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Appendix 1 Moroccan urban dress in the last five decades
There is some interesting (descriptive) literature available on Moroccan urban dress
and the earliest information was collected by European captains, slaves, diplomats
and travelers. For example, in 1760 the Danish diplomat Georg Host arrived in
Morocco and wrote on dress in his notes taken during his stay.385 Also, the French
painter Eugene Delacroix made a series of sketches and aquarelles on Moroccan
dress during his stay in 1832.386
However, most information was collected from the early 20th century
onwards and probably the most influential researcher was the Frenchman Jean
Besancenot, who documented the majority of Moroccan clothing styles between
1934 and 1939.387 After him, the German researcher Rachow (1958) documented
the material culture of Morocco in two volumes. The first, Beiträge zur Kenntis der
materiellen Kultur Nordwest-Marokkos: Wohnraum, Hausrat, Kostüm, includes interesting
descriptions of Moroccan urban dress.388 In 1974 Bernès published Maroc: costumes,
385
Georg Host, Relations sur les royaumes de Marrakech et Fès: Recueillies dans des pays de 1760
a 1768. Trans. Frédéric Damgaard and Pierre Gailhan (Rabat: Editions La Porte 2002).
386
See for example Lee Johnson, The Paintings of Eugene Delacroix: A Critical Catalogue, 18321863 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987).
387
Jean Besancenot, Costumes of Morocco (London & NY: Kegan Paul International, 1990).
388
E. Rachow, Beiträge zur Kenntis der materiellen Kultur Nordwest-Marokkos: Wohnraum, Hausrat,
Kostüm (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1958).
251
broderies, brocarts, which focuses on Moroccan urban dress from the Northern cities.389
Furthermore, the Moroccan sociologist Ghita El Khayat (1994) published
Le somptueux Maroc des femmes on female beauty practices in Morocco, which also
includes descriptions of female clothing styles.390 The Belgian researcher Frieda
Sorber (1997) wrote an interesting article on the fassi wedding dress, Kledij en textile
voor een huwelijk in Fes.391 In 2003 an elaborate overview of Moroccan urban dress was
published by Rachida Alaoui (2003), Costumes et parures du Maroc, who was the first
to include work of (Moroccan) fashion designers.392 There is also the MA thesis
of Claire Nicholas (2005), Du haïk à la jellaba: Anthropologie de l’habillement féminin dans
le Maroc du XXe siècle, which gives an interesting view on the development of the
jellaba in the 20th century.393
Additionally, there are some valuable exhibition catalogues that include
Moroccan dress, like Magisch Marokko, which was published in 1998 for the exhibition in the Royal Museum for Central Africa in Tervuren, Belgium.394 Also, Maroc:
Les trésors du royaume, which was published by the French curator Marie-France Vivier
in 1999 for the exhibition in the National Museum for the Art of Africa and Oceania
in Paris.395
For an elaborate overview on Moroccan jewelry there is Marie-Rose Rabaté
and André Goldenberg’s (1999), Bijoux du Maroc: Du Haut Atlas a la Méditerranée.
Depuis le temps des Juifs jusqu’a la fin du XXe siècle.396 Also, the article written by Charles
Buttin (1939) focuses on the daggers worn by men, Les poignards et les sabres
marocains.397
Although this research did not pay specific attention to characteristic Jewish
Moroccan urban dress, there is some interesting literature available. In 2003 I wrote
an article on the Jewish wedding dress of my aunt, Keswa Kebira: The Jewish Moroccan
Grand Costume.398 Jeanne Jouin wrote an informative article on Jewish dress in the
389
J. P. Bernès, Maroc: costumes, broderies, brocarts (Paris: ABC collection, 1974).
Ghita El Khayat, Le somptueux Maroc des femmes (Sale: Dedico, 1994).
391
Frieda Sorber, “Kledij en textile voor een huwelijk in Fes,” Volkskunde 98 no. 3 (1997):
174-192.
392
Rachida Alaoui, Costumes et parures du Maroc (Paris: ACR Edition, 2003).
393
Claire Nicholas, “Du haïk à la jellaba: Anthropologie de l’habillement féminin dans le Maroc du
XXe siècle,” (MA thesis, Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales Paris, 2005).
394
Koninklijk Museum voor Midden Afrika Tervuren, Magisch Marokko (Paris: Editions
Plume, 1998).
395
Marie-France Vivier, Maroc: Les trésors du royaume (Paris: Éditions Plume & Paris Musées,
1999).
396
Marie-Rose Rabaté and Andre Goldenberg, Bijoux du Maroc: Du Haut Atlas a la
Méditerranée. Depuis le temps des juifs jusqu’à la fin du XXe siècle (Paris: EDISUD/EDDIF, 1999).
397
Charles Buttin, “Les poignards et les sabres marocains,” Hespéris 26 (1939): 1-28.
398
Angela Jansen, “Keswa Kebira: The Jewish Moroccan Grand Costume,” Khila’ 1 (2003):
79-105.
390
252
Journal de la Société des Africanistes entitled Le Costume de la femme Israelite au Maroc.399
Vivian Mann edited an exhibition catalogue Morocco: Jews and Art in a Muslim Land
in 2000400 and Aviva Muller-Lancet and Dominique Champault wrote La vie juive
au Maroc, which includes some interesting information on Jewish Moroccan urban
dress. 401
Finally, there is some helpful general literature on Arab dress, like the Dictionnaire détaillé des noms des vêtements chez les Arabes, written by the Dutch researcher
Reinhart Dozy.402 Yedida Stillman’s Arab Dress: A Short History from the Dawn of Islam
to Modern Times (2000) includes garments worn in Morocco.403
This chapter gives a short description of male and female garments that
continue to be worn in Moroccan cities today and their latest fashion trends.404
1.1 Female garments
1.1.1 Undergarments
The tamir is a long white cotton shirt with long sleeves and an upright collar, either
plain or decorated with needle lace (randa or ebka), which closes on the side above
the shoulder or in the back. It is the same as the male tamir, only the hems of the
sleeves and the bottom are most often embroidered or decorated with needle lace
(randa or ebka). Today, the tamir for women is no longer in white cotton but in most
cases matched in color, fabric and decorations with the qefan or jellaba worn on top
of it.
The tetiya, literally ‘the one beneath’, is a long white cotton shirt that opens
in the front, with wide silk muslin sleeves. The collar is decorated with needle lace
(randa) and ders. The sleeves can also be decorated with embroidery on the inside,
revealed when the sleeves are rolled back. The opening on the chest can be
decorated with couched plaited cord.405 The tetiya is hardly worn anymore today,
except for special occasions like the wedding night. Due to contemporary
399
Jeanne Jouin, "Le Costume de la femme Israelite au Maroc," Journal de la Société des
Africanistes vol. VI (1936): 167-180.
400
Vivian Mann, Morocco: Jews and Art in a Muslim Land (New York, London: Merrell, 2000).
401
Aviva Muller-Lancet and Dominique Champault, La vie juive au Maroc (Jerusalem and TelAviv: Editions Stavit, 1986).
402
Reinhart Dozy, Dictionnaire détaillé des noms des vêtements chez les Arabes (Amsterdam: J.
Muller, 1845).
403
Yedida Stillman, Arab Dress: A Short History from the Dawn of Islam to Modern Times (Leiden,
Boston, Köln: Brill, 2000).
404
There is no special section added on Moroccan children’s garments, for they are the same
as adult garments, only differing in size, materials and decorations.
405
Rachida Alaoui, Costumes et parures du Maroc (Paris: ACR Edition, 2003), 75.
253
innovations of the tamir and the tetiya, the distinction between the two is no longer
always clear.
The classic serwal, worn all over the Arab world by both men and women,
is a pair of wide, low crotch pants ending at the calves, originally in white cotton and
embroidered at the hems for women. After being completely out of fashion in the
last few decades, the serwal has undergone a remarkable revival in the last few years,
with new cuts and decorations being introduced for women. Made in all colors and
materials, it often matches the colors of the qefan or jellaba with which it is worn.
After being considered as underwear which was not supposed to show, it is now
fashionable to show the matching serwal by either deep (side)slits, shortening the garment worn on top or tucking the hems of the garment worn on top in the belt.406
The fact that Spanish confection brands like Zara and Stravaderious are selling
contemporary versions in modern fabrics testifies to their international popularity.
1.1.2 Indoor garments
The classic qefan is a long T-shaped robe with long wide sleeves and a round collar,
opening in the front with a row of cord buttons all the way to the bottom. The
collar, breast piece and hems of shoulders, sleeves and bottom can be decorated with
couched plaited cord and/or braided bands (sfifa), depending on fashion trends.
In the beginning of the 20th century, a distinction could still be made between
the qfaen from Tangier, Tetouan, Fez, Meknes and Rabat/Salé, depending on the
color, the decoration and the materials characterizing these different cities. However,
due to the innovations introduced principally by Moroccan fashion designers, these
regional differences have disappeared. As demonstrated in previous chapters, the
variations as to cuts, colors, fabrics and decorations for the female qefan seem
unlimited, determining the formality of the garment and its suitability for formal,
less-formal or informal occasions. Also, a specific type of qefan is the bedciya, with
short sleeves or without sleeves altogether. It is either worn on top of a tetiya, under
a manuriya or simply with bare arms.
The qefan can be worn alone or with a manuriya (lebsa, dfina, fuqiya) on top,
which is a long garment with long sleeves in the same cut as the qefan, but of thin
transparent material. It is usually open in the front and on the sides until the waist
in order to show the qefan worn beneath. The manuriya used to be made of less
expensive white transparent material and worn to protect the luxurious and expensive qefan, but under the influence of fashion designers, the mansoria has become
part of the formal dress referred to as tekia, matching the color and decorations
406
It is interesting to note that the hem of the qefan used to be tucked in the belt to facilitate
movement during household chores and to keep it from getting dirty. But today it is actually
fashionable to tuck in the hemline of the qefan in the belt in order to show a pair of
matching serwal worn under the qefan.
254
Image 8.1 Female respondent wearing a qefan over a tamir. The hems are tucked into her memma,
showing her serwal and her sleeves are held up by a pair of tkhmal. Her head is cover by a sebniya
255
Image 8.2 A female guest at a wedding in Fez wearing a bedciya with her hems tucked into her
memma, showing her matching serwal. She wears Western type shoes with high heels
256
of the qefan worn beneath. Just like the qefan, it is strongly influenced by fashion and
can come in all shapes, colors and decorations.
Although the gendura, which is a wide long sleeveless garment, used to be
worn by men exclusively, under the influence of Moroccan fashion designers, female
gendura have been introduced in all shapes, colors, materials and with a wide variety
of decoration techniques. Since it is not considered as formal Moroccan female
dress, its development is not constrained by socio-cultural rules and innovations are
unlimited. Also, variations of the gendura, so-called tunics, are sold by international
confection brands, which contribute undeniably to its popularity.
Finally, again under the influence of fashion designers, women have begun
to wear the jabadur. Inspired by the male jabadur, it usually consists of a short waistlength shirt with long sleeves and a round color and a pair of loose long pants
in matching colors and materials. Since it is considered indoor wear, it usually comes
with a matching jellaba to wear on top to go outside. It is worn for specific occasions
such as visiting the family the day after the wedding or receiving friends at home.
1.1.3 Head and face veils
The headgear for Moroccan women used to be elaborate, consisting of several
headscarves and headbands, varying in composition and name according to the
region, the occasion and the time. Both urban and rural ladies would add all sorts
of ornaments to their headgear, ranging from fresh flowers to cushions and fake
braids made of silk or wool. For daily wear, the headgear used to consist of a minimum of two scarves, one square and one rectangular, sebniya, held together with
a decorated band.
Over time, however, these scarves were replaced by imported machine
woven scarves, which were much cheaper and offered a wider variety of colors and
designs. Today, roughly half of the female urban population wears the head veil,
l’foulard, to go out and it consists most often of only one piece, matching the jellaba
or outer garments with which it is worn. Only young unmarried girls seem to take
the liberty of ‘experimenting’ with their headgear, trying new ways of tying it and
combining different materials and colors.
Furthermore, to go out, Moroccan ladies used to wear a face veil called ltam
or nqab in combination with their ayk and later their jellaba. Most of them were
no more than a simple piece of material, either white or black, while some were
decorated with modest embroidery. With the replacing of the ayk by the jellaba
in the second half of the 20th century, the face veil almost completely disappeared
from the streets, with the exception of older women. It is only rather recently, under
an increasing influence from the Middle East, that religious dress has been
introduced with a variety of head and face veils.
257
1.1.4 Outdoor garments
The ayk is a long piece of plain material that used to be worn by both urban
and rural women as an outer garment. Made of wool or cotton, the ayk worn in the
cities used to be white or black and simply decorated with a few silk stripes at one
end. The way the ayk was worn could vary per region and even between families,
but it was usually first tied around the waist and then wrapped around the upper
body and held in place with one hand from the inside, under the chin, showing only
one eye. Once combined with the face veil, two eyes became visible.
By the second half of the 20th century, however, this rather unpractical outer
garment for women was replaced by the more practical jellaba, except for a few cities
like Essaouira and Taroudannt where a minority of women continue to wear the
ayk as an outer garment. Also, in the southern cities, including cities in the Western
Sahara, women continue to wear the melaf, which is also a long piece of fabric that
women wrap around themselves to go out, but it is of a transparent material and
comes in a wide variety of colors and patterns.
In 2005, the Moroccan fashion designer Noureddine Amir introduced
a series of colored ayk made of raffia and chiffon in his collection, but this did not
result in a reintroduction of the ayk as a fashionable outer garment for women.
Furthermore, the jellaba, a long coat-type garment with long sleeves and
a hood, qbb, used to be worn exclusively by men as an outer garment but from the
mid-20th century onwards, women started to adopt it to go out. At first, it only came
in plain dark colors, made of fine wool with ton-sûr-ton decorations, worn with the
hood over the head and a face veil to hide the face, but slowly both the hood and the
face veil were taken down.
Today, under the influence of fashion designers, the women’s jellaba comes
in a wide variety of cuts, materials, colors and decoration techniques. Just like the
qefan, it was especially the feminine press that stimulated its modernization and now
new trends are launched every year, especially before the sacred month of Ramadan,
with which the garment became associated. Some of the female jlaleb have become
so luxurious that they are no longer suitable as ‘simple’ outer garment but are worn
during formal occasions, including weddings.
In recent years, Moroccan fashion designers have introduced the bernus
or selham for women, which is a classic cloak with hood worn by men. Contrary
to the male version, the selham for women is made of fluid fine material and usually
matches the qefan or tekia worn beneath. The female version was introduced as an
outer garment to be worn with formal dress, because the jellaba is too complicated
to be worn on top of a festive qefan or tekia.
1.1.5 Footwear
Moroccan daily footwear for women consists of leather flat slippers, babu, with
a pointy toe and open in the back. Although originally in plain colors and modestly
decorated with silk or gold thread embroidery, today female babu can come in any
258
variety of colors, materials, decorations and even cuts. For example, it is fashionable
to make babu in the same fabric as the jellaba with which they are worn. After being
out of fashion for a long time, especially young girls have been reintroducing
Moroccan babu in combination with Western dress for daily wear.
For festive occasions, Moroccan women used to wear a specific type of highhealed leather slipper, erbil, usually in dark velvet and elaborately decorated with
metal thread embroidery. However, today erbil are no longer fashionable and the
majority of Moroccan women prefer to wear Western high heel shoes, which give
a modern touch to their Moroccan outfit. Some Moroccan fashion designers have
tried to modernize Moroccan footwear by, for example, introducing Western highheel shoes with Moroccan decoration techniques, but so far without much success.
1.1.6 Accessories
Moroccan garments like the qefan and the tekia are worn in combination with
a belt, which has altered with fashion trends over time. At the beginning of the 20th
century some Moroccan women would wear a wide silk brocade belt, zam, which
was produced in the weaving ateliers of Fez. It could be up to forty centimeters wide
and three meters long, with fringes of about 50 centimeters long. As part of a girl’s
dowry, these belts were expensive and bourgeois women would inherit them from
their mothers, during which they could be cut in pieces if there were several heirs
and only one belt.407 Aristocratic women, who did not have to work during
festivities, would wear their zam unfolded, wrapped three or four times around their
waist.
After having completely disappeared by the mid-20th century, Moroccan
fashion designers have been introducing contemporary versions of the zam in the
first years of the 21st century. Although no longer of brocade woven in the ateliers
of Fez and only wrapped around the waist once, the large and rather uncomfortable
zam have been reintroduced as part of the going-back-to-tradition fashion trend.
In the mid-20th century, under the influence of the first generation of fashion
designers and the trend of ‘liberating Moroccan women from their heavy traditional
dress,’ the zam was superseded by the much narrower and more comfortable belt,
the memma, which ultimately became fashionable. These leather belts with silk or
gold thread embroidery were closed with a gold or silver buckle called fekrun,
meaning turtle.408 In time the memma has been subject to fashion trends, varying
in width, color, decoration and cut. In the seventies, for example, the memma dheb,
made of gold, became fashionable for those who could afford it. Today, the best
quality embroidered memma are still made in Fez and fashion designers have
revitalized this old handicraft, introducing new patterns.
Also under the influence of fashion designers, it has become fashionable
407
408
Rachida Alaoui, Costumes et parures du Maroc (Paris: ACR Edition, 2003), 130.
Rachida Alaoui, Costumes et parures du Maroc (Paris: ACR Edition, 2003), 130.
259
Image 8.3 A female wedding guest at a wedding in Fez wearing a tekia with a matching memma and
a pair of tkhmal. She wears a pair of leather babu and modern jewelry
260
in recent years to wear an elaborately decorated couched plaited cord, mejdul, around
the waist. The mejdul is originally a poor type of belt worn for daily use to keep
garments up during domestic work and was shortly fashionable in the seventies.
Furthermore, when Moroccan garments were still worn on a daily basis,
Moroccan women would tie a cord, tkhmal, around their arms, behind which they
would tuck their wide sleeves so they would not get in the way during work. These
tkhmal were made of couched plaited cord in rir (vegetal silk) and/or qalli (gold
thread) and wrapped around the arms in a figure-eight shape, crossed over the back,
with one end passing through a loop and hanging loosely on one side.409
Once again, under the influence of fashion designers, the tkhmal has taken
many shapes and styles, developing from a functional accessory to a purely
decorative one. For example, simultaneously with the fashion of the golden memma,
the tkhmal made of gold became fashionable. In the beginning of the 21st century,
designers reintroduced the tkhmal to tuck one layer of sleeves in so a second pair
of sleeves could become visible.
Finally, fake muslin sleeves, kmam, decorated with handmade needle lace
(randa and ders) were worn under the sleeves of the qefan and attached above
the elbows or on the back in order to suggest extra layers. After being worn until the
first half of the 20th century, they almost completely disappeared, only to be reintroduced by designers at the turn of the 21st century. Today elaborately decorated
kmam have made a true comeback and are sown to the sleeves of the qefan once
again to suggest extra layers.
1.1.7 Jewelry
Contrary to jewelry worn in the rural areas, which are made of silver, urban jewelry
has always been made of gold and decorated with precious and semi-precious stones.
Also characteristic in the urban centers have been sweet-water pearls. Women that
could afford it would wear many rows of them, held together by couched plaited silk
cord and gold thread cords hanging on the back, zrayer. These are still worn today,
but mainly by older women or the bride.
Furthermore, urban jewelry used to consist of golden crowns (taj), hairpins,
forehead pieces (abec), earrings (khoras), necklaces, medallions (lebba), bracelets (demlij
or deblij), finger rings (khatem), belts (memma) and buckles (fekrun fekrun), fibulae
(bzim) and ankle bands (khelkhal).410
409
For its production techniques, see A.M. Goichon, “La broderie au fil d’or a Fès: Ses
rapports avec la broderie de soie, ses accessoires de passementerie,” Hespéris 26 (1939):
276-81.
410
For more elaborate information on Moroccan jewelry, see Marie-Rose Rabaté and Andre
Goldenberg, Bijoux du Maroc: Du Haut Atlas a la Méditerranée. Depuis le temps des juifs jusqu’à la
fin du XXe siècle (Paris: EDISUD/EDDIF, 1999).
261
Image 8.4 The bride at a wedding in Fez wearing a contemporary version of the fasi wedding qefan
with matching jewelry
262
Today, the majority of these various pieces of Moroccan jewelry have run out of
fashion and are no longer worn. Moroccan women prefer ‘modern’ jewelry, which is
less characteristic and easier to combine with both Moroccan and Western dress.
The only occasion for which Moroccan jewelry continues to be worn is during the
wedding ceremony by the bride. However, this jewelry is strongly influenced
by fashion and rarely made of precious metals and stones, since the bride only rents
it for the occasion from the wedding planner neggafa.
Finally, under the influence of ‘returning to tradition,’ contemporary
interpretations of characteristic Moroccan jewelry are being introduced by renowned
jewelry houses like, for example, Rafinity with its collection called ‘Alhambra.’
1.2 Male garments
1.2.1 Undergarments
Just like the tamir for women, the masculine version consists of a long white cotton
shirt with long wide sleeves, held in by the wrists. It has a small upright collar, which
can either be plain or decorated with needle lace (randa or ebka) for special
occasions. It generally closes with a little button in the front when plain and in the
back when decorated with needle lace. The tamir should not exceed the sleeves
or the bottom of the garment worn on top, so when it is worn with a jabadur, it is no
longer than the waist. Today, it continues to be worn by men for both special
occasions and daily wear and has not changed much over the last fifty years. Under
the influence of fashion designers, however, there has been a trend launched for
young men to match the tamir in color and decoration with the qefan or jellaba worn
on top.
The serwal for men does not differ much from the female serwal in cut and
is a pair of wide pants, usually in white cotton, with a low crotch and narrow cuffs.
The main difference with the women’s serwal, which can be decorated with
embroidery, is that it is either plain or decorated with braided band or couched
plaited cord in the same color as the fabric. Today, this type of trouser is less
fashionable for men than for women, although young fashion designers like Amine
Bendriouiche try to reinvent and reintroduce it for men as well.
1.2.2 Indoor garments
Although the qefan was originally worn by men, today it has become associated with
women and it is no longer fashionable for men. The male qefan does not differ
in shape from the classic qefan for women but is differentiated by the colors and
materials reserved for men. For example, it continues to be made in fine wool
or thick cotton, either in white or plain soft or dark colors with modest decorations
in the same color as the fabric. The sleeves are always long and the collar round with
couched plaited buttons al along the front.
263
In recent years Moroccan fashion designers have tried to introduce a contemporary version of the male qefan, in more fashionable colors, sometimes with a
matching pair of pants under it, but without much success. As was shown in the research, the majority of the colors, fabrics and decorations are associated with the
female qefan and therefore innovation is limited.
On top of the qefan Moroccan men used to wear the farajiya, which is a garment of a light transparent material in the same cut as the qefan. According
to Rachida Alaoui (2003), it was unthinkable for men until the beginning of the 20th
century to wear the qefan without a farajiya on top.411 It was closed until the waist
with a row of buttons and open in the bottom, to show the qefan beneath. It was
also open on the side, with extra pieces of fabric called khrat. It was decorated with
braided bands and couched plaited cord in the same color as the fabric. However,
the farajiya is no longer worn today, except for the guards and servants of the palace
and there is no contemporary version that has been introduced.
Furthermore, Moroccan men can wear the jabadur, although it is usually
young unmarried men who will wear this type of outfit. It consists of a minimum
of two pieces: a short tamir until the waist and a pair of serwal in the same fabric and
color, both decorated in the same style. Most of the time a third garment will
be added which can either be a sleeveless waistcoat in the same color and material
or a type of gendura with a wide collar in order to show the decorations on the tamir
below and short so the serwal shows. Furthermore, an elaborately decorated jabadur
in dark velvet with gold thread embroidery is worn by little boys during their
circumcision ceremony.
Once more, contemporary fashion designers have tried to introduce a modern version of this garment for men, in more modern colors and cuts, but once
again without much success.
Finally, Moroccan men like to wear the gendura, which is a long wide
sleeveless garment with a deep neckline made of plain cotton with modest
decorations. This type of garment was probably introduced in Morocco from subSahara Africa and never became part of formal dress for Moroccan men. It is especially worn in summer as casual wear, except when it is part of the jabadur and
today men will even wear it outside or to go to the mosque on weekdays.
1.2.3 Outdoor garments
The ksa used to be a long piece of white material from wool or cotton in combination with silk,412 which used to be worn by men as an outer garment. Jean
Besancenot (1990) notes that
411
Rachida Alaoui, Costumes et parures du Maroc (Paris: ACR Edition, 2003), 59.
For the different types of ayk, see Rachida Alaoui, Costumes et parures du Maroc (Paris:
ACR Edition, 2003), 62.
412
264
Image 8.5 The groom at a wedding in Fez wearing a classic white jellaba over a tamir and a pair of
serwal. On his feet he wears the characteristic yellow leather babu and on his head he wears a silk rza
265
the more distinguished town-dwellers wear the ksa under their selham. It is a long piece
of light woolen cloth, often striped across its width with bands of silk of the same color
as the background, measuring approximately 5 to 6 meters in length and 1,80 meters wide.
It is draped about the body and over the head according to very precise traditional rules. In
the past, most town-dwellers wore this draped garment; it was then made of heavy wool and
was known as the ayk. (…) But the ksa of light open-weave cloth has, in the towns,
remained the prerogative of high officials, who will wear no color but white.413
However, this garment disappeared from the streets in the middle of the 20th
century and no fashion designer has tried to reintroduce it since.
The jellaba, a long outer garment with long-sleeved and a hood, is the most
common outer garment for men. It can be made of either wool or cotton in combination with silk, depending on the season. Older men like to wear several layers,
one on top of the other, the bottom one being of a light colored cotton and the top
one being of a dark colored wool. The two hoods can then be worn over the head
and elegantly folded back, showing the different layers. A white jellaba is usually worn
for special religious occasions and for Friday prayer. The striped ones are more for
everyday use.
Today, the jellaba continues to be worn, usually in dark colors and soberly
decorated with bershman and can even be combined with Western dress. Contrary
to women’s jellaba, they are not strongly influenced by fashion.
Finally, the selham or bernus, a heavy sleeveless woolen cloak with a hood,
decorated with a large silk pompom in either white or dark colors, can be worn
on top of the jellaba. The breast piece is always closed over a length of 20 to 30
centimeters and decorated with braided band or berman. The edges are trimmed with
card weave braid, most often in the same color as the cloak. The selham is directly
woven in shape by women at home, in a half circle and sown together by a male
tailor. It can be worn in different ways, according to the taste of the wearer. The cape
can either be passed over the head, or draped around the shoulders, the hood and
breast piece hanging loosely on the back. For special occasions there is also a light
selham made of bziwi, a thin hand woven woolen fabric from the village of Bzou,
famous for its fine handwoven textiles.
Today, the heavy woolen selham continue to be worn during winter, although
much less frequently, to protect against the cold, while the fine white ones are worn
during special occasions like the opening of parliament or royal visits. There are
no fashion trends that have been influencing this garment.
1.2.4 Head coverings
The three most common head coverings for Moroccan men are the white turban rza,
the high red woolen cap erbu and the hand knitted white or colorful cap agiya.
413
Jean Besancenot, Costumes of Morocco (London & New York: Kegan Paul International,
1990), 141.
266
According to Jean Besancenot (1990), in 1934
the headdress of the younger townspeople consists of the well-known fez of red wool,
known as tarboush, decorated with a tassel of black silk, ebka. This headdress is of Tunisian
origin and today is often worn on its own. Traditionally, however, bachelors and men from
the middle-income group added a little white turban called rza. Men of some importance
may add to the rezza the amana, a long piece of muslin wound around it in a voluminous
coil. The erbu may be replaced by a knitted skullcap, the agiya. Furthermore, old men
generally wear a small scarf of cotton or light wool, the an, to cover the head and neck.414
However, the different types of headgear for men have become less and less
common in the street, except for old men, and most of them have become
associated with formal occasions, worn in combination with Moroccan dress. Also,
male head coverings have hardly changed over time and there have been no innovations introduced by fashion designers.
1.2.5 Footwear
The most common footwear for Moroccan men are a pair of simple flat leather
slippers with a pointed toe called bela, but also known as babu. According
to Rachida Alaoui (2003) the term babu is of Persian origin but Moroccans prefer
the more recent term bela (pl. blai), originating from Spain.415 Jean Besancenot
(1990) notes that there are several variants of the standard type for men.
The msita is thick and strong, made especially for walking; the mbentra, worn by scholars, has
a thin sole and is of leather so pale as to be almost white; the mkhura, the choicest of the
slippers, is worn by important officials and is distinguished by the quality of the leather from
which it is made and the elegance of its shape. (…) In the past, only old men wore knitted
woolen socks, tqaer, but trade with Europe has now made the wearing of mass-produced
socks common.416
Although the most popular blai for men remains the classic versions
in bright yellow or white, today they are made in all imaginable colors. Also, contrary
to women, men will rarely wear European shoes with their Moroccan dress.
1.2.6 Accessories
In combination with the qefan and the farajiya, Moroccan men used to wear a belt,
memma, which did not differ in shape from those worn by women, but which were
more sober in decoration, being simply embroidered in a single color of silk and
414
Jean Besancenot, Costumes of Morocco (London & New York: Kegan Paul International,
1990), 140.
415
Rachida Alaoui, Costumes et parures du Maroc (Paris: ACR Edition, 2003), 67.
416
Jean Besancenot, Costumes of Morocco (London & New York: Kegan Paul International,
1990), 140.
267
Image 8.6 A servant at a wedding in Fez wearing a male cashmere qefan over a tamir and a pair of
serwal. On top he is wearing a thin cotton bernus, a red woolen erbu, a male memma and a modern
kara. On his feet he is wearing a pair of white leather slippers
268
closed with a silver or gold buckle. Today, since men no longer wear the qefan
and farajiya, the memma for men has gotten out of fashion as well.
In the past, Moroccan men used to wear a dagger called khenjer, at the same
time a weapon and a decoration. Depending on the means of the wearer, it could
be elaborately decorated with gold and precious stones.417 Three types of daggers
mentioned by Jean Besancenot (1990) are the sbula, with a straight blade, the khenjer,
with a heavy curved blade and the kummiya, with a long curved blade.418 Besides
the royal guards and local music troupes, this accessory is no longer worn.
Furthermore, men used to wear a satchel, kara, slung diagonally across
the body on a decorative cord, mejdul. It was made of fine leather and decorated with
colorful silk embroidery.419 Although they are still made in Marrakech, it is rare to see
townsmen wear them.
Finally, Moroccan men no longer wear any type of Moroccan jewelry.420
417
Charles Buttin, “Les poignards et les sabres marocains,” Hespéris 26 (1939): 1-28.
Jean Besancenot, Costumes of Morocco (London & New York: Kegan Paul International,
1990), 140.
419
Jean Besancenot, Costumes of Morocco (London & New York: Kegan Paul International,
1990), 141.
420
I did not find any literature on characteristic Moroccan jewelry for men and none
of my informants mentioned anything on this topic.
418
269
270
Appendix 2 Production techniques used in Moroccan urban dress
The decoration techniques used in the production of Moroccan urban dress is what
makes the garments characteristic. Although the techniques were introduced
in Morocco from a wide variety of regions in Europe and the Middle East over time,
they have become characteristic for the country and have evolved independently.
Until recently the techniques were handed down from master artisans to apprentices
and innovation was minimal. However, today innovation seems to be the key to the
continuity of Moroccan handicrafts and principally fashion designers are introducing
new patterns and applications.
A wide variety of literature is available on the production techniques used
in Moroccan urban dress. On the techniques of brocade weaving, Jeanne LapanneJoinville (1940) wrote Les métiers à tisser de Fès.421 Also published in Hespéris are Lucien
Golvin’s article (1950), Le métier à la tire des fabricants de brocarts de Fès422 and Prosper
Ricard’s article (1950) Une lignée d’artisans: les Ben Chérif de Fès.423 The Belgian
researcher Frieda Sorber (1992) did extensive research on Moroccan weaving
421
Jeanne Lapanne-Joinville, “Les métiers a tisser de Fès,” Hespéris 27 (1940): 21-92.
Lucien Golvin, “Le métier a la tire des fabricants de brocarts de Fès,” Hespéris 37 (1950):
21-48.
423
Prosper Ricard, “Une lignée d’artisans: les Ben Chérif de Fès,” Hespéris 37 (1950): 205224.
422
271
techniques in the mid nineties, resulting in a series of articles like A 20th Century
Moroccan Draw Loom Fabric and Behja en chrib, een geweven boeket uit Marokko.424
For the production of gold thread in Fez, Marcel Vicaire and Roger Le
Tourneau (1937) wrote an interesting article entitled La fabrication du fil d'or à Fès425
and for the work of couched plaited cord there is the article of Frieda Sorber (1992),
Trimmings in Fez Morocco.426
Finally, although there are many books on the embroidery techniques used
in Morocco, some worth mentioning are Lucien Vogel’s (1997) Moroccan Silk Designs
in Full Color,427 Laurence Roque and Francoise Clozel’s (2001) Broderies Marocaines428
and Niloo Paydar and Ivo Grammet’s book (2002) The fabric of Moroccan life.429 Two
interesting articles are Prosper Ricard’s (1918) Arts Marocains: Broderies,430 Jeanne
Jouin (1935), Thèmes décoratifs des broderies Marocaines: Leur caractère et leurs origines431 and
Goichon (1939), La broderie au fil d’ or à Fès: Ses rapports avec la broderie de soie, ses
accessoires de passementerie.432
2.1 Draw loom weaving
Four scholars who have done extensive research on the weaving techniques
of Fez in the 1980’s are Frieda Sorber (conservator at the Fashion Museum
of Antwerp), Lotus Stack (Minneapolis Institute of Arts), Louise Mackie (curator
in the textile department of the Royal Ontario Museum) and Susan Davis
(anthropologist).433 According to them, all luxuriously patterned silk textiles in the
424
Frieda Sorber and Lotus Stack, “A 20th Century Moroccan Draw Loom Fabric,” CIETA
Bulletin 70 (1992): 177-185; Frieda Sorber, “Behja en chrib, een geweven boeket uit
Marokko,” Vlaamse Vereniging voor Oud en Hedendaags Textiel (1992): 127-142.
425
Marcel Vicaire and Roger Le Tourneau, “La fabrication du fil d'or à Fès,’ Hespéris 24
(1937): 67-88.
426
Frieda Sorber, “Trimmings in Fez Morocco,” Textile Society of America Proceedings (1992):
22.
427
Lucien Vogel, Moroccan Silk Designs in Full Color (New York: Dover Publications, 1997).
428
Roque and Francoise Clozel, Broderies Marocaines (Paris: Le Temps Apprivoisé, 2001).
429
Niloo Paydar and Ivo Grammet’s book The fabric of Moroccan life (Washington: University
of Washington Press, 2002).
430
Prosper Ricard, Arts Marocains: Broderies (Alger: Carbonel, 1918).
431
Jeanne Jouin, “Thèmes décoratifs des broderies Marocaines: Leur caractère et leurs
origines,” Hespéris 21 (1935): 11-30.
432
A.M. Goichon, “La broderie au fil d’ or à Fès: Ses rapports avec la broderie de soie,
ses accessoires de passementerie,” Hespéris 26 (1939): 49-85 & 241-281.
433
Prosper Ricard, “Une lignée d’artisans: les Ben Chérif de Fès,” Hespéris 37 (1950): 11-19;
Frieda Sorber and Lotus Stack, “A 20th Century Moroccan Draw Loom Fabric,” CIETA
272
Middle East and Europe were woven on draw looms until replaced by mechanized
jacquard looms during the 19th century. The technique of this ingenious draw loom
was invented about 1000 years before the printing press and it is actually an early
computer wherein the weave structure (program) is tied on and used continuously
thereafter, whereas patterns (files) are tied on any time, a process which takes several
hours to several days depending upon the complexity of the pattern, and can be retrieved when needed. The loom is operated by a weaver, who is responsible for
the fabric’s structure, and a draw boy, responsible for the design. The more colors
in a pattern, the longer it takes to weave because each color is interlaced separately.434
After the Christian conquest of Granada in 1492 and the expulsion
of Muslims and Jews, the northern cities of Morocco became the weaving centers
of the region and especially Tetouan and Fez gained a reputation for their highquality silk weaving.435 From the 19th and 20th centuries onward, these workshops
also started copying imported brocade from France and Italy. A well known weaving
workshop from Fez is Ben Cherif, which is responsible for two popular Moroccan
designs, namely the khrib and behja, which are both inspired from French brocade,
but considered as traditionally Moroccan because they are used in the wedding dress
from Fez.436
Today, only a small production of handwoven brocades continues to be produced and one of the last ateliers is run by Hajj Ouazani. He is 65 years old and
started as a young apprentice nearly 50 years ago. At that time there were about
eighteen weaving ateliers in Fez and they all had their distinctive patterns. Although
he never went to school and does not know how to read or write, Hajj Ouazani
is a great mathematician, for it requires a high-level of expertise to translate the
motifs into a labyrinth of threads. It takes about a month to set up a draw loom and
Bulletin 70 (1992): 177-185; Frieda Sorber, “Behja en chrib, een geweven boeket uit
Marokko,” Vlaamse Vereniging voor Oud en Hedendaags Textiel (1992): 127-142.
434
Louise Mackie, “The Threads of Time in Fez, Morocco: Three Textile Scholars Record
Textile-making Traditions Through the Modern Medium of Video,’ Rotunda 24:3 (1991):
18-23; Lotus Stack, “Hand Weaving in the Everyday Life of Artisans, Merchants and
Consumers in Fez, Morocco, in the 1980’s,” Textile Society of America Proceedings (1992): 33-39;
Susan Schaefer Davis, “Fez Fabrications: Artisans and Handmade Textiles in a Complex
Traditional Culture,” Textile Society of America Proceedings (1992): 41-49; Susan Schaefer Davis,
“Continuity and Change: Hand Woven Textiles in Fez, Morocco,” Oriental Rug Review: 21-27.
435
For further information, see Jeanne Lapanne-Joinville, “Les métiers a tisser de Fès,”
Hespéris 27 (1940): 21-92; Lucien Golvin, “Le métier a la tire des fabricants de brocarts
de Fès,” Hespéris 37 (1950): 21-48.
436
Prosper Ricard, “Une lignée d’ artisans: Les Ben Chérif de Fès,” Hespéris 37 (1950): 11-19;
Louise Mackie, “Pattern Books for Draw Loom Weaving in Fez, Morocco,” CIETA bulletin
70 (1992): 169-176; Frieda Sorber, “Behja en chrib, een geweven boeket uit Marokko,”
Vlaamse Vereniging voor Oud en Hedendaags Textiel (1992): 127-142.
273
Image 9.1 Hajj Ouazzani showing sample pieces of hand woven brocade in his atelier in Fez
274
he designs all his own patterns, innovating every year, by using new combinations
of colors and motifs.
Today, he still has four looms operating. The looms were made in Fez, partly
by a carpenter and partly by himself. The fabric produced is about one meter wide
and the weavers can produce about a meter and a half in length per day. For a qefan
it takes four to six and a half meters of fabric. Since the setting up of the loom is
such a time consuming process, at least a hundred meters is woven of a pattern
before it is reset. The materials that are used are sabra and qalli. It is rare that real silk
is used, because of its high price. For the belts and wedding veils, the fabric
is saturated with glue to make it stiff.437
Under the influence of contemporary fashion designers, brocade was reintroduced in Moroccan fashion and a new vitality was given to the industry, which
may hopefully lead to the revival of this complex heritage.
2.1.1 rir and sabra
In the course of the 20th century, the use of natural animal silk has become
increasingly rare and different materials have come in use according to the quality.
The types of silk that are most commonly today are rir, which is claimed to be vegetable silk from a type of cactus but can also be viscose, and sabra, which is artificial,
made of petrol.438 Until the late 1980s there was only white, black and brown rir for
sale in the mdina and to obtain the right color, the rir was tanned in the tanneries.
It is only since the 1990s that colors were introduced.
Today the amount of colors in sabra is unlimited and it is impossible for the
merchant to sell all the colors available. Therefore, at the beginning of the season,
he will have a look at the fabric merchants to see what colors will be fashionable and
supply accordingly. Even basic colors such as black and white can have different
shades depending on the quality and the country it was produced in. The best quality
is called novaseta or inaksa and is imported from the United States. The second quality
comes from India, Mexico, Poland and Austria and the lowest quality is made
in China. The difference in quality is related to the shininess, the elasticity of the
thread, which makes it easier to work with, and the permanence of the color.
The sabra sold in the mdina is imported by companies in Casablanca, which
then sell it in large quantities to intermediates in Fez. The sabra is imported in big
bobbins, ranging from one up to twelve kilos. The small shops transfer the sabra
on little bamboo sticks and a pair is called coqiya and weighs 32,5 grams.
Finally, sabra is used for all sorts of weaving, trimmings, embroidery, shoes,
bags, clothing, belts, horse saddles, curtains and furniture and the merchant of sabra
has also often become the intermediary for hand and machine loop braiding (sfifa),
437
Personal communication Hajj Ouazani, September 16, 2006.
The distinction between rir and sabra is not consistenly made by the respondents
and it is hard to define the real material of the ‘silk’ used in Moroccan garments.
438
275
Image 9.2 A shop in the kisariya of Fez selling sabra on little bamboo sticks coqiya
276
card weave (mrama), handmade buttons (caqad) and other trimmings.439
2.1.2 Metal thread (qalli)
Until the 1930’s the Jews of the old mdina of Fez had the monopoly on the
production of metal thread called qalli. 440 The production was in the hands of rich
entrepreneurs, mcellmin qalli, because it required large investments to purchase the
raw materials. The gold and silver were mainly bought in the mellah, in the form
of old jewelry and damaged gold thread and the silk was bought in the mdina, from
Muslim silk traders.441 They operated from the mellah of the big cities, where they
coordinated and supervised production.
The actual manufacturing was done by different specialists and consisted
of different stages. For example, the raw materials of gold and silver needed to be
melted and purified into 24 karat for the gold. The gold thread itself was made
of silver with a thin layer of gold and each stage of the production was very delicate
because of this thin layer of gold that was easily damaged. The first stage involved
turning the silver blocks into thread of a very small diameter. This was done by the
qalliya, with the use of a pull plate, mzerra. The steel pull plate contained holes
of different diameters. By pulling the thread progressively through the holes with
a smaller diameter, the thread became thinner with a final diameter of 1/10
millimeter.
After this, the thread was taken to another specialist, who would transform the
thread with a round diameter into flat lace, teriya, with the help of a flatting-mill.
This was necessary in order to wrap it around a silk core. Jewish ladies at home
would twine the silk. The mcellem qalli would provide the raw material; orange silk for
high quality and white for inferior quality.442
The final process, wrapping the gold lace around a silk core, was done by the
gezzal. These Jewish men were the actual producers of the gold thread, which again
was a very delicate process for both the silk thread and the gold lace were very fragile
and easily broken.443
439
Personal communication Abdelali Rais, sabra merchant in the mdina of Fez, September
17, 2006.
440
According to Yadida Stillman qalli literally means ‘Sicilian work’ (Yadida Stillman, Arab
Dress: A Short History from the Dawn of Islam to Modern Times (Leiden, Boston, Köln: Brill, 2000,
116). Marcel Vicaire and Roger Le Tourneau use the term tesqalli (Marcel Vicaire and Roger
Le Tourneau, “La fabrication du fil d'or à Fès,’ Hespéris 24 (1937): 68).
441
Marcel Vicaire and Roger Le Tourneau, “La fabrication du fil d'or à Fès,’ Hespéris 24
(1937): 68.
442
Marcel Vicaire and Roger Le Tourneau, “La fabrication du fil d'or à Fès,’ Hespéris 24
(1937): 69.
443
For more elaborate information on the production of gold thread, see Marcel Vicaire and
Roger Le Tourneau, “La fabrication du fil d'or à Fès,’ Hespéris 24 (1937): 80-82.
277
The production of gold thread was an important aspect of the mellah’s
economy and many families were involved in the different stages of its production
process.444 But in the 1930s, this monopoly came to an end, when machines were
introduced and the production became mechanized. Furthermore, Muslim
merchants from the mdina began to import gold thread from Lyon, which was
of superior quality. They also began to import inferior metallic thread from Italy,
which was made with copper.445
By the end of the 1930s the production scene had changed considerably, and
by then there were three different kinds of gold thread available on the market:
1) s-sqalli el-orr: This was the gold thread made in the mellah, with a silk core.
It was used for good quality gold thread embroidery;
2) qalli belsian: This was gold thread imported from Italy and of an inferior
quality. Because it was made with copper, it turned black very quickly and
so it was used for cheap objects, such as tourist souvenirs;
3) qalli mejbud: This was the gold thread imported from Lyon and of very
high quality. It had no silk core and was very thin. It was only used in high
quality products, mainly destined for the royal family. There were only a few
embroiderers who could work with this type of thread, which was very
delicate and easily broken.446
Today there is a whole range of qualities available in metal thread, but mainly
of inferior quality. With the last Jewish artisans leaving in the sixties, there
is no longer a local gold thread production and everything is imported.
2.2 The traditional tailor
Until the beginning of the 20th century Moroccan clothing styles were mainly made
by women at home and only those who could afford it would have their garments
manufactured by a mcellem kheyyata or master tailor. Fez was considered the best place
for the production of Moroccan urban dress and there were no more than about
twenty tailors who had their boutiques in the kisariya of the mdina.447 Since there were
no schools, boys would start as an apprentice at a young age, working in the shop
of a tailor to learn the craft. Girls on the other hand, would be taught at home
Marcel Vicaire and Roger Le Tourneau, “La fabrication du fil d'or à Fès,’ Hespéris 24
(1937): 68.
445 Marcel Vicaire and Roger Le Tourneau, “La fabrication du fil d'or à Fès,’ Hespéris 24
(1937): 86-87.
446 A.M. Goichon, “La broderie au fil d’ or à Fès: Ses rapports avec la broderie de soie,
ses accessoires de passementerie,” Hespéris 26 (1939): 58.
447 Personal communication Mokhtar Adadi, mcellem khiyaa and former amin, 2005.
444
278
by female relatives or specialized ladies, mcellmin. The profession was organized into
a guild that would regulate the quality and establish and maintain certain standards
to protect the reputation of its members. Only with the approval of the amin would
a tailor be allowed to begin his own shop and become a mcellem.
The tailor was most of all a supervisor and an intermediary with the client,
for he would have his handworkers, sanca, do the work for him. Most of the
production process would be delegated to other specialized artisans, both men and
women, for the production of the buttons (caqaad), the braids (sfifa), the needle lace
(randa), the beadwork, the embroidery (ar), etc. But since it was his reputation
at stake, he would be responsible for the quality of the work, the discretion of his
orders and the time frame of the work. Although the mcellem remained anonymous,
some enjoyed higher prestige than others and the relationship with his clients was
a special one, based on trust, for Moroccan women were very particular about the
exclusivity of their tailored garments. The women of the bourgeoisie would have
their tailors make house calls, for they were not allowed to go out; over time they
became like part of the family.448 The mcellem kheyyata would be their main advisor
on the latest fashion trends concerning fabrics, colors, cuts and decoration.
During my field research in 2005-06 I spent six months with a traditional
tailor in the mdina of Fez and although much of the production process remains
the same, his socio-economic situation has changed considerably. The majority
of the work is still done by hand and continues to involve a wide range of specialized
artisans. The production process continues to be orchestrated by the mcellem kheyyata
or kheyyat teqlidi who is in contact with all the different artisans and remains
responsible for the final result. It is he who takes the orders from the clients, cuts the
fabric and then divides the work amongst the sanca who work for him in his shop
or in their own homes. He continues to contract with the women who work at home
and the other artisans who make the belts or even the shoes.
Besides the few examples the tailor has displayed in his small shop, he has
a collection of photo albums with pictures of garments he has made in the past
as examples of the latest fashion trends. He also has samples of buttons, braids,
embroidery and beadwork to inspire his clients and the latest Moroccan fashion
magazines to copy from.
2.2.1 Couched plaited cord
The principal production and decoration technique used by the tailor is couched
plaited cord, which at the same time is used to assemble the garment and to decorate
it. In Arabic it is simply referred to as l’kheyyata, which means the ‘stitching’.
The tailor works with assorted types of twisted cords made of sabra and/
or qalli, which used in different combinations can yield an unlimited variety
of patterns. The number of cords and the direction of the twist determine the way
448
Respondent 25, female, aged 62, living in the mdina of Fez, higher social class.
279
the cord is used and what effect it will produce at the end. It is the sanca who twists
the sabra outside the shop and wandering through the mdina they can be observed
at work, often using a little electric engine coming from a car windshield wiper
or electronic toy.
There are four different types cord used for the production of Moroccan
urban dress:
1) The meftel (consisting of four threads), which is used to close seams, finish
edges and make loops for the buttons.
2) The tarsan (consisting of three threads, twined in Z), which is used to close
seams, finish edges and execute decorations.
3) The dfira (basic braid consisting of three untwined threads), which is used
to decorate edges. These braids are made by women at home.449
4) The qian, which is square and used to decorate edges and to make
the loops for the buttons. This type of cord was previously handmade, but
now it is mostly done by machine.450 Since it is relatively hard to work with,
it is often replaced by the meftel.
Each combination and each pattern made with these cords have their own
name. The most classic pattern used to decorate borders is called dziri, including:
1) ne dziri (2 tarsan, 1 dfira, 2 tarsan),
2) dziri (2 tarsan, 1 dfira, 2 tarsan, 1 dfira, 2 tarsan)
3) dziri w ne (2 tarsan, 1 dfira, 2 tarsan, 1 dfira, 2 tarsan, 1 dfira, 2 tarsan)
Every cord is individually sewn to the fabric, thus the thicker the combination, the more work. This decoration is also used to finish edges. Instead
of making a regular seam on the inside, the edge of the fabric is turned to the right
side and cut off under the decoration.
The amount of decorative patterns is unlimited and influenced by fashion
trends. One well-known pattern, executed in metal thread in combination with lace,
is the ‘tree of life’ and is characteristic for the northern cities of Tanger and Fez.
It is also seen on garments from Algeria and the Ottoman Empire. After nearly
disappearing, it has been reintroduced by fashion designers in the nineties. Especially
in the eighties there was extensive experimenting with new figures made of couched
plaited cord, often in combination with pearls and beads. Just to give a few names
of patterns that are used today are hanj, tmenya, dorra, khatem, uza, etc.
For its technique, see A.M. Goichon, “La broderie au fil d’ or à Fès: Ses rapports avec
la broderie de soie, ses accessoires de passementerie,” Hespéris 26 (1939): 271-73.
450 For its technique, see A.M. Goichon, “La broderie au fil d’ or à Fès: Ses rapports avec
la broderie de soie, ses accessoires de passementerie,” Hespéris 26 (1939): 268-70.
449
280
Image 9.3 Detail of a sleeve seam decorated with couched plaited cord from Tetouan
281
Couched plaited cord is also used to assemble the garment and the technique
consist of two steps:
1) fried, in which one tarsan and one meftel are sown on one side of the fabric.
2) mu, in which the other half is sown on the first one with just one tarsan.
The result is three rows of cord (tarsan, meftel, tarsan) in which none of the
stitches are visible because they disappear in the cord. This technique is used for
all seams, like the hood of a jellaba, the assembling of the sleeves and the side seams.
During the work, the sanaa uses a little hook attached to a piece of fabric called
mekhef, to keep the fabric tight and to make the work easier. He also uses a little
piece of bee wax called sma to make the thread slide better and to prevent it from
breaking.451
2.2.2 berman
Another production and decoration technique that is used by the kheyyat is called
berman and until a few years ago it was reserved for male garments like the jellaba and
the bernus, which would always be executing in the same color as the fabric. Now
it is also being used for female garments and more motifs and color combinations
have been introduced.
According to Frieda Sorber, this technique was already in use in 16th century
452
Spain and it is a type of couched plaited cord, in which the cord is braided while
being sown onto the material. Each time the male stitcher makes a stitch, the threads
are intertwined by an apprentice. The number of loops can vary from two (juji), four
(rbaci), six (stasi) to a maximum of eight (tmani), which gives a total of four, eight,
twelve or sixteen threads. The number cannot exceed eight loops, since each hand
has only four fingers to manipulate the loops.
This technique is used for closing seams and finishing borders. It is strong
and can be easily adapted to the shape of the garment. The decoration that results
from this technique is a number of rows (depending on the number of threads)
showing little V’s. On specific places, like the chest, the follow patterns can occur:
1) terziza (one horizontal line)
2) terzaz (two horizontal lines)
Personal communication Mokhtar Adadi, kheyyat teqlidi, December 13, 2006. See also A.M.
Goichon, “La broderie au fil d’ or à Fès: Ses rapports avec la broderie de soie, ses accessoires
de passementerie,” Hespéris 26 (1939): 262-76.
452 Personal communication Frieda Sorber.
451
282
Image 9.4 Detail of the breast piece and hood of a male bernus decorated with berman
283
3) l-santir (one arrow pointing down)
4) jebka (a grid that can vary in length)453
These patterns are characteristic for berman and can not be found in any
other type of decoration technique on Moroccan dress.
2.2.3 Loop braiding (sfifa)
There is a wide range of trimmings that are produced by women at home. It is an
efficient way for women to make extra money without having to leave the house and
it can easily be combined with household chores. The techniques are passed on from
mother to daughter and young girls usually start helping their mothers, aunts or
sisters from a young age.
It is the tailor who supplies the basic materials needed, such as sabra and qalli
and who orders the amount required for the garment he is making. The women
twine their own thread that is needed and depending on the product it is used for,
the techniques differ. Sfifa is a type of loop braiding that was originally executed
by hand and is used to decorate the edges of the qefan.
The hand-braided type called sfifa-b-l-yed is limited in size and type of pattern.
The mcellema can hold a maximum of 9 loops, with a total of 18 threads, for she needs
one finger to manipulate the loops. The type of patterns she can make are limited
compared to the machine-made sfifa-b-l- makina and the most well-known are sfifa
mekhzeni, sfifa uza (with a spade in the middle), sfifa sensul (simple in the middle and
a braid on the edges; often in two colors and the royal one has a metal thread core
with a metal thread and silk braid on the edge) and sfifa cadiya (plain in one color).
In the 1980’s braiding machines were imported in Morocco and overshadowed handmade sfifa because it was not only cheaper and faster, but also
allowed an unlimited variety of patterns. A classic qefan takes about 8 meters of sfifa
for the collar, the front, the bottom and the cuffs of the sleeves.454
2.2.4 Tablet weaving (sfifa mrama)
The tablet weaving is done by men, usually in the old mdina where they have their
little shops, and is generally used to trim the borders of djlaleb and bernus. They can
vary in width and color, although they used to be executed in the same color as the
garment.
Personal communication Mokhtar Adadi, kheyyat teqlidi, December 13, 2006. See also A.M.
Goichon, “La broderie au fil d’ or à Fès: Ses rapports avec la broderie de soie, ses accessoires
de passementerie,” Hespéris 26 (1939): 264-68.
454 Personal communication Mokhtar Adadi, kheyyat tqlidi, December 13, 2006. See also A.M.
Goichon, “La broderie au fil d’ or à Fès: Ses rapports avec la broderie de soie, ses accessoires
de passementerie,” Hespéris 26 (1939): 270-71.
453
284
Image 9.5 Detail of braided band decoration sfifa on the collar of a qefan
285
Since the 1980s this type of tablet weave started to be used increasingly
as regular
sfifa on the outside of the garment as decoration and therefore more colors and
patterns were introduced. Compared to handmade sfifa, more variation according to
width and patterns are possible.455
The card weaving is executed on a simple small wooden loom called mrama
and the shed of the weave is made with a set of plastic tablets with four holes
through which the warp ends are threaded. Using different colors in the warp creates
the designs, or by using only three warp threads per tablet. While weaving, loops are
formed around a cord parallel to the warp. After removing the card, the loops
twist.456 It takes about an hour to weave one meter and it is more expensive than
machine made sfifa.
2.2.5 Buttons (caqaad)
The little buttons made of sabra and/or qalli are called caqaad (s. cqda) and are characteristic for Moroccan urban dress. The village of Sefrou, 30 km outside of Fez,
is known for its handmade buttons and it was mainly Jewish women who used
to make a living with their production.
The oldest type is called caqaad cadiyin and used to be formed around a leather
core, later replaced by paper. By manipulating the core, the buttons can take
all forms and sizes. Now many new types and shapes are being introduced and the
core is often made of plastic wire. The silk thread is loosely twined and depending
on the size, it is ‘knotted’ around the core several times with a needle.
Just to name a few types, there is jakar, harduf, kermusa, tuta, namus, sdafa, etc.
Only the front of a qefan can already consist of 220 to 240 buttons depending on the
size of the button and the length of the garment.
2.2.6 Needle lace (randa)
Moroccan needle lace, called randa, is a decoration technique that is used for seams
and decorating borders. Like all lace, the technique consists of a series of knots that,
ordered in a stylized way, form a decorative mesh. It was originally used to decorate
the borders of men’s collars, but nowadays we can find the most beautiful
decorations on qefan and jlaleb.
It is a very time consuming process, which is done by women at home. The
execution is done with a simple needle and loosely twined sabra. It can either be done
between two pieces of fabric, for the seams, or on the edge of a fabric to decorate
borders. Patterns are created by skipping knots or by using different colors of sabra.
455
456
Personal communication Abdellah Gahonchi, mcellem mrama, Oktober 1, 2005.
Frieda Sorber, “Trimmings in Fez Morocco,” Textile Society of America Proceedings (1992):
22.
286
Image 9.6 A woman executing needle lace randa in the atelier of Tamy Tazi
287
There are endless varieties of patterns, like randa uza, randa d-fqasa, randa mutlat, randa
khemsa, etc.457 The Moroccan fashion designer Tamy Tazi, who is part of the first
generation of Moroccan fashion designers, created a major comeback of this decoration technique by introducing new patterns and turning it into her trademark.
Finally, another type of needle lace is called ders, also known as ebka, and
according to Rachida Alaoui (2003) this technique is originally from the Ottoman
Empire.458 Just like randa, it is executed with a needle in sabra and used to decorate
edges from garments, scarves, home linen, etc. Again, it is done by women at home
and has known a revival in the last few years, with new patterns being introduced.
2.3 Embroidery
Embroidery is a widespread decoration technique and according to Jeanne Jouin
(1935) there have been two major influences on urban embroidery, namely from
Andalusia and the Balkans. The first wave of influence came with the Jewish and
Muslim refugees in the 15th and 16th century, who had a significant impact on the
embroidery of Fez, Tetouan, Salé, Rabat, Azemmour and Meknes. The second type
of embroidery was introduced by Turkish and Caucasian women who were captured
and put in fassi harems and by Algerian women, who were originally from
the Balkans.459
In the urban areas of northern Morocco, embroidery was abundantly used
to decorate the interiors of the beautiful mdina houses called riya, for which curtains,
drapes, wall hangings, cushions, table and bed linens were decorated by the women
of the house. They were part of a bourgeois girl’s trousseau and learning how to embroider was considered an important aspect of her education.
After Independence and the increasing schooling of women, young girls
no longer performed their own embroidery and it was taken over by ‘professionals.’
It is only under the influence of fashion designers in the 20th century that embroidery
was introduced in profusion for the decoration of clothes, such as qfaen and dfina.
Finally, a number of embroidery types can be distinguished in Morocco and
classified geographically, with every city having its own technique, motifs and
characteristic colors.
2.3.1 ar rbai
ar rbai is used to refer to the embroidery from Rabat and Salé and distinguishes
two types of characteristic embroideries, the ‘old’ and the ‘new’ style. Both
Personal communication Hsna Fateh, mcellema randa, January 31, 2006.
458 Rachida Alaoui, Costumes et parures du Maroc (Paris: ACR Edition, 2003), 75.
459 Jeanne Jouin, “Thèmes décoratifs des broderies Marocaines: Leur caractère et leurs
origines,” Hespéris 21 (1935): 160.
457
288
monochrome and polychrome, Rabat embroidery inherited its techniques and motifs
from Andalusia.
In the so-called ‘old style’ embroidery, the motifs are drawn directly on the
fabric and consist of geometrical and architectural floral designs, often monochrome.
The ‘new’ style shows much brighter colors and the motifs are much more elaborate,
often identical on both sides. According to Jeanne Jouin (1935) these motifs are
copied from 18th and 19th century European fabrics.460
2.3.2 ar fasi
ar fasi is embroidery from Fez and originally monochrome in deep red and more
recently in deep blue. Fez embroidery is reminiscent of the embroidery of the Balkan
regions. Generally composed geometrical patterns, it is executed by counting threads
without drawing patterns beforehand. Because it is identical on both sides, the
technique is complex and very time and thread consuming.
Originally produced on fine chiffons or cottons, it was at the same time
decorative and a protection for the material. Also, because of its reversibility, it could
be turned inside out when damaged. Originally used on house linen like tablecloths,
napkins, tea-tray covers, bed sheets, cushions and divan mattress covers, it is now
used on a whole range of items, including dress.
2.3.3 ar tewani
ar tewani, the type of embroidery that can be found in Tetouan, bears a remarkable
resemblance, both in color and pattern, with Hispano-Moresque embroidery. This is
easily attributed to historical events since large streams of Muslim and Jewish
migrants settled down here after the Spanish Inquisition. Later, they were followed
by groups of Algerians refugees, who introduced Ottoman patterns.
The motifs are drawn on the fabric before the embroidery is produced and
the patterns are floral and vegetal. Bright colors such as yellow, red, deep blue and
deep green dominate and the supporting fabrics are luxurious such as silk satin,
taffeta and linen.461
2.3.4 ar zemmuri
ar zemmuri, the embroidery that can be found in Azemmour, is remarkably different
from the other types of embroidery found in Morocco, with regard to color, motif,
shape and technique. It was only produced in long narrow bands, ranging from ten
to forty centimeters wide and up to two and a half meters long and was used
to decorate mattresses, drapes and curtains.
Jeanne Jouin, “Thèmes décoratifs des broderies Marocaines: Leur caractère et leurs
origines,” Hespéris 21 (1935): 158-59.
461 Jeanne Jouin, “Thèmes décoratifs des broderies Marocaines: Leur caractère et leurs
origines,” Hespéris 21 (1935): 152-53.
460
289
Image 9.7 Detail of embroidery from Rabat ar rbai on a pillow cover
290
What is so remarkable is that the supporting fabric is completely covered and
the patterns are distinctive, depicting dragons, large birds, lions, vases, etc. These
motifs clearly represent the Spanish and Italian Renaissance influence, as well as the
rural embroideries of Northern Russia. This can be explained by the fact that the city
was occupied by the Portuguese, who brought Northern European slaves.462
2.3.5 Metal thread embroidery (ar qalli)
The technique for metal thread embroidery is remarkably different from the previously described techniques and was introduced by the Jews from Andalusia, where
it was widespread since the Renaissance.463 With the large migration wave following
the Spanish Inquisition in the 15th century, a significant urban Jewish community
settled down in the northern cities of Morocco where they introduced new decoration techniques.464 Due to the fact that they were excluded from many occupations
and forbidden to own land for centuries, many of them were tailors and craftsman.465
Metal thread embroidery originally employed gold thread and was used for
the decoration of precious objects such as covers of religious texts, wall hangings and
ceremonial dress, including shoes and little prayer bags.466 Some of the most
beautiful examples are the breast pieces of the Jewish wedding dress called keswa
kbira.
For a long time, Muslim clients would bring their objects that needed
gold thread embroidery to Jewish craftsmen and it is only later that Muslim ladies
from the fasi bourgeoisie started to learn the technique and to use it to decorate
objects for their own use.
Today the technique is used to decorate leather slippers, belts, clothing, bags,
pillows, wall hangings and horse harnesses.467 The major difference between silk and
gold thread embroidery is that the gold thread, which used to be expensive, is only
used on one side of the fabric, while a linen or cotton thread is used on the back.
So the technique consists of embroidering with two threads simultaneously. Furthermore, the pattern to be embroidered is cut out of yellow paper (which used to be
Jeanne Jouin, “Thèmes décoratifs des broderies Marocaines: Leur caractère et leurs
origines,” Hespéris 21 (1935): 149-151.
463 Jean Besancenot in Aviva Muller-Lancet and Dominique Champault, La vie juive
au Maroc (Jerusalem & Tel-Aviv: Musée d'Israël Editions Stavit, 1986), 201.
464 Aviva Muller-Lancet and Dominique Champault, La vie juive au Maroc (Jerusalem
& Tel-Aviv: Musée d'Israël Editions Stavit, 1986), 146.
465 Aviva Muller-Lancet and Dominique Champault, La vie juive au Maroc (Jerusalem
& Tel-Aviv: Musée d'Israël Editions Stavit, 1986), 138.
466 Marcel Vicaire and Roger Le Tourneau, “La fabrication du fil d'or à Fès,” Hespéris 24
(1937): 69.
467 For the different application, see A.M. Goichon, “La broderie au fil d’ or à Fès: Ses
rapports avec la broderie de soie, ses accessoires de passementerie,” Hespéris 26 (1939):
49-85 & 241-281.
462
291
Image 9.8 Detail of metal thread embroidery ar qalli on the bottom of a velvet wedding qefan
292
thin leather) and glued onto the fabric, contrary to existing techniques wherein the
pattern is drawn on the fabric or executed through counting. The fabric, in most
cases velvet, needs to be reinforced with cardboard (which used to be leather),
in order to support the relatively heavy gold thread. To execute the embroidery, the
embroiderer, with one hand, pierces a hole through the fabric and the leather,
holding the needle with the cotton thread in the other hand. The gold thread is laid
over the motif and pulled to the back with the cotton thread. When the embroidery
is finished, the leather or paper motif is completely covered with gold thread.
Nowadays, with the sabra or qalli being much cheaper, identical thread
is often used on both sides of the fabric, but the technique remains the same.
2.4 Production of the belt (memma)
Just like the tailor, the mcellem mami or belt maker is the intermediary between the
different craftsmen and women involved in the production process of the memma.
He takes the orders from customers and is responsible for the size, the materials, the
decorations, the colors to be used, the finishing and even more important: the delay.
It can take from ten days up to a month to make a belt, depending on the amount
of embroidery.
The first person he goes to see when he gets an order is the mcellem frad. This
is the person who draws and cuts out the motif from a large piece of paper with
a little tool called ifa. The cutting out of the pattern to be used is very meticulous
work done centimeter by centimeter. The use of the ifa is necessary because scissors
would be unable to follow the very small and fine details of the motif. Once the
pattern is cut out, it is glued onto the fabric with a natural glue made of flour.
The back of the fabric is reinforced with a layer of cardboard.
The next step is the embroidery, performed by women at home. All the
necessary materials, such as sabra and/or qalli are supplied by the mcellem mami.
The women twist their own thread and work according to their own schedule.
The edges of the belt are finished with berman, which is also done by these women
at home. Additionally, a series of trimmings, hooks and accessories are ordered
to fasten and decorate the belt. These are hand made by a craftsman and they are
mostly made of metal wire, wrapped with twisted sabra. He can make all shapes and
sizes, depending on the wishes of the customer.
Finally, it is the mcellem mami himself who does the required finishing. First
of all he makes sure that there are no glue stains left and checks the quality of the
work delivered. Secondly, he fixes the additional trimmings and hooks on the belt,
according to the size of the customer. For the mdemm jib (pocket), which is very
fashionable these days, he adds extra pieces of embroidery to the belt. After that he
293
Image 9.9 Detail of a metal thread embroidered memma
294
reinforces the belt with an extra layer of cardboard on the inside and lines it with a
layer of matching fabric.468
2.5 Production of the embroidered leather slippers (erbil)
The embroidered slippers for women called erbil are decorated with metal thread
embroidery and are strongly influenced by fashion. Just like the embroidered belt,
the production of erbil is a matter of teamwork and the mcellem erbil coordinates the
work of the different artisans.
First he cuts two pieces of cardboard in the shape of the slipper, one for the
top and one for the heel, and covers them on both sides with white or yellow fabric,
depending on whether the slippers will be covered with silver or gold colored qalli.
Then he turns to the mcellem frad who draws and cuts out the motifs for the
embroidery with his little tool called ifa. Once the patterns are cut out, they are glued
on the fabric with a natural glue.
After that, the mcellem erbil brings the pieces to the ladies working at home
who will perform the embroidery with qalli. The metallic thread only covers one
side of the patterns, while a second cotton thread is used for the inside. Once the
embroidery is complete, the edges are finished with berman by the ladies at home,
in the same color as the embroidery. After the mcellem collects the finished pieces,
the top and heel pieces are glued on a very thin layer of leather and sewn together.
This, in turn, is sewn on a thin layer of leather that forms the inside of the slipper.
It is done with the help of an extra strip of leather, so when the sole is sewn on, the
edges are turned inside and the stitches are invisible. The outer sole is glued on and
with high quality slippers, some extra material is added to pad the sole and make
it a bit thicker and more comfortable to walk in. The sewing on of the sole is done
with two threads simultaneously for extra strength. The mcellem pierces a hole
through the two layers of leather and takes two opposite stitches.
Finally, the finishing consists of polishing the sole with oil, trimming the
edges with a sharp knife and holding the slipper over a flame, so that the stray embroidery threads are burned and the work is effectively sealed.469
468
469
Personal communication Said Elioti, maalam mdaimee, September 17, 2006.
Personal communication Hamid Filali, maalam sherbil, October 17, 2007.
295
296
Appendix 3 Questionnaire
A. Détails Personnels
1. Num. d’interview + photo
2. Nom
3. Sexe
4. Adresse
5. Téléphone
6. Age
7. Etat civil (célibataire, fiance, marie, divorce, veuf/veuve)
8. Nombre d’enfant(s)
9. Votre religion ?
10. Combien de fois faites-vous la priere par jour ?
11. Quand est-ce que vous allez á la mosquée ?
12. Qu’est-ce que vous avez faites comme études?
13. Quelle est votre profession ?
14. De quelle région est originaire votre famille ?
15. Oú êtes-vous né(e) ?
16. Oú avez-vous été élevé ?
17. Depuis combien de temps vivez-vous dans cette ville ?
297
B. La manière de s’habiller
18. Donnez-moi (citer et décrire) des tenues ou des (parties de) vêtements
marocains ?
19. Donnez-moi (citer et décrire) des tenues ou des (parties de) vêtements
Europeain?
Je vais vour montrer 10 photos. Pouvez vous me dire dans quelle mesure ces vêtements vous
semblent-ils marocains, et pourquoi
1) Certainement pas marocains
2) Pas marocains
3) Marocains
4) Très marocains
5) Extrêmement marocains
20. Photo 1 (tissu, coloris/motif, modèle, ornementation)
Image 10.1 Picture 1 for
female respondents featuring a
wedding qefan from Fez in the
early 20th century
298
Image 10. 2 Picture 1 for male
respondents featuring two
superposed jlaleb with a bernus
on top
21. Photo 2 (tissu, coloris/motif, modèle, ornementation)
Image 10. 3 Picture 2 for
female respondents featuring a
qefan by Mohamed Lakhdar
Image 10. 4 Picture 2 for male
respondents featuring a male
jellaba by Yousra
22. Photo 3 (tissu, coloris/motif, modèle, ornementation)
Image 10. 5 Picture 3 for
female respondents featuring a
velvet qefan from north
Morocco
Image 10. 6 Picture 3 for male
respondents featuring a
drawing of a male ksa
299
23. Photo 4 (tissu, coloris/motif, modèle, ornementation)
Image 10. 7 Picture 4 for
female respondents featuring a
qefan by Zineb Joundy
Image 10. 8 Picture 4 for male
respondents featuring a male
jellaba by Yousra
24. Photo 5 (tissu, coloris/motif, modèle, ornementation)
Image 10. 9 Picture 5 for
female respondents featuring a
tekia by Mohamed Lakhdar
300
Image 10. 10 Picture 5 for
male respondents featuring an
elaborately decorated jabador
for men
25. Photo 6 (tissu, coloris/motif, modèle, ornementation)
Image 10. 11 Picture 6 for
female respondents featuring
two women in religious dress
Image 10. 12 Picture 6 for
male respondents featuring a
contemporary jabador by
Yousra
26. Photo 7 (tissu, coloris/motif, modèle, ornementation)
Image 10. 13 Picture 7 for
female respondents featuring a
female jellaba by Yousra
Image 10. 14 Picture 7 for
male respondents featuring a
male qefan by Yousra
301
27. Photo 8 (tissu, coloris/motif, modèle, ornementation)
Image 10. 14 Picture 8 for
female respondents featuring a
female jellaba by Amina
Benmoussa
Image 10. 16 Picture 8 for
male respondents featuring a
male qefan by Mohamed
Lakhdar
28. Photo 9 (tissu, coloris/motif, modèle, ornementation)
Image 10. 17 Picture 9 for
female respondents featuring a
tekia by Radia Harmouchi
302
Image 10. 18 Picture 9 for
male respondents featuring
two superposed male qfaen by
Mohamed Lakhdar
29. Photo 10 (tissu, coloris/motif, modèle, ornementation)
Image 10. 19 Picture 10 for
female respondents featuring a
design for women by Nabil
Dahani
Image 10. 20 Picture 10 for
male respondents featuring a
design for men by Nabil
Dahani
30. Oú est-ce que vous achetez vos vêtements marocains (mdina, ville nouvelle,
magasin)?
31. Est-ce que vous les achetez tout fait (= en confection) ou est-ce que vous les
commandez chez un kheyyat? (lesquels ou non chez le tailleur)
32. Chez quel tailleur allez-vous? (quel quartier/adresse)
33. Oú est-ce que vous achetez vos tissus? (a la mdina ou dans la ville nouvelle? Quel
quartier/adresse)
34. Combien de fois par an est-ce que vous achetez de nouveaux
vêtements/ensembles marocains?
35. A quelle occasion est-ce que vous achetez absolument des vêtements marocains?
36. Est-ce que vous portez plus souvent des vêtements marocains ou des vêtements
Europeain?
37. Que est-ce que vous portez pour aller travailler?
38. Que est-ce que vous portez pour aller á un mariage?
303
39. Que est-ce que vous portez pour tout les jours?
40. Que est-ce que vous portez pour les fêtes religieuses?
41. Est-ce que vous pensez que l’age joue un rôle dans le choix d’un vêtement ?
(Si oui, pourquoi? Si non, pourquoi pas?)
1) Pas de rôle
2) Un rôle
3) Un grand rôle
4) Un très grand rôle
42. Est-ce que vous pensez que la religion joue un rôle dans le choix d’un vêtement ?
(Si oui, pourquoi? Si non, pourquoi pas?)
1) Pas de rôle
2) Un rôle
3) Un grand rôle
4) Un très grand rôle
43. Est-ce que vous pensez que le statut social joue un rôle dans le choix d’un
vêtement ? (Si oui, pourquoi? Si non, pourquoi pas?)
1) Pas de rôle
2) Un rôle
3) Un grand rôle
4) Un très grand rôle
44. Est-ce que vous trouvez que vous exprimez votre identité marocaine á travers
vos vêtements?
(Si oui, pourquoi? Si non, pourquoi pas?)
45. Est-ce que vous trouvez les vêtements marocains ancien (vieu jeu) ou modernes?
Pourquoi?
46. Quelles personnes jouent un rôle (important) dans le choix de vos vêtements ?
C. La mode marocaine
47. Est-ce que vous lisez des magazines de mode marocains? (Si oui, lesquels?)
48. Est-ce que ces magazines vous influencent dans votre choix pour un vêtement?
(Si oui, comment? Si non, pourquoi pas?)
304
49. Est-ce que vous regardez des défilés de mode? (Si oui, lesquels?)
50. Et comment est-ce que vous trouvez ces vêtements (= présentés lors de ces
défilés)?
51. Avez-vous des idoles marocaines (télévision, cinéma, musique, famille royale) que
vous admirez? Si oui, comment trouvez-vous leur façon de s’habiller?
52. Est-ce que vous avez des programmes marocain favoris a la télévision?
(Si oui, lesquels?)
53. Comment trouvez-vous les vêtements marocains a la télévision?
54. Est-ce que vous connaissez des noms de stylistes marocains?
(Si oui, lesquels?)
55. Si vous aviez l’argent, est-ce que vous porteriez un vêtement crée par un styliste
marocain?
(Si oui, quel styliste? Si non, pourquoi pas?)
56. Est-ce que vous pensez que le vêtement marocain est influencé par la mode?
(Si oui, quelle est la mode actuelle? Et qu’est-ce qui est absolument passé de mode?)
57. Est-ce que vous pensez que la mode marocaine a très peu ou beaucoup change
les dix dernières années?
1) Pas du tout changé
2) Pas changé
3) Changé
4) Très changé
5) Enormément changé
58. Qu’est-ce qu’il y a le plus changer ? (Quels sont les plus grands changements?)
59. Comment est-ce que vous voyez l’avenir des vêtements marocains?
60. Est-ce que vous avez des anciennes photos de famille? Est-ce que vous pourriez
me montrer quelques vetements marocains?
305
306
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Curriculum Vitae
Maria Angela Jansen werd geboren op 15 april 1976 in Bilzen (België). In 1994
behaalde zij aan het Koninklijk Atheneum van Tervuren haar diploma in de richting
Wiskunde Wetenschappen II. Geïnspireerd door de vele reizen die zij reeds op jonge
leeftijd had ondernomen begon zij direct aan een studie Culturele Antropologie en
Sociologie der Niet-westerse Samenlevingen aan de Universiteit van Leiden, waar zij
in 1995 haar propedeuse haalde. In 2000 studeerde zij af met een scriptie over de
adatkleding van de Mingkabau waarvoor zij een jaar veldwerk verrichtte in de
Padangse Hooglanden van West Sumatra.
Van 2000 tot 2009 werkte Angela Jansen als buitenpromovendus aan haar
proefschrift waarvoor het onderwerp geïnspireerd was door haar werkzaamheden
voor het Textile Research Centre (TRC) in Leiden. Daar was zij van 2000 tot 2005
namelijk verantwoordelijk voor de Marokko collectie. Van 2001 tot 2005 was zij
tevens onderzoeksassistente aan het Netherlands Institute for Advanced Studies in Social
Science and Humanities (NIAS) in Wassenaar. Hierdoor was zijn in 2003-2004
betrokken bij de voorbereidingen voor de viering van 400 jaar diplomatieke
betrekkingen tussen Nederland en Marokko in 2005, waarvoor zij de tentoonstelling
Van Harem tot Catwalk: 400 jaar Marokkaanse stadskleding voorbereidde voor het
Wereldmuseum in Rotterdam.
In september 2005 vertrok zij in eerste instantie voor een jaar naar Marokko
om veldwerk te doen maar in augustus 2006 kreeg zij een baan aangeboden als senior
medewerker Pers en Cultuur bij de Nederlandse ambassade in Rabat en besloot zij
haar proefschrift in Marokko te schrijven.
Inmiddels woont Angela Jansen ruim vier jaar in Marokko waar zij naast haar
baan en onderzoek betrokken is bij diverse projecten op het gebied van Marokkaanse
stadskleding. Zo was zij in 2006 projectleider voor de levende tentoonstelling De Fil
en Aiguille in het Batha Museum in Fez, waarvoor zij de catalogus schreef. Een jaar
later werd zij uitgenodigd als artistiek directeur voor de tweede editie van FestiMode
Casablanca, waarvoor zij eveneens de publicatie verzorgde. Naast diverse publicaties
heeft zij eveneens een reeks lezingen gegeven in Nederland en Marokko, waaronder
op het Nederlands Instituut in Rabat.
315