Assessment and development of competencies - CRWG

Transcription

Assessment and development
of competencies
Literature Review
Report No. 4
Part of the Project
Meeting Workplace Skills:
the Career Development Contribution
Guylaine Michaud, Ph.D, c.o.,
Professor, Sherbrooke University
Patricia Dionne, M.A., c.o.
Centre d’Orientation et de Recherche d’emploi de l’Estrie
Alexandre Brien, M.A., c.o.
Centre d’Orientation et de Recherche d’emploi de l’Estrie
May 2009
A project of the Canadian Research Working Group
on Evidence Based Practice in Career Development
Assessment and development of competencies - Literature Review
Credits
RESEARCH COLLABORATOR
Réginald Savard, Ph. D. , c.o.
Sherbrooke University
TRANSLATION FROM FRENCH
GPD Entreprises ENR/REG’D
GRAPHIC DESIGN
Lorraine Beaudoin
Productions AlphaZULU
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Human Resources and Social Development Canada
(HRSDC) for financial support for this project under the Workplace Skills Initiative (WSI)
COORDINATION AND EDITING
Canadian Career Development Foundation (CCDF)
This report is also available in the original French version under the title :
RECENSION DES ÉCRITS – BILAN ET DÉVELOPPEMENT DE COMPÉTENCES
May 2009 © All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or
used in any form by any means without the permission of the authors.
1
Reports published under the project :
Meeting Workplace Skills : the Career Development Contribution
Report 1
Synthesis Report
Report 2
Needs Analysis – Career Development in SMEs
Report 3
Literature Review – Career Development in SMEs
Report 4 Literature Review –Assessment and development of
competencies
Report 5
Literature Review – Career Conversations
Report 6
Research Report –
Assessment and development of competencies
Report 7
Research Report – Career Conversations
Report 8
Research Report – My Career GPS
Tools developped under this project
ZZ Needs Analysis
Needs Analysis Questionaire
ZZ Career Conversations
Orientation to Career Conversations – Facilitator Guide
Orientation to Career Conversations – Manager Workbook
Career Conversations – Employee Workbook
ZZ Assessment and Development of Competencies
Employer Guide
Employee Guide
Implementation Guide
ZZ My Career GPS
My Career GPS - Self-directed Guide
ZZ Evaluation
Evaluation Tools used in the Project
Evaluation Framework
Compendium of Evaluation Tools
2
Consult the site www.crwg-gdrc.ca to access these documents.
Table of Contents
Credits Reports published under the project
« Meeting Workplace Skills : the Career Development Contribution » Introduction 1. Needs 1.1 Underlying needs of the individual and society 2. Bioecological model of Bronfenbrenner’s human development
process and needs underlying SA 2.1 SA needs in relation to the microsystem 2.2. Needs in relation to the mesosystem 2.3 Needs in relation to the exosystem 2.4 Needs in relation to the macrosystem CONCLUSION About the Authors
Abstract Bibliographical References 1
2
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Introduction
Since their inception in the mid-1980s, the different types of skills assessment (SA) approaches have grown considerably1 and, since 1991, skills
assessment has been an official part of French legislation and an entrenched right of the French citizenry. In that country, skills assessment is
viewed as the primary lifelong guidance tool (Gaudron and Croity-Belz,
2005, p. 110). Unlike France, in Canada, SA is not a legal right; however,
major investments in SA approaches are made every year by governments
and organizations through their employee assistance programs and by
individuals who cover the costs associated with their different workplace
transitions themselves (Michaud et al., 2007b; Michaud et al., 2006;
Maguire and Killeen, 2003). Since governments, organizations, and some
individuals invest in these types of approaches, it seems plausible that SA
meets the needs of both individuals and society.
To guide the research aimed at assessing SA effects, it seemed necessary to identify the desired effects of this type of approach. This literature
review therefore summarizes the needs underlying skills assessment2 as
noted in the articles, books, and conferences3 on SA since the 1980s.
In order to gain a better understanding of the needs to which the skills
assessment approach responds, we grouped them according to the different systems in which people develop, on the basis of Bronfenbrenner’s
bioecological model (Bronfenbrenner and Morris, 1998; Bronfenbrenner
and Crouter, 1983; Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
4
1 In France alone, about 200,000 SAs are carried out every year (Hardy-Bubernet,
2007).
2 This literature review looked at articles on the “portfolio process” in Englishspeaking countries. However, we did not select those articles for the review.
This approach contextualized to the school setting mainly in English Canada and
the United States differs from SA, particularly in terms of its process and its
objectives.
3 In this case, we analyzed the material delivered at conferences, particularly
PowerPoint presentations.
1. Needs
As part of this comprehensive review of the needs underlying SA, we
inventoried all comments that indicated an intent to respond to a need
of an individual or society. We were therefore able to identify the needs
and expectations expressed by individuals and society with regard to
the approach: the objective of the approach, its spinoffs, its effectiveness, obstacles encountered by individuals in relation to labour market
entry and social and vocational guidance, labour market transformations, and socially recognized difficulties attributable to social, political,
and economic transformations. In addition, certain criticisms of the SA
approach sometimes made it possible to identify specific needs related to
the individual or society.
1.1 Underlying needs of the individual and society
Consulting of SA literature brings to light major, explicit, and systematic
concerns about the skills, career, assessment and basic learning needs of
the individual: this should not be surprising since the individual is at the
heart of the SA process. Needs relating to the environment are much less
explicit. And yet the literature review made it possible to identify several
of society’s expectations and to shed light on coexisting concepts about
the relationship between individuals and their environment. For example,
it is possible to recognize in the literature all of the guidance strategies
presented by Riverin-Simard and Simard (2005),4 i.e., harmonizing, interactive, developmental, and contextualizing strategies. This model of
the relationship between individuals and their environment (completely
separate to very close) influences the perception of the needs underlying
SA. The harmonizing strategy focuses on the importance of needs relating to information about the self and the labour market, the interactive
strategy emphasizes the need to understand the reciprocal relationship
between individuals and their environment, and the developmental strategy explores people’s past in order to gain a better understanding of
4 www.mels.gouv.qc.ca/dfga/politique/accueilreference/pdf/41-2521.pdf
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their present and develop a meaningful future plan. Individuals and their
environments are considered open systems that need to develop vocational maturity in order to maintain stability and move towards their ideal
vision. Lastly, the contextualizing strategy focuses on the individual’s need
to consider these contexts as inseparable. It brings to light the need to
understand the development of individuals according to their contexts
and emphasizes the importance of a “global configuration” resulting from
the integration of all of the biopsychosocial factors present in the life of
the individual.
The literature review was organized around a model of the human development process that also views individuals and their environments as
inseparable: Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model (Bronfenbrenner and
Morris, 1998; Bronfenbrenner and Crouter, 1983; Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
It seemed the optimal model for doing a comprehensive review at the
same time making it possible to look at all SA needs in relation to the
guidance strategies of Riverin-Simard and Simard (2005). Furthermore,
it seemed meaningful to us from the standpoint of building SA-specific
knowledge.
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2. Bioecological model of Bronfenbrenner’s human development
process and needs underlying SA
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of the human development process
is defined by 4 systems: the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem,
and the macrosystem. In our view, the typology of this model appeared
to be an effective way of organizing the developmental needs to which
SA is expected to respond. It has the advantage of not separating individuals from their environments, taking into account their development
process according to the interaction between their personal characteristics
and their different contexts over time5 (the temporal dimension is called
the chronosystem). This model considers the impact of individual factors
(genetic make-up, values, interests, lifestyle, etc.) and environmental ones
(geographic, political, economic, and cultural) on human development.
This way of organizing the content of the literature made it possible
to focus on supporting developing individuals by expanding, as need
be, the systems in which they evolve, from the most intimate to the
most external. Based on the systems in Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological
model, we grouped and categorized the identified needs in table format
(Table 1).
5 What Bronfenbrenner and Morris (1998) called Process-Person-Context-Time
(PPCT). According to this model, the research protocols should refer to these
four components simultaneously.
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Table 1 : Needs to which a Skills Assessment Approach Attempts to Respond
according to a Bioecological Model of Human Development
Exosystem
(individual
not directly
involved)
Mesosystem
(active and
engaged
individual)
Need to take
stock
Need to consider Need for the
the complexity
right to guidance
of interactions
counselling
between the
systems in order
to gain selfunderstanding
and identify a
plan
Need for a
society with a
strong culture of
work as a means
of self-realization
Need to identify,
recognize, and
develop skills
Need for skills
recognition
Need for better
workforce
management
Need for a
society that
values training
(knowledge
society) as
a means of
development
Need for selfknowledge and
self-recognition
Need to develop
the ability to get
bearings
Need for training
and development
for the adult
population
Need for support Need for support Need for workin the worker role during the tranforce recognition
sition between
systems
Need to identify
a career plan
Need for support
in the face of the
complexity of the
adjustment inherent in change or
transition
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Macrosystem
(individual
not directly
involved)
Microsystem
(active and
engaged
individual)
2.1 SA needs in relation to the microsystem
In the microsystem, individuals engage in particular activities that have a
direct effect on their development. Individuals therefore play a specific
role in defined contexts and time periods. This system is made up of the
four main immediate settings in which people evolve: family, school, peer
group, and workplace. SA needs in relation to the microsystem are varied,
as illustrated in Table 1. In light of Bronfenbrenner’s model, it is possible
to conclude that one of the principal needs associated with SA is self-recognition of the skills individuals have developed through different activities
in their work, family, school, and personal contexts. In a way, this means
recognizing the skills “outcomes” arising from their development process
and identifying the optimum contexts for that process through one or
more career plans. This process recognition must take into account the
interaction between their characteristics (values, interests, knowledge,
qualities, lifestyles, etc.), contexts, and time. This need for self-recognition
is described in different ways in the literature: need to take stock, need
to develop one’s skills, need for self-recognition, need for support in their
worker role, development of a career plan, and being supported in the
adjustments inherent in the changes that we describe in detail below.
2.1.1 Need to take stock
Of the main needs identified, that of taking stock of one’s personal and
work life, is frequently mentioned (Michaud et al., 2007a; François and
Botteman, 2002; Foulard, 2001; Ferrieux and Carayon, 1996, 1998; Taïeb
and Blanchard, 1997; Bekourian, 1991; Richebon, 1991; Lucas, 1991).
Since SA is often done at a time when people are having doubts about
their skills and more generally about their self-image (Lévy-Leboyer, 1993),
they feel the need to take stock of where things stand at a key moment
in their working life (Boursier, 1996). According to Boutinet (2004), that is
how adults who are evolving within or outside the work context can come
to have doubts about their life experience as a whole (p. 37). Lemoine
(2005) notes that SA enables some people to recognize dimensions they
did not think were relevant.
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This questioning can be triggered by a work situation perceived as a
failure (Gaudron et al., 2001a), and SA support can then, according to
Lévy-Leboyer (1993), help to make people aware of the real weight of the
different causes of the successes and failures they experience. They can
then take stock during a time of doubt about their skills and thus increase
their self-esteem and their feeling of personal efficacy with regard to
achieving their work-related goals.
The need to take stock may also simply represent a need to develop one’s
skills, notably for employees of companies that are expanding or shrinking
(Michaud and Savard, 2007).
2.1.2 Need to identify, recognize, and develop skills
One of the universally recognized skills assessment needs6 is that of identifying and recognizing one’s skills, particularly in a skills portfolio (Michaud
et al., 2007a; Aubret and Blanchard, 2005; Camus, 2003; Lemoine, 2005;
Robin, 1994; Aubret, 1991; Lucas, 1991). In 1993, Lévy-Leboyer was
already discussing the need to develop skills in order to remain in a labour
market characterized by increasing technological development. The need
to consolidate, even develop, other skills through the development or
implementation of a career plan, was noted several times in the literature
(Clot and Prot, 2005; Bournel-Bosson, 2003; Joras, 2002; De Crisenoy and
Preterre, 2001b; Riard and Abollahzadeh, 1997; Dupiol, 1996; Divioux
et al., 1991). Among other things, skills development makes it possible
to cope with evolving duties, changing company demands, or transformations in the labour market. Similarly, Le Bras (2005) notes that, when
obsolescence sets in, doing an SA makes it possible to develop an appropriate training plan in the face of the threat of job loss.
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6 Particularly in several legislative texts on vocational training and learning in
France.
2.1.3Need for self-knowledge and self-recognition
In connection with questions about self-image, several authors point to
a need for better self-knowledge among clients embarking on an SA
approach (Michaud et al., 2007a; Lemoine, 2005, 1996; Aubin et al. in
Blanchard, 2004; Blanchard et al., 1999; Ripon, 1998; Kop et al., 1997).
Bertoli (2004) notes that individuals who participate in SA need to have
a more thorough knowledge of their tastes, interests, abilities, attitudes,
and values. They seek to gain a more thorough knowledge of their skills
and the resources they use to mobilize those skills (Michaud et al., 2007a;
Aubin et al. in Blanchard, 2004) and need to be supported so they can
become aware of their personal potential (Lévy-Leboyer, 1993). For others,
SA makes it possible to gain a better understanding of the relational difficulties experienced at work and thus develop strategies for more satisfactory adjustment (Michaud et al., 2007a).
2.1.4Need for support in the worker role
A number of studies and articles on SA show that clients often experience serious psychological distress arising from their worker role or job
(Michaud et al., 2007a); Blanchard, 2004; Boutinet, 2004; Brun et al.,
2003; St-Jean et al., 2003). In this context, the workplace becomes a place
of stress where they experience anxiety, depression, or burnout, all jobrelated realities experienced by a growing proportion of workers.7 When
facing such an “identity crisis,” individuals increasingly feel the need for
support in order to cope with the work-related confusion (De Crisenoy
and Preterre, 2001b). They hope to defuse the crisis in order to regain
power as a player in their working and social life (Richebon, 1991).
Many workers feel the need for support when they feel dissatisfied at
work and turn to SA (Dupiol, 1996). In such situations, they are no longer
able to engage or invest in a meaningful plan or job (Bouriser, 1996).
Some see their current situation as acceptable but not interesting. They
feel uneasy in their working life (Le Bras, 2005) and hope to better meet
7 For more details, refer to the study by Brun, Biron, Martle and Ivers, 2003.
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their need for fulfilment and challenge. For others, their work situation
has become intolerable (Gaudron et al., 2001a), and they want to make a
change to a vocational future that is meaningful to them.
2.1.5 Need to identify a career plan
The need to identify or develop a career plan is one of the needs noted
most often in the literature8 (Michaud et al., 2007a; Di Fabio, 2003; Barkatoolah, 2000; Blanchard et al., 1999; Clot and Prot, 2005; Ferrieux and
Carayon, 1996, 1998; Ripon, 1998; Lemoine, 2005, 1996; Kop et al.,
1997; Taïeb and Blanchard, 1997; Foulard, 1996; Dupiol, 1996; Lucas,
1991). According to Foulard (1996), individuals who engage in an SA
approach need support in order to develop a meaningful plan that will
keep them motivated. By doing this, they find some direction and see
their careers as meaningful. In the short-, medium-, and long-term, they
move in directions that may lead to labour market entry, job retention, or
reorientation (Michaud et al., 2007a). Underlying the need to develop a
plan, some authors emphasize people’s need for support in order to make
decisions about their future or their working life (Aubret and Blanchard,
2005; Bertoli, 2004; Pellois, 2004; Taïeb and Blanchard, 1997; Divioux et
al., 1991).
2.1.6Need for support during change or transition
Whatever the objectives of their plan, some clients feel the need for
support when undergoing work-related change or transition (Aubret and
Blanchard, 2005; Clot and Prot, 2005; Michaud et al., 2007a; Dupiol,
1996) and when experiencing tension between maintaining stability and
being open to the change brought about by the SA approach (Lecomte
and Savard, 2004). According to Lecomte and Savard, skills assessment is
a subjective change experience that people may find destabilizing since
it often leads to internal disorientation perceived as a threat to personal
integrity and security (p. 192). They need support in order to explore and
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8 Particularly in a number of legislative texts on vocational training and learning in
France.
understand the multidimensional experience9 associated with change
and thus put in place adjustment strategies or actions enabling them to
develop an optimum career plan (Michaud et al., 2007a; Lecomte and
Savard, 2004). Clients are therefore hoping to learn how to manage their
uncertainty and the questions that may arise about the evolution of their
vocational future (Taïeb and Blanchard, 1997). Similarly, it is noted that
SA seekers may feel the need for job retention assistance (Barragan and
Hardy-Dubernet, 2005; Riard and Abollahzadeh, 1997; Mouveaux, 1991)
and hope to adjust in a more satisfactory manner when it comes to their
job, their internal mobility plans involving vocational evolution towards a
job with greater responsibilities (Joras, 2002; Aubin et al., in Blanchard,
2004), or more simply their desire for horizontal mobility. More specifically, they hope to receive help in order to put in place an internal bargaining strategy that will enable them to have a vocational future and adjust
better within the same company (Aubret and Blanchard, 2005; Bertoli,
2004).
It should be noted as well how important it is for SA seekers to receive
support in coping with the effects of change or transition (job loss,
change of job, etc.) on their development (Michaud et al., 2007a; Gaudron
and Croity-Belz, 2005; Gaudron et al., 2001a). Also noted is the need for
support in the face of the doubts, questions, and new reference points
brought about by transition (Divioux et al., 1991). Furthermore, job transition makes a number of clients feel socially isolated, and the SA process,
when carried out in a group, can help them to break out of their isolation,
receive support, and share their experience (Michaud et al., 2007a).
As a criticism of SA, Bekourian (1991) stated that this approach is a
palliative measure for the shortage of sustainable employment that it is
intended mainly to help workers to manage their employability or to individualize their training path (p. 125). SA can therefore mitigate the disruptions brought about by labour market instability.
9 Affective, cognitive, summative, behavioural, and relational.
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In short, many of the needs to which SA tries to respond are in the immediate settings in which individuals evolve: work, peer groups, family, and
training. In addition to responding to the needs for self-recognition and
optimization of the human development process, SA also responds to
people’s need for support in the various transactions between two or
more systems.
2.2. Needs in relation to the mesosystem
It is widely recognized that the interrelationships among the different
systems have become enormously complex since the mid-1970s, and in
the SA literature, we noted people’s need to be supported in order to
better understand the interrelationships in which they evolve.
2.2.1 Need to consider the complexity of interactions among the
systems
As part of the SA approach, individuals are asked to take stock of the interactions between school, work, family, and their personal life. This need
to define a process that inevitably involves interactions between the different contexts is identified in several works (Lecomte and Savard, 2004;
Bertoli, 2004; Joras, 2002; Foulard, 2001; Blanchard et al., 1999; Aubin
et al., in Blanchard, 2004; Dupiol, 1996; Barragan and Hardy-Dubernet,
2005; Kop et al., 1997; Mouveaux, 1991; Lucas, 1991). By looking back
at the interaction between these different contexts, individuals can gain
a better understanding of the issues behind them (for example, tension
between working life and family life). This exercise, which Michaud et al.
(2007a)) see as a reflective conscience process, may help SA clients to
become aware of the tensions caused by the interaction of the different
contexts of their development.
Developing a career plan is one of the SA objectives. This need comes
into play in the mesosystem as well since, in order to develop a optimum
career plan, clients must take into account interactions between the different systems or spheres of life (family, work, personal life) (Michaud et
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al., 2007a). In order for them to identify and carry out their plan or plans,
one of the needs often cited in the literature is the importance of occupational information.
Far from being neutral, this information must be integrated and understood such that the individual can transform it into a career plan (Michaud
et al., 2007a). This is made more complex by the presence of paradoxical
information in the work setting and the school setting. In the current
labour market, there is as much information about the shortage of
workers as there is about the surplus; the need for a high school diploma
to find a job coexists with employers that are prepared to hire young
people without one; there is as much talk about the joys of retiring at age
55 as there is about extending the official retirement age. These contradictions lead to confusion about what supports human development.
In order to develop a meaningful career plan, individuals will have to go
through a self-reflective process during which they integrate the impacts
of the interaction between their different systems or different roles. They
need to understand that, far from being stable and immutable, the different systems are constantly interacting and changing. That should enable
them to put the path leading to their plan into perspective (Michaud et
al., 2007a), making it possible to avoid a dictature du projet [dictated
plan], as defined by Lhotellier (1997), and demonstrate people’s need for
support in the face of the complexity, even the paradoxes, resulting from
the different systems in which they evolve.
2.2.2 Need for skills recognition
In SA, individuals are first asked to identify their skills for themselves. Then,
they will try to establish the link between this self-recognition and the
labour market or the training setting. In that regard, several authors point
to clients’ need for recognition of their skills (Lemoine, 2005, 1998; Kop et
al., 1997) and what they have been able learn outside the school setting
(Bélisle, 2006). People need to highlight the skills they have developed
in different contexts (Robin, 1994), and SA may be the first response to
the need to build links between these different contexts (Michaud and
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Bélisle, 2006). This will make it possible to promote better labour market
adjustment, occupational evolution, or better management of their career
path (Michaud et al., 2007a; Le Bras, 2005; Lemoine, 2005, 1998; Bertoli,
2004; Foulard, 2001; Barkatoolah, 2000; Taïeb and Blanchard, 1997;
Dupiol, 1996; Mouveaux, 1991). For De Crisenoy and Preterre (2001b), SA
responds favourably to people’s need for recognition of their skills so they
can rethink their relationship with the labour market and thus find new,
meaningful reference points.
2.2.3 Need to develop the ability to find bearings
Although this aspect is little explored, it would seem that an SA approach
is also aimed at developing people’s ability to find their way through the
different systems in which they are evolving (Michaud et al., 2007a), and
this could help them to make better use of their skills in the different life
contexts (Michaud, 2006; Lucas, 1991).
2.2.4 Need for support during the transition between systems
A transition is an event or the absence of an event (Schlossberg et al.,
1995) that has an impact on all of the systems in which people develop.
For instance, it is recognized that job loss affects people’s family and social
systems. They may then need support in order to deal with the effects of
one or more transitions. Also, according to Michaud et al. (2007a), clients
note that their SA approach enabled them to better understand their
transition and its impacts on the different contexts of their lives.
According to these same authors, the SA approach even enabled some
people to clarify the effects of past transitions on their different systems,
particularly the labour market.
Lastly, it can be noted that the SA approach responds to the need to gain
a better understanding of the interactions between work, training, and
an individual’s personal life.
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2.3 Needs in relation to the exosystem
The exosystem is an extension of the mesosystem which does not directly
involve human development but in which events that arise may affect
human development. This system includes other specific social structures,
both formal and informal, that surround the developing person’s immediate settings, such as the workplace, government agencies, federal,
provincial, and regional policies, and social networks. In this regard,
Bernaud (1998) notes that SA issues are also economic, social, and organizational. Overall, SA is aimed at supporting people such that they gain a
better understanding of the effects these different social structures have
on their development processes, thus enabling them to make informed
decisions about their future plans.
2.3.1 Need for a right to guidance counselling
In the SA context, the law passed in France represents a change in the
exosystem that has had an impact on all of the Francophonie and European countries. This law, adopted in December 1991, confers a new
right: that of allowing individuals both in and outside the labour force to
apply for leave in order to analyze their job and personal skills, as well as
their aptitudes and motivations for the purpose of developing a career
plan, and if need be, a training plan (Gaudron and Croity-Belz, 2005). It
provides the entire adult population, whether in or outside the workforce,
with access to guidance services (Willems, 1991). The purpose of the law
is to help people to understand their social, political, and economic environments, specifically in order to deal with the effects of labour market
disruptions. Another objective is to ensure that companies and individuals
are proactive in developing the necessary skills to remain competitive in
a context of market globalization and technological development. Thus,
continuing education is an established SA objective that fits in more
broadly with a training strategy but also with life-long guidance. It is a
response to the needs of a knowledge society, which requires that people
17
have more and more qualifications in order to access the labour market
or remain employed (Michaud et al., 2007a).
2.3.2 Need for better workforce management
Societies in the OECD countries have also implemented SA in order to
counter the effects of a declining working population with mechanisms
that encourage non-working individuals to return to the workforce
(Michaud et al., 2007a) and b)), keep experienced workers in the workforce for a longer period of time before they retire, and facilitate the job
entry of immigrants (Emploi Québec, 2008). By making SA accessible or
relatively accessible, these societies are trying to provide support mechanisms for better managing their workforce, and more specifically, meeting
the need for a balance between labour supply and demand.
2.3.3 Need for labour recognition
In addition to the needs to which SA responds, there may also be an
official mechanism that promotes recognition of employees at work in
companies which have human resources departments (Brun and Dugas,
2005).10 This need is located within the exosystem insofar as individuals
do not have decision-making power over company policy on personnel
management, even though they are affected by it.
In short, it is apparent that there are many fewer individual needs identified in relation to the exosystem, particularly since SA addresses the
individual directly and the exosystem does not directly involve human
development. However, according to our analysis, it is clear that SA leads
to expectations of positive spinoffs for society. In the SA literature, this
aspect is largely overlooked and has not been the subject of an empirical
study.
18
10Brun, J. and N. Dugas (2005). La reconnaissance au travail : analyse d’un concept
riche de sens. Gestion, 30, 2, pp. 79-88.
2.4 Needs in relation to the macrosystem
The macrosystem comprises the micro-, the meso-, and the exosystem.
It contains the cultural values, beliefs, and historical events that generally
reflect the cultural context and its subcultures (economic, social, educational, legal, and political system). This includes the way in which information and ideology, both formal and informal, are conveyed.
In this system, SA responds to the current needs of a society that has a
strong culture of work and training. Michaud et al. (2007a) note that the
tremendous interest in SA occurs in societies that value work as a special,
even unique, setting for self-realization. This mechanism reinforces the
importance placed on work by looking at the skills implicitly associated
with self-realization as the entry point. Productivity and efficiency are the
dominant ideologies in the OECD societies, and SA points inevitably to
the importance of being competent, i.e., being efficient and productive.
Also, since one of the SA objectives is development through training, SA
also responds to the dominant discourse of the knowledge society widely
advocated by the OECD and UNESCO and that of life-long guidance
counselling.
The fact that initial training is no longer a guarantee of labour market
entry or job retention represents a profound change in mentalities, hence
the importance of recognizing the skills developed in contexts (occupational, family, personal) other than the school context. SA responds to
that need and helps people to further their development through continuing education. However, SA accessibility, which varies from country
to country, indicates clearly that this cultural change has not been fully
embraced.
Also, with regard to organizational culture, Lévy-Leboyer (1993) notes that
organizational needs are constantly changing. Stability, which is no longer
a part of the dominant ideology of organizations, is replaced by job instability and “just in time.” The demands placed on employees in terms of
19
adjustment or skills development are multiplying (Michaud et al., 2007a;
Le Boterf, 2004). There is now talk of work pressure and a concern with
always doing more with less in order to be competitive in the global
market and thus preserve jobs. To sum up, while the SA approach contributes to this cultural context, it may also enable people to better understand the influence of the dominant culture or subcultures on their occupational and personal dynamics.
20
Conclusion
This review of the literature on the needs underlying SA, according
to Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model, enables us to understand
the complexity of the interactions between the different systems in
which people are required to develop. Overall, this model responds
to society’s need to support people in the face of this complexity.
Consequently, SA can be seen as a response to several needs that
we have categorized according to the different systems in which
people develop. By responding to those needs, SA is aimed at
supporting individuals in their need to optimize, re-establish,
or maintain their proximal development process. According
to Bronfenbrenner and Morris (1998), this process that operates
through time is a primary mechanism of human development that
society chooses to support through SA. The results of the empirical
research on SA enable us to conclude that this process provides an
effective response to a number of the needs noted in this article
that promote the proximal human development process (Michaud
et al., 2007b; Gaudron and Croity-Belz, 2005). Other SA research
currently underway (Michaud and Savard, 2007) will provide further
information about the needs responded to effectively by SA.
21
About the Authors
Guylaine Michaud is an associate professor with the Département d’orientation professionnelle, Faculty of Education, Université de Sherbrooke. Her
research focuses mainly on skills assessment, transitions, and learning in
the guidance field.
Patricia Dionne and Alexandre Brien work in guidance counselling at the
Centre d’orientation et de recherche d’emploi de l’Estrie.
E-mail Addresses of the Authors
Guylaine Michaud
[email protected]
Patricia Dionne
[email protected]
Alexandre Brien
[email protected]
Mailing Addresses
Université de Sherbrooke
Faculté d’éducation
Département d’orientation professionnelle
2500 Boulevard de l’Université
Sherbrooke, Quebec
CANADA J1K 2R1
(819) 821-8000, ext. 62459
Fax (819) 821-7237
Centre local d’orientation et de recherche d’emploi en Estrie
65 Meadow Street
Sherbrooke, Quebec
CANADA J1H 6N2
(819) 822-3226
Fax (819) 822-1675
22
Abstract
This article is aimed at determining the needs to which the skills
assessment approach responds. This literature review makes it
possible to summarize the needs inherent in this type of approach.11
The authors grouped the writings together according to the different systems in which people develop, on the basis of Bronfenbrenner’s bioenvironmental model. The authors have placed the individual at the centre of these systems, which are the microsystem,
the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem, and try to
understand the development needs of people who are seeking to
move towards a meaningful future.
11 This literature review is financed by Human Resources and Social Development
Canada (HRSDC) as part of the Workplace Skills Initiative (WSI) under the supervision of Guylaine Michaud and Réginald Savard of the Université de Sherbrooke,
in collaboration with the Canadian Career Development Foundation (CCDF).
This study is part of the activities of the Canadian Research Working Group on
Evidence-based Practice in Career Development (CRWG).
23
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29
Members of the Canadian Research Working Group
on Evidence Based Practice in Career Development
Robert Baudouin
Ph.D. Moncton University, New Brunswick
Lynne Bezanson
Canadian Career Development Foundation
William A. Borgen
Ph.D. University of British Columbia
Liette Goyer
Ph.D. Laval University, Québec
Bryan Hiebert
Ph.D. University of Victoria, British Columbia
Vivian Lalande
Ph.D. University of Calgary, Alberta
Kris Magnusson
Ph.D. University Simon Fraser, Vancouvert, British Columbia
Guylaine Michaud
Ph.D. Sherbrooke University, Québec
Céline Renald
Canadian Career Development Foundation
Réginald Savard
Ph.D. Sherbrooke University

Assessment and development of competencies - CRWG

Transcription

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