rapport - Council of Europe
Transcription
rapport - Council of Europe
Strasbourg, le 25 avril 2007 T-PVS (2007) 8 [tpvs08f_2007] CONVENTION RELATIVE A LA CONSERVATION DE LA VIE SAUVAGE ET DU MILIEU NATUREL DE L’EUROPE Groupe de travail sur l’élaboration d’une Charte européenne de la chasse et de la biodiversité Strasbourg, le 20 avril 2007 ---ooOoo--- RAPPORT Document élaboré par la Direction de la Culture et du Patrimoine Culturel et Naturel This document will not be distributed at the meeting. Please bring this copy. Ce document ne sera plus distribué en réunion. Prière de vous munir de cet exemplaire. T-PVS (2007) 8 -2- 1. Ouverture de la réunion M. Øystein Størkersen (Norvège), Président du groupe de travail, ouvre la réunion et souhaite la bienvenue aux participants (dont la liste figure à l’annexe 1). Il remercie les membres qui ont envoyé leurs observations sur le schéma révisé du projet de charte après la dernière réunion du groupe de travail qui s’est tenue le 11 septembre 2006. Il souligne l’importance de l’élaboration d’une charte européenne et le progrès qu’elle représente à la fois pour les questions de chasse et de diversité biologique. Il prend également note de la qualité du document élaboré par le consultant et présenté pour examen au groupe de travail. 2. Adoption de l’ordre du jour L’ordre du jour est adopté, tel qu’il figure à l’annexe 2. 3. Introduction par le Secrétariat Après un tour de table de présentation, le Chef de l’Unité de la diversité biologique expose les raisons des récents changements au sein du Secrétariat du Conseil de l’Europe et explique pourquoi il importe d’inclure des principes essentiels dans le projet de charte. Il fait observer que la Convention relative à la conservation de la vie sauvage et du milieu naturel de l’Europe (Convention de Berne, 1979) couvre les questions d’utilisation durable de la diversité biologique et informe le groupe des nouveaux domaines d’activité qui s’inscrivent dans le cadre de cette Convention, tel que la création du nouveau groupe d’experts sur la biodiversité et le changement climatique qui tiendra sa première réunion à Strasbourg les 14 et 15 juin 2007. Un représentant du Secrétariat résume le contexte dans lequel a été prise l’initiative de la charte – qui s’inscrit dans le cadre de la Convention de Berne – et cite, par exemple, la Recommandation 1689 de l’Assemblée parlementaire du Conseil de l’Europe sur la chasse et l’équilibre environnemental en Europe, adoptée en novembre 2004. L’élaboration de la charte européenne sur la chasse et la biodiversité se fonde sur cette recommandation. En novembre 2005, le Comité permanent de la Convention de Berne a décidé de créer un groupe d’experts chargé d’élaborer la charte en question, en tenant compte de ce qui existe déjà au niveau communautaire et en matière d’instruments juridiques internationaux. Lors de la 1ère réunion du groupe de travail, le 10 mars 2006, le mandat de ce dernier a été examiné et adopté, et plusieurs initiatives intéressantes aux niveaux international et régional ont été présentées. Lors de sa deuxième réunion, le 11 septembre 2006, le groupe de travail a décidé d’aller de l’avant et a, pour ce faire, examiné un schéma révisé. Lors de sa 26e réunion, en novembre 2006, le Comité permanent a fait part de son soutien à cette démarche. Il importe, selon lui, que la terminologie utilisée dans la charte soit correcte et fixée d’un commun accord. Il faut également prêter une attention particulière à la valeur ajoutée que la Convention de Berne et le Conseil de l’Europe peuvent apporter en développant les trois domaines dont il est question dans le schéma révisé : la chasse durable, le tourisme cynégétique et les normes sur la chasse en Europe. 4. Présentation du projet de charte européenne sur la chasse et la biodiversité par le consultant Le consultant, M. Brainerd, remercie les membres du groupe de travail des contributions et des documents qu’ils lui ont adressés dans le cadre de l’élaboration du projet de charte, notamment MM. Robert Kenward (IUCN), Yves Lecocq (FACE) et Kai Wollscheid (CIC). Il attire l’attention sur ce qu’est par essence une charte, son champ d’application et sa finalité. Il présente ensuite la structure et les principales sections du projet de charte (voir annexe 3 du présent rapport), notamment les buts et les objectifs relatifs à chacun des trois domaines couverts : chasse durable, tourisme cynégétique et normes sur la chasse en Europe. Le projet de charte inclut les trois piliers de la durabilité et s’apparente aux Principes et Directives d’Addis-Abeba pour l’utilisation durable de la diversité biologique, ainsi qu’aux Principes du Malawi concernant l’approche par écosystème, élaborés dans le cadre de la Convention de l’ONU -3- T-PVS (2007) 8 sur la diversité biologique (CDB). Le projet tient compte des politiques pertinentes aux niveaux international et communautaire en matière de chasse, de biodiversité et d’écotourisme ; il énonce également 12 principes et 47 lignes directrices destinées aux organismes de contrôle et de gestion de la biodiversité ainsi que 59 lignes directrices à l’intention des chasseurs et des voyagistes spécialisés dans la chasse. Le consultant explique que le projet de charte est une reconnaissance formelle par la Convention de Berne de l’importance de la chasse comme instrument de conservation de la diversité biologique, et qu’il inscrit la chasse dans le cadre des principes de durabilité de la Convention sur la diversité biologique. Il fait observer qu’il a essayé de répartir équitablement les responsabilités entre gouvernants et gouvernés et de répondre aux aspirations de chacun en apportant un éclairage qui met en valeur les côtés positifs de la chasse et la responsabilité des chasseurs en matière de conservation des espèces sauvages et de leurs habitats. M. Brainerd souligne que le projet de charte insiste sur l’exigence de suivi systématique et sur la nécessité que les chasseurs s’engagent dans la conservation et la gestion durable de la diversité biologique. En outre, le projet aborde la question complexe du tourisme cynégétique du point de vue de la durabilité économique, socioculturelle et écologique. Il traite aussi des questions de comportement et de compétences au regard de la durabilité, en particulier du bien-être animal et des capacités des chasseurs. 5. Discussion Les membres du groupe de travail accueillent favorablement le projet de charte élaboré par le consultant. Après une série de commentaires généraux sur le document, ils affinent leurs observations et font des suggestions sur chacune des sections du texte. 6. Finalisation du projet de charte et prochaines étapes Le groupe de travail convient que les commentaires et les contributions au projet de charte devront être envoyés par écrit avant fin avril. Le consultant rédigera alors une version complète et révisée du projet de charte avant le 1er juin 2007. Ce dernier sera communiqué à tous les membres du groupe de travail accompagné du texte du projet de recommandation à soumettre au Comité permanent. Les membres du groupe de travail auront environ deux semaines pour commenter la version finale révisée du projet et la recommandation et dont priés de ne soulever que des eventuels « problèmes majeurs » posés par le texte final. Le projet complet de charte européenne sur la chasse et la biodiversité sera communiqué à toutes les parties à la Convention de Berne avant la pause estivale, puis elle sera présentée lors de la prochaine réunion du Comité permanent de la Convention qui se tiendra à Strasbourg du 26 au 29 novembre 2007. 7. Questions diverses Aucune autre question n’est soulevée. *** T-PVS (2007) 8 -4- Annexe 1 LISTE DES PARTICIPANTS __________ EXPERTS / EXPERTS BELGIUM / BELGIQUE Mr Patrick DE WOLF, Ingénieur attaché à la Direction de la Nature, Division de la Nature et des Forêts, Ministère de la Région wallonne, 15, avenue Prince de Liège, B-5100 JAMBES (NAMUR). Tel : +32 81 33 58 16. Fax : +32 81 33 58 22. E-mail : [email protected] (F) BULGARIA / BULGARIE Mr Kostadin VALCHEV, 67 Tsanko Tserkovski St./3, 2nd floor, apt.3, SOFIA 1421 Tel: /Fax +359 2 989 5377. E-mail: [email protected] CZECH REPUBLIC / REPUBLIQUE TCHEQUE Mr Jaroslav KOSTECKA, Secreteray General, The Czech Hunting and Wildlife Conservation Association, Jangmaunera CZ-25, 115 25 PRAGUE 01 Tel: +420 608 178 581. Fax: +420 267 12 6871. E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Jan SIMA, Head of Unit for Species Protection, Department of Specially Protected Areas, Ministry of the Environment of the Czech Republic, Vrsovicka 65, 100 10 PRAGUE 10, Tel: +420 267 122 587. Fax: +420 267 126 587. Email: [email protected] Mr Martin ZIZKA, Department of Fisheries, Game Management and Beekeeping, Ministry of Agriculture, Tesnov 17, CZ-117 05 PRAGUE 1. Tel: +420 221 812 826. Fax : +420 221 812 980. E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected] FRANCE / FRANCE Mr Paul HAVET, Conseiller technique auprès du Directeur général, Office national de la chasse et de la faune sauvage, 5, rue Saint-Thibault, Saint-Benoist, BP 20, F-78610 AUFFARGIS. Tel : +33 130 46 60 41. Fax : +33 130 46 60 60. E-mail:: [email protected] GERMANY / ALLEMAGNE Herr Dr. Frank TOTTEWITZ, Bundesforschungsanstalt für Forst- und Holzwirtschaft, Institut für Waldökologie und Waldinventuren, Alfred-Möller-Straße 1, D-16225 EBERSWALDE Tel. +49 3334-65314 . Fax : +49 3334 65354. E-mail: [email protected] ICELAND / ISLANDE Mr Áki ÁRMANN JONSSON, Director of Wildlife Management Division, Environment and Food Agency, Borgir v. Norðurslóð, 600 AKUREYRI. Tel: +354 460 7900. Fax: +354 460 7901. E –mail: [email protected]. Web : www.ust.is [Apologised for absence / Excusé] LIECHTENSTEIN / LIESHTENSTEIN M. Michael FASEL, Amt für Wald, Natur und Landschaft, Abteilungsleiter Natur und Landschaft, Leiter Naturkundliche Sammlung, Dr. Grass Strasse 10, FL-9490 VADUZ, Tel. +423 - 236 64 05. Fax: +423 236 64 11. E-mail: [email protected] -5- T-PVS (2007) 8 NORWAY / NORVÈGE Mr Øystein STØRKERSEN, Seniorrådgiver/Senior Advisor, Direktoratet for naturforvaltning, Directorate for Nature Management , N-7485 TRONDHEIM Tel. +47-7358 0500. Fax: +47-7358 0501 or 7358 0505. E-mail: [email protected]. Web: www.dirnat.no ROMANIA / ROUMANIE Dr. Ovidiu IONESCU, Head of Wildlife Unit, Forest Research and Management Planning Institute, Sos. Stefanesti 128, Voluntari, Jud. Ilfov, Romania Tel. +40 744 362458. Fax +40 268 330567. E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected] SLOVAKIA / SLOVAQUIE Mr Leopold DUGOVIČ, Ministry of Land Use of the Slovak Republic, Division of Forestry, Dobrovičova 12, 812 66 BRATISLAVA Tel: … Fax: … e-mail: [email protected] SPAIN / ESPAGNE Mr Antonio PEREZ ALONSO-GETA, Direccion General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Gran vía de San Francisco, 4, E-28005 MADRID Tel: … Fax: … E-mail: [email protected] Mr Jorge BERNAD DANZBERGER, experto en temas cinegéticos, Paseo de la Habana, 18 – 7, E20036 MADRID Tel: + 34 91 5624465 (portable: +34 659 316314). E-mail: [email protected] SWITZERLAND / SUISSE Mr Reinhard SCHNIDRIG, Section Chasse et Faune sauvage, Division Gestion des espèces, Office fédéral de l’environnement, des forêts et du paysage (DETEC), Worbentalstrasse 68, CH-3003 BERN Tel : +41 31 323 03 07. Fax : +41 31 323 89 74. E-mail : [email protected] UNITED KINGDOM / ROYAUME-UNI OBSERVERS / OBSERVATEURS CIC - INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR GAME AND WILDLIFE CONSERVATION Mr Kai WOLLSCHEID, Director General, CIC - International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation, Administrative Office, P.O. Box 82, H-2092 BUDAKESZI, Hungary Tel.: +36 23 453 830, Fax: +36 23 453 832. E-Mail: [email protected] Web: www.cic-wildlife.org FEDERATION OF ASSOCIATIONS FOR HUNTING AND CONSERVATION OF THE EU (FACE) Dr. Yves LECOCQ, Secretary-General FACE, "Federation of Associations for Hunting & Conservation of the E.U.", Rue F. Pelletier 82, B-1030 BRUSSELS, Belgium Tel: +32.2.732 69 00 . Fax: +32.2.732 70 72. E-mail: NEW: [email protected] (office). [email protected] (home). FACE website: NEW www.face.eu Mrs. Abigail DAY, Safari Club International Foundation, FACE, "Federation of Associations for Hunting & Conservation of the E.U.", Rue F. Pelletier 82, B-1030 BRUSSELS, Belgium Tel: +32.2.732 69 00 . Fax: +32.2.732 70 72 E-mail: [email protected] INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR FALCONRY & CONSERVATION OF BIRDS OF PREY / ASSOCIATION INTERNATIONALE DE LA FAUCONNERIE ET DE LA CONSERVATION DES OISEAUX DE PROIE T-PVS (2007) 8 -6- THE WORLD CONSERVATION UNION / L’UNION MONDIALE POUR LA NATURE (IUCN/UICN) Mr Robert KENWARD, DPhil, DSc, FLS, Fellow, European Regional Group of the Sustainable Use Specialist Group of IUCN's Species Survival Commission (ESUSG of IUCN/SSC), Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Winfrith Technology Centre, Dorchester DT2 8ZD, United Kingdom Tel: +44 1929 553759. Fax:+44 (0)1929 553761. Email: [email protected] MIGRATORY BIRDS OF THE WESTERN PALAEARCTIC / OISEAUS MIGRATEURS DU PALEARCTIQUE OCCIDENTAL (OMPO) Mr Guy-Noël OLIVIER, Secrétaire Général, OMPO, 8, avenue des Chasseurs, F-75017 PARIS (France). Tél.: +33 144 01 05 10. Fax.: +33 144 01 05 11. E-mail : [email protected] CONSULTANT / CONSULTANT Dr Scott BRAINERD, Ph.D., Advisor on Wildlife Management and International Cooperation, NJFF/Norwegian Association of Hunters & Anglers, Box 94, N-1378 NESBRU Tel..: +47 66 79 22 39. Fax: +47 66 90 15 87 . E-mail: [email protected] INTERPRETERS / INTERPRETES Mr Robert SZYMANSKI Mr Olivier OBRECHT; Ms Josette YOESLE SECRETARIAT / SECRÉTARIAT Council of Europe / Conseil de l’Europe, Directorate of Culture and Cultural and Natural Heritage / Direction de la Culture et du Patrimoine culturel et naturel, F-67075 STRASBOURG CEDEX, France Tel : +33 3 88 41 20 00. Fax : +33 3 88 41 37 51 Mr Eladio FERNÁNDEZ-GALIANO, Head of the Biological Diversity Unit / Chef de l’Unité de la Diversité biologique Tel : +33 3 88 41 22 59. Fax : +33 3 88 41 37 51. E-mail : [email protected] Ms Carolina LASÉN-DÍAZ, Administrator of the Biological Diversity Unit / Administrateur de l’Unité de la Diversité biologique Tel : +33 390 21 56 79. Fax : +33 388 41 37 51. E-mail : [email protected] Mrs Véronique de CUSSAC, Biological Diversity Unit / Unité de la Diversité biologique Tel : +33 3 88 41 34 76 Fax : +33 3 88 41 37 51. E-mail : [email protected] -7- T-PVS (2007) 8 Annexe 2 __________ Groupe de travail sur l’élaboration d’une Charte sur la Chasse et la Biodiversité Strasbourg, Salle 15 (20 avril 2007) __________ ORDRE DU JOUR 1. Ouverture de la réunion par le Secrétariat 2. Adoption de l’ordre du jour 3. Introduction par le Secrétariat 4. Présentation du projet de Charte européenne sur la Chasse et la Biodiversité par le consultant 5. Discussion 6. Finalisation du projet de charte et prochaines étapes 7. Toute autre question T-PVS (2007) 8 -8- Annexe 3 Strasbourg, 30 March 2007 [tpvs07e_2007.doc] T-PVS (2007) 7 CONVENTION ON THE CONSERVATION OF EUROPEAN WILDLIFE AND NATURAL HABITATS Standing Committee 27th meeting Strasbourg, 26-29 November 2007 __________ European Charter on Hunting and Biodiversity DRAFT Document prepared by Mr Scott Brainerd, Viltkonsulent/Wildlife Biologist, NJFF/Norwegian Assoc. of Hunters & Anglers, Norway -9- T-PVS (2007) 8 1. INTRODUCTION 1. Evolution The Standing Committee of the Parliamentary Assembly adopted Recommendation 1689 (2004) regarding Hunting and Europe’s environmental balance1 on 23 November 2004 in Warsaw, Poland. This document recommended inter alia that the Committee of Ministers “draw up a European charter on hunting, as a guide setting out common principles and good practices for hunting, particularly for the organisation of hunting tourism on the continent 2”. The Deputies considered it at their 909th meeting, brought it to the attention of their governments, as well as of the Standing Committee of the Bern Convention for information and possible comments, and invited the GR-C to prepare a draft reply. The Bureau of the Standing Committee of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats adopted its Opinion at its meeting of 8 April 20053. In this Opinion, the Bern Convention Bureau welcomed the Recommendation, stating that “it considers that hunting, if properly managed, can play a role in maintaining and enhancing many areas of natural interest in Europe”. The Bureau further welcomed inter alia “the idea of elaborating, in cooperation with concerned stakeholders, a European Charter of Hunting dealing with all relevant aspects of hunting and wildlife conservation.” To this end, the Bureau recommended that “the Deputies invite the Standing Committee to the Bern Convention to consider the elaboration, in collaboration with concerned stakeholders, of a European Charter on Hunting dealing with all relevant aspects of hunting and wildlife conservation“. The Committee of Ministers then informed the Assembly that the Bern Convention Bureau was in favour of elaborating such a Charter, in cooperation with the stakeholders concerned, which would deal with all relevant aspects of hunting and wildlife conservation. The Bureau decided to include this project in the agenda of the next meeting of the Standing Committee of the Bern Convention of the Council of Europe and, subject to its agreement, in the work programme for 2006. Pursuant to this recommendation, the Standing Committee appointed a Working Group of relevant experts and representatives from non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to undertake the formulation of the European Charter on Hunting and Biodiversity in November 2005. The Charter is the result of a process which has involved the active participation by the Working Group on the basis of draft input by contracted consultants. 2. Scope This Charter addresses hunting by resident and non-resident hunters as a consumptive, recreational, and sustainable form of utilisation and management of game species of birds and terrestrial mammals in Europe, in accordance with the provisions of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern, 1979). 3. Purpose The main aim of the Bern Convention is the conservation of wildlife and its natural habitats. In this context, the Charter provides a set of guidelines for both governments and stakeholders regarding common principles and good practices for the consumptive, sustainable use of wildlife in Europe. The guidelines set forth in this Charter will also help to fulfil the commitments of European States on conservation through use of components of biodiversity as laid down in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and as advised in the Addis Ababa Principles and Guidelines for the Sustainable Use of Biodiversity and the Malawi Principles for the Ecosystem Approach. The purpose of contributing to the conservation of biodiversity through hunting will best be met through guidelines for supportive governance at all levels of society. Within this broad framework, more detailed sections on specific consumptive uses of wildlife may later be accommodated. As a first case of a detailed inclusion, the Charter will recommend guidelines for the organisation of hunting 1 https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?Ref=CM/AS(2005)Rec1689&Sector=secCM&Language=lanEnglish&Ver=final Paragraph 6.i. 3 https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?Ref=CM/AS(2005)Rec1689&Sector=secCM&Language=lanEnglish&Ver=final 2 T-PVS (2007) 8 - 10 - tourism in Europe. In addition, the Charter also recommends standards regarding the conduct and proficiency of hunters. 4. Definitions Game: Game species include all avian and terrestrial mammal species that are legally hunted in states ascribing to the Charter, in accordance with the provisions of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern, 1979). Hunting4: This term refers to the pursuit and take of game species by all legal methods. Motivations for this activity include recreation (pleasure and physical activity), consumption (the take of meat, hides, furs and/or trophies), and management of game populations. In this Charter, two types of hunting are considered: Local hunting and hunting tourism. • Local hunting: This activity involves hunting by individuals in or near their places of residence, and is generally an important element of local culture and tradition. Local hunters have knowledge on local conditions, traditions and species, generally good access to hunting areas for reasonable fees, and do not require the services of a guide. The majority of hunters fall into this category. • Hunting tourism: This can be defined as hunting by non-resident hunters with no direct or indirect socio-cultural link to their hunting destination. They are often unfamiliar with local species and their habitats, regulations, culture and traditions. Such hunters may hunt on their own, may be invited as non-paying guests, or they may employ the services of a guide or outfitter. As with any form of tourism, such activity can have both positive and negative effects on local communities and ecosystems. Sustainability5: CBD Article 2: "... use of components of biological diversity in a way and a rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biodiversity, thereby maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations." Conservation status6: A possible definition of “Conservation status” can be found in the European Commission’s Guidance document on hunting7: The term conservation status of a species is defined in Article 1 i) of Council Directive 92/43/EEC as “the sum of influences acting on the species concerned that may affect the long-term distribution and abundance of its populations ….” It is considered to be favourable when “population dynamics data on the species concerned indicate that it is maintaining itself on a long-term basis as a viable component of its natural habitat, and the natural range of the species is neither being reduced nor is likely to be reduced in the foreseeable future, and there is, and will continue to be, a sufficiently large habitat to maintain its population on a long-term basis.” Ecosystem approach: This term, as used in relation to the Convention on Biological Diversity, is a broad concept implying a holistic, integrated approach to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. It seeks to achieve a satisfactory balance between conservation and development. 4 See the Report of the IUCN/SSC Sustainable Use Specialist Group (SUSG) Workshop held in London, UK on 14th-15th October 2006. 5 IUCN Sustainable Use Specialist Group definition. 6 See Article 2 of the EU Habitats Directive. 7 Guidance document on hunting under Council Directive 79/409/EEC on the conservation of wild birds. - 11 - 5. T-PVS (2007) 8 Goals Goal 1: The Charter presents a set of principles and guidelines to ensure the sustainability of wild resource utilisation in Europe, especially through hunting. Goal 2: The Charter recommends guidelines for sustainable hunting tourism in Europe to implement those principles. Goal 3: The Charter also recommends best practices for European hunters with regard to conduct, proficiency, safety and ethics. 6. Objectives Sustainable hunting The Charter: • provides guidelines for sustainable hunting practices within the context of the conservation of biodiversity; • encourages hunter involvement in monitoring and research efforts; • promotes cooperation between stakeholders in biodiversity management (landowners, conservationists, government agencies, hunter’s organisations). Hunting tourism The Charter: • seeks to ensure the sustainability of hunting tourism; • promotes forms of hunting tourism that provide local communities with economic incentives to conserve wildlife and biodiversity; • recommends a code of conduct for tour operators and European hunters that engage their services. On standards for European hunters The Charter: 1. encourages hunter education and information measures; 2. promotes safe and sound hunting practices; 3. promotes measures which increase proficiency in the use of firearms and traps; 4. emphasises the need for hunters to be knowledgeable about wildlife (including non-game) species and their requirements, as well as the basic principles regarding biodiversity conservation. 2. REVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL AND EUROPEAN POLICY AND PRECEDENTS This section reviews broader principles derived from existing international treaties, European policies and guidelines upon which the principles and guidelines of this Charter are based. 1. Sustainable Hunting Hunting is one of the oldest forms for consumptive use of renewable natural resources, and has always been an integral part of the cultures and traditions of European rural society. Today, there are over 7 million hunters in Europe8. They are motivated by subsistence, recreational and social aspects, with emphasis on these elements varying regionally9. In general, this activity has clear benefits for the conservation of biodiversity, the preservation of rural lifestyles, and local economies. It is estimated that hunting provides the basis for over 120.000 jobs in Europe10. Since hunting has the potential to 8 http://www.face-europe.org/fs-hunting.htm http://www.face-europe.org/huntingineurope/Pinet%20Study/Pinet_study_EN.pdf 10 http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/AdoptedText/ta04/EREC1689.htm 9 T-PVS (2007) 8 - 12 - negatively impact target species, it must be sustainable. The Parliamentary Assembly, in Recommendation 1689 (2004) emphasizes the need for sustainable hunting in the enlarged EU11. The sustainable use of wild living resources – the global context Developments in Europe regarding sustainable development must be viewed in a global context. The definition of sustainable development was formulated by the World Commission on Environment and Development Conference in 1987. It was endorsed under Agenda 21 at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Rio in 1992. The Convention on Biological Diversity, signed in 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit, has been the primary international instrument driving these efforts. The CBD made sustainable use of the components of biological diversity one of its three main objectives in Article 1, defined it in Article 2 and considered it in a further 11 of 19 substantive Articles. After IUCN had pioneered concepts of sustainable use in 1980, its 2nd World Conservation Congress adopted a Policy Statement in 2000: ‘The use of wild living resources, if sustainable, is an important conservation tool because the social and economic benefits derived from such use provide incentives for people to conserve them’. In a Workshop on the Ecosystem Approach (Lilongwe, Malawi, 26-28 January 1998), whose report was presented at the Fourth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (Bratislava, Slovakia, 4-15 May 1998, UNEP/CBD/ COP/4/Inf.9), twelve principles/characteristics of the ecosystem approach to biodiversity management were identified. These “Malawi principles” advocate an ecosystem approach as a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources for promoting the conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. Application of these principles will help to reach a balance of the three objectives of the CBD: conservation; sustainable use; and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic resources. Following regional thematic workshops in Mozambique, Vietnam and Ecuador, and a synthesis workshop (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia), the 7th CBD Conference of the Parties met in Malaysia during 2004 and adopted the Addis Ababa Principles and Guidelines for the Sustainable Use of Biodiversity (AAPG). The AAPG are based on the assumption that it is possible to use biodiversity in a manner in which ecological processes, species and genetic variability remain above the thresholds needed for long-term viability, and that all resource managers and users have the responsibility to ensure that that use does not exceed these capacities. The AAPG emphasize the crucial need for the maintenance and/or recovery of biodiversity in ecosystems to ensure the long-term sustainability of ecological services upon which both biodiversity and people depend. At the third World Conservation Congress, in 2004, the AAPG were welcomed by IUCN, which is committed to work with CBD on further development. CITES had also agreed at its preceding 13th CoP in Bangkok to consider application of the AAPG to its work. In addition, the Third Meeting of the Parties (MoP-3) to the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA) adopted the AAPG based on a Resolution drafted by the CIC with support of the European Commission, AEWA and FACE. points: The AAPG and the Malawi principles can be summarised together in the following main 1. Supportive & linked governance at all levels with harmonized regulations that promote societal benefits from conservation and avoid perverse effects. 2. Avoidance of adverse impacts within or between ecosystems, and of short-termism, especially when faced with inevitable change. 3. Transparent and adaptive management along a use-protection continuum, based on interdisciplinary science, monitoring and timely feedbacks. 4. Encouragement of economic/cultural incentives with sharing of benefits (and costs) especially at local level, while avoiding waste. 5. Decentralisation of management to an appropriate bio-economic scale, especially to empower, hold accountable and access knowledge of local people. 11 http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/AdoptedText/ta04/EREC1689.htm - 13 6. T-PVS (2007) 8 Education, awareness and inclusion of managers, resource users and society at large. These broad principles include all 12 principles from Malawi (M) and 14 from Addis Ababa (A) grouped into social, ecological and economic focal areas, as 1) socio-cultural [M1,4,5, A1,3,8], 2) ecological [M3,5,8,9, A5], 3) socio-ecological [M10-12, A4,6], 4) economic [M1,4, A10-13], 5) biosocio-economic [M2,7,11, A2,7,9] and 6) socio-cultural [M12, A14]. These 6 principles, containing the essence of the Ecosystem Approach and the Addis Ababa Principles and Guidelines for Sustainable Use, provide a fundament for conserving biodiversity through hunting and other uses of wild resources (see Appendix 1). The European context As hunting continually evolves in the same way as other human activities, it needs to be treated as a form of sustainable development, which is an overarching objective of the Treaty of the European Union. The European Council in Göteborg (2001) adopted the first EU Sustainable Development Strategy (SDS). This was complemented by an external dimension in 2002 by the European Council in Barcelona in view of the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg (2002). With this as a basis, the European Council adopted an ambitious and comprehensive renewed SDS for an enlarged EU in 200612. The overall aim of the renewed EU SDS is “to identify and develop actions to enable the EU to achieve continuous improvement of quality of life both for current and for future generations, through the creation of sustainable communities able to manage and use resources efficiently and to tap the ecological and social innovation potential of the economy, ensuring prosperity, environmental protection and social cohesion”. There is a need, therefore, to ensure that all forms of hunting, both by local residents and by tourists, are sustainable relative to ecological, economic, and socio-cultural considerations. The Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, commonly referred to as the Bern Convention, was signed in Bern, Switzerland in 1979 and came into force on 1 June 1982. It aims to conserve wild flora and fauna species within States, and emphasizes the need for cooperation in the conservation of species and habitats across national borders, with emphasis on endangered and vulnerable species (including migrants) and their habitats. Its 45 Contracting Parties committed themselves to enact appropriate legislation and administrative measures to protect the endemic species of fauna and flora and their habitats. The Bern Convention is the primary international treaty governing this sector in Europe, and provides the foundations for this Charter. In the European Union, there are two bodies of legislation that directly pertain to the conservation of wild species and their habitats which are of direct relevance with regard to hunting in Europe. These are the Wild Birds Directive (79/409/EEC) and the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC). Both of these directives recognise the role of hunting, while limiting its operation in regard to protected species. In 2003, the European Commission initiated its Sustainable Hunting Initiative (SHI), under the auspices of the Birds Directive, with a view to developing cooperation between all organisations concerned with the conservation and wise and sustainable use of European wild birds. Ten measures with two main aims were suggested for consideration. These aims were 1) improvement of the legal and technical interpretation of the Bird Directive’s provisions relating to hunting, and 2) the development of a programme of scientific, conservation and training/awareness measures as well as a ‘Charter on Sustainable Hunting’ within the framework of the Birds Directive. The success of this initiative has been dependent upon the commitment of a number of key stakeholders including the Commission, the Member States, BirdLife International, the Federation of Associations for Hunting and Conservation of the EU (FACE), and the European Landowners Organisation (ELO). The main forum for dialogue on implementation of the Birds Directive is the ORNIS Committee and its Scientific Working Group (both BirdLife and FACE participate as observers in the ORNIS SWG). A number of initiatives have resulted from SHI. The European Commission published guidelines on hunting pertaining to the Birds Directive13 in August 2004. The guide focuses on the timing of recreational hunting, as well as other relevant issues pertaining to hunting. Its legal focus is primarily on huntable species listed in Annex II of the Directive as well as the relevant provisions of its Articles 12 13 http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/06/st10/st10117.en06.pdf Guidance document on hunting under Council Directive 79/409/EEC on the conservation of wild birds T-PVS (2007) 8 - 14 - and the basis for exercising derogations. The guide not only deals with legal provisions but also covers scientific and technical dimensions given in the Birds Directive which are relevant to the conservation of wild birds. In October of the same year, a three-way agreement between FACE (the Federation of Associations for Hunting and Conservation of the EU), BirdLife International and the EC Environment Commissioner was signed14. This agreement is a pragmatic interpretation and application of the 1979 Birds Directive relative to hunting. Another SHI initiative, the European Hunting Bag Data Collection Programme ARTEMIS, was launched in June 2006 in Athens. The first objective of the ARTEMIS data bank is to centralise and analyse in a coordinated and coherent way the quantitative and qualitative information on hunting bags already collected in many European countries. These will be complimented with new data – according to a common methodology – from other countries wishing to be associated with this programme. FACE has the responsibility for the technical coordination of the ARTEMIS data bank, in collaboration with national and international partners, assisted by a steering group where all sectors concerned will be represented. The Federal Environment Agency of Austria established Guidelines for sustainable hunting in 2001, which were later used as a basis for the draft guidelines for sustainable hunting in Europe. These were drafted by the Wild Species Resources Working Group (WISPER) of the IUCN-SSC European Sustainable Use Specialist Group (ESUSG) in September 2006, and aim to apply wider international principles and guidelines for the sustainable use of wild living resources at the European regional level. The draft guidelines apply to the recreational hunting of birds and mammals (with guns, bows, hounds or raptors), but are applicable in other contexts, including subsistence or commercial hunting. Conservation of habitats is one of the main goals of the Habitats Directive, which provided the impetus for the Natura 2000 Network when it was created in 1992. It responds to the commitment made by Europe’s Heads of State and Government at their Spring Summit in Gothenburg in 2001 to ‘halt the loss of biodiversity by 2010’ and is an important part of Europe’s response to conserving global biodiversity in line with international obligations under the Biodiversity Convention. Natura 2000 is established through Council Directive 92/43/EEC of May 21 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora, and Council Directive 79/409/EEC of April 2 1979 on the conservation of wild birds. Landowners are an important stakeholder group in the management of hunting and the conservation of biodiversity. The ELO is a partner in the SHI, and actively works to promote the proper management of hunting activities that are compatible with NATURA 2000. The ELO is responsible for the “Pilot Wildlife Estates” Initiative (PWEI), which aims to establish within the framework of a sustainable development policy 1) simple principles of good management and conservation of wildlife estates all over Europe which can be adapted according to the different hunting methods of the various regions of the European Union, 2) a network of well-managed and exemplary estates. This initiative builds upon the concept of identifying “exemplary” estates, which will be studied in order to determine criteria and indicators on the basis of which it will be possible to create a “label”. Once the estates are identified, it will be possible to bring out exemplary management practices in order to produce guidelines for each bio-geographic area. ELO advocates that hunters play an important role as wildlife, flora and landscape producers. The PWEI focuses on the importance of ecological and economic sustainability of hunting and land management. The notion here is that sustainable hunting and appropriate management of hunting estates bring added value to the common good, not only in terms of environmental protection, but also in terms of socioeconomic aspects such as diversification of revenue sources for the rural world through the creation of an economy around wildlife products (including hunting and non-consumptive forms of wildlife use and recreation). Hunting is also recognized as an important and necessary tool for the conservation and management of large carnivores in Europe. The Core Group of the Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe (LCIE) presented its position paper on hunting and lethal control of large carnivores to the Standing Committee of the Bern Convention in 2002 (T-PVS/Inf (2002) 28) 15. LCIE believes that the 14 http://www.birdlife.org/news/news/2004/11/face_agreement.pdf http://www.lcie.org/Docs/LCIE%20IUCN/COE%20LCIE%20position%20statement%20on%20LC%20hunting%202002.p df 15 - 15 - T-PVS (2007) 8 hunting of large carnivores is acceptable under certain conditions and may benefit and be compatible with their conservation. Primary among the conditions LCIE sets out, is the need for a comprehensive management plan for each species. In order for hunting to be sustainable, it should only occur if the population is regarded as demographically viable and proper consideration is given to the social organisation of the species to be hunted. Management plans must include goals for minimum population sizes as well as a plan for monitoring these goals through the active collection of biological data. LCIE also states that hunting methods must be in accordance with international, national or regional laws and killing should be carried out humanely. They further emphasise the need for specific training of hunters that hunt large carnivores. In Norway, an advisory group of stakeholders and researchers presented a report which has influenced large carnivore policy formation in that country16. The report reflects many of the principles espoused by the LCIE, and emphasises the need for involvement of local hunters in the management of large carnivore populations in Norway. 2. Hunting tourism Hunting tourism can be viewed as a subcategory of both hunting and of tourism. This activity can provide important economic benefits to rural areas, as well as ecological and socio-cultural values, and was the benefits derived by rural regions from this activity were formally recognized in 1987 by the Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Resolution 882 on the importance of shooting for Europe's rural regions. Since it is a form of tourism, this type of hunting is influenced by a number of market factors. The International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation (CIC) has pointed out that there are strong links between hunting tourism and nature tourism, particularly cultural, rural, and adventure tourism, as well as ecotourism. CIC further points out that although hunting may be the primary goal of a tourist trip, there are other elements involved, including transportation and local mobility, food and accommodation, services and goods, and other activities at the destination. Hunting is not only practiced by local resident hunters in Europe, but also by hunters travelling from afar. Non-resident hunters seek hunting opportunities away from home, and are generally willing to pay more for these experiences than resident hunters. Such non-resident hunters may or may not employ the services of hunting tour operator (guide or outfitter). In any event, such activity can be regarded as a form of tourism, and is thus a part of the broader tourism market. According to the CIC, each non-resident hunter – regardless of how many kilometres he or she travels – is a tourist. Requirements regarding non-resident hunters vary between countries and regions in Europe. In many cases, non-resident hunters have the opportunity to hunt by either purchasing a permit or through guest invitation, and as such do not require the services of a hunting tour operator. However, commercially marketed hunting tour operations are on the increase in Europe. Such operations cater particularly to trophy hunters that are willing to pay large sums of money for the opportunity to hunt particular species. With the incorporation of many former eastern block countries into the EU, there is a concern that liberalized hunting practices, primarily motivated by trophy hunting interests, can have detrimental impacts if these are not managed professionally and scientifically. Recommendation 1689 (2004) 17 points out that the situation in central and eastern Europe is unique, with abundant populations of wildlife species, including large carnivores, which have either gone extinct or are imperilled elsewhere in Europe. If managed properly, hunting tourism can provide incentives for local communities to conserve wildlife and their habitats. However, hunting tourism, if practiced improperly, can have negative impacts on wildlife, both directly and indirectly, particularly if there is little support or direct benefit to local communities. In some cases, direct conflicts can also arise between local hunters and nonresident hunters. It is therefore important that hunting tourism, as a specialized form of hunting and tourism, is not only ecological sustainable, but economically and socially sustainable as well. International policy In 2000, the Conference of the Parties to the CBD began its participation in the international work programme on sustainable tourism development under the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. The objective of this work has been to develop a set of international guidelines for 16 17 http://www.nina.no/archive/nina/PppBasePdf/temahefte/2003/25_eng.pdf http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/AdoptedText/ta04/EREC1689.htm T-PVS (2007) 8 - 16 - activities related to sustainable tourism development in vulnerable ecosystems. The CBD Guidelines on Biodiversity and Tourism Development18 were initially developed by experts at a Workshop held in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, in June 2001, and subsequently improved and refined by the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice of the Convention. Finally, they were adopted by the seventh meeting of the Conference of the Parties, held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, in February 2004. The guidelines are a tool for the practical implementation of the CBD and the target of achieving a significant reduction in the current rate of biodiversity loss by 2010. These guidelines encourage a consultative process involving multi-stakeholder participation for the development of sustainable management systems for tourism. These include the development of an overall vision for the sustainable development of tourism activities; the setting of short-terms objectives to implement the vision; the review and building of regulations and tourism standards; the assessment of the potential impacts of tourism projects; the monitoring of impacts and compliance; and the implementation of adaptive management in relation to tourism and biodiversity. In 2005 the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) identified an agenda for sustainable tourism19. With these as a basis, the EU Sustainable Development Strategy (SDS) has proposed three key objectives for the sustainability of European tourism. These are 1) Economic prosperity, 2) Social equity and cohesion, and 3) Environmental and cultural protection. “Economic prosperity” requires the long-term competitiveness, viability and prosperity of tourism enterprises and destinations with quality employment opportunities and conditions. “Social equity and cohesion” aims to enhance the quality of life of local communities through tourism, and engage them in its planning and management while providing a quality experiences for all visitors without discrimination. With regards to ” Environmental and cultural protection”, the SDS aims to minimise pollution and degradation of the global and local environment and the use of scarce resources by tourism activities while maintaining and strengthening cultural richness and biodiversity and their appreciation and conservation. The SDS also calls for the active promotion of sustainable development worldwide. The CIC has initiated a global programme to develop principles and indicators for sustainable hunting tourism (SHT) in accordance with existing international sustainability concepts20. The SHT holds the vision that sustainable hunting tourism “contributes to the conservation of wildlife and its habitats, benefits local livelihoods and also secures hunting”. In order to pursue this vision, the mission of the SHT is “to develop and apply a set of principles, criteria and indicators in order to assess and promote sustainable and responsible hunting tourism”. The SHT programme will be based on a wide stakeholder approach and aims to combine knowledge and expertise of a number of the world’s leading organisations in hunting and conservation. The SHT aims to provide a set of practical principles, guidelines and criteria that translate the AAPG into the needs of the hunting tourism sector at regional, national and international levels. First project areas for testing the applicability of the principles and to develop criteria and indicators are SADC region, Central Asia and Scandinavia. European initiatives The ministerial conference "Environment for Europe", held in Lucerne in 1993, called upon the CoE to promote ecologically viable tourism. In September 1994, the Committee of Ministers adopted Recommendation No. R (94) on a general policy for sustainable and environmentally friendly tourism development21. This recommendation embraced the principles of sustainability as set out by the Rio Conference in 1992, and set out principles for management authorities to ensure the sustainability of tourism in Europe. In 2003, the European Commission reported on basic orientations for the sustainability of European tourism22., which lead to the formation of the Tourism Sustainability Group (TSG) in 2004. 18 http://www.biodiv.org/doc/publications/tou-gdl-en.pdf In UNEP and World Tourism Organization, 2005 Making Tourism More Sustainable: A guide for policy makers. http://www.cic-wildlife.org/index.php?id=176 21 https://wcd.coe.int/com.instranet.InstraServlet?Command=com.instranet.CmdBlobGet&DocId=513072&SecMode=1&Ad min=0&Usage=4&InstranetImage=43334 22 COM(2003) 716 19 20 - 17 - T-PVS (2007) 8 The TSG has been charged with creating a framework for action by the different stakeholders and providing guidance for local destination management and the use of indicators and monitoring systems. It consists of representatives from international bodies, member state governments, regional and local authorities, the tourism industry, professional bodies, environmental organisations, trade unions and research and educational bodies with expertise and experience in the sustainability of tourism. The TSG produced a report in February 2007 that outlines a plan of action for ensuring the sustainability of tourism in Europe23. The report proposes key aims for making European tourism more sustainable and the challenges associated with these, as well as a framework for action and a set of initiatives to be taken at the European level. The report will be used by the European Commission as the basis for communicating an Agenda for the Sustainability of European Tourism, following a period of consultation. 3. Standards for hunters Hunters are a minority in European society, and since hunting involves the killing of wildlife, they are often the subject of intense public scrutiny. Cases involving bad practices can receive wide publicity and can be directly damaging to the image of hunters as stewards of wildlife and their habitats. Since hunting plays such an important role in the management of biodiversity, it is imperative that it is acceptable to society at large. In other words, it must be socially and culturally sustainable at all levels - local, regional, national and international. In order to achieve such socio-cultural sustainability, hunters must be perceived as being both proficient in terms of skills and knowledge and conscientious with regard to the respectful treatment of the wildlife they hunt and the expectations and broader interests of society. Hunter proficiency can be measured through a number of parameters. Safe and proper handling of the tools used in hunting is important in terms of public safety and the ethical take of game. Hunters must also know and respect game laws and regulations and the rights of property owners. A proficient hunter also understands basic game biology and species identification, and how to efficiently dispatch game with a minimum of stress and suffering. As stewards of the wildlife resource, hunters should also possess basic knowledge regarding game and habitat management, A conscientious hunter is aware of the potential impacts hunting can have on the game resource, and should strive to limit take to that which is biologically and socially defensible. Likewise, hunters should recognize the responsibility for caring for the wildlife and their habitats, and seek partnerships with other conservation interests where possible to further such efforts. Hunters should also work together to improve methods that ensure that avoidable suffering is minimized. It is also important that hunters show sensitivity to other public interests and concerns regarding their activities. European policy regarding standards for hunter proficiency and conduct The issue regarding hunter proficiency and conduct was first addressed over twenty years ago by the COE Committee of Ministers in its Recommendation No. R (85) 17 24. This document recognized the importance of hunting as an important tool in the management of wildlife, “provided that it respects the ecological needs of species and the requirements of biological equilibria”. It also noted that certain practices may produce harmful effects, and emphasized the need for the training of hunters to “make them more aware of their responsibilities towards the natural heritage”. The recommendation called upon the governments of member states to consider requiring hunters to pass a proficiency exam before they are allowed to hunt, and suggested a syllabus for such an examination. It further advised member states to cooperate with relevant organisations in hunter education and training, as well as devising a code of conduct for hunters based upon a set of recommendations. Today, many European countries have implemented some form of hunter education and training programme, often as a cooperative effort between government authorities and national hunter organisations. Requirements vary from country to country, and can be very stringent. However, some countries, including founding EU states, do not require any formalized training or exam. A summary review of the state of such efforts within Europe is, however, needed, in order to gain a better 23 http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/services/tourism/doc/tsg/TSG_Final_Report.pdf https://wcd.coe.int/com.instranet.InstraServlet?Command=com.instranet.CmdBlobGet&DocId=687208&SecMode=1&Ad min=0&Usage=4&InstranetImage=45259 24 T-PVS (2007) 8 - 18 - overview regarding the degree to which hunters are required to meet formal standards for proficiency and conduct in each country. In addition, many national hunter organisations have adopted codes of conduct with rules similar to those given in COM Recommendation No. R (85) 17. Examples of these include the codes of conduct recommended by the French Association of Hunters25 and the Nordic Hunter’s Cooperation26, among others. These codes of conduct are rules of behaviour that intend to foster hunting ethics as a form of self-regulation above and beyond codified legislation. These place much emphasis on hunter responsibility towards wildlife and nature, and encourage active participation in the management and welfare of populations and their habitats. They also aim to foster awareness regarding the obligations and responsibilities hunters have to other members of society, and underline the need for high standards of conduct which can earn the respect of those that do not hunt. Such codes of conduct are, in reality, guidelines for the sustainability of hunting through its acceptance by general society. 4. Conclusion Existing global and European policy and rules address many central tenets with relevance to hunting in Europe. Hunting is internationally recognized as an important tool for wildlife conservation. It must, however, be sustainable, not only in terms of the ecological environment, but also from the standpoints of economics and socio-cultural acceptance. In the next chapter, the principles and guidelines for hunting its role in the conservation of biodiversity are based upon the internationally accepted standards of sustainability reviewed here. 3. PRINCIPLES AND GUIDELINES 1. Principle 1.a: Favour multi-level governance that maximises benefit for conservation. Rationale: Human decisions that summate to change land-use and affect species depend on regulatory and financial incentives at several levels. Governance affecting these incentives needs to be flexible if it is to remain adapted to local bio-socio-economic conditions. Increasing uniformity of culture and markets creates special regulatory challenges in guiding local use of land and wild species resources to retain diverse ecological conditions. Guidelines: Conservation will be enhanced if regulators and wildlife managers: 1) Take into consideration the international, national, and regional conservation status of fauna and flora; 2) For maximum flexibility, create structures to reward best practise (e.g. with subsidies or privileges) as well as regulate against malpractice; 3) Ensure that the structures accommodate local cultural and ecological conditions as well as higherlevel policy; 4) Audit for regulatory or other incentives that are perverse for conservation of biodiversity and remove, neutralise or compensate for them. And if hunters and hunting tour operators: 1) Assist authorities at all levels to develop incentives for conserving biodiversity through use; 2) Strive to attain maximum conservation benefit through hunting at all levels at all levels. 25 26 Charte des Chasseurs de France, La Fédération nationale des chasseurs (2002) Code of conduct (Adopted by the 1972 Nordic Hunter Congress) - 19 - T-PVS (2007) 8 2. Principle 1.b: Ensure that regulations are understandable and respected. Rationale: Regulations can have costs for conservation as well as for users of wild resources. Costs are least when minimal administration is combined with maximum motivation to comply, through easy compliance and reliable detection of non-compliance. Inappropriate regulation may induce perverse effects (e.g. poaching) if non-compliance is simple and rewarding, or if the rationale behind these is not understood. Guidelines: Conservation will be enhanced if regulators and wildlife managers: 1) Structure regulations such that these are simple, logical and address biological principles as well as (inter)national policy; 2) Impose only those restrictions on methods and means which can be justified from the standpoint of conservation and that will be easily understood and accepted by local users; 3) Have transparent regulatory processes which allow for the active participation of resource users and other stakeholders: 4) Favour forensic law enforcement technologies that motivate minimal-effort compliance; 5) Create regulations that can be adapted to local governance and enforcement needs. And if hunters and hunting tour operators: 1) Assist in development and acceptance of effective regulations; 2) Follow and encourage respect for all rules and regulations pertaining to hunting, conservation measures and property rights; 3) Embrace self-regulation where possible; 4) Assist in law enforcement and combat poaching. 3. Principle 2.a: Ensure that harvest is ecologically sustainable. Rationale: It is important to ensure that any harvest of wild populations remains sustainable. It also benefits biodiversity if the conservation status of species is maintained at levels which are robust enough to sustain harvest. Sustainable use requires information garnered from research and monitoring, and must be regulated through the active use of reliable science and local knowledge. Guidelines: Conservation will be enhanced if regulators and wildlife managers: 1) Implement adaptive management strategies for sustainable harvest and maintaining populations at optimal levels relative to ecological carrying capacity; 2) Develop management plans which take into account species behaviour and ecology (including predation and seasonal effects), their long-term conservation status and possible ecosystem level impacts; 3) Ensure that components of resident and non-.resident harvest are addressed in management plans; 4) Cooperate with resource users to develop and apply methods for simple and effective monitoring; 5) Cooperate with neighbouring administrative authorities to properly manage transboundary populations where appropriate; 6) Develop and implement standardised systems for collecting harvest data for use in adaptive management of populations at all appropriate scales; 7) Recognise that natural and human-induced change is inevitable; T-PVS (2007) 8 8) - 20 - Work to mitigate negative impacts on species and/or habitats where possible. And if hunters and hunting tour operators: 1) Contribute resources for maintaining biodiversity in association with use; 2) Assist in population monitoring and research; 3) Work to integrate their activities into the adaptive management of populations and habitats of target game species; 4) Recognize and accept the natural role and impact of endemic predators on target game species; 5) Avoid activities which can disturb species during critical periods and/or in critical habitats; 6) Ensure that populations of target game species are kept at optimal levels relative to their habitats and species communities; 7) Ensure that harvests are demographically sustainable. 4. Principle 2.b: Maintain wild populations of endemic species with adaptive gene pools. Rationale: Endemic species and their habitats (and human livelihoods derived from them) can be adversely impacted by either the 1) introduction of invasive alien species, or 2) human selection for traits in endemic species which may jeopardize the long-term viability of their populations. Guidelines: Conservation will be enhanced if regulators and wildlife managers: 1) Deter the release of alien species that could become invasive; 2) Engage those who use wild resources in programmes to remove invasive alien species; 3) Facilitate the reestablishment of originally endemic species of fauna and flora; 4) Incorporate genetic considerations into management plans; 5) Seek transboundary cooperation to ensure genetic viability of populations; 6) Monitor the genetic health of species populations of special concern. And if hunters and hunting tour operators: 1) Accept the return through natural recolonisation of wild species that were once endemic to an area; 2) Only (re)introduce species in accordance with IUCN guidelines; 3) Avoid exclusively selecting for specific phenotypic or behavioural traits of individuals which are not representative of the wild species population; 4) Aid scientists and managers in monitoring genetic health of populations. 5. Principle 2.c: Maintain environments that support healthy and robust populations of harvestable species. Rationale: Wildlife species are vulnerable to pollutants and human impacts on their populations and habitats. It is therefore in the interest of all who enjoy or benefit from wildlife to work together to reduce or mitigate the effects of environmental degradation. There is a need for the continued monitoring of the condition of harvested individuals and their habitats. Guidelines: Conservation will be enhanced if regulators and wildlife managers: - 21 - T-PVS (2007) 8 1) Develop mutually agreed systems that motivate users of land and wild resources to conserve associated habitats and species as well as those harvested; 2) Implement systems which monitor the condition of harvested species and their habitats; 3) Incorporate environmental concerns and habitat aspects into management plans; 4) Develop and implement standardized systems for monitoring the condition of harvested species and their habitats; 5) Account for possible negative impacts of resource users on other ecosystem services and mitigate these. And if hunters and hunting tour operators: 1) Accept and seek responsibility for conserving wildlife species (including game) and their habitats; 2) Understand the need for maintaining healthy ecosystems and habitat quality for game and wildlife; 3) Assist in monitoring of animal and habitat condition; 4) Actively contribute to the conservation and restoration of habitats at appropriate scales; 5) Work to ensure that their activities do not adversely impact local environments and habitats. 6) Use only native flora for habitat restoration [or afforestation]. 6. Principle 3.a: Encourage use to provide economic incentives for conservation. Rationale: Stakeholders can be motivated to conserve wild species and their habitats by recognizing their inherent economic value. Guidelines: Conservation will be enhanced if regulators and wildlife managers: 1) Understand that suppliers of harvest opportunities should expect reasonable payment for the services and opportunities they provide; 2) Encourage harvest models that provide economic benefits to local communities: 3) Set official fees or taxes at reasonable levels in order that these do not represent barriers to local participation. 4) Provide local communities with incentives to uphold or improve the diversity of species and habitats; And if hunters: 1) Are willing to pay reasonable fees: 2) Are willing to pay for the conservation and management of game and their habitats; 3) Accept fee structures which favour local access but don not exclude access by non-residents. And if hunting tour operators: 1) Acknowledge and accept that their activities must give positive economic benefits for local communities; 2) Are willing to pay for the conservation of target game species and their habitats; 3) Accept that their access can be limited, and/or that they can be subjected to higher fees than local hunters. T-PVS (2007) 8 - 22 - 7. Principle 3.b: Ensure that harvest is properly utilised and wastage avoided Rationale: Utilising a renewable resource to the fullest possible extent will maximise the economic incentives for local people as well as indicating respect for the environment and in some cases minimising bio-pollution. Guidelines: Conservation will be enhanced if regulators and wildlife managers: 1) Encourage the proper handling and processing of food from the wild: 2) Ensure that food from the wild is subjected to proper health inspection before commercial sale. And if hunters and hunting tour operators: 1) Properly care for meat in order to ensure against wastage and contamination; 2) Fully utilise fur and hides where possible; 3) Utilise other animal parts where possible and desireable; 4) Observe rules of proper hygiene to ensure meat quality and guard against detrimental effects health 5) Ensure that those game products they do not utilise are made available to local inhabitants. 8. Principle 4: Empower local stakeholders and hold them accountable. Rationale: With good local knowledge and monitoring, management at local level is most rapidly adaptive. It also both empowers stakeholders and holds them immediately accountable for meeting requirements of resource beneficiaries and conservation. Local management must be in harmony with higher level goals. Guidelines: Conservation will be enhanced if regulators and wildlife managers: 1) Promote and facilitate decentralized management of species with robust and healthy populations (favourable conservation status); 2 Facilitate the empowerment and accountability of stakeholders, especially users of land and wild resources, in this decentralized process; 3) Promote models that ensure equitable sharing of benefits among user groups. And if hunters: 1) Recognize their role as responsible resource stewards; 2) Have knowledge regarding wildlife ecology and conservation practices; 3) Actively participate in practical management and conservation measures; 4) Interact with other interests and local authorities to find best solutions; 5) Work for broad access to local resources. And if hunting tour operators: 1) Recognize the cultures, traditions and needs of local people, including hunters; 2) Work closely with local stakeholders to ensure integration of activities and to avoid conflicts. - 23 - 9. T-PVS (2007) 8 Principle 5.a: Competence and responsibility are desirable among users of wild resources. Rationale: For practises to be socially sustainable, those using wild resources are advised to be responsible and proficient regarding methods, equipment and species they utilise. Guidelines: Conservation will be enhanced if regulators and wildlife managers: 1) Encourage and facilitate education and training programs for use of wild resources, especially hunting; 2) Cooperative with organisations that coordinate users of wild resources to encourage recruitment from both sexes, all ages and backgrounds. And if hunters: 1) Have sufficient knowledge on identification, habits and ecology of the species they hunt; 2) Are proficient in the proper and safe handling and use of firearms, traps and other implements; 3) Train regularly to maintain or improve proficiency and skill; 4) Know the laws and regulations governing hunting and the conservation of wildlife where they hunt; 5) Teach new hunters the skills and knowledge they require to be competent and responsible. And if hunting tour operators: 1) Provide their clients with the information and knowledge they need for an enjoyable and responsible hunt. 10. Principle 5.b: The welfare of animals is a primary consideration. Rationale: For practises to be socially sustainable, suffering needs to be minimized. Hunters have a moral responsibility to eliminate avoidable suffering of the game they hunt. Guidelines: Conservation will be enhanced if regulators and wildlife managers: 1) Adopt rules and regulations which promote methods and equipment for taking animals which minimize avoidable suffering; 2) Communicate the need for awareness regarding animal welfare; 3) Recognise best practices. And if hunters and hunting tour operators: 1) Hold the welfare of game animals in the highest regard and strive to reduce or eliminate suffering where possible; 2) Learn about animal physiology and the most efficient way to kill game with minimal suffering; 3) Promote measures which ensure proficiency in the use of firearms and traps; 4) Strive to efficiently track down and dispatch wounded game; 5) Avoid methods of non-selective or mass capture: 6) Take care not to disturb species during the breeding season or other critical periods. T-PVS (2007) 8 - 24 - 11. Principle 5.c: Encourage cooperation between all stakeholders in management of harvested species, associated species and their habitats. Rationale: Those using wild resources can contribute positively to the proper management of biodiversity through cooperation with other conservation interests, landowners and agencies. Such cooperation promotes the positive role hunters play in broad conservation efforts. Guidelines: Conservation will be enhanced if regulators and wildlife managers: 1) Create institutional structures that are inclusive of all interests; 2) Encourage public understanding of conservation and economic as well as cultural benefit from harvest; 3) Seek opportunities and provide incentives for cooperation between different interests; 4) Use all possible measures to avoid and resolve conflicts. And if hunters and hunting tour operators: 1) Seek opportunities to benefit human and wildlife populations; 2) Promote and participate in the conservation and management of wildlife populations (including non-game species) and their habitats; 3) Actively seek alliances with other local stakeholders; 12. Principle 5.d: Encourage acceptance of consumptive use as a conservation tool by the public and other conservation interests. Rationale: Harvesters of wildlife are a minority and must understand the needs and concerns of other people and interests in order to ensure their acceptance by society. This makes it desirable for users of wildlife to communicate the positive benefits of their use for biodiversity conservation and for all stakeholders to work together to educate the public regarding important conservation issues. Guidelines: Conservation will be enhanced if regulators and wildlife managers: 1) Provide a framework which ensures the long-term acceptance by society for the harvesting of wildlife; 2) Ensure that populations of game species are kept at levels that are compatible with the interests of other socio-economic sectors; 3) Facilitate public awareness of conservation interests and the positive benefits from use of wildlife; 4) Preserve cultural, historical and aesthetic values related to wildlife and use of wild resources. And if hunters and hunting tour operators: 1) Are sensitive and respectful to local interests and cultures; 2) Strive to be ambassadors for hunting through good behaviour and practices; 3) Respect property ownership and local restrictions; 4) Educate and inform other interests regarding the benefits of hunting and conservation; 5) Understand the need for local involvement in all hunting activity, including hunting tourism operations. - 25 - Appendix 1. Principles. # 1 Relationship between Hunting Charter Principles and AAPG/Malawi Three pillars of sustainability Addis Ababa/ Malawi Focus # Hunting Charter Principles AAPG/MALAWI MAP General 1A Favour multi-level governance that maximises benefit for conservation. (A1,A3,M2,M4) Socio-cultural Supportive & linked governance at all levels with harmonized regulations that promote societal benefits from conservation and avoid perverse effects. Regulatory 1B Ensure that regulations are understandable and respected. (A1,A8,A13, M10) 2A Ensure that harvest is ecologically sustainable (A4,A6,A9,M712) 2B Maintain wild populations of endemic species with adaptive gene pools (A5,A9,M11-12) Ecosystem services 2C Maintain environments that support healthy and robust populations of harvestable species. (A4,A6,A9,M712) Economic incentives 3A Encourage use to provide economic incentives for conservation Waste avoidance 3B Ensure that harvest is properly utilized and wastage avoided. Avoidance of adverse impacts within or between Demographic ecosystems, and of shorttermism, especially when faced with inevitable change. 2 3 4 Ecological Economic Socio-cultural, Ecological, Economic Transparent and adaptive management along a useprotection continuum, based on interdisciplinary science, monitoring and timely feedbacks. Encouragement of economic/cultural incentives with sharing of benefits (and costs) especially at local level, while avoiding waste. Genetics Decentralisation of management to an Local appropriate bio-economic scale, especially to empower, management assess and access knowledge of local users. Conduct and proficiency of harvesters 5 T-PVS (2007) 8 Socio-cultural sustainability Education, awareness and inclusion of managers, resource users and society at large. 4 5A (A11) (A2,A4,A9-10,A12Empower local stakeholders and 13, hold them accountable. M2,M4,M7,M1112) Competence and responsibility are desirable among users of wild resources. Animal welfare 5B The welfare of animals is a primary consideration. (A14,M1,M12) Horizontal trust 5C Encourage cooperation between all stakeholders in management of harvested species, associated species and their habitats. (A2,A9,A14, M1,M12) Encourage acceptance of consumptive use as a 5D conservation tool by the public and other conservation interests. (A12, M14) Social acceptance