, Carmen Şerbănescu (2007), Adapted physical activities,
Ed.Universitaria din Craiova, pag 23-33
Isac Carmen Aneta (2009), Educating corporal expressivity in the lesson of school education,
Ed.G.M.I.Cluj-Napoca.
Isac Carmen Aneta (2009), Theoretical aspects of educating corporal expressivity in the
physical education class, Ed.G.M.I.Cluj-Napoca.
Peter A. Andersen (2006), Body language, Ed. Teora, Bucharest.
Walsh, Guerber, Nicole and colab. (1978), Danse, Ed.Revue EPS, Paris
54
LE SYSTEM DE MOYENS EN EDUCATION PHYSIQUE ET LE
SPORT POUR L'ENSEIGNEMENT PRIMAIRE
Cuceu Marinică Dorel
Asist. univ. Drd
Université du Nord – Baia Mare
Abstract:
Les moyens de l'éducation physique et le sport sont les éléments les plus
importants que le professeur d'éducation physique a à sa disposition, afin de
remplir ses fonctions et objectifs, à la fois l'éducation physique et en
entraînement sportif. Les moyens sont, en fait, des outils pédagogiques (mais pas
seulement) transposant le contenu éducatif, la formations des sujets pour
acquérir des compétences, capacités ou performances sportives, appartenant à
la sphère physique et psychologique de leur personnalité (Dragnea, A si colab.
2002).
Mots-clés: jeux, jeux de mouvements, structure de jeu, la taxonomie, un
moyen de l'éducation physique;
Rezumat:
Mijloacele educaţiei fizice şi sportului reprezintă elementele cele mai
importante, pe care profesorul de educaţie fizică le are la dispoziţie, in vederea
îndeplinirii funcţiilor şi obiectivelor , atât a educaţiei fizice cât şi a
antrenamentului sportiv. Mijloacele reprezintă de fapt instrumente didactice
(dar nu numai)care asigură transpunerea conţinutului instructiv-educativ,
pregătirea subiecţilor în vederea obţinerii unor abilităţi, capacităţi sau
performanţe sportive care aparţin deopotrivă sferei fizice şi psihice a
personalităţii acestora (Dragnea, A si colab. 2002)..
Cuvinte cheie: educaţie fizică , mijloacele educaţiei fizice , jocuri de mişcare
Introducere:
La littérature fait de diverses façons, dont les plus importants sont les méthodes
spécifiques et les moyens associés de l'éducation physique et du sport.
Les moyens spécifiques sont les éléments les plus importants parce qu'ils fournissent
directement les progrès dans le développement de la fonction motrice somatique et la capacité
de l'homme. La catégorie spécifique d'une partie:
1. l'exercice
2. des mesures pour restaurer la capacité du corps à l'exercice
3. l'équipement spécialisé.38
Leur légitimité, comme des moyens spécifiques, découle du fait qu'ils sont créés, vérifiés
et soumis à renouvellement, surtout dans la théorie et la pratique de l'éducation physique et du
sport, même si leur fondement scientifique rigoureuse est faite des données dans le domaine de
la physiologie, la biochimie, l'examen medical.
Un aspect important, qui leur donne une légitimité, c'est qu'ils sont périodiquement
renouvelés, aux fins prévues. Nous notons qu'à l'heure actuelle les moyens de l'éducation
physique et l'entraînement sportif se sont multipliées et deviennent plus complexes en termes
d'effets en raison d'abord, le développement de la pensée méthodique, qui imagine de nouvelles
38
Şiclovan, Ion (1979) –Teoria educaţiei fizice şi sportului, Ed. Sport-Turism, Bucureşti
55
combinaisons de mouvements, de l'équipement, les installations, et l'autre grâce à l'introduction
de nouvelles connaissances dans d'autres domaines. Nous assistons aujourd'hui à l'émergence
de nouveaux champs de sports, des difficiles combinaisons techniques, à le seuil de l'effort sur
le bord des éléments physiologiques, qui exige la récupération des formules efficaces ou des
dispositifs sophistiqués d'enquête.39
Et d'autres auteurs spécialisés en éducation physique et du sport (Bota Aura Maria
Buruc, Herczeg Leo Moisin Viorel Todea Septime F., Virgile Tudor, etc) ont la même
orientation en ce qui concerne les moyens spécifiques de l'éducation physique et du sport .
Les spécialistes de l'éducation physique et du sport dans notre pays utilisent le terme
associé à (non spécifique), pour décrire la nature spécifique de la trempe, l'hygiène (y compris
l'exercice et règles de repos) et les ressources prises des autres branches de l'éducation. À cet
égard, nous mentionnons Şiclovan Ion (1979), Buruc Maria (2000), Viorel Moisin ((2005), Leo
Herczeg (1995), Septime Todea Florian (2003) et last but not least Mitra Mogos George et
Alexander (1980) .
Objectif et hypothèses de travail
Grâce à cette étude, j'ai proposé d'améliorer le contenu des cours d'éducation physique à
la première classe, en utilisant exclusivement des jeux de movement, comme un moyen
primaire et unique, tout au long de la leçon.
L’ hypothèse à partir de laquelle nous avons commencé à aborder ce travail a été de:
• l’ utilisation des jeux de mouvement dans tous les liens (ou parties) de la leçon, à la
première classe, est supérieure à des jeux traditionnels d'éducation physique où le mouvement
est seulement un moyen d'éducation physique.
Méthodes utilisées. Les méthodes utilisées dans ce travail étaient les suivants: l'étude
du matériel bibliographique, d'expérimentation, l’enregistrement des données et leur analyse
statistique.
Expérience contenu
Depuis l'année scolaire 2010 - 2011, le groupe d'expérimentation (en première classe C)
de l’ école Lucian Blaga de Baia Mare, j'ai commencé à enseigner l'éducation physique en
utilisant exclusivement des jeux de movement tout au long de la leçon. Pour le groupe de
contrôle (en première classe B), les heures ont été enseignés par des professeurs de cette école,
son contenu étant le jeu classique, où le jeu de mouvement est l'un des moyens utilisés dans la
leçon. Dans la première semaine de l'année scolaire, les deux groupes ont été testés pour
l'échantillon de contrôle sur le “télétravail 5m ", et à la mi-Novembre a été le test final de cet
échantillon. Les résultats des deux groupes ont été enregistrés, puis ont été analysées
statistiquement en termes de moyenne arithmétique, la déviation standard., Minimum et
maximum des resultants.
Pendant ce temps, j'ai utilisé les jeux suivants dynamique (mouvement): au début de la
leçon j'ai utilisé des jeux éducatifs et de capter l'attention («courir le professeur dit, pas ce qui
est de l'enseignant - l'enseignant donne la commande par exemple les mains sur les épaules,
comme il mène ses mains sur ses genoux), "les coins de couleur," fleurs "," l'ordre inverse
“,”respect de commande "(les étudiants se déplacent autour du terrain ou de la salle. Le
professeur indiquent 3-4 couleurs ou des numerous, des positions et des mouvements qui
peuvent être exécuté à chaque appellation.
La partie principale de la leçon (leçon devoirs à faire), j'ai utilisé les Jeux comme
"fonctionne tiers," rangs "," les crabes et les crevettes, avec des moyens tels que courir, sauter
(deux pieds ou un pied), le transport objets (balles de tennis, balle d’ OINA ou médecine-ball
de petite taille), "la balle dans le tunnel” ou “balle errante”.
39
Dragnea, Adrian şi colab.(2002) – Teoria Educaţiei Fizice şi Sportului,Ed. FEST Bucureşti
56
Analyse et interprétation des données
Dans l'analyse, nous avons utilisé le système SPSS. Dans cette première phase de
l'expérience, nous avons enregistré les résultats de composants des deux classes, pour
l'échantillon de contrôle, sur le” télétravail 5x5m”, des classes séparées, et séparer les garçons
et les filles, et je les ai mis dans les tableaux. Les résultats des deux classes que je vais les
analyser en termes de moyenne arithmétique, l’écart-type, le meilleur résultat (minimum), le
plus mauvais résultat (maximum). Dans le tableau ci-dessous, on peut concluir les suivantes:
Tableau des résultats obtenus à partir de l'échantillon de contrôle sur le télétravail
5 m pour les composants de groupes expérience et de contrôle
B.gr.
Exp.
5x5
Init.
5x5
final
B.gr.
Ctr.
5x5
Iniţ.
5x5
final
F.gr.
Exp.
5x5
Iniţ.
5x5
final
F.gr.
Ctr.
5x5
Iniţ.
5x5
final
A.A.
12˝09
11˝98
A.D.
12˝04
11˝98
A.D.
11˝36
12˝18
B.I.
12˝03
11˝84
B.R.
13˝48
13˝12
B.A.
12˝30
12˝01
B.A.
11˝90
11˝35
C.A.
13˝80
13˝89
B.D.
10˝91
11˝00
B.Ş.
12˝11
12˝34
B.K.
11˝64
12˝60
G.A.
10˝90
11˝21
C.P.F
11˝27
11˝32
C.R.
10˝75
10˝93
B.A.
13˝65
12˝59
H.D.
13˝79
13˝76
G.I.R.
11˝42
12˝24
C.E.
11˝28
11˝01
C.R.
10˝91
11˝34
H.R.
12˝19
11˝72
M.A.
12˝66
11˝14
D.L.
11˝01
11˝35
C.B.
11˝69
11˝80
K.D.
12˝31
11˝93
P.B.
10˝30
11˝10
D.N.
11˝48
11˝23
D.R.
12˝05
13˝08
L.M.
11˝20
11˝17
P.D.
11˝15
11˝11
M.E.
11˝48
11˝08
G.A.
10˝93
11˝24
L.A.
10˝40
10˝53
P.R.
12˝58
11˝87
M.T.
11˝72
11˝68
G.M
11˝17
11˝22
M.M
12˝11
12˝23
S.D.
11˝81
11˝27
M.E.
11˝51
11˝42
G.A.
11˝39
11˝17
M.L.
13˝12
13˝16
S.N.S
13˝71
12˝59
P.T.
13˝40
13˝40
H.L.
12˝66
11˝63
P.R.
11˝37
11˝00
V.I.V
11˝17
10˝71
Z.G.
13˝14
13˝22
M.D
12˝09
11˝14
S.P.
12˝03
11˝43
M.I.
13˝67
11˝15
S.F.
12˝41
12˝60
M.G
11˝15
11˝41
T.M.
11˝90
12˝07
N.S.
12˝14
12˝50
T.A.
12˝03
11˝84
P.T.
11˝41
11˝53
P.A.
11˝78
11˝61
R.D.
12˝17
12˝08
S.L.
11˝81
11˝60
T.D.
10˝90
10˝71
Moyenne
arithmétique
11”87
11”62
11”85
11”80
11”82
11”69
12”11
12”03
L'écart-type
±1”04
±0”73
±0”79
±0”82
±0”78
±0”61
±0”98
±1”01
Minimum
10”30
10”71
10”75
10”93
10”90
10”71
10”40
10”53
Maximum
13”71
13”12
13”40
13”40
13”67
13”08
13”80
13”89
57
 la moyenne arithmétique de l'épreuve initiale dans les deux groupes de garçons est très
similaire de 11˝8792 pour le groupe d'expérimentation à 11˝8517 dans le groupe de contrôle;
dans ce cas le meilleur résultat en termes de moyenne arithmétique c’est pour le groupe de
contrôle.
 La moyenne arithmétique du test intermédiaire dans les deux groupes n’est pas
significativement différent du groupe expérience -11˝6208, comparativement à 11˝8042, dans
ce cas le résultat est le meilleur pour le groupe expérimental, où les progrès sont plus évidents
que dans le groupe de contrôle( les progrès sont très faible).
 L’écart-type de l'épreuve initiale dans le groupe expérimental - ±1˝04943 - dans le groupe
de contrôle - ± 0˝79884 ;
 écart-type pour le test final dans le groupe expérience est de ± 0˝73567 à ± 0˝82737 dans le
groupe témoin
 en termes de meilleur résultat, il est constaté une détérioration dans les deux groupes: 10˝30
à 10˝71 groupe expérimental et 10˝75 à 10˝93 groupe de contrôle;
 les plus faibles, en termes de résultats, il montre une amélioration du groupe expérimental
de 13˝71 à 13˝12 (59 centièmes de seconde); et au groupe témoin il reste constante à la valeur
de 13”40.
Suite à ces résultats, nous pouvons dire avec certitude que dans l'ensemble il ya une
nette amélioration de la performance des garçons du groupe expérimental (trois des quatre
caractéristiques analysées) comparativement au groupe contrôle (seulement la moyenne
arithmétique s'est améliorée.)
D'après les résultats des filles, des mêmes échantillons, sont les suivantes:
 la moyenne arithmétique, le test initial, le groupe expérimental est meilleur (11˝8235) que le
groupe témoin (12˝1114);
 la moyenne arithmétique, le test intermédiaire est également préférable pour le group
expérience (11˝6965 ) que le groupe témoin (12”0389)
 le progrès est supérieure dans le groupe expérimental, en termes de la moyenne arithmétique
de 0˝1270, comparativement à seulement 0˝0728;
 écart type est faible dans le groupe expérimental par rapport au groupe de contrôle à la fois
dans l'épreuve initiale (0”78765 contre 0”98667) et de test intermédiaire ( 0”61722 contre
1”01223);
 écart-type diminue le groupe expérimental de 0”78765 à 0”61722 tandis que le groupe de
contrôle, il augmente de 0˝ à 1˝01223;
 en termes de meilleur résultat, il montre une amélioration du groupe expérimental de 10”90
à 10˝71, et une baisse de 10˝40 à 10˝53 ;
 les plus faibles en termes de résultats, il est préférable de groupe expérimental par rapport
au groupe témoin, à la fois l'épreuve initiale et la progression des tests;
 progrès est visible en termes de résultat plus faible, le groupe expérimental (à partir de
13˝67 à 13˝08) et un le recours au groupe témoin (13˝80 à 13”89);
 groupe de filles à constater une amélioration dans les quatre caractéristiques analysées, le
groupe expérimental, tandis que le groupe de contrôle est un progrès très faible que la moyenne
arithmétique (12˝1114 -12˝0386).
L'amélioration globale est observée tant chez les garçons et les filles, les résultats du
groupe de l'expérience, tandis que, la performance du groupe de contrôle amélioré est
insignifiant, comme indiqué par les deux graphiques ci-dessous (tableau no 1. Et tableau no. 2),
où est représentée l'évolution de la moyenne arithmétique.
58
11.9
11.85
11.8
11.75
11.7
11.65
11.6
11.55
11.5
11.45
12.2
12.1
12
11.9
11.8
11.7
11.6
11.5
11.4
1
Medie baieti grupa experiment
2
Medie baieti grupa control
tableau n ° 1
1
Medie fete grupa experiment
2
medie fete grupa control
tableau n ° 2
Conclusions et propositions. Suite de cette analyse les conclusions suivantes:
1. le rendement utilisées dans le groupe expérimental pour les jeux dynamiques, tout au
long de la leçon, est plus élevé que le contenu de la leçon traditionnelle d'éducation physique et
sport, où les jeux dynamiques sont ou non pas utilize, ou seulement quelques liens de la leçon.
Pour cela, je propose ce qui suit:
1. l'analyse des résultats et d’autres éléments de preuve (essais) prévu dans le programme,
2. la diversification des jeux dynamique et leur sélection en fonction des objectifs à atteindre
par la première classe.
Bibliographie
Bota, Aura, Tudor, Virgil, (2004) – Teoria educaţiei fizice şi sportului, curs ANEFS
Cârstea,Ghe.(1997) – Educaţia fizică. Teoria şi bazele metodicii, ANEFS, Bucureşti
Cerghit, I.(1997) –Metode de învăţământ, ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică RA, Bucureşti;
Dragnea, Adrian şi colab.(2002) – Teoria Educaţiei Fizice şi Sportului, Ed. FEST Bucureşti.
Dragnea, Adrian şi Aura, Bota (1999) – Teoria activităţilor motrice, Editura Didactică şi
Pedagogică, R.A., Bucureşti;
Epuran M (2005) – Metodologia cercetării activităţilor corporale – Exerciţii fizice, Sport,
Fitness, Editura FEFS, Bucureşti;
Marcu, Vasile Şi colb. (2007) – Psihopedagogie pentru formarea profesorilor, ed.
Universitatea din Oradea, ediţia a III-a, Oradea;
Şiclovan, Ion (1979) – Teoria educaţiei fizice şi sportului, ed. Sport – Turism, Bucureşti
Tudor, Virgil (2008) – Măsurarea şi evaluarea în cultură fizică şi sport, Ed. MOROŞAN,
Bucureşti;
59
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE BIOMOTRIC POTENTIAL OF THE
HANDBALL PLAYERS IN SPORTS PERFORMANCE
1
Piţigoi Gabriel40
Medicine and Pharmacy University,
”Carol Davila”, Bucharest
Abstract
The individual training consists in: the direct relationship between the coach
and the player and/or the development of some activities organized for an
assisted or independent (self training) training; the use of an individual chart, of
an individual training plan, of training programs focused on specific training
purposes. The profile of the players on positions consists in the synthetic
representation of all the biological values (indicators) (anthropometric, somatic,
functional, energetical etc.), psychological values (moral, volitive, cognitive) and
social values (status, relationships, social integration etc.) as well as the
characteristics of the training level (physical, technical, tactical) etc. All these
values are related to the performance behavior which is shown by each player.
In many papers the profile of the players on positions is the same with the model
of the player on positions. In what concerns us, we have elaborated the
technical-tactical profile for each player, in order to be used as reference model
for replacing the individual training projects.
Key words: individual training, biomotric potential, sports performance
Rezumat
Antrenamentul individual presupune relaţia directă antrenor-sportiv sau/şi
desfăşurarea unor activităţi anume organizate pentru o instruire asistată sau
independentă (autoantrenamentul); presupune utilizarea unei fişe individuale, a
unui plan individual de antrenament, programe de pregătire focalizate pe
obiective instrucţionale bine precizate. Profilul jucătorilor pe posturi presupune
reprezentarea sintetică a tuturor valorilor (indicatorilor) de ordin biologic
(antropometric, somatic, funcţional, energetic etc.) psihologic (moral, volitiv,
cognitiv) şi social (statut, relaţii, integrare socială etc.) la care se adaugă
caracteristicile nivelului de pregătire (fizică, tehnică, tactică) etc. Toate aceste
dimensiuni sunt strâns legate de comportamentul performanţial pe care-l
manifestă fiecare jucător în parte. În numeroase lucrări profilul jucătorilor pe
posturi este echivalent cu modelul jucătorilor pe posturi. În ceea ce ne priveşte,
noi am elaborat profilul tehnico-tactic al fiecărui jucător în parte, pentru a fi
utilizat ca model de referinţă pentru înlocuirea proiectelor individuale de
antrenament.
Cuvinte cheie: antrenament individual, potenţial biomotric, performanţă
sportivă
40
E-mail: [email protected]
60
1. Introduction
In The Terminology of Physical Education (p. 355) the individual training is „a type of
training which is adapted to the biological and psychological particularities, to the level and the
needs of training of each player”. This type of training is done in the training sessions, in which
the entire team or only one player takes part, with or without the supervision of the coach. It
also applies for the optimal exploitation of certain physical qualities or skills in the
circumstances of a competition. Teodorescu L. (1975), through its valuable papers (of
conceptual and methodological nature) brings important determinations like- “the individual
training is an important form of the training process organization. It is used in two forms:
individual training in the training sessions for the entire team, when all the players work for the
same purpose but with different exercises and individual training in separate training sessions.
These trainings can be lead by the coach or they can take place without the coach, following
well developed training programs.
Dragnea A., Teodorescu S.M. (2002) state that „ the individualization of the training is
done according to the information held about the players’ reaction to effort. This is related to
the circumstances of competition, training, after training, before effort (basal), recovery to the
initial values etc. These data should be known longitudinally in order to take the decisions
according to the real biological and psychological state of the player. The individualization is
also based on subjective information and on the psychic reactivity to special stimuli,
suggestions, placebo effect etc. Also, Gogâltan V., (1974, p. 71), considers that the training
individualization refers to the following major aspects: the strengthening of the weakest link of
the training, reaching some high value indices for the motric qualities: speed, force, skills. In
the opinion of Bota I. (1984, p.159), the principle of the individualization is done in two main
directions: general training and specialized training. In the general training this principle leads
to acquiring of the minimum of knowledge and level of training for all the players. In the
specialized training the principle leads to the meticulous completion in the chosen sports
branch. The content of the lessons is determined by the individual skills and the talent of the
player.
2. Material and Method
Purpose. The purpose or the goal of this research is to identify the bio-psychological
availability as well as the training level of the players in order to set the purposes and the
content of the individual training programs. 6 anthropologic parameters, 6 proportionality
indicators, 8 general motility indicators and 5 specific motility indicators were used.
Premises. The most renowned specialists in sports games say that in the training of the
players for performance, the individual training forms have a very important role.
Hypothesis. If in the forming stages of handball players we will identify and we will
correct the individual physical, technical, tactical, theoretical flaws of each player, then the
performance capacity will significantly increase and the integration of young handball players
in the performance teams (seniors) will be done easier.
Subjects. The research was done at Scholar Sports Club “CSS 3 STEAUA Bucharest”,
on a team of 10 players, in February- April 2010. The subjects of the research are members of
CSS no. 3. Steaua team, with ages between 17-19 years and with a game experience between 38 years.
61
Table no. 1 Anthropometric data summarization
No.
Players
Waist
(cm)
Bust
(cm)
Weight
(kg)
Footno.
(cm)
Palm
opening
(cm)
Span
(cm)
Thoracic
perimeter (cm)
1
2
3
HD
BA
CT
200
193
178
91
85
65
79
90
75
50
45
43
23
25
22
204
193
175
58
58
55
4
CA
195
85
77
44
25
195
54
5
DRS
190
80
94
46
25
91
65
6
7
DI
GA
167
180
65
70
63
74
42
44
18
23
165
183
54
58
8
GA
192
70
80
44
25
195
55
9
10
MA
MM
182
189
119
85
116
77
46
44
23
25
181
195
118
54
Circumstances of the Research. In the circumstances in which some of the players did
not accept supplementary training, due to different reasons (professional obligations, family
restrictions, education state, etc), the subjects of the research were divided into two groups: the
experimental group- which accepted the individual training besides the team training and the
control group- which did not accept the individual training. Each group was made up by 10
players. The 30 individual trainings were scheduled in February- April 2010, each training
lasting 60 minutes, with a total work volume of 30 hours. The anthropometric parameters
(height, bust, weight, arms span, thoracic perimeter, palm opening), proportionality
anthropometric parameters (body mass index, waist-weight ratio, Adrian Ionescu index,
Erissman index, Amar index, Bouchard index), general motility parameters (speed, detent
(broad jump), 4 steps test ( execution speed, body coordination, strength), relative strength
(hanging from a fixed bar), abdominal strength in speed conditions, the strength in the exterior
muscularity of the arms, the explosive force of the arms, coxofemural mobility) were taken into
consideration.
3. Results
We will take into consideration the first step in data processing, the one of organizing,
presenting and representing the data in an easy way for analyzing and interpreting. The
statistical tables are a way of showing the statistical data in which are situated the obtained data.
Besides the presentation function of the primary and secondary processing of the statistical
data, the tables also have the function of organizing data in order to process them.
62
Table no. 2 The summarization of physical training level parameters
Indices
18
Adrian
Ionescu
(cm)
6
Erissman
(cm)
1
Amar
(cm)
42.10
Bouchard
(cm)
0.49
18
5
0
44.04
0.46
2,37
19
5
1
36.51
0.42
2,53
18.5
5
0
43.36
0.39
DRS
2,02
18
6
1
42.10
0.49
DI
2,65
19
6
1
38.92
0.37
GA
2,43
20
5
0
38.88
0.41
8
GA
2,40
20
6
0
36.45
0.41
9
MA
1,56
20
6
0
36.45
0.41
10
MM
2,45
18.5
5
0
0,44
0.40
No.
Players
Waist/
Weight ratio
Body mass
(BMI)
1
HD
2,53
2
BA
2,14
3
CT
4
CA
5
6
7
8,5
9
10
9
9
8,5
9
10
9
9
9
8,5
8,5
10
9
8
9
8,5
8
9
8
9
9
8,5
10
8,5
9
8,5
8,5
9,5
Spatial
perception
HD
BA
CT
CA
DRS
DI
GA
GA
MA
MM
Perceptional
and motric
reaction
capacity
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Spatial
perception in
passing
Players
Throwing the
ball at the
goal post from
position and
in movement
Passing speed
No.
Skill (catching
and handling
of the ball
around the
body)
Table no.3 The summarization of specific motility parameters- initial test
9,5
8
8,5
9,5
8,5
9
8,5
8
9,5
10
10
9,5
9
8,5
8
9,5
8,5
9
8
9
9
9,5
9
8
8,5
10
8,5
9
9
10
63
Passing speed
Spatial
perception in
passing
Perceptional
and motric
reaction
capacity
Spatial
perception
Skill (catching
and handling
of the ball
around the
body)
Throwing the
ball at the goal
post from
position and in
movement
Table no.4 The summarization of specific motility parameters- final test
1
2
3
4
HD
BA
CT
CA
9,5
10
10
10
9,5
10
9
10
9
8
10
10
10
9,5
9
10
9
9,5
9
10
10
9
9,5
10
5
DRS
10
9,5
10
9
8
9
6
7
DI
GA
9,5
10
9
10
9
10
9
10
10
9
10
9
8
9
10
GA
MA
MM
10
9,5
9
10
8
9,5
9
10
10
9,5
9
10
10
9
9
10
9
10
No.
Players
4. Conclusions and discussions
The percentage differences between the results obtained for the experimental group at
the 2 tests, at the specific motility test are big in comparison with those obtained for the control
group. Also, it was observed that for the experimental group the cumulated initial-final
differences are different from one player to another, with only one exception for the players
MM and CA, who have the same cumulated percentage differences between the final and the
initial results, for all the tests. These differences vary between 5.3% and 76.7%. Through
decreasing ordering of the results we established a hierarchy of the players in order to
determine the most efficient individual training program.
For our experimental research, from the various individual training forms known by
us, we chose the individualization of the players according to the position requirements. So, for
this training form we made some operational structures (exercises) which were turned into
training programs which take into consideration mainly the position requirements and secondly
the individual flaws of each player. So, it is necessary to underline the methodological aspect of
limitation at only the collective individualization training form, due to several factors as: the
lack of training time, the lack of training space, personal matters of each player.
For the development of the collective individualization we made training plans which
had as purposes the tasks for each position, and the individual charts were included in these
plans as personalized training steps.
The superiority of this training form was proven to be real through the statistical data
64
which permitted us to establish the progress rates for each player, for the technical- tactical
training (taken into consideration in the control tests) as well as for the improvement of the
performance behavior in the game.
Refernces
Bompa T. (2003), Performanţa în jocurile sportive, Ed. PONTO
Bota I., (1984) Modele de joc şi pregătire, Ed.sport-turism
Colibaba D., Bota I. (1998), Jocuri sportive. Teorie şi metodică, Ed. Aldin
Colibaba, E. D. (2005), Note de curs, specializare baschet, anul III
Colibaba E. D. (1980), Raţionalizarea mijloacelor de pregătire fizică, tehnică şi tactică a
sportivilor din cluburile universitare, Braşov
Gogâltan V., (1974), Instruirea copiilor şi juniorilor în handbal, Ed. Stadion, Bucureşti
Mihăilă I. (2006), Evaluarea în selecţia şi pregătirea handbaliştilor de performanţă, Ed.
Universitaria, Craiova
Mihăilă I. (2004), Pregătirea fizică specifică a handbaliştilor juniori, vârsta 15-16 ani, în
dependenţă de postul jucat (note preliminare), Teză de doctorat, Chişinău
Mihăilă I. (2004), Consideraţii teoretice privind individualizarea antrenamentului sportiv,
Constanţa
Negulescu I. şi col. (2008), Relaţia dintre relaţionalizarea mijloacelor de antrenament şi
individualizarea pregătirii în jocurile sportive, Ed. BREN, Bucureşti
Piţigoi G. (2011), Reliefarea progreselor realizate de către handbaliştii juniori în urma
antrenamentelor individuale efectuate, Raport ştiinţific nr. 3, Piteşti
Piţigoi G. (2010), Coordonate metodologice de elaborare a proiectelor individuale de
pregătire, în Rev. Discobolul nr. 22
Teodorescu S. (2006), Teoria antrenamentului şi competiţiei
65
ÉTUDE SUR LA MANIFESTATION DE L’ANXIÉTÉ
PRÉCOMPÉTITIVE CHEZ LES SPORTIFS DE HAUTE
PERFORMANCE EN KARATÉ DO
Macovei Sabina1, Lambu Elena Andreea2, Toniţa Florentina3
Universitatea Naţională de Educaţie Fizică şi Sport –București
Constantin Noica, 140, sector 6, București
Tel., 0728. 936. 966, email: [email protected]
Résumé
Cette recherche représente le point de départ d’une étude plus ample liée à
la manière dans laquelle le niveau d’anxiété précompétitive peut constituer un
facteur prédictif des performances des karatekas dans les concours et propose
des stratégies d’intervention individualisées pour chaque sportif, en vue réduire
le degré d’anxiété avant le concours, l’objectif final étant l’augmentation du
niveau de performance. Hypothèse. La connaissance du niveau de manifestation
de l’anxiété précompétitive des sportifs et de son rapport aux enjeux de la
compétition peut offrir des données pertinentes pour la direction de la
préparation spécifique en vue du concours.
Mots-clés: anxiété, performance, Karaté Do.
Rezumat
Lucrarea de faţă reprezintă un punct de pornire pentru un studiu mai amplu
legat de modul în care nivelul anxietăţii precompetiţionale poate constitui un
factor predictiv al performanţelor karateka în concursuri, precum şi propunerea
unor strategii de intervenţie individualizate pentru fiecare sportiv în vederea
reducerii gradului de anxietate înainte de concurs, având ca obiectiv final
creşterea nivelului de performanţă. Ipoteză. Cunoaşterea nivelului de
manifestare a anxietăţii precompetiţionale a sportivilor şi raportarea acesteia la
miza competiţiei poate oferi date relevante pentru dirijarea pregătirii specifice
pentru concurs.
Cuvinte cheie: anxietate, performanţă, Karate Do.
Introduction :
“Le vrai courage est de faire ce qui est juste”, c’est la devise de la Fédération
Internationale de Karaté, qui promeut une discipline sportive caractérisée par la communion
entre l’esprit, le psychique et le corps (1).
Une conception de la psyché humaine est une opération dangereuse en raison de son
imprévisible, en raison de nombreux facteurs inquiétants, incontrôlables! Estimation
extériorisation mentale est aussi une tâche difficile. Cependant, en utilisant une série de tests,
nous pouvons définir le profil psychologique de l'athlète. Nous insistons sur l'esprit de lutte, la
volonté, le courage, la persévérance et la force nerveuse supérieure des processus. (2). Comme
une véritable école de la vie, le Karaté Do réussit, par des applications physiques et mentales, à
aider au perfectionnement de l’esprit, à réaliser l’expansion des connaissances et, pas en
dernière place, à enrichir la personnalité des pratiquants!
66
En tant que discipline sportive qui jouit d’un développement de plus en plus ample au
niveau mondial, mais aussi national, le Karaté Do a connu des changements majeurs qui l’ont
éloigné du caractère martial, en le soumettant aux règlements de la compétition et aux
modalités spécifiques de protection des sportifs. C’est ainsi que la tradition se combine avec les
nouvelles connaissances scientifiques, conduisant vers des programmes de préparation toujours
plus rigoureusement dirigés et adaptés au spécifique du combat dans chaque style pratiqué. (3).
Avec le progrès réalisé par chaque karateka, plus celui-ci monte sur l’échelle de la
hiérarchie des valeurs et améliore ses performances, plus le processus de préparation visant au
titre de champion absolu s’intensifie! (4)
Les caractéristiques des situations de concours en Karaté Do (temps-limite, difficulté
et complexité des situations de combat, lutte contre un adversaire direct plus ou moins connu,
l’arbitrage, enjeu du concours etc.) représentent des facteurs proximaux importants pour
l’augmentation du niveau d’anxiété. Il est possible que les ressources attentionnelles du sportif
ne soient plus exclusivement centrées sur la solution des tâches compétitives, mais sur les
pensées auto-dépréciatives (“je ne peux pas vaincre l’adversaire X”, “je ne crois pas que je sois
préparé pour ce match” etc.). C’est ainsi qu’apparaissent des difficultés ou même des blocages
dans la réactualisation des éléments spécifiques liés au concours (ex.: le sportif ne peut presque
pas du tout se rappeler le plan tactique) et, par conséquent, la performance dans le combat
diminue.
L’anxiété représente un trouble de l’affectivité et se manifeste par des états
d’inquiétude, de crainte et d’angoisse non-motivés, sans causes qui la provoquent. L’angoisse
se définit comme une “crainte sans objet”, à la différence de la phobie qui est une “crainte avec
objet”. Souvent, l’anxiété se manifeste sous la forme d’un état de peur causé par une
incertitude, où le sujet a l’impression d’un malheur imminent qui plane partout, l’entoure, le
pénètre, mais il ne peut ni le définir, ni l’écarter. Les états d’anxiété s’accompagnent de
phénomènes organiques-fonctionnels, tels: gêne précordiale, palpitations, difficulté de
respiration, transpiration etc. (5).
Il faut faire une distinction claire entre les deux notions bien délimitées de nos jours,
nommées anxiété-état et anxiété-trait. La notion d’état émotionnel, comme l’indique son nom,
correspond à un état passager qui peut survenir chez tout individu. Par contre, l’anxiété-trait est
une caractéristique individuelle apparemment innée, qui se manifeste, à son tour, dans deux
modalités: la prédisposition à ressentir des états de peur en présence de certains stimuli qui,
pour d’autres individus, sont moins ou pas du tout anxiogènes et la prédisposition à développer
des craintes conditionnelles en ce qui concerne des stimuli qui ne sont pas, par eux-mêmes,
anxiogènes. Un niveau élevé de l’anxiété-trait a un caractère pathologique (6).
Spielberge, C.D., (7) est celui qui développe cette conception caractéristique relative à
l’anxiété, l’auteur faisant la distinction entre l’anxiété comme trait particulier et l’anxiété
comme état (anxiété vécue dans une situation donnée).
Nous nous sommes intéressés à ces aspects car, à notre avis, ils sont très impliqués
dans le combat, en partant de l’expression antérieurement mentionnée concernant la
communion entre l’esprit, le psychique et le corps.
But:
Cette recherche représente le point de départ d’une étude plus ample liée à la manière
dans laquelle le niveau d’anxiété précompétitive peut constituer un facteur prédictif des
performances des karatekas dans les concours et propose des stratégies d’intervention
individualisées pour chaque sportif, en vue réduire le degré d’anxiété avant le concours,
l’objectif final étant l’augmentation du niveau de performance.
Conséquemment, suite à notre préoccupation de connaître les modalités par lesquelles
les sportifs pratiquant le Karaté Do réagissent quand ils se confrontent à l’enjeu du résultat
sportif, nous avons réalisé une première étape de l’étude, en vue d’investiguer la manifestation
67
de l’anxiété précompétitive chez les sportifs de haute performance, composants de l’équipe
nationale de la Roumanie.
Hypothèse:
La connaissance du niveau de manifestation de l’anxiété précompétitive des sportifs et
de son rapport aux enjeux de la compétition peut offrir des données pertinentes pour la direction
de la préparation spécifique en vue du concours.
Matériaux et la method:
Pour élucider notre étude, nous avons utilisé la méthode de l’interview et la méthode
de l’enquête. Cette dernière consisté dans l’application du questionnaire d’anxiété élaboré par
C. D. Spielberger, R. L. Gorsuch et R. Luchene, édité par la Presse de Consultation de
Psychologues (Consulting Psychologists Press), Palo Alto, Californie, en 1983 (traduit et
adapté par Iudith Moscu). (8)
Le test STAI est composé de deux échelles différentes qui mesurent deux concepts
différents de l’anxiété: l’anxiété comme état et l’anxiété comme trait. L’échelle STAI
mesurant l’anxiété comme état contient 20 questions, les sujets étant demandés d’indiquer
comment ils se sentent au moment de l’examen. L’échelle STAI mesurant l’anxiété comme
trait contient toujours 20 questions qui mettent en évidence comment les hommes se sentent en
général. Dans cette recherche, en partant de la théorie et du modèle de Spielberger, nous avons
appliqué le questionnaire d’anxiété STAI forme X1 et STAI forme X2 sur 11 sportifs de top
dans le Karaté Do, trouvés en période préparatoire pour participer au Championnat National, le
concours interne le plus important et étape décisive de la sélection pour le Championnat du
Monde. Les questionnaires ont été remplis par chaque sujet avant la compétition la Coupe de la
Transylvanie, déroulée en février à Sighişoara, et avant la finale du Championnat National,
déroulée au mois de mai à Dej.
L’enjeu de la première compétition préparatoire a été le meilleur classement possible,
qui soit pris en considération à la sélection de l’équipe nationale. À la deuxième compétition,
l’enjeu a directement visé la sélection au Championnat du Monde seniors d’Italie (Liganano),
en parallèle avec une série d’aspects financiers.
Résultats:
Les résultats des deux étapes d’application du questionnaire STAI sont interprétés en
base de l’étalon suivant, valable tant pour le STAI état – X1 que pour le STAI trait – X2:
20-34 → l’intensité de l’anxiété est petite;
35-49 → l’intensité de l’anxiété est moyenne;
50-64 → l’intensité de l’anxiété est en-dessus de la moyenne;
65-80 → l’intensité de l’anxiété est grande.
Les données sont présentées dans le tableau no. 1, en parallèle avec la mise en évidence
des résultats dans les deux compétitions prises en considération.
68
Tableau no. 1. Tableau synoptique avec les résultats au questionnaire STAI et les
performances compétitives
No.
crt.
Nom et
prénom
du sportif
STAI
X1
fév.
STAI
X2
fév.
COUPE DE LA
TRANSYLVANIE
23.02.2011
STAI
X1
mai
STAI
X2
mai
CN
03.05.2011
1.
L. E. A. (f)
29
33
1ère place kumité individuel; 2e
place kumité open; 2e place kata
synchrone; 2e place kumité
équipes
31
29
1ère place kumité individuel; 1ère
place kumité open; 3e place
kata
2.
L. I. S. (f)
28
27
2e place kumité individuel; 2e
place kata synchrone; 2e place
kumité équipes
32
29
3e place kumité individuel
3.
S. D. M.
(f)
S. A. (f)
31
31
2e place kumité équipes
30
28
1ère place kumité individuel
25
33
1ère place kumité équipes
33
33
1ère place kata individuel; 1ère
place kumité shobu ippon
5.
B. R. M.
(f)
34
33
Pas classé sur le podium
43
45
2e place kumité individuel; 3e
place kata individuel
6.
A. G. (m)
33
52
2e place kata individuel
48
46
7.
37
38
32
32
8.
B. D. C.
(m)
B. F. (m)
26
26
1ère place kumité open; 2e place
kumité individuel
26
25
9.
I. V. (m)
27
25
31
25
10.
T. A. I.
(m)
40
53
47
55
11.
G. D. (m)
42
47
55
51
4.
Suite aux discussions avec chaque sportif (réalisées sous forme d’interview
anamnestique), on a obtenu quelques informations, synthétisées dans le tableau nr. 2.
69
Tableau no. 2 Les résultats d’interview anamnestique
Nom et
prénom
du sportif
Âge
Catégorie
Pratique
sportive
Palmarès
L.E.A.
24 ans
Seniors -60 kg
18 ans
L.I.S.
23 ans
Seniors -55 kg
18 ans
S.D.M.
19 ans
Juniors -60 kg
12 ans
11 médailles aux Championnats d’Europe de Karaté,
seniors, W.U.K.F. (5 médailles d’or)
10 médailles aux Championnats du Monde de Karaté,
10 médailles aux Championnats d’Europe de Karaté,
9 médailles aux Championnats du Monde de Karaté,
1ère place aux C.E. de Karaté, juniors, Roumanie, 2009
1ère place aux C.M. de Karaté, juniors, Italie, 2008
S.A.
22 ans
Seniors -55 kg
6 ans
2e place aux C.M. de Karaté, juniors, Italie, 2008
3e place aux C.E. de Karaté, juniors, Roumanie, 2009
B.R.M.
20 ans
Juniors -55 kg
10 ans
1ère place à la Coupe du Monde, juniors, Italie, 2006
3e place aux C.E. de Karaté, juniors, Roumanie 2009
A.G.
17 ans
Juniors -65 kg
10 ans
1ère place aux C.M. de Karaté, juniors, Brésil, 2010
1ère place aux C.E. de Karaté, cadets, Italie, 2005
B.D.C.
19 ans
Juniors +75 kg
10 ans
1ère place à la Coupe du Monde, juniors, Italie, 2008
B.F.
24 ans
Seniors -65 kg
14 ans
1ère place aux de Karaté, seniors, Ukraine, 2009
1ère place aux de Karaté, seniors, Portugal, 2010
I.V.
19 ans
Juniors -70 kg
12 ans
1ère place aux C.M. de Karaté, juniors, Italie, 2008
T.A.I.
35 ans
Seniors +80 kg
24 ans
1ère place aux C.M. de Karaté, seniors, Ukraine, 2009
1ère place aux C.E. de Karaté, seniors, Belgique, 2008
G.D.
26 ans
Seniors +80 kg
16 ans
3e place la C.M. de Karaté, seniors, Ukraine, 2009
1 place aux C.E. de Karaté, seniors, Portugal, 2010
ère
Discussions
En analysant les résultats obtenus, on peut affirmer les suivantes:
Des 11 sportifs testés (5 filles et 6 garçons), 4 filles (L.E.A., L.I.S., S.D.M. et S.A.) et 2
garçons (B.F. et I.V.) ont obtenu des valeurs de l’anxiété-état (précompétitive) qui,
rapportées à l’étalon, se sont encadrées à “petite intensité de l’anxiété”. Chez ces 6
sportifs, inclusivement les valeurs de l’anxiété-trait se sont encadrées dans l’étalon de
“petite intensité d l’anxiété”.
Corroboré avec l’expérience sportive et avec l’âge des 6 karatekas, on observe le
maintien d’un niveau de performance relativement constant et stable, reflété dans le
palmarès enregistré jusqu’au présent par ces sportifs;
70
Les fluctuations du niveau de l’anxiété-état, rapportées à un niveau moyen
(comparativement à l’étalon) des valeurs obtenues à l’anxiété-trait par les autres
sportifs du groupe (B.R.M., B.D.C., T.A.I., G.D.), peuvent déterminer une baisse des
performances obtenues dans les concours avec enjeu;
Un cas particulier est celui du sportif T.A.I., le plus âgé de tous les karatekas dans
l’équipe (35 ans); ainsi, malgré son très bon palmarès, il fait des efforts soutenus pour
se maintenir au niveau des résultats antérieurement obtenus. Suite à l’interview avec
ce sportif, on a constaté les suivantes: il se considérait un sportif “au déclin de sa
carrière”, toujours plus accablé par les enjeux du concours, auquel s’ajoutaient
également ses conditions socioprofessionnelles et familiales actuelles (père de deux
enfants, avec un emploi très sollicitant, tant du point de vue physique que dans la
perspective du temps alloué, qui réduisait considérablement le temps consacré aux
entraînements et à la préparation spécifique pour le concours).
Conclusions :
Bien que celle-ci soit une étude préliminaire, comme l’on a déjà mentionné en début,
les résultats obtenus confirme l` hypothèse est mènent aux conclusions suivantes:
Le diagnostic, avant les compétitions avec enjeu, du niveau de l’anxiété-état et de
l’anxiété-trait peut déterminer l’élaboration d’un “profil” du degré d’anxiété pour
chaque sportif, information qui, utilisée dans la préparation spécifique, peut générer
des modalités spécifiques d’intervention, tant dans l’entraînement que dans le cadre
de la préparation psychologique en vue du concours.
L’enjeu du concours est l’une des variables qui agit sur le niveau de l’anxiété-état;
d’autres facteurs impliqués (parmi ceux observés dans le cadre de cette étude) se
rapportent à l’âge des sportifs, à leur niveau d’expérience dans le sport pratiqué, aux
conditions familiales, scolaires et socioprofessionnelles.
Les sportifs ayant un niveau d’anxiété-trait d’intensité moyenne (ou en-dessus de la
moyenne) peuvent obtenir des performances sportives dans les sports de combat, à
condition qu’ils bénéficient d’une préparation psychologique soutenue, par laquelle ils
puissent apprendre des stratégies individualisées pour la réduction de l’anxiété.
Bibliographie
www.karatedogojuryu.com
Deliu, D., 2008, Antrenamentul sportiv în disciplinele de combat, Editura Bren, Bucureşti, :
170
Deliu, D., 2008, Metodica disciplinelor sportive de combat, Editura Bren, Bucureşti:121-124
World Karate Federation, 2001, Regulamentul competiţiilor de karate. Kumite şi Kata, Editată
de F.R.K.M., Bucureşti
Popescu-Neveanu, P., 1978, Dicţionar de psihologie, Editura Albatros, Bucureşti : 57
Reuchlin, M, et colab., 1993, Grand dictionnare de la psychologie, Larousse, Paris : 53
Spielberger C. D., 1972, Direcţii în teoria şi cercetarea anxietăţii (vol. 1), New York
Academic Press :15
Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., Lushene, R., 1983, Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety
Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
71
THE ORGANISATION AND MANAGEMENT OF PHYSICAL
EDUCATION LESSONS WITHIN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL
ENVIRONMENT
Stănculescu/ Morrison Laura Mihaela
Presently PHD student U.N.E.F.S (year1) and
PE Teacher at The International School of Bucharest
Abstract:
Problems in our environment play an important role in our social activities.
The conference declaration of the United Nations on the environment
(Stockholm, June 1999) shows that the protection of environment has become a
major issue for humanity in our time and the future heavily depends on how
human beings meet the challenge.
There are many differing view-points on creating a more sustainable
environmental future, creating a safer and healthier environment. The action
that could be taken to protect the environment could also be achievable in
education, too. The involvement environmental issues in education was
confirmed and supported by UNESCO. It is a main objective in improving
education through realising the major issues in our environment.
Key words: organisation, management, the Primary School environment
Rezumat:
Spectrul problemelor ambientale, marchează profund sfera activităţilor
sociale. Declaraţia Conferinţei Naţiunilor Unite asupra mediului ambiant
(Stockholm, iunie 1999), arată că „Protecţia mediului ambiant a devenit pentru
umanitate o problemă esenţială actuală de care depinde viitorul omenirii. Există
largi perspective pentru îmbunătăţirea calităţii mediului ambiant şi făurirea unei
vieţi fericite". Acţiunea de protecţie a mediului se poate pe deplin realiza pe plan
educaţional. Extinderea dimensiunii ambientale în reţeaua didactică, strategie
confirmată de UNESCO, este un obiectiv primordial al educaţiei relative la
mediu având perspective certe în conştientizarea problemelor ambientale şi
formarea atitudinii faţă de protecţia mediului ambiant.
Cuvinte cheie: organizare, conducere, mediu ambiant, gimnaziu
Introduction
In this case, there are different international organisations that support this point of view
such as The Organisation for Education, Science and culture of UNESCO; The Agriculture and
Food Industry Organisation (FAD); World Wildlife Fund (WWF); The International Council of
Science (ICSU); World Health Organisation (WHO); The Development Programmes
Organisation (PNUD), etc. The existence of these numerous institutions with international
prestige has a connection with the protection of the natural environment around the world and it
represents an important objective for the maintenance of a healthier surrounding.
In health matters, major importance is given to the situation whereby the human body
will have to adapt within the changing climate or environment. Therefore, a healthy body
usually adapts well in a changing climate. Moreover, illness may occur reinforcing the fact that
the climate and environment are sometimes hard to combat.
72
At the moment, most specialists in this field consider our physical environment to be the
most important, and it is this that decides the level of human health. Recently, it has been
shown that certain areas of the country have high levels of air pollution. This has significant
negative implications in the physical development of young children as it is not a suitable
environment to do physical exercise. Air pollution represents the worst case of deterioration of
the planet.
The issue of a polluted environment is a concern for the entire world which is facing the
slow environmental deterioration of the planet. This could be stopped by introducing pollution
quotas globally to help protect every community. Regarding the issue of health, the relationship
between the human body and environment has an important role in the development process
because the human body has to continuously adapt to the environment around it.
The research assumption
We suppose that by finding a cause and establishing proper exercises and specific
methodical systems for primary physical education, it will contribute to educational projects in
Physical Education and will reduce the negative impact of pollution on young children.
The research’s main objective is teaching physical education lessons as a development
process in primary schools, according to the environment we live in.
The purpose of research is to create and apply an optimal system of physical exercise in
primary schools in relation to air pollution in a new environment.
Research targets (Tasks)
1. The theoretical part of the research shows the impact of pollution and the unquestionable
influence on children’s physical development during physical education lessons.
2. The causes and indicators scale show the grade of pollution in the environment and its
repercussion on children’s physical development during their time at primary school.
3. Setting up an active system for better physical education lessons taking into account the
pollution factors and trying to improve the physical development of children regardless of the
environment.
4. The assessment and reasoning for the program of exercise, created to improve physical
education for young children, has been well implemented and that it could be applied in
primary schools regardless of environmental factors.
Conclusions:
1. PE specialists and researchers with this environmental background have discovered that the
level of pollution in the environment is very high and represents a real threat to people who live
in such an environment. It has been proved that children can suffer major changes in physical
and neurological development, especially the ones who do physical education lessons in this
environment.
2. The teaching process is based on a range of activities that helped us to elaborate a fantastic
and complex system of exercises (dynamic and multifunctional). The next part of the project
established the index of the pollution indicators. Specialists in this field said that the factors
would have a negative repercussion on children’s physical development. For example, SO2,
CO, exhaust fumes and suspension particles have a negative influence on somatic, functional
and physical development of children.
3. The research on the teacher’s questionnaire demonstrates that many teachers who work in
primary schools believe that the environment has a major impact on pupil’s physical
development. Moreover, they think that physical exercise should be done in a safer, cleaner and
healthier environment. The majority of teachers are unaware of the exact data on the quality of
73
air pollution and are not interested in finding out a better way to do physical education lessons
in such environment.
4. During this scientific research it was established that between the pollution indicators in the
environment and the indicators utilised in the research there was a clear connection „r” that is
0.92 at experimental group of pupils and 0.88 at the witness’s group, a connection that was
proved statistically in the research. Therefore, this demonstrates that the SO2, CO, exhaust
fumes and the suspension particles have a major impact on children’s somatic, functional and
physical development.
5. The utility of the system we have created in our teaching research proved its efficiency
through the statistic calculations as follows:
- At the first testing, the somatic, functional and physical development tests showed very
similar results to both groups of pupils. The differences are not significant t ~ 1.3, smaller then
2.13 at significance 0.05 from the student table;
- At the final testing the indicators mentioned above, with the exception of the somatic
ones, registered an increase of the experimental group of children t ~ 8.4 more than 2.95
significance 0.01 from the student table.
6. As demonstrated above in the research, physical exercise plays a major role in the physical
development of young children, and physical education teachers could prevent the negative
influence of pollution in a safer environment by applying a safer system of exercise.
7. Our research proposed and elaborated a new scheme of work for Physical Education and
lessons in primary schools based on school’s climate, air pollution and environment. Therefore,
changing the lesson plans utilised in the Romanian curriculum and replacing them with new
ones based on a special system of exercise contributed to improving the physical development.
In conclusion, the research assumption elaborated has been demonstrated, and proves
that the environment could have a major influence on physical education lessons and physical
development of pupils.
Recommendations:
Some recommendations from this experiment should be mentioned such as:
♦ In the teaching process, teachers should always actively participate and interact in the
educational process relating to the physical education lessons and environment.
♦ In physical education, children and teachers should have appropriate amounts of leisure
time, sleep, healthy diet, maintenance of equipment, etc. This will prevent illness and reduce
accidents.
♦ We recommend that children’s health should be frequently checked by a doctor, at
school and privately to prevent illness. Some of these needs could be helped by practicing
physical exercise.
♦ The lesson plans should be modified and or elaborated accordingly to the environment,
especially when a school is situated in a polluted area.
♦ The quality of the air should be a concern to all teachers and scientists that are looking
after young children’s education to try to improve the level of education by creating a healthier
and safer environment where children will grow and develop.
74
Bibliography
Achim V. Particularităţile biologice ale vârstei de creştere şi dezvoltare // Consfătuirea
metodico ştiinţifică. – Cluj Napoca, 1976.
Alexandrescu C. Igiena educaţiei fizice şi sportului. - Vol I. – Bucureşti, 1993. Alexandrescu D. şi colab. Atletism – îndrumar pentru antrenamentul juniorilor. – Bucureşti:
Stadion, 1973.
Alexe N. Sinteze şi necesităţi privind structura şi metodica lecţiei de educaţie fizică // Revista
EFS. - Nr. 1/1971.
Alexe N. Studii de sociologie, psihologie, biochimie şi metodica educaţiei fizice şi sportului.–
Bucureşti: Sport-Turism, 1971
Alexe N. Metode de cercetare ştiinţifică în educaţia fizică şcolară // Rev. Cultură Fizică şi
Sport. - Nr. 3/1975.
Alexe N. Terminologia educaţiei fizice şi sportului. – Bucureşti: Stadion, 1977
Alexandrescu C. Modificările unor proporţii ale corpului la vârsta şcolara (7-18 ani) //
Congresul al II-lea de medicina. – Bucureşti, 1978.
Ardelean T. Atletismul în şcoală // Revista EFS. - Nr. 1/1979.
Ardelean T. Predarea atletismului în lecţiile de educaţie fizică// Revista EFS. Avramoff E. Fiziologia educaţiei fizice. – Bucureşti: Sport Turism, 1979.
Baciu C. Cl. Anatomia funcţională a aparatului locomotor. – Bucureşti: CNEFS, 1967.
Badiu T. Metodologia cercetării ştiinţifice în educaţie fizică şi sport: Note de curs. - Galaţi:
Universitatea, 1993.
Badiu C. Studiu comparativ privind eficienţa dezvoltării rezistenţei la elevii ciclului gimnazial.
– Galaţi, 1994.
Baroga L. Forţa în sportul de performanţă. – Bucureşti: Sport Turism, 1980.
Bompa T. Dezvoltarea calităţilor biomotrice. Periodizarea. – Bucureşti: CNEFPA, 2001
Bontaş I. Pedagogie. - Bucureşti: All Educational, 1998.
Cârstea Gh. Teoria şi metodica educaţiei fizice. – Bucureşti: Universul, 1993
Cerghit I. Perfecţionarea lecţiei în şcoala modernă.– Bucureşti: Didactică şi Pedagogică, 1983
Dragnea A. Capacitatea motrică, structură, definiţie, clasificarea acesteia // Rev. EFS. - Nr.
10/1984.
75
APPLICATIONS OF THE ATHLETIC EXERCISES AND THE TONE
AND BODY POSTURE EXERCISES IN OBESITY TREATMENT –
RECOVERY PROGRAM
Marius Stoica, Ph.D.
UNEFS – Bucharest
Abstract:
Latest statistics contain relevant data regarding the development of
people affected by obesity. Thus, the main problems are found in the U.S. and
South America, where almost half the active population is heading towards a
real "epidemic" of obesity.
Keywords: obesity, athletic exercises, tone and body posture exercises,
recovery.
Rezumat:
Ultimele statistici în domeniu conțin cifre îngrijorătoare în ceea ce
privește evoluția persoanelor afectate de obezitate. În acest context,
problemele cele mai mari se regăsesc în SUA unde, aproape jumătate din
populația activă se îndreaptă spre o adevărată ”epidemie” de obezitate.
Cuvinte cheie: obezitate, mijloace atletice, exerciții de tonus și postură
corporală, recuperare
Introduction
Obesity can be defined as:
 an abnormal state of fat in adipose tissue;
 an endocrine, nutritional and metabolic disease;
 a medical condition – the group of diseases with potentially pathological or psyhological
nutrition, reffering to overweight people;
 a chronic diseas with increased global risk, wich involves a structured and intensive clinical
management, with effective treatment strategies, put as many physiopathological mechanisms
involved. The literature shows the criteria for assessment and determination of obesity, such as:
Broca Index =
H (cm) – 100
m (kg)
Body Mass Index (BMI) =
, H = body height; m = body mass.
m (kg)
2
H (m) ,, H = body height; m = body mass.
TYPES
UNDERWEIGHT
NORMAL
OVERWEIGHT (PREDISPOZITION)
OBESITY Ist DEGREE
OBESITY IInd DEGREE
OBESITY IIIrd DEGREE
BMI VALUES
4 – 17,9
18 – 24,9
25 – 29,9
30 – 34,9
35 – 39,9
> 40
76
The main causes of obesity are:
- unbalanced diet rich in carbohydrates (sweets, fats), in proportion to the body's energy needs;
- lack of organized movement, physical exercise compared - in time - with the potential energy;
- nutritional disorders as a result of psychopathology (mental depression, conduct disorder);
- hormonal disorders (hypothyroidism);
- metabolic disorders (metabolic syndrome, often as a result and not a cause of obesity);
- genetic factors.
As the obesity is a pathological condition with a high potential, obese people have a
predisposition to some of pathologies:
 cardiovascular disease - hypertension, cardiac ischemia;
 hernias, varicose veins;
 osteoarthritis of the skeletal system, joints, the spine overburdened
 Endocrine: diabetes mellitus type II (non-insulin-dependent);
 urinary stones;
 frequent postoperative complications.
Recovery program using the specific exercises of walking, running, jumping, throwing
and the tone and body posture exercises in obesity treatment
From anamnesis and the initial and intermediary evaluation, the recovery program is
developed and structured on three phases:
 an initial phase - preparation: two weeks;
 a fundamental phase, the intensive work - progressive: 6 months - 1 year;
 a final phase.
General objectives:
 increase general capacity of effort;
 prevention and correction of poor secondary attitudes;
 development of practicing sistematically physical exercises for prophylactic and
therapeutic purposes;
 increase the functional capacity of the respiratory, cardiovascular, skeletal systems;
 weight loss by reducing body fat while toning muscles;
 prevention and relief of associated diseases;
 improve the capacity of physical and mental relaxation;
 improve the coordination abilities;
 habit of systematically practicing physical exercises for curative and therapeutic purpose;
 promote the social integration and reintegration.
Selected athletic exercises (walking, running, jumping, throwing) and of the tone and
body posture exercises applied three times a week over 6-12 months
Initial phase - lasting two weeks:
- the efforts are mild and progressive - predominantly aerobic;
- the frequency of sessions is 3 times a week (Monday, Wednesday and Friday);
- during sessions, depending on the particularities of the subjects, gradually increase to 30-40
minutes;
- working sessions were held in the gym or stadium;
- the dynamic exercises are carried out under the direct control of the teacher, the return is
made by easy, calming walking, with a focus on deep breathing;
- the tone and body posture exercises are executed in the first part of the sessions, lasting 10
minutes.
77
A. Selected athletic exercises:
 walk moderately on earth, grass, synthetic ground, the distance 250-300m;
 march on tips with arms outstretched, the distance 20, 30m;
 march on heels with hands back, a distance 20, 30m;
 alternative ride raising a knee to the chest with the third outlet on each step, the distance 20,
30m;
 lunge alternately every third step, the distance 20, 30m;
 march with forward and lateral added step, the distance 20, 30m;
 march with forward and reverse rotation of the thigh on every third step, the distance 20,
30m;
 away by rotating the back - before alternating on each thigh in the third step, the distance
20, 30m;
 running with pawing drill and moving forward, with the execution options at every three
steps, distance 20, 30m;
 running back in the direction of running, distance 20, 30m;
 running with swing legs under the seat, with versions running at a number of steps, distance
20, 30m;
 running with knees up, with options running at a number of steps, distance 20, 30m;
 jogging with rotating arms alternately forward / backward and simultaneous forward /
backward, distance 20, 30m;
 running with added step, the distance 20, 30m;
 running with cross-step, distance 20, 30m;
 running with shear legs, the distance 20, 30m;
 step jump, alternative and simultaneously to a number of steps, distance 20, 30m;
 step leaps, alternative and simultaneously to a number of steps, distance 20, 30m;
 simple jumping off place, with work to be done in flight (capriole, forward - back, left right), 20x;
 special exercises of multiple jumping (various combinations of running and jumping) over a
series of 10 obstacles - plastic cones of 5cm, 80cm distance between obstacles, followed by
running accelerated 5 - 10m;
 jogging 6-8 min.
B. Tone and body posture exercises:
 lying back with knees bent, feet on the ground, lifting the trunk at 15, 1 min.;
 passive stretching, ex. 1, 30 sec.;
 lying back with knees bent and legs crossed, feet on the ground, lifting the trunk to twist left
and right, 1 min.;
 lying back with knees bent and legs crossed, feet on the ground, right-left lateral bending, 1
min.;
 lying back with knees bent and legs crossed, feet on the ground, lifting the trunk at 15, 1
min.;
 lying back with knees bent and legs crossed, feet on the ground, lifting the pelvis, 1 min.;
 passive stretching, ex. 5, 30 sec;
 costal right lying, left leg crossed over the right thigh, lifting the trunk, 1 min.;
 costal left lying, right leg crossed over the left thigh, lifting the trunk, 1 min.;
 lying back with knees bent at 15, lifting the trunk and twist it left and right, 1 min.;
78
 lying back with legs up to 45, horizontal and vertical leg shears, 1 min.;
Fundamental phase - lasting 6 to 12 months:
 the efforts increase positively, becoming more intense, predominate dynamic exercises;
 frequency of sessions is 3-4 times per week;
 during sessions, depending on the particularities of the subjects, is 50 - 60 minutes;
 the tone and body posture exercises are executed in the first part of the sessions, lasting 10
to 15 minutes.
A. Selected athletic exercises:
 walk moderately on earth, grass, synthetic ground, the distance 400m;
 march on tips with arms outstretched, the distance 40, 50m;
 march on heels with hands back, a distance 40, 50m;
 alternative ride raising a knee to the chest with the third outlet on each step, the distance 40,
50m;
 lunge alternately every third step, the distance 40, 50m;
 march with forward and lateral added step, the distance 40, 50m;
 march with forward and reverse rotation of the thigh on every third step, the distance 40,
50m;
 away by rotating the back - before alternating on each thigh in the third step, the distance
40, 50m;
 running with pawing drill and moving forward, with the execution options at every three
steps, distance 40, 50m;
 running back in the direction of running, distance from 40, 50m to 400m;
 running side by placing one foot in front of once, once in the back and the trunk execute a
twist, distance 40, 50m;
 running with swing legs under the seat, with versions running at a number of steps, distance
40, 50m;
 running with knees up, with options running at a number of steps, distance 40, 50m;
 jogging with rotating arms alternately forward / backward and simultaneous forward /
backward, distance 40, 50m;
 running with the swing leg forward with various options of a number of steps, distance 40,
50m;
 run over low obstacles (perches, trail signs, medicine ball) with 3 or 5-step rhythm of
running, distance 40, 50m;
 running accelerated with increasing travel speed, distance 40, 50m;
 running with added step, the distance 40, 50m;
 running with cross-step, distance 40, 50m;
 running with shear legs, folowed by running accelerated, the distance 20m + 30m;
 step jump, alternative and simultaneously to a number of steps, distance 40, 50m;
 step leaps, alternative and simultaneously to a number of steps, distance 40, 50m;
 simple jumping off place, with work to be done in flight (capriole, forward - back, left right), 20x;
 jumping on and over different obstacles, 20 - 30cm, 2x;
 special exercises of multiple jumping (various combinations of running and jumping) over a
series of 10 – 15 obstacles - plastic cones of 20cm, 100cm distance between obstacles, followed
by running accelerated 5 - 10m;
 throwing exercises, pushing launching, with one hand and two hands, in the derivative
positions:
- sitting with feet together and apart, stretched or slightly flexed - 20x;
- on one knee or both knees - 20x;
- from lying back - 20x;
- from lying facial - 20x;
79
- from lying back of the raised surface - 20x;
 jogging 12-15 min.
B. Tone and body posture exercises:
 lying back with knees bent, feet on the ground, lifting the trunk at 15, 2 min.;
 passive stretching, ex. 1, 1 min.;
 lying back with knees bent and legs crossed, feet on the ground, lifting the trunk to twist left
and right, 2 min.;
 lying back with knees bent and legs crossed, feet on the ground, right-left lateral bending, 2
min.;
 lying back with knees bent and legs crossed, feet on the ground, lifting the trunk at 15, 2
min.;
 lying back with knees bent and legs crossed, feet on the ground, lifting the pelvis, 2 min.;
 costal right lying, left leg crossed over the right thigh, lifting the trunk, 2 min.;
 costal left lying, right leg crossed over the left thigh, lifting the trunk, 2 min.;
 lying back with knees bent at 15, lifting the trunk and twist it left and right, 2 min.;
 lying back with legs up to 45, horizontal and vertical leg shears, 2 min.;
 passive stretching, ex. 9, 1 min.
Final phase
Going through in detail the first two phases of the recovery program, is reached a
balance of somatic-functional parameters. This allows us to establish a standard program with
three prevention sessions per week of athletic, tone and body posture exercises (shown with
appropriate dosage in fundamental phase), which should be executed by obese people as long as
possible and even lifelong.
Personal contribution, the approach of such a recovery program, is the possibility of
combining the two categories of resources, on the one hand the natural exercise, like simple
walking, running, jumping and throwing, and on the other hand the tone and body posture
exercises.
Personal experience gained as a physical coach in sport, allow me to believe that the
maximum efficiency in this context is when the tone and body posture exercises are executed
before the proper training.
Conclusions
 Practicing athletic exercise systematically, methodically adapted to the features of
overweight and obesity, promotes weight loss, muscle tone in conservation condition, allows
reducing weight gain, it has increased efficiency of subcutaneous fat, improves blood pressure
and lipid metabolism;
 Encourage regular physical activities under the guidance of a specialist in physical
education and physical therapy is one of the determining factors in obesity prevention;
80
 Addressing such a program (athletic exercises, tone and body posture exercises), tailored to
the specific subjects in various stages of overweight or obesity, will help change the mentality
of the general approach to physical exercise;
 This rehabilitation program may be addressed at both children and the adults, customizing
the exercises with proper dosing, depending on the state of obesity that are subjects;
 Recent statistical studies have real issues on the occurrence of overweight - obesity in the
young and school-aged children. Thus, the proposed program will be fully effective if is applied
at this stage of physical development.
Bibliography
Cordun, M., Kinetologie medicală. Editura Axa, București, 1999
Crețu, A., Bratu, M., Refacere în sport. Editura ANEFS, București, 2003
Stoica, M., Atletism – mijloc asociat al kinetoterapiei. Editura Bren, București, 2005
Stoica, M., Recuperare – reeducare prin mijloace. Curs pentru studenșii de Master, anul II.
Recuperare – reeducare neuromotorie. Editura ANEFS, București, 2009.
81
RELATIONSHIP OF VOLUME, INTENSITY AND SPECIFIC MEANS
DURING COMPETITIVE PERIOD IN PERFORMANCE
WEIGHTLIFTING
Ulăreanu Marius Viorel,
Teaching Assistant, PhD student - Ecological University of Bucharest
Potop Vladimir,
Associate Professor, PhD – Ecological University of Bucharest
Abstract:
Improving performance in weightlifting is a direct result of the quantity and
quality of sport effort during training. From the initial stage up to the elite level,
the training load should be gradually increased, depending on the physiological
and psychological capabilities of each athlete (Bompa, T.O., 2002). Viewed in
such way, sports training consists of loads which, by volume, intensity, density,
complexity, specificity and type, entail functional adaptations or achievement of
the coordinative and technical-tactical objectives, in which the systems submitted
to training are stressed up to pathological limits (Dragnea C.A., MateTeodorescu, S., 2002). The theoretical considerations, the observations and
results of the experimental research lead to the conclusion that the effort volume
is worth to increase anaerobic effort capacity only when its shares do not exceed
the limit beyond which the intensity can no more be maintained at maximum and
sub-maximum level related to individual possibilities. (Nicu A., 1993).
Key words: effort, weightlifting, intensity, performance, planning, volume
Rezumat:
Îmbunătăţirea performanţei în haltere este rezultatul direct al cantităţii şi
calităţii efortului depus de sportiv în timpul pregătirii. De la stadiul iniţial şi
până la nivelul de elită, încărcătura în pregătire trebuie să crească treptat, în
funcţie de capacităţile fiziologice şi psihologice ale fiecărui sportiv (Bompa,
T.O., 2002). Privit astfel, antrenamentul sportiv este alcătuit din încărcături
care, prin volum, intensitate, densitate, complexitate, specificitate şi tip, duc la
adaptări funcţionale sau la realizarea unor obiective coordinative şi tehnicotactice, în care sistemele supuse pregătirii sunt solicitate la limita patologicului
(Dragnea, C.A., Mate-Teodorescu, S., 2002). Consideraţiile teoretice,
observaţiile şi rezultatele cercetărilor experimentale duc la concluzia că volumul
efortului are valoare pentru creşterea capacităţii de efort anaerob numai când
cotele sale nu depăşesc limita dincolo de care intensitatea nu mai poate fi
menţinută la nivel maxim şi submaxim faţă de posibilităţile individuale (Nicu, A.,
1993).
Cuvinte cheie: efort, haltere, intensitate, performanţă, planificare, volum
Introduction
The organization of training process on the basis of training cycles allows the
systematization according to the main objective of the training stage and period, provides an
optimum dynamics of workout loads and competitive activity, the combination of training
means and methods, and it finds ways to develop athletes’ different skills and possibilities
(Dvorkin, 2005).
Effort parameters in performance weightlifting are characterized by effort intensity
growth from one micro-cycle to another by increasing load, number of sets and reps;
82
progressive increase of effort parameters, kept at maximum level and diminution of volume
before competitive period (Potop V., Urichianu Toma S., Ulăreanu, M.,V., 2010).
Purpose of the paper is: highlighting the relationship of volume, intensity and specific
means in performance weightlifting competitive period.
Hypothesis
We believe that an optimum relationship of volume, intensity and specific means for
strength and technique provided during the competitive training will contribute to peaking for
competition and to achieve better performances in contests.
Methods of research
- Method of bibliographic study: it consisted of specialty literature documentation on
work topics.
- The observation method monitored the performances of the weightlifters – subjects of
the study - during training sessions and competitions.
- Experiment method: it consisted of confirmation or invalidation of the hypothesis
proposed.
- Statistical and mathematical method and plotting method; they consisted of
tabulation of study results by means of Word program and the calculation of statistical indices
by means of „KyPlot” program, using the test of linear correlation.
Content of experiment
The study focused on the training programs during 6 preparation micro-cycles,
monitoring the statistical evolution of effort and performance parameters.
Subjects, protocol of conduct
In order to point out the relationship between effort parameters and specific means in
competitive period, a study was conducted within Weightlifting Olympic Team.
The study was carried out during the period (16.08 -30.09.2010), formed of one
competitive mezzo-cycle including 6 training micro-cycles, applied on a group of 7 athletes of
19-25 years old.
Results
Table no 1. Content of specific training means
MC
Competition
Calendar
No. Of
reps
350
1
TECHNICA
STRENGTH
40
SNATCH
SQUATS
CHEST SQ.
PULLS
CL & JRK
BACK EXER.
BACK SQ.
BENDING
50
60
2
350
40
3
300
40
4
200
45
5
100
50
100
50
40
60
60
50
233.3
44.16
46.67
Em – average error
47.7
2.01
s- standard deviation
116.9
4.91
50.1
11.1
2.01
4.91
Cv%
variability
coeff.
of
9.6
46.67
6.3
6.3
19.9
7.4
23.1
15.4
51.6
53.2
36.67
9.4
15.4
31.8
-
70
8.1
5.16
11.06
8.8
30
19.9
40
-
100
37.5
2.1
5.16
70
-
8.1
40
60
-
62.5
2.1
60
30
53.33
45
60
30
100
50
55.84
60
45
50
45
55
40
70
50
70
50
50
50
55
40
55
50
50
Senior World
Championships
Antalya - Turkey
Statistical Indices
X – Arithmetical mean
50
60
50
60
30
50
50
55
40
50
50
40
60
6
50
50
18.3
49.6
22.2
Legend: GEN.- squats, TRAG.- pulls, EXER. SP.- back exercises, APLEC.- bending.
50.04
83
120
100
TECHNIC
STRENGTH
SNATCH
80
%
CLEAN &JERK
SQUATS
60
BACK EXER.
CHEST SQ.
40
BACK SQ.
PULLS
BENDING
20
0
Mic.1
Mic.2
Mic.3
Mic.4
Mic.5
Mic.6
Graph no. 1. Dynamics of effort parameters in competitive period
In table no. 1 and graph no. 1 are summarized the content of training specific means in
competitive training micro-cycles for the Senior World Championship, the number of reps for
each training micro-cycle and the share of technical and strength training means.
Table no. 2. Intensity of specific means of technical training
Microcycle
Technical
styles
Snatch
Clean &jerk
Snatch
2
Clean &jerk
Snatch
3
Clean &jerk
Snatch
4
Clean &jerk
Snatch
5
Clean &jerk
Snatch
6
Clean &jerk
Statistical indices
X – Arithmetical mean
Em – average error
s- standard deviation
Cv% - coeff. of variability
1
Intensity
60%
70%
75%
26
27
24
23
24
23
14
23
14
26
50
40
22
23
24
23
24
23
24
23
36
30
30
40
20
20
20
20
26.1
2.88
9.9
38.1
26.8
1.7
5.9
22
20
0
0
0
80%
85%
90%
95%
22
20
24
23
24
23
24
23
24
14
17
15
13
14
13
14
24
14
6
10
11
12
13
12
13
12
12
12
2
3
2
5
2
5
2
5
22.1
0.98
3.1
14.06
14.0
1.46
4.61
32.9
12.1
0.22
0.64
5.2
3.25
0.52
1.48
45.7
84
30
26,8
26,1
25
22,1
20
%
20
14
15
12,1
10
5
3,25
0
I- 60%
I- 70%
I- 75%
I- 80%
I- 85%
I- 90%
I- 95%
Graph no. 2. Dynamics of technical means intensity
In table no. 2 and graph no. 2 are shown the share and dynamics of technical means
intensity regarding the relation of technical procedures snatch and clean &jerk in each training
micro-cycle of the competitive period.
Table no. 3 and graph no. 3 present the share and dynamics of strength means intensity,
squats, pulls and bending in each training micro-cycle of the competition period.
Table no. 3. Intensity of strength specific means
Microcycle
60
%
70
%
26
75
%
SQUATS
80
85
%
%
28
90
%
30
95
%
100
%
16
70
%
66
PULLS
80
90
%
%
20
14
100
%
-
1
30
40
34
23
20
10
23
6
10
23
6
6
14
28
60
28
20
28
20
27
23
27
14
44
60
28
20
28
20
30
27
27
27
27
10
18
50
60
30
20
20
20
35
27
27
27
27
11
50
25
25
45
35
25
25
3
28
4
46
BENDING
80
90%
%
32
27
27
100%
14
16
2
30
40
70
%
23
31
23
31
43
32
31
31
15
15
25
100
5
100
20
50
-
-
6
-
Stat. In.
X
30
35
33.4
28.7
26.6
23.4
13
10.5
53.6
42.4
23.3
22
30.2
44.2
28.5
14.6
Em
s
Cv%
0
0
0
3.29
8.07
23.0
2.6
6.9
20.6
2.28
4.57
15.9
1.51
4.27
16.0
2.55
6.75
28.8
2.55
6.26
48.1
2.62
5,25
50.0
15.1
33.8
63.0
5.27
15.8
37.3
1.72
5.17
22.1
1.55
4.12
18.7
4.75
9.5
31.4
13.9
31.2
70.7
1.5
3.0
10.5
0.33
0.57
3.9
SQUATS
PULLS
85
BENDING
60
53,6
50
42,4
%
40
35
30
33,4
30,25
30
44,2
28,7
26,6
28,5
23,4
23,3
22
20
14,6
13
10,5
10
0
I-60%
I-70%
I-75%
I-80%
I-85%
I-90%
I-95%
I-100%
Graph no. 3. Dynamics of strength means intensity in competitive period
Table 4. Results obtained in competition,
Senior World Championship, Antalya – Turkey, 2010
No
Full name
1 Gîscan Marius
2 Miculescu Ninel
3 Martin Răzvan
4 Roşu Alexandru
5 Sîncrăian Gabriel
6 Calancea aleriu
7 Danciu Marius
X- Arithmetical mean
Em- average error
S- standard deviation
Cv- coeff. of variability
Class,
kg
62
69
69
77
85
94
94
78.57
4.82
12.7
16.2
Weight
in contest
61.95
68.88
68.98
76.92
84.90
93.23
93.62
78.35
4.74
12.5
16.02
Place
Snatch, Cl&jerk,
kg
kg
Total, kg
116
157
145
149
165
177
170
154.14
7.66
20.2
13.1
0
337
0
337
366
397
371
258.28
67.1
177.6
68.7
0
180
0
188
201
220
201
141.42
36.8
97.4
68.8
Sn
C&j
21
0
3
5
8
0
14
9
9
7
5
1
14
19
10.57 5.85
2.33 2.56
6.18 6.79
58.5 115.9
Total
0
2
0
10
7
3
16
5.42
2.24
5.94
109.4
Table 4 presents the results that the subjects submitted to the study obtained in Senior
World Championships in Antalya - Turkey, 2010, regarding the performances at snatch, clean
and jerk styles and total, also the places in the ranking at each style and the total.
Discussions
The study findings highlight the relation of effort parameters and specific means for
technique and strength in the competitive period in performance weightlifting.
The number of reps and the share of specific means pointed out an average of 233.3
reps, a share of 44.16% means for technique and 55.84% means for strength.
As for the share of technique and strength means, we notice: a share of 46.67% for
snatch and 53.33% for clean and jerk, 62.5% for squats and 37.5% for back exercises.
86
The statistical and mathematical analysis of the intensity of technical means during
competitive period highlights an average of 26.1% at an intensity of 60%, 26.8% at an intensity
of 70% and 20% at an intensity of 75% (warm-up intensity); 22.1% at an intensity of 80%,
14% at an intensity of 85%, 12.1% at an intensity of 90% and 3.25% at an intensity of 95%.
In terms of results of statistical-mathematical calculation of the strength means intensity
we can notice:
- At squats, the average is 30% at an intensity of 60%, 35% at an intensity of 70%, 33.4% at
an intensity of 75% (warm-up intensity); 28.7% at an intensity of 80%, 26.6% at an intensity of
85%, 23.4% at an intensity of 90%, 13% at an intensity of 95%, 10.5% at an intensity of 100%;
- At pulls, the average is 53.6% at an intensity of 70%, 42.4% at an intensity of 80%, 23.3%
at an intensity of 90% and 22% at an intensity of 100%;
- At bending, the average is 30.25% at an intensity of 70%, 44.2% at an intensity of 80%,
28.5% at an intensity of 90% and 14.6% at an intensity of 100%.
Regarding the performances achieved in competition by the subjects of the study, it can
be outlined an average of 78.57kg of weight classes, 78.35kg as for the weight of competing
athletes, an average of 154.14kg at snatch style, 141.42kg at clean and jerk style and 258.28kg
at styles total; the places obtained in ranking highlight an average of 10.57 at snatch style, 5.85
at clean and jerk and 5.42 as total.
According to the results obtained in the competition, the best performances achieved by
the athletes of the study were the following ones: Valeriu Calancea, the 5th, 1st and 3rd place
and Miculescu Ninel with 3rd , 5th and 2nd place.
Conclusions
The analysis of the content of technique and strength specific means points out the
relationship and the dynamics of effort parameters throughout each training micro-cycle during
competition period. The share and the dynamics of technical styles intensity (snatch, clean and
jerk) and of strength means (squats, pulls and bending) highlight the relationship of these ones
in each training micro-cycle of the competitive period.
Ensuring an optimum relationship of volume, intensity and specific means for strength
and technique during the competitive training contributed to peaking for competition and to
achieve better performances in contests, argument that confirms the hypothesis of the study.
References
Bompa, T.O. Theory and Methodology of Training - Periodization:. Ex Ponto Publishing
House, Bucharest, 2002, p.39
Dragnea, C.A., Mate-Teodorescu, S., Theory of Sport. FEST Publishing House, Bucharest,
2002, p.129.
Dvorkin L.S., Heavy Athletics. “Sovietski Sport” Publishing House. Moscow, 2005, p.78, 270
Nicu, A., Modern Sports Training. „ EDITIS” Publishing House, Bucharest, 1993, p. 237.
Potop V., Urichianu Toma S., Ulăreanu, M.,V. Content of Training Specific Methods for
Performance Weightlifters. In „ Millennium III Palestra - Civilization and Sport”, Vol. 11, no.
3, July-September 2010, 211-215.
87
JEUX HANDBALL AUX ELEVE DE LA CLASSE V
Conf.univ.dr.Marina Igorov,
U.N.E.F.S.Bucureşti
Abstract:
Dans le cadre du système éducatif, l'éducation physique et du sport au
niveau secondaire, a un objectif principal d'amélioration continue et sanogenetic
potentiel biologique des enfants comme une activité essentielle à un soutien
professionnel efficace. Les nombreux aspects du jeu de handball,explique son
inclusion en tant que moyen de cours d'éducation physique à toutes les classes
de contenu d'élèves du secondaire.
Le jeu de handball est une variante d’activité de jeu dans lequel le rôle
du mouvement est évident, Il est également un moyen et une méthode
d'éducation. Analyse essentiellement et le contenu du jeu de handball nous nous
rendons compte de l'immense valeur éducative. Ses fonctions peuvent être
identifiées à l'intégration sociale, de leur propre éducation phénomène. L'élève
connaît et adopte la réalité de la conduite motrice fait de diriger conscient leurs
mouvements du corps la préparation des travaux et de la vie, l'acquisition de
capacités motrices, à moteur, et de l'exploitation à former leur attitude à l'égard
de conduire l'activité. Dans ce complexe les élèves ils sont active, la pensée,
mises à jour de création, de recherche et de trouver des solutions qui assurent le
succès, opèrent dans les interrelations avec les collègues ou adversaires.
Mot clé: Efficacité, éducation physique, handball
Rezumat:
Parte integrantă a sistemului educaţional, educaţia fizică şi sportul la
nivelul ciclului gimnazial, are ca obiect fundamental îmbunătăţirea continuă a
potenţialului biologic şi sanogenetic al copiilor, ca suport indispensabil pentru
desfăşurarea unei activităţi profesionale eficiente. Multiplele valenţe instinctiveducative ale jocului de handbal, explică includerea sa ca mijloc al educaţiei
fizice în conţinutul lecţiilor la toate clasele de elevi ale ciclului gimnazial.
Jocul de handbal este o variantă a activităţii de joc în care rolul mişcării
este evident. El este totodată un mijloc dar şi o metodă de educaţie. Analizând
esenţa şi conţinutul jocului de handbal ne putem da seama de imensa sa valoare
educativă. Funcţiile sale pot fi identificate cu cele de integrare socială, proprie
fenomenului educaţional. Elevul cunoaşte şi îşi însuşeşte realitatea motrică,
dirijându-şi în mod conştient mişcările corpului, se pregăteşte pentru muncă şi
viaţă, dobândind capacitatea motrică, calităţi motrice, şi operând cu ele îşi
formează atitudini fata de activitatea motrică. În acest complex elevul este activ,
observă, gândeşte, reactualizează creativ, caută şi găseşte soluţii care asigura
succesul, acţioneaza în inter-relaţii cu colegii sau adversarii.
Cuvinte cheie: eficacitate, educatie fizica, handbal
Le problème
Le jeu comprend toutes les préoccupations de l'enfant, il devrait donc être utilisé
principalement comme un moyen de former et éduquer. Différence l'écriture, de lecture, où les
grands efforts sont nécessaires pour travailler plus étroitement avec le jeu qui a accroché les
enfants, l'éducation physique est le moyen principal du jeu juste sous différentes formes.
88
En introduisant des moyens spécifiques de jeux handball dans la leçon de d'éducation
physique j'ai l'intention de annulez la monotonie, passer du temps dans un cadre très agréable
souhaite faire de plaisir dans le concours pondant la leçon le besoin d'avoir un corps sain, de
surmonter les difficultés, de surpasser les autres, à développer l'esprit d'équipe et l'efficacité et
dans le finale l’amélioration de l’efficacité de la leçon de l’éducation physique.
Le but est d'aider à concevoir autre unité de mise à niveau, la formation des étudiants en
particulier en termes de méthodologie améliorée pour le handball de classe - V - a. Dans des
conditions dans lesquelles le programme ne prévoit que deux leçons par semaine, nécessite
l'utilisation de 100 minutes à travers d'une façon organisée de s'assurer que la leçon de
l'environnement physique, la conduite des connaissances et des perceptions motrice , une
éducation de qualité volontaire et moral. En utilisant les moyen spécifique de jeux de handball
en cours d'éducation physique, ainsi que le potentiel biologique augmenté des étudiants, la
leçon que nous voulons devenir un catalyseur pour l'intérêt des enfants. Ils s'habituent, avec la
compétition, le travail d'équipe, la victoire et accepter la défaite, ils seront confrontés à des
situations dans les activités quotidiennes après l'école.
Dans le cadre de mes recherches, j'ai commencé à partir de l'hypothèse: des unités
spécifiques de l'apprentissage en appliquant systématiquement le jeu de handball, simplifié et
standardisé, ce qui contribue à une efficacité accrue dans la classe d'éducation physique dans la
classe a V-a.
Tous les aspects de la recherche, à la fois théoriques et méthodologiques et
organisationnelles ont été soumis à cette exigence:
 sélection préalable des sujets de moins de recherche;
 niveau de connaissance du développement physique des élèves et le niveau de
développement moteur;
 tests d'application et spécifique de gymnastique en plein air;
 développer des tests qui incluent des techniques de jeu de handball;
 le développement des unités d'apprentissage du plan annuel, le plan de leur calendrier et de
l'expérimentation;
 d'analyse d'efficacité de model opérationnelle
 Comme les principales méthodes de travail nous avons utilisé:
 Méthode Etude bibliographique;
 observation des enseignants
 Résultats de mesure du test
 méthode expérimentale;
 méthodes statistiques et mathématiques;
 représentation de la graphique
La recherche a été effectuée à l'école avec des classes
Nr.4 “Mircea cel Mare” dans la ville de Curtea de Argeş Argeş..
 L'expérience a été au cours de l'année scolaire 2010-2011.
 L'échantillon de recherche a été créé au niveau scolaire - V - les suivantes:
 classe expérimenter aVa-A- effective 21 élèves, 11 filles et 10 garçons;
 classe de contrôle aVa- B - 23 effective élèves, 12 filles et 11 garçons
 Pendant le parcours de recherche les élevés ont été testées en termes de motivation début de
l'expérience en septembre 2010 a la fin de l'année scolaire, mai 2011. Tests (SNSE - Système
national d'évaluation de l'école) compris:
 course de vitesse 50 m;
 course de résistance filles 600 m, 800 m garçons
 saut en longueur;
 lancer la balle de oina
 elèvement du tronc de position dorsal (30'')
 elèvement des jambes en position dorsal (30'')
 extension du tronc de position faciale (30'')
89
 levée le basin de position dorsale (30'') test spécifique jeux de handball . Batterie des tests
spécifique jeux de handball comprit quatre tests
 Attraper et passer la balle de handball sur place en couples distance entre les partenaires - 3
m) durée 30 ', en tenant compte du nombre de passages;
 multiples dribble en ligne droite sur la distance de 20 m, a été enregistrée pendant la
navigation de la distance
 lancer la balle de handball porte cible vertical tracé sur le mur de la taille de handball 3 / 2
m, divisée en 9 carrés.
2
0
1
0
1
0
5
1
5
2
0
2
0
1
0
2
0
Les élevés assise sur le ligne de 7m exécute 6tire pour obtenir plusieurs Le test vise à
acquérir la technique correcte pour lancer jeté dessus de l'épaule. Jouer handball avec des règles
réduite une note. Accordées pour la capacité de généraliser et d'appliquer les conditions de
concurrence pour les éléments technique.
Passe drebling tir a la porte avec le respect des règles de jeux passe double drebling et la
touche les notes ils sont de 1 a 10.
Model opérationnelle
Mouvement de terrain
- course la vitesse d'attaque:
- 4x25m, pause de 10 sec.;
Déplace la position fondamentale sur la défense
• 8x le signal sonore
• 4x30m, repos 25 sec.
-revenir
• 4x20m, 10sec pause
• 4x30m, pause 15sec
Déplacement en position fondamentale de défense sur la ligne de 6m
4x15sec, pause 15sec
Scool ball
Passe par deux sur place exécution passe dessus de l'épaule.
90
L'équipe a eu six en ligne face à l'entrée, en passant par sur place- 4x30sec - reste
15sec entre les représentants.
- Le passage de navette simple, l'équipe s'est divisé en huit cordes (quatre équipes)
Passe en déplacement entre 2 et 3 joueur 8x30m pause de 20sec
Passe par 2
Passe par 3
Passe en face de semi cercle de 9m, 2x2min,pause 30sec
91
Drebling en cours 4x20 sous forme de estafette
2
0m
Drebling entre les jalon 4x25m,pause 1min
Navette simple avec drebling
Par couples, la distance de 15m, un étudiant qui passait son dribble partenaires
exécutables, puis envoyez le coéquipier ball - roulé.
 Tir a la porte sur place.le collectifs sous disposition sur le semi cercle de 9m.
 Tir a la porte en course, il procède de passe
92
La procédure de tir il va être en cours
 passe par deux en cours avec tir a la porte
 joc scoala la doua porti, in aparare se va aplica sistemul 6:0 iar in atac – atacul
pozitional 2x5min. Notiuni
 jeux bilatérale, en defense on va applique le system 6.0 la même chose en attaque,
attaque positionnelle 2x5min
 notion générale de arbitrage
 passe en 3 et 4 joueur avec tir a la porte avec l’importe quel procède
 passe par 3 en position de L d’avion
 Contre attaque avec intermédiaire
 jeux bilatéraux 2x5min, arbitrage

93
jeux bilatéraux avec thème 2x10min arbitrage
30
25
20
15
CLASA EXPERIMENT - TESTARE INITIALA
10
CLASA MARTOR -TESTARE INITIALA
CLASA EXPERIMENT - TESTARE FINALA
5
CLASA MARTOR - TESTARE FINALA
0
X - Alergare X - Alergare
XX - Saritura
viteza 50m - rezistenta Aruncarea lungime de
- FETE
600m - - mingii de pe pe loc - FETE
loc - - FETE
FETE
---
X - Alergare X - Alergare
XX - Saritura
viteza 50m - rezistenta Aruncarea lungime de
- BAIETI
600m- - mingii de pe pe loc - BAIETI
loc - - BAIETI
BAIETI
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
CLASA EXPERIMENT - TESTARE INITIALA
CLASA MARTOR -TESTARE INITIALA
CLASA EXPERIMENT - TESTARE FINALA
S - Alergare S - Alergare S - Aruncarea S - Saritura
viteza 50m - rezistenta mingii de pe lungime de
- FETE
600m - - loc - - FETE pe loc - FETE
FETE
- --
S - Alergare S - Alergare S - Aruncarea S - Saritura
viteza 50m - rezistenta mingii de pe lungime de
- BAIETI
600m - - loc - - BAIETI pe loc - BAIETI
BAIETI
30
25
20
15
CLASA EXPERIMENT - TESTARE INIŢIALĂ
10
CLASĂ MARTOR -TESTARE INIŢIALĂ
5
CLASA EXPERIMENT - TESTARE FINALĂ
0
X - Ridicarea X - Extensia
trunchiului tr. din culcat
din culcat
facial - dorsal - FETE
FETE
X - Ridicarea X - Ridicarea
picioarelor bazinului din
din culcat
aşezat - dorsal - FETE
FETE
-- -
X - Ridicarea X - Extensia
din culcat
facial - dorsal - BAIETI
BAIETI
X - Ridicarea X - Ridicarea
din culcat
aşezat - dorsal - BAIETI
BAIETI
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
CLASA EXPERIMENT - TESTARE INIŢIALĂ
CLASĂ MARTOR -TESTARE INIŢIALĂ
CLASA EXPERIMENT - TESTARE FINALĂ
S - Ridicarea S - Extensia
din culcat
facial - dorsal - FETE
FETE
S - Ridicarea S - Ridicarea
din culcat
aşezat - dorsal - FETE
FETE
---
S - Ridicarea S - Extensia
din culcat
facial - dorsal - BAIETI
BAIETI
S - Ridicarea S - Ridicarea
din culcat
aşezat - dorsal - BAIETI
BAIETI
94
Conclusion
D’après l'utilisation de milieux spécifique de jeux de handball dans la leçon de éducation
physique, en peut obtenir un indice supérieure de manifestation des qualité motrice, par contre
le rendement se développe dans le cadre de processus de préparation
Sélection des moyen efficace optime dans une grande varie essentielle dans la littérature
de spécialiste et leur utiliser leur de la leçon en contrebuté la réalisation et la progression de
l’élevé dans touts les teste applique
Les résultat obtenue du sujet développe les teste de motricité,les testes finale confirme
l’efficacité,méthodologique et expérimentateur,les probe de résistance musculaire abdominale
et résistance musculaire du dos ils sont ennoiement facile donc stimulant pour les étudiants.
Tests spéciaux pour le handball ont été une forte motivation pour l'apprentissage de la
pratique du handball correcte notamment la catégorie de sujets d'expérience tout en maîtrisant
correctement le suivi des processus techniques - tactiques de base (modèle minimal du jeu) test
final ont montré une amélioration substantielle de la qualité motrices de base: vitesse et
d'habileté.
Bibliographie
Bota Ioan, “Modele de joc şi pregătire”, Editura Sport Turism, Bucureşti, 1989;
Bota Ioan, Bota Maria, “Handbal”, Editura Sport Turism, Bucureşti, 1989;
Dragnea Adrian, Bota Aura, Monica Stănescu, Silvia Teodorescu, Sorin Şerbănoiu, Virgil
Tudor, “Educaţie fizică şi sport” – teorie şi didactica , Editura Fest, Bucureşti, 2006;
Igorov – Bosi Marina, “Instruirea în handball – copii şi juniori”, Editura Moroşan, Bucureşti,
2009;
Igorov- Bosi Marina, “Handbal – Metodică”, Editura Moroşan, Bucureşti 2009;
Săvescu Iulian, “1001 Exerciţii fizice pentru dezvoltarea calităţilor motrice în lecţia de
educaţie fizică şi sportivă şcolara, Editura Policrom, 2002;
***** Programa de educaţie fizică pentru ciclul gimnazial;
95
MANUAL THERAPY FOR LUMBAR SPINE SEGMENTAL
MOTION IMPAIRMENTS
Professor Creţu Antoaneta Ph D, Assistant Gherghel Carmen Ph D,
NUPES Bucharest – Faculty of Physical Therapy
Physical Therapy and Special motility
Abstract
The term “manipulation” can be used loosely in clinical practice
to mean passive movement procedures of any kind. Di Fabio (1992)
states that “Many techniques are considered manual therapy procedures
and these techniques include soft tissue manipulation, massage, manual
traction, joint manipulation and joint mobilization”.
Back pain is also the most common cause of disability in patients
younger than 40 years. The suspected cause of this disorder is a movement
abnormality where one segment of the spine is unable to either flex, extend,
side bend or rotate (resulting in a reversible displacement of fibro-fatty tissue)
or healing of the a posttraumatic facet capsule with its accompanying capsular
contracture and shortening of the adjacent segmental myofascia.
Rezumat
Termenul de „manipulare” poate fi utilizat vag în practica clinică
pentru a înţelege procedurile de mobilizări pasive de orice fel. DiFabio (1992)
consideră că „Multe tehnici sunt considerate proceduri de terapie manuală,
aceste tehnici includ manipularea ţesuturilor moi, masaj, tracţiune manuală,
manipularea articulară şi mobilizare articulară”.
Durerea de spate este cea mai frecventa cauza de invaliditate la
pacienţii sub 40 de ani. Cauza anomaliilor de mişcare asociată cu durerii
pare a fi rezultatul unei mişcări incomode, produsă brusc - răsucire sau
îndoire laterală, (rezultând o deplasare reversibilă de ţesut fibro-gras) sau
vindecarea capsulară posttraumatică însoţită de retracţie capsulară şi de
scurtarea miofasciei segmentelor adiacente.
În cazul limitării de mobilitate a segmentului lombar
abordările/strategiile pun accent pe terapia manuală prin mobilizarea
ţesuturilor moi şi mobilizare articulară/manipulare, pentru a recâştiga
mobilitatea pe segmentul implicat, urmată de exerciţii de mobilitate pentru a
menţine/îmbunătăţi ce s-a câştigat prin procedurile manuale.
Key word: mobilization, manipulation, Manual Therapy, low back
pain.
-
The word “manipulation” derives from the Latin word manipulare meaning to
handle, the use of the hands in a skilled manner, or skilled treatment by the hand.
The term “manipulation” can be used loosely in clinical practice to mean passive
movement procedures of any kind. Di Fabio (1992) states that “Many techniques are
considered manual therapy procedures and these techniques include soft tissue
manipulation, massage, manual traction, joint manipulation and joint mobilization”.
The specific definitions of mobilization and manipulation which best suit the
Maitland Concept are:
Mobilization
passive movements performed in such a manner and speed that at all times they are
within the control of the patient so that movement can be prevented if the patient so
96
-
-
-
chooses.
Manipulation
A passive movement consisting of a high velocity, small amplitude thrust within the
joint's anatomical limit performed at such a speed that renders the patient powerless to
prevent it.
Manipulation under anaesthetic is a medical procedure performed with the patient under
anaesthetic and used to stretch a joint to restore a full range of movement by breaking
adhesions. The procedure is not a sudden forceful thrust as mentioned in the preceding
definition, but is done as a steady and controlled stretch. This procedure can also be
performed on the conscious patient. If adhesions are torn during mobilization techniques
then the technique may be classed as a manipulation even though a sudden thrust has not
been used.
Mechanical low back pain (LBP) is very common, affecting between 70 and 85% of
American adults at some point during their lives. An estimated 1,3 billion days a year are lost
from work in the United States because of LBP.
Back pain complaints are second only to upper respiratory conditions as a cause of
work absenteeism. Back pain is also the most common cause of disability in patients younger
than 40 years.
In 90% of patients, LBP resolves within 6 weeks (self limited). In another 5% of
patients, the pain resolves by 12 weeks after initiation. Less than 1% of back pain is due to
"serious" spinal disease (e.g., tumor, infection).
Less than 1% of back pain stems from inflammatory disease (rheumatologic work-up
and treatment required).
Less than 5% of back pain is true nerve root pain. Most patients with LBP have one or
more of four symptoms:
Back pain.
Leg pain.
Neurologic symptoms.
Spinal deformity.
The below description is consistent with descriptions of clinical patterns associated
with the vernacular term “Lumbar Facet Syndrome”.
Dysfunction of the movement of the one vertebrae of the lumbar spine relative to its
adjacent vertebrae – commonly due to facet irregularities, muscle imbalances or trauma.
The suspected cause of this disorder is a movement abnormality where one segment of
the spine is unable to either flex, extend, side bend or rotate in a normal pain free manner on its
adjacent vertebrae. There is anatomical evidence that this movement abnormality is caused by
either a displacement of fibro-fatty tissue within the outer borders of the facet capsule or
posttraumatic fibrosis of the facet capsule. The cause of the movement abnormalities and the
associated pain is believed to be an awkward, sudden, twisting or bending motion, (resulting in
a reversible displacement of fibro-fatty tissue) or healing of the a posttraumatic facet capsule
with its accompanying capsular contracture and shortening of the adjacent segmental
myofascia.
Acute Stage - Physical Examinations
The patient’s reported complaint of unilateral low back and/or buttock pain increases at the end
ranges of left or right side bending.
Repeated flexion and extension movements do not improve or worsen the patient’s baseline
level of pain.
Limited or pain-limited lumbar inclinometer measures are common.
Unilateral posterior-to-anterior pressures at the involved segment reproduce the patient’s pain
complaint.
Motion restrictions are present at the involved segment.
Myofascia associated with the involved segment is usually hypertonic and painful.
-
-
-
97
Sub Acute Stage - Physical Examinations
As above with the following differences
The patient’s unilateral symptoms are reproduced only with overpressures at end ranges of left
or right side bending.
Improved segmental mobility is commonly associated with improving symptomatology.
Settled Stage - Physical Examinations
As above with the following differences
The patient’s unilateral symptoms are reproduced only with end range overpressures in either a
combined extension and side bending motion or a combined flexion and side bending motion.
Now when less acute – examine for muscle flexibility and strength deficits that may
predispose the patient to future injury.
Muscles that commonly exhibit flexibility deficits in patients with facet abnormalities are
latissimus dorsi/thoracolumbar fascia, hip flexors, hamstrings/sciatic nerve, and the
gastrocsoleus complex.
Muscles that are commonly weak are the trunk extensors, trunk flexors, hip flexors, hip
extensors, and hip abductor.
Physical Examination Procedures
Fig. 1 - Lumbar Side Bending
Performance Cues - “Do you have any discomfort at this moment?”
Demonstrate as you say “Bend to the side as far as you comfortably can and return?”
“Did that motion cause an increase in your pain?”
“When during the movement did you notice an increase in your pain?”
Fig.2 - Unilateral Posterior-to-Anterior Pressures
Performance Cues - Localize pressure to one transverse process.
Sink deep enough to incriminate or "clear" the segment.
When using thumbs - contact same side.
When using a “dummy” thumb under - contact opposite side - fingers face away from iliac
crest – using a flat, relaxed hand.
98
Other physical examination procedures to identify the involved segment
Fig. 3 - Transverse process - Assessment in flexion
Performance Cues - Ensure that spinal extensors are relaxed ("Let your arms hang
toward the floor").
Keep thumbs at same level of the segment’s transverse process.
Match right and left thumb PA pressure intensity.
Determine symmetry of depth.
Determine symmetry of resistance.
Determine symptom response.
Fig. 4 - Transverse process - Assessment in Extension
Performance Cues - Ensure that the spinal extensors are relaxed ("Let your chin rest in
your hands").
Intervention Approaches/Strategies
Acute Stage
Goal: Restore pain free active spinal mobility.
Physical Agents – Electrical stimulation, ice (or heat) to provide pain relief and reduce
muscle guarding.
Manual Therapy – Soft tissue mobilization primarily to multifidus and rotatores of the
involved segment.
Joint mobilization/manipulation using isometric mobilization and contract/relax
procedures to the involved segment to reduce associated rotatores or multifi muscle guarding.
Passive stretching procedures to restore normal lumbar segmental mobility.
Therapeutic Exercise - Instruct in exercise and functional movements to maintain the
improvements in mobility gained with the soft tissue and joint manipulations.
99
Re-injury Prevention Instruction – Instruct the patient in efficient, painfree, motor
performance of movements that are related by the patient to be the cause of the current episode
of low back pain.
Sub Acute Stage
Goal: Restore normal, pain free response to overpressures at end ranges of side
bending.
Approaches/Strategies listed above – focusing on soft tissue mobilization and joint
mobilization/manipulation to normalize segmental mobility followed by mobility exercises to
maintain the improvements gained from the manual procedures.
Settled Stage
Goal: Restore normal, pain free responses to overpressures of combined extension and
side bending and/or combined flexion and side bending.
Normalize lumbar, pelvis, and hip muscle flexibility and strength deficits.
Approaches/Strategies listed above.
Therapeutic Exercises - Instruct in stretching exercises to address the patient’s specific
muscle flexibility deficits.
Instruct in strengthening exercises to address the patient’s specific muscle strength
deficits.
Manual Therapy for Lumbar Spine Segmental Motion Impairments
Flexion Impairment
Examination - Active ranges of motion (ROM) – Side bending movement/pain
relation.
Position – transverse process provocation/symmetry in sitting flexion.
Passive ROM – Unilateral Posterior-to-Anterior Pressures movement/pain relation.
Palpation – Segmental myofascial hypertonicity/tenderness Passive ROM –
Segmental (physiologic) motion tests.
Treatment - Soft Tissue Mobilization: Quadratus Lumborum, Erector
Spinae/Thoracolumbar Fascia, Segmental Myofascia.
Joint Mobilization/Manipulation: Lumbar Sidebending in Neutral, Lumbar
Sidebending/Rotation in Flexion.
Fig.5 - Quadratus Lumborum - Soft Tissue Mobilization
100
Extension Impairment
Examination - Active ROM – Side bending movement/pain relation.
Position – TP provocation/symmetry in prone extension.
Passive ROM – Unilateral Posterior-to-Anterior Pressures movement/pain relation.
Palpation – Segmental myofascial hypertonicity/tenderness.
Treatment - Soft Tissue Mobilization: Psoas.
Joint Mobilization/Manipulation: Lumbar Rotation in Neutral, Lumbar Side
bending/Rotation in Extension.
Fig. 6 – Psoas - Soft Tissue Mobilization
Fig.7 - Lumbar Segmental Myofascia
Impairment: Limited Lumbar Segmental Rotation
Fig. 8 - Forward Bend up to Involved Segment
101
Fig.9 - Rotate Down to the Involved Segment
Fig.10 - Lumbar Rotation in Neutral
Cues - Forward bend to midrange of involved segment.
Rotate until motion just begins at the involved segment.
Keeping involved segment perpendicular .
Ensure that forces and contacts on the rib cage (not humerus) and ilium (not trochanter) are
comfortable.
Contract/relax, oscillation, and high velocity-low amplitude procedures can be employed as
indicated.
Utilize compression, slight lumbar side bending, slight lumbar flexion or extension to create a
“crisp” barrier at the involved segment prior to manipulation procedures.
Impairment: Limited Lumbar Segmental Flexion, Left Sidebending, and Left Rotation
Fig.11 - Lumbar Left Rotation/Sidebending in Flexion
Cues - Position the upper knee anterior to the bottom knee to allow the pelvis to
rotate.
Flex up from below to the involved segment
Flex down from above to the involved segment
Retract the upper shoulder (don’t pull the bottom arm)
102
Keep the involved segment perpendicular to the table
Push the pelvis superiorly and anteriorly to promote the sidebending and rotation
Impairment: Limited Lumbar Segmental Extension, Left Sidebending, and Left
Rotation
Fig.12 - Lumbar Left Rotation/Side bending in Extension
1.
2.
3.
4.
Cues - A sheet between the patient and the table reduces friction during the set-up
Localize to the involved segments by:
anterior translation of spine;
extension of the leg near table;
extension of the trunk;
simultaneous counter rotation with side bending of the trunk and pelvis (maintain
perpendicular at the involved segment).
Conclusion
Back pain complaints are second only to upper respiratory conditions as a cause of
work absenteeism
Description is consistent with descriptions of clinical patterns associated with the
vernacular term “Lumbar Facet Syndrome”. Dysfunction of the movement of the one vertebrae
of the lumbar spine relative to its adjacent vertebrae – commonly due to facet irregularities,
muscle imbalances or trauma.
The term “manipulation” can be used loosely in clinical practice to mean
passive movement procedures of any kind.
Approaches/Strategies in lumbar mobility dysfunctions focusing on soft tissue
mobilization and joint mobilization/manipulation to normalize segmental mobility followed by
mobility exercises to maintain the improvements gained from the manual procedures.
Bibliografie
Bronfort G. (1999) – Spinal manipulations: current state of research and its indications.
Neurologic Clinics
Childs JD, Fritz JM, Flynn TW, Irrgang JJ, Johnson KK, Majkowski GR, Delitto A.
(2004) – Which patients with low back pain benefit from spinal manipulation? validation of a
clinical prediction rule. Ann Intern Med.
Freddy Kaltenborn PT (1993) – The Spine: Basic Evaluation and Mobilization Techniques
Fritz JM, Delitto A, Erhard RE (2003) – Comparison of classification-based physical
therapy with therapy based on clinical practice guidelines for patients with acute low back
pain. Spine
John Bourdillon FRCS, EA Day MD, and Mark Bookhout MS, PT (1992) – Spinal
Manipulation
Philip Greenman DO, FAAO (1996) – Principles of Manual Medicine
Stanley Paris PT (1983) – Spinal Manipulative Therapy. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related
Research, Volume 179
103
DISCOBOLUL NR. 3/2011 (25) – SERIE NOUĂ
FONDATĂ ÎN 2005 DE PROF.UNIV.DR. ION BÂTLAN
SEPTEMBRIE 2011
ISSN 1454-3907
APARE TRIMESTRIAL
TOATE ARTICOLELE PUBLICATE ÎN REVISTĂ SUNT SUPUSE
RECENZĂRII, DEMERS FĂCUT DE COLECTIVUL DE REDACŢIE CONDUS DE
REDACTORUL ŞEF ŞI SECRETARUL ŞTIINŢIFIC AL REVISTEI
Instrucţiuni pentru autori
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special rezultatele obţinute în cadrul proiectelor de cercetare naţională şi
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universitar si cel socio-profesional, aferente domeniilor de interes pentru revista.
 Sunt acceptate spre publicare, materiale originale, care nu au fost publicate
parţial sau integral în alte reviste. Este necesar ca articolele deja publicate sa fie in
proportie de 40% diferite de cele la care ne referim la acest punct;
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recenzare, in urma deciziei in acest sens ;.
 Autorii ale căror articole au fost respinse în urma procesului de recenzare, sau
care necesită modificări vor fi anunţaţi, la adresa de e-mail pe care au specificat-o în
momentul trimiterii articolului, în intervalul de 4-6 săptămâni ;
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de abonament de către fiecare autor, co-autor şi, după caz, a taxelor suplimentare;
 Lucrările vor fi redactate în limbile română sau engleză / franceză;
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menţiunile prevăzute în secţiunea „Instrucţiuni pentru autori” sau in care nu s-au facut
modificari conform cerintelor / recomandarilor;
Pregătirea manuscriselor
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Numerotarea paginilor începe cu pagina cu titlu;
 Sunt admise maxim 4-5 materiale ilustrative (tabele, grafice, figuri
simbolice); acestea vor purta titluri şi vor fi numerotate conform specificaţiilor din
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publicarea. Nu sunt admise materiale scanate cu exceptia figurilor/ foto;
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104
Structura generală a articolelor:
1. Pagina de titlu va cuprinde:

titlul articolului,
 numele şi prenumele autorilor (împreună cu afilierea lor instituţională, adresa
de corespondenţă a primului autor cu nr. tel şi e-mail, adresa la care va fi expediată
revista, dacă aceasta diferă de adresă de corespondenţă);
Ex: Titlu......
Popescu Ion1, Stanescu Rodica2, Mihalache Cornelia3
1
Universitatea Naţională de Educaţie Fizică şi Sport –Bucureşti
Universitatea de Vest – Timişoara
3
Universitatea din Oradea
Constantin Noica, 140, sector 6, Bucureşti
tel, email, adresă de corespondenţă
2

abstract în limbile română si engleză/franceză;
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vor fi selectate între 3-5 cuvinte, reprezentând termenii utilizaţi în lucrare. Abstractul cuprinde
între 100- 150 cuvinte.
2. Articolul nu va depăşi 6 pagini pentru studiile de cercetare, 4 pagini pentru lucrările
tip eseu, 1 pagină pentru recenzii, informaţii, reportaje de la evenimente ştiinţifice.
Studiul de cercetare va cuprinde:
 introducere
 scop, obiectiv, ipoteza cercetării.
 material şi metodă – această secţiune va descrie metodologia de cercetare
utilizată, modul de selecţie a eşantioanelor studiate, criteriile de includere şi cele de
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 rezultate – aici vor fi prezentate concis rezultatele obţinute, de obicei prin
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rezultatelor proprii, în contextul literaturii de specialitate.
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legătură între acestea şi scopurile studiului.
 Bibliografie

Articolele tip eseu vor cuprinde, ca structură:
 Introducere
 Nivelul actual reflectat în literatura de specialitate
 Problematica abordată
105
 Concluzii
 Bibliografie
2. Lista referinţelor bibliografice: Revista Discobolul recomandă respectarea
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Se vor menţiona: autorul(-ii), titlul, editura, anul, paginile, în funcţie de sursa citării
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Ex.: Russel FD, Coppell AL, Davenport AP. In vitro enzymatic processing of radiolabelled big
ET-1 in human kidney as food ingredient. Biochem Pharmacol 1998 Mar 1;55(5):697-701. –
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Ex: Harris J, Elbourn J. Teaching health-related exercise at key stages1 and 2- USA, Human
Kinetics, 1997.-(37-40).- pentru citarea unei cărţi.
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