ILF09 - Proceedings

Transcription

ILF09 - Proceedings

Platinum
Sponsor
© Copyright EIfEL
ILEARNING FORUM 2009
Conference Proceedings
ISBN: 2-9524576-7-0
European Institute for E-Learning (EIfEL)
1, rue Neuve
F-89210 Champlost, France
Tel: +33 3 8643 1343 Fax: +33 3 8643 1778
www.eife-l.org
iLearning Forum 2009
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword to the conference
6
Competency development and recognition (EN)
7
Quality Assurance in PLAR: issues and strategies for post secondary
institutions
Joy Van Kleef, Canadian Institute for Recognizing Learning
8
Shirley Amichand, Saskatchewan Institute of Applied Science and Technology
Marilyn Carkner, College of Extended Learning, University of New Brunswick
Kim Orynik, Saskatchewan Institute of Applied Science and Technology
Judith Potter, College of Extended Learning, University of New Brunswick
Manitoba - Living Laboratory for RAC
23
Don Presant - Manitoba PLA Network (MPLAN), Learning Agents Inc.,
Winnipeg, Canada
RAC in the Province of Québec
24
Leah Moss 1 Guy Fortier 2 (1: English School Boards of Québec, Canada 2:
Compétences Montréal, Canada)
Accreditation and recognition of Prior Experience and Learning: Current
Practices and Future Possibilities
25
Tracy Slawson, NIACE, United Kingdom
Recognition of competencies in acute care through an ePortfolio
27
Harry Owen, Clinical Skills and Simulation Unit, Sue Skinner, Computer
Assisted Learning Unit, Chris Carapetis, Computer Assisted Learning Unit and
Cyle Sprick, Clinical Skills and Simulation Unit, Department of Medical
Education, School of Medicine, Flinders University, South Australia
Out with the old; in with the New...Space
Allan Simon Theophanides, University of Wales, Newport
32
An Online Learning Environment integrating an eDossier to give evidence
for Lifelong Learning
39
Dr Pedro Pablo Sanchez-Villalonn Escuela Oficial de Idiomas Ciudad Real,
Spain;, Prof. Manuel Ortega2, Ms Asuncion Sanchez-Villalon, Universidad de
Castilla La Mancha. C.H.I.C.O.
Digital Reputations and Private versus Public Information in a World of
Online Disinhibition, Flaming, and Rude Emails:The Nature of Online
Communication Among College Students.
48
Jane Florence MacNeil, Red Deer College, Canada
Does Succession Planning Initiative Apply in Tertiary Institution?
49
Posiah Mohd Isa i-LEC, Universiti Teknologi MARA 40 450 Shah Alam,
Selangor, MALAYSIA
Siti Akmar Abu Samah UiTM International Centre, Universiti Teknologi MARA
40 450 Shah Alam, Selangor, MALAYSIA
Zaini Abdullah Chancellery, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40 450 Shah Alam,
Selangor, MALAYSIA
Kamaruzaman Jusoff Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43 400
Serdang, Selangor, MALAYSIA
3
Learning Technologies (EN)
57
Challenges of e-Learning in Teacher Education in Africa: The Nigerian
Experience
58
J. Effiom-Edem Ntibi - Federal College of Education, Obudu, Nigeria
How to boost entrepreneurship through innovative integrated learning
59
Jelena Godjevac, MEA-I
Mentored Action Learning by CrossKnowledge
65
Steve Fieh, Estelle Milo, Sébastien Boscq - Crossknowledge, France
Communities of Practice and Knowledge Flow Networks
Mei-Tai Chu, Rajiv Khosla Business Systems and Knowledge Modeling
Laboratory La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
66
DR. THEMIS GENADIS General Manager, I-Learn Group of Companies
Implementing a Virtual Learning Community and Electronic Portfolio
Environment to Authentically Assess Learning and Program Improvement69
Victoria Guzzo, Katherine Kalmus - LiveText, United States of America
The E-learning Simulations "Mettiamo in pratica la MiFid" and "Privacy
2008": two innovative tools proposed by ABIFORMAZIONE for competence
updating in the European banking sector
71
Gaetano Bruno Ronsivalle, Università “La Sapienza”, ABIFormazione,
Labelformazione Claudia Miolli, ABIFormazione
Introducing Developing Teacher-Students In A Developing Context To EPortfolios
76
Illasha Kok, Seugnet Blignaut (North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus,
South Africa)
Teacher Training in an Online Action Research Framework
84
Viviana Gaballo, University of Macerata, Italy
The impact of distance learning on lifelong learning
89
Maria de F‡tima Goul‹o, Universidade Aberta
Blended Learning for the 21st Century Learning Environment
103
Marci Powell: Global Director – Higher Education & Corporate Training and
United States Distance Learning Association President
Do we really need a webcam? – the uses that foreign language students
make out of webcam images during teletandem sessions
105
João Antonio Telles, UNESP – Universidade Estadual Paulista, Brazil
eLearning Content : from Metadata to Digital Repository, Which Standards
for What?
114
Marc Van Coillie - EIfEL, France
Reconnaissance des acquis et des compétences (FR)
La Reconnaissance des Acquis et des Compétences à Montréal
114
115
Guy Fortier, Compétences Montréal, Canada
L’apprentissage organisationnel pour une approche durable d’innovation :
Le dilemme Exploitation / Exploration
116
Amel Béji et Samia Karoui Zouaoui
Dispositif d'Accompagnement de la VAE Individualisé et à Distance : Etude
des besoins et modélisation des parcours
118
Rémi LEVY Consultant - Chef de projet apprentissage et formation en ligne
4
Processus de Certification et CV Européen, Quel est la Place de l'Identité
Numérique et des Services en Ligne ?
122
La VAE, Démarche Expérientielle de Reconnaissance Sociale des
Apprentissages Non-formels et Informels
123
Brigitte Pagnani, Université Marc Bloch, France
'L'Entreprise Virtuelle'
124
Isabelle Pleplé , Vannina Correa de Sampaio2 (1: ICUS, France 2: Ministère
du Travail, des Relations sociales, de la Famille, de la Solidarité et de la Ville,
France)
Technologies de l’apprentissage (FR)
125
La production documentaire : soutien au développement des formations.
Cas du 2IE
126
Léa OUATTARA, Francis SEMPORE
Mots clé : Ingénierie -documentaire, Productions numériques, Contenus
pédagogiques, FOAD, TICE, Qualité
Baromètre CCIP 2008 du e-learning
129
Raphaël GNANOU
L’ePSS : l’autre moyen de transmettre des connaissances en ligne
Gérard Mendes & Maarten Samson, Knowmore
131
Auteurs
Enseignement supérieur et TIC
133
Wafa BERRY - Professeur Chercheur - Université Libanaise Culture Informationnelle et e-Teaching : Outils et Pratiques
Jean-Paul Pinte - Université Catholique de Lille, France
141
Web 2.0 et Services Formation des Entreprises. Pourquoi ? Comment ? 144
Adrien Ferro - Université Rennes 1, France
E-learning Médical en Cancérologie
145
Thomas De Praetere 1, Christine Verfaillie 2, Michel Taillet 2
1: . Dokeos, Belgium, 2. European Society for Therapeutical Radiology and
Oncology (ESTRO), Belgium
Pédagogie du partage et Web 2.0 : pour une redéfinition des pratiques de
classe
146
Florence Lojacono, Université de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Espagne.
Nouvelles technologies dans l'ecole secondaire de Caldas Das Taipas –
Guimarães – Portugal
154
D.A. Durães, T. S. Martinez e M. L. Delgado
Créer des Programmes de Formation pour les 5 Continents : Enjeux,
Contraintes et Meilleures Pratiques
Dominique Trouche, Morgan Riou - WhP International SAS, France
5
161
FOREWORD TO THE CONFERENCE
Dear Colleagues,
Chères et chers collègues,
We have great pleasure in welcoming you to
iLearning Forum 2009 and to Paris. We are delighted
to welcome participants from 25 countries
representing a broad spectrum of activities and
interests, but united by a desire to explore the
challenge of integrating learning into life (iLearning)
and/or innovative ways of developing and
recognising competencies.
Nous avons le plaisir de vous accueillir à iLearning
Forum 2009 et à Paris. Nous sommes enchantés
d’accueillir les participants de 25 pays, représentant un
large spectre d’activités et d’intérêts tout en étant unis par
le désir d’explorer le défi d’intégrer l’apprentissage dans
la vie (iLearning) et/ou des moyens innovateurs de
développer et reconnaître des compétences.
The key themes of this year’s iLearning Forum are:
• Integrated learning for organisational development
and innovation
• Integrated learning for employability, social
inclusion and active citizenship
• Learning innovation and futures
• Architectures and infrastructures for integrated
learning
• Integrating learning with quality management
• Exploiting the full potential of digital identity.
This year's event will be enriched by a parallel event,
the first francophone and international conference on
the recognition and validation of achievement and
competencies (RAC 2009), in cooperation with the
GARF, France and the Centre Collégial Montréalais de
Reconnaissance des Acquis et des Compétences,
Canada.
Principal themes are:
• Formal vs informal recognition of learning
achievements
• Recognition of learning achievements across
cultures and countries
• Recognition of competencies and innovation
• Quality control of learning achievements
certification processes
Participants are free to attend any session in the event
and have a choice of French and English plenary and
parallel sessions for both conferences.
In your conference bags you will find the final version
of the programme. Please note carefully the room
numbers and schedule. Lunch and all refreshments
will be served in a reserved area in the exhibition hall
near stand numbers 26/27. Please wear your badge at
all times as this gives access to the conference rooms
and breaks.
Les principaux thèmes de iLearning Forum 2009 sont :
• L'apprentissage intégré pour le développement
organisationnel et l'innovation
• L'apprentissage intégré pour l'employabilité,
l'inclusion sociale et la citoyenneté active
• L'innovation et futurs de l'apprentissage
• Architectures et infrastructures pour l'apprentissage
intégré
• Intégrer l'apprentissage à la gestion de la qualité
• Exploiter le plein potentiel de l'identité numérique.
Cette année, l'événement sera enrichi par une
manifestation parallèle, la première conférence
internationale et francophone sur la reconnaissance et la
validation des acquis et des compétences (RAC 2009),
organisée en partenariat avec le GARF et le Centre
Collégial Montréalais de Reconnaissance des Acquis et
des Compétences.
Les thèmes principaux sont:
• Reconnaissance formelle et informelle des
apprentissages
• Reconnaissance des acquis dans les cultures et les
pays
• Reconnaissance des compétences et innovation
• Contrôle qualité des processus de certification
Les participants sont libres d'assister aux sessions de
chacune des conférences avec un choix de sessions
parallèles et plénières en langue française et anglaise pour
les deux conférences.
Dans les sacs de la conférence vous trouverez la version
finale du programme. Veuillez noter avec attention le
numéro de la salle et les horaires. Les déjeuners et les
pauses seront servis dans un espace réservé au sein de
l’exposition, près des stands 26/27. Veuillez porter votre
badge à tout moment car c’est lui qui vous donne accès
aux espaces des conférences et des pauses.
Places are still available at the dinner-cruise on the
Seine on the evening of Monday 19 January.
Il reste quelques places disponibles pour le dîner croisière
sur la Seine du lundi 19 janvier – s’adresser au bureau
d’accueil.
We should like to thank our Platinum sponsor,
Demos, Gold sponsors, Dokeos,
CornerstoneOnDemand and CrossKnowledge, Silver
sponsor, Questionmark and Bronze sponsors e-doceo
and X-PERTeam for supporting the event.
Nous tenons à remercier nos sponsors: Demos (Platine),
Dokeos, CornerstoneOnDemand et CrossKnowledge
(Or), Questionmark (Argent) et e-doceo et X-PERTeam
(Bronze) pour leur soutien à cet événement.
Don’t forget to make a tour of the iLearning Forum
Exhibition during the breaks!
We look forward to meeting you and wish you an
enjoyable and fruitful conference and look forward to
welcoming you back to iLearning Forum 2010!
N’oubliez pas de rendre visite aux exposants d’iLearning
Forum pendant les pauses.
Nous nous réjouissons de vous retrouver et vous
souhaitons une plaisante et fructueuse conférence en
attendant de vous retrouver de nouveau à iLearning
Forum 2010 !
Serge Ravet
Serge Ravet
EIfEL
EIfEL
6
Competency development and recognition (EN)
7
QUALITY ASSURANCE IN PLAR: ISSUES AND STRATEGIES FOR POST
SECONDARY INSTITUTIONS
Joy Van Kleef, Canadian Institute for Recognizing Learning
Shirley Amichand, Saskatchewan Institute of Applied Science and Technology
Marilyn Carkner, College of Extended Learning, University of New Brunswick
Kim Orynik, Saskatchewan Institute of Applied Science and Technology
Judith Potter, College of Extended Learning, University of New Brunswick
Background
Quality assurance in post-secondary education has received growing attention in recent years as
institutions and governments struggle to respond to education’s increasingly global context,
characterized by the development of national qualification frameworks and new practices in
distance education, trans-national education, international education, foreign credential
recognition, and prior learning assessment and recognition.
For the most part, quality assurance mechanisms in higher education have focused on
institutions’ capacity to conduct research and fulfill teaching requirements, rather than on the
assessment and verification of learning. This project’s partners shared a concern that limited
attention to quality assurance in prior learning assessment and recognition (PLAR) processes
and assessments may contribute to its slow growth in post-secondary institutions. This concern
is fuelled by reservations expressed by educators in many jurisdictions about the quality of prior
learning and the ability of institutions to conduct appropriate assessments.
In December 2005, the Canadian Institute for Recognizing Learning, the G. Raymond Chang
School of Continuing Education at Ryerson University, the Saskatchewan Institute of Applied
Science and Technology, and the College of Extended Learning, University of New Brunswick
joined forces to conduct research into quality assurance in prior learning assessment and
recognition (PLAR) in post-secondary education. The Canadian Council on Learning (CCL)
awarded the partners funding to support the preparation of an issues and strategies report, a
practical guide to institutions, an annotated bibliography, and the dissemination of the project’s
findings through knowledge mobilization.
Objectives and Methodology
The objectives of this research were to examine the ways in which countries and their postsecondary institutions address the issue of quality assurance in PLAR and to identify issues and
strategies used by public policy makers, educational institutions and individual educators to
ensure the quality of their processes and their outcomes.
Empirical data collection was not within the parameters of funding for this project. Our research
methodology included literature searches, semi-structured interviews with quality assurance
experts at the partner institutions, focus groups with adult learners, and individual interviews
with internationally educated professionals who had experienced PLAR. The purpose of these
interviews was to help focus our literature research and identify issues and possible strategies
for further analysis. In addition, the project established an advisory committee of educators
involved in PLAR development and delivery across Canada. The professional insights gained
from two structured online discussions with the committee members contributed significantly to
this report.
For the purpose of this study, we defined PLAR as a process that identifies, verifies, and
recognizes relevant learning (knowledge and skills) that cannot be fully recognized by the
traditional means of credential assessment, credit transfer, articulation, or accreditation. This
learning may be acquired through a variety of non-formal and informal means such as work,
8
independent study, or volunteering. The countries examined in this report share this definition
although they use a variety of terms. Prior learning is acquired by youth and adults; however,
this study focuses on PLAR for adults for the purpose of recognition by post-secondary
institutions.
From our review of the literature on PLAR, our focus groups with adult learners, and our
consultations with academic experts, immigrant professionals, and the advisory committee, we
have made findings in four key areas of quality assurance in PLAR. They relate to:
 defining quality assurance in PLAR
 the importance of quality assurance in PLAR
 a pattern of quality assurance mechanisms
 two dimensions to institutional quality assurance
Summary of Results
Defining Quality Assurance in PLAR
There is no generally accepted definition of quality assurance in PLAR. For the purposes of this
study, we adopted the following definition:
The establishment of and adherence to policies, processes, and assessment
practices that ensure that the knowledge and skills of individual learners are
recognized so that they can successfully engage in the subjects and levels of
learning that contribute meaningfully to their educational and employment goals.
The Importance of Quality Assurance in PLAR
The importance of having quality assurance in PLAR seems obvious. Students need to know
that they are adequately prepared for future study and employment. Faculty need to know that
academic standards are being maintained and that the process is an enriching one for students.
In addition, the context in which PLAR is currently operating is expanding globally, and, as it
does, there is an increasing demand for criteria to assess its quality on the part of direct users
and indirect beneficiaries. As employers expand their use of PLAR, either internally or in
collaboration with educational institutions, their investments in the PLAR process become more
obvious and they will demand evidence of its quality. Workers will want to know that the results
of their assessments are valued by their employers. Regulatory bodies need to ensure that PLAR
processes do not jeopardize public safety. All of these stakeholders must be able to rely on the
results of PLAR. It is increasingly important that educational institutions be able to assure their
partners and stakeholders that PLAR is a credible, valuable, and academically sound process.
A Pattern of Quality Assurance Mechanisms
We examined the use of PLAR internationally and found a pattern in the various ways that
quality assurance has been addressed. From this finding, we developed a quality assurance
delivery framework based on five mechanisms that can operate independently or in
combination:
1. legislation;
2. government policy;
3. collaborative mechanisms;
4. institution-based mechanisms; and
5. indirect stakeholder support.
9
Legislation
Several countries, including the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Norway,
Sweden, and the Netherlands have passed legislation to ensure that prior learning is recognized
by higher education institutions. Legislation tends to provide general direction, leaving the
details of implementation up to government policy-makers or the education community. Quality
assurance is not always addressed directly in legislation, but becomes an issue of accountability
once the service is required. However, in some countries, such as Denmark, legislation has been
used to assure quality. National legislation passed by the Czech Republic in August, 2007
establishes an inspection role for authorizing bodies.
Government Policy
Government policy-makers have been attracted to PLAR because of its capacity to reduce
education costs and promote access to post-secondary education and lifelong learning. Some
governments have developed policies that encourage, or even require, access to PLAR services.
Government policy in some countries, such as Australia, also addresses the issue of quality
assurance in recognizing prior learning.
Collaboration
In some countries, the implementation of PLAR has been initiated by members of the postsecondary education community rather than by governments. Cross-institutional collaboration
was used to establish a common approach to PLAR and mechanisms to ensure its quality. In
some instances, this collaboration has resulted in formal bodies such as the Quality Assurance
Agency in the United Kingdom, the Southern England Consortium for Credit Accumulation and
Transfer (SEEC), and the Scottish Qualifications Authority. In other countries, informal types of
collaboration and trans-national collaborations have also emerged.
Institution-based Mechanisms
In most jurisdictions, the implementation of PLAR and the development of methods of quality
assurance have been driven by the internal systems of post-secondary institutions. The United
States provides the clearest example of reliance on institutionally-based mechanisms to ensure
quality. PLAR is unlegislated and institutions adopting PLAR operate without the guidance of
government policy.
Indirect Stakeholder Support
Non-governmental organizations also play useful roles in promoting the quality of PLAR. One of
the most influential has been the Council for Adult and Experiential Learning (CAEL) in the
United States. The Council of the European Union is another example of an indirect stakeholder;
it has had an important influence on the development of quality assurance in PLAR through
research initiatives and, more recently, the development and publication of Common European
Principles for the Identification and Validation of Non-formal and Informal Learning (2004).
Combined Mechanisms
France and Norway are examples of countries that have combined national PLAR legislation with
institutionally based quality assurance. Two examples of a combination of government policy
and institution-based mechanisms are Ireland and New Zealand.
Canada’s Quality Assurance Mechanisms
No provincial or territorial government has passed legislation to establish post-secondary PLAR
as an individual right or to set PLAR quality standards. Nor are there stand-alone provincial
policies on quality assurance. However, the governments of Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and
Quebec have developed general PLAR policy frameworks that either specify or embed elements
of quality assurance, and Alberta is in the process of establishing one. Over the past 15 years,
10
the federal government and all the provinces and territories have made some investment in
PLAR initiation, pilot projects, research, and networking.
It is largely post-secondary institutions that determine when, how, and by whom PLAR will be
managed. Collaboration is not widespread. There are no formal collaborative structures among
colleges or universities, but there are a few notable examples of informal initiatives on the part
of multi-stakeholder groups that incorporate quality assurance (e.g., the Association of
Canadian Community Colleges’ Recognition for Learning Affinity Group and the Manitoba Prior
Learning Assessment Network).
Indirect stakeholder support has been an important factor in the growth of PLAR in Canada.
The Canadian Association for Prior Learning Assessment, the Canadian Institute for Recognizing
Learning, and the Alberta Council on Admissions and Transfers are examples of stakeholders
that have promoted the use of PLAR by educational institutions and other groups.
Two Dimensions to Institutional Quality Assurance
There are two dimensions to quality assurance in PLAR at the institutional level: the first relates
to policies and procedures, and the second, to assessment methods and tools. Our literature
review and consultations with adult learners and institutional experts revealed four recurring
perspectives relating to PLAR policies and procedures.
1. PLAR quality assurance should be part of institutions’ existing program quality
assurance mechanisms.
2. PLAR policies and procedures should be based on established principles.
3. Quality in PLAR procedures enhances quality in assessment decision-making.
4. Policies that require faculty and assessor training in PLAR are essential to quality
assurance.
Despite the lack of research devoted to quality assurance in PLAR assessment methods and
tools, Canadian practitioners and researchers have been aware of the importance of selecting
and developing methods that best fit the purpose of particular assessment situations. Current
Canadian practices can be divided into five main methods of assessment: written examinations
in various formats, oral examinations, performance assessments, product assessments including
portfolios, and external training program reviews.
General Conclusions
The value that PLAR brings to learning and assessment processes is well documented. The
challenge is to find ways to deliver it with quality assurance without creating an undue burden
for learners and institutions. The quality assurance delivery mechanisms presented in this paper
create a framework for designing PLAR strategies as well as for describing and analyzing them
within and across jurisdictions.
A review of post-secondary institutions’ general PLAR documentation demonstrates a
mindfulness of the importance of quality; the documentation reveals the adoption of principles,
policies, and procedures that embed many elements of quality assurance. However, this
mindfulness has not been parlayed into explicit quality assurance policies, nor has it transitioned
into mainstream quality assurance mechanisms. Colleges and universities rely primarily on the
expertise of individual administrators, advisors, and faculty to provide clear, transparent
procedures and valid, reliable decisions.
Overall, the attention paid to quality assurance in PLAR in Canada has been inadequate. There
is a need for additional knowledge about PLAR – its risks and its potential. Additional research is
11
also needed on how to improve PLAR practice and on PLAR’s impact on learners and
institutions.
Specific Conclusions
1. The quality of prior learning assessment outcomes rests heavily on the qualifications of
assessors – their ability to select or develop appropriate assessment tools, and to make
reasonable judgments on submitted evidence. However, current post-secondary
institutions do not rigorously examine faculty qualifications and practices in student
assessment. Because many post-secondary faculty have no formal education in
teaching or assessment, training in PLAR assessment methodologies and tools, as part
of ongoing professional development, should be a critical component of institutional
quality assurance.
2. Canadian institutions that actively engage in PLAR have incorporated elements of
quality assurance into their PLAR practices; however, integrating PLAR into these
institutions’ existing academic quality assurance mechanisms (e.g., periodic program
reviews) would improve its quality and the confidence of stakeholders.
3. Although integration would help to address quality assurance and raise stakeholder
confidence, it is unlikely to be sufficient. Post-secondary institutions also need to
develop robust measures through PLAR-specific quality assurance policies, procedures,
and strategies.
4. Theoretical perspectives that acknowledge that prior learning is learner-constructed are
compatible with PLAR and support the use of tools such as criterion-referenced learning
outcomes and authentic assessment. Additional research is required on the theoretical
underpinnings of PLAR and the impact of shifting the balance that determines who
decides what learning “counts.”
5. Traditional measures of quality (i.e., reliability and validity) are often difficult to apply.
Clear measures of learning achievement need to be applied in all PLAR assessments
even if this means finding new, more comprehensive, ways of defining quality. Such
new criteria could combine traditional concepts of reliability and validity with explicit
standards for assessment procedures and expected outcomes.
6. There is no generally accepted definition for quality assurance in PLAR in postsecondary education. The definition used in this paper should serve as a starting point
for a much needed discussion.
PLAR is an international practice that has evolved since the 1930s. After more than 70 years of
experimentation and implementation throughout the world; there are lessons to be learned.
There are strategies that have been proposed and implemented that Canadian institutions can
adopt to improve the quality of assessments. A number of these strategies are presented in this
report and in the companion volume, Quality Assurance in PLAR: A Guide for Institutions.
Areas for Future Research
The current lack of discourse on virtually every aspect of quality assurance in PLAR makes it
difficult to identify priorities. However, throughout our research, a number of issues repeatedly
emerged, which suggested the need for research in the following areas:
 How viable and valuable would a set of PLAR principles shared by Canada’s 13 provincial and
territorial jurisdictions be?
 What is the quality of current post-secondary PLAR assessment methods and tools used by
Canadian institutions?
 What are the potential effects of integrating PLAR into existing post-secondary quality
assurance mechanisms?
12
 How could more permanent collaborations across institutions be achieved? Could a Canadian
consortium be established to take a strategic approach to quality assurance in PLAR?
 What are the ethical issues and the potential impact of setting quality assurance standards
for prior learning that exceed the quality of standards for classroom-based assessment?
 What should be the basis of determining quality assurance of assessments? How do the
traditional concepts of validity and reliability apply to PLAR?
 What are the best assessment methodologies within particular contexts, and how can
appropriate tools be developed?
 How does PLAR affect the long-term learning and employment activities of learners?
 What role can accreditation bodies play in promoting quality-assured PLAR in post-secondary
programs?
 How critical is the role of advisors in the PLAR process?
New information in these areas could generate strategies to improve our understanding of the
theoretical aspects of PLAR and our use of available mechanisms for quality assurance.
The issues, strategies, and areas for further research contained in this report are presented in
the spirit of contributing to the growth and development of quality-assured, time-tested PLAR
services in Canadian post-secondary institutions. We welcome and encourage further
commentary.
Authors
Ms. Joy Van Kleef, CEO, Canadian Institute for Recognizing Learning, Toronto, Canada, M5 J
2N6
Ms. Shirley Amichand
PLAR Facilitator
Saskatchewan Institute of Applied Science and Technology
Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada
Ms. Marilyn Carkner
PLAR Coordinator
College of Extended Learning,
University of New Brunswick
Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada
Ms. Martha Ireland
Manager
Distance Education and Support Services
G. Raymond Chang School of Continuing Education
Ryerson University
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Ms. Kim Orynik
PLAR Coordinator
Saskatchewan Institute of Applied Science and Technology
Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada
13
Dr. Judith Potter
Executive Director
College of Extended Learning
University of New Brunswick
Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada
14
REFERENCES
Aarts, S., Blower, D., Burke, R., Conlin, E., Ebner Howarth, C., Howell, B., Lamarre, G., and Van
Kleef,
J. (1999). A slice of the iceberg: Cross-Canada study of prior learning assessment and
recognition.
Toronto: Cross-Canada Partnership on PLAR.
Aarts, S., Blower, D., Burke, R., Conlin, E., Lamarre, G., McCrossan, W., and Van Kleef, J. (2003).
Feedback from learners: Cross-Canada study of prior learning assessment and recognition.
Kitchener,
ON: Cross-Canada Partnership on PLAR.
Adam, S. (2007). New challenges in recognition: the recognition of prior learning. London:
University
of Westminster.
Arnold, T. (1998). Portfolio-based prior learning assessment: An exploration of how faculty
evaluate
students’ prior learning. Doctoral dissertation, American University.
Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada. (2005). Principles of institutional quality
assurance
in Canadian higher education. Ottawa: Author.
Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada. (2005). Overview of provincial and regional
quality
assurance mechanisms in Canadian higher education. Ottawa: Author.
Australian Qualifications Advisory Board Secretariat. (2004). National principles and operational
guidelines for recognition of prior learning (RPL). Sydney: Australian Qualifications Framework
Advisory Board.
Baartman, L., Bastiaens, T., & Kirschner, P. (2004). Requirements for competency assessment
programmes. Paper presented at the Onderwijs Research Dagen. Utrecht: University of the
Netherlands.
Bailie, S., O’Hagan, C. (2000). [Eds.] APEL and lifelong learning. Belfast: University of Ulster.
Barrington Research Group. (2005). Best practices in prior learning assessment and recognition
(PLAR):
Final report. Edmonton, Alberta: Alberta Council on Admissions and Transfer.
Brennan, L. & Dobbyn, K. (2000). Future challenges: Moving APEL forward. In S. Bailie & C.
O’Hagan
(Eds.) APEL and Lifelong Learning. Belfast: University of Ulster.
Canadian Institute for Recognizing Learning. (2006). PLAR principles. Toronto: Author.
Centre for Adult Education (1996). Principles of moderation. Taken from J. Kindler’s Moderation:
What
it is and why we have it. A discussion paper. Melbourne: Centre for Adult Education.
15
Chapman, A. (2006). Benjamin Bloom’s taxonomy of learning domains – cognitive, affective,
psychomotor domains – design and evaluation toolkit for training and learning. [On-line].
Retrieved on
January 17, 2006 from: http://www.businessballs.com/bloomstaxonomyoflearningdomains.htm
Chappell, C., Soloman, N., Tennant, M., & Yates, L. (2002). Researching the pedagogies of the
new
vocationalism. Working paper 02-113. Sydney, Australia: University of Technology Research
Centre
Vocational Education and Training.
Čiháková, H., Konrad, J., Kril, G., Nagyová, L., Stretti, M. Guidelines, examples of good practice
and
recognition procedures. Brussels: European Commission. Retrieved on April 28, 2007 from:
www.epanil.net.
Cleary, P., Whittaker, R., Gallacher, J., Merrill, B., Jokinen, L., Carette, M., et al. (2002). Social
inclusion through APEL: The learners’ perspective. Comparative report. Glasgow, Scotland:
Centre for
Research in Lifelong Learning.
Cohen, R., Whittaker, U. (1994). Assessing learning from experience. In M. Keeton (Ed.)
Perspectives
on Experiential Learning. Chicago: CAEL.
Corradi, C., Evans, N., & Valk, A. (2006). Recognizing experiential learning: Practices in
European
universities. Tartu: Tartu University Press.
Council of Ministers of Education Canada. (2007). Ministerial statement on quality assurance of
degree
education in Canada. Toronto: Author.
Council of Ontario Universities. (2006). Quality assurance, undergraduate program review and
audits.
Toronto: Author.
Council of Ontario Universities. (2006). UPRAC review and audit guidelines. Toronto: Author.
Cranton, P. Carusetta, E. (2004). Perspectives on authenticity. Adult Education Quarterly. 55(1).
London: Sage Publications. 5-22.
Davies, P. (2006). REFINE: Recognizing formal, informal and non-formal education. Final project
report and VALIDPASS proposal. Brussels, Belgium: European Commission.
European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education. (2005). Standards and
guidelines for
quality assurance in the European higher education area.
European Commission. (2004). European Principles for the accreditation of non-formal and
informal
16
learning. Brussels: Author.
European University Continuing Education Network. (2003). TRANSFINE: Transfer between
formal,
informal, and non-formal education – A joint action project. Brussels: European Commission.
Euroval. (2006). A framework for defining the competencies required for the successful
guidance and
support of persons seeking to identify and gain recognition for their prior non-formal and
informal
learning. [On-line]. Retrieved on May 18, 2007 from:
http://www.euroguideval.org/IMG/pdf/P10_APEL_competencies.pdf ?
PHPSESSID=c5537d5fc14331b9f5
1537faa9257fe4
Evans, L. (1999). Assessment systems one end of unit assignment: “APEL in action”. In P. Alheit
& D.
Piening (Eds.), Assessment of prior experiential learning as a key to lifelong learning: Evaluating
European practices. Paper presented at the European Conference. Bremen, Germany. June 5-6,
1998.
Evans, L. (2000). APEL and the individualised continuing professional development programme.
In S.
Bailie & C. O’Hagan (Eds.). APEL and Lifelong Learning. Belfast: University of Ulster.
Evans, N. (2006). Criteria and approaches to assessment of experiential learning. In C. Corradi,
N.
Evans, & A. Valk (Eds.) Recognising Experiential Learning: Practices in European Universities.
Tartu:
University of Tartu.
Freers, S. (1994). An evaluation of adult learners’ perceptions of a community college’s
assessment of
prior learning program. Doctoral dissertation, Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA.
Foley, G. (1995). Teaching adults. In G. Foley (Ed.), Understanding adult education and training
(pp.
31-53). Sydney, Australia: Allen and Unwin.
Formation professionnele et technique et formation continue. (2005). Recognition of prior
learning and
competencies in vocational and technical training. Québec: Gouvernment du Québec.
Gallacher, J. & Feutrie, M. (2003). Recognizing and accrediting informal and non-formal learning
in
higher education: An analysis of the issues emerging from a study of France and Scotland.
European
Journal of Education, 38 (1).
Garnett, J., Portwood, D., & Costley, C. (2004). Bridging rhetoric and reality: Accreditation of
prior
17
experiential learning (APEL) in the UK. London: University Vocational Awards Council.
Harlen, W. (1994). Concepts of quality in student assessment. Paper presented at the AERA
Annual
Meeting, New Orleans.
Harriger, C. (1991). Barriers to the optimal use of prior learning assessment: an institutional
evaluation of perceptions of credit for prior learning. Doctoral dissertation, Columbia University
Teachers College, New York.
Harris, J. (2000). Re-visioning the boundaries of learning theory in the assessment of prior
experiential
learning (APEL). Paper presented at the 30th Annual Conference of the Standing Conference on
University Teaching and Research on the Education of Adults (SCUTREA). July 3-5, 2000.
University of
Nottingham, UK.
Heidegger, G., Petersen, W. (2006). Common competencies required for all APEL professionals.
Tartu:
Euroguideval.
Higher Education and Training Awards Council. (2001). HETAC policy document: Prior
experiential
learning. Dublin: Author.
Johnson, B. (2002). Models of APEL and quality assurance. Brentwood, England: Southern
England
Consortium for Credit Accumulation and Transfer.
Johnson, B. (2005). General principles for the quality assurance of the recognition of formal,
informal
and non-formal learning: REFINE project – England, Wales and Northern Ireland. London:
European
Universities Continuing Education Network.
Johnson, B., Walsh, A. (2005). SEEC companion to the QAA guidelines on the accreditation of
prior
learning. London: Southern England Consortium for Credit Accumulation and Transfer.
Kadlec, M. (2006). Relation of EVECT and EQF/NQF, Czech Republic. Prague: National Institute
of
Technical and Vocational Education.
Keeton, M. (1980). Defining and assuring quality: A framework of questions. In M. T. Keeton
(Ed.)
Defining and assuring quality in experiential learning. New Directions for Experiential Learning,
No. 9,
pp. 1-10. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Konrad, J. (2006). A framework for defining the competencies required for the successful
guidance
18
and support of persons seeking to identify and gain recognition for their prior non-formal and
informal
learning. In Leonardo da Vinci Thematic Action Euroguideval SE/05/C/F/TH-82601:
Implementing the
Common European Principles for the Validation of Non Formal and Informal Learning through
Improved Guidance and Counselling based on a Common Framework for Guidance
Professionals.
Konrad, J. (2001). Accreditation of prior experiential learning in the United Kingdom. Leeds:
Leeds
Metropolitan University.
Kulieke, M., Bakker, J., Collins, C., Fennimore, T., Fine, C., Herman, J, Jones, B., Raak, M.
Tinzmann,
M. (1990). Why should assessment be based on a vision of learning? [On-line]. Retrieved on
May 19,
2007 from: http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/rpl_esys/assess.htm.
Lahiff, A. (1998). APEL for post-compulsory education and training (PCET) practitioners. In D.
Croker,
D. Ellis, Y. Hill, J. Storan, & I. Turner (Eds.), APEL: Beyond graduateness. Norwich, England:
Page
Bros. Ltd.
Learning from Experience Trust (2000). Mapping APEL: Accreditation of prior experiential
learning in
English higher education institutions. London: Goldsmith College.
Murphy, A. (2004). AP(E)L in Irish higher education: Findings from an audit of practice
undertaken as
an activity within the Socrates-Grundtvig research project VaLEx Valuing Learning from
Experience
2003-2005. Dublin: Dublin Institute of Technology.
National Qualifications Authority of Ireland. (2006). Principles and operational guidelines for the
recognition of prior learning in further and higher education and training. Dublin: Author.
New Zealand Qualifications Authority. (2004). The role of national qualifications systems in
promoting
lifelong learning: Background report for New Zealand. Wellington: Author.
Norwegian Institute for Adult Education. (2002). Validation of non-formal and informal learning
in
Norway: The realkompetanse project. 1999-2002. Oslo: VOX.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2003). Beyond rhetoric: Adult
learning
policies and practices. Paris: Author.
Otero, M., McCoshan, A., Junge, K. [Eds.] (2005). A European inventory on validation of nonformal
19
and informal learning: A final report to the DG education and culture of the European
Commission.
Birmingham: ECOTEC Research and Consulting.
Pearson, W. (2000). Enhancing adult student persistence: The relationship between prior
learning
assessment and persistence toward the baccalaureate degree. Doctoral dissertation, Iowa State
University, Ames, IA.
Pellegrino, J. (2003). The evolution of educational assessment: Considering the past and
imagining the
future. William H. Angoff Memorial Lecture. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
Pouget, M., & Osborne, M. (2004). Accreditation or validation of prior experiential learning:
Knowledge
and saviors in France – A different perspective? Studies in Continuing Education, 26(1), 45-65.
Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education. (2000). Code of practice for the assurance of
academic quality and standards in higher education. Gloucester, England: Author.
Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education. (2004). Guidelines on the accreditation of prior
learning. Gloucester, England: Author.
Red River College of Applied Science and Technology. (2005). PLAR strategic and operational
plan.
Winnipeg: Author.
Saskatchewan Institute of Applied Science and Technology. (2004). SIAST PLAR policy and
procedure
statement. Saskatoon: Author.
Saskatchewan Learning. (2005). Recognizing prior learning in Saskatchewan: Provincial policy
framework. Saskatoon: Author.
Saxton, J. (2000). Never mind the quality, feel the credit. In S. Bailie & C. O’Hagan (Eds.) APEL
and
lifelong learning. Northern Ireland: University of Ulster.
Scottish Qualifications Authority. (2004). SCQF handbook: Volume 2. Glasgow: Author.
Scottish Qualifications Authority. (2005). Guidelines for the recognition of prior informal learning
(RPL).
Glasgow: Author.
Scottish Qualifications Authority. (2007). SCQF Update: April 2007. Glasgow: Author.
South African Qualifications Authority. (2002). Quality assurance in South Africa: National
initiatives
concerning prior learning. Pretoria: Author
South African Qualifications Authority. (2004). Criteria and guidelines for the implementation of
the
recognition of prior learning. Pretoria: Author
20
Southern England Consortium for Credit Accumulation and Transfer. (2003). Revised SEEC code
of
practice for the assessment of prior (experiential) learning. London, England: Southern England
Consortium for Credit Accumulation and Transfer.
Storan, J. (1996). Assessment of prior (experiential) learning: A quality code for
AP(E)L issues for managers and practitioners. In P. Alheit & D. Piening (Eds.), Assessment of
prior
experiential learning as a key to lifelong learning: Evaluating European practices. Paper
presented at
the European Conference. Bremen, Germany. June 5-6, 1998.
Storan, J. (2005). General principles for the recognition/validation/accreditation of informal and
nonformal learning. REFINE Project: England, Wales and Northern Ireland Country Report.
London:
University of East London.
Valk, A. (2007). Recognition of lifelong learning: Example from Estonia. Presentation at the
Riga,
Bologna Seminar. Retrieved from:
file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Joy/My%20Documents/CCL/Quality%20Assurance
%20Proje
ct%20CCL/Issues%20and%20Strategies%20Report/Aune_Valk_EstAPEL_Riga.ppt#1. April 14,
2007.
Van Kleef, J. (2006). Building PLAR through theory: The case for implementing prior learning
assessment and recognition in adult education practice settings. Unpublished Master of Adult
Education thesis. St. Francis Xavier University.
Wheelahan, L. (2003). A report on recognition of prior learning (RPL) policy and practice in
Australia in
2002, including National Principles and Operational Guidelines for RPL in post-compulsory
education
and training: Final report. Southern Cross University. Lismore, Australia.
Whitaker, U. (1976). Assessors and their qualifications. In M. Keeton (Ed.), Experiential learning
(pp.
189-223). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Whitaker, U. (1989). Assessing learning standards, principles, and procedures. Philadelphia:
Council
for Adult and Experiential Learning.
Wolff, R. (1980). Alterative models of self-study – New approaches to systematic quality
assurance. In
M. T. Keeton (Ed.) Defining and assuring quality in experiential learning. New Directions for
Experiential Learning, No. 9, pp. 1-10. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Wong, A. (1996). Prior learning assessment: A guide for university faculty and administrators.
21
Saskatoon: University Extension Press. University of Saskatchewan.
Woodhouse, D. (1999). Quality and quality assurance. In H. de Wit & J. Knight [Eds.] Quality
and
internationalisation in higher education. Paris: OECD.
22
MANITOBA - LIVING LABORATORY FOR RAC
Don Presant - Manitoba PLA Network (MPLAN), Learning Agents Inc., Winnipeg,
Canada
Abstract
Don Presant, Chair of the Manitoba PLA Network, will provide an overview of innovative PLAR/
RPL/RAC activity in Manitoba, including the following initiatives:
1. Building a Vibrant Regional PLAR Network
PLAR (RAC) practitioners and researchers who might envision a network of collegial interaction
and support need look no further than Manitoba's MPLAN organization. Founded in 1996,
MPLAN (Manitoba Prior Learning Assessment Network) offers PLAR professionals a
comprehensive network of resources and collaborative opportunities. This brief introduction to
the successful MPLAN Community of Practice may inspire others to build similar organizations in
their particular regions.
2. Workplace Integration of Newcomers (WIN)
WIN is an employer-driven, competency-based, fast track approach for matching skilled
immigrants with employers in high-demand occupations. Key elements of WIN include:
employer-specific technical competency profiles; flexible, hands-on assessment; gap training in
technical and job specific language skills normally delivered on a one-to-one basis; continuous
reassessment, provision of participant supports; and documentation of participant skills
including, ultimately, an employer statement that complete competency (including an attached
list of specific competencies) has been achieved.
3. Workplace Informal Learning Matrix (WILM)
WILM is a powerful tool to help you measure the complexity of informal learning in your
workplace. The WILM consists of a series of specific scales used to capture the opportunity and
levels of the Essential Skills required for a range of job classifications in the workplace. These
non-technical skills include communication, problem solving, working with others, decision
making, leadership, workplace culture, diversity and continuous learning.
4. Kickin' It Up a Notch - Manitoba Government Re-energizes!
In 2001, Manitoba began to implement its cross-system PLAR Policy Framework which has gone
through much development and can be said to have engaged many in a learning cycle unto
itself. PLAR is now the way we do things in Manitoba and has become as familiar and
comfortable as old slippers. Much has been learned and many new people are now in job
positions who did not ride the initial energy wave. So, in early 2008, the government
coordinating committee decided to re-energize PLAR in Manitoba. This presentation will talk
about three priority strategies and several key projects in Manitoba.
5. A Decade of PLAR Strategic Planning at Red River College
Join us for this session, as we provide an update on the outcomes, successes, our learning and
some of challenges we still face, midway through our second PLAR Strategic Plan (2005-2010).
We'll share the views and voices of faculty, staff and learners on where we are, after almost a
decade of strategically planning for PLAR. We'll also explore some of the new initiatives that
have been implemented - a spin off to some of the strategic planning outcomes.
23
RAC IN THE PROVINCE OF QUÉBEC
Leah Moss
1
Guy Fortier 2 (1: English School Boards of Québec, Canada 2:
Compétences Montréal, Canada)
Abstract
This presentation will discuss the model being implemented in the adult vocational and collegial
levels of education in the Province of Québec, Canada. The context of the RAC program is
grounded in a history of use in the province and a newly revised version of the process. The
Ministère de l’Éducation, du Loisir et du Sport (MELS) launched an initiative to make available
the RAC service to all citizens of Québec. The Ministry provides funding and initial training and
acts as a support to the deliver of service. Currently, the MELS supports 18 consortiums that
deliver the RAC service to the population.
• Objectives
1) To identify the stakeholders involved in the delivery of the RAC service within the Province of
Québec and its application.
2) To discuss the main issues and challenges facing the consortiums (immigration, working with
professional orders and the relationship between the economy and job demand)
3) To highlight the direct relationship between the competency-based education system and the
competency-based delivery of RAC within the Province of Québec.
• Summary of results
Participants will gain a better understanding of the model of intervention developed in the
delivery of RAC in the Province of Québec.
• Conclusions and recommendations
The focus will be on a discussion of new challenges and issues faced by the consortiums as
they relate to the delivery of the RAC service in Province of Québec and the relationship of RAC
to the Prior Learning Assessment and Recognition (PLAR) programs offered within the rest of
Canada.
24
ACCREDITATION AND RECOGNITION OF PRIOR EXPERIENCE AND
LEARNING: CURRENT PRACTICES AND FUTURE POSSIBILITIES
Tracy Slawson, NIACE, United Kingdom
Abstract
It is clear that there is no definitive understanding or, for that matter, terminology, within UK
adult education to adequately deal with Accreditation and Recognition of Prior Experience and
Learning (A/RP(E)L). A/RP(E)L within the context of UK adult education is fragmented and
disjointed.
Previous assumptions have understood the formal educational environments of HE and FE to be
the natural home of A/RP(E)L practice due to the move in the 1980s and 1990s towards a focus
on competencies and credit systems as a way of widening access. However, it appears that as a
result of the perception of APL (Accreditation of Prior Learning) and APEL (Accreditation of Prior
Experience and Learning) processes as overly bureaucratic and time consuming, the momentum
has dissipated and left a legacy of inconsistent and subjective systems, with institutions unable
to finance the necessary support structures that are required.
In July 2008 the NIACE ICT and Learning Team authored a report entitled ‘Accreditation and
Recognition of Prior Experience and Learning’, which sought to provide an overview of practices
in place within the UK for recognising prior experience and learning. The research was funded
by the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) and carried out over a period of two
months, concluding in July 2008. The reason for the study was to provide an accessible insight
into current practices in order to inform the direction of future JISC projects and studies in this
area.
The purpose of the report was three-fold: firstly it aimed to illustrate the understandings of and
terminology used within UK adult education to deal with prior learning. Secondly, it aimed to
gain an insight into actual practice and systems used by educational institutions and
organisations. Thirdly, it looked at how technology is currently being used, within these
processes, and how it could be used to overcome some of the problems identified.
The research showed that the most innovative and focussed engagement with A/RP(E)L is
taking place within the WBL and the VCS sector. The momentum gaining pace within WBL and
VCS is linked to a redefining of the old understanding of APEL (as a simple auditing exercise) in
order to award advanced standing or credit, characterized as an act of looking back. It has also
involved a move towards a focus on APEL (A/RP(E)L) as an experiential learning cycle; an
important process in its own right rather than simply a means to an end. This represents a
move on from issues solely of access to a concern with wider processes of ‘Professional
Development Planning’ and the language of lifelong learning and employability. However, whilst
the new agendas span all sectors, a significant commitment and forward-drive is to be found
only in some.
Nonetheless, our research demonstrated that many of the initiatives being undertaken by the
WBL sectors are being noticed by and are impacting on wider HEI A/RP(E)L practice. This is
because of the increased situatedness of WBL provision within HEIs. However, due to the
limited and discrete nature of partnerships between employers, WBL and HEIs, there is no tool
or process in place that can be used by employees and can then automatically be recognised
by, and be transferable to, a range of HEIs. A more entrenched problem may be the lack of
recognition given to the work taking place in the informal learning sector by formal learning
institutions.
What our research has shown is that the introduction of ICT systems and tools, to support A/RP
(E)L processes, often provide an impetus for re-evaluating the understanding of A/RP[E]L within
25
institutions by demanding an agreed understanding to form the basis of online tools or
templates. This is particularly apparent in HEIs and has several positive effects. Not only does it
create a shared understanding within the institutions for staff, but it conveys more coherently
this understanding to potential claimants and learners.
By creating a shared, organisation-wide understanding that is linked to defined and coherent
processes, of the adult education sectors we have case-studied, all have benefited. This
consensus would foster a clearer understanding of the expectations of HE, FE and WBL, and
therefore the transfer of learners from informal learning to formal learning, and the
enhancement of employment through learning.
26
RECOGNITION OF COMPETENCIES IN ACUTE CARE THROUGH AN
EPORTFOLIO
Harry Owen, Clinical Skills and Simulation Unit, Sue Skinner, Computer Assisted
Learning Unit, Chris Carapetis, Computer Assisted Learning Unit and Cyle Sprick,
Clinical Skills and Simulation Unit, Department of Medical Education, School of
Medicine, Flinders University, South Australia
BACKGROUND
All health professionals should be able to provide Basic Life Support (BLS) [1] and many are
required to perform Advanced Life Support (ALS). The component clinical skills that make up
BLS and ALS must all be performed promptly and effectively if someone who is seriously ill or
injured is to be successfully resuscitated. In most countries there are peak bodies that publish
best-evidence guidelines on resuscitation. An international panel of experts (ILCOR) appointed
by the national bodies publish updated guidelines approximately every 5 years.
Research reveals that much resuscitation teaching is not having the desired outcome and many
new medical graduates are not confident in their ability to provide acute and emergency care
[2]. These findings can be partly attributed to fewer opportunities in hospitals for students to
learn and practise essential clinical skills and apply knowledge. This has come about through an
increased number of medical students to address a projected shortage of doctors, economic
forces that have changed the way medical care is delivered and changed societal attitudes.
Also, BLS trainers often depart from the curriculum and pass trainees even when performance is
poor [3].
The traditional format of an acute care skills course is based on a fixed curriculum and intensive
massed teaching in a training area. [1] Educationally, learning distributed over time that is
individualised to learners' needs and work environment is more likely to achieve desired
outcomes. We wanted to develop a more flexible approach to learning and assessment of BLS
and ALS skills that would both record competence and engage learners in self-analysis of the
knowledge and skills needed to continually improve performance.
A major barrier to flexible learning has been how to record and track learning and achievement
of students at different stages of development and those at distant and remote locations. The
Flinders University School of Medicine has campuses in Adelaide, Darwin, Alice Springs and
several rural clinical schools in regional centres in South Australia. Some students undertake a
whole year of the course in a community setting [4] and all spend some time on a rural
healthcare attachment. A web-based product would be best for students to record their learning
and experiences and give the faculty a way to track progress. When we recognised the need for
reflection and for feedback it became clear that we wanted an e-Portfolio. This paper describes
how we are using an e-Portfolio to develop the basis for recognising medical students as
achieving BLS and from 2009, ALS provider status.
THE PROJECT
We identified three medical education needs associated with acute care skills:
1. To ensure all students acquire essential knowledge and become proficient in core acute
care skills
2. That students can evaluate their own performance and identify how it could be improved
3. A web-based system with data security for students to aggregate evidence of acute care
clinical skills achievement from multiple sources
After an extensive search we chose PebblePad, a mature e-Portfolio platform. The core of
PebblePad is a personal digital archive (repository) holding a wide range of files (assets). Assets
27
can be tagged when they are saved to the repository and this facilitates searching and
repurposing them. PebblePad also has scaffolding features that help students collate evidence
of achievement (e.g. Action Plan) and encourage reflection (e.g. Thought and Experience) to
help the transition from healthcare ‘novice’ to ALS ‘expert’.
Components and links in PebblePad (Used with permission of Pebble Learning)
The most recent guidelines on emergency care [5] were used to determine the curriculum,
what competencies and related skill sets needed to be taught and what learning outcomes
needed to be assessed. We then considered what activities would be the most efficient in
demonstrating that necessary knowledge, skills related skill-sets or competencies and attitudes
had been acquired. The curriculum was communicated to students via course booklets and the
clinical skills website on the University intranet. The competencies were translated into a series
of ‘profiles’ in PebblePad. Students could import these templates into their e-Portfolio and begin
populating them with evidence of learning. Items can be submitted to the e-Portfolio by
smartphone or PDA as well as by PC.
For BLS, students received comprehensive teaching over several sessions and practised
undertaking patient care using whole body patient simulators in a number of settings. Students
were assessed on how they managed the scenario of discovering someone who had collapsed.
A video-recording of the simulated encounter was used for assessment and for providing
feedback to students. This video file was offered to students for inclusion in their e-Portfolio
where they could reflect and comment on their performance and indicate how they would
improve their skills.
OBSERVATIONS
There are differing interpretations of BLS and some accredited BLS training does not include all
the components described in the guidelines. We are now encouraging students to publish links
to their BLS video and reflections to demonstrate the high quality of achievement to a wide
audience. We are approving BLS competencies locally and we expect the video of skills
performance will be used to validate our teaching as well as the achievement of students.
28
Accrediting and other external organisations can see that any and all of our students have
achieved a high level of attainment in acute care skills (e.g. BLS, etc.) and also other related
requirements for clinical placements or work that are often overlooked (e.g. safe use of oxygen,
etc.).
Several studies have concluded students and recent medical graduates do not have the
competence or confidence to undertake resuscitation [2] but many of our students from all
years of the medical course have reported their involvement in providing emergency care (often
taking leadership roles) in both hospital and community settings. Clearly our methods are
having the desired results.
We noted four themes that outline advantages of using an e-Portfolio for acute skills in medical
education, including:
 Teaching and learning
- All faculty can see the curriculum and how and where they are contributing to the big
picture.
-All students have reliable access to the same current and explicit curriculum.
 Formative assessment/feedback
- Faculty can ascertain that teaching is achieving the desired outcomes amongst students
and can identify poorly-performing students and provide additional coaching.
- Students can see the progress they are making in acquiring knowledge and skills and
what needs their attention and have a secure and widely accessible location to record
experience and achievement and aggregate reflections on this.
 Summative assessment
-Faculty can track student learning and confirm achievement for award of certificates.
- Students have a record of achievement suitable for job applications, employers and
supervisors.
Acculturation and professionalism
- Faculty can see students are becoming reflective practitioners, developing relevant
attitudes and professional behaviour.
- Students can show they can identify gaps in learning and respond to feedback (self
regulation).
CONCLUSION
The acute care skills e-Portfolio is transforming our assessment of BLS from being occasional
staged snapshots to one of recurrent self-analysis and reflection on personal capabilities and
continuing professional development. This self-regulation is the foundation of life-long learning
and improving quality of care, both core attributes of graduate health professionals. We are
now extending e-Portfolio use to include ALS and acute care skills generally.
Resuscitation (BLS and ALS) cannot be learned 'on the job' without exposing patients to
significant risk of poor outcome. Immersive simulation gives students a safe way of to learn. A
comprehensive self-audit is needed to avoid gaps in essential knowledge and skills and an ePortfolio gives faculty and students a way of ensuring competence in all areas of resuscitation
and reaching ALS-provider status. Students can also generate a narrative of their development
to demonstrate they can analyse their own performance and have acquired life-long learning
skills. This process is designed to generate a culture of continuous performance improvement.
Integration of teaching and learning with clinical experience in the e-Portfolio means students
have both performance and capability evidence. We need to develop a reporting template for
29
students to record information on medical emergencies they help manage. Our GREAT
debriefing tool is a useful aid for reflection and providing feedback. [7]
This approach can be used more widely by trainees and trained staff who have to satisfy
requirements of professional and credentialing bodies and employers. These layers have
developed independently and many health professionals now have to maintain multiple
collections of evidence of learning and achievement in portfolios or logbooks. Items in an ePortfolio can be tagged and repurposed to make the process more time-efficient.
BLS is a set of generic skills but some ALS competencies are more relevant to some healthcare
disciplines than others. BLS teaching can be extended and ALS teaching can be made more
engaging by tailoring it to the needs of particular clinical areas. Profiles in the e-Portfolio can
assist this process for health professionals working in specialist areas and also help them
identify extra training needs when they transfer to another area or role. In the future, we
envisage employers will use e-Portfolios to ensure an appropriate skills mix in healthcare teams.
References
1. Chamberlain DA, Hazinski MF, 2003, Education in resuscitation: an ILCOR symposium:
Utstein Abbey: Stavanger, Norway: June 22-24, 2001, Circulation, 108; 2575-2594.
2. Duns G, Weiland T, Crotty B, et al, 2007, Self-rated preparedness of Australian prevocational
hospital doctors for emergencies, Emergency Medicine Australasia, 20;144-148.
3. Parnell MM, Larsen PD, 2007, Poor quality teaching in lay person CPR courses,
Resuscitation, 73, 271-278.
4. Worley P, Silagy C, Prideaux D, Newble D, Jones A, 2000, The Parallel Rural Community
Curriculum: An integrated clinical curriculum based in rural general practice, Medical
Education, 34: 558-565.
5. http://www.erc.edu/index.php/guidelines_download/, Accessed 13/12/08
6. http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/vol112/24_suppl/, Accessed 13/12/08
7.
Owen H, Follows V, 2006, GREAT simulation debriefing, Medical Education, 40:488-489.
Authors
Professor Harry Owen
Flinders University, Clinical Skills and Simulation Unit, Department of Medical Education
School of Medicine, Flinders Medical Centre, Bedford Park, 5042 South Australia
[email protected]
Ms Sue Skinner
Flinders University, Computer Assisted Learning Unit, Department of Medical Education
[email protected]
Mr Chris Carapetis
Flinders University, Computer Assisted Learning Unit, Department of Medical Education
[email protected]
Mr Cyle Sprick
30
Flinders University, Clinical Skills and Simulation Unit, Department of Medical Education
[email protected]
31
OUT WITH THE OLD; IN WITH THE NEW...SPACE
Can social networks be utilised to enhance student enrolment and retention?
Allan Simon Theophanides, University of Wales, Newport
Foreword
This paper is a work in progress of a case study that is being written and reassessed at three
keys points within the Academic year of 2008/09. Consequently, it will remain a work in
progress until June 2009 when the final results can be obtained and the complete findings and
conclusions will be published. Please contact the author for further information.
Introduction
Recent press and studies into the social networking habits have suggested that students do not
want to mix Academic facilities with their private lives. However, after the University of Wales,
Newport developed a successful application for users to integrate the institutional Managed
Learning Environment with their own Facebook profile, a question mark appeared against these
hypothesise.
Are students more accepting of the integration of e-Learning with their social networking than
we expected? Or is it just based upon the fact that they can choose whether or not to
participate and they decide where the boundaries should lie? Alternatively, is it just the fact
that installing such an application eliminates the need for extra mouse clicks to get to their
University information from a site that they would normally have running anyway?
From an institutional perspective, could successful integration of social networking and online
Academic access contribute to not only keeping students engaged, but also allow for a more
student centred approach to Learning and Teaching? Also through progress tracking and a
greater sense of 24/7 communication with peers and staff, could such an integration play a
significant role in actually keeping them enrolled?
Can social networking sites like MySpace and Facebook even serve as effective promotional
tools for the institution prior to enrolment?
This case study starts to investigate these
possibilities by way of an initial year-long research project on the use of a social networking tool
to promote the University and retain new students.
Context
The University of Wales, Newport is a small/medium sized institution (circa 10000 students)
situated in South Wales in the U.K. It is split across two campuses with four schools: School of
Art, Media & Design, Newport Business School, School of Health & Social Sciences and School
of Education.
The student profile is very diverse and untypical of the other Higher Education Institutions in
the area. The ratio roughly consists of a third full-time, a third part-time and a third franchise
with close links with other Community Education Institutions and Higher Educational colleges in
the Gwent area. One of the national strengths of the University is the inclusion of the Welsh
Film School within the department of Art, Media & Design which also sees a great deal of
students attending from all across the UK as well as a large student populous from abroad
taking advantage of the Business courses that are offered.
With this makeup in mind, it has always proved problematic trying to establish a method in
which students as far reaching as China and India can actually feel part of the University before
they actually arrive on campus. The International Office plays a vital part in creating and
maintaining these links, and lecturers are often flown abroad to help promote full-time courses
32
as well as supporting existing courses delivered in Franchise Centres within these countries.
However effective enhancement using online technologies could see a reduction in the need for
such as well as the costs associated this process. Using an online learning environment does
not fulfil this criteria namely because Franchise tutors are not employed by the University and
subsequently do not have access to the online materials that are provided from Newport, so
although students have access to the online environment being enrolled at the institution,
lecturers do not.
The University has been operating a VLE/MLE since 1999. The current e-Learning platform
comprises of an in-house built Managed Learning Environment (MLE) called myLearning
Essentials (mLE for short [note the lower case ‘m’]). It allows for access to student and staff
news boards, course and module document delivery, the library catalogue, institutionally hosted
forums and blogs as well as other applications such as course/module text messaging and
personalised online timetables that were all added as suggestions were made by staff and
students or advancements in technology arose.
Subsequently as the institution is relatively small, and with the MLE being built in-house it is
very easy for facilities and features to be developed, installed and trialled without being tied
into commercial upgrades from a vendor, or having to verify developments with various steering
groups or committees.
Methodology
As the project developed very quickly through a series of different events coming together there
was no formal methodology or model adhered to, but understanding how the project came
about along with the institutional context is important if looking to replicate such a resource.
In May 2008 the Head of IT & Media Services in the University, Michael Webb, investigated a
website application called Ning (http://www.ning.com) that gave users the ability to create their
own social network. It allowed for basic ‘skinning’ as well as more complex CSS overrides and
with the API being released (until late 2008) allowed development of third party applications
such as chat/IM, radio and video applications that administrators could install either free of
charge, or with a small fee to the developer.
With the success of the Facebook ‘myNewport’ application we looked to set up a Ning site for
new students to access alongside staff and student mentors. The site was given a corporate
institution look and included information related to starting out in the University, student mentor
galleries, interactive campus maps through Google Maps as well as other useful features. We
then promoted the site through internal staff emails, the online staff news board, which is not
visible to existing students, as well as emailing and meeting with the student mentors
themselves.
Within the first two weeks of launch over 100 users were registered on the site which has never
been witnessed in any other project requiring staff involvement with online technologies.
Consequently with a healthy starting membership the development of ‘NewSpace – a place for
new students at Newport’ began.
The framework of Ning is very simple, a registered user creates a network by completing a few
details and the network is placed in a central Ning search directory and the site is allocated a
dedicated site address (http://www.newstudents.ning.com).
Other users then register
themselves for a Ning login and ‘join’ themselves to a social network group of their choosing.
The unique point being as far as users are aware they registering to join the social networking
site that has been created either from finding them in the directory, through a standard web
search engine or being sent an invite or referred to the URL from an administrator or existing
member of the network.
33
The reality is that they are registering themselves as a Ning user and joining themselves to a
‘sub net’ of a much wider social networking/profiling site. This may seem deceptive; however
Ning is not a ‘Big Brother’ site whereby users can search for other users and add them as
friends, á la Facebook or MySpace. The social networks themselves are the only elements that
can be searched for, and whilst the users remain ultimately members of Ning, their profiles
remain exclusively with the social network they joined. A user can participate in several
different networks within Ning, even using the same login details, but have very different and
distinct online profiles for each network. The other advantage is unlike other social networking
sites, the information and content within the site remains the Intellectual Property of the
publishing individual.
With the site being created, it was necessary to take different approaches towards promoting it
to the different groups of users that we wanted to use the network:
Staff – were bulk emailed twice encouraging registration (May/June 2008) and through
explaining how potentially new students would come online and ask questions of courses and
the institution logistics staff could see the benefits institutionally.
Student Mentors – were advised of its existence through email (June 2008) and meetings with
the Q&E department (June/July 2008) helped promote the site as a way of students
communicating with them about student life and concerns as well as a method for them to
communicate with each other.
New/Potential students – this was the most detailed and focussed element of promotion.
Initially a banner was placed on the home page of the University advertising that anyone new
or thinking of going to University could register and access the site for information. This took
users to a ‘mock’ NewSpace page explaining a bit more about the concept with links directly to
the Ning site (http://newstudents.newport.ac.uk). Targeted emails were then sent out to
prospective students of all schools who had applied and their offers were pending or had been
accepted (July 2008). The final ‘push’ was the production of flyers that were distributed in the
joining packs for the University (August 2008) that gave the URL for the NewStudents site that
the banner linked to.
It was decided that although Ning sites can be open to the outside world the site itself would be
closed to anyone who wasn’t a registered user. This was an experiment to see if an element of
security helped increase participation. The targeted emails to staff, mentors and potential new
students all had a specific ‘invite’ URL that was created by the Ning site and had to be followed
to streamline the registration process down to simply an email, date of birth and password.
More details could be completed if the user wished but were not compulsory. The other detail
that was required was once the user account had been created, to join the network questions
could be setup by the administrator to ask users along with whether they should be compulsory
or not.
Although this could be a very advantageous feature for market research information we did not
want users to get aggravated by the registration process, therefore although four questions
were asked to help build the users profile, the only compulsory question was a multiple choice
asking whether they were: a new student, an existing student, a student mentor or a member
of staff which helped keep track of who users were.
The findings
The outcomes and success of the project in relation to the overall question ‘Can social networks
be utilised to enhance student enrolment and retention?’ needs to be assessed and in three
distinct ways:

How many users actually registered on the site, and who were they?
34

What level of participation took place between users and what was the dialogue that
resulted from this participation?

Did students find the site useful in their decision to study at the University, or did the
support mechanism from staff, mentors and peers help keep them studying at the
University?
To assess the first outcome the membership lists were analysed along with the corresponding
user email addresses (to confirm account integrity) against the answers for the compulsory
profile question. The following user statistics were obtained:

Total accounts created – 1032 (as of 15/12/08)

Student mentors – 32

Staff – 234

New students – 594

Students thinking about studying – 73

Existing students – 95

Fake accounts – 1

Test/admin accounts – 2

Replicated accounts - 1
With respect to the level of NewSpace membership against the first year enrolment figures for
‘Newport resident full-timers’, the site encouraged 33.9% of students to register a NewSpace
account. However because of the lack in part-time participation with NewSpace only 1.4% of
Newport resident part-time students participated.
As an overall total 20.7% of Newport first years actually took membership in NewSpace which is
very encouraging for a first year pilot ‘experiment’.
For the second assessment outcome an overall indication as to the level of participation can be
found by looking at what users actually did. Over 70% of users populated their profiles with an
avatar which illustrates an element of willingness to have a personalised representation on the
site. Unfortunately as the user level gained momentum so quickly, the degree in which users
customised their profiles with CSS and embedded content is still being investigated.
The dialogue between users individually cannot be tracked as they are either personal
messages that even site administrators do not have access to or comments on each others’
profiles which is still being investigated alongside the profile customisation audit. However
dialogue in open or group forums can be tracked and have come up with the following:

308 conversation threads were created

The top 5 threads consisted of the following responses
−
‘Who's moving into OPAL?’ - 193 replies
−
‘Photography for Fashion and Ad’ - 103 replies
−
‘Which room r u in?’ - 102 (Started off the categorising of conversations)
−
‘Any other oldies?’ - 91 replies
−
‘Living on campus Sept 2008’ - 86 replies
35
Upon observing the usage during September at the height of the sites traffic activity was
tracked at happening on average once every 5 minutes even during ‘anti-social’ hours between
midnight and 7am.
With the site having peaked membership during late September it was unknown whether to
shut the site down and resurrect during the summer of the following year or to promote it to all
students and use it institutionally or to wait and see what happened to the user level. It was
decided upon to action the latter and let the students decide.
During enrolment week I undertook IT Induction sessions for new students to familiarise
themselves with our IT facilities and their logon details. On doing so I took random selections
of groups and asked them for a ‘show of hands’ as to who would anticipate they would continue
to use the site. The general consensus seemed to confirm what actually happened in that once
they arrived, read all of the information and forged ‘real-time’ friendships, users would see no
further need for the site.
To assess the outcomes for the final outcome, as mentioned previously, attendance statistics
need be obtained from throughout the Academic year.
Obviously it is very difficult to ascertain whether using the site has been successful in retaining
students as the first semester assessment results will not be available until mid February 2009,
with the final set in June 2009. However there are number of indicators that can be obtained
from the information available at present that give a very positive outlook:
(Note: enrolment totals have been omitted until the study has been finalised and the completed
paper be authorised by Management Board)
Year 1 Enrolment Totals:
2008/09 – 4xxx enrolled, 4.1% withdrawn (as of 24/12/08)
2007/08 – 5xxx enrolled, 13.1% withdrawn
This equates to an overall five year average of 13.26% of students usually withdraw within the
first year compared to the current level of 4.11% which although could significantly change, is a
very encouraging starting point.
In relation to whether the site was successful as a promotional tool or not, surprisingly out of
the 73 users that said they were ‘Thinking about studying’ at Newport, 17 actually registered
with no withdrawals from this user group heading into the second semester. This equates to a
23.3% enrolment rate from all those who has expressed an interest in studying at the
institution, which from a site initially developed to help support intended new students first and
foremost, is a very positive first step.
Of the 667 users that were new or prospective students to the University, as far as can be
ascertained (as 36 users cannot did not give enough information to be traced) 565 actually
enrolled, with a withdrawal total of 20 users in the first semester to date. This equates to a
3.5% withdrawal rate which is still below the current institutional rate of 4.1%. The unknown
quantity is whether the site actually provided a support mechanism that prevented students
from considering leaving in the first instance, especially since the withdrawal percentage for this
current year is so low.
36
As mentioned previously, disappointingly only 19 users were part-time students (3 withdrew
within the first semester), which leaves only representation of just 2.8% of the student
populous on NewSpace who registered are part-time.
45 users that indicated that they were ‘new students’ rather than just ‘thinking’ about coming to
the University did not actually enrol in the first semester 2008. This may well be rectified in the
second semester with certain subjects enrolling twice a year, but one can presume that this
figure should be affected substantially.
Further considerations
The staff up take of the site seems to have been heavily influenced by standard social
networking culture and the process of gathering ‘friends’. Although very little communication
between staff took place short of brief salutation messages, new students were still able to
target staff to answer specific queries and concerns either through messages, comments or
online chat
Whilst staff feedback was very positive, mentor use was met with mixed reaction. A great deal
saw the advantage and used the site, whilst a few saw it too time consuming with their other
online activities to participate.
In a pre enrolment meeting there were concerns expressed from mentor users that they were
being ‘hounded’ by new students finding their respective Facebook profiles and asking to be
added as a friend. This does highlight a distinction of Academic and personal life still being
seen as very separate and such a network was perceived by some as a ‘tool’ that the University
was using that was simply based on similar social networking technologies.
Conclusions
From initial statistics the outcomes look very promising. With initial retention rates looking
particularly high, and participation from students being over a fifth of all Newport resident
students.
However with an alarming absence of part-time students participating in the social networking
site, if the overall outcome proves to be worthwhile in replicating in the next Academic year,
future attempts need to address this long term issue. Historically the University has always had
an issue with part-time student engagement online, so although this is nothing new, since a
third of the institution student populous is represented by this student profile it is very
important to try and get these learners ‘on board’.
With the flyers and emails, it seems that due to lack of planning given the speed under which
the project developed, Franchise Centres were overlooked in the promotional process, and
although users from all over the world registered, these were only students that intended to
study at Newport.
With regards the original question ‘Can social networks be utilised to enhance student
enrolment and retention?’ at present with the statistics available, it does indicate that it can.
The proof of this will be more concrete when the assessment figures are released for the first
and second semesters. However given that the retention percentage for this year is the highest
it has ever been, along with the fact that students who used the social networking site are
slightly less likely to withdraw from their studies means that currently it would be a residing
‘yes’!
The next step
Plans are in progress to re-release the site for the next Academic year, especially since users are
still coming across the site and registering (but still pending the final outcomes of the project).
37
This time a focus definitely needs to be on encouraging participation from part-time and
Franchise students so a strategy for promotion needs to be developed towards these groups.
Thoughts are also turning on how to maintain the usage of the site all year round. Until this
occurs significantly beyond the enrolment period, for us, the site will never be promoted to all
students across the institution and will remain an introductory tool.
With this is mind it still looks unlikely that social networking in this format can be used across
the institution for Learning and Teaching. There may be applications for such within certain
disciplines but until a purpose can be found for students to engage in such consistently
throughout the term, without going into direct competition with existing ‘giants’ such as
Facebook and MySpace it looks like social networks are just a promotional tool for now.
38
AN ONLINE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT INTEGRATING AN EDOSSIER TO
GIVE EVIDENCE FOR LIFELONG LEARNING
Dr Pedro Pablo Sanchez-Villalonn Escuela Oficial de Idiomas Ciudad Real, Spain;,
Prof. Manuel Ortega2, Ms Asuncion Sanchez-Villalon, Universidad de Castilla La
Mancha. C.H.I.C.O.
Abstract
The facility of writing on the Web has been the basis for the development of an interactive
online learning environment (AIOLE), which facilitates learning to write by writing and enables
the design of the learning from institutional guidelines to the tutor’s course management to the
learner’s personal learning, following the latest trends of the Web 2.0 as a social network,
where the Web recovers its original function as a Read/Write surface. Currently the Web is
evolving towards that Read/Write Web where the user, apart from accessing information, can
create their own information and communicate more interactively, using technology-enhanced
learning environments to integrate text and multimedia for real audiences both in the classroom
and outside. Applying the two emerging Web technologies (wikis and blogs) with pedagogical
purposes for Language Learning, we can make use of the Web to achieve the new engaging
learning based on learning design (practising and developing authentically communicative skills)
rather than merely on the access to content (for practice with quizzes and comprehension
questions). While face-to-face communication seems more natural for spoken interaction, online
environments are becoming effective for learning mainly through reading, writing and
audiovisual interaction. With the features for collaborative interaction using Web technologies,
the learning system can be transformed into a read-write surface not only for learning but also
for designing learning and reporting about learning on an ePortfolio with an eDossier
throughout the learner’s life.
Introduction
The Web is being transformed from what it has initially become, the so-called “the Read Web”
to the “Read-Write Web”, which was in fact the original vision of Tim Berners-Lee (1999), the
Web founder. The Web can be used as an eLearning system for reading and writing texts, for
uploading and accessing multimedia in an online collaborative learning environment.
All this can be accessible inside and outside the educational centre, in courses where the
learners’ physical presence is not required, such as in distance education, as well as in face-toface courses with tasks that can be assigned for homework or can be done even if the learner
cannot be present in the classroom due to whatever circumstances. If the online participation is
taken into account in advance, a blended learning course can be designed with some activities
to be done at distance and others in face-to-face classes under the monitoring of the tutor in
the same physical environment. What is more, this opens up the possibility to let the learners
organize their own learning and practise on their own or in groups forming communities of
learners who share the same interests in specific disciplines or areas of knowledge.
The communication facilities provided by such a system would allow the learning experience
designed by the tutor in the technology-enhanced classroom to be also accessible anywhere
anytime, thus creating an appropriate environment for Blended Learning.
Apart from a communication tool consisting of a chat facility to negotiate collaboration and to
communicate with the tutor, it could integrate a set of language tools or other reference
materials to help the learners write naturally and access information and reference works, as it
is usual in the real world when communicating formally. As a result, learning would be achieved
by using communication devices, sharing resources and information, and collaborating in
authentic contexts, as a reflection of the learners’ future working life.
39
Furthermore, this learning situation can extend into informal learning environments and
practices, allowing users to become permanent learners who, after an initial stage of being
guided to learning with technology, will be able to design their own learning plans and make
use of the Web as a social network, accessing information, publishing their achievements in
ePortfolios and sharing their learning experience with others by writing about their own learning
experiences and thoughts, using micro-resources known as widgets, wikis, blogs, podcasts, on
what has been termed the Web 2.0 (O’Reilly, 2005) or the Read/Write Web for their lifelong
learning.
Integrative Technology for Technology-Enhanced Language Learning
Basic interactive communication on the Web with forms and forums has been improved with
new technologies for writing on the Web: wikis and blogs. These can make webpages into
writing surfaces to publish information. Technology facilitates an Integrated Learning Model
(Mason, 1998), full of resources, based on interaction and work in group with material
adaptative to the learners’ needs and to the evolution of e -Learning environments.
Although a broad definition of eLearning refers to new online ways of learning (Towards a
knowledge based Europe: European Commission, 2002), the LTSN Generic Centre (2003)
defines eLearning as learning facilitated and supported through the use of information and
communication technologies. It includes digital content, it is experienced through a technology
interface, and it is Internet-enabled (Zastroky, 2000). Our vision is more specific. Until recently,
eLearning has involved using electronic technologies to deliver learning content. Currently, it
also implies making use of interactive learning resources through communication facilities. Clark
(2003) points out the interaction feature and claims that eLearning exploits interactive
technologies and communication systems to improve the learning experience.
The Web is the largest repository of content and its original functionality was to provide access
to materials located in servers: this has been the core strategy for eLearning. However, the Web
is becoming more versatile. All the new interactive Web functionalities can be organised in
services offered to Web users. If we design an interactive environment with a learning objective
we can develop an effective eLearning appliance. An appliance comprehends several aspects
such as the technological infrastructure required, the organization or planning of its use and,
what is becoming more important, the underlying principles for its effective use.
An Integrating Model of technology-enhanced language learning (Warschauer & Healey, 1998)
embeds appropriate tools to practise and develop the various language skills using the
technology in the language learning process.
This seems to be the real communicative framework for language learning, which Warschauer
(1997) calls Integrative CALL. It could also be referred to as Integrating Model of TELL
(Technology-enhanced language learning) since it is not the computer, but the use of the
technology with ubiquitous facilities (portable devices and Web wireless accessibility) that allows
and adds an extra value to the learning environment. It integrates the various authentically
communicative language skills (e.g., speaking, listening, reading and writing) using the
technology into the language learning process. As Warschauer and Healey report:
“In integrative approaches, students learn to use a variety of technological tools as an ongoing
process of language learning and use, rather than visiting the computer lab on a once a week
basis for isolated exercises (whether the exercises be behaviouristic or
communicative)” (Warschauer & Healey, 1998).
While oral interaction is practised in peer-to-peer language activities, and reading and listening
can be practised on the Web, a new system would facilitate Web-based writing both in an
independent way and in collaboration. It would allow learners to write their own texts or
40
participate in collaborative projects, possibly tracking every learner’s actions and contributions
for the tutor to monitor and finally assess the writing activity. This interactive online service can
be developed initially for language learning, to learn how to write by writing, and later it can be
extensible to other disciplines since writing helps to effectively internalize the knowledge
acquired from access to and interaction with any kind of information.
AWLA and AIOLE
Centered on these Web2.0 capabilities, we first developed AWLA, a wiki-like system to learn
how to write by writing on the Web both individually or in collaboration. It allows the tutor to
design the language learning task with the help of certain educational reference frameworks.
Following these reference models, and choosing language learning strategies from the range of
some institutionally-established pedagogical frameworks available, such as the Common
European Framework of Reference for Language Learning (CEFR, 2001), the USA ACTFL
(American Council for the Teaching of Foreign Languages) or others (the Canadian Language
Benchmarking –CLB– and the Australian International Second Language Proficiency Rating), we
have developed really user-centered language learning environments. Here the tutor can design
the writing task or assignment and the learners can initially be guided by the tutor to design
their learning plan. Later, they can continue their training by designing writing tasks and
practising writing strategies on their own just by referring to the language framework writing
section available on the site and the great number of language activities on the Web (Figure
1).
Figure 1. AWLA Scenario Edition with access to CEFR and ACTFL Guidelines
Then, derived from the AWLA facility to write on the Web, the blog-like AIOLE (An Interactive
Online Learning Environment) provides access to content in the way of Learning Management
Systems, with activities designed by the tutor or copied and pasted from the Web. Additionally,
AIOLE also offers a set of resources and services which allow the planning of not only writing
but fully skill-based learning activities designed initially by the tutor, and then, in a progressively
more independent, informal way by the learners themselves on a lifelong learning basis.
Integrating tools for Personal Learning
Under the new modes of learning based on the new eLearning paradigm, learners are the main
developers of their knowledge construction and tutors should guide them in the process. To do
this, learners should have the possibility to get access to all the information they need, and
tutors should provide them with strategic resources and appropriate pathways to select and
experience the knowledge by interacting with information and with others, and thus help them
to later develop creative thinking in every chunk of learning in an independent way.
41
AWLA leaves the learning design to the tutor or any user with a similar role, capable of
designing the guidelines for a writing assignment. This is possible after they get accustomed to
using the AWLA system a number of times or have the learning experience of using the CEFR
descriptors (Figure 1) or the ACTFL guidelines offered by the system when creating a new
writing scenario.
AWLA offers some resources (Ortega & Sánchez-Villalón, 2005), such as language tools (a
dictionary and access to online dictionaries, Grammar analysis at a basic level, a WordNet
search facility, a single word translator, and a lexicon, accessible from the toolbar in a secondary
window: see Figure 1) and communication tools (a Web-based simultaneous and permanent
chat), text and multimedia file uploading facilities with their automatic visualization, all of which
can form part of the set of widgets a Personal Learning Environment needs, as Johnson et al.
refer in the patterns for a PLE Reference Model (Johnson et al, 2006). AWLA can be used as
one of the resources to count on in the most recent evolution of learning environment for
lifelong learning.
AWLA can be easily integrated at a second level (Amsden, 2001) through an instruction call for
variable values. With a form button or link in MOODLE, the user can open the integrated
resource for writing on the Web in an embedded window. The same technique has been applied
in Google Pages (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Integration of AWLA in MOODLE and in GooglePages
Our research has extended into the development of an online learning environment, AIOLE,
based on this facility of writing on the Web, which allows the design of the learning by the
teacher or tutor and by the learners themselves, facilitating a truly learner-centred learning
environment and advancing to the future lifelong learning tendency.
Obviously, the integration of AWLA in AIOLE is complete since the latter is an evolution of the
former (Figure 3).
42
Figure 3: Integration of AWLA in AIOLE
Although the objectives of AWLA did not include the functionality of being used for personal
learning design, AIOLE was developed with that goal in mind. We provided the system with the
set of services and resources necessary for personal learning following the PLE Reference Model
(Johnson et al, 2006) and could give support for that learning in a progressive way since the
design is established in a scaffolding way: first, the design of the discipline syllabuses as
determined by the educational authorities or institutions (CEFR for Languages and ACTFL).
Then, the staff department guidelines can help determining the topics and the notions to apply.
The particular tutor makes use of these to design the learning activities and the learner can use
them, too, to design their own particular activities and give a report of their learning track
(which leads to the eportfolio initiatives; see eDossier section below). AIOLE also has a set of
Web-based communication tools (Web-based chat channels and thematic forums), information
management, exploration and creation, and design facilities, all integrated in the PLE
environment at different levels. And all this can be done mainly by writing in the online learning
environments provided by AIOLE (Figure 4).
Figure 4. AIOLE sets of services for learning.
Integrating Multimedia in AWLA
New modes of information frequently involve the use of multimedia as reinforcing content,
which adds context to textual information. Language courses usually offer supplementary
audiovisual material (textbooks with pictures, audio and videotapes or in CD-ROMs). However,
the current trend to develop complex multimedia software to assist learners with visual
environments based on simulations or virtual worlds entails new modes of language learning
whose effectiveness is little understood yet.
Meanwhile, online learning can offer authentic contextual scenarios to access information and
communicate, especially when learning foreign languages. If we want to make language
43
learning more effective, we can enhance existing learning practices with technology. To do this,
adding multimedia as a stimulus input material in the learning design or as supporting
information in the resulting writing will bring us closer to integrative contextual learning.
AWLA enables writing online for learning languages and adds the facility to include multimedia
in the learning design area and in the writing area. Multimedia materials can be easily created
with mobile phones or digital cameras. With AWLA, a competent ICT user can upload them and
link to them or to existing online multimedia files, easily displaying them embedded when
publishing their writing on automatically HTML-generated pages. Tutors can provide learners
with multimedia input as a motivating stimulus, (e.g. for taking notes from videos, thus
integrating listening). Learners can add visual support to their compositions (e.g. advertising
tourist resorts with supporting pictures). Thus, we can integrate pedagogically-driven
multimedia to enhance language learning with technology. Integration of multimedia files in
AWLA provides a twofold capacity: embedding the files in the learners’ writings and embedding
them in the assignments designed by the tutor.
Since it is mainly a writing appliance, AWLA does not offer the facility to edit images, sound or
video files. However, it was initially designed with the capacity to allow the learners to insert
images (in jpg or gif format) in their writings because this adds visual information to their texts.
Sound and video rendering multimedia facilities were also included. This is done in two very
simple ways: they can locate an appropriate image, sound or video on the Web and paste the
link on the writing surface or they can upload one of their own to the AWLA server. When they
save the text and read it, the image is displayed accordingly in the place inserted in the text
(see Figure 5).
Figure 5. AWLA Spanish Interface with images displayed in the Reading Area.
This has been recently enhanced with sound and video files, following a similar technique. The
application has been added a set of CGI commands to produce DHTML object tags that read
the kind of file extension from the URL address and determine which type of format the
interface needs to render, and displays it accordingly. AWLA supports the following multimedia
formats: gif, jpeg, jpg, png and bmp image files, wma, wmv, avi, mpg and asx sound and video
files to open with Windows Media, and ram, rm, rpm sound and video files to open with Real
Player. It does not require any other plug-in component. Just these two media applications
which are considered as W3C standards for the Web technology will make do and will display
the files appropriately.
The same facility is available for tutors designing the writing tasks. In this case, the file has a
limited display size to adapt to the right-hand column, where they will be always available for
display (Figure 6). What is extraordinarily innovative is the capability to have the learners
44
writing on a task and at the same time offering audiovisual input for them to react by writing.
This has a lot of functionalities, some of which are listed below:




This can be used for displaying lectures in audio or video, to which the learners will
react by taking notes as instructed by the tutor, or extracting some specific information.
They can be used for description of the situation or the places displayed on pictures or
video.
They can also be used for Listening Comprehension with questions the learner should
answer in their Writing Area. Extensively, this can also be used for a similar activity
called Viewing or Watching Comprehension.
Less constructivist-based activities can also be done, such as taking dictations or
extracting words from famous songs, or filling the blanks from listening.
Figure 6. Demonstration file with video easily rendered in AWLA Reading screen and sample
activities with video file in the Assignment column.
The multimedia facility is outstanding in some humanistic disciplines such Arts and Design
because it offers the possibility to comment on input presented at the same time. Additionally, it
can be used for uploading other works done by the learners. The widespread use of video
cameras and mobile phones with cameras makes it really easy to take photos or videos of a
visual work done and present it on the Web with AWLA, including a descriptive text. It is also
useful to prepare projects about towns or tourist resorts the learner has personally visited and
taken photos of video of and present them with a text, maybe a description, explanation,
narrative or argumentative essay.With this multimedia facility, AWLA offers contextual support
for the learners to write.
eDossier
AIOLE serves the current trends of Personal Learning Environments where the learners control
their own learning in a final stage, designing their own learning paths (following superordinate
institutional learning objectives and ePortfolio practices), searching for learning resources and
communities to share their interests to accomplish their learning needs, giving adequate
relevance and structure to informal learning to include in their lifelong learning process.
By using official templates, AIOLE offers easy ePortfolio edition with the European Language
Passport, and with a quite innovative improvement: the implementation of a really updatable
eDossier (Figure 7), with the facility to upload scanned certificates and multimedia files
(pictures, or audio and video), used as evidence of the learners’ language learning experience.
AIOLE, with its capacity to write on the Web, tries to integrate all these services and makes the
personalized edition of the above mentioned documents possible. These documents facilitate
the selection of evidence and self-assessment (with the Europass) and reflection (in the
Linguistic Biography) from the descriptors analysis of the four communicative language skills
established by the CEFR. The most important innovation of AIOLE is the production, not only of
45
the Europass and of the Linguistic Biography in a stable, and simultaneously flexible and
adaptative form as a service, but also the edition of an eDossier as an electronic dossier, where
to include (creating, connecting and uploading on the Web) the whole evidence that
demonstrates the linguistic experiences of the user by means of multimedia facilities, such as
scanned certificates, scanned or digitized photos taken with digital cameras and mobile phones,
documents written on the Web, sound and visual documents of all kinds. All this is easily done
by the user from anywhere at any time with the use of AIOLE systems.
Figure 7. ePortfolio Europass and eDossier access and edition in AIOLE
Conclusion
An online learning environment offers the opportunities for authentic, communicative language
activities. Under this perspective AWLA has been developed as an eLearning skill-based
environment for Collaborative Writing. It integrates communication, information search,
language tools and multimedia to help learners write naturally in a collaborative way, as it is
usual in the real world when writing formally, and to help the users design learning plans.
Learning to write with AWLA is based on scenarios, integrating the context, with a possibly
authentic audience for the purpose of publishing the resulting writings. AWLA and AIOLE help
learners in the evolution and evidence of their learning process. All in all, AIOLE makes the
traditional learning evolve to online learning, where learners learn anywhere anytime by sharing
resources and information, by collaborating as a reflection of the future working life of the
learner, and by participating in the design of their own learning process.
With AIOLE the learners can also use their own ePortfolio in an easy, updatable way. This is
done by accessing the original European Portfolio for Languages converted in a Web-supported
digital form. The latest innovation is the capability for the learners to edit and continuously
update their own eDossier, following the standards taken from the Europass initiative. The user
can upload their scanned official documents or audiovisual files, and give access to them or to
existing links on the Web, both as a reflection and as an evidence of their lifelong learning
process.
References
1.
AMSDEN, J., (2001). Levels Of Integration, ECLIPSE, Object Technology International Inc. http://www.eclipse.erg/
articles/article-levels-of-integration/levels-of-integration.html
2.
BERNERS-LEE, T. (1999). Weaving the Web: The Original Design and Ultimate Destiny of the World Wide Web by its
Inventor. San Francisco: Harper.
3.
CEFR (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Language Learning, Teaching and Assessment.
Council of Europe. http://culture2.coe.int
4.
CLARK, CH. (2003). Towards a unified e-learning strategy: Consultation Document. Nottingham: DfES (Department
for Education and Skills) Publications. http://www.dfes.gov.uk/consultations/conResults.cfm?consultationId=774
46
5.
JOHNSON, M., LIBER, O., WILSON, S., SHARPLES, P., MILLIGAN, C., BEAUVOIR, PH. (2006) Mapping the future: The personal
Learning environment reference model and emerging technology. Whitelock D. & Wheeler S. (Eds.), “The Next
Generation. Research Proceedings of the 13th ALT-C”. Edinburgh, UK: Heriot-Watt University.
6.
KEARSLEY, G., SHNEIDERMAN, B. (1998) Engagement theory: A framework for technology-based teaching and learning,
Educational Technology, Vol. 38, No. 5. pp.20-23
7.
MASON, R. D. (1998) Models of Online Courses. ALN Magazine 2(2).
8.
O’REILLY, T. (2005). What is Web 2.0? O'Reilly Network. http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/oreilly/tim/news/
2005/09/30 /what-is-web-20.html
9.
WARSCHAUER, M. (1997). Computer-mediated collaborative learning: Theory and practice. Modern Language Journal,
81(3), 470-481.
10.
WARSCHAUER, M., HEALEY, D. (1998). Computers and language learning: An overview. Language Teaching, 31, 57-71.
11.
ZASTROKY, M. (2000). Distributed Learning, E-Learning and E-Business: What Do They Mean. http://
www.globaled.com/articles/ZastrockyMichael2000.pdf.
47
DIGITAL REPUTATIONS AND PRIVATE VERSUS PUBLIC INFORMATION IN
A WORLD OF ONLINE DISINHIBITION, FLAMING, AND RUDE
EMAILS:THE NATURE OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION AMONG COLLEGE
STUDENTS.
Jane Florence MacNeil, Red Deer College, Canada
Abstract
Increasing access to new technology can enhance social interactions and collaborative learning
experiences. This can result in not only positive effects on learning for all subjects, but also
electronic communication can also result in behaviours that deserve our attention such as
cyberbullying , i.e., the use of electronic communication devices to bully others (Qing Li, 2004).
Educational systems are now seeing an increased emphasis on technology and online classes,
and students need to feel comfortable and safe in those environments. Institutions may be able
to easily protect on campus students from harassing and threatening behaviour, but what about
in the online environment? People say and do things in cyberspace, or the online world, that
they would not ordinarily say or do in the face-to-face world, a phenomenon Suler (2004) refers
to as the ‘online disinhibiton effect’. This study is part of a larger research project assessing
interactions and communication styles in an online, or virtual, world. Of particular interest are
behaviours such as: cyberbullying, protecting our digital reputations, and the ease with which
individuals disclose private information in a public forum.
A survey of 125 college students (62 males and 63 females) was analyzed regarding their
experiences of cyberbullying; the type of information posted online (whether it referenced
themselves and/or others); and, their perceptions of what constitutes private versus public
information. The results showed that females were more willing than males to report being
cyberbullied. Interestingly, gender was independent of both whether individuals posted
incriminating photos of others on the internet, and the perception that photos on the internet
are harmful.
Another focus of this research was a survey analysis of attitudes on private versus public access
to information. The line between what is private and what is public is now blurred with the
posting of not only information unique to the individual, but also information regarding others.
People now form online groups and communities in order to share ideas, experiences, and
resources, and the world is now more transparent and many people can now access not only
what others do but also they can inform many others without the benefit of any editor.
Reputations in life are now set much earlier where more and more of what people do and say
can end up as a digital fingerprint that never gets erased. The persistence of things in electronic
form makes second chances harder to come by. Indeed, 74% of respondents posted
information regarding others without their consent. Preliminary analyses indicate that online
disinhibition is common in the online environment especially for younger users and this applies
not only to text communication but also to the use of visual images as a tool for self-expression,
conveying ideas, and sharing experiences. 67% of respondents reported that posting private
information did not lead to long-term consequences. A challenge will be to learn how to deal
with the impact of the intersection of the online and offline domains.
Results are discussed in terms of the issue that individuals will need to think about how much,
and what kind of, information they want others to know. Issues of how we interact, how we
lead, how we collaborate can now be known by many more people and that can be an
advantage in managing online identity. A challenge may result from differences in
understanding issues of privacy among cohorts of individuals reared with online communication,
who are ‘digital natives’, and those not reared in a wired environment, known as ‘digital
immigrants’.
48
DOES SUCCESSION PLANNING INITIATIVE APPLY IN TERTIARY
INSTITUTION?
Posiah Mohd Isa i-LEC, Universiti Teknologi MARA 40 450 Shah Alam, Selangor,
MALAYSIA
Siti Akmar Abu Samah UiTM International Centre, Universiti Teknologi MARA 40
450 Shah Alam, Selangor, MALAYSIA
Zaini Abdullah Chancellery, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40 450 Shah Alam,
Selangor, MALAYSIA
Kamaruzaman Jusoff Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43 400 Serdang,
Selangor, MALAYSIA
Abstract
Succession planning is a distinct initiative undertaken by most profit-oriented organizations to
ensure leadership continuity for their sustainability. This initiative has been clearly established in
several high profile profit organisations to ensure smooth transition of leadership in their
respective department. From several literatures, proponents of strategic planning have called
for non-profit organisations to seriously consider succession planning as it promotes a clear
vision of shared values, personnel efficiency and effectiveness and institutional credibility.
Therefore, educational organisation should be ready to promote this positive initiative as it acts
to provide motivational boost for the workers as in talent pooling, customers’ satisfaction due to
institutional effectiveness and the enhancement of organisation competence. This paper
explores the possibility and relevance of succession planning on the sustainability of the
educational organisation. It also attempts to put into perspective how succession planning
transcends these effects based on a pilot study conducted on its relevance on the performance
of academic managers towards organisation stability.
Keywords:
organisation
succession planning, talent pool, sustainability, educational organisation,
.............................................................................................................................
A paper submitted for oral presentation at the i-Learning Forum 2009 in Palais de Congres,
Paris, France on 19-20 January 2009
1. Introduction
Succession planning is a means of identifying critical management positions. It may start at the
levels of project manager, supervisor and extending up to the highest position in an
organisation (Rothwell, 2005). It also describes development programme that promotes
maximum flexibility in lateral management moves. It also ensures that as individuals achieve
greater seniority, their management skills will broaden and become more generalised in relation
to total organisational objectives rather than to purely departmental objectives. In this paper
the discussion focuses on succession planning in a non-profit organisation, in particular public
educational organisation in which personnel development creates effectiveness and efficiency
and enhance institutional credibility.
In tertiary institutions in Malaysia, there are two distinct appointments of academicians. Firstly,
the regularized schedule of promotion is accounted by the performance and achievement
attained by each academician to be appointed as lecturer, senior lecturer, associate professor
and finally professor. This practice is much sought after by academicians for it provides clear
lucrative returns. Second, the appointment of academician to hold managerial positions in the
educational organisation such as dean, deputy dean, head of programme or head of
department, has not been formulated by any schedule of competence or criteria that can
accommodate performance and achievement as academic managers. This paper will discuss the
49
relevance of this human resource development initiative in a tertiary institution and to validate
its importance through a brief pilot survey with faculty deans of a selected university.
2. Academic Managers’ Sustainability in Tertiary Institution
Hochel and Wilson (2007) put emphasis on the importance of succession planning as part of a
hiring process in higher education institution. They believe that the ultimate success for this
type of institution depends on the quality of the people it hires. Although succession planning
has spelt many affirmative returns to organisations, several reviews have indicated that this
corporate initiative lacks in its planning, implementing and managing. For example, Dettmar
(2004) states that colleges and universities spend so little time or money learning how to
conduct searches (creating talent pool). He observed that during his 15 years in the higher
education institution he never had any formal training related to the issue. Due to these
setbacks, this initiative, all too often revered by many successful organisations, may not be too
popular in educational organisation. However, several literature have indicated hopes that this
initiative can be a significant step in planning for effective pool of talented academicians for the
purpose of managerial duties execution in the educational sector. Clunies (2007) reiterates that
although it is difficult to implement in academia, he is hopeful that this initiative can begin with
plans that are simple and tailored to the needs of the tertiary institution. His article quoted
works of Eastman (1995), displays three elements of concern: the purpose of the initiative, who
this initiative will serve and the desired outcomes.
Other works have indicated that succession planning can be carried out in institution of higher
education for effective human resource development. Although Rothwell (2005) focuses on
profit organisation, he underlines the importance of succession planning as an effort for
individual development that should include any job category. He seems to believe that in any
case of staff shortage, it would bring disaster or chaos to the performance of the organisation
for that particular time, if succession plan is absent. Hence, he urges the need to extend
succession planning not only at management ranks, but also throughout the empowered
workforce. As this paper concerns the non-profit organisation, it is pertinent to note that
succession planning is as important in both types of organisations. This is evident in Chambers
et al (1998) as they maintain that succession planning is an important way to sustain the staff
availability. With the increase of competition nowadays, both profit and non-profit organisations
are competing to attract and retain talents.
Non-profit organisations are on the verge of what most experts use the term brain drain
syndrome, as many talents go to profit organisations because the latter provide feasible career
path, attractive salary and other attractive and lucrative benefits. This challenge has been the
effect of the difficulties in constructing a comprehensive succession planning caused by the
shortage in talents inside the organisation and high level of turnover phenomenon. Being one of
the several factors observed, is the issue of globalization in which there is an increase in
uncertainty in the economy that affects the profit organisation, though not so much of nonprofit organisation, but the situation may subsequently arise in the latter. In such scenario,
employees have become anxious about their job security that they start to think and search the
organisation that can provide positive assertions. The increasing trend of turnover sometimes is
worsened by the lack of adequate programme to groom the existing talent.
Clunies (2007) believes that higher education has historically been slow to adopt many
corporate management processes. He therefore has a reasonable doubt for the readiness of the
institution to employ succession planning or any executive development programme because of
dramatic cultural differences between the boardroom and the campus. Rosse & Levine (2003)
support this argument by stating the complex and bureaucratic procedures for hiring, compared
with many profit organisations or business corporations. Nonetheless, this does not mean that
institution of higher education lack strong corporate values.
50
3. Succession Planning Initiative in Tertiary Organisation
In support for the earlier argument, succession planning although seldom heard of in non-profit
organisation, can be promoted in institution of higher education. The table indicates that there
is hope for such corporate based initiative being driven in institution of higher education.
Wolfred (2008) states that even in the most developed countries, succession planning which is
part of the strategic leader development programme is seldom heard of especially at university
level. This may be caused, as he states, by the bloated bureaucracy or lack of such human
resource training in the institution. Although succession planning is usually associated with
large corporation, it is also important that it becomes an initiative in every organisation. That
being said, a good succession planning can reduce the risk of educational disorganisation, as far
as appointing the rightful candidate to hold academic manager positions is concerned. This
usually happens at the end of tenure, on long absence or appointment vacancy. Hence,
succession planning helps to ensure the sustainability of an organisation (Rothwell, 2005).
The subsequent discussion displays the impact of succession planning if it is adopted in
institution of higher education. Effective managerial skills of academic managers are essential
as they create strong relationships between and within organisations involving the providers
and customers (Deem, 2007; Newman 2000) skills comprising theories, techniques and
behavioural guidelines, if are effectively applied, will enhance the manager’s practice. In the
education set up, academic managers are those responsible to the dean of faculty for matters
pertaining to the management, organising and delivering of duties for teaching, and the
administration of research in the faculty. However, apart from having the teaching role himself,
academic manager specific job specification will be agreed upon with the dean of faculty from
time to time and the duties may commensurate with the changing needs of the faculty.
Within the faculty, academic managers are required to manage the process of curriculum review
which involves looking through the courses offered by the faculty. These include the mentoring
duties on to the curriculum which involves course content, methods of delivery and assessment
and most importantly the documentation of these matters, either manually or electronically, the
duty also encompasses negotiation of these developments through the faculty and the
university processes. This involves also the development of links with other faculties in the
University and, perhaps, with other universities with a view to the provision of collaborative
courses.
Academic manager at faculty level has to manage the process leading up to the faculty
regularised teaching quality assessments. This includes preparing self-assessment programme,
making recommendations for improvement, preparing and compiling of documentation, liaising
with staff of the faculty academic office, ensuring detailed arrangements for assessment visits
are made, meeting with assessors and also preparing for the process of accreditation of the
faculty courses by the relevant professional bodies. These job specifications are essential
requirements of academic manager which warrants for managerial skills. Delivering the
knowledge on managerial skills will require the teaching from leaders in a systematic best
practice and this is commonly developed through mentoring relationships. Research on
mentoring has evidenced that employees with mentors are much more likely to experience a
range of positive outcomes (Groves, 2007; Lankua & Scandura, 2002).
For more precise duties, in the faculty, academic manager needs to assist with management
procedures related to research activities. The duties will depend on other loads, but might at
times include help with production of documents for the Research Assessment exercises and the
faculty annual research report. Among others also include drafting publicity about the faculty
and its courses for inclusion in the University's undergraduate and postgraduate prospectuses
and other similar publications, including electronic information sources. The managerial skills of
academic managers have to be complemented by knowledge on attending and reporting to
51
faculty committee meetings, and participating in several additional faculty committees related to
management of teaching and research or external liaison.
Academic managers in the university have duties that involve them in the membership of
various committees within the faculty as well as the university. They keep a very close liaison
with other officers within and outside the faculty, in the faculty and the university, and at the
same time assist in the promotion of the activities conducted by the faculty elsewhere in the
University and to external agencies (Coxhead, 2007). Hence, the better way is to train academic
managers in a systematic pooling of potentials and prospects with development programme to
ensure smooth transition of leadership and execution of duties.
Although it is commonly practised in corporate organisation, good succession planning will
systematically help prospective academic managers to streamline their managerial skills to
ensure effectiveness and smooth running of the institutions, for new leadership roles as the
need arises or when one’s term has ended (Boettcher & Craven, 2008). There is a need for
selection criteria for these talents to be readily ‘groomed’ for managerial position in the
academic institution.
The establishment of the succession plan and related models help to nurture and strengthen
the high performance culture in institutions of higher education via professional work force that
exhibits self personality and professional personality, possession of competency and vital values
towards sustainable achievement of their future. The key strategy of the succession plan is to
mould and harness the talent of professional work force at academic managerial level to fill in
strategic positions. It also aids in the career path and laid foundation of guidance necessary for
the accomplishment of tasks and duties of the future.
4. Research Pilot Study
The lag in succession planning has persisted in the higher education institution for quite a long
time. The cause might lie in the lack of awareness of the management or the misconception
about succession planning. The analysis of this pilot study conducted in Universiti Teknologi
MARA (UiTM) in Malaysia could support this assumption. Eleven out of the total twenty-four
deans from UiTM are chosen as respondents to answer questionnaires in which the materials
are adapted from Rothwell (2005) on effective succession planning. In addition, face-to-face
interview with the deans is also conducted to obtain additional data complemented by the
questionnaires.
Based on this pilot study, most deans as the academic managers believed that the faculty in
which they lead have implemented succession planning programme. The SPSS descriptive
analysis on the data reveals that most deans would likely to answer agree or strongly agree to
the questions being asked. This in turn would result in a high total score which supposed to
indicate that the succession planning programme indeed exists. However, the real situation does
not match with the result of pilot study.
4.1 Purpose and Research Questions
This pilot study is conducted in order to obtain an insight about the understanding of succession
planning among academic managers. The study also intends to have a feedback and input to
construct a more sophisticated questionnaire for subsequent conduct of this research.
The pilot study attempts to answer these questions:
1. What is the level of awareness in succession planning issue among the academic
managers?
2. How is the academic managers’ attitude about the need for succession planning in
their organization?
3. Does succession planning as a culture exists in the organization?
52
4. Have there yet any models of succession planning ever implemented in the
Malaysian higher education institution?
4.2 Methodology
In this pilot study, we request deans in Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia (Shah Alam campus)
to answer a set of questionnaire. In addition, we also interview them to obtain supplementary
information. Eleven out of 24 deans in UiTM Malaysia are chosen to participate in this pilot
study. The data collected is analysed using SPSS 16.1 with descriptive method.
4.3 Instrument
The instrument used in the pilot study consists of demographic information and a set of
questions about the succession planning issue. The questions are divided into three main
sections. Section A contains questions related to the level of awareness in succession planning,
section B contains questions related to the related to the attitude level, and section C contains
questions related to the culture regarding succession planning.
5. Survey Results
The results indicate that while most respondents would believe that their organisation has
implemented succession planning programme, at the same time they would admit that they are
not sure whether there is succession planning programme in their mission statement. Four out
of eleven respondents (36.36 percent) said that they do not disagree with the statement, while
another four (36.36 percent) chose neutral.
!
Figure 1: Percentage of respondents’ answer regarding
policy and philosophy statement of succession planning
in their organisation
The ambiguity in understanding succession planning would likely to pervade from the top level
of management to the all components in the organisation. In other words, there is more than
one solid definition about succession planning (as well as understanding) which overlaps one to
another. As a result, succession planning is considered as just another issue inside the human
resource development programme. Nevertheless, this does not mean that higher education
institution is on the verge of catastrophic situation. The potentials of succession planning are
there, existing and waiting to be explored by the management.
53
For instance, most respondents believed that they have identified key requirements of key
positions via job responsibilities, competencies, and success factor (Figure 2). The only problem
is that most of them might use different approach to identify such criteria. Such process might
not be a continuous one. Hence, this is the part where we could claim the absence of
succession planning, for it is a continuous and sustainable process. As long as it is conducted
merely when the key positions are vacant (and without long term preparation), the succession
planning we discussed in this paper does not exist within that organisation.
What can we gain from the survey? The overall pilot study obviously depicts the gap in the
human resource management system in the higher education institution in Malaysia.
Furthermore, there is a bias when the managers are trying to choose their replacement because
the organisation does not have distinctive tools in succession planning. The successors perhaps
are chosen based on perception rather than objective performance. We could also conclude that
managers and other top level management in the higher education institution need to be
encouraged to commit in the succession planning programme.
Figure 2. Percentage of respondents’ answer regarding
identification of key positions via job responsibilities,
competencies and success factors
There is an urgent need to remind them that succession planning is not merely a replacement
programme, but more to develop the people-inside-the-people of the organisation. Moreover,
we could elaborate the elements discussed above such as managerial competency and spiritual
capital to build succession planning model that is suitable with the characteristics of higher
education institution in Malaysia. It is important to bear in mind that spiritual capital is more
than what most scholars refer as ethics and moral codes. It is way beyond those two concepts.
In addition, this type of capital is considered important to be incorporated, since Malaysia is
renowned with its pluralistic and religious culture.
54
This pilot study is an initial step to establish the awareness level, attitude towards and the
culture of succession planning initiative among the top level academic managers of each faculty
in the tertiary institution selected. As this is an on-going research due to be completed middle
of 2009, the team is still in the process of taking another research method to establish other
criteria necessary for an academician to hold managerial position.
6.0 Conclusion
Several literature have stated that whether this initiative is termed as succession planning and
management, building bench strength, or talent management; it is clearly indicated that such a
deliberate and systematic identification, engagement and retention of potential leaders and
talented performers, and the achievement of targeted results; display positive performance of
the academics in educational organisation. However, the proponents of succession planning
have also cautioned that succession plans, whether it is in a corporate or higher education
should not function as an isolated system but rather as an integral component of the overall
human resources planning process.
With great concern from the academic managers, via the survey conducted, there is plausibility
of creating similar strategy to enhance the latter initiative schedule of appointment that can
accommodate managerial competence among academic managers. Hence, creating a
structured and systematic talent pool of academicians to hold academic manager positions can
be suggested.
References
Boettcher, S. & Craven, A. (2008). Succession Planning for Higher Education CIOS: What, Why,
How. San Antonio: UT Health Science Center.
Carey, D. C., Ogden, D., & Roland, J. A. (2000). CEO Succession. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Chambers, E.G., Foulton, M., Handfield-Jones, H., Hankin, S.M., & Michaels, E.G. (1998). The
War of Talent. In J. M. Hiltrop (Ed.). (1999). The Quest for the Best: Human Resoruces
Practices to Attract and Retain Talent. European Management Journal . 17(4): 422-430
Clunies, J. P. (2007). Benchmarking succession planning and executive development in higher
education: Is the academy ready to employ these corporate paradigms? Academic
Leadership The Online Journal 2(4). Retrieved August 5, 2008 from http://
w w w. a c a d e m i c l e a d e r s h i p . o r g / e m p r i c a l _ r e s e a r c h /
Benchmarking_Succession_Planning_Executive_Development_in_Higher_Education.shtml.
Coxhead, P. (2007). University of Birmingham Academic Manager Job Description Computer
Science taken from http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/~pxc/peers/jobspec.html 9 August 2002
retrieved on 4 July 2008.
Deem, R. (2007). Managing contemporary UK universities: Manager academics and new
managerialism. Academic Leadership The Online Journal 2(4). Retrieved August 5, 2008
from http://www.academicleadership.org/emprical_research/
Managing_Contemporary_UK_Universities_Manageracademics_and_New_Managerialism.shtml
Dettmar, K. J. H. (2004). What we waste when faculty hiring goes wrong. In Sandra Hochel &
Chairmaine E. Wilson. (2007). Hiring right: Conducting successful searches in higher
education. SF: Josey-Bass
Eastman, L. J. (1995). Succession Planning: An Annotated Bibliography and Summary of
Commonly Reported Organisational Practices. North Carolina: Centre for Creative
Leadership Grensboro, NC.. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 44: 276-282.
55
Groves, K. (2007). Integrating Leadership Development and Succession Planning Best Practices.
Journal of Management Development 26(3): 239-260. Emerald Group Publishing Ltd.
Hochel, S. & Wilson, C. E. (2007). Hiring right: Conducting successful searches in higher
education. SF: Josey-Bass.
Lankau, M. J. & Scandura, T. A. (2002). An Investigation of Personal Learning in Mentoring
Relationships: Contents, Antecedents, and Consequences. Academy of Management
Journal 45(5): 779-790
Newman, K. L. (2000). Organizational Transformation during Institutional Upheaval. Academy of
Management Review 25(3): 602-619
Rosse, J. G. & Levin, R. A. (2003). Academic Administrator’s Guide to Hiring-Between the Lines.
San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass
Rothwell, W. J. (2005). Effective Succession Planning: Ensuring Continuity and Building Talent
from Within 3rd Edition. American Management Association (AMACOM)
Wolfred, T. (2008). Building Leaderful Organisations: Succession Planning for Nonprofits.
Baltimore, Maryland: The Anne E. Casey Foundation.
56
Learning Technologies (EN)
57
CHALLENGES OF E-LEARNING IN TEACHER EDUCATION IN AFRICA: THE
NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE
J. Effiom-Edem Ntibi - Federal College of Education, Obudu, Nigeria
Abstract
The paper is focused on the application of e-learning in the training of pre-service teachers in
Nigeria. Several challenges are presented and these include lack of adequate capacity on the
part of the teacher trainers, problems of curriculum formulation, dearth of infrastructure in the
schools, high cost of bandwidth for internet access; among others.
To tackle these challenges, the author suggests the following as possible strategies that may be
applied to ameliorate the difficulties in e-learning application in teacher training: (i) engaging
International development partners to assist in capacity building, (ii) sensitizing the
governments of the African countries to allocate sufficient funds for the education sector to
enable increased investments in IT infrastructure, (iii) encouraging the manufacturers of
hardware and software to deliver more internet access, IT equipment, software, and related
educational materials at subsidised rates for educational applications, (iv) introduction of publicprivate sector partnership as a viable option to sole government sponsorship of technology
based school projects, and (v) increasing awareness among teacher trainers of the advantages
of applying e-learning in their service delivery.
58
HOW TO BOOST ENTREPRENEURSHIP THROUGH INNOVATIVE
INTEGRATED LEARNING
Jelena Godjevac, MEA-I
Abstract
Micro-Enterprise Acceleration Institute (MEA-I) is an international non-profit organization that
facilitates knowledge acquisition of ICT by providing services to help advance teaching &
learning programs with personalized technology and curricula, for entrepreneurs and small
business owners through their local business development agencies. MEA-I is mainly sponsored
by Hewlett-Packard.
Micro-enterprises are collectively the largest employer and creators of new jobs, presenting one
of the best ways to positively impact the lives of millions of people. Our goal is to effectively
reach, by partnering with local development agencies, micro-enterprises around the world and
provide them with access to technology and ICT training to help them grow their businesses
and sustain that growth over time. Our programs are focused at helping the development of
micro businesses.
One of our programs is the Microenterprise Acceleration Program (MAP), rolled out in Europe,
Middle East and Africa (EMEA). MAP is an initiative designed to speed up economic
development in communities around the world. Delivered in partnership with local non-profit
organizations, MAP provides micro-enterprises – businesses with up to ten employees – with
the right training to be able to solve everyday business challenges, so they can grow and create
new jobs. One of the pillars of MAP is an innovative teaching curriculum that bridges the gap
between conventional business skills courses and technical skills courses. Unlike existing
trainings focusing either on technology or business maters, it fully integrates business and
technology. Using experiential methodology designed to ensure full knowledge transfer, it
combines virtual entrepreneurs, case studies and practical hands-on exercises to solve common
business challenges in finance, marketing, communication, cooperation work, internet usage,
and customer management.
Knowledge City (www.knowledge-city.net) is an online platform that complements the MAP
curriculum in an innovative way. It proposes training contents for small businesses through a
user-friendly and entertaining experience.
Background and labor market development
Fifty percent of the world’s labor force is unemployed or underemployed. Even in highly
developed countries, unemployment is a major issue. Micro-enterprises – businesses with up to
ten employees, with minimal start-up costs and limited access to the traditional commercial
banking sector – are the biggest source of new jobs globally.
Micro-enterprises represent a powerful economic engine for both developing and developed
countries. Small and micro-enterprises employ 50 to 60 percent of all workers around the globe
and the vast majority of these businesses (78 percent) are micro-enterprises, employing less
than 10 workers. Microenterprises are significantly less productive than larger firms and this
lack of productivity prevents them from growing and offering better wages and working
conditions. Micro-enterprise growth is constrained by lack of competitiveness, low productivity
and low skill level of owners and workers.
Information and communications technology can significantly help micro-enterprises
and small businesses grow, be more productive and create more jobs in their
communities.
MAP—The fast track to growth
Small businesses and micro-enterprises—the smallest of small businesses—are the fastest-
59
growing and biggest source of new jobs globally. Mainly sponsored by HP, MEA-I provides
training of trainers and support to development agencies and business associations. In three
years we have taught more than 250 educators, who have subsequently delivered MEA-I’s
trainings to nearly 30,000 small businesses, providing them the practical knowledge and usage
of IT to successfully run their business and grow.
MAP is an initiative designed to speed up economic development in communities for the regions
around the world. Delivered in partnership with local non-profit organisations, MAP provides
small businesses with the right training to be able to solve everyday business challenges, so
they can grow and create new jobs.
MAP has five pillars:
MAP Curriculum, (40-60 hours of training)
Training of Trainers (TOT) -an intensive 5-day course
MAP centers (a fully operational, ready-to-go MAP training centre equipped with HP
computers and peripherals
Participation in MAP network (practice sharing among peers, international visibility)
Interactive online platform: www.knowledge-city.net
MAP curriculum for micro-entrepreneurs – true innovation for a real need
One of the pillars of all our programs are innovative teaching curricula that bridge the gap
between conventional business skills courses and technical skills courses. Their purpose is to
help trainees establish relations between business challenges and technology solutions and to
amplify their business effectiveness.
The MAP curriculum aims at demonstrating how small entrepreneurs can improve the success
of their businesses using Information and Communication Technology (ICT). Unlike existing
trainings focusing either on technology or business maters, it fully integrates business and
technology. Using innovative methodology designed to ensure full knowledge transfer, it
combines virtual entrepreneurs, case studies and practical hands-on exercises to solve
common business challenges in finance, marketing, communication, cooperation work, internet
usage, and customer management.
MAP courses are not typical business skills courses (such as accounting or marketing), nor are a
typical technology courses, in which the objective is to learn to use a particular software
application or piece of equipment. Our courses can be considered as a bridge between business
and technology courses available to entrepreneurs; they focus on showing the power of
technology when applied to business realities.
Moreover, all our courses are modular and complement the offer of existing training courses.
They offer basic and advanced options and are immediately applicable to the many business
challenges. The highest value of the courses is the comprehensive step-by step hands-on
60
activities.
Another ingredient of curricula is the use of experiential learning methodology. The
experiential learning cycle works as follows:
First, participants are provided with new information; second, they process the information in a
hands-on experience; third, they reflect on the experience; and fourth, they apply what they
have learned. Research shows that adults learn best in this hands-on manner.
Each topic in these curricula includes the following components specifically designed to propel
participants through this cycle to allow for richer, fuller learning in the classroom:
Participants start with a scenario that introduces concepts in a particular topic.
Participants then gain experience with a technology tool.
Participants reflect on whether and how this tool might be applied in their own businesses.
Participants leave with the skills and knowledge to take additional steps toward applying a
solution. Sample topics are: time and information management systems, financial analysis and
transactions, contact management, email and Internet skills, presentations, “Smart” devices,
virtual office collaboration tools, websites creation, Internet research, finding sales
opportunities, print marketing, electronic marketing, etc. Finally, the course offers participants
the opportunity to share their ideas and opinions with each other.
The curriculum is currently available in 13 languages; it is delivered on CD, online, or in a brief
case kit.
The innovative positioning of MAP is recognized by Regional Development Agencies and
complements well their existing portfolio of courses. It allows them to develop new services
for their business community and to join the MAP network.
Training of trainers (TOT)
The purpose of the MAP curriculum is to demonstrate that micro-entrepreneurs can grow their
businesses using technology. Accompanying the curriculum is a training course for trainers
(TOT) that will enable business development organizations to offer the MAP training as part of
their ongoing services to their client entrepreneurs.
The TOT can be divided into two parts:
Foundational technical and facilitation skills that trainers need in order to conduct a
curriculum; and
Content-specific training skills and knowledge to deliver the actual course modules.
61
The TOT takes place over 5 days and is an instructor-led, classroom-based training, highly
interactive, incorporating experiential learning methodologies. This course includes material
that can be aimed at experienced trainers with extensive backgrounds in business and
technology, as well as those with fewer technical skills.
An exciting aspect of the training is that the curricula and methodology are experienced from
the points of view of both the trainer and the micro entrepreneur. The trainers gain an
understanding of the overall MAP initiative.
Serious games and Knowledge City
The Knowledge City is an online platform: an innovative way to complement small businesses
knowledge through a user-friendly and entertaining experience. It is like a virtual village
containing streets, houses and businesses. The Knowledge City is animated and lively; it is not
a static screen. It contains information relevant to education: resources like movies clips, links,
podcasts… Each information type is gathered in the relevant ‘house’: e.g. game house, movie
theatre to watch movie clips, My Business (where all the user information can be displayed like
individual achievements, surveys, …), the HP house etc.
The entrepreneurs are logging onto the site www.knowledge-city.net – for training and advice.
The portal Knowledge city allows tapping into some of the content of the course online, in an
attractive way.
62
The Knowledge City is also the place to leap into “serious gaming.” The first game in a series of
practical business games is designed to accelerate the players’ knowledge on IT security.
Players assume the role of an event manager, progressing through eight scenarios spread over
two virtual ‘days.’ Each day is lasting approximately 40 minutes of average player time. Within
each day there are 4 ‘scenes’, each lasting 10 minutes. Scenes progress chronologically within
the storyline. Within each scene there are a number of tasks the player must complete to move
closer to attaining their overarching business goal. Security events and issues are interwoven
with some of these tasks. To introduce time pressure into the game – and to make it more
challenging – users have a fixed 10 minutes to complete as many tasks as possible within each
scene. There is a ‘countdown’ clock indicating how much time is left. Regardless of where they
are, players are pushed through to the next scene after 10 minutes.
Players gain points (also know as ‘moints’ – currency in the game) each time they successfully
complete a task. Moints are fixed, and are the same for all tasks (e.g. 100 moints per task). The
maximum score per scene is thus gained by completing all tasks successfully within the 10minute time limit. Players spend their moints to acquire/improve skills by purchasing products
that can improve the security of their technological assets. Achievements are awarded when
players reach milestones and are kept on the user profile, accessible from the Knowledge City .
In the future, it will be possible to compare players by matching their achievements. A Best
Practice Guide on IT Security is available inside the game, helping the players to understand the
key concepts and providing useful tips.
63
Next steps
Currently, MEA-I helps the deployment of five training programs and develops three networks
with more than 160 trainers centers. Every year, we train more than 200 new trainers and our
courses are delivered to more than 40’000 micro-entrepreneurs.
In the future, our goal is to expand our networks and to enrich our online platforms with new
interactive tools for users as well as to introduction of the new serious games.
64
MENTORED ACTION LEARNING BY CROSSKNOWLEDGE
Steve Fieh, Estelle Milo, Sébastien Boscq - Crossknowledge, France
Abstract
CrossKnowledge est le leadeur européen du développement des compétences de manangement
et de leardership par les nouvelles technologies d'apprentissage. En réponse aux attentes
opérationnelles de ses clients (individualisation / accompagnement / maîtrise des budgets),
CrossKnowledge a créé une solution innovante qui permet de répondre aux besoins de
formation des collaborateurs, tout en développant la performance des entreprises. Le principe
du Mentored Action Learning, est de réaliser une mission réelle sur le lieu de travail avec
l’encadrement d’un formateur. Cette approche pédagogique inédite de formation a été élaborée
en collaboration avec les clients de Crossknowledge par le biais de focus groupes. Il s’agit :
•
d’une formation individuelle au plus proche des besoins de l’apprenant.
•
d’une formation action organisée autour de cas concrets en lien avec l'activité
professionnelle des apprenants.
•
d’une formation encadrée par un formateur, au plus près des besoins
d’accompagnement
Ces stages proposent :
•
Le développement des compétences sur le terrain durant 3 mois ;
•
La multiplicité des modes d’apprentissage pour favoriser l’assimilation (e-learning,
videocast, expérimentation avec mises en situation réelle, coaching) ;
•
Un accompagnement à distance par un formateur certifié ;
•
La validation amont et aval des connaissances et des pratiques pour mesurer
précisément l’acquisition de compétences ;
•
Une certification de la compétence professionnelle à l’issue des formations.
Il en ressort que, grâce à l’individualisation de cette approche pédagogique, la motivation et
l’assimilation de l’apprenant sont maximales. Grâce à l’interaction avec le formateur, un ancrage
profond se produit. L’application sur le terrain permet un taux de transfert exceptionnellement
élevé. Ce stage a été suivi depuis le début de l’année chez nos principaux clients (grands
comptes : Valeo, Casino…), dans des PME en France et à l'international et par des individus
dans le cadre du DIF.
65
COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE AND KNOWLEDGE FLOW NETWORKS
For Organization Learning
Mei-Tai Chu, Rajiv Khosla Business Systems and Knowledge Modeling Laboratory La
Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
Abstract
Organizations today exist in the knowledge era as against the information era of 1980 and
1990`s. They compete with each other on the basis of knowledge and innovation (OECD 1996,
1999). Especially organizational learning and innovation through knowledge creation and flow is
an important means of surviving as well as thriving in a highly competitive business
environment. In pursuit of organization learning of the future will not be constrained by
traditional boundaries. Thus this research envisions organization learning as a set of Knowledge
Flow Networks (KFN) which can extend outside organizational boundaries as against
conventional work flow networks. KFN unlike workflow can often transcend organizational
boundaries and are distinct and different than workflow models. Human nodes used in workflow
are not necessarily the same as nodes used in knowledge flow in an organization.
Organization learning involves both personal and organizational aspects, and is an iteration of
the transmission between explicit and tacit knowledge. This research also discusses
organization learning in the context of Communities of Practice (CoPs) and knowledge flow
networks.
A CoPs Centered KFN model in organization learning will be developed,
implemented, and analyzed. The CoPs Centered KFN model is underpinned in a CoPs model
built around performance evaluation components for organization learning.
KFN not only falls within the scope of managers, information technologists and knowledge
workers but involves Communities of Practice (CoPs) in organization learning (Lesser, 2001).
Most of the existing work on knowledge flow networks has centered around linking people
based on organization structure, tasks, and knowledge compatibility (Zhuge, 2006). Existing
research does not throw adequate light on the need that knowledge flow occurs between
knowledge workers for organization learning outside traditional organizational structure,
business functions and organizational boundaries. In this research, the authors propose to
enhance in design of KFN by modeling them based on CoPs in organisation learning. In CoPs,
like in KFN, people with a common goal come together to create, learn, process and share
knowledge and learning based on best practices. In this research, a CoPs model has been
defined, which constitutes 16 criteria along four performance measurement dimensions. These
criteria and dimensions are used to identify common interaction factors (beliefs and attitudes)
which link and facilitate effective knowledge sharing and learning between knowledge workers
in a KFN. These factors and the CoPs model have been validated using a large multinational
organization as a case study. Given that, knowledge flow is dynamic phenomena in an
organization, we also define a dynamic model for analysing knowledge flow activities like
knowledge sharing, knowledge discovery, and knowledge creation.
The research is organized as follows. Section 2 covers the theoretical considerations
underpinning the definition and construction of KFN model. Section 3 describes implementation
and Techniques of KFN model based on survey of R&D personnel in a multinational organization
to enhance organization learning. Section 4 presents results and findings of the survey based
on the fuzzy multi criteria decision making and cluster analysis techniques. Section 5 suggests
the future research and trend. Section 6 concludes the research with future research directions.
Keywords:
Communities of Practice, Knowledge Flow Networks, Organization learning
66
QUALITY ASSURANCE SYSTEMS WITHIN THE ACADEMIC ENVIRONMENT
“The Case of the Greek Universities”
DR. THEMIS GENADIS General Manager, I-Learn Group of Companies
ABSTRACT
Over the last decade universities have been subjected to various forms of academic
accountability designed to maintain or improve the quality of their teaching and Learning. A
shared perspective of many of these accountability processes is that Universities should become
skilled at creating knowledge for the improvement of teaching and Learning, and at modifying
their behavior to reflect this knowledge. In short, Universities should become “Learning
Organizations”.
The evaluation and continuous improvement of the quality of teaching and learning in higher
education is an issue of sustained concern. While most Universities are implementing systems
of quality assurance, there is substantial variation in the principles underlying these systems.
The Universities have developed and implemented, a university – wide system of quality
assurance that ensures that each subject is systematically reviewed and enhanced by those
teaching in the subject. While, it incorporates compulsory student evaluation of teaching of
each subject the result of this student evaluation is not the focus of quality assurance system.
The focus is on ensuring that those teaching the subject reflect on and make recommendation
for further improvement of the subject.
One of the objectives of European Policy is to make European Educations Systems a worldwide
acknowledged quality reference by 2010. Quality assurance is a central element in supporting
European Education and training systems to become more competitive and a world reference.
Quality assurance is also an essential instrument to connect vocational education and training
and Higher Education – and to support the development of a common European Qualifications
Framework linking the Bologna and Copenhagen Process.
Quality Assurance in both VET and HE operates on the basis of identifying guiding principles
rather than prescriptive procedures. This approach is embedded in the cultures and tradition of
both sectors.
Quality Assurance in Higher Education is necessary to ensure accountability and improvement of
education and training. It should be an Integral part at the Internal Management of Education
and Training Institutions. It should include regular evaluation of institutions or programs by
external monitoring bodies or agencies. QA should include context, input, process and output
dimensions, while giving emphasis to outputs and learning outcomes. QA systems should
include clear and measurable objectives and standards, guidelines for Implementation, including
stakeholder involvement, appropriate recourses, consistent evaluation methods, associating
self-assessment and external review; feedback mechanisms and procedures for improvement,
widely accessible evaluation results. Quality Assurance initiatives at International, national and
regional level should be coordinated in order to ensure overview, coherence, synergy and
system – wide analysis. It should be a cooperative process across levels, involving all relevant
stakeholders within countries across Europe.
67
Given the fact that by 2005 all Member States required a National Quality Assurance Systems,
Greek Universities should create a grand for visibility into the processes that support the study
program, measurements of Learning outcome, capabilities and competences. They should
support a system of continuous improvement. They must transform from bad practices to
survival and competitive success by:

An institutional culture change

Management commitment
The need for Transparent Quality assurance, quality control and quality enhancement systems is
more important than ever, given the continued financial pressures within the university sector
e.g, cuts of budgets and reduction in operating grants. Doing more with less is the reality of all
times.
68
IMPLEMENTING A VIRTUAL LEARNING COMMUNITY AND ELECTRONIC
PORTFOLIO ENVIRONMENT TO AUTHENTICALLY ASSESS LEARNING AND
PROGRAM IMPROVEMENT
Victoria Guzzo, Katherine Kalmus - LiveText, United States of America
Abstract
Lines blur when higher education addresses the converging issues of student learning and
assessment to demonstrate accountability and transparency to both internal and external
agencies. Institutions struggle to redefine traditional practices and encourage action among
non-cooperative entities on their campuses. In this constantly changing world, one thing
remains constant: the effective and efficient use of technology has become an indispensable
skill. Those institutions and programs embracing this technology, working to integrate it fully,
and taking advantage of its expansive capabilities will thrive – ultimately offering expanding
opportunities to students.
To prepare students to become productive leaders and lifelong learners, institutions must foster
a unified focus on student learning, calling for complete campus involvement.
Problems surface upon the first mention of support units. How is the physical plant involved in
student learning? How do student-life organizations increase student learning? How can the
bursar’s office support student learning?
For many, the responses to such questions include “they don’t” or “we’re not involved”. If this is
true and nearly 50% of a campus claims not to be involved in the student learning process, the
institution as a whole cannot enjoy a reputation for cultivating a campus culture characterized
by a commitment to innovative student learning, authentic and extensive assessment, or
responsiveness.
Many times over, these units are so “paper or form” driven that there are legions of support
staff to move information on paper. Why not transition this understanding of and familiarity with
paperwork into a seamless “paperless” environment that becomes part of a campus-wide
initiative for program improvement? The solution: comprehensive, intuitive, and easy-to-use
web-based technologies that facilitate meaningful, reflective learning and continuous program
improvement.
To alter attitudes among all campus units, institutions must develop dynamic electronic
environments through which information is moved and collected across the entire campus. This
virtual environment begins with the academic units and can extend out to all institutional units.
Yet, how do we create such an all-inclusive environment without burdening with new workloads
or complex reporting systems? To overcome challenges, we must apply and manage innovative
solutions to traditional practices.
This solution rests in redesigning personal learning spaces with the dynamism that is the ePortfolio. Portfolios showcasing student mastery and ongoing learning are a hallmark of the
higher education process and, in recent years, e-Portfolios have started to replace paper
portfolios. Therefore, let us capitalize on the powerful potential of e-Portfolios to establish a
dynamic campus-wide electronic environment. By adapting practices used by faculty to create
dynamic assessment environments within academic units, we can collect and agglomerate
valuable information to be integrated, assessed, and used to measure the needs and identify
the steps to take for enhancing student learning.
The e-Portfolio architecture will engage an entire campus in developing “student learning
impact plans” (projects) that are assessed with a common rubric measuring and reporting the
relative impact on student learning. Using this technology, these plans, reports, assessments,
69
and actions then can be displayed for all campus units. As issues of accountability and
transparency grow, institutions need to harness and utilize the power inherent in dynamic
assessment environments.
By taking advantage of a fully integrated web-based learning-assessment service, institutions
reveal a 21st-century attitude towards transforming the traditional student learning landscape.
Institutions will use reports and rubrics-driven environments to implement new policies and
improve existing processes, while remaining transparent and responsive to external requests
concerning the quality of learning.
This informational, visual presentation will engage audience participants because it is grounded
in direct, real-world examples – that is, the actions institutions have taken to reorganize.
Institutions to be discussed include those who have undergone a multi-semester curricular
review, a structural reorganization of program workflow and committees, the creation of an
outcomes-focused electronic environment, and the fostering of a steadfast commitment to
course-embedded assessment.
Throughout the presentation, we will focus on how this reorganization can help institutions
fulfill missions, philosophies, and goals – an important idea for administrators because it
enhances at the very core who and what the institution strives to represent and achieve.
Presenters will provide visual samples of the assessments, custom scoring guides, and reports
used to measure and analyze student learning, program effectiveness, and institutional goals.
Presenters will share best practices and experiences in order to provide guidance for peers and
colleagues. With time for questions and discussions throughout and at the conclusion of the
presentation, presenters and audience participants will engage in meaningful dialogue,
exchange ideas, and uncover innovative solutions – fostering an environment of true
collaborative learning similar to the transformed learning environment promoted throughout the
presentation.
70
THE E-LEARNING SIMULATIONS "METTIAMO IN PRATICA LA MIFID"
AND "PRIVACY 2008": TWO INNOVATIVE TOOLS PROPOSED BY
ABIFORMAZIONE FOR COMPETENCE UPDATING IN THE EUROPEAN
BANKING SECTOR1
Gaetano Bruno Ronsivalle, Università “La Sapienza”, ABIFormazione,
Labelformazione
Claudia Miolli, ABIFormazione
The scenario of the training in the banking sector
The change of the financial sector and the normative evolution have a significant impact on the
market structures and the banking business (including relationship with customer). This implies
deep changes on companies logic and on competences required to the actors of the process.
In fact, the introduction of new laws (or their modification) involves a double demand: a
continuous knowledge updating and the need to make operational abilities of bank employees
and Directors always more homogeneous.
One of the most evident signal of this innovative orientation is represented by the Compliance
officer. It is a specific function related to the control and management of legal risk and
represents a renewed attention towards an effective training of the banking employees through
a Risk management point of view.
Several events may expose the bank and its employees to serious risks (from administrative
sanction to criminal punishment and image damage for the whole banking system). For
example a human error during a procedure because of a missed transmission of information,
the incorrect application of a rule, the violation of the internal policy, the ambiguity in
interpreting roles during daily activities and so on.
That’s why the bank system needs a strategic training, learning and evaluation plan for
employees. With the aim to correctly manage the Compliance Risk and face the particular crisis
of the sector, it is important the plan is effective and well-constructed.
The new e-learning simulation model
Which are the new banking training objectives? How could we measure and guarantee the
effectiveness of learning paths? How can we avoid problems of learning time management
during working time? Could we interpret courses as real tools of Compliance Risk mitigation?
ABIFormazione, the training company of ABI (Italian Banking Association), answers these
questions through a scientific didactic methodology and a range of flexible, capillary and
effective learning tools conceived for specialists, market net and all banking employees.
In the specific case of the law and some of the finance, ABIFormazione’s instructional designers
elaborated an innovative model of e-learning simulation directed to transfer and evaluate
knowledge and behavioural schemes related to the banking operational context.
What does the application of this simulation model allow?
1. the interactive contents delivery focused on the actual user activities on the job;
2. the "customization" and optimization of course learning time: the user already knowing the
subject can study more quickly than the user who doesn’t have any knowledge of contents;
3. the content management at different complexity levels;
1
Thanks to Laura Ferraris and Antonella De Luca for the translation of the paper.
71
4. the customization of learning paths, in the following situations:
a. the user doesn't know the subject at all;
b. the user has an operational and not theoretical knowledge of the topics;
c. the user has only a "theoretical" knowledge of the subject but he can’t apply it;
d. the user has a good operational and theoretical knowledge of the subject.
Consequently, the pragmatic declination of the simulation guarantees the learning effectiveness
and the strong connection with the operational context. Besides this model solves the problem
of learning time management and the harmonization of competences in the bank.
1. The logical architecture and the didactic strategy
In which contexts can we apply the model?
By this model it is possible to simulate very complex learning contexts that don't exclusively
need a theoretical frame. In fact a simulation can reproduce real situations in which the user
makes practical decisions and he is allowed to make mistakes (his decisions produce only
"virtual" consequences).
The ABIFormazione simulation model is applicable with reference to topics concerning law,
where the subject doesn't introduce "uncertainties". We can identify a resemblance with the
general conditional systems but, instead of creating the paths ramification, this model generates
the simulation story building alternative paths to recover or evaluate the knowledge the user
has already learnt or still has to learn.
How does the model work?
The simulation foresees the creation of a linear path divided in steps corresponding to "n"
macro-topics (1 macro-topic can include 1 or more steps).
Each step simulates a specific working situation that leads the user to make a decision.
That is the so-called "operational level" decision: the user gets the solution of an operationally
complex situation, through one or multiple choice items. The incorrect answers are then
"weighed" and linked with a feedback for the user.
During the simulation a conditional network manages the correct/incorrect answers. In fact the
net checks the system and addresses the user through alternative paths of learning recovery.
These different paths are designed in order to alternate "learning moments" - in which the user
studies and learns contents to solve questions included in the step - to further “decisional
moments” - more and more difficult, corresponding to the “theoretical level”-.
72
An example of conditional net
A set of questions correspondent to the 2nd and the 1st levels of Bloom Taxonomy 2 enable the
system to evaluate the theoretical level of the topic.
Instead, if the user makes the correct decision at the first attempt, the conditional network
addresses him to a path of "knowledge evaluation" and submits to him a second theoretical
question.
The last case introduces two different situations:
1. the user correctly answers and then he can go to the following step;
2. the user doesn't correctly answer and the conditional network addresses him in a
recovery path where he can study contents related to the wrong answer.
When the simulation is finished, the system delivers a report containing:
•
•
•
the operational and theoretical level the user reached on each step;
the knowledge level about macro-topics;
a general synthesis about the user’s ability in managing the whole simulation.
4. Two applications of ABIFormazione e-learning simulation model
In 2008 ABIFormazione designed and developed two e-learning simulations for the Italian
banking system: "Mettiamo in pratica la MiFid" and "Privacy 2008". Both these simulations
represent an application of the model.
“Mettiamo in pratica la MiFid” is directed to sales network managers and employees as well as
to financial promoters managing a radical normative change related to the financial markets
management.
The on-line course is included in a blended learning integrated path. Due to its practical nature,
the course first foresees the study of the MiFID normative through three "Quaderni": (1) MiFID
for the net: general changes, (2) MiFID for the net: changes in the relationship with customer,
(3) MiFID for the net: how markets and dealers have changed.
A page of the simulation “Mettiamo in pratica la MiFid”
2
The first level is referred to knowledge, indented as ability to keep information related to facts , names
and definitions, while the second level is referred to comprehension, intended as the ability to translate, in
a different way, known data.
73
"Privacy 2008" is intended for the sales network team and the new workers: on one hand they
have to apply the privacy normative referring to the customers they’re involved with; on the
other, they’re also subject of the legislation, as long as they’re employees of the Company.
This simulation is completely delivered as an e-learning course: contents are originated from
three guidelines manuals (“Linee guida in materia di trattamento di dati personali della clientela
in ambito bancario”, “Linee guida per posta elettronica e internet”, “Codice deontologico sui
SIC”) and some of the most recent measures related to banks and video surveillance and
biometric systems deliberated by the Privacy Guarantor.
Basically the product investigates specific topics, connected to the Privacy context, the target
has to learn in order to be able to properly apply the norm.
The two simulations share the same objectives:
•
•
•
•
•
providing a training tool, next to the operational reality, helpful for the user to learn
new contents and practice;
making the user directly interact with colleagues and customers;
illustrating the fundamental contents for a target defined through customized paths;
giving the user a learning tools set, well-organized and easy to consult, in order to get
an optimal time management;
offering the user the opportunity to self-evaluate the acquired knowledge, considering
the different complexity levels.
Which benefit comes from using a conditional simulation?
"Mettiamo in pratica la MiFid" is a practical product, a sort of "test-bed" for the student who has
to apply the norm during his/her activities. The simulation defines the context the user interacts
with: a well-known environment where colleagues and customers speak a common language
and the user has to apply, during decisional moments, the acquired knowledge. That means for
the user solving problems and seeing in real time the positive or negative consequences of his
actions.
Similarly, “Privacy 2008” provides theoretical contents in a practical way. Each step’s scenario is
represented by dynamic situations: the problem promptly emerges and the simulation’s
structure is always operational. The different solutions of a decisional moment are particularly
diversified in many contents and situations: in this way it’s possible to give the user appropriate
feedbacks, fit to explain every case. The user can interact with the bank customers or
colleagues and learn from situations simulating some of the real daily working situations.
A page of the simulation “Privacy 2008”
74
What’s the logical architecture of the two simulations?
The two products have a very similar structure:
1. the "Scenario", structured as an hypertextual environment, represents the first place to
consult. It is the context used to introduce the FSAP project, the MiFID directive
("Mettiamo in pratica la MiFid") or the Privacy Code fundamental principles (“Privacy
2008”);
2. the section "Before beginning…" includes a questionnaire concerning the "knowledge
alignment" about the main simulation topics and technical terms. Feedbacks are useful
to strengthen the knowledge when the students correctly answer and to notably help
students not able to correctly answer. This environment represents a preparatory step
to the simulation.
3. the "Simulation" is the course fundamental environment and reproduces real situations
for the target: the different thematic macro areas are managed in several steps.
4. the final Questionnaire represents the tool to assess and self-assess: the user has to
answer different questions. The feedback is not immediately given: at the end of the
questionnaire the user will have a printable report.
75
INTRODUCING DEVELOPING TEACHER-STUDENTS IN A DEVELOPING
CONTEXT TO E-PORTFOLIOS
Illasha Kok, Seugnet Blignaut (North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus,
South Africa)
The South African Context
South Africa is a nation of 47.4 million people of diverse origins, cultures, languages and beliefs.
Around 79% are black (African), 9% white, 9% coloured and 2.5% Indian (Asian). The total
land area of about 1.2 million square kilometres is divided into nine provinces and just over half
of the population lives in cities. South Africa is a multilingual country recognising eleven
languages as official. Most of them are indigenous to South Africa: isiZulu is the mother tongue
of 23.8% of South Africa's population, followed by isiXhosa at 17.6%, Afrikaans at 13.3%,
Sepedi at 9.4%, with English and Setswana each at 8.2%. This means that around 40% of the
population speaks either isiZulu or isiXhosa. Various other African, European and Asian
languages also abound (South Africa.info, 2006). Although national spending on educational is
about 23% of the BNP, poverty still challenges. Although many schools have sub-standard
facilities, many fewer “schools-under-trees” provide the primary education. Approximately 40%
of schools are classified as poor or very poor. Of the 26 292 South African schools,
approximately 60% have electricity and 67% have telephone lines (Department of Education,
2006). Consolidating these statistics, approximately 20% of schools meet the three basic
prerequisites: telecommunications connectivity of grid electricity, exchange telephone lines and
two or more computers (Holcroft, 2004).
Background of the Study
The School of Continuing Teacher Education (SCTE) at the North-West University (NWU),
Potchefstroom Campus, South Africa, in co-operation with the Open Learning Group (OLG) as
logistic collaborator, provides opportunities for practising teachers to upgrade their teaching
qualifications through off-campus training. Teachers who live in remote and rural areas often
find it difficult to attend scheduled classes at traditional campuses. They are therefore trained
through an open-learning approach of course delivery.
During 1994 the South African Department of Education challenged Higher Education Institutes
in South Africa to upgrade the 85 000 unqualified and under qualified in-service teachers. The
NWU responded with SCTE and an open-learning approach. The SCTE profile shows a wellestablished institution that annually enrols about 28 000 teacher-students throughout South
Africa and Namibia. SCTE consists of comprises thirty full-time faculty, thirty administrative and
support staff members, as well as 300 part-time faculty (facilitators of the National Professional
Diploma in Education (NPDE), Advance Certificate in Education (ACE) and BEd Honours degree
at 36 tuition centres during scheduled contact sessions). SCTE functions through an off-campus
model of bi-monthly contact sessions at 36 tuition centres across the country. Coordinators
manage the tuition centres with the assistance of about twelve part-time faculty, depending on
the size of the centre. Each tuition centre has a resource facility comprising of a small, well
equipped specialized library with two computers linked to the Internet. Bi-annually, during
school vacations, SCTE faculty offer vacation schools at the centres.
SCTE is committed to continuous evaluation of quality delivery strategies and requested an
international audit in 2007. The evaluation panel from the Open University of the United
Kingdom pointed out that they “envisaged assessment practices that were directly centred on
the influence of the programme on student learning in the classroom … and ... a move to an
increase in portfolio assessment would improve the attrition rate as teachers are able to
complete relevant school tasks when ready; improve quality of pupil learning as the programme
76
content impacts directly on pupil learning; and can be cost effective for all parties, students and
programme managers, as the need for examination provision is reduced without compromising
standards” (Banks & Knight, 2007).
To meet this requirement, SCTE combined the continuous assessment of two courses from the
ACE (Professional and Curriculum Development), EDTM 514 (Lesson Planning, Preparation and
Presentation) and EDTM 515 (Assessment and Learner Achievement) as a paper-based portfolio
assessment. This portfolio includes school-based activities validated by the school principal,
school-based observations by colleagues (peers), self-assessments by the teacher-students, as
well as course-based assignments assessed by faculty. At the end of the courses the teacherstudents ship their voluminous paper-based portfolios over large distances to the SCTE at the
NWU, Potchefstroom Campus for final assessment. About 800 teacher-students enrol per course
and due to the number of bulky folders, assessing teacher-students portfolio is tedious and
slow, impairing the effectiveness of the assessment process.
Aim of this Investigation
This initial investigation intends to explore e-portfolios as an alternative to the voluminous
paper-based portfolios in order to provide evidence of teacher-student's continuous professional
development. The researchers aim to pilot an initial design of an e-portfolio where the teacherstudent provides evidence of sustainable professional career development to various
stakeholders. The research aims to address the following questions:
•
What are the challenges and barriers of introducing e-portfolios as assessment of
continuous professional development at the SCTE?
•
How can SCTE successfully address these challenges and barriers?
e-Portfolio Learning as Assessment Strategy
From the many definitions of e-portfolios for continuous professional development the
researcher selected a model that provides for:
•
digital resources (personal artefacts and facilitators comments)
•
demonstration of growth and development
•
flexible expression (customized folders and sections that meet the skill requirements of
particular tasks and areas of development)
•
access of input by multiple role-players (peer teacher-students, line managers, course
facilitators).
Literature identifies many different types of portfolios: assessment, professional and personal
development, learning, and group portfolios. In South Africa, the use of portfolios is driven by
the intended outcomes of the learning. Assessment of the portfolio mirrors the ultimate
assessment of the portfolio. Demonstrated learning can range from a simple blog describing the
teaching and learning events to evidence of implementations of educational applications, e.g.
video clips, sound files and images. Compiling a developmental portfolio effectively documents
continuous professional development in an orderly, accessible and manageable way. Regardless
of the format, a continuous professional development portfolio should encourage and support
teacher-students to develop and hone their skills to create a customized life-long learning tool
that may be used for assessment, management, as well as for marketing professional
development.
Portfolios assessment offers an alternate for teaching and assessment in the context of the
South African education system (Du Toit, 2001; Du Plessis & Koen, 2005). e-Portfolios also link
to the system-wide and institutional willingness and readiness to use ICT for teaching, learning,
77
and administrative purposes. The South African e-Education Policy (Department of Education,
2004:33) states that “... every learner in the general and further education and training bands
to be ICT capable (that is, use ICTs confidently and creatively to help develop the skills and
knowledge they need to achieve personal goals and to be full participants in the global
community) by 2013.” This implies that augmenting conventional teaching and learning with
digital technology enables students and teachers to share and collaborate with their peers
locally as well as globally.
Paper-based Portfolios vs. e-Portfolios
Authors indicate similarities and variations between paper-based and e-portfolios (Du Plessis &
Koen, 2005; Tshibalo, 2007; Lumina, 2005; Tisani, 2006) (Table 1).
Table 1: A Comparison of e-Portfolios and Paper-based Portfolios
e-Portfolios
Paper-based Portfolios
Compiles neatly and simply. Easy to add Messy to construct. Difficult to add information in
information
an accessible way
Stores a large volume of information
Cumbersome and bulky to store, taking up a large
amount of storage space. Difficult to retrieve
information
Integrates courses easily. Multiple courses Focuses on one course and is difficult to assess.
per portfolio with simultaneous access to Difficult to indicate growth and development
different assessors
Verifies content and authorship
Vulnerable to misrepresentation and plagiarism
Augments access to graphical information, Limited to mostly textual information
i.e. video and sound files
Diminishes cost implications. Initial cost to Increases cost on the teacher-student to maintain,
institution to set up a portfolio system, but copy and submit the portfolio to role players
it soon becomes cost effective. Maintaining,
copying and submitting the e-portfolio via
the Internet is fast, reliable and cost
effective
Increases access and portability
Diminishes accessibility and portability
Increases mobility. Easy access where Decreases mobility due to a non user-friendly
teacher-students can connect to the format
Internet via computers or mobile phones
Enhances addition and management of Reduces management of continuous additions to
multiple layers of information
portfolio
Increase access to different sections of the Hyper-links between different sections of the
portfolio with hyperlinks
portfolio
Improves ability to update evidence of Lessens portfolio management over time
development and growth
Extends contribution to social constructivist Lowers promotion of shared learning experiences
learning due to possible sharing of teaching
and learning experiences
Links to the imperative of the e-Education Maintains the current situation that does not
White Paper that teacher-students should develop the ICT competencies of teacher-students
become ICT capable. e-Portfolios provide at SCTE
the opportunity for teacher-students to
further development web skills
The researchers propose introducing an e-portfolio as an integrated part of the ACE programme
as a motivator for teacher-student’s professional development. e-Portfolios may also be
instrumental in creating virtual learning communities where students support each other while
78
they also receive support and feedback from various role players. These social interactions can
enhance teacher-student attitudes towards learning with technology, and continuous
professional development.
Challenges and Barriers
Many challenges hamper the introduction of e-portfolios to developing teacher-students in a
developing context such as at SCTE. The researchers reflect on the challenges listed in the
literature review against the realities experienced in our context:

According to Herselman and Hay (2005) a flexible but solid technological infrastructure
must support e-learning. Currently SCTE does not have a dedicated server available for
uploading of e-portfolios from teacher-students. Also, the institutional policy determines
that only current students have access to web servers and applications. Once teacherstudents become alumni, they may no longer access their e-portfolios. Continuous
professional development portfolios thereby become obsolete. The researchers suggest
that the services of a private Internet service provider can maintain this service.

Teacher-students who enrol for courses at SCTE largely come from remote areas where
with limited or non-existent access to the Internet. Due to the unequal development of
communities with little or no digital infrastructure (Paul, 2002). The researchers
question if the system is ready for such a dramatic change, or if a dual systems of both
paper-based and e-portfolios should be maintained indefinitely. However, this decision
increases the demands on the already stretched workload of faculty at SCTE to
maintain a dual system of portfolio assessment as it is clear that not the same
assessment rubrics should be used for both types of portfolio assessment (Fraser, 2001;
Tshibalo, 2007).

Unremitting poverty remains an intractable challenge for education in South Africa in
remote and rural areas. Although the teacher-students may earn a steady and
respectable salary, many families often live off this single salary. Furthermore, a
computer and connectivity to the Internet remain impossible. Fewer than 40% of
schools across South Africa have can access electricity, computers and the Internet
(South Africa.info, 2006). This also reduces the number of students that can access
their portfolios from the school where they teach. The effectiveness of e-learning, and
therefore the implementation of an e-portfolio, is seriously hampered as “... the internet
exacerbates the separate but unequal condition of peoples and nations around the
world” (Kelly, 2002:212). However, Manuel Castells maintains that “... it is not
technology that produces inequity, but it's so powerful that it amplifies the effects of
inequity” (Castells, 1999). Kelly (2002:211) notes that Finland while is a world leader in
education and connectivity, South Africa, as a developing country, cannot maintain the
same level of connectivity and therefore persists in many educational shortcomings.

A hybrid approach of distance education that combines the use of ICTs with traditional
instructor-led learning creates a supportive environment that assists teachers-students
to achieve learning outcomes. It also provides them with a background of
understanding the integration of ICT into teaching and learning (Meier, 2007). The
relevance of a hybrid approach to teaching and learning in the South African context
also becomes apparent where teacher-students expect the availability of faculty to
introduce learning content. A single e-learning model will create frustration among
students used to traditional instructor-led education (Tshibalo, 2007; Henning, Van der
Westhuizen & Diseko, 2005).

e-Portfolios are based on interaction from multiple role players, which assumes
communication, collaboration and engagement. The underpinning learning theory of
79
constructivism generally applies; teacher-students should not be passive recipients of
knowledge transfer, but should actively construct their meaning to professional learning
experiences (Kolovski & Galletly, 2003). These skills are not yet fully developed in our
teacher-students as they have not been trained in an integrated way. Developing
students are inclined to address course content as separate commodities and not part
of an integrated learning experience. SCTE must develop this area as many faculty also
approach course content as separate chunks of information.

Boud (2000) argues for sustainable assessment which “encompasses the knowledge,
skills and predispositions required to underpin lifelong learning activities.” Moving
towards sustainable assessment requires teacher-students to commit to self-assessment
of their professional learning throughout their teaching careers (Lamont, 2007). Such
sustainable assessment practices require that teacher-students are competent elearning users. Our current teacher-students do not adhere to these requirements, and
they do not have confidence to use ICT as part of their teaching and learning practices
(Muirhead, 2000). However, keeping in mind the requirements of the e-Education White
Paper (Department of Education, 2004), these teacher-students are compelled to take a
“cyber jump” into the information era to meet the requirements of ongoing professional
development assessment and professional marketing of their teaching skills.
Paper-based Pilot Project
In March 2008 SCTE introduced the first paper-based portfolio assessment to two courses in the
ACE programme. This portfolio required that teacher-students provide evidence of school-based
activities such as work schedules and lesson plans that have also been validated by the school
principal as well as school-based observations by colleagues (peers). Self-assessment tasks
include self-assessed reflection activities. The faculty assessed the classroom-based assignment.
Findings
SCTE received 487 paper-based portfolios for evaluation in October 2008. In their portfolios,
only 10% (49 teacher-students) indicated ready Internet access. With this barrier in mind, the
researchers list the following challenges to overcome as during the introduction of e-portfolios
at SCTE:

Stable infrastructure: SCTE requires the services of a private Internet service
provider for stable infrastructure and to assist the introduction of e-portfolios as an
alternative to the paper-based portfolios.

Access: From the questionnaire during the pilot it came to light that the teacherstudents do not have sufficient access to the Internet to implement e-portfolios as the
only assessment mechanism for continuous professional development.

Connectivity: South Africa is a vast, developing country with high levels of poverty
and low connectivity. The two new East Coast optic fibre cables may provide improved
access.

Sosio-economic status: More than 40% of schools are classified as poor or very poor
and one can understand that the Internet and telecommunication connectivity are not
main concerns at grassroots. Although many teacher-students earn a steady and
respectable salary, the acquisition of a computers or connectivity to the Internet
remains a personal cost. Communities and local governments should get involved in the
creating more information centres in the rural and remote areas.

Integrated understanding of ICT: Teacher-students and faculty should be trained in
integrating content across courses. The students should change from passive recipients
80
to active participants of knowledge transfer. Integration of ICT should be amplified at all
levels of teaching and learning.

Skills: The technology skills of the teacher-students should be address through an
integrated approach to technology across all courses. This approach would also meet
the requirements of the e-Education White Paper (Department of Education; 2004).

Confidence: By providing teacher-students access to computers, as well as
appropriate training in the use of the technology in teaching and learning, teacherstudents may gain confidence to more widely use technology in their teaching as well
as in their learning.
Conclusions
This paper describes the context of the introduction of e-portfolios as a new assessment
strategy at SCTE. However, this strategy requires a major shift in thinking among all players.
Introducing e-portfolios is imperative as it offers simultaneous flexibility and support to isolated
students in remote areas who have many demands on their time as well as to assessors that
struggle with large volumes of portfolios to assess. The model of adopting e-portfolios at SCTE
should consider the situation of the teacher-students, the intended learning outcomes, course
content, learning activities as well as support to both students and assessors. The researchers
believe that although the introduction of e-portfolios in a developing context can play a pivotal
role in sharing information among role players, upgrading competencies of teacher-students,
and addressing social-economic realities, stumbling blocks remain: ready and stable access to
the Internet, access to a variety of resources, developed academic writing skills, and improved
information literacy skills. Also, from the position of SCTE, commitment to the following
strategic issues should be paramount: adequate resources to support the developers, provision
of adequate infrastructure to manage the large numbers of teacher-students e-portfolios,
continuous technical support to faculty and the large number of teacher-students, and
development of an assessment model for the assessment of integrated e-portfolios. SCTE needs
an integrated approach to address the multiple issues of e-portfolios in a developing context.
References
1.
BANKS, F & KNIGHT, P. 2007. AN EXTERNAL EVALUATION OF PROGRAMMES AND
PROCESSES. SCHOOL OF CONTINUING TEACHER EDUCATION EVALUATION REPORT.
2.
BOUD, D. 2000. SUSTAINABLE ASSESSMENT: RETHINKING ASSESSMENT FOR THE
LEARNING SOCIETY. STUDIES IN CONTINUING EDUCATION, 22(2):151-167.
3.
CASTELLS, M. 1999. MANUEL CASTELLS' BRAVE NEW WORLD. RETRIEVED FROM:
HTTP://WWW.ACTURBAN.ORG/BIENNIAL/DOC_PLANNERS/CASTELLS_ARTICLE9904.PDF.
4.
CLARK, C. & GORSKI, P. 2002. MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION AND THE DIGITAL DIVIDE FOCUS SOCIO ECONOMIC CLASS AND BACKGROUND. MULTICULTURAL PERSPECTIVES,
4:25-35.
5.
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. 2006. SCHOOL REALITIES: 2006. RETRIEVED FROM:
HTTP://WWW.EDUCATION.GOV.ZA/EMIS/EMISWEB/FLYER/SCHOOL%20REALITIES
%202006.PDF.
6.
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. 2004. WHITE PAPER ON E-EDUCATION.
TRANSFORMATION LEARNING AND TEACHING THROUGH INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES, GAZETTE 26734, NOTICE 1869, 26 AUGUST 2004.
7.
DU PLESSIS, L.A. & KOEN, I. 2005. PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT OF INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY STUDENTS AT A UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY: A CASE STUDY.
EDUCATION AS CHANGE, 9(1):19-41.
81
8.
DU PLESSIS, L.A. & KOEN, I. 2005. PORTFOLIOS – A STRATEGY FOR REFORM IN
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY TEACHING. SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, 25
(3):178-184.
9.
DU TOIT, P.H. 2001. PROFESSIONAL PORTFOLIO BUILDING – ALTERNATIVE
ASSESSMENT STRATEGY IN TEACHER EDUCATION. EDUCARE, 30(1):326-344.
10.
FRASER, W.J. 2001. LET'S REVISIT COMPETENCE-BASED TEACHER EDUCATION.
EDUCARE, 30(1):50-72.
11.
HENNING, E., VAN DER WESTHUIZEN, D. & DISEKO, R. 2005. KNOWLEDGE ECOLOGIES
IN FRAGILE ON-LINE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS. PERSPECTIVES IN EDUCATION, 23(4):
55-70.
12.
HERSELMAN, M.E. & HAY, H.R. (2005). AN INVESTIGATION INTO E-LEARNING
PRACTICES: IMPLICATIONS FOR PROVIDERS OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING. SOUTH
AFRICAN JOURNAL OF HIGHER EDUCATION, 19:393-410.
13.
HOLCROFT, E. 2004. CHAPTER 7. SCHOOLNET SOUTH AFRICA. RETRIEVED FROM:
HTTP://WWW.IDRC.CA/EN/EV-71274-201-1-DO_TOPIC.HTML.
14.
KELLY, M.F. 2002. THE POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS OF E-LEARNING. HIGHER EDUCATION
IN EUROPE, 27:211-216.
15.
KOLOVSKI, V & GALLETLY, J. 2003. AN E-PORTFOLIO SYSTEM FOR STUDENT OUTCOMES
ASSESSMENT. PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON SYSTEMS FOR
AUTOMATION OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, 1-5P.
16.
LAMONT, M. 2008. WHAT ARE THE FEATURES OF E-PORTFOLIO IMPLEMENTATION THAT
CAN ENHANCE LEARNING AND PROMOTE SELF-REGULATION. RETRIEVED FROM:
HTTP://DSPACE.OU.NL/BITSTREAM/1820/1680/2/WHAT-ARE-THE-FEATURES-OF-EPORTFOLIO-IMPLEMENTATION-THAT-CAN-ENHANCE-LEARNING-AND-PROMOTE-SELFREGULATION.PDF.
17.
LUMINA, C. 2005. GIVING STUDENTS GREATER RESPONSIBILITY FOR THEIR OWN
LEARNING: PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT AND PEER-MARKING AS TOOLS FOR PROMOTING
SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING IN A SECOND-YEAR LAW COURSE. SOUTH AFRICAN
JOURNAL OF HIGHER EDUCATION, 19(3):73-88.
18.
MASILO, E.O. & PRETORIUS, F.J. 2003. CHALLENGES OF ON-LINE EDUCATION IN A
DEVELOPING COUNTRY. SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF HIGHER EDUCATION, 17(1):
132-139.
19.
MEIER, C. 2007. ENHANCING INTERCULTERAL UNDERSTANDING USING E-LEARNING
STRATEGIES. SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, 27:655-671.
20.
MUIRHEAD, W.D. 2000. ONLINE EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS. THE INTERNATIONAL
JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT, 14(7):315-324.
21.
PAUL, J. 2002. NARROWING THE DIGITAL DIVIDE: INITIATIVES UNDERTAKING BY THE
ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH EAST ASIAN NATIONS (ASEAN) PROGRAM. ELECTRONIC
LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SYSTEM, 36(1):13-22.
22.
SOUTH AFRICA.INFO. 2006. SOUTH AFRICA: FAST FACTS. RETRIEVED FROM: HTTP://
WWW.SOUTHAFRICA.INFO/ESS_INFO/SA_GLANCE/FACTS.HTM.
23.
TISANI, N. 2006. ASSESSMENT BY PORTFOLIO: AN ENCOUNTER WITH
CONTRADICTORY DISCOURSE. SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF HIGHER EDUCATION, 20
(3):182-193.
82
24.
TSHIBALO, A.E. 2007. THE POTENTIAL IMPACT OF COMPUTER-AIDED ASSESSMENT
TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION. SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF HIGHER
EDUCATION, 22(6):684-693.
Authors
Dr Illasha Kok
Prof Dr Seugnet Blignaut
Programme Leader: Quality Evaluation
Research Professor: Educational Technology
School of Continuing Teacher Education
School of Continuing Teacher Education
Faculty of Education Sciences
Faculty of Education Sciences
North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus
North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus
Private Bag X6001
Private Bag X6001
Potchefstroom
Potchefstroom
2522 South Africa
2522 South Africa
Email: [email protected]
Email: [email protected]
83
TEACHER TRAINING IN AN ONLINE ACTION RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
Viviana Gaballo, University of Macerata, Italy
Context and theoretical framework
This study investigates a specific case of integrated learning for the professional development of
[1] [2]
a community of practice
. Integration is here achieved through the fundamental interaction
of multiple areas of knowledge: pedagogical (constructivist and experiential learning theories),
methodological (an AR approach to professional development), and technological (the use of
computer-mediated communication systems allowing online computer-supported collaborative
work). The power of this multifaceted approach lies in the combining of these different areas of
knowledge and in its ability to initiate a positive, self-generating cycle of teacher inquiry that
fosters a continuous, open dialogue between theory and practice, as well as reflection on both
and the changes introduced. In recent years, learning within a collaborative community has
increasingly gained support from both theoreticians and practitioners, and educators are being
asked to make the effort to design curricula that are capable of meeting the needs generated
by this new view of learning and constructivist approach to teaching. To achieve this goal,
teachers should be assisted and adequately trained to the new educational challenge. Until
lately, traditional teacher professional development has been based on a hierarchical model of
expertise and on a transmissional model of teaching, while recent improvements in professional
development have incorporated tools that allow participants to connect with the community and
[3]
construct knowledge . Here we argue that a step further should be taken in designing online
teacher professional development programs that accommodate the need to integrate research
into teacher’s daily practice. Teacher research is considered to have the potential to prompt
educational change, transform teachers' perceptions of themselves as professionals
[4]
[5] [6]
, and
contribute to the self-generation of knowledge about teaching and learning
. Teachers
should therefore be given opportunities to participate in professional development programs in
which they discuss their role in the educational system, experiment new teaching strategies and
gain support from their peers as they implement those strategies in their classrooms. New
models for the professional development of teachers need to be introduced in the national
training system, models that foster a culture of sharing, provide networks for teacher inquiry
[7]
and, above all, produce change in teacher’s daily practice . Models are needed in which the
shared experiences of the community not only come to constitute a collective repertoire of
activities and means of knowledge construction but are also continually negotiated anew
[8]
through each interaction
. A major contribution to advance the suggested conceptual
framework is the introduction of an Action Research approach to teacher professional
development. Action Research did not arise in education
[10]
[9]
, but its potential to the development
[11] [7] [12] [13]
of teaching was clearly identified
and developed in the past decades.
Action
Research consists of a number of research methodologies all pursuing action and researching
outcomes at the same time. Action is used as a research tool and shares equal prominence with
research in the approach. The purpose of Action Research is to understand professional action
from the inside as it involves the careful monitoring of planned change in practice. The
characteristics of Action Research are neatly summarised in the CRASP model developed by
[14]
Zuber-Skerritt
. Action Research is: Critical collaborative enquiry by Reflective practitioners
being Accountable and making the results of their enquiry public, Self-evaluating their practice
and engaged in Participative problem-solving and continuing professional development.
Compared to other types of research, a fundamental shift in focus is involved: the aim of Action
researchers is to bring about development in their practice, by analysing their own practice, not
somebody else’s, and identifying elements for change. Yet, although the focus is on the
individual nature of Action Research, the understanding of the work environment that derives is
professionally empowering, which provides action reasearch with an ‘emancipatory’ quality. As a
matter of fact, in its most ‘emancipatory’ realization Action Research is meant to be
[7]
collaborative and involve groups of teachers exploring and challenging the limits, pitfalls and
constraints of their professional lives. Collaborative Action Research often uses systems theory.
84
In the AR project described in this paper we referred to the four types of Action Research
[15]
identified by Hart and Bond
: experimental, organizational, professionalizing and
empowering. The added value of the project presented in this case study lies in the extended
context to which Action Research was applied: the multiple instances of research produced by
individual practitioners through peer-collaboration were synergized in a process of “collective”
learning within the community of practice, and virtualized by networking the online community
so as to reach the various schools in the different districts of the region. The synergy among
the three (individual, collective, distributed) dimensions contributed to anchor practitioners onto
their own real-world practice (locally) while feeling an integral part of a larger, regional
educational setting, which was changing thanks to the joint commitment of the online
community members to knowledge construction, continuing professional development and
change.
Objectives and design framework
In this paper, we provide an account of a prototypical model of teacher training program
inspired by the mentioned triangulation, as experienced in the context of a regional professional
development program. The aim of our study is to show how school teachers have been
encouraged to overcome the difficulty they have in using reseach findings and applying
research based methods in daily practice, and to take more ownership of their professional
development. This pedagogical approach has been developed within an accredited professional
development programme for inservice school teachers, but has potential applications to any
practitioner research context across all career fields that engage people in meaningful
professional learning. Within the composite professional development program offered by the
Regional School District to school faculty, staff and personnel in the region Marche, Italy, one
particular strand, titled “Professional identity: the school cultural heritage”, was meant to offer
teachers the opportunity to reawaken the sense and worth of their work in the school system,
which was felt as a priority especially after decades of wildly swinging policies of short-lived
state governments that diminished teachers’ role in society. A targeted needs analysis was
conducted together with the School District project management team that provided a
comprehensive understanding of the requirements for the specific teacher training program.
This was developed on a number of core beliefs: an emphasis on authentic performance, a
systematic approach to introducing change, and the importance of a strong sense of
community. The guiding principles in the training program design was found in Participatory
[14]
[16]
[17]
Action Research
and VLC development models, namely in McConnell’s
and Wenger’s
models. The training program was conceived through online synchronous and asynchronous
discussions with the RED educational research team at Venice University, Italy, drawing on
[18] [19] [20]
[4]
previous research
and theory . The program was based upon an intensive, two-day
residential workshop in which active techniques (brainstorming, case study, incident) were used
to introduce the principles of Action Research and allow participants to partially experiment it in
a protected environment. The residential workshop was offered in January 2008 in two different
locations, in the northern and in the southern region, to ensure attendance by participants and
provide them with the fundamentals of Action Research required for practice during the online
workshops (e-workshops). Three distinct audiences were identified: novice teachers, veteran
teachers and principals, with veteran teachers (5+ years experience) representing the largest
part of the overall audience (the spread of participants followed a typical gaussian curve). Of
the types of schools involved in the training program, high schools almost equalled all other
types (primary, middle, and comprehensive schools), while the distribution of the subjects
taught proved to be unbalanced in favor of Humanities. Other subjects such as Maths, Physical
Education or technical subjects amounted to much less than a third of Humanities, which
testified Humanities teachers’ genuine interest in inquiry-based teaching and learning, Little
reference to technological issues was made in the residential workshops in order to keep the
focus on Action Research methodology, however, the first eWorkshop was devoted to the
introduction to and familiarization with the technology that was to support our research and
training efforts. Adoption of a Learning Management System based on the Dokeos platform,
ideated and implemented by Thomas de Praetere (www.dokeos.com), was decided upon as it
seemed to be one of the most complete, flexible and user-friendly open-source learning
management systems. Its neat looks and functional design made it a perfect choice to meet the
85
needs of even the most technophobic teachers. To facilitate their participation and
collaboration, and reduce the impact of a virtually complex interface on their initially poor
decision-making process, the minimal tools for community learning (Agenda, Announcements,
Forum) were displayed in the homepage while all other tools were hidden to participants’ view
by toggling the tool visibility property and were only displayed later on during the program,
when necessary. E-Workshop 1 also served the purpose of socializing and getting acquainted
with computer-mediated asynchronous communication. The aim was to establish a sense of
group identity and empathy among participants, especially because the attendants of the
northern region residential workshop only had the chance to meet their colleagues of the
southern region residential workshop in the final nonresidential, face-to-face workshop. EWorkshops were based on two hours of project work per week, over the spring semester 2008,
and designed so as to rely on an “extended meeting” metaphor: each eworkshop was
prolonged over a number of weeks to allow for participation and completion of the involved
activities, but actually could be seen as the collective interaction of participants in one f2f
meeting, with the same agenda, only with turn-taking deferred in time. Practitioners identified a
number of objectives: problems in their practice that needed to be solved such as student
difficulty in learning (23%) and disregard for rules (18%), situations requiring improvement
such as motivation (18%), positive instances prompting for closer investigation such as
assessment (23%), then they aggregated in groups based on common or similar objectives.
Groups of 3-4 practitioners were formed so as to prevent members of one school from
operating in the same group to maximize the beneficial effect of region-wide group
membership. Each group member formed initial working hypotheses on how to meet the
objective identified as research question, then put these into practice, made observations on
his/her practice, evaluated its effects and reflected upon the results of the evaluation. During
this cycle, practitioners were not left to themselves. As a community of practice should allow for
multiple levels of participation and multiple paths of involvement, each group member was
asked to cover at least two roles after each group was dulicated as many times as the number
of its group members to form sub-groups in which individual group members became both
discussion leaders (in their own sub-group) and critical friends (in the remaining sub-groups): a
discussion leader was considered an “expert” of the domain to which the selected research
question was applied, both context and content wise, and led the analysis and discussion of the
issue in a private forum with the support of 2-3 “critical friends”. The role of critical friends was
to help discussion leaders to focus on their issue by pushing reflection and providing positive
critique. During the whole length of the e-workshops, two teams, each with 2 faculty
facilitators, alternated to support practitioners in their individual Action Research projects and
collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation. The role of the facilitator in
this context was to work with practitioners to “establish a collaboratively owned system through
[21]
which both the individual members and the community could learn and grow”.
In the final eworkshop practitioners reconnected to the large group to discuss issues further in the light of
the changes made to their practice and the experience acquired. The concluding one-day
nonresidential workshop hosted for all practitioners at a centrally-located site was devoted to
metareflection about the training experience and the role of the community in the entire
process.
Data collection and results
The study involved a dual level of research, which could be termed “embedded Action
Research”: the research conducted by the OLAR design team (the author as an academic
researcher and the 4 faculty facilitators) to support the implementation of research-based
methods in teachers’ daily practice within the dialectic dimension of a regional community of
practice, and the research conducted by practitioners to experience and enhance research use
in their local contexts while supported by regionwide group discussions and the faculty
facilitators. The rapport and level of communication between the academic researcher and the
faculty facilitators was a key element in the project and allowed it to be regularly monitored
through forum discussions and chat session in the area reserved to the OLAR design team. The
residential workshops used brainstorming and active techniques to enhance the data collection
process. Each participant reflected on the professional identity of teachers individually, then in
small groups and finally with the whole workshop. The results of these activities were collected
86
interactively in two mind maps which constituted the foundations for later discussions and the
final brainstorming meant to produce a first draft of the ethical document of the teachers of the
Region Marche. Based upon qualitative data gathering through observation of their own and
[11]
each other’s behaviour
, practitioners gained a new understanding of their actions and
completed self-assessment forms to keep track of their developing projects. They made use of
the Purpose-Strategy-Outcome-Review (P-S-OR) procedure as described by Harri-Augstein and
[22]
Thomas
within a three-phase action learning event-time pedagogy that Coombs (1995)
designed as an Action Research project management evaluation tool. The P-S-O-R systems
analysis tool was used for eliciting project management cycles for each implemented action:
Phase 1 -reflective planning; Phase 2 -on-the-job reflection; Phase 3 reflective closure. At
completion of individual projects, practitioners used the ARP Evalutation Form, a project
management reflective analysis tool that allowed them to reflectively analyse the three
important stages of the project as a whole. As a motto of Action Research is 'The most
important purpose of evaluation is not to prove but to improve', by using the mentioned
systems analysis tools, teachers were able to make the necessary changes to their practice,
which benefitted both their students and their educational institution, and work as a network of
committed teams to generate new knowledge and understanding and influence policy and
practice on a regional basis.
Conclusions and recommendations
This paper describes how Action Research can be applied to the professional development of
[22]
educators in an online environment within the constructivist framework.
The study provided
evidence of increased personal awareness of teachers’ identity, coupled with improved
confidence in the use of research methods and findings in their daily practice. The most critical
issues, however, concerned time management and organization involvement. Participants
reported lack of time to regularly attend the online sessions; lack of time to check for received
feedback and provide feedback to the community; lack of time to review, critique and apply
research evidence. As the project extended over 4 months in the spring semester until almost
the end of the school year, many teachers felt so overburdened that they feared they could not
complete the experience. This issue also relates with the very limited support received by
practitioners’ organizations, which in turn affected practitioners’ accountability. An organization
should facilitate the learning of all its members so that it may continuously transform itself by
[11]
constructing knowledge through social negotiation.
These critical issues should be accounted
for in view of the future emergence of OLAR-CoPs (On Line Action Research Communities of
Practice). Additional outcomes that would favor the reiteration of the professional development
program and extension of the experience for observation of results over a longer period
included the enhanced teachers’ regional network and, to some extent, the improved
interorganizational communication, which permitted a more effective dissemination of good
practices. A possible fuurther development would be a step in allowing trained practitioners to
become guided facilitators in future training programs. We see this study as contributing, at
multiple levels, to pedagogy, methodology, and practice, as the research presented aims at
advancing our understanding of communities of practice, highlighting the advantages of
learning within them in an Action Research framework. The main conclusions of the study
sustain the view that the prospects for online Action Research are promising, although some
refinements are needed to ensure full success.
References
1Rivoltella P.C. (2003) Costruttivismo e pragmatica della comunicazione on line: Socialitˆ e didattica in Internet,
Erickson
2Calvani a. (2005) Rete, comunitˆ e conoscenza: costruire e gestire dinamiche collaborative, Erickson
3Barab S.A., Duffy T. (2000) From practice fields to communities of practice, Theoretical foundations of learning
environments, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 25-56
4Margiotta U. (1997) Riforma del curricolo e formazione dei talenti, in Margiotta U. (ed.) Riforma del curricolo e
formazione dei talenti: linee metodologiche e operative, Armando, 11-73
5Duffy T.M., Cunningham D. (1996). Constructivism: Implications for the design and delivery of instruction. In Johnasen
D. (ed.) Handbook of research for educational communications and technology, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 170-198
6Cochran-Smith M., Lytle S.L. (1999) Relationships of knowledge and practice: Teacher learning in communities, Review
of research in education, 24, 249-305
87
7Elliott J. (1991) Action research for educational change, Open University Press
8Scardamalia M., Bereiter C. (1994) Computer support for knowledge-building communities, The Journal of the Learning
Sciences, 265-283
9Lewin K. (1948) Resolving social conflicts: Selected papers on group dynamics, Harper Brothers
10Stenhouse L. (1975) An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development, Heinemann
11Johnassen D.H, Peck K.L., Wilson B.G. (1999) Learning with technology: A constructivist perspective, Prentice Hall
12Hollingsworth S. (1997) International action research: A casebook for educational reform, Falmer press
13McNiff J. (2002) Action research: principles and practice, Routledge.
14Zuber-Skerritt O. (1991) Action research for change and development, Avebury
15Hart E., Bond M. (1995) Action research for health & social care: A guide to practice, Open University Press
16McConnell D. (2002) The experience of networked collaborative assessment, studies in Continuing education, 24, 1,
73-92
17Wenger E. (1998) Communities of practice: learning, meaning and identity, Cambridge university press
18Gaballo V. (2008) Learning translation strategies in a CSCL framework, Knowledge construction in e-learning context:
CSCL, ODL, ICT and SNA in education, 205-208, http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS/
Vol-398/S6_Gaballo.pdf
19Rigo R. (1997) Il potenziale del modello esperto disciplinare, Riforma del curricolo e formazione dei talenti: linee
metodologiche e operative, Armando, 121-156
20Zanchin M. R. (1997) La metodologia delle fasi di lavoro, Riforma del curricolo e formazione dei talenti: linee
metodologiche e operative, Armando, 157-186
21Barab S. A., Cherkes-Julkowski M., Swenson R., Garrett. S., Shaw R. E., Young M. (1999) Principles of selforganization: Ecologizing the learner-facilitator system. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 8, 349–390.
22Harri-Augstein E., Thomas L. (1991). Learning conversations: The self-organized learning way to personal and
organizational growth, Routledge & Kegan.
Author
Prof. Viviana Gaballo University of Macerata, Department of Communication Arts & Sciences Via
Armaroli 9, 62100 Macerata, Italy [email protected]
88
THE IMPACT OF DISTANCE LEARNING ON LIFELONG LEARNING
Maria de F‡tima Goul‹o, Universidade Aberta
Abstract
Knowledge establishes itself as a primordial element concerning the sustained development of
society because of the rhythm and alterations that society has been suffering. So it is more and
more recognised the value and the importance of a higher instruction and also a suitable
investigation for the formation of its members. Education and Formation have repercussions
that are felt in an individual level, in a community level and in the social development. In many
situations these changes may be and are attached to profits and lost at psychological, socioaffective, social, organizational, professional and ideological levels.
One way to education reaches more people, whether they are in a higher education or not,
whether they are at the beginning of their formation or updating their knowledge is through the
distance learning. It has many specific characteristics that make a person a privileged partner in
the whole process.
Many of the students of the distance learning are no longer young and have their jobs and
families. By these reasons they have to coordinate the different areas of life which are mutually
influenced. The reasons that take them to embrace a project of distance learning are
diversified. Some students bet on getting an upper academic level because they can reach a
better place of work while others only want to have a bigger cultural degree.
Our study pretended to know the reasons that induce people to choose this education system.
A sample of 298 distance learning students of both sexes was used. As an instrument to collect
data it was used an open answer questionnaire in which was requested the 3 main reasons that
took the inquired to choose distance learning. The analysis of the answers was made based in
the technique of content analysis.
1. Introduction
The concept of lifelong learning
Societies are constantly changing. These changes are felt on different levels, particularly
concerning the knowledge one, provoking a need of adjustment within society and individuals.
On this perspective, knowledge constitutes itself as the support and the stimulating element of
societies’ development, due to the reach of the changing rhythm that societies have been
suffering.
Side by side with this concern appears another one which is the need to recycle people, by
giving them the ways to adjust to this new society and also to the exigencies that alterations
and new know ledges put to those who are already at the Job market. In fact, society and the
world of work have been subjected to a huge change and evolution due to the fast technologic
development as well as to globalization.
Because of this panorama the traditional phases of a worker’s life: formation – employment –
retirement are no longer the same. The bet must be on “human capital”, insisting on the
change of mentalities and challenges that this “new” society implies. This preparation must pass
through developing of personal competences which give those that will need it, the opportunity
to be apt to answer different solicitations.
This preparation must pass through developing personal competences which habilitate those
that need it to adjust and to answer different solicitations.
Allied to those two versions we find another reality related to a big number of individuals which
early abandon school. Graphic 1 give us those rates at EU-27. In spite of this situation have
been improving during the last years, most part of the countries are still over the reference
value for the EU for 2010; actual 15% against 10% previewed.
89
Graph 1 – EARLY SCHOOL LEAVERS
Share of the population aged 18-24 with only lower-secondary education
[1]
(Source: Council of the European Union, 2008)
However, we know that the analogy between instruction and lifelong learning, employment and
economic development are stronger. So, economic and social instability as well as the
knowledge ‘impact within society reinforced learning importance through life as “all learning
activity in any time of life with the scope of improving know ledges, adjustments and
competences in a civic, social and/or related to work”. (European Commission,2001,p.11)
[2]
Education and Formation have repercussions felt at individual levels as well as communitarian /
social development. Populations’ social awareness, through the transmission of knowledge as
well as formation, may allow a real development of the Economy by giving a best fit between
which is necessary and the potentialities of people involved.
Understanding the reality which surrounds us and also the implication that it has in each one of
us it is an important step to find out answers.
Betting on education / formation takes us to a best performance of the tasks, a better
adjustment of the intervenient, a better social awareness and a better participation inside
community.
The different intervention made on the research and politic levels point to the learning
importance through life in order to raise market employment, reinforce social inclusion, active
citizenship and personal development.
This notion includes the whole process of formal learning, as well as non formal and informal,
because we must be aware that even that learning does not develop within the formal space
built to this situation, it exists.
Initial formation must be faced as the first degree to reach social and professional insertion.
However, we cannot forget that it is necessary to go on developing and actualizing competences
to a better adjustment required by society or by professional reconverting.
So, we come in the adult’s learning field. This one can be understood as “all ways of learning
done by adults after abandoning the initial education and formation, independently the level
they had reached” (Council of the European Union, 2006, p.1)
include the notion of Higher Education.
[3]
. This definition may also
The importance that this subject has in The European Union can be seen on the effort done by
adjusting the same politics in order to render education systems as well as the reorganization of
the competences that help mobility and integration of individuals within the European space. On
the other hand, support and promotion to the lifelong learning too. About the Higher Education
we find important the Bologna declaration which, in 2001, was added a line of action about
lifelong learning.
The framework of qualifications for the European Higher Education Area, adopted by the
90
ministers in 2005, during the Bergen Conference includes the “learning competences”.
In 2006, the European Parliament and the European Union Council recommended to
memberships to “(…) develop the provision of key competences for all as part of their lifelong
learning strategies, including their strategies for achieving universal literacy (…)” (Official
[4]
Journal of the European Union, 2006, p.11) . In this sphere of action it was developed and
approved The European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning. It allows, among other
things, “(...) using learning outcomes as a common reference point, the Framework will
facilitate comparison and transfer of qualifications between countries, systems and institutions
and will therefore be relevant to a wide range of users at European as well as at national
level.” (European Commission, 2008, p.4)
[5]
According with the results of the survey Education and Training of Adults, in 2007 about one
third (30.9%) of Portugal’s population aged between 18 and 64 participated in one activity of
[6]
formal or informal learning, at least (Statistics Portugal, 2008) . However, if it is important to
evidence that participation in formative activities, the analysis of the reasons for not
participating in this kind of activities or of its obstacles it is also important. The reasons given by
participants in this study and that in the year 2007 "did not participate but wanted to
participate" in training activities are in the following table:
Table 1 Main reason for non-participation in education and training
New public for Higher Education
This new reality has a new public on the instruction system which brings new and different
challenges to it.
About Higher Education we can group these new “clients” in three categories (Teichler, in
UNESCO, 2005)
[7]
:
Postponers: Here are inserted the individuals who had Access to upper instruction at the
end of High School, but that for several reasons did not follow their studies
Returners: Group of individuals that entered Upper Instruction but that need to upgrade
their knowledge for Professional or cultural reasons;
Second chance: Group of individuals who could not yet benefit of the instruction system
and that have now the opportunity.
These different groups have common denominators such as handicaps concerning economic,
academic, cultural and psychological spheres.
Speaking about the economical level, as they can be unemployed persons or persons with lower
incomes, they have to face expenses for studying again. About academic sphere we can find
91
persons who don’t have the qualifications to enter at Higher Education. At last, cultural and
psychological spheres. Many of those persons had to leave school at the proper time, bringing
with them an unsuccessful story that may influence their return. Also the “return to school” can
unleash an idea of childishness creating resistance.
So it is recognised each time more and more the value of the importance of upper instruction
and the adequate research, in order to the formation of the critic mass of qualified and cult
people, in a way to guarantee the development of the countries.
Adult students
This question has already some years. This system lead to the development of the movement
named andragogy, meaning, “the art of teaching adults”. The main name is attached to
Malcolm Knowles. For him adults are self-responsible and they expect to have the responsibility
to take decisions. This movement outs adult against young student (child or teenager), so,
andragogy versus pedagogy.
Andragogy is based on essential presuppositions concerning adult learners (Knowles, 1990)
Lets see what are these presuppositions:
1
2
3
4
5
[8]
.
Self-concept of the learner. Once adults reach a stage where they possess their lives
responsibility, they develop a psychological need to be seen and treated by others as
being able to self-manage.
Experience role. Adults are going to a learning situation with a bigger number and more
diversified experiences than that of children.
Orientation to learn: Adults are ready and motivated to learn if the results of that
learning are related to their lives context and if that this will help them to deal with
solving problems.
Need to know. Adults need to know the reason why they have to learn a specific
subject before getting involved.
Motivation. The best motivation is inherent, such as self-esteem, quality of life or a job
progression.
[9]
Rogers’ (1985)
studies also point to the benefits that adults can obtain through learning
when they become responsible for it by defining objectives, selecting the sources as well as
study materials, establishing the whole stages and giving a certain rhythm by evaluating
learning. .
Works on psychology and education sciences have been demonstrating that the frontiers
[10].
between one universe and the other are not so rigid and clear. (Bourgeois & Nizet, 1999)
On
the contrary, we can find on children or young learners some characteristics that according to
andragogy would be exclusive of those adults and the contrary is also true. For instance, we
speak about concepts as “the need to know” or the “will to learn”, which also perform a
primordial role in learning of children and young.
So it seems that the most important in the whole learning situation is that we have to consider
these factors and that the person is able to learn, not only being a receptacle of information but
a person who has a whole story and life Project which make him/her move on. “For adults the
living experiences are an important support of their learning” (Costa & Silva, 2000, p.673)
[11]
.
Adults’ education
Adults’ education is oriented to give answers for several needs which appear inside society and
that change from country to country and time to time. In an effort to follow these changes,
people are compelled to explore different strategies and ways so they can give more effective
answers to new challenges that society “give them” (Malglaive, 1995)
[12]
.
The adult learner involvement in formation is done on his story and personal life project. The
decision which takes an adult to get involved in a formation process is, in one way or another,
attached to a personal, professional and/or social project, meaning that the adult learner
involvement takes to expectations which can even be totally conscientious but that, in the end,
he/she expects to be well succeeded.
92
[13]
For Cross (1981)
an adult learner invests with formation because expectations are so strong
and seen as to be important to him that formation is a way to obtain them.
This way, getting involved in formation mobilizes not only cognitive aspects as well as affective
ones.
Different researches agree with this aspect: the individual project is essential and vital, to take
the person to begin the formation process. Meaning that the project represents the main source
of energy for all that will happen.
However, speaking about formation, the involvement of an adult learner, may be complicated
because of other parameters. Sometimes the adult learner faces problems like having other
responsibilities / compromises besides formation, like family, professional and even social
reasons.
Difficulties don’t remain here and we can find them on the lack of time or economic availability
to obtain a successful formation.
Distance Learning
Besides that, geographic dispersion as well as individual, family, economic or health factors
made distance learning a education system which is an important allied concerning formation
and development of individuals
so also to societies, weather we are speaking about a
traditional one or those of technology (Aretio, 2002)
[14]
.
Distance learning is based on a dialogue between professor and student where there is no
share of physical spaces and where the time may not coincide. The student learns
independently.
The methodologies of distance learning are based on a learning model that suppose the
existence of adult learners who have a maturity level as well as enough motivation which will
allow them to get involved in a self-learning process.
That way learning distance instruction must be oriented to allow to the learner autonomy which
implies, among other aspects, individualised interactions and a great discipline.
Distance Learning is usually based on the individualised formation and in general, it is about a
philosophy which recognises the learner to have the power on his own formation. How? By
building up pedagogic supports and ways of transmitting knowledge which will allow him, more
and more each time, to become responsible and autonomous. When speaking of this kind of
system it puts autonomy not as a selection motive but as a formation goal. So, we have:
Figure 2 Distance learning
So we can say that one of the ways to reach more people, whether they have an upper level or
not, whether they are at the beginning or actualizing knowledge it is through distance learning.
This has very specific characteristics which take it to be a privilege partner in the whole process.
Those characteristics are to overpass the space-time constraints on the face-to-face instruction.
So it adopts strategies which allow to flexibly spaces, times, rhythms, styles and ways of
[15]
learning (Goul‹o, 2002)
.
Distance learning formation usually gives answers to this new need of individualization. It
offers, to those who are interested, whether their initial motivations are, this kind of system
especially allows to free persons of any space-time constraints imposed by the traditional ones:
93
Figure 3 Some aspects of Distance learning
So, it is necessary to adopt promotional knowledge strategies having as a scope the production
of autonomous individuals, socially responsible and competitive inserted in a world market, over
and over more specialized.
So, we can say the functions of an Open University are:
%L
%L
%L
%L
%L
Help economic development
To respond to public demand
To widen access to new group of students
Intervention to change higher education systems
Major social change
2. Methodology
a. Objective
This investigation’s objective as follows:
%L To analyze the reasons why people choose this education system.
%L Sample
Our study’s sample was done from students who sent us well done questionnaires, in all 298. In
the sample we have students representing several courses / areas of knowledge (Social
sciences, History, Mathematics, Computer science, Languages and Modern Literatures,
European Studies, Administration, Technological Education, Social Action). About the gender of
the subjects of the sample, 41% were male and 59% female.
The following table (Table 2) shows us the sample’s information from the point of view of the
variables - Age and Number of years attending distance learning.
Table 2 Characteristics of the sample
Age
Number of years
attending distance
learning
N
298
297
Minimum
23
0
Maximum
63
11
Mean
38,45
3,34
Std. Deviation
8,362
2,148
b. Instrument
The student’s collect data was done through an open answer questionnaire where it was
requested the 3 main reasons that took the inquired to choose distance learning.
94
o Which had been the three (3) main reasons that had taken him/her to choose distance
learning
1
2
3
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
3. Results
The presentation of results is going to be done by the following way:
1
2
3
- Presentation and meaning of the answers’ category;
- Analyses the frequency of the different categories by order of reason;
- Analyses the frequency of the different categories, in the all and by gender.
3.1. Presentation and meaning of the answers’ categories
To analyse the answers through the questions asked to students we used the technique of
content analyses. From this data treatment we’ve got the following analysis’s categories:
Figure 4 Answer Categories
Management
Compromise
Institutional Reputation Objective
Economical
Time Pedagogic Offer
Space
Accessibility
Health
Easy... Method of Study
Convenience
The following table represents the meaning of each one of the categories. So,
Table 3 -Categories
Categorie
What it means
Compromise
Category of answer that is related with Family/To stud;y To be able to work
conciliating professional life, family life and to study
and study.
Objective
Category of answer related with
personal and professional needs
Personal valuation; Professional need;
Method of
Study
Category of answer related with the
way to study in this system of
education
Self-learnig; It compels to a bigger
personal organization
Pedagogic
Offer
courses and issues offered
Interest for the issues of the course;
The course that interested me
particularly.
Example
95
Convenience
comfort studying at home.
Comfort; To study at home without
having that to leave for the school.
Economical
economic aspects to study in this
system of education.
Economic factor; Costs; More
economic.
Accessibility
factors that become more accessible
on this system of education
Health reasons; Not to be obliged to
attend lessons; A possible option in
this island.
Management Category of answer related with the
To be able to manage my schedules;
possibility to manage the time and the To be able to organize the course
contents in accordance with the
according to my will.
rhythm of the students
Institutional
Reputation
image of the institution
Confidence in the education
implemented by the University;
Scientific and pedagogical quality of
the University professors.
3.2. Analysis of the different categories frequency, for order of reason
The following results give us the idea of the importance of each category when choosing this
kind of education. As it can be seen on table 4, the first reason is the Accessibility that this
system gives to whom needs it; followed by Management, which means the possibility of
managing the time , rŽsumŽs and spaces according to needs and rhythms. Then, we find
reasons related with a need for professional and personal valuations.
Table 4 First reason
Argument - 1
Valid
Compromise Convenience Pedagogic Offer Economical Total
Concerning the reasons, we found this answer pattern.
Table 5 Second and third reason
96
Argument -2
Argument - 3
Frequency PercentFrequency Percent
Method of Study 24 10,4 26 9,6
30 11,1 Pedagogic Offer 21 9,1 Compromise 20 8,723 8,5 Economical 16 7,022 8,1
Institutional
8 3,0 13 5,7
Reputation
7 2,6 Convenience 5 2,2 Total 230 100,0270 100,0 Compromise Pedagogic Offer Method of
Study Economical Convenience Institutional
Reputation Total
However, in spite of the three main remained the same, in Argument 3 - the Management
category goes to first place and category Accessibility goes to second place, changing positions
between them. We must say that only in Arguments 2 and 3 appear the Institutional Reputation
and the Method of Study categories.
As previously saw the Accessibility category divides in the items Time, Space, and Health and
Easy…
97
The following graphics are related to Category Accessibility within the 3 reasons:
Graph2 Accessibility: First reason
We can see here that Time is essential for choosing distance learning. Following is Space,
meaning that there are no other options in the place where they live or not having to go there
often because of professional reasons. The Easy category is related with communication Access
towards the Institution. We can also see answers related with health reasons which don’t allow
people to access to other type of learning.
Graph 4 Accessibility: Second and third reason
The back graphics belong to the same category, but of the reasons 2 and 3. There we can
verify that the same items remained (except Health) and that begins to exist a valuation of the
items Space and Easy and a reduction of the item Time.
3.3. Analysis of the different categories frequency, in the total and by gender
After grouping the different answer categories got, we tried to verify how these categories are
divided concerning gender. Table 6 represents the results obtained crossing these variables.
98
Table 6 Argument – Total * Gender
Gender
MF
Total Argument Institutional
Reputation Count
8 12 20
- Total % within Gender 2,4% 2,6% 2,5% Convenience Count
14 15
29 % within Gender
4,1% 3,3%
3,6% Method of Study Count
25 22
47 % within Gender
7,4% 4,8%
5,9% Management Count
68 90
158 % within Gender
Accessibility Count 105 150
20,1% 19,6% 19,8%
255 % within Gender
Economical Count 19 25
31,1% 32,7% 32,0%
44 % within Gender
5,6% 5,4%
5,5% Pedagogic Offer Count
99
23 33
56 % within Gender
6,8% 7,2%
7,0% Aim Count
39 67
106 % within Gender
11,5% 14,6%
13,3% Compromise Count
37 45
82 % within Gender
10,9% 9,8%
10,3% Total Count
338 459
797 % within Gender
100,0% 100,0% 100,0%
As we can watch the answer pattern is identical in both groups. So, whether male, whether
female, both follow the general answer pattern. Both put in first place the Accessibility, in
second place Management and in the third place Objective.
Relatively to the Accessibility category our results are in Graphic 5.
Graph 5 Accessibility * Gender
4. Conclusion
Deep changes of economical and social levels, the globalization implications, as well as the
technologic development came to modify the societies’ panorama and putting new challenges.
The continuous acquisitions of knowledge and competences have become compulsory to
guarantee the integration and responsibility of people in the society where they belong. Also in
order to guarantee the development and a sustainable economy.
It is urgent the investment on education and formation of people in a way to give them the
knowledge and the competences needed to perform now and in the future their functions. This
100
investment cannot be only at the beginning. On the contrary it must be done along the
individuals’ life. For those who are already on the work market, having already a personal and
family life the Access to this kind of formation becomes hard. It is here that Distance learning
has a main role (Goul‹o, 2000)
[16]
.
So, to check in which measure this system answers to the needs of this kind of people we’ve
done this work which scope was to know the main reasons which take people to choose
Distance learning. We used an Open Question so they could say the three main reasons of that
option.
The analyses of the answers leave us to conclude that the individuals turn to Distance Learning
in a voluntary way. This option may also be the result of an institutional imposition or even a
geographic one. We cannot forget that the main users are persons who already have a
professional life and, often, a family too.
The answers’ treatment allowed the identification of reasons that made the distance learning
role as a way of promoting the equality of opportunities. As an example of this aspect is found
the category Objective - category of answer related with personal and professional needs,
Economical - Category of answer related with the economics aspects to study in this system of
education and Accessibility -category of answer related with factors that become more
accessible on this system of education – Time, Space, Heath and Easy.
[18]
The flexibility is one key element in the lifelong learning (Klein & Osborne, 2007) . Flexibility
connected to the necessity of choosing between time and spaces depending on the students’ or
on the boss’ necessities. It was found this kind of evidences in categories as Management category of answer related with the possibility to manage the time and the contents in
accordance with the rhythm of the students, Compromise - category of answer that is related
with conciliating professional life, family life and study, Method of Study - category of answer
related with the way to study in this system of education and Convenience - category of
answer related with comfort studying at home.
It was found answers that join the categories Pedagogic Offer and Institutional
Reputation.
The analyses of the answers leave us to conclude the three main reasons to choose the
distance learning are the Accessibility, the Management and the Objective. Among the items
making part of the category Accessibility the one which has main evidence is Time.
The reasons to choose the distance learning system that were presented by our sample,
especially the three previously mentioned, make stronger the relevancy idea of this learning
system on the promotion of lifelong learning globalization as well as it becomes an important
ally in the politics’ implementation of the social inclusion and the economic competitively.
This way, the results got strength our idea that Distance Learning is a strong allied, allowing in
many cases, to lifelong learning.
5. References
[1]COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN UNION (2008), Draft 2008 joint progress report of the Council and the Commission on
the implementation of the 'Education & Training 2010' work programme "Delivering lifelong learning for knowledge,
creativity and innovation" – Adoption. Brussels: Council of the European Union. Available at http://ec.europa.eu/
education/pdf/doc66_en.pdf [15 February 2008]
[2]EUROPEAN COMMISSION.(2001). Making a European area of lifelong learning a reality. Brussels: Commission of the
European Union. Available at http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/lll/life/communication/com_en.pdf [22 January
2008]
[3]COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN UNION (2006). Adult learning- It Is Never Too Late To Learn. Available at: http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2006/com2006_0614en01.pdf [20 January 2007]
101
[4]EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT (2006). Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December
2006 on key competences for lifelong learning. In: Official Journal of the European Union, L394/10. Available at :http://
eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2006/l_394/l_39420061230en00100018.pdf [10 August 2007]
[5]EUROPEAN COMMISSION.(2008). The European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning (EQF). Luxembourg:
European Communities. Available at http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/educ/eqf/eqf08_en.pdf [5 Jun 2008]
[6] STATISTICS PORTUGAL (2008). Education and Training of Adults Survey. Lisboa: INE
[7]UNESCO/Col. (2005). Perspectives on Distance Education: Lifelong Learning & Distance Higher Education. Paris:
UNESCO
[8] KNOLEWS,M.(1990).L’apprenant adulte: Vers un nouvel art de la formation. Paris : Editions Entrentes
[9] ROGERS,C.R.(1985). On Becoming a Person (trad.). Lisboa: Moraes Editores [in Portuguese]
[10]BOURGEOIS,E & NIZET,J.(1999). Apprentissage et Formation des adultes (2» ed.),coll.ƒducation et Formation.
Paris : PUF.
[11]COSTA SILVA, A.M. (2000).“ Da forma‹o de adultos ao adulto em forma‹o” in Revista Galego-Portuguesa de
Psicoloxia e Educaci—n, n¼4 (vol.6), pp.666 - 677
[12]MALGLAIVE,G.(1995). Enseigner a des Adultes (trad.), col.Cincias da Educa‹o. Porto : Porto Editora [in Portuguese]
[13]CROSS,K.P.(1981). Adults as learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
[14] ARETIO, L.G. (2002). La educaci—n a distancia: De la teor’a a la pr‡ctica. Barcelona: Ariel Educaci—n
[15]GOULÌO, M. F. (2002). ‘Open and Distance Learning – Cognition and Affectivity’. Ph.D. diss., Universidade Aberta [In
Portuguese]
[16]GOULÌO, M. F. (2000). ‘Distance Education and the adults' formation.’Revista Galeco-Portuguesa de Psicolox’a e
Educaci—n 4(6): 657-666
[17]KLEIN,B. & OSBORNE,M.(2007). The concepts and Practices of Lifelong Learning. London : Routledge
Author
Assistant Professor, Maria de F‡tima Goul‹o Universidade Aberta, Rua da Escola PolitŽcnica,147
1269-001 Lisboa
[email protected]
[email protected]
102
BLENDED LEARNING FOR THE 21ST CENTURY LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Marci Powell: Global Director – Higher Education & Corporate Training and United
States Distance Learning Association President
ABSTRACT
Today’s learning environment and the world in which we live are quickly changing. Educators
and trainers face pressures to leverage the technologies necessary for expanding the learning
opportunities for today’s workforce and tomorrow’s leaders. Given the right opportunities and
right technologies, educators can transform the learning environment, break down the barriers
of geography and culture, motivate students, and ultimately, increase performance. This session
will examine the technologies that allow universities and corporate training departments to
adapt to the needs of the 21st century classroom in developing today’s workforce by examining
five case studies.
In this session we will examine several short case studies from the United States to see how
various universities and corporations are utilizing ilearning to address challenges and pains. Our
presenter, the President of the United States Distance Learning Association has created a new
method of discovering best practices among colleagues. She will take five different cases
studies of universities and corporations who have implemented ilearning technologies of
videoconferencing, online, and streaming/podcasting to address their challenges in the learning
environment. In a rapid fire presentation style, Marci will quickly bottom line the background,
objectives, results summary, and conclusions/recommendations.
1. Background: A company devoted to training: a global leader in selecting, training,
placing, and supporting Microsoft professionals worldwide deals with lost revenue from
students who are geographic dispersed and needed remote access to a master’s
program.
a. Objective: Increase revenue by increasing student enrollment and to be
environmentally responsible.
b. Implementation: Videoconferencing access for remote students
c. Results: Increased revenue significantly and so far has prevented 181,000
pounds of hydrocarbons from being released into the atmosphere.
2. Background: A major university extension center responsible for an entire state
provides current research and educational information to residents in all of the state’s
82 counties, ranging from certification programs and state-mandated training, to
informal learning opportunities in the general areas of agriculture and natural
resources, 4-H youth development, enterprise and community development, and family
and consumer education.
a. Challenge: Deliver crucial Extension research and education to residents in all
of Mississippi’s 82 counties in the most time and cost efficient manner.
b. Solution: Implement videoconferencing across all facilities
c. Result: A statewide interactive video conferencing network that vastly improves
access to much-needed educational opportunities
3. Background: One of the world’s leading producer of cereal and a leading producer of
convenience foods this company has products manufactured in 17 countries and
marketed in more than 180 countries around the world. Their sales in 2007 exceeded
nearly $11 billion.
a. Challenge: Educating a geographically dispersed workforce of over 25,000 while
providing access to resident experts. The cost of bringing all employees to
headquarters was costly.
b. Solution: Implement a videoconferencing network to include video streaming
and other technologies that would enable the workforce to receive continuing
103
education and access to experts from partnering universities across the globe
without traveling.
c. Results: Over $85,000 was saved within the first fourteen sessions.
4. Background: One of the nation’s most respected and distinguished institutions of higher
learning for both undergraduate and graduate level studies becomes a pioneer in
immersive telepresence space.
a. Challenge: Facilitate “just like being there” meeting environment in support of
global launch of their university’s cross-continent MBA program.
b. Solution: Create a real life virtual classroom utilizing telepresence technology to
emulate an environment for global students that make them forget the distance
exists.
c. Results: The university created an immersive collaboration experience that
enables not only seamless cross-continent communication but also enables
employment interviews, admissions screening and distance learning.
5. Background: University with campuses across the state is a land grant and tier one
research university providing support of its teaching, research, and public service
missions.
a. Challenge: Overwhelmed with trying to accommodate pre-service teachers the
university must gain access to veteran teachers in the field, and interact with
K-12 students, when the local school districts.
b. Solution: The university began with identifying school districts that already had
technical infrastructure and expertise in-place to be “plug & play” partners and
extended their already existing video network for those who did not have
access.
c. Results: The initial research and pilot project results have been documented in
several journals and been nationally recognized for their innovation. The
programs have been extended beyond the pilot phase and are now receiving
on-going funding as an integral part of the College of Education’s programs for
training future teachers.
104
DO WE REALLY NEED A WEBCAM? – THE USES THAT FOREIGN LANGUAGE
STUDENTS MAKE OUT OF WEBCAM IMAGES DURING TELETANDEM
SESSIONS
João Antonio Telles, UNESP – Universidade Estadual Paulista, Brazil
Introduction
The focus of the study presented in this paper is on the use of webcam images by teletandem
partners when they virtually interact in order to learn the language of the other. This is a
distinguishing feature of this foreign language learning context – a feature that actually
characterizes teletandem and approaches it to face-to-face interaction. However, a close look
poses several challenges to research on the on-line interaction within this learning context and
to its pedagogical applications in the fields of language learning and intercultural
communication: (a) the webcam image frequently frames the person from the chest above
(partners, therefore, get the power to control what the other is able to see, or what is to be
seen); (b) eye gaze never reaches the eye-to-eye contact of face-to-face interaction, unless
both partners keep looking at the webcam, yet are unable to see each other; (c) most instant
messaging software today allow us to see our own image while simultaneously being able to
see our partner’s image, and that gives a distinctive characteristic to this interaction in terms of
identity and alterity construction (most frequently, we never see our own faces while interacting
with others). In addition to these challenges, there are the pedagogical ones: how to educate
language learners to take the best profit of these software resources; how learners take the
best control and use of these images during the interaction in order to maximize the learning of
the language and culture of the other; what impact do webcam images can have on the
feelings of presence of a partner who speaks a foreign language and is from a different culture?
Grounded on empirical data collected from teletandem practitioners, the objectives of this paper
is (a) to offer an overview of these issues; (b) to prompt into the behavior of speakers and
listeners (Kendon, 1970/1990) in order to better understand how they make use of webcam
images of instant messaging software when interacting during teletandem sessions; and (b) to
plot themes of research regarding the use of webcam images during on-line teletandem
interaction.
The first part of the paper, due to restrictions of space, provides a fast overview of the
theoretical grounds the study in terms of images, gestures, non-verbal language (Kendon,
1967; Streeck, 1992) and teletandem (Telles, 2006; Telles & Vassallo, 2006). In the second
part, I place the study within the qualitative, interpretive paradigm of educational research and
describe the field, the participants, data collection instruments, procedures and analysis. The
third part presents the data analysis results. I conclude with a few comments building upon a
hermeneutic analysis approach to the data, and present an overview of research perspectives
that this data analysis suggests.
1. Theoretical foundation
1.1. About tandem learning and teletandem
Foreign language learning in- tandem (Brammerts, 2003, Lewis & Walker, 2003) involves pairs
of (native or competent) speakers whose aim is to learn each other’s language by means of
bilingual conversation sessions. Within this autonomous, reciprocal and pair collaboration
learning context, each partner becomes both a learner of the foreign language and a tutor of
his/her mother tongue (or language in which he/she feels proficient).
105
Teletandem (Telles & Vassallo, 2006), in turn, is a virtual, collaborative and autonomous context
within which the principles of foreign language learning in-tandem are applied by using the
reading, writing, speaking, listening and video resources of instant messaging software, such as
Skype, Windows Live Messenger or Oovoo (just as examples). The advancement and relatively
low cost of instant messaging software has helped foreign language learners who live in
isolated places of the Earth and in countries with huge geographical dimensions (therefore,
making traveling quite an expensive luxury) to easily get in touch with other languages and
cultures of the world.
Vassallo & Telles (2006) and Telles & Vassallo (2006) have settled the theoretical and practical
grounds for teletandem practices that are carried out on relatively similar bases of the
commonly agreed and shared principles of reciprocity and autonomy of tandem learning, as
specified by Brammerts (2003). The first research results on (a) the use that teletandem
practitioners make out of the software available in market today, (b) on its virtual interaction
dimensions and (c) on teacher development within the teletandem context can be found in
Telles (2009). The team of researchers of the Teletandem Brasil Project: Foreign languages for
all3 has offered new pedagogical perspectives on using the multimodal resources of instant
messaging software and teacher mediation of teletandem partners (see Telles, 2009).
1.2. About the use of images and their importance to communication in a foreign
language
Though still quite different from face-to-face interaction, the use of webcam images
during teletandem interactions brings back the old discussions on the importance of the nonverbal dimension of communication in foreign language and on the challenge of non-verbal
awareness that started in the sixties and went through the seventies and eighties (Kendon,
1970/1990; Dunning, 1971; Kirch, 1979; Pennycook, 1985). These attempts continued until the
end of the nineties (see Allen, 1999) and, nowadays, these issues return within the context of
on-line multimodal communication, such as in Jauregi & Bañados (2008) who investigate videoweb communication tools and their contribution to enriching the quality of foreign language
curricula. An extensive account on the value of videodata and video links in mediated
communication can be found in Anderson et al. (2000).
Research question: What uses do foreign language students make out of webcam images
during their teletandem sessions?
2. Methodology
From the ontological point of view, the methodology used in this study falls into the qualitative
and interpretive approaches to research and constructivist- hermeneutic approach to data
analysis. According to Guba & Lincoln (1998), these approaches see multiple realities that are
apprehended in the form of multiple mental constructions that are socially and empirically
grounded, situated and specific in nature. From the epistemological point of view, the findings
are constructed from making sense and meaning construction once the researcher is in contact
with the data and the research evolves. According to Guba & Lincoln (1998), researcher and the
object of research are interactively linked. From the methodological point of view, the personal
and variable nature of the social constructions suggests that individual constructions of my
participants can be elicited and refined between me and them.
3
A project carried out in the Graduate Program of Language Studies of São Paulo State University at São
José do Rio Preto, Brazil, and sponsored by FAPESP – São Paulo State Foundation for the Support of
Research. See www.teletandembrasil.org for academic research and the pedagogical actions of this
project.
106
2.1. Method
2.1.1. Participants
The 22 participants in this study were first to fourth year university students. The levels of
foreign language proficiency varied from basic (German language, for instance) to advanced
(English, French, Italian and Spanish). At the end of their fourth year of university, most of
these students will become teachers of the foreign language they are studying, after having a
year of teaching practicum in their fourth year. Most participating students had a minimum of
four weeks to a year of teletandem practice using the webcam image device of their instant
messaging software.
2.1.2. Data collection instrument and procedures
The majority of these participants had at least two months (about 16 hours) of teletandem
practice when they were asked to answer a questionnaire composed of 10 questions. Each of
these questions aimed at gathering the participants’ view of their experiences in using webcam
images of instant messaging software such as Skype, Windows Live Messenger or Oovoo. These
questions and their respective objectives are described in Table 1, below:
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
OBJECTIVE
QUESTION
In your opinion what is the contribution of
To obtain participants’ verbal accounts of
webcam image resources to your
webcam images as a learning resource
teletandem?
In your opinion, what is the difference
To obtain participants’ points of view on the
between having a teletandem session with differences between using and not using a
webcam for teletandem sessions
and without webcam images?
To access the meanings that participants
construct when they look at the window that
What do you see in the image that comes shows the images of their partners abroad
of your partner? Why?
To know the roles that these images play in
the language learning process
To access the meanings that participants
construct when they look at the window that
What do you see on the screen that shows shows the images of themselves
your own image? Why?
To know the roles that these images play in
the language learning process
During your teletandem session to which To obtain information on how learners manage
window do you look longer, your own or the use of their partners’ and their own images
during the interaction process
your partner’s? Why?
During a teletandem session, when do you To obtain information on how learners manage
the use of their own images during the
look at your own image? Why?
interaction process
When you talk with your partner, do you To obtain information on how learners use the
webcam to manage eye gaze, as they talk with
look at his image or at the camera? Why? their partners during the interaction process
When you listen to your partner, do you To obtain information on how learners use the
webcam to manage eye gaze, as they listen to
look at his image or at the camera? Why? their partners during the interaction process
Do you spruce or pay attention to how
To obtain information on how learners wish to
you are dressed and combed before your show themselves to their partners during the
interaction process
teletandem session? Why?
107
1. Are you concerned with the webcam
images that you will be sending to your
To confirm previous question, but with focus on
partner (position of the webcam, what will other aspects rather than on oneself.
be behind you, focus, etc.)? Why?
TABLE 1: The questions in the questionnaire and their objectives
All the participants had the time they wished to answer the questions
2.1.3. Procedures for data analysis
Data analysis was conducted following a hermeneutic approach (van Manen, 1990). First, the
answers to each of the questions was read carefully, highlighting the parts that were relevant to
the objective of the question. Secondly, these parts were grouped by themes (thematic
analysis) in attempt to reach an the overall meanings of all the answers given to each of the
questions.
According do van Manen (1990), the process of writing about the results, assigning meaning to
the answers that were given by the participants and trying to organize these meanings in
relevant themes are parts of a hermeneutic, interpretive approach to data analysis.
3. Results
3.1. The contribution of the webcam images to the teletandem sessions
The majority of the students who participated in this study believe that the webcam images
have an impact over (a) the communication and learning; and (b) the non-verbal dimension of
communication in the foreign language.
3.1.1. The impact over communication and learning
We did the first two sessions without video, because my partner said she did not have a
webcam in her computer. From the third session on, she started using her husband’s laptop that
had a cam. Goodness! What an improvement! She herself, when saw her image, exclaimed:
‘Wow, that’s a different thing with two images!’ As for me, I could see her smile and face
expressions and how excited she was in practicing teletandem with me; and that motivated me
even more. [P51]
According to the students, the webcam images give them feelings of closeness, informality,
reality, credibility and mutual identification during the communication with their teletandem
partners. In terms of learning, webcam images help them to solve vocabulary and to learn
cultural aspects by just showing something through the webcam. In addition, the images
provide cues whether they are or are not being understood, and allow them to explore the
space of communication. The answers prompt us researchers to further explore what the
students have meant by “mutual identification” and “exploration of the space of
communication”. Being able “to see” (behaviour, ways of dressing, gestures and the living
environment of) the people from a different culture certainly adds new content and involvement
when studying their language and interacting with them.3.1.2. The impact over the non-verbal
dimension of communication in the foreign language
(...) through images and gestures, we can also learn new words. [P29]
The answers given by the students show that their use of webcam images during teletandem
sessions focus on partners’ face expressions and gestures. Students said that the image
resource of instant messaging software provide feelings of closeness, familiarization, warmth
and sense of face-to-face interaction. Not only that, webcam images affect the quality of
communication because they provide access to partners’ face expressions, and through them,
they can interpret partners’ reactions to what is being said. Students will also know whether the
108
subject being discussed is pleasant. However, even though being a minority, a few students
reported that the images can work on the opposite way, making conversation more tense and
formal, particularly in the first teletandem sessions, when you are starting an interaction with
someone that you do not know and wish to keep some distance (we must remember that
webcam images by most instant messaging software gets a close of our faces from chest up).
In sum of questions one and two of the questionnaire, regarding the contribution of the
resources to and the differences of practicing teletandem with and without webcam images, we
could say that students believe that webcam images: (a) make teletandem sessions more
interactive and dynamic; (b) provide access to facial and gesture reactions of their partners to
what they say; (c) facilitate comprehension by providing visual cues whether they are being
understood or whether the conversation topic is enjoyable; (d) provide partners with a sense of
self-confidence and security in regards to conversation; (e) allow a better coordination of turntaking during conversation (preventing overlapping of conversational turns); (f) provide a sense
of proximity and intimacy. Students have also reported that teletandem without webcam images
make conversation merely technical, electronic, artificial, impersonal, and resembles telephone
conversation (distant).
Nevertheless, a few students have showed unfavourable opinions about the use of webcam
images. They reported that they felt ashamed when using them while speaking a foreign
language, and that webcam images can become quite intrusive, by exposing feelings, gestures
and reactions that they preferred to hide from their partners.
3.2. The mirror: What teletandem practitioners see in their own images during
conversation?
Since most instant messaging software show one’s own image while interacting with
the partner(s), and since this is a distinguishing feature that makes instant messaging
interaction distinctive from face-to-face interaction, it is important for us to know what exactly
students observe in their own images that are simultaneously shown with those of their
partner’s during teletandem conversations.
The majority of the students’ answers to questions 4, 6 and 9 of the questionnaire fall
in the purpose of control; that is, they use of one’ own webcam image to keep control of
something during the interaction. Students reported that they look at the window that shows
their own image to: (a) control their self-appearance; (b) make technical adjustments of the
webcam (to control the framing of their own image) and (c) to control one’s own reactions
during communication. Within these three categories that have controlling purposes, we have
access to more complex dimensions of on-line webcam image use during interactions.
3.2.1. Using one’s own images to control self-appearance
According to students’ answers, they look at their own images with the purpose to
control how they are being shown to their partners. Their concern is mainly on face, hair,
clothes and looking neat, in order to give a good impression (an impression that can turn to be
an impression of their country – Brazil, in the case).
I observe myself because I feel like controlling and following up how I am being shown to my
partner. [P25]
I believe that nobody on the other side wants to see someone in “rags”. So, I always spruce
and waste precious minutes by observing my own webcam image before starting a session.
[P23]
(…) in front of a webcam I will be exposed, I will be observed, just like by anybody else that I
see in the street, etc. So, I must be at least “presentable”. [P19]
Yes[I spruce]. I like to look good, particularly on video. And, who knows, maybe I will find a
nice marriage! [P11]
I spruce before a session, because it is not nice to catch your partner with a messy hair, or with
a low neckline, showing your boobs or a number of other things. [P52]
109
Hum... I keep trying to see if I look beautiful... I am serious... our image says a lot about who
we are, and without us being aware of it... I always try to look neat, so that I will not convey a
sloppy image. After all, I represent Brazil abroad, at least a part of it, and I wish to convey a
good impression of it… [P53]
3.2.2. Using one’s own images make technical adjustments of the webcam
Students also look at their own images to make technical adjustments of their webcam,
with the purpose to control the quality of the image they will be sending to their partners. The
reports that fall into this theme were frequently focused on the aim to improve (a) the quality of
the interaction and (b) the improvement of foreign language comprehension.
I check if I am framed appropriately, because I have the custom to move my body a lot and,
sometimes, I get out of frame, with only part of my face showing up. [P54]
3.2.3. Using one’s own images to control one’s own reactions during communication
Students also reported that they use they look at their own images to control their nonverbal reactions that are being sent to their partners. Such control has the purpose of either
improving the quality of the foreign language communication, to convey an image to the
partner, or to hide undesirable responses:
I try to keep a close watch over [the word used in Portuguese was close to “to police”] and to
control some reactions that I might have and that I do not wish to convey to my partner.[P23]
(...) when I did not understand the explanation and to refrain from making weird faces when
showing that I did not understand my partner’s explanation. [P52]
(...) to make sure that I am not making too many undesirable “faces and mouths”. [P23]
(...) to check if I am showing my reactions to my partner appropriately, how I am feeling in
relation to her or to what she is saying; that is, if I understand or not, if I am interested, if I
liked it or not. (…).[P51]
3.2.4. Other uses of one’s own images during teletandem interactions
Other three uses that students make of their own webcam images during their
teletandem sessions are related to (a) control of the surroundings; (b) avoidance, and (c)
conveying cultural aspects. The three may be mingled to the particular purposes of their
communication during teletandem sessions. The first case has to do with control of what is
shown about the environment that surrounds them. In the second case, they either wish to
avoid sending the image or pay little or no attention to it. Finally, the third case, one’s own
image or the image of one’s own surrounding is used to convey cultural information (such as is
the case of a grandmother passing in the background, a dog that comes on the lap, an
interruption by a phone call during a teletandem session).
What surrounds me, if I am presentable, if I am focused.[P9]
(...) and what there is behind me. [P14]
I almost do not look at my own image, because I keep observing the image of my partner.[P2]
Nothing, because I do not look at it (the image] [P17]
I don’t usually look at my own image, because my attention is focused on my partner.[P29]
3.3. What teletandem practitioners see in their partners’ webcam images that come
to them?
By order of importance, teletandem practitioners first look at the body of their partners,
then to their reactions, then to the surroundings where their partners are and, finally, with a
minimum of attention, to their clothes.
3.3.1. What do students look at their partners’ body?
Because the webcam framing of the person is restricted to the chest above, students mainly
look at the face and its parts (particularly mouth and eyes), searching for meaning expressions;
at least by what they have stated in their responses. However, we do have informal reports
regarding sexuality, sensuality and gender during teletandem sessions, even though these are
quite difficult to obtain data about (students usually report information about these issues to
their classmates and not to us researchers or teachers). For example, one of the respondents of
110
this questionnaire reported: “In the first session, I observe how my partner looks
physically” [P51]. They report they observe the mouth (a smile, a movement of it) for
pronunciation, word articulation and comprehension purposes, the eyes to check if their
partners are paying attention, and the face, as a whole, to verify reactions of interest,
comprehension, irony, etc.
(...) I keep looking at the mouth, particularly during the time in Spanish (the foreign language I
study), so that I can imitate him when I talk.[P7]
3.3.2. What do students observe in their partners’ reactions?
They wish to know (a) how the partner responds to what they say, (b) if their behavior
shows interest, (c) if they feel at ease or shy, (d) if they are afraid of making mistakes, (e) if
they feel tired, (f) to what extent they can go on with the argument or topic, and (g) how the
partner expresses himself verbally and non-verbally. All these reports are turned to the potential
of webcam images to affect the quality of on-line video-communication.
One can observe many aspects by means of the webcam images, even the perception of certain
values of your partner, particularly if you can or cannot develop certain subjects. For example:
suppose someone is talking about a subject such as homosexuality. By means of the webcam
image and the return that it gives to us (partner’s reaction), it is possible to even perceive your
partner’s values and how deep you can go on with the conversation. [P23]
3.3.3. What do students observe in the surroundings of their partners’ images?
They observe the place where their partners are and look for cues from which to draw
cultural meanings. They believe that the surroundings of where their partners are can provide
them with information regarding the country and the life their partners lead.
I observe my partner, his expressions, gestures and also his house or the place where He is. My
partner from Texas has showed me all parts of his house – indoors and outdoors. It was cool to
see the desert and the cactus in his backyard.[P25]
I see what the surroundings are, what he is dressing, how he is combed, etc., that reveals a lot
about his culture, what we have in common, how different we are. [P19]
3.4. To which image window do partners look when they talk with and when they
listen to their partners?
Finally, eye gaze during teleconferencing communication through instant messaging
functions quite differently from face-to-face communication. This is due to the fact that, if we
wish to look at our partners’ eyes, we must look at the object called webcam, whether or not
we like it. At least, this will be true until a device that works simultaneously as a screen and a
webcam is invented. For the time being, we must look at the webcam if we want to show our
partner we are looking at his/her eyes. Many students who responded the questionnaire are
aware of that, but they reported having problems in looking at an object (the webcam), instead
of at a person’s eyes. For them, this is quite strange. Therefore, most of the students reported
that they look at their partners’ image window, whether they are talking or listening to them,
for many many reasons already stated above. Only a few students said they shift from their
partners’ image window to the webcam while interacting.
I know I should look at the webcam when I talk with my partner during the sessions, but that is
practically and unconsciously forgotten. [P23]
This is kind of strange. I try to look at my webcam [when he talks], but it is difficult. We are
used to looking at people’s eyes when we talk, so it seems more natural that we look at the
window of my partner’s image. [P54]
Final Comments
Due to the restrictions of space, my attempt in this paper was to plot a few important
issues pertaining to the use that foreign language students make out of webcam image
resources that are offered by recent instant messaging software available in the market. The
particular context which these images were used in the paper – intercontinental communication
111
by means of teletandem foreign language practice, raised several issues that still deserve much
investigation from linguistic, pragmatic, sociological, anthropological, intercultural, and
multimodal communication perspectives.
I have posed I few challenges with which we have been dealing in the Project
Teletandem Brasil: Foreign languages for all (www.teletandembrasil.org ). The research
perspectives are quite intriguing and themes plotted by the students’ answers that were
thematically organized in ways that can offer several research perspectives.
In response to the first question posed in the title of this paper – Do we really need a
webcam?, the results obtained from the analyses show that the answer is “yes, we do need it”
if we wish to take advantage of the multimodal communication resources that instant
messaging software have to offer to distant foreign language teaching and learning nowadays.
The days of using frontal teaching, blackboard and chalk to teach foreign languages are gone,
at least in many parts of the world where people can have access to computers and the
internet; and that will soon be true in developing countries, as communication hardware and
software become less expensive. Students of the XXI century will be able to access the
languages and cultures of the world faster than we can think of, and they will be able to
interact with the target language, culture and social spaces virtually, as the Brazilian student
reported to enter the backyard of his partner in Texas and see a cactus.
Finally, the students’ answers to the questions posed by the questionnaire, poses us several
research challenges, particularly to foreign language pedagogy and teacher development that
adopts instant messaging technology. Teachers, students and their pedagogical environment,
must be prepared for that. For example, one of the challenges of such pedagogy is the
collaboration between foreign language teachers and their respective institutions around the
world – they must collaborate pedagogically, even though their teaching environments and
cultures may be quite different. After all, this is the gratifying task of teaching and learning
foreign language – the diverse and intercultural contact amongst the different people,
languages and cultures of the world.
References
ALLEN, L.Q. (1999) Functions of nonverbal communication in teaching and learning a foreign
language. The French Review, 72(3), 469-480.
ANDERSON, A.H.; SMALLWOOD, R.; MACDONALD, R; MULLIN, J & FLEMING, A.M. (2000) Video
data and video links in mediated communication: What do users value? International Journal of
Human-Computer Studies, 52, 165-187.
BRAMMERTS, H. Autonomous language learning in tandem: The development of a concept. In
LEWIS, Tim & WALKER, Lesley (2003) Autonomous Language Learning in Tandem. Sheffield:
Academy Electronic Publications Limited. pp. 27-36.
DUNNING, G.B. (1971) Research in nonverbal communication. Theory into Practice, vol.10(4),
The challenge of Nonverbal Awareness, 250-258.
GUBA, E.G. & LINCOLN, Y.S. Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In DENZIN, N.K. &
LINCOLN, Y.S. (Eds.) (1998) The Landscape of Qualitative Research: Theories and issues.
Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 195-220.
JAUREGI, K. & BAÑADOS, E. (2008) Virtual interaction through video-web communication: A
step towards enriching and internationalizing language learning programs. RECALL, 20(2),
183-207.
KENDON, A. (1970/1990) Conducting Interaction: Patterns of behavior in focused encounters.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
112
KENDON A. (1967) Some functions of gaze direction in two-person conversation. In KENDON,
A. (1970/1990) Conducting Interaction: Patterns of behavior in focused encounters. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 51-89.
KIRCH, M. (1979) Non-verbal communication across cultures. The Modern Language Journal,
vol.63(8), 416-423.
LEWIS, T. & WALKER, L. (2003) Autonomous Language Learning in Tandem. Sheffield: Academy
Electronic Publications Limited.
PENNYCOOK, A. (1985) Actions speak louder than words: Paralanguage, communication and
education. TESOL Quaryterly, 19(2), 259-282.
STREECK, J. Previews: Gestures at the transition place. In AUER, P. & LUZIO, A. (1992) The
Contextualization of Language. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 135-157.
TELLES, J. A. & VASSALLO, M.L. (2006) Foreign language learning in-tandem: Teletandem as an
alternative proposal in CALLT. The ESPecialist, v. 27(2). PUC-SP, 189-212.
TELLES, J.A. (2006) Project Teletandem Brasil: Foreign languages for all. Available at: http://
www.teletandembrasil.org/site/docs/proposal_narrative.pdf
TELLES, J.A. (Ed.) (2009) Teletandem: Um contexto virtual, autônomo e colaborativo para
aprendizagem de línguas estrangeiras no século XXI. Campinas: Pontes Editores.
VAN MANEN, M. (1990) Researching Lived Experience. New York: The State University of New
York Press.
VASSALLO, M.L. & TELLES, J. A. (2006) Foreign language learning in-tandem: Theoretical
principles and research perspectives. The ESPecialist, v. 27(1), PUC-SP, 83-118.
113
ELEARNING CONTENT : FROM METADATA TO DIGITAL REPOSITORY,
WHICH STANDARDS FOR WHAT?
Abstract
Based on EIfEL experience on interoperability and conformance issues, this presentation will
focus on :
•
metadata and content standards for eLearning resources and courses (Dublin Core,
LOM, CDM, Scorm, AICC, IMS Common Cartridge)
•
standards to exchange / retrieve content (OAI-PMH, SQI, AICC PENS, IMS DRI,
CORDRA...)
The presentation will include last state of art as studied in ASPECT and iCoper european
projects as well as feedback from eLearning industry/implementers participating in eLearning
Forum.
It will also focus on recommendation for implementation for stakeholders, decisions makers,
taken into account implementation cost, complexity of the specifications versus powefullness,
and the industry support.
(Please see Powerpoint Presentation)
Reconnaissance des acquis et des compétences (FR)
114
LA RECONNAISSANCE DES ACQUIS ET DES COMPÉTENCES À MONTRÉAL
Guy Fortier, Compétences Montréal, Canada
Abstract
Une initiative stratégique majeure à Montréal en reconnaissance de acquis et des compétences
En juillet dernier naissait le Centre collégial montréalais de reconnaissance des acquis et des
compétences ou Compétences Montréal mis en place par les douze collèges publics présents sur
le territoire de Montréal.
Cette présentation permettra aux participants de mieux cerner les principaux enjeux ayant
mené à cette initiative sans précédant au Québec. Elle illustrera le modèle utilisé ainsi que le
partage des rôles et des responsabilités des divers intervenants tant gouvernementaux que
privés qui sont nécessaires au succès de ce projet.
Cette initiative met à contribution les responsables du secteur de l’éducation, de l’emploi et de
l’immigration de la métropole qui sont à pied d’œuvre afin de favoriser une plus grande
accessibilité au service de reconnaissance des acquis et des compétences d’une part et d’autre
part les institutions d’enseignement supérieur que sont les collèges dans l’adaptation de leur
offre de services aux diverses clientèles qui ont besoin d’une qualification professionnelle.
La mission du Compétences Montréal est de servir de guichet d’accueil unique pour les
demandeurs et de soutenir techniquement et stratégiquement les institutions d’enseignement
dans leur réponse aux besoins identifiés
115
L’APPRENTISSAGE ORGANISATIONNEL POUR UNE APPROCHE DURABLE
D’INNOVATION : LE DILEMME EXPLOITATION / EXPLORATION
Amel Béji et Samia Karoui Zouaoui
Dans les environnements qualifiés d’hypercompétitifs, les entreprises sont continuellement
exposées à la nécessité simultanée d’exploiter leurs compétences acquises et d’explorer des
nouvelles pistes. Les débats actuels portent pleinement sur la manière de gérer ces demandes
paradoxales en matière d’apprentissage organisationnel et de stratégie d’innovation. En fait, le
développement simultané des apprentissages d’exploitation et d’exploration est adopté
particulièrement par des organisations s’inscrivant dans une approche durable pour le
développement d’une capacité d’innovation continue. La théorie d’innovation continue souligne
le rôle joué par ces deux types d’apprentissage dans le développement de la capacité
d’innovation d’une organisation. En revanche, toute la difficulté réside dans la recherche d’un
arbitrage adéquat entre ces deux types d’apprentissage qui ont des objectifs, modalités et
résultats distincts (March 1991, Tushman et O’Reilly 1996 , McGrath 2001 , Edmondson 2002 ,
Ethiraj et Singh 2003 , He et al 2004 ).
La littérature récente sur l’ambidextrie met en avant que la combinaison des logiques
d’exploration et d’exploitation est possible grâce au recours à des modes de management
adaptés et à des modalités structurelles spécifiques. Ces travaux démontrent que la gestion de
ce dilemme est fortement conditionnée par les caractéristiques du contexte social et des
interactions entre acteurs au sein des organisations. (Duncan ,1976 ; Birkinshaw et Gibson
2004). La qualité des relations interpersonnelles et des interactions sociales entre acteurs
jouent un rôle prépondérant dans les processus d’exploitation des connaissances mais aussi
dans les processus d’exploration de nouvelles opportunités et connaissances (March, 1991).
En s’inscrivant dans la lignée de ces travaux, nous distinguons entre trois volets d’interactions :
interactions hiérarchiques, interactions informelles et interactions virtuelles.
Concernant les interactions formelles ou hiérarchiques, des études dans le domaine de
recherche stratégique se sont penchées sur l’examen de la relation entre les flux de
connaissances transférées dans l’organisation et les activités d’exploitation et d’exploration.
Dans cette optique, plusieurs travaux (Burgelman ,1983b, 1991; Floyd et Lane, 2000; Rivkin et
Siggelkow, 2003) soulignent l’importance des flux verticaux de connaissances dans la balance
exploitation/exploration tandis que d’autres (Gupta et Govindarajan, 1991; Nonaka, 1994;
Schulz, 2003 ; Mom et al, 2005; Subramaniam et Youndt, 2005) considèrent plutôt les flux
horizontaux des connaissances comme des facteurs essentiels pour développer ces activités.
Les contributions théoriques et empiriques paraissent ainsi mitigées et non tranchées au sujet
de la nature des flux intra-organisationnels favorisant les deux types d’apprentissage.
Au sujet des interactions informelles, des recherches multiples ont montré que les relations
inter-entreprises et inter-unités affectent largement la capacité d’apprentissage organisationnel
et l’innovation (Dhanaraj et al, 2004 ; Hansen ,2002 ; Uzzi et Lancaster ,2003). En revanche,
l’impact des relations sociales informelles, en particulier, entre les membres des unités
organisationnelles sur l’apprentissage d’exploitation et l’apprentissage d’exploration reste encore
confus et peu étudié.
Quant aux interactions virtuelles, nous constatons que malgré une littérature abondante sur
l’importance de l’exploitation de NTIC pour le développement des capacités d’apprentissage et
d’innovation, peu d’études portent aujourd’hui, sur leur rôle dans la gestion de ces demandes
paradoxales et le soutien d’un contexte d’ambidextrie (Cairncross, 1997, Levina and Ross,
2003). En revanche, nous défendons l’idée que l’utilisation adéquate de ces technologies
permet la conciliation entre l’exploitation et l’exploration à travers l’effet qu’elles exercent sur
l’accroissement des interactions informelles et formelles entre les acteurs dans l’organisation.
116
En traitant la problématique de l’apprentissage organisationnel en tant qu’arbitrage entre
exploitation /exploration, nous allons mettre l’accent sur les aspects interactifs (réseau
d’acteurs, nature et sens des échanges de connaissances et outils d’interactions) et leurs
impacts sur les deux types d’apprentissage. Nous posons alors la question suivante : Quelles
sont les caractéristiques des interactions sociales qui favorisent la gestion du dilemme
apprentissage d’exploitation et apprentissage d’exploration pour le développement de
l’innovation continue.
L’objet de cette communication est alors d’offrir une meilleure compréhension théorique de : 1)
La relation entre les deux types d’apprentissage (exploitation / exploration) et les degrés
d’innovation (incrémentale / radicale),2) La conciliation de ces deux logiques d’apprentissage et
son impact sur la capacité d’innovation continue d’une organisation, 3) Les caractéristiques des
interactions sociales soutenant la combinaison de ces deux logiques,4) le rôle joué par les
interactions virtuelles et l’utilisation des NTIC dans la gestion du dilemme exploitation/
exploration.
Quelques références bibliographiques :




















Benner M.J. and Tushman M.L., (2002), « Process management and technological innovation: a longitudinal study
of the photography and paint industries ». Administrative Science Quarterly, 47, pp 676-706.
Benner M.J. and Tushman M.L., (2003), « Exploitation, exploration, and process
management: the productivity
dilemma revisited ». Academy of Management Review, 28, pp 238-56.
Blyler M., Coff R.W., (2003), « Dynamic capabilities, social capital, and rent appropriation: ties that split pies »,
Strategic Management Journal, 24, pp. 677-686.
Bontis N., Crossan M. and Hulland J., (2002), « Managing an organizational learning system by aligning stocks and
flows ». Journal of Management Studies, 39, pp 437-469.
Brady T., Davies A., (2004), «Building project capabilities: from exploratory to exploitative », learning’. Organization
Studies, 25, pp 1601-1621.
Chung-Jen, C., (2007), “Information Technology, Organizational Structure, and New Product Development: The
Mediating Effect of Cross-Functional Team Interaction”, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 54 (4), pp.
687-698.
Cohen M.D., (1991), Individual learning and organizational routine: emerging connections, Organization Science, 2
(1).
Danneels E., (2002), ‘The dynamics of product innovation and firm competences’. Strategic Management Journal,
23, pp 1095-1121.
Durmusoglu, S.S., Galantone, R.J. and Sambamurthy, V., (2006), “Is more information technology better for new
product development?” Journal of Product & Brand Management, 15 (7), pp. 435- 441.
Ethiraj S.K., Singh J.V., (2003), Exploration, exploitation, and the adaptative potential of organizations, Research
paper, February.
Gupta A.K, Smith K.G., Shalley C.E., (2006), « The interplay between exploration and exploitation », Academy of
Management Journal, 49(4), pp. 693-706.
Holmqvist M., (2004), ‘Experimental learning processes of exploitation and exploration. An empirical study of
product development’. Organization Science, 15, pp70-81.
Kim D.H.,( 1993), The link between individual learning and organizational learning, Sloan Management review, p 3849.
Levina, N. and Ross, J.W., (2003),“From the Vendor’s Perspective: Exploring the Value Proposition in Information
Technology Outsourcing”, MIS Quarterly, 27(3), pp. 331-364.
Levinthal D.A. and March J. G., (1993), ‘The myopia of learning’. Strategic Management Journal, 14, pp 95-112.
March J.G., (1991), ‘Exploration and exploitation in organizational learning’. Organization Science, 2, pp 71-87.
Maryse Carmes, Jean-Max Noyer, (2005), Intranet-Extranet-Internet : un enchevêtrement complexe : Processus
d’apprentissage organisationnel et représentation des dynamiques des organisations complexes. INTRACOM 2005,
Québec - novembre
McGrath R.G., (2001), ‘Exploratory learning, innovative capacity, and managerial oversight’. Academy of
Management Journal, 44, pp 118-131.
Mom T. J. M., Van Den Bosch F. A. J. and Volberda H. W., (2007), Investigating Managers’ Exploration and
Exploitation Activities: The Influence of Top-Down, Bottom-Up, and Horizontal Knowledge Inflows, Journal of
Management Studies, 44(6).
Pawlowski, S. & Robey, D., (2004), “Bridging user organizations: knowledge brokering and the work of information
technology professionals”, MIS Quarterly, 28(4), pp. 645-672.
²
117
DISPOSITIF D'ACCOMPAGNEMENT DE LA VAE INDIVIDUALISÉ ET À
DISTANCE : ETUDE DES BESOINS ET MODÉLISATION DES PARCOURS
Rémi LEVY Consultant - Chef de projet apprentissage et formation en ligne
Cette contribution trouve son origine dans les résultats d’un projet-étude mené
dans le cadre du Diplôme d’Université « Chef de Projet – Apprentissage et
Formation en Ligne » (Université Paris X – Le Préau -Mémoire soutenu en Juin
2007). L’objectif est de montrer comment une approche centrée sur les besoins a
permis la modélisation d’un dispositif d’accompagnement de la Vae à distance qui
fait le meilleur usage des Technologies de l’Information et de la Communication.
Introduction
Depuis la loi de 2002 « toute personne engagée dans la vie active est en droit de faire valider
les acquis de son expérience, notamment professionnelle, en vue de l’acquisition d’un diplôme,
d’un titre à finalité professionnelle ou d’un certificat de qualification ».
Afin de guider les candidats, un dispositif a progressivement été mis en place conjointement
entre l’état et les Régions. En cinq ans, de multiples procédures de validation ont été mises en
place par les différents certificateurs conduisant à un dispositif qui est loin d’être homogène.
De nombreuses études pointent aujourd’hui les lacunes de ces dispositifs et préconisent une
augmentation de la qualité des pratiques d’accompagnement des candidats. Les problèmes
auxquels sont aujourd’hui confrontés les professionnels de la VAE concernent, les échecs pour
les bas niveaux de qualification, des « ruptures de charges » et attentes dans les dispositifs
ainsi que des pratiques d’accompagnements qui ne répondent pas suffisamment aux attentes
des candidats et qui manquent souvent d’individualisation.
Notre projet a donc eu pour objectif d’envisager des voies d’amélioration des modalités
d’accompagnement et ce notamment, au regard des difficultés rencontrées par les candidat
dans l’élaboration de leur dossier individuel.
1 - Le projet : imaginer un dispositif d’accompagnement de la VAE à
distance faisant le meilleur usage des TIC.
1.1 Problématique
Dans ce contexte, nous nous sommes interrogé sur les réponses que l’utilisation des TIC
pouvaient apporter pour permettre que les termes de la loi et attentes de la société puissent se
réaliser. Ces constats nous ont conduit à mener une réflexion à deux niveaux. Le premier
concerné les pratiques d’accompagnement, le deuxième concerne la démarche de ePortfolio
appliquée à l’accompagnement de la VAE.
En effet, nous nous sommes interrogé sur l’utilisation des outils qui composent aujourd’hui ce
2.2 Approches théoriques
4
De récentes études ont montré que l’accompagnement était d’autant plus performant qu’il était
associé à une dynamique de groupe (meilleure motivation, moins d’abandon etc.. )
De ce fait nous nous somme largement appuyé sur les sept piliers de l’autoformation de
5
Philippe Carré où l’alternance individuel-collectif est une étape essentielle à l’autoformation.
L’apprenant n’apprend pas seul, il a besoin de coopération et établit de nouvelles formes de
socialisation (aide, co-formation…)
D’autre part, et afin d’outiller notre dispositif, nous nous sommes inspirés du modèle de Marcel
118
6
Lebrun qui identifie les cinq caractéristiques fondamentales de l’apprentissage : (se)motiver,
s’informer, analyser, interagir, produire. Notre approche est résumée dans le schéma ci-dessous.
2. 3 Conception du dispositif
Le dispositif prévoit 5 étapes dont 3 étapes « préalables » à savoir : une phase d’accueil,
d’information et d’étude des besoins, une phase de négociation du parcours et des objectifs
etune phase d’intégration dans le dispositif. La dernière étape (audit) permet de faire le point
avec le candidat. Ainsi, le « déroulement » de l’accompagnement, n’est qu’une étape parmi les
autre, essentielle certes, mais qui ne peut se concevoir sans les autres.
4
Audit VAE de la Région Centre. Non publié
5
Philippe Carré – professeur au Département des Sciences de l’Education – Université Paris X ;
L’autoformation dans la formation professionnelle -La documentation Française, Paris 1992
6
Marcel Lebrun – Des technologies pour enseigner et apprendre – Ed de Boeck et Larcier, 1999.
119
2. 4 - Phase « déroulement » : description du processus
Le dispositif propose un parcours organisé autour d'ateliers. Le candidat fixe ses objectifs en
accord avec l’accompagnateur.
Supports et activités pédagogiques
Nous avons adopté une organisation en « ateliers », chaque atelier étant conçu sur le même
principe. Chaque atelier est conçu de manière autonome et contient un certain nombre de
ressources ainsi que des activités conseillées. Les activités peuvent être collectives ou
individuelles. Leur but est de favoriser les échanges et la progression du candidat dans son
projet en découpant son travail en tâches élémentaires afin qu’il acquière progressivement une
méthodologie de travail. Les activités peuvent être la participation à des clavardages (chats),
des réunions virtuelles (skype). Tous ces « rendez-vous » sont annoncés dans le calendrier.
Les ateliers proposés :
Atelier 1 : Votre environnement numérique (fait partie de la phase d’intégration) Atelier 2 :
Comprendre la Vae Atelier 3 : Le parcours professionnel Atelier 4 : Les activités professionnelles
(les fiches activités du livret 2) Atelier 5 : Aide à l'élaboration du dossier final et recueil des
preuves Atelier 6 : Expression écrite Atelier 7 : Préparation à l'entretien du jury et expression
orale
Actuellement, seuls les 4 premiers ateliers ont été développés.
3 – Mise en œuvre
3.1 Choix technologiques : plateforme « Moodle »
Le dispositif doit assurer plusieurs fonctionnalités : mise à disposition de ressources,
communication synchrone, communication asynchrone et fonctions de suivi (tracking). Il s’agit
des fonctionnalités de base d’une plateforme d’apprentissage en ligne (Learning Management
System). A ces fonctionnalités de base, il faut ajouter la fonction ePortfolio ainsi qu’un outil de
communication audio synchronisé.
Le besoin de souplesse, d’adaptabilité, de portabilité et de pérennisation nous ont conduit à
nous tourner vers la plateforme Moodle, plateforme diffusée sous licence libre. Cette
plateforme, conçue pour favoriser un cadre de formation socio-constructiviste, s’est avéré
remplir le plus grand nombre des critères de choix identifiés.
Pour la conception du ePortfolio, nous avons en quelque sorte « détourné » l’usage de Moodle.
En effet, Moodle est conçu pour créer des cours, mais compte tenu de sa modularité et de ses
grandes capacités de configuration, il nous a été possible de configurer les droits des
participants afin que ceux-ci puissent administrer leur propre espace. Ainsi, nous avons créé un
profil « ePortfolio » qui donne les droits nécessaires et suffisants pour administrer l’espace.
Moodle permet la création de ‘méta-cours’ ce qui permet de lier tous les ePortfolios à un métacours (l’espace numérique central) et ainsi partager les ressources directement, comme par
exemple des référentiels, et ainsi faire des liens automatiques pour aider le candidat à
structurer son travail.
120
Conclusion
La VAE représente aujourd’hui des enjeux importants pour les individus d’abord, mais
également pour les entreprises, dont l’avenir dépend de plus en plus de leurs compétences
collectives, pour la société toute entière, enfin, qui puise sa richesse dans les connaissances et
savoirs de chacun.
Nous avons choisi dans la conduite de notre projet de repartir des besoins des candidats à la
VAE et d’inscrire notre démarche dans les pratiques en cours. Il s’est agit de rechercher
comment les TIC, Internet et les pratiques de eFormation pouvaient apporter des réponses
nouvelles et performantes et venir en aide aux candidats à la VAE.
A partir de fondements théoriques dans les domaines de l’apprentissage, de l’autoformation
etde l’usage des nouvelles technologies, qui nous ont permis de cadrer un certain nombre de
principes et nous ont donné des pistes de réflexion, nous avons imaginé un dispositif
d’accompagnement médiatisé.
Celui-ci se caractérise par l’usage d’une plateforme de télé-apprentissage qui permet à la foisau
candidat de trouver les ressources nécessaires, mais également d’organiser son travail grâce à
l’utilisation d’un portfolio en ligne. L’autre élément important résidant dans la constitution d’une
communauté d’apprentissage permettant la nécessaire alternance individuel-collectif. Ce besoin
d’échanger, de coopérer, de mutualiser des ressources se retrouve au cœur de notre dispositif.
Nous avons pu mener à bien un projet pilote et expérimenter une partie du dispositif. Nous
avons testé un espace numérique dédié à la VAE en faisant usage des technologies disponibles
et notamment de la plateforme de formation Moodle.
121
PROCESSUS DE CERTIFICATION ET CV EUROPÉEN, QUEL EST LA PLACE
DE L'IDENTITÉ NUMÉRIQUE ET DES SERVICES EN LIGNE ?
Abstract
Cette présentation prendra en compte les résultats des travaux des projets:
•
CV Universel
•
EPITOME
•
ETTCampus 2
•
TAS3
Ainsi que les réflexions engagées au sein des communautés:
•
Europortfolio
•
HR-XML Europass
•
Liberty HR-EDU SIG
(See Powerpoint Presentation)
122
LA VAE, DÉMARCHE EXPÉRIENTIELLE DE RECONNAISSANCE SOCIALE
DES APPRENTISSAGES NON-FORMELS ET INFORMELS
Brigitte Pagnani, Université Marc Bloch, France
Abstract
La loi sur la Validation des Acquis de l’Expérience est en vigueur depuis 2002 en France. Elle a
ouvert, dans le champ des Sciences de l’Education, un espace de recherche(s) à travers
l’observation d’une nouvelle réalité qui s’est fait jour dans le paysage de l’éducation et de la
formation. Aujourd’hui, nous pouvons définir la V.A.E. comme une pratique sociale contribuant à
structurer l’espace des qualifications et des compétences, à l’échelle européenne, en tant que
construction sociale ayant pour but, du point de vue de l’emploi, de développer la
professionnalisation des individus sur des emplois en évolution, en recomposition ou en
émergence au regard des besoins économiques et sociaux actuels ou en devenir (exemple :
secteur de l'aide à la personne).
Un corpus de matériaux collectés entre 2004 et 2006 dans différentes universités du Grand Est
de la France auprès de candidats, d’accompagnateurs et de membres de jurys, toujours en
cours d’exploitation, révèle la teneur des enjeux associés au développement de la VAE et
l’ampleur du travail à mener en matière de reconnaissance des apprentissages non formels et
informels qui y est associé et dont la légitimité sociale passe aussi par la reconnaissance de la
VAE en tant que démarche expérientielle génératrice de nouveaux savoirs dans une logique de
professionnalisation inédite.
La finalité de cette recherche doit déboucher sur l’élaboration d’un outillage méthodologique qui
permettent d’expliciter les savoirs issus de l’expérience et, ce faisant, d’asseoir leur légitimité
dans un processus de reconnaissance sociale par le diplôme, garant de la qualification
professionnelle.
123
'L'ENTREPRISE VIRTUELLE'
Isabelle Pleplé , Vannina Correa de Sampaio2 (1: ICUS, France 2: Ministère du
Travail, des Relations sociales, de la Famille, de la Solidarité et de la Ville, France)
(See PowerPoint Presentation)
124
Technologies de l’apprentissage (FR)
125
LA PRODUCTION DOCUMENTAIRE : SOUTIEN AU DÉVELOPPEMENT DES
FORMATIONS. CAS DU 2IE
Léa OUATTARA, Francis SEMPORE
Abstract
La production documentaire est un domaine encore inexploité dans la plupart des universités
africaines. Pourtant il existe un réel besoin en la matière pour ces universités en pleine mutation
en vue de leur prochaine entrée dans le système LMD. Par conséquent c’est un domaine qui
mérite qu’on s’y penche.
L’Institut International d’Ingénierie de l’Eau et de l’Environnement (2iE – Ex Groupe EIER
ETSHER) est une plateforme scientifique unique d’enseignement et de recherche en Afrique
Subsaharienne. Initié il y a 40 ans par 14 pays africains, le 2iE possède une dimension sous
régionale et multiculturelle réelle et une expertise africaine reconnue dans les domaines de
l’Eau, de l’Energie, de l’Environnement et des Infrastructures.
Cette construction s’est appuyée sur le développement de partenariats scientifiques de haut
niveau et de longue durée tant au nord qu’au sud et sur l’appui de partenaires techniques et
financiers.
Les activités de recherche et d’innovation, d’acquisition de savoir et de technologie nord-sud et
sud-sud permettent le développement d’une expertise africaine qui permet d’alimenter des
activités de renforcement des capacités des secteurs publics et privés à travers un Centre de
formation continue réputé au niveau régional (50 sessions/an, ISO 9001:2000), la mise en
oeuvre de formations diplômantes (plus de 3000 Ingénieurs, techniciens et titulaires de Master
formés) et la réalisation de prestation d’ingénierie (prestations en appui au secteur privé,
professionnalisation des étudiants).
Pôle d’excellence dans le domaine de l’ingénierie et de l’eau, le 2IE a pour objectifs principaux :
•
•
•
Le développement du capital humain,
L’amélioration du système éducatif africain,
Le développement du savoir, sa production et sa dissémination.
Le plan d’orientations stratégiques 2008-2012 du 2iE fixe entre autres les objectifs suivants :
•
•
Porter les effectifs des étudiants en formation initiale au 2iE à 1000 sur le cycle
Bachelor, Master et Doctorat à l’horizon 2012
Développer la formation à distance avec un effectif prévisible de 1000 apprenants à
l’horizon 2012
La nouvelle ambition du 2iE étant de fournir suffisamment de femmes et d’hommes capables de
relever le défi du développement dans les domaines de l’eau, l’énergie, l’environnement et les
l’information et de la communication (TIC) afin de donner à un plus grand nombre d’étudiants
un accès souple et diversifié à des formations de haut niveau internationalement reconnues.
L’atteinte de ces objectifs repose sur la mise en place d’un système de gestion et de production
documentaire. C’est dans ce cadre que le 2iE a noué un partenariat avec l’Université
Technologique de Compiègne (UTC) pour l’appropriation de la chaîne éditoriale Opale Sup.
L’UTC et le 2iE sont en partenariat depuis 2007. Les objectifs de ce partenariat en rapport avec
la production documentaire étaient, pour le 2iE :
(1) d’améliorer la gestion documentaire en ce qui concerne la documentation pédagogique
(supports de cours, diaporamas, polycopiés, etc.) et scientifique (articles, revues
scientifiques, etc.) ; et pour l’UTC ;
126
(2) de confronter les technologies (SCENARI) et méthodes (ingénierie de formation FOAD et
ingénierie documentaire) développés par l’UI-ICS (Unité d’Innovation – Ingénierie des
Contenus et Savoir) à un nouveau terrain d’usage réel ;
(3) d’Appliquer et de transmettre certaines de ces technologies et méthodes.
Les activités prévues dans le cadre de cette convention 2iE-UTC ont été réalisées conformément
au planning prévu (pré audit documentaire, transfert OpaleSup et production documentaire, …).
Pour répondre au besoin de mettre à la disposition des apprenants des contenus numérisés, dès
la rentrée 2008, nous avons procédé à la formation d’environ 60 étudiants de la junior
entreprise, parmi lesquels il a été retenu une dizaine pour travailler à la production des
documents reçus sous forme de stage de vacance.
La production documentaire a porté sur les cours dispensés en présentiel au cours de l’année
académique 2007-2008 pour les cycles Licence et Master en ce qui concerne la formation
initiale et sur les 3 formations ouvertes et à distance qui sont proposées à la rentrée
académique 2008-2009.
Le travail de numérisation s’est poursuivi avec la production de certains documents de la
formation continue.
Les résultats de la production effectuée donne à ce jour, environ 10.000 pages produits au
format OpaleSup, pour un total de 170 documents dont 134 pour les formations initiale et à
distance et 36 pour la formation continue. Ce qui représente environ 40% de l’ensemble des
documents pédagogique du 2iE.
La mise à disposition des contenus s’est fait à travers la plate forme de formation à distance et
l’Intranet du 2iE.
La mise en œuvre d’une stratégie documentaire au 2IE a permis :
-La centralisation de l’ensemble des contenus pédagogiques existants
-L’amélioration de la qualité des supports pédagogiques de cours
-homogénéisation du format de présentation des différents contenus pédagogiques
-facilité la tâche de la formation à distance par la mise à disposition des contenus
de cours pour ces différents modules de formations
-un gain financier par la réduction de la reprographie pour les polycopiés de cours à
mettre à la disposition des apprenants pour ce qui concerne la formation initiale
-la sensibilisation des enseignants à l’amélioration des différents contenus de cours
par une meilleure organisation et une meilleure structuration des documents
pédagogiques
-développement d’une culture de numérisation des supports pédagogiques au
niveau des enseignants
En perspective, le 2iE vise la production de l’ensemble de ses documents pédagogiques et leur
diffusion. L’objectif du 2iE est d’arriver à un pourcentage de 100% des contenus attendus
disponibles et produits suivant le format homogène de format Opale. Enrichir la production
documentaire du 2IE avec des contenus multimédias (Son, images, vidéos, simulations,
documents interactifs), Créer une matrice des contenus qui sera mise à disposition des
enseignants ; Créer de documents autonomes : indépendant des auteurs ; Mettre en place une
vraie salle de production documentaire.
2iE vise à mettre à la disposition de l’ensemble des acteurs, étudiants, enseignants, chercheurs
et professionnels des domaines de ses compétence
des contenus pédagogique riches,
interactifs et variés par la mise en œuvre d’une bibliothèque virtuelle.
Il envisage également de se positionner comme un prestataire en production documentaire afin
de mettre cette expérience acquise au service des autres institutions et des entreprises.
127
Ce qui a entraîné la mise en place d’un service dont le premier rôle est de gérer l’ensemble des
documents pédagogiques (Formation initiale, formation à distance et formation continue.
Le Service d’Ingénierie Documentaire et Pédagogique » (SIDP) a été créé au sein de la
Direction de la Formation Continue et Distance, depuis le 1er décembre 2008.
Ce service a pour mission :
•
•
•
•
•
•
L’animation d’une véritable base de ressources pédagogiques dans les domaines
d’intervention du 2iE,
Le soutien au développement des formations du 2iE (formation initiale, formation à
distance, formation continue) par la mise à disposition de ressources riches et variées,
La sauvegarde des connaissances théoriques, techniques et technologiques des
différents acteurs du 2iE pour les générations futurs (tel un remède à : "en Afrique un
vieillard qui meurt est toute une bibliothèque qui brûle"). Et de mettre à la disposition
des enseignants, des chercheurs et des professionnels des domaines de compétences
du 2iE, des contenus riches et variés.
La mise en œuvre d’une bibliothèque virtuelle
Le positionnement du 2iE comme un Prestataire en Service Documentaire pour
l’Entreprise,
Le positionnement du 2iE sur le plan international en matière de Production
Documentaire.
Mots clé : Ingénierie -documentaire, Productions numériques, Contenus
pédagogiques, FOAD, TICE, Qualité
Léa OUATTARA
Francis SEMPORE
Chef du Service d’Ingénierie Documentaire et Pédagogique
Directeur de la
Formation Continue et à Distance
[email protected]
[email protected]
Institut International d’Ingénierie de l’Eau et de l’Environnement (2iE – Groupe EIER ETSHER)
01 BP 594 Ouagadougou 01 – Burkina Faso – www.2ie-edu.org
128
BAROMÈTRE CCIP 2008 DU E-LEARNING
Raphaël GNANOU
La formation dématérialisée se développe dans les entreprises
12% des entreprises ont financé des formations en e-learning pour leurs
salariés sur le Plan de formation 2007.
Ce taux de diffusion des outils et méthodes e-learning dans les entreprises françaises a été
établi objectivement par la Chambre de commerce et d’industrie de Paris au terme d’une
enquête nationale auprès de 2000 entreprises de plus de 50 salariés et de tous secteurs.

Le taux d'utilisation global varie en fonction de la taille de l’entreprise et de son secteur
d’activité. En effet, certains secteurs (chimie, électronique ou banque-assurance) affichent des
taux d’usage élevés autour de 20% et peuvent atteindre 38% (automobile).
Venez découvrir lors de la présentation de l’étude à iLearn Forum 2009 les domaines de
formation où le e-learning est le plus utilisé, les pratiques innovantes, les tendances de la
création de modules de e-learning, les indicateurs sur le budget ou les catégories de personnel
formées par ces nouvelles méthodes.
Un signal prometteur : 55% des entreprises utilisatrices estiment que le e-learning est
applicable dans tous les domaines.
Cette année, le baromètre du e-learning explore les changements en cours et
décrit
notamment l’usage fait par les entreprises des univers virtuels (Second Life) et des réseaux
sociaux pour le recrutement et la formation. Découvrez les témoignages de grandes entreprises
telles que l’Oréal, IBM, Sogeti, BNP-Paribas et Logica !
Pour retrouver l’étude complète : www.preau.ccip.fr
Contact : Raphaël Gnanou, Responsable du Préau, [email protected]
Vous trouverez ci-dessous un résumé des ponts-clés en français et en anglais.
Baromètre CCIP 2008 du e-learning
« les points clés. »
Le saviez-vous ?
«12% des entreprises ont dispensé à leurs salariés des formations en e-learning au
cours de l'année 2007 ».
Le « Baromètre CCIP 2008 du e-learning » a établi ce taux de diffusion des méthodes elearning dans les entreprises en France au terme d’une enquête portant sur 2000 entreprises
de plus de 50 salariés et représentatives de tous les secteurs d’activités.
Ce taux d'utilisation par les entreprises paraît relativement modeste mais révèle aussi des
pratiques bien installées.
En effet, l’enquête menée par Le Préau et l’OFEM, deux services de la CCI de Paris, montre que
ce pourcentage s’accroît en fonction de la taille de l’entreprise et que certains secteurs (chimie,
électronique ou banque-assurance) affichent des taux d’usage relativement élevés autour de
20%.
Si les langues (56%), la bureautique (23%) et l’informatique (16%) restent les domaines de
formation où le e-learning est le plus utilisé, 26% des entreprises créent aussi des modules de
e-formation adaptés à la spécificité de leurs métiers.
« 70% des entreprises ont investi dans le e-learning seulement après 2005 ». Cette « adhésion
récente » peut expliquer que les deux tiers des entreprises interrogées consacrent « seulement
129
5% du budget formation » au e-learning et que « pour 52% d'entre elles, moins de 5% des
salariés sont concernés ». Ces chiffres peuvent sembler décevants à première lecture mais on
note que le budget global progresse et que les pratiques innovantes se développent : 55% des
entreprises utilisatrices pensent qu’il n’y pas de domaine où le e-learning soit inapplicable.
Cette année, le Baromètre CCIP du e-learning explore les changements en cours et notamment
l’usage fait par les entreprises des univers virtuels (second life) et des réseaux sociaux pour le
recrutement et la formation : témoignages de L’Oréal, IBM, Sogeti, BNP-Paribas et Logica.
Pour vous procurer l’étude complète : www.preau.ccip.fr.
Facts and figures of elearning in French ventures
Did you know it?
«12 % of companies distributed to their employees e-learning training courses
during year 2007 ".
The "Barometer CCIP 2008 of e-learning " has establishes this rate of use of e-learning methods
in French companies in the term of a national inquiry concerning 2000 companies of more than
50 employees and representative of all the sectors.
This rate of use by french companies seems relatively modest but also reveals well settled
practices.
Indeed, the inquiry led by LE PREAU and OFEM, two services of the Paris chamber of commerce
and industry, shows that this percentage increases according to the size of the company and
that some sectors (chemistry, electronics or bank-insurance) show rates of usage brought up
around or more than 20 %.
If the languages(tongues) (56 %), the software skills (23 %) and the computing (16 %) stay
the domains of training where e-learning is the most used, 26 % of companies also create
modules of e-training adapted to the specificity of their professions.
70 % of ventures invested in e-learning only after 2005. This recent support can explain that
the majority of the questioned companies dedicate only 5 % of the training budget to elearning and for 52 % of them, less than 5 % of the employees is concerned.
These figures can seem disappointing in first reading but we note that the global training
budget increases and that the innovative practices are developping : 55 % of the user
companies think that there is no domain where the e-learning is not applicable.
The speaker will give full details of the analyse and show trends and pratices of French ventures
related to the link beetween e-learning and KM.
This year, the Barometer CCIP of e-learning investigates also the use made by the companies of
the virtual universes (Second life) and social networks for recruitment and training : testimonies
of L’Oréal, IBM, Sogeti, BNP-Paribas and Logica.
Speaker : Raphaël GNANOU,
Manager of LE PREAU, Center for e-learning of the Paris chamber of commerce & industry
(CCIP).
Download the full study : www.preau.ccip.fr
130
L’EPSS : L’AUTRE MOYEN DE TRANSMETTRE DES CONNAISSANCES EN
LIGNE
Gérard MENDES & Maarten SAMSON, Knowmore
Abstract
Les systèmes de support à la performance (ePSS) diffusent aux utilisateurs de postes
informatiques les connaissances utiles à la réalisation de leurs tâches. L’ePSS est le
prolongement et le complément naturel de la formation et notamment de l’e-Learning ; il offre
également l’occasion à l’utilisateur d’acquérir de nouvelles connaissances, directement
appliquées. À l’heure où les temps dédiés à la formation sont de plus en plus réduits, les
acteurs du e-learning ont l’opportunité d’intégrer ce moyen de diffusion dans leur périmètre
professionnel.
Les systèmes de support à la performance (ePSS)
Les ePSS sont des logiciels qui assistent les utilisateurs d’applications informatiques dans leurs
situations de travail. Cette assistance est apportée sous forme d’informations, d’aide-mémoires
et d’outils relatifs aux tâches qu’ils effectuent.
Contrairement à une aide en ligne ou aux manuels d’utilisation qui sont centrés sur la
description des fonctionnalités, l’ePSS va assister l’utilisateur sur les dimensions métier de ses
tâches (organiser son planning de rendez-vous, ouvrir un compte bancaire, etc.).
Depuis sa définition en 1991 par Gloria Gery, l’ePSS a pris corps dans de nombreuses
organisations. Il est une réponse à la complexité croissante de notre environnement
informationnel (mails, circulaires, intranets, etc.). En effet, l’ePSS ne présente à l’utilisateur que
les informations pertinentes relativement à sa situation de travail. Il limite ainsi la quantité
d’information transmise et par suite la charge cognitive de l’utilisateur.
Les temps dédiés à la formation dans le cadre des organisations étant de plus en plus réduits,
l’ePSS peut être accueilli comme un moyen supplémentaire d’apporter aux utilisateurs des
connaissances en ligne. Il convient alors d’étudier son rapport et sa complémentarité avec l’eLearning.
Différences entre e-Learning et ePSS
L’ePSS se démarque de l’e-Learning sur plusieurs points :



Le moment de la transmission : Le e-Learning vise à apporter l’information pertinente
en amont de la situation de travail alors que l’ePSS apporte cette information à
l’occasion de la situation de travail
La finalité : La finalité du e-Learning est l’apprentissage alors que celle de l’ePSS est la
performance, c’est-à-dire la résolution de problèmes opérationnels. Avec l’ePSS, l’apport
de nouvelles connaissances est donc le résultat de la confrontation au problème pour
lesquelles elles sont utiles.
La durée de vie : Le e-Learning a une durée de vie plus courte que l’ePSS, qui a
vocation à être pérenne. Il est rare que des contenus de formation soient maintenus à
jour au fil de l’évolution des applications, alors qu’il s’agit d’un impératif pour un ePSS.
Néanmoins, dans les deux cas, la transmission de connaissances se fait à distance via des outils
informatiques. Il paraît donc naturel que les périmètres de l’e-Learning et de l’ePSS se
chevauchent, tout du moins en partie.
131
Le périmètre commun à l’e-Learning et à l’ePSS
Deux grands cas de figure illustrent la synergie entre l’e-Learning et l’ePSS : la diffusion de
piqûres de rappel et l’acquisition de réflexes adaptés aux tâches exceptionnelles.
Les éléments de connaissance diffusés dans ces deux cas à l’utilisateur en situation de travail
peuvent inclure des contenus de formation e-Learning, qui seront adaptés aux tâches qu’il
rencontre. Cette diffusion sera d’autant plus pertinente que la granularité du référentiel eLearning est importante.


Piqûre de rappel : des contenus issus du parcours de formation sont proposés,
rappelant à l’utilisateur des connaissances déjà consultées, en vue de leur acquisition.
Cela permet également de capitaliser sur l’effort de formation accompli en amont.
Traitement des tâches exceptionnelles à forte valeur ajoutée : ces tâches sont rarement
retenues dans les objectifs de formation malgré leur importance. Diffuser des contenus
ayant trait à ces tâches au moment où l’utilisateur les effectue permet de maintenir des
objectifs e-Learning ambitieux.
L’ePSS, un champ de plus en plus convoité où le e-learning a une carte à
jouer
Au carrefour des métiers de la performance (formation, gestion des connaissances, qualité,
ergonomie, etc.), l’ePSS est un champ qui a de plus en plus d’importance du fait :
Des innovations technologiques qui permettent de superposer des contenus à une
application sans avoir à la modifier (GPS logiciel)
 De la réduction générale des temps de formation
 De la limitation des ressources allouées aux services de soutien utilisateur (Help-Desk,
etc.)
Aussi, par sa visibilité et son omniprésence sur les applications informatiques, il devient un

enjeu important pour la maîtrise d’ouvrage. Enjeu où l’e-learning, familier des problématiques
de diffusion des connaissances à distance, a sans doute une belle carte à jouer.
Références
1.
GERY, G. (2003) - TEN YEARS LATER : A NEW INTRODUCTION TO ATTRIBUTES &BEHAVIORS AND THE STATE OF PERFORMANCE
CENTERED SYSTEMS, EPSS REVISITED PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT
2.
GERY, G. (2001) - ELECTRONIC PERFORMANCE SUPPORT SYSTEMS
3.
BROWN, L. (1996) - DESIGNING AND DEVELOPING ELECTRONIC PERFORMANCE SUPPORT SYSTEMS
4.
RABARDEL, P. (1995) - LES HOMMES ET LES TECHNOLOGIES : APPROCHE COGNITIVE DES INSTRUMENTS CONTEMPORAINS
Auteurs
Gérard Mendes
Knowmore, Pôle Produit
1, rue Paul Mazy, 94200 Ivry-sur-Seine, France
[email protected]
Maarten Samson
Knowmore, Pôle Conseil
1, rue Paul Mazy, 94200 Ivry-sur-Seine, France
[email protected]
132
ENSEIGNEMENT SUPÉRIEUR ET TIC
Wafa BERRY - Professeur Chercheur - Université Libanaise A l’heure de toutes les mondialisations, le monde Académique se trouve face á un grand défi.
Il s’agit de lier et le plus vite possible, sa philosophie de l’enseignement ses Savoirs et Savoirs
faire, ses supports et ses outils avec le monde du travail dominé dorénavant par le
développement hallucinant de la technologie.
Le domaine professionnel inspire et conditionne, en grande partie
les comportements des
hommes d’aujourd’hui.
Lancés dans une course contre la montre, ceux-ci luttent pour
s’adapter à une époque en mutation rapide.
Le tragique vient justement de cette mutation qui s’impose incontournablement à tous sans
aucun égard aux dispositions ou possibilités des uns et des autres.
Même les Sciences, dites humaines, qui avaient servi jusqu’ici de tampon modérateur aux excès
de la Science, se trouvent pour des questions de survie justifiée, obligées de s’accrocher aux
méthodes scientifiques pour assurer une place sous le soleil du monde moderne et d’intégrer
les TICE dans les cursus et dans les outils. .
Car associer TICE, qualité pédagogique et débouchés professionnels n’est plus aujourd’hui un
fait á démontrer. Je ne m’attarderai pas dans ma communication à louer l’usage des
technologies et leur rôle dans la recherche / diffusion de toute forme de savoir, ou même dans
la maîtrise des langues. Je suppose que notre présence ici même est une preuve des
convertis que nous cherchons à être.
Je me limiterai donc, dans une première partie, à montrer, á travers l’exemple de l’Université
libanaise, comment le milieu académique pourrait-il être préparé à l’intégration des nouvelles
technologies et que suppose cette intégration pour les enseignants. J’exposerai également les
raisons qui inhibent un recours plus généralisé aux technologies dans notre enseignement
Dans une deuxième partie, j’enchaînerai sur un exemple d’institutionnalisation de l’usage des
TICE dans l’enseignement en présentant les nouveaux cursus du département des Sciences du
langage et de la communication.
Pour commencer, je me hâte de dire qu’à l’Université Libanaise, seule université publique du
pays qui compte plus de 50% des Étudiants du Liban, il n'y a pas, à l'heure actuelle, de projet
global visant à promouvoir l’intégration des TICE dans l’enseignement.
Bien entendu, pour pouvoir développer ce type de projet se concentrant sur les aspects
pédagogiques, il faut une infrastructure et un équipement propices qui sont d’ailleurs entrain
d’être développés et fournis grâce au président de l’université4 qui a bien saisi ce fait et a
accordé aux TICE une grande priorité dans ses actions, priorité manifestée dans une action
méthodique sur plusieurs différents niveau: 5
Au niveau de la connexion, des Équipements, des Bibliothèques des périodiques en
ligne, des salles pour la visioconférence, plate forme pour les cours a distance …
Donc coté logistique, il n’y a pratiquement pas d’obstacles majeurs face á l’utilisation des TICE
du moins du coté des enseignants dont une bonne partie possède son propre matériel. Et
L’absence d’un projet global n'a pas empêché certaines initiatives de se développer et de faire
leur chemin dans beaucoup de facultés, encouragés et soutenus par le recteur de l’Université,
comme pour le département des Sciences du langage, nous y reviendrons.
Il existe donc au niveau du recours actif aux TICE. au sein de l’UL, beaucoup d’expériences
menées à titre individuel ou par équipe pour promouvoir l’usage de celles-ci dans
l’enseignement.
4
Le professeur Zouheir CHOUKOUR, Recteur de l’UL.
5
Les informations présentées ont été fourmies par Dr. Bilal Chbaro, professeur-ingenieur a l’UL,
conseiller du recteur pour les questions de technologie.
133
Cependant mais en dépit du matériel existant et facilités mentionnées plus haut, l’utilisation
des TICE reste limitée à l’UL, notamment dans les facultés de droit, des Sciences humaines et
des sciences sociales, instituts de beaux arts et autres oú la culture informatique n’est pas
encore généralisée dans les pratiques pédagogiques.
Ceci nuit évidemment à l’autonomie, au progrès et à l’ouverture des apprenants car le degré de
maîtrise que les professeurs possèdent par rapport aux TICE influence
largement
les
apprentissages réalisés. Dans le cas donc d’un enseignement traditionnel, les habiletés
intellectuelles des étudiants, leur esprit de recherche, ainsi que leur concentration se trouvent
ralentis et leur motivation pour un « authentique » recours aux TIC ne trouve pas sa
justification.
Mais pourquoi justement et particulièrement dans ces disciplines, les collègues ne se sentent
pas attirés par un usage professionnel des nouvelles technologies ?
Pour commencer, il faut bien préciser que la moyenne d’age de ces enseignants est de 50 ans,
l’âge oú les motivations pour une réhabilitation pédagogique ne sont pas les mêmes pour tous,
oú les efforts de faire mieux seraient, selon leur mode de pensée et d’être, pour les plus
jeunes. De toute façon, leur incompétence en matière de technologie les empêche d’envisager
toute initiative dans ce sens. .
Heureusement, cette année quelques 600 enseignants ont été titularisés, ce qui a injecté des
capacités jeunes au sein de l’UL., cette opération qui a été bloquée pendant plusieurs années
a contribué au vieillissement de l’UL.
Sur un autre plan, il faut bien préciser que l’intégration des TIC n’est pas un fait simple qui ne
demande qu’à être formulé. Or, elle représente un processus de changement important qui
entraîne dans son sillage beaucoup de contraintes et de conditions nécessaires à sa réalisation.
L’intégration des TIC oblige les enseignants á changer tout leur mode de travail et surtout les
représentations liées á celui-ci.
Le changement n’est pas un fait qui survient du jour au lendemain, il se produit en plusieurs
phases.
L’enseignant passe d’un état stable de non changement á l'intégration des TIC à sa pratique
personnelle ou à son enseignement, grâce á un déclencheur qui crée le besoin de s’ouvrir aux
technologies, á les essayer puis á les intégrer. Cette dernière étape n’est pas irréversible car en
fin du processus l’enseignant pourrait bien retourner á son état initial de non changement.
Mais, si le changement est opéré, il se déroule sur deux plans, celui de l’intégration des TIC et
de la transformation du style pédagogique habituel des enseignants. Comme ce style est
souvent très apparenté à l'enseignement magistral, les TIC sont d'abord utilisées en classe par
les professeurs dans des activités d'enseignement ce qui exigerait des ajustement considérables
de leurs pratiques.
C’est pourquoi, pour que le processus démarre, il est important que les enseignants trouvent
une motivation solide à changer, ce qui n’est certainement pas le cas l’université libanaise.
Ajoutons aux facteurs démotivants qui existent dans notre contexte social, économique et
académique,
l’absence de toute « obligation », directive, ou souhait de la part de
l’Administration académique ou meme d’une reconnaissance quelconque pour qui prendrait des
initiatives innovantes. Le professeur aux méthodes traditionnelles est traité de la même façon
que celui qui s’efforce d’innover. L’égalité entre l’excellence et son contraire ôte toute volonté de
progresser dans l’institution publique ou encourage à stagner.
Pire, l’innovation pourrait être considérée dans certains cas comme une perte de temps donc
d’argent.
134
Le temps apparaît comme un obstacle important au changement. Toute modification à
l’organisation du cours qui intègrerait les TICE, exige de la part de l’enseignant un
investissement de temps considérable. Or dans une conjoncture économique qui laisse à désirer
depuis bien des années au Liban, ce temps pourrait être investi ailleurs, dans d’autres
domaines ou fonctions professionnels et assurerait donc de rentrées financières
supplémentaires.
Face au changement des pratiques pédagogiques des enseignants dans le sens des
technologies, nous citerons un dernier obstacle d’ordre psychologique, notamment dans le cas
des disciplines théoriques oú la langue et les textes d’idées constituent l’outil particulier du
travail. Dans le domaine des sciences humaines et sociales, l’enseignant est ancré dans des
habitudes didactiques qui privilégient le contact direct avec les étudiants, jugées comme plus
« chaleureuses ».
De même, issu d’une société patriarcale, ce même
enseignant a, par ailleurs, du mal à
admettre le partage de ses prérogatives dans la transmission du savoir.
Il faut rappeler, dans ce domaine, le prestige et le respect auguste qui entourent le professeur
dans la culture de nos sociétés. L’intégration des TIC a un impact considérable sur les bases de
la dynamique pédagogique, qui peut mener á une démystification de l’enseignant. Notamment,
dans le cas d'activités d'apprentissage oú les étudiants
utilisent eux-mêmes les TIC, et
commencent á comprendre les possibilités limitées de leur enseignant et celles illimitées
d’Internet dans la communication du savoir. Voyant sa marge d’intervention se rétrécir comme
une peau de chagrin érodée par la scie de la technologie, l’enseignant pourrait développer des
réticences vis-à-vis d’une intégration grandissante des TIC dans son cours.
Évidemment tous les obstacles susmentionnés ne sont pas insurmontables mais leur
présence, séparés ou en cumul, empêche réellement les enseignants de franchir le pas surtout
qu’il offrent des prétextes plus ou moins valables dans un système éducatif supérieur qui est
relativement souple oú le changement demeure un choix personnel.
L’intégration, donc,
du
langage, des outils
l’enseignement est d’abord une décision á prendre
doivent instaurer une culture
de l’usage et de
recherche, de production ou de transmission d’un
volets : Logistique Académique, et de formation.
et des possibilités technologiques dans
par les hautes instances académiques qui
l’intégration des TIC dans tout acte de
savoir et ce à travers une action à trois
L’Université doit manifester son soutien dans le discours (projets, priorités,) et dans des
gestes concrets pour l’intégration des TIC. A cet effet il faut qu’elle augmente les budgets
alloués nécessaires à l’aménagement dans chaque unité académique, un environnement
technique favorable avec les dispositifs nécessaires pour l’accès et le soutien technique.
De même, un dialogue doit s'établir entre tous les acteurs engagés dans le processus menant à
l'intégration des TIC, et plus particulièrement entre les enseignants et les responsables
informatiques, qui vivent dans des univers de contraintes très différentes pour que chacun
saisisse mieux la réalité de l'autre et de ses besoins.
Les cursus et programmes doivent également intégrer les compétences liées aux TIC pour
qu’elles en fassent partie constituante, au même titre que les langues étrangères ou toute
autre matière. Il n’est pas sûr que l’alphabétisation informatique des étudiants se soit accomplie
à l’école et ce pour plusieurs raisons que nous ne citerons pas ici, c’est pourquoi, donc, il faut
absolument que l’université leur permette de se rattraper á ce niveau.
Ce fait a été pris en compte dans les nouveaux programmes de l’Université libanaise. Dans le
cadre de la réforme LMD, une unité d’enseignement « Introduction à L’informatique » a été
introduite dans le programme de toutes les facultés.
135
De même, l’université devrait intervenir pour programmer systématiquement à l’attention du
corps professoral des formations à l’utilisation des technologies de l’information et exiger, á
l’issue de ces formations, l’intégration des TIC dans les cursus, descriptifs ou méthodologies de
travail en faisant miroiter devant les enseignants des possibilités de promotion ou de
reconnaissance ou autres.
Ces formations devraient, évidemment, contenir un volet pédagogique car l’intégration des TIC
aux pratiques d’enseignement oblige à une réorganisation des contenus des cours.
C’est avec une démarche similaire que notre système éducatif supérieur ne laisserait plus
vraiment le choix à ses enseignants et profiterait des données de la technologie afin d’assurer
aux étudiants la meilleure formation opérationnelle possible.
En parlant de choix et d’initiative personnels, j’évoquerai dans la partie suivante les travaux
menés au département des Sciences du langage et de la communication à la faculté des Lettres
de l’Université Libanaise qui a été le premier, au Liban comme dans la région à établir la
passerelle entre les sciences humaines et la technologie, entre la langue et la technologie.
Nous ne pouvons ici que saluer l’appui significatif du recteur à ce département dont il veut
transformer le statut en pole d’excellence. A cet effet, il lui a dispensé les moyens nécessaires :
corps professoral qualifié, local décent, laboratoire informatique équipé, éléments de
bibliothèque,
techniciens et employés etc. C’est dire aussi que les initiatives personnelles,
lorsqu’ elles ont lieu, trouvent bien leur écho auprès le pouvoir décisif
Depuis sa création en 2001, notre département a suivi la démarche citée plus haut à savoir :
équipement, programmes et formations.
Il a mis la langue au carrefour des domaines modernes de la connaissance: la linguistique
comparée, l’Informatique, les sciences cognitives et le management : Bref un pluridisciplinaire
préparant l’étudiant qui a opté pour les langues à un métier aux visages divers de la modernité.
Et A l’heure de la réforme des programmes dans le cadre du LMD, la commission chargée
d’élaborer les nouvelles maquettes des diplômes a opté encore pour l’innovation, consciente
du poids de la compétitivité qui pèse aujourd’hui sur l’avenir des jeunes et attentive à leurs
véritables ambitions et surtout au changement de leurs perceptions à cause de l’invasion la
technologique.
Les diplômes dispensés par le département sont donc les suivants :
Licence en Ingénierie linguistique comparée avec deux options :
*Option Traitement automatique de la langue
*Option Ingénierie de l’Apprentissage des Langues.
Deux masters développent et approfondissent les contenus annoncés en licence :
* Master recherche en Linguistique Informatique appliquée
*Master professionnel en Industrie de la Langue et e-Formation qui introduit le volet elearning.
Mais avant de décrire ces diplômes avec les compétences auxquels ils forment ainsi qu’aux
domaines de travail auxquels ils préparent, il serait important d’ expliciter les motivations de la
commission des programmes en optant pour ces contenus qui lient les langues aux
technologies.
Nous évoquions au début de notre texte la mondialisation qui signifie nécessairement ouverture
et échanges donc nouvelles technologies de l’information et langues étrangères. Or, pour
s’ouvrir au monde et devenir citoyen international actif dans une mondialisation déterminée
136
par
la communication,
il est impératif de cultiver le plurilinguisme. Les libanais ont,
heureusement, toujours compris l’importance des langues dans le développement culturel,
social et économique du pays. Notre système éducatif, notre société, notre administration, nos
médias, le prouvent … et d’autres.
Toutefois les langues au Liban, comme un peu partout dans le monde arabe ( nous prétendons
connaître un peu le terrain en Jordanie, en Syrie et en Egypte) sont actuellement gouvernées
par un paradoxe : Plus on en fait une problématique, moins on les maîtrise, plus on organise
des formations de formateurs, plus les besoins en méthodologies augmentent, plus les maisons
d’édition s’efforcent de déverser sur le marché des méthodes de langue et plus le manuel
adéquat manque.
Quelle est l’origine, alors, de ce paradoxe ? Je ne prétends pas ici répondre à cette question si
vaste et dont la réponse touche à plusieurs domaines mais je chercherai à en élucider un des
aspects les plus importants à partir de l’expérience libanaise pour ne pas trop généraliser.
Une des raisons, donc, de ce rendement faible des entreprises linguistiques scolaires ou
académiques libanaises réside dans la formation initiale des futurs maîtres. L’enseignement
qu’ils dispensent demeure traditionnel même quand il se présente comme actuel et innovateur.
Nous formions jusqu’ici un didacticien consommateur plus ou moins passif de programmes, de
méthodes, de manuels ou d’exercices donnés. Au fil des jours, il se fige et devient prisonnier
de ses propres pratiques et de l’approche, à sens unique, dictée par le manuel. Du même coup,
son cours devient uniforme manquant d’adaptation, d’authenticité ou même d’animation.
Cette formation non opérationnelle va façonner négativement l’apprenant : ayant constitué avec
son professeur une relation de dépendance cognitive à l’image de cette dépendance de son
enseignant vis-à-vis des pratiques traditionnelles, celui-ci apprend à lier la connaissance au
maître beaucoup moins qu’à ses propres efforts. Le maître, déjà limité dans son savoir et
savoir-faire reste ainsi le médiateur entre l’apprenant et ces deux compétences. Ajoutons à cet
élément déterminant de la qualité de l’apprentissage, le rythme imposé par l’institution et par
ses possibilités qui peuvent accentuer ou réduire les lacunes de l’enseignement apprentissage
des langues.
Face à ce cercle vicieux, il fallait donc repenser l’enseignement des langues autrement et
transformer le statut plutôt passif de l’apprenant et de l’enseignant en un statut actif plus
entreprenant, opérant ainsi une séparation à l’amiable, bien raisonnée, très entre les deux
partenaires de l’éducation, conditions indispensables à la réussite de chacun.
D’ailleurs, de manière générale la société de la connaissance et du développement du savoir
commence à obéir à une transformation fondamentale. Dans une société marquée de plus en
plus par le rapport entre économie et gestion de la connaissance (gérer un projet et acquérir
des connaissances supplémentaires par soi-même), oú l’homme est de plus en plus sollicité, oú
le travail devient une obligation précoce, un même modèle d’apprentissage ne convient plus.
Le monde académique se doit donc traduire et porter cette transformation, en l’occurrence
celle des modalités d’usages et d’approches de la langue (enseignement / apprentissage ou
technicité) en tenant compte de la diversité des publics, des besoins et des contextes.
Et pourquoi donc ce passage obligatoire par la technologie dans l’apprentissage des langues?
Tout d’abord parce qu’il est incontestable que les technologies favorisent la mutation de la
relation au savoir. Les différentes technologies constituent un nouveau paradigme qui nous
pousse à repenser l’éducation. Elles facilitent le passage de la logique de l’enseignement à la
logique de l’apprentissage développée par la notion très en vogue du « learner for life ou
l’apprenant à vie »: D’un apprentissage passif et contraignant, l’étudiant va passer à un
apprentissage délibéré, raisonné et autonome.
137
Les technologies sont un outil particulièrement privilégié pour les langues, car elles serviraient
également le rapport si diversifié et utilitaire à celles-ci. Elles permettent le passage de
l’individuel au collectif donc à l’organisation de la pérennité de l’information
Avec le Web 2.0 par exemple, la connaissance se gère et se partage. L’apprentissage ou
l’enseignement devient autonome et collaboratif. Les capacités de stockage et de syndication
des contenus et des interfaces permettant aux internautes d'interagir à la fois avec le contenu
des pages mais aussi entre eux.
L’enseignant (didacticien des langues) ou l’apprenant (auto/didacticien de la langue), solitaire,
qui a arrêté de progresser faute de moyens ou d’énergie, va se trouver, grâce aux technologies
soutenu dans sa mission. Il profitera des contenus toujours fonctionnels, archivés, mis en
ligne par d’autres. (Pérennité = Archivage = vie de contenus). Le contenu XML découpé en
morceaux réutilisable facilite donc une Ré-éditorialisation des contenus, une re-scénarisation
et re-publication.
De plus les TICE permettent une plus grande variété dans les dispositifs d’enseignement allant
du plus simple au plus complexe, du partiel au total, créant ainsi une dynamique de motivation
et d’adaptation aux motivations existantes.
Les dispositifs variés appellent évidemment une diversification des lieux et permettent une
plus grande mobilité. Ces lieux varieront entre un laboratoire de langues multimédia, un centre
de ressources institutionnel …
Pour terminer donc je me limiterai à présenter les options qui relèvent plutôt de l’ingénierie et
de l’industrie de l’apprentissage de la langue, les autres de touchent plutôt a l’aspect recherche
et sont relatives à la linguistique informatique même si elles sont approchées dans leurs aspect
appliqué.
La langue française est le pivot de la licence et du master en « apprentissage des langues »
mais les langues arabe, anglaise et italienne constituent de potentiels champs d’applications
des compétences vues en et pour le français.
Les unités d’enseignement dans ces diplômes vont donc dans les 4 axes suivants :
- Le
Perfectionnement linguistique et la
approfondie de la langue et études sur la langue)
formation en
linguistique : Étude
- l’Ingénierie de la langue : Dans son sens stratégique et technique
- Ingénierie didactique des langues : Basée sur le CECRL et sur l’approche actionnelle
- Technologie et apprentissage de la langue : Familiarisation avec toutes les technologies
de l’information et de la communication qui sont aujourd’hui à la disposition des enseignants et
apprenants de langues et logiciels de base les plus utilisés dans l’élaboration d’une séquence
linguistique:
-Industrie de la langue, Volet qui recouvre l'ensemble des activités qui visent à faire
manipuler, interpréter ou générer par des machines le langage naturel écrit ou parlé. Cet aspect
de la formation fera de l’étudiant « l’interface » « techno-linguistique » avec l’ingénieur
proprement dit spécialisé dans la fabrication d’outils linguistiques ou éducatifs.
Les programmes proposés devront particulièrement doter nos étudiants des compétences
suivantes :
* Connaître, maîtriser, concevoir et être à même de réaliser tous les outils relatifs à l’utilisation
de la langue (enseignement/apprentissage/dictionnairique/exerciseurs/didacticiels/ jeux
linguistiques … )
* Concevoir et fabriquer un cours de langue quelque soit le dispositif.
138
*Acquérir les connaissances de base sur les outils à la disposition des concepteurs et
réalisateurs de ressources pédagogiques en ligne.
*Acquérir les savoirs faire nécessaires à la conduite des étapes de conception d’un module de
formation comprenant des modalités « e-learning ».
* Faire acquérir les compétences nécessaires à la commercialisation d’un dispositif
formation
de
Il va sans dire que de telles compétences ouvrent la voie aux étudiants à de nouveaux
domaines de travail jusqu’ici non franchis par les didacticiens des langues. L’apprentissage ou
l’enseignement son interface, restent le titre mais avec une transformation dans la notion et
dans l’approche : de passif, traditionnel à concepteur exécutif technique.
Il est vrai que l'automatisation des travaux linguistiques représente de nos jours un enjeu
économique important mais l'enjeu purement linguistique ne l'est pas moins. Les industries de
la langue doivent contribuer au développement de la diversité linguistique.
Conclusion
Le développement économique et culturel des nations semble dépendre désormais, pour une
large part, de la capacité de leurs citoyens de naviguer dans l’espace global d’un nouveau
savoir, instrument de création et de diffusion.
Si fatigué que soit le pays qu’elle représente, l’université libanaise restructure avec grands
courage et détermination son système et ses possibilités par un certains nombre d’actions,
toutefois l’usage généralisé des nouvelles technologies reste une action à prévoir.
L’intégration des TIC dans l’enseignement / apprentissage est, pour nous peuple dont le
professionnalisme est en voie de développement, d’abord une volonté ensuite des moyens
Avoir les conditions et possibilités de rejoindre la culture informatique et ne pas le faire, c’est
s’exclure d’avance du monde de demain et se condamner dés aujourd’hui á vivre dans un
monde qui ne communique que par très peu de mots dans un grand silence.
Le silence si triste des vieux.
Éléments de bibliographie
1- Apprentissages des Langues et technologies : usages en émergence. Numéro spécial de la
revue « Le français dans le monde, janvier 2002, CLE international/ FIPF.
2- Barbot, M-J. « Ressources pour l’apprentissage : excès et accès », in Études de linguistique
appliquée, n. 112, Didier 1987.
3- Barbot, M-J. « Stratégies des auto-apprenants et multimédias », in Les Cahiers de
l’ASDIFLE, n.9
4- BOULAN J., La création de pages Internet dans le cadre de parcours individualisé : la place
de la méthodologie dans l’apprentissage des langues, ALSIC, vol 1, n°2, décembre 1998
5- CATELLIN, S. « Internet ou la renaissance du mythe du savoir partagé », in Les Cahiers de
Médiologie, n.5, 1998.
6- CHALLE, Odile. « Fonctionnalités linguistiques des nouvelles technologies de l’information et
autoformation », in Les auto-apprentissages, le français dans le monde, « Recherches et
applications », 1992.
7- COLLIN Richard, Travailler, manager, apprendre autrement : les enjeux de la formation dans
la société de la connaissance et l'économie 2.0, disponible sur Internet.
139
8- CRINON J., GAUTELLIER C., Apprendre avec le multimédia et Internet, Retz Pédagogie,
Paris, 2001.
910-
HOLEC, H., Autonomie et apprentissage des langues étrangères, Strasbourg, Conseil de l’Europe/Hatier, 1979.
LEBRUN Marcel, Des technologies pour enseigner et apprendre, De
Boeck Université, 1999.
11-LE ROUZIC Daniel, Bertrand, Introduire Internet dans ses pratiques pédagogiques, -Lacoste, 1997.
12-MANGENOT F., Classification des apports d’Internet à l’apprentissage des langues, ALSIC, vol
1, n°2, décembre 1998.
13-PERAYA, D., 1998, Vers les campus virtuels. Principes et fondements techno-pragmatiques
des dispositifs de formation virtuels, disponible sur Internet.
14- POELLHUBER Bruno avec la collaboration de BOULANGER Raymond, Un modèle
constructiviste d’intégration des TIC, Rapport de recherche, Collège Laflèche, Québec, 2001.
15- Tardif, J. en collaboration avec A PRESSEAU: Intégrer les nouvelles technologies de
l’information. Quel cadre pédagogique ? Issy-les-Moulineaux, Éditions sociales françaises. 1998.
16- VERREMAN A., Une expérience de recherche documentaires sur Internet en classe de
langue : propositions de modélisation didactique, ALSIC, n°4, vol 1, juin 2001.
140
CULTURE INFORMATIONNELLE ET E-TEACHING : OUTILS ET PRATIQUES
Jean-Paul Pinte - Université Catholique de Lille, France
Abstract
Les cheminements d’apprentissage de la personne humaine dans des mondes qui peuvent être
à la fois « naturels » ou « à construire (1)» deviennent de plus en plus complexes.
L'accès massif aux technologies de l'information et de la communication ont en effet provoqué
en dehors d'un changement de paradigme sociétal autour de l'information, une profusion de
pratiques informationnelles, voire chez l'usager le plus souvent une grande confusion dans la
manière d'appréhender l'information, de l'interpréter pour créer de nouveaux savoirs, de
nouvelles connaissances, en quelque apprendre à apprendre.
Car sur le Net tout est document ou fait office de document pour les étudiants
et le plus souvent la pratique de la « redocumentarisation » reste pour eux la seule
échappatoire.
Elle consiste pour chacun à se réorganiser, à recomposer les unités sémiotiques d’un document
ou d’un ensemble de documents pour déboucher sur un autre document au point de se
demander à la fin si l’on est encore sur la même entité. On parle aussi dans ce cas de Mashup
informationnel , sorte de mélange et d'empilement d'informations débouchant sur un nouveau
document qu'ils s'approprient.
Car le savoir est partout, pléthorique, foisonnant et facilement accessible pour qui sait en tirer
le grain de l'ivraie et surtout détenir la bonne méthode de recherche sur la toile qui permet de
se libérer du chemin unique d'accès à la connaissance que représente aujourd'hui (et à tort)
Google.
La difficulté depuis ces dernières années réside aussi dans le fait que le maître n'est plus le seul
détenteur, voire passeur du savoir envers une génération convertie et soumise depuis toujours à
l'écoute passive en classe ou dans un amphithéâtre. Il n'a plus la même autorité dans la
transmission des connaissances et ne peut désormais plus compter sur le même rapport au
savoir et au pouvoir.
Les savoirs sont en effet aujourd'hui portés à distance sur des sites, des portails, des
plateformes numériques de ressources,voire toute autre catégorie d'outils d'accès à
l'information que l'on peut appeler plus communément aujourd'hui des lieux de ressources
indispensables à toute cyberquête informationelle .
Les Environnements Numériques de Travail, les plateformes numériques de ressources et autres
plateformes de formation ouverte et à distance ont accru encore cette mise à distance et il
s'avère urgent pour les enseignants comme pour les documentalistes de rentrer dans le flux des
pratiques et usages informationnels de leurs élèves.
Il est alors question d'éducation à la culture informationnelle (2), concept en pleine émergence
dont on ne peut plus faire l'économie au XXI° siècle.
L’UNESCO en a même fait un droit de l'homme à l’issue de la déclaration de Prague (2003) et
de la déclaration d’Alexandrie (2005)
_La maîtrise de l'information est au coeur de la formation tout au long de la vie. Elle permet
aux gens, dans tous les chemins de la vie, de chercher, d'évaluer, d'utiliser et de créer
l'information pour des objectifs personnels, sociaux, professionnels et éducationnels. C'est un
droit humain de base dans un monde numérique qui apporte l'intégration de tous les peuples »
En éducation la culture informationnelle est vue comme l’ensemble des savoirs, des savoir faire,
des compétences informationnelles à acquérir, pour
141
parvenir à une véritable maîtrise, à la fois intellectuelle et pratique, de l'information et de la
documentation_
En dehors de cette définition la culture informationnelle doit permettre à tous :
• de redonner du sens au monde devenu virtuel et sans frontières
• d'obtenir un ensemble stratégique d'habiletés de communication en
information (Information literacy)
• de dépasser aujourd’hui l’acquisition d’un ensemble spécifique de
connaissances et de théories de l’information
• de dépasser la simple utilisation de l’informatique et aller au-delà de la
cyberculture par la pratique d'outils de la culture et de la veille informationnelle
• d'associer aujourd’hui à ce concept celui d’apprentissage tout au long
de la vie pour parvenir à une meilleure intelligence des phénomènes qui nous entourent.
Sur la base du constat ci-dessous issu de pratiques sur 3 années avec des étudiants en section
Master, la mise en place d'une éducation à la culture informationnelle demeure indispensable :
•
Les étudiants consultent massivement Internet et à 87 % le même moteur de
recherche généraliste (Google) avant que d'autres outils ne soient recommandés par
l'enseignant.
•
82 % complètent leur cours par des recherches sur internet sans faire appel à la
recherche documentaire en bibliothèque
•
Les encyclopédies, les dictionnaires en ligne, les revues spécialisées et, en général la
presse sont les parents pauvres de la recherche informationnelle. (Seul Wikipédia est
cité le plus souvent dans ce cadre comme un outil moteur de recherche confondu ici à
l'encyclopédie qu'elle constitue)
•
La notion de portail et celle de banques de données sont absentes du vocabulaire des
étudiants
•
Moins de 5 % font appel à des outils spécifiques tels que la cartographie, les agents
intelligents et la veille automatisée pour un travail menée dans le temps
•
La capacité à maîtriser un corpus d'informations et à sortir du bruit informationel
demeure une difficulté majeure
•
La notion de pertinence de l'information est encore méconnue et non perceptible chez
les étudiants
•
La description d'une démarche cohérente de recherche de l'information reste une tâche
difficile.
Il faut néanmoins mettre en avant certains atouts qui pourraient tout en accompagnant
l'étudiant dans sa démarche être mis en avant pour une meilleure culture informationnelle à
savoir :
•
Le partage de l'information en réseau avec d'autres étudiants et en dehors de
l'enseignement prend une toute autre dimension dans le cadre des recherches
d'information
•
On voit poindre dans le cadre de travaux menés à partir des plateformes numériques
des habiletés autour des outils du Web 2.0 (Blogs, Wikis, etc.)
•
Le développement d'une communication et d'un questionnement plus dense via la toile
qu'en enseignement en face à face.
142
(1) Gilles Lemire "MODELISATION ET CONSTRUCTION DES CONNAISSANCES : Aspects
constructiviste, socioconstructiviste, cognitiviste et systémique », Préface de Marc Trestini,
Postace de Jean-Paul Pinte, LES PRESSES DE L’UNIVERSITÉ LAVAL, 2008
(2) "L'École au défi de la culture informationnelle", Alexandre Serres, maître de conférences en
sciences de l’information et de la communication, URFIST de Rennes, http://wwwphp.acorleans-tours.fr/crdp/blogs/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=350&Itemid=352
143
WEB 2.0 ET SERVICES FORMATION DES ENTREPRISES. POURQUOI ?
COMMENT ?
Adrien Ferro - Université Rennes 1, France
Abstract
Après l'apparition du web 2.0 en France, certains entreprises françaises se sont lancées dans un
discours sur le coopératifs et les outils en réseau susceptibles l'instrumenter.
Or, force est de constater qu'au delà des effets d'annonce, l'idée de travailler et apprendre à
partir d'outils valorisés par les usages informels du web et qui font l'objet, presque chaque jour,
d'articles de presse et d'un engouement plus ou moins sincère, n'a pas encore fait recette en
France.
Certes, ça et là, des expériences commencent à se sédimenter, notamment celles visant de
jeunes cadres, la fameuse génération « y », habituée aux usages technologiques en réseau en
dehors du travail, et qui s'attend à trouver les mêmes environnements une fois embauchée.
Mais les entreprises qui font quelque chose sont souvent des entreprises informatiques, ou très
fortement informatisées. Que dire encore de la compréhension du phénomène par les
responsables de formation, les services formation des entreprises, les organismes de
formation ? Elle reste très limitée, sinon nulle. Pourtant , les services formation des entreprises
ne devraient pas être parmi les premiers à s'informer et expérimenter sur le nouvel art de se
former et d'apprendre ENSEMBLE ?
Notre approche, par rapport à ces responsables et à ces organisations formatives est simple et
très concrète : nous considérons que c'est par la transformation de son propre travail, à travers
outils et usages du web 2.0 qu'il est possible de « voir » comment ceci pourrait être au service
des clients finaux, depuis les responsables des filières métiers jusqu'au publics les plus éloignés
de l'emploi et nous proposons d'expérimenter en « grandeur réelle », avec des outils simples,
gratuits ou peu couteux.
Ainsi, Université de Rennes 1 et Novantura ont élaboré un module d'enseignement dans le
cadre du master « Ingénierie de la e.formation ». Un module intitulé « Web 2.0 en formation
professionnelle et professionnalisation tout au long du travail. » Module éminemment pratique,
où les apprenants développement un wiki glossaire de la formation en ligne et des blogs de
parcours pédagogiques, il est destiné aux formateurs comme aux responsables de projets
formation en entreprises, confrontés aux défi de la professionnalisation tout au long du travail.
Cette année, Novantura a également accompagné la mise en place d'un wiki de suivi de projets
et d'un blog de valorisation d'un séminaire interne, pour le service formation d'une grande
entreprise de services (440 000 collaborateurs dans le monde, 43 000 en France). Comment
passer d'une culture mail à celle des pages et commentaires sur wiki ?Comment utiliser un blog
pour valoriser et rendre formatives les vidéos d'un séminaire interne ? A quel type de difficultés
pouvons-nous nous attendre et comment accompagner le changement ?
C'est cette expérience, assez unique en France, ses premiers résultats concrets mais aussi ses
difficultés, son nécessaire cadrage, que nous présentons succinctement ici.
144
E-LEARNING MÉDICAL EN CANCÉROLOGIE
Thomas De Praetere 1, Christine Verfaillie 2, Michel Taillet 2
1: . Dokeos, Belgium, 2. European Society for Therapeutical Radiology and Oncology
(ESTRO), Belgium
Abstract
ESTRO forme 3000 oncologues et radiothérapeutes chaque année. Les membres de ESTRO sont
de plus en plus situés en dehos de l'Europe et/ou ne peuvent quitter leurs fonctions pour
assister à des conférences et formations en salle.
ESTRO a donc décidé de recourir au e-learning et a choisi de travailler avec Dokeos. La
production des cours est terminée et la formation commence en février 2009.
Le concept développé par ESTRO et DOKEOS est d'articuler la formation autour d'actions pour
l'apprenant : dessiner le contour d'une tumeur, en définir le stade d'avancement, discuter avec
les membres d'une équipe interdisciplinaire en réseau des thérapies à proposer et du suivi à
organiser.
Le modèle est donc classique mais appliqué avec rigueur : toute documentation (extraits de
conférences, articles, etc.) ne prend place que par rapport à un travail qui est à fournir par
l'apprenant.
Le projet nous a conduit é un développement informatique original : la délinéation de cancer en
ligne et le calcul de la pertinence de la zone sélectionnée par le radiothérapeute. Dans les
termes habituels pour cette discipline : recouvrement (overlap), dépassement (excess), lacunes
(missing).
Les premiers tests réalisés avec des étudiants montrent non seulement un bon niveau de
satisfaction mais également un réel apprentissage des compétences à acquérir pour ces
apprenants qui sont déjà des experts dans leur domaine.
145
PÉDAGOGIE DU PARTAGE ET WEB 2.0 : POUR UNE REDÉFINITION DES
PRATIQUES DE CLASSE
Florence Lojacono, Université de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Espagne.
Introduction
Dans son Évolution de l’enseignement des langues : 5000 ans d’histoire6, Claude Germain soustitre le XXe siècle : l’ère scientifique. Au XXIe siècle nous inaugurons l’ère technologique.
L’entrée massive des technologies de l’information et de la communication (désormais TIC)
dans notre quotidien a profondément affecté les processus d’enseignement/apprentissage et a,
notamment, impliqué l’acquisition de nouvelles compétences de base7. Nous sommes au début
de cette formidable aventure et l’impact des TIC sur les communautés éducatives est encore
loin d’avoir été pleinement mesuré dans toute sa force révolutionnaire. C’est là le propos de
cette communication : amorcer la réflexion sur des pratiques nées de l’entrée des TIC dans le
domaine éducatif et que nous réunirions sous le terme de pédagogie du partage.
Du laboratoire de langue au baladeur numérique
L’école hors les murs
En 1970 paraît à New York un livre qui fit du bruit à l’époque, Deschooling Society, traduit en
France en 1971 sous le titre Une société sans école8. À un enseignant qui relirait cet ouvrage en
2008, l’auteur apparaîtrait sans doute plus visionnaire que révolutionnaire. En effet, c’est une
pédagogie de l’information et de la communication qu’Ivan Illich mettait déjà en place : accès
libéralisé à la connaissance et échange de compétences. Les réseaux du savoir imaginés par
Illich mettaient en contact ceux qui désiraient acquérir des compétences et ceux qui
souhaitaient les partager9. Rencontres, échanges, réseaux, ne sommes-nous pas – déjà – au
cœur des possibilités du Web 2.0 appelé, justement, web social ? Olivier Reboul le pressentait
en 1981, qui remarquait à propos d’Une société sans école, qu’« au service de cette pédagogie
de la rencontre, on pourrait mettre les ordinateurs, les vidéocassettes, etc. » 10. En 2008, les
forums, les chats, les partages de liens, les wikis, les blogs ne sont-ils pas autant d’instruments
au service de cette pédagogie de la rencontre prônée par Illich ? La déscolarisation de la société
n’a pas été un fait politique mais technologique : l’entrée des TIC et de l’Internet dans les
pratiques pédagogiques a fait voler en éclats les murs de l’école traditionnelle. Aujourd’hui,
l’enseignement en ligne réalise en partie la vision éducative que nous proposait Illich en 70.
Quand je connecte mon ordinateur pour accéder à un cours en ligne je transforme ma cuisine,
ou mon salon, en centre d’enseignement. Je n’ai pas besoin de me déplacer pour assister aux
cours, ceux-ci me parviennent par le haut débit. Les technologies portables repoussent encore
6
Claude Germain, Évolution de l’enseignement des langues : 5000 d’histoire, Paris, CLE
international, 1993.
7
Il s’agit des « nouvelles compétences qui, combinées aux compétences de base, sont
nécessaires pour fonctionner dans la société contemporaine. Elles couvrent les domaines
suivants: technologies de l’information et de la communication (TIC), langues étrangères,
culture technologique, esprit d’entreprise et aptitudes sociales », Cedefop (2003), Conseil
européen de Lisbonne: conclusions de la Présidence, paragraphe 26. Voir aussi les attestations
et certifications C2i et B2i dans le système scolaire français, cf. Circulaire n°2007-177.
8
Ivan Illich, Une société sans école, Paris, Seuil, 1971.
9
Ibid., p.130.
10
Olivier Reboul, La Philosophie de l’éducation (1971), Paris, P.U.F., 4e édition revue et
augmentée, 1981, p.105.
146
les limites du concept désormais obsolète de « salle de classe ». Grâce aux agendas
électroniques, aux dernières générations de téléphones portables, aux reproducteurs de fichiers
multimédias, ma salle de classe se déplace avec moi, quelque soit l’endroit où je me trouve.
L’école ne peut plus se définir comme le lieu d’acquisition des connaissances. L’école est hors
les murs, le savoir s’est évadé des institutions qui, bien souvent, au lieu de le partager,
s’ingéniaient à le cacher au plus profond de leurs bibliothèques11.
La révolution de la consommation éducative à la carte
Si les institutions éducatives disparaissent progressivement en tant que lieu, c’est pour renaître
en tant qu’espace. Du lieu à l’espace, ce n’est pas le savoir qui a changé, mais sa diffusion et
donc aussi, son accessibilité. Le partage de documents, rendu possible par les logiciels P2P
(peer to peer), est à l’origine de nouveaux comportements sociaux. En effet, la révolution initiée
par les logiciels P2P ne réside pas tant dans la gratuité du partage que dans une nouvelle
conception de la consommation : une consommation à la carte. Les téléchargements
institutionnalisés12 – c’est-à-dire payants – ont d’ailleurs repris ce principe et s’en portent fort
bien : cela prouve que l’accès rapide et facile au document choisi est au moins aussi important
pour les consommateurs que la gratuité du document. Imaginez que vous ayez des amis
chinois, parlant le chinois mandarin et le français, et que vous soyez invité(e) à dîner chez eux.
Vous avez envie de leur dire quelques mots en chinois mandarin. Vous n’avez pas envie
d’apprendre le mandarin, juste de savoir comment remercier vos hôtes à la fin du repas. Il n’y a
pas si longtemps vous auriez dû acheter une méthode complète de langue pour pouvoir dire ces
quelques mots de remerciement. Mais maintenant vous pouvez accéder à cette information
spécifique en quelques minutes et sans vous encombrer d’informations inutiles. Selon ce même
principe, la consommation à la carte13 de documents multimédias trouve écho dans
l’enseignement. Des universités, des radios comme Radio France Internationale, TV5, Canal
Académie et des sites spécialisés proposent des téléchargements gratuits de documents divers,
de cours et de conférences. L’acquisition à la carte de documents sonores, gratuits ou non, a eu
pour corollaire, dans le domaine de la technologie, la rapide diffusion des baladeurs
numériques. Qu’y-a-t-il de commun entre une formation à la carte, c’est-à-dire une formation
modulaire, dont les différents éléments peuvent se combiner entre eux pour former des
parcours d’apprentissage individuels, et un reproducteur multimédia portable ? Réponse : la
granularité. Le « grain » est, en éducation, l’unité de formation minimale14 . Les applications
didactiques de la granularisation, associées à l’usage éducatif des baladeurs numériques
rendent possible un enseignement/apprentissage réellement individualisé, autonome et de plus,
mesurable, ce qui est, dit en passant, tout à fait dans la ligne de la réforme de Bologne. Ces
pratiques ont donné naissance à un nouveau concept d’apprentissage connu sous le nom de
mobile learning, traduit en français par apprentissage mobile ou apprentissage nomade.
11
Voir les deux ouvrages d’Umberto Eco, Le Nom de la rose (1982), Paris, LGF, 2002 et De Biblioteca
(1981). Ce dernier est disponible en français sur <http://s.huet.free.fr/dialektos/folio/umbeco.htm>, en
italien sur <http://www.liberliber.it/biblioteca/e/eco/de_bibliotheca/html/testo.htm>. Consultés le 3 juillet
2008.
12
Napster, un pionnier du P2P, a été obligé de se transformer en 2001 en téléchargement institutionnalisé,
limité aux États-Unis. Autre exemple : Apple et iTunes, sa boutique musicale de téléchargements à la
carte.
13
Voir la présentation du glossaire de la formation ouverte à distance (FOAD) intitulé FOAD à la carte
<http://foad.arifor.fr/upload/docs_pdf/GLOSSAIREFOAD-web.pdf>. Consulté le 11 janvier 2009.
14
« Granulariser consiste à découper un contenu de formation en unités pédagogiques élémentaires »,
définition du FOAD. Source ci-dessus.
147
De la consommation à la carte à la pédagogie du partage
La délégation (outsourcing)
Prenons un exemple : tous les enseignants de langue étrangère ont besoin d’exercices afin de
renforcer les aptitudes langagières et culturelles de leurs apprenants. Prenons le cas d’un
enseignant de Français Langue Étrangère (FLE) qui vient d’étudier avec sa classe la conjugaison
du verbe être au présent de l’indicatif et souhaite donner un exercice à faire en dehors du
temps consacré à la classe. Différentes possibilités s’offrent à lui :
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Donner un exercice du manuel, du cahier d’exercices ou autres…
Écrire un exercice (ad hoc ou non) au tableau et le faire copier.
Mettre en ligne un exercice (ad hoc ou non) sur le site web de son cours.
Distribuer la photocopie d’un exercice (ad hoc ou non)
Orienter les étudiants vers une page web externe au cours et contenant l’exercice
approprié.
Analysons ces différentes possibilités, selon les critères suivants :
Temps gagné pour l’enseignement
Quand l’enseignant copie au tableau un exercice destiné à être recopié par les apprenants et
qui sera corrigé le lendemain, il y a une grande perte de temps. Ces 10 minutes auraient pu
être consacrées à des tâches communicatives, à une aide individualisée…. Bien sûr il ne s’agit
pas de bannir cette procédure – copier un exercice ou un texte au tableau peut s’avérer un
exercice excellent dans une phase de retour au calme, de réinvestissement ou de renforcement
des connaissances – mais de réfléchir à son impact sur la gestion du cours.

Adaptation aux besoins spécifiques de la classe
Aucun exercice « prêt-à-l’emploi » n’est adapté aux besoins spécifiques d’une classe. Même
l’exercice qui a été donné l’année antérieure n’est pas totalement adapté à cette classe là, à ce
moment là. Chaque classe est unique, chaque cours est unique. L’enseignant est celui qui
connaît le mieux sa classe, avec ses points forts et ses points faibles. C’est lui aussi qui connaît
les mots, les structures, les contenus culturels connus ou à renforcer. C’est pourquoi seuls les
exercices créés ad hoc par un enseignant consciencieux sont complètement adaptés à la
classe : ce qui n’est le cas ni des exercices du manuel ni de ceux déjà disponibles sur la Toile.
Un exercice 100% adapté à la classe, avec, par exemple, des références au vécu commun du
groupe, sera aussi plus motivant.

Variété des exercices
Par variété il faut entendre la variété dans la mobilisation des compétences : texte à trous,
questionnaire à choix multiples, quiz … mais aussi la variété des supports : chansons, vidéos,
fichiers audio … Si l’enseignant peut créer facilement des QCM et des quiz sur papier, il aura
plus de mal à créer des exercices interactifs et multimédias, et cela lui prendra beaucoup plus
de temps. Il ne serait absolument pas réaliste d’exiger des enseignants la création d’exercices
multimédias pour chaque cours, ni même pour chaque chapitre ! Il y a donc un hiatus entre un
monde très fortement médiatisé, où le visuel occupe une très large place, où aucun étudiant n’a
connu la télé en noir et blanc, et le support traditionnel des exercices donnés en classe : des
lignes noires sur un papier blanc.

Efficacité des exercices
L’efficacité de tout exercice dépend de l’intérêt accordé par les apprenants à sa correction. Or, le
plus souvent, l’exercice est ressenti comme une tâche ennuyeuse dont il faut s’acquitter sous
peine de s’attirer les foudres du prof. L’efficacité étant directement liée à la motivation de
l’apprenant, nous pouvons dire que celle-ci augmente si 1) la correction est immédiate 2) les
apprenants ont la possibilité de refaire l’exercice de façon autonome et de visualiser
immédiatement leurs progrès. Les exercices donnés en classe pour une date ultérieure perdent

148
une grande part de leur efficacité parce que les étudiants ne sont pas présents le jour du
corrigé, ou, s’ils sont présents, ils ne sont plus motivés. La rapidité du feed back est cruciale. De
plus les exercices ne devraient pas être à usage unique : leur efficacité se mesure aussi à la
possibilité d’être refaits le lendemain ou avant un examen. Mais soyons réalistes : rares sont les
étudiants qui refont les exercices une fois ceux-ci corrigés en classe. C’est là qu’interviennent
les TIC. Les exercices en ligne sont très différents les uns des autres : dans les compétences
mobilisées, dans leurs présentations et dans les supports utilisés. Ils sont bien évidemment en
couleur, souvent animés ou interactifs et surtout la correction est immédiate. Au sujet de la
correction, notons que souvent le terme score substitue celui de résultats : ce qui déplace
l’exercice du monde académique au monde ludique. Tout ceci motive les étudiants et ils ne sont
plus si rétifs à refaire un exercice. Un avantage secondaire des exercices en ligne, créés par
d’autres que l’enseignant, est de neutraliser leur charge affective et d’ouvrir la classe sur
d’autres mondes.
Analyse des 5 possibilités citées plus haut de la moins bonne performance (- - -) à la meilleure
(+++)
Temps gagné pour A d a p t a t i o n a u x Variété des exercices
Efficacité des
l’enseignement
exercices
a
+++
b
---
besoins spécifiques
de la classe
++
Ad hoc : + + +
--
----
Externe : +/+ +
---
Si l’enseignant a les I n t e r a c t i f +
c o m p é t e n c e sc o r r i g é
c
+++
numériques nécessaires : immédiat : + + +
Ad hoc : + + +
Externe : +/+ +
+++
Corrigé
en
Document scanné ou classe :
reproduit : - d
+++
e
+++
Ad hoc : + + +
Externe : +/+ +
+/+ +
-+++
-----
+++
Selon les critères choisis, ce tableau montre clairement que les solutions les plus efficaces sont
c) dans le cas d’un exercice ad hoc multimédia interactif et e) un exercice présent sur un site
web externe à la classe. Les deux solutions ont en commun d’intégrer les TIC. Dans le cas c)
néanmoins l’enseignant devra rajouter à ses dons de pédagogue ceux d’informaticien, ce qui est
peu raisonnable. À chacun son métier. De plus le temps gagné en proposant des exercices
multimédias ad hoc ne sera pas du tout compensé par les nombreuses heures que l’enseignant
aura à passer devant son ordinateur pour chaque exercice. Il est tout à fait inutile que chaque
enseignant, dans chaque classe, réinvente les exercices élémentaires de tous cours de langue15.
Au lieu de cela, l’enseignant a désormais la possibilité de choisir les sites extérieurs contenant
15
« Pourquoi recréer ce qui existe ? » peut-on lire sur la page de présentation de Formastore, entreprise de
formation professionnelle délibérément tournée vers les TIC <http://www.formastore.net/-Qui-sommesnous-> consulté le 28 décembre 2008.
149
les exercices en ligne appropriés. Ces exercices, provenant de sources extérieures choisies avec
soin, ne seront pas 100% adaptés à la classe mais auront tant d’autres avantages que le bilan
reste très positif :
il n’est pas nécessaire pour l’enseignant d’avoir de grandes compétences numériques.
la variété des présentations et des supports est immense ce qui permet d’englober tous
les styles d’apprentissage (visuel, kinésique, auditif…), de travailler plus d’une
compétence à la fois (audio + image par exemple)
- la correction est immédiate
Cette façon radicalement nouvelle d’envisager la tâche de l’enseignant se rapproche du concept
d’outsourcing. La traduction française pourrait être « approvisionnement extérieur », sur le
modèle proposé par le Commission générale de terminologie et de néologie qui a traduit local
sourcing par approvisionnement local (B.O. nº6 du 8 février 2007). Je préfère cependant
traduire l’outsourcing par délégation en partie parce qu’une des significations, certes oubliée,
du mot délégation est celle de « vacataire de l’enseignement » 16. Déléguer une partie de
l’enseignement ne va pas / n’ira pas sans susciter certaines réticences et même de vives
attaques17 . De la part de la société : les profs déjà ne foutent rien et maintenant voici qu’ils
délèguent ! De la part des enseignants : ce n’est pas Internet qui va faire mon cours et, en
plus, je n’y connais rien en informatique ! De la part des étudiants : ce ne sont pas de « vrais »
exercices, ce n’est pas sérieux ! De la part des didacticiens : si les enseignants commencent à
s’entraider, qui va avoir besoin de nous ? Mais, et c’est là qu’il faut insister, déléguer ne signifie
pas travailler moins mais travailler autrement. Les liens extérieurs doivent être pertinents,
fréquemment mis à jour et intégrés dans le continuum du cours. Renvoyer systématiquement
les étudiants sur le site de l’encyclopédie en ligne Wikipedia n’est pas déléguer, c’est abdiquer.
Un enseignant peu scrupuleux n’aura d’ailleurs pas attendu Internet pour en faire le minimum.
Un âne au volant d’une Ferrari reste un âne – voir en note une citation un peu plus littéraire -.
Ne jetons donc pas le bébé avec l’eau du bain. La principale différence entre l’enseignement
traditionnel et l’enseignement en ligne n’est pas qualitatif mais ontologique : répétons-le,
enseigner en ligne ce n’est pas enseigner moins mais enseigner autrement. C’est être prêt et
disposé à repenser de fond en comble ce qui, depuis près d’un siècle, était le socle immuable
de la relation pédagogique. Le travail collaboratif n’est pas nouveau. La pédagogie de l’École
nouvelle, il y a un siècle, s’appuyait déjà sur l’esprit d’équipe. Ce qui est nouveau ce sont les
moyens mis à la disposition des communautés éducatives pour réaliser cette collaboration. Les
TIC, en particulier les applications du Web 2.0, ont rendu la collaboration aussi facile qu’un clic
de souris. Grâce à Internet plusieurs personnes peuvent travailler ensemble sur un même
projet, qu’elles soient sur le même palier ou à 5000 kilomètres de distance.
-
Exemples d’applications pour le partage de documents :
Delicious : <http://del.icio.us/ > pour partager vos signets.
Picasa : <http://picasaweb.google.es/home> pour partager vos photos.
Flickr : <http://www.flickr.com/> idem.
16
Occuper une délégation c’est occuper un emploi de maître auxiliaire de l'enseignement, non titulaire.
17
Didier Heiderich écrit en mars 2007 dans un article intitulé Web 2.0 : le règne de l’individualisme
social : « Combien d’individus normalement constitués, brillants, cultivés, sombrent dans le commentaire
futile, propagent une rumeur sans en avoir vérifier le fondement, votent contre un article sans l’avoir lu,
répondent à un mail en omettant la courtoisie la plus élémentaire » consulté le 30 décembre 2008 sur
<http://www.ecrans.fr/Web-2-le-regne-de-l-individualisme.html>. Laissons répondre Aragon : « Si vous
écrivez, suivant une méthode surréaliste, de tristes imbécillités, ce sont de tristes imbécillités. Sans
excuses. » écrivait Aragon dans son Traité du Style.
150
Google Doc : <http://www.google.com/google-d-s/intl/es/tour1.html> pour partager vos
documents. Stockage en ligne gratuit.
Office Live Workspace : <http://workspace.officelive.com/?cloc=fr-fr> idem.
SlideShare : <http://www.slideshare.net/> pour partager vos présentations PowerPoint.
Vox : <http://www.vox.com/> pour partager vos fichiers audio et vidéo.
YouTube : <http://es.youtube.com/> idem.
La révolution électronique ou le savoir libéré
La consommation à la carte de produits éducatifs et l’utilisation par les enseignants de
ressources externes élaborées par d’autres enseignants aideront la didactique à sortir de son
enlisement. Prenons un exemple précis : la didactique des langues. En 1980, la seule mise en
page du livre de Galisson18 sur la didactique d’hier et celle d’aujourd’hui était révélatrice de
l’antagonisme qui régnait – et règne encore – en matière de pédagogie. Les pages sont
séparées verticalement en deux colonnes : d’un côté la didactique d’hier, de l’autre celle
d’aujourd’hui. Les définitions, les termes, les choix sont présentés les uns en regard des autres.
Voici un exemple (page 45).
que l’élève se fasse à l’école
Prenant le parti de ceux qui veulent
que l’école se fasse à l’élève
contre ceux qui veulent
que l’école se fasse à l’élève
que l’élève se fasse à l’école
les didacticiens
d’hier
d’aujourd’hui
centrent leur projet éducatif sur
la méthode
l’apprenant
On s’en rend compte : les pédagogies nouvelles ne sont que l’envers des pédagogies anciennes.
On est passé du teacher centered au student centered. Mais prendre le contre-pied des
méthodes traditionnelles est-ce suffisant ? Passer du maître autoritaire au co-communicateur
non directif, n’est-ce pas mesurer la figure de l’enseignant selon une unique échelle : celle de
l’autorité ? Grâce aux TIC, il est possible de sortir de l’ornière où s’est enlisé un siècle de
pédagogie. Une troisième voie est possible, qui renouvellera la didactique.
Hier
Aujourd’hui
Demain
Du haut de son estrade, le Autour de tables disposées en Immergés dans des « réseaux
maître dispensait son cours aux U ,
élèves.
les
a p p r e n a n t s du savoir », enseignants et
c o m m u n i q u e n t a v e c l e étudiants
facilitateur selon leurs besoins.
18
partagent leurs ressources.
Robert Galisson, D’hier à aujourd’hui la didactique des langues, Paris, CLE International, 1980.
151
!
"#!$%&'(#!
"#)!*"+,#)!
!
"#+!%,,*#-%-(+!
"#!$%&'"'(%(#)*!
!
La tant souhaitée parité de statut entre maitre et élève, au cœur des positions méthodologiques
de la didactique de ces cinquante dernières années, est maintenant seulement devenue une
réalité, grâce aux TIC. En effet, que l’enseignant soit, dans les manuels de didactique, exhorté
à agir en facilitateur n’a absolument rien changé à la véritable suprématie de l’enseignant : celle
de l’accès à l’information. Illich l’avait pressenti quand il reprochait à l’école d’enfermer le savoir
et de le concentrer sur la figure d’un enseignant : « dans les écoles tout se passe comme s’il y
avait un secret »19. Ce secret est le plus ancien et le mieux gardé : seul l’enseignant a accès
aux sources du savoir. De là son autorité intellectuelle. Que les têtes soient levées vers lui,
quand il dispensait son savoir du haut de son estrade, ou qu’elles risquent le torticolis, dans une
salle disposée en U, l’enseignant est toujours le seul à avoir accès au livre : le livre avec les
réponses, le livre avec les corrigés, le livre avec l’information vitale, essentielle, information qu’il
va peu à peu distiller dans ses cours. Pour le jeune chercheur, le chercheur délocalisé, loin des
bibliothèques de référence « le seul accès à des savoirs de première main, dans des
publications de recherche par exemple, représente un travail si considérable qu’il est peu
compatible avec l’exercice du métier » 20. Du point de vue pratique, l’enseignant, de par son
âge, dispose souvent de livres qui ne sont plus édités et qu’on trouve rarement dans les
bibliothèques. Son autorité intellectuelle était fondée en partie sur la rétention, voulue ou non,
du savoir. Or ceci est devenu impossible aujourd’hui. À l’ère de Google, du projet Gutenberg et
des banques d’articles en ligne, le savoir est accessible à tous, facilement et souvent
gratuitement. Jeunes enseignants et étudiants accèdent ensemble aux savoirs auparavant
réservés à une petite portion du monde académique.
Conclusion
Les TIC nous montrent qu’il existe un modèle d’enseignement/apprentissage capable de
dépasser la stérilité du bipolarisme des pédagogies du siècle passé. Dans ce domaine,
l’enseignement en ligne fait figure de pionnier car il diffère radicalement de l’enseignement
traditionnel. L’enseignement asynchrone propose une navigation multidirectionnelle à travers
des modules que l’apprenant peut ouvrir à sa guise et simultanément. Un cours traditionnel,
même avec vidéo, fichiers sons et streaming, sera toujours linéaire. C’est là que réside la
révolution inaugurée par les TIC : transformer la relation pédagogique qui, de tout temps a été
linéaire, en relation multidirectionnelle. C’est bien d’une révolution qu’il s’agit car l’abandon du
modèle linéaire dans les situations d’enseignement/apprentissage bouleverse un domaine plus
général : celui de la didactique. En effet, à une relation pédagogique linéaire correspond une
autre relation linéaire, elle aussi orientée du haut vers le bas, du penseur à l’exécutant, du
didacticien à l’enseignant. La polarité enseignant/apprenant était doublée, dans la noosphère,
19
Op.cit., p.129.
20
Jean-François Halté, La Didactique du français (1992), Paris, P.U.F., 1998, p.53.
152
de la polarité didacticien/enseignant. Or si la polarité enseignant/apprenant éclate, il en ira de
même de la polarité didacticien/enseignant. Et c’est justement la dissolution de cette polarité
séculaire que nous montre le Web 2.0 : des enseignants qui collaborent, qui partagent, qui
délèguent, en somme des enseignants qui reprennent les rênes de leurs pratiques
pédagogiques.
153
NOUVELLES TECHNOLOGIES DANS L'ECOLE SECONDAIRE DE CALDAS DAS
TAIPAS – GUIMARÃES – PORTUGAL
D.A. Durães, T. S. Martinez e M. L. Delgado
Résumé
Avec l'évènement des nouvelles technologies TIC (Technologies de l'Information et de
Communication) la société a changé. Nous passons à la société de l'information et des
connaissances, où les éléments de l'innovation et la créativité sont très importants à la réussite
de l'individu.
Avec ces modifications, il est nécessaire d'adapter l'éducation et l'école à une nouvelle réalité.
Pour cela, il sera nécessaire doté l’école avec des moyens technologiques nécessaires pour
permettre aux étudiants et les professeurs de l'utiliser.
Les professeurs ont dû obtenir une formation spécifique dans les domaines des TIC
commencé à utiliser ces technologies en classe. Toutefois, l'usage des TIC a modifié le rôle
l'enseignant dans la salle de classe. L'enseignant n'est pas seulement l'instructeur, mais aussi
médiateur et le superviseur des étudiants. Les étudiants sont de nouveau des agents actifs
leur apprentissage.
et
de
un
de
Avec l'évolution naturelle du Web 2.0, les enseignants doivent développer de nouvelles
méthodes d'enseignement et d’apprentissage. L'une des théories les plus en vogue est
l'apprentissage collaboratif. Pour cela, il existe plusieurs techniques qui peuvent et doivent être
utilisés à l'intérieur et en dehors de la classe. Un autre aspect à considérer est la technologie
mobile-learning, ce qui peut aider les étudiants à construire leurs propres connaissances.
Toutefois, les professeurs ne sont pas préparés pour ce changement. C’est nécessaire former
les enseignants. D’ailleurs, il est nécessaire restructurer l’enseignement supérieur pour les
professeurs, car ils ne sont pas adapté et n’utilise pas les nouvelles technologies web 2.0.
Cet article présente le résultat de l’utilisation des nouvelles technologies des professeurs dans
l’école secondaire de « Caldas das Taipas – Guimarães – Portugal ».
Mot-clé:
TIC, moodle, Gato, Go, web 2.0, m-learning.
Introduction
Le développement de l'enseignement apprentissage au cours des dernières décennies, à
beaucoup changé. Toutefois, cette tendance est vers une vision constructiviste de
l'apprentissage. De remarqué :
la création d'environnements d'apprentissage diversifié et complets, par opposition à la simple
transmission des connaissances par l'enseignant ou le manuel scolaire;
reconnaissant l'importance de l'interaction et la communication dans l'apprentissage, par
opposition à un individu isolé dans l'apprentissage;
la conception et le développement du programme d'études axé sur l'étudiant et de leurs besoins
spécifiques, par opposition au programme d'études axé presque exclusivement sur le contenu
et la connaissance préalable;
reconnaissant l'importance du rôle de l'éducation, en revanche sur le rôle crucial de l'éducateur
dans la définition et la direction du processus;
un accent particulier sur la manière de comprendre et d'organiser le processus, par opposition à
une approche fragmentée et serrés et un programme ciblé et les frontières entre les matériaux;
154
donner la préférence à des connaissances utilisables, réelles, par opposition à une connaissance
inerte, de la fiscalité, et, dans la plupart des cas, sans aucun pratique.
Les nouvelles technologies de communication conduirent l’éducation à une nouvelle dimension.
Cette nouvelle dimension est la capacité à trouver une logique dans le chaos de l'information
qui a souvent d'organiser une synthèse cohérente de l'information dans un domaine de
connaissance.
L'apprentissage collaboratif
Ce type d'apprentissage permet à l'enseignement en ligne. Pour rendre cela possible, il est
nécessaire de satisfaire les quatre règles de base de l'apprentissage chez les élèves et les
enseignants: apprendre à connaître, liées au plaisir de la découverte et de la curiosité,
apprendre à faire, apprendre à vivre ensemble, et apprendre à être. L'école et en particulier les
enseignants doivent rendre possible le développement de ces règles de base.
L'apprentissage collaboratif est, en substance, le processus de l'apprentissage dans un groupe
ou une communauté. Mais pour être en mesure de gérer et de diriger l'équipe dans
l'apprentissage, les enseignants doivent avoir une connaissance globale.
La nouvelle école exige que ses dirigeants sont capable de s’organiser, de rencontrer et de
coordonner les opérations de l'équipe d'enseignants dans les écoles pour créer une
communauté d'apprentissage qui assure le développement continu de ses membres et donc de
l'institution.
Communautés virtuelles d'apprentissage
Ensuite, nous pouvons définir une communauté virtuelle comme un espace de convergence
d'intérêts, dans laquelle la participation de ses membres à des actes de partage, la résolution
de problèmes et la construction de la connaissance, conduisant ainsi à la compréhension de la
communauté dans un processus de participation dans les pratiques culturelles communes. Ainsi,
la participation est une condition nécessaire pour la réalisation de l'apprentissage au sein de la
communauté.
Les formes de la participation exigent une conception d'une langue, des objectifs communs et
de pratiques, visant à partager des expériences, des techniques et des stratégies. La flexibilité
dans le temps et les modalités d'entrée, où les possibilités de formation et d'éducation sont les
principaux aspects du modèle qui se développe dans le réseau, comme une zone d'approche et
de la formation de nouveaux liens entre les personnes et entre les contextes d'apprentissage.
Ces environnements virtuels d'apprentissage, de créer la possibilité du développement cognitif
et les interactions sociales qui sont organisées autour des activités et des contextes, joue un
rôle de modèle de plus en plus important à la compréhension des processus de relaxation de
l'éducation et de formation pour les Société de la Connaissance.
Toutefois, pour tout apprentissage en collaboration est nécessaire la médiation de la
technologie et de l'interaction des processus de collaboration, ou doit être organisé autour des
objectifs, les antécédents et les activités d'apprentissage collaboratif, la médiation de l'être en
mesure de développer le partage d'objets d'étude dans la communauté. Grâce à la médiation
de collaboration de la communauté virtuelle d'apprentissage aube des activités individuelles et
de groupe dans la représentation des connaissances distribuées. C'est à travers le
développement des connaissances distribuées qui peuvent déterminer la durabilité et le cycle de
vie de ces communautés.
La dilution de la distance par un moyen d'ouverture et de promotion de l'accès et la
participation à des activités communautaires. Toutefois, il existe trois formes de la distance
géographique, technologique et social.
155
Étude
Au Portugal, l'utilisation des nouvelles technologies dans le programme de l'éducation fait partie
de l'actuel gouvernement, étant donné que tous les étudiants ont accès aux ordinateurs
portables et l'Internet. Aujourd'hui, les étudiants du premier cycle de l'enseignement de base
(de la première à la quatrième année) ont accès à un petit ordinateur portable appelé le
"Magalhães". Cet ordinateur portable utilise les programmes de Microsoft et de certains logiciels
éducatifs à la substance d'être acquise par les étudiants pour l'utilisation en classe.
Pour les autres niveaux d'enseignement, les étudiants ont accès à un ordinateur portable avec
accès à Internet, à un prix symbolique.
L'étude que je présente a eu lieu à école secondaire de Caldas Taipas – Guimarães – Portugal et
fera rapport sur les données recueillies par les enseignants.
L'école a 1.111 élèves, répartis en cours de professionnels; technologie; et des généralistes des
sciences et technologie. Les cours de technologie sont presque fini, avec seulement la douzième
année. Ils sont les suivants: Cours technologique d'Informatique, cours de technologique de
l'administration et le cours technologique de l'action sociale. Les cours de formation a débuté à
l'année précédente, ne fonctionne que dans les dixièmes et onzièmes années. Ils sont: Cours
professionnels des ventes techniques ; le cours professionnels de l'animation socio culturelle ;
les cours professionnels de support technique aux enfants; le cours professionnelle informatique
et gestion ; les cours professionnels de la gestion ; et le cours professionnel de thermalisme. Le
cours scientifique humaniste sont: la science et la technologie ; les sciences socioéconomiques ; et les sciences sociales et humaines.
Il y a 104 professeurs avec un contrat définitif et une trentaine d'enseignants recrutés pour
enseigner dans l'école cette année. Cette école sera soumise aux travaux de restructuration
pour l'année prochaine, mais dispose actuellement de trois salles avec une quinzaine
d’ordinateurs et connexion à l’Internet, des tableaux interactifs et imprimante à laser. Il existe
également des vingt-cinq ordinateurs portables avec connexion wi-fi à l'Internet, les
enseignants et les étudiants peuvent les demandes. Une troisième partie des salles standard
ont tableaux interactifs pour la connexion au portable. Dans la salle des enseignants il y a 20
ordinateurs avec accès à l’Internet et d'imprimantes dans la bibliothèque et il y a aussi cinq
ordinateurs avec accès à l’Internet, imprimante et scanner.
J’ai appliqué un questionnaire à toutes les professeurs mais seulement 99 mon répondu. Il y a
46 mâles et 53 femelles. L'âge des enseignants sont répartis comme suit: 15 âgés entre 26 et
30 ans, 13 âgées entre 31 et 35 ans, 20 âgées entre 36 et 40 ans, 45 âgées entre 41 et 50 ans,
et 6 ont plus de 50 ans. Pour les années de service, nous avons: 18 ont moins de cinq années
de service, 15 ont plus de cinq ans et le maximum dix ans de service; 18 ont plus de dix et
maximum quinze ans de services ; 24 ont plus de quinze et maximum vingt ans ; 24 ont plus de
vingt ans de service. Pour la formation, nous avons 68 enseignants avec un diplôme
universitaire, 19 avec un post-diplôme, 11 avec des maîtrises et un avec doctorat.
156
157
Moodle
Cette école a été l’une des premières écoles à participer au projet qui a commencé en 2005, par le
professeur Americo Costa, qui avec beaucoup d'engagement et de dévouement embrasse ce projet.
Ce professeur est un professeur d'histoire, qui avec sa curiosité et l'aide d'un professeur
d'informatique, Francisco Araujo, a développé ce projet.
Actuellement, tous les enseignants et les étudiants sont inscrits dans la plate-forme. Toutefois, il
existe toujours un nombre relatif d'enseignants qui résistent à cette innovation et la consulte très
sporadiquement. Une autre série d'enseignants seulement l’utilise par partager des ressources avec
leurs élèves. Le numéro d'accès a augmenté, et il a été constaté, en moyenne, un accès quotidien à
150 utilisateurs. Cependant, il y a des pics, qui coïncident avec le lancement de la note à la fin de
chaque période, puisque les étudiants ont accès à leurs notes dans la plate-forme. Également en
période de test, les étudiants tirent les informations disponibilité par les enseignants.
Au niveau de la gestion de toute l'actualité des nouvelles règles, de nouvelles informations et des
activités pour les enseignants sont disponibles en ligne. Il n'est plus nécessaire, par exemple, fournir
un rapport sur toute question sur le papier, l'enseignant est tenu de transmettre à la plate-forme que
son rapport sur la question. Il s'agit d'un impact important et positif dans la réduction de la
consommation fondamentalement.
Gato
L'outil « Gato>» (Activités de gestion des TIC dans l'éducation) a pour but faciliter l'organisation, la
planification et la gestion de projet pour l'application des TIC dans l'éducation. Toute école avec accès
à l’Internet, indépendamment de leurs ressources humaines et matérielles peuvent utiliser
l'application pour la planification et l'évaluation des activités, la gestion des ressources, la publication
de documents, etc.
Les objectifs de ce projet est de: promouvoir la bonne mise en œuvre de projets pour l'application
des TIC à l'éducation, en fournissant des solutions technologiques pour soutenir le fonctionnement de
ces projets, y compris le niveau de la planification des activités, la gestion des ressources et
d'évaluation, fournissant un outil de communication et de le travail coopératif pour les étudiants et les
enseignants, d'enquêter et de réfléchir sur l'impact réel de l'informatisation des écoles, en coopération
avec les institutions d'études supérieures dans les données recueillies et à promouvoir sa publication.
Toutes les données enregistrées dans la base de données de mai de chaque école à la coordination
efficace de son contenu. Il est attribué à chaque compte d'utilisateur d'une école de niveau
administrateur qui permet de configurer les données qui permettent aux assistants de l'adaptabilité
de l'application à la réalité de l'école (temps scolaire, les noms des laboratoires, des années de la
scolarité, classes, etc.) Et maintenir ses comptes des utilisateurs.
Chaque école dispose d'un ensemble de comptes d'utilisateurs qui sont reliés aux différents niveaux
d'accès. Le nom d'utilisateur et le mot-clé après la validation d'outils permettant l'accès à la diversité.
Go - La mobilité dans l'éducation
La miniaturisation de la technologie, et de la révolution au niveau de la connectivité, nous permet
d'avoir un petit matériel (PDA, Téléphones 3G, iPod ...) un ensemble de fonctionnalités de l'ordinateur
(y compris la lecture de fichiers communs, et la mise en œuvre de programmes l'accès à Internet)
des dispositifs de capture d'images et de vidéo, de communications (téléphone et Internet) et les
systèmes de satellites geo-positionnement des systèmes mondiaux de localisation (GPS).
Avec la miniaturisation de l'équipement et la démocratisation de l'accès à ceux-ci, il y a une forte
augmentation de la fourniture d'informations et de services pour ces dispositifs ou de l'Internet ou au
niveau de la télévision et les médias en général.
Web 2.0
© Copyright EIfEL
Conclusion
Les TIC offrent de nouvelles possibilités pour les enseignants de consacrer plus de temps pour
préparer les activités, le soutien à des étudiants et l'évaluation, de réduire le poids de la répétition
des leçons et les tâches administratives. Mais, pour les maintenir car les utilisateurs des TIC, compte
tenu de l'avancement rapide de ceux-ci devront faire un effort personnel pour investir dans
l'autoformation. La manière d'aider les enseignants dans ce processus est de construire des réseaux
locaux, nationaux permettant l'échange d'expériences et le partage des meilleures pratiques.
L'Internet est l'un des privilégiés pour aller à la découverte et à établir des ponts avec la communauté
éducative internationale.
References
ALCÂNTARA, P.R. (2003). Modificando a atuação docente utilizando a colaboração. Revista Diálogo
Essencial, Curitiva, v.4, nº8, p. 57-69, Jan/Abr.
ARAÚJO, H. S.; QUEIROZ, V. (2004). Aprendizagem Cooperativa e Colaborativa. S. Paulo/ Brasília,
Brasil. http://www.studygs.net/portuges/cooplearn.htm (acedido em 3 de Julho de 2008).
CAMPOS, F. et al. (2003). Cooperação e aprendizagem on-line. Rio de Janeiro.
CLOUTIER, J. A era de emerec ou a comunicação áudio-scripto-visual na hora dos self-media. In
Ministério da Educação e Investigação Científica do Instituto de Tecnologia Educativa. Lisboa, pp 159.
COSTA, F. A. (2007). Tendências e práticas de investigação na área das Tecnologias em Educação em
Portugal. In A. Estrela (ed.), Investigação em Educação. Teorias e Práticas (1960 – 2005). Lisboa:
Educa & Ui&dCE, pp. 169-224.
COSTA, F. A. ; PERALTA, H. ;VISEU, S.(2007). As TIC na Educação em Portugal – Concepções e
Prácticas. Porto Editora, 2007.
159
CUBAN, L. (2001). Oversold and Underused. Computers in the classroom [versão electrónica].
London: Havard University Press.
DE CORTE, E. (1996). Aprendizaje apoyado en el computador: una perspective a partir de
investigación acerca del aprendizaje y la instrucción. Comunicação apresentada na RIBIE, Colombia.
DIAS, P. (2004). Processos de Aprendizagem Colaborativa nas comunidades online. In Ana Augusta
da Silva Dias e Maria João Gomes (coords.), E-learning para E-Formadores. Guimarães: TecMinho /
Gabinete de Formação Contínua, Universidade do Minho.
JONASSEN, D. (1998). O Uso das Novas Tecnologias na Educação à Distância e a Aprendizagem
Constructivista. Em Aberto: educação à Distância, 16(70), 70-78.
JONASSEN, D. (2000). Computers as mindtools for schools: engaging critical thinking 2nd. Upper
Saddle River, N.J.: Merrill [trad. Portuguesa: Computadores, Ferramentas Cognitivas: Desenvolver o
pensamento crítico das escolas. Porto Editora, 2007.
LAVE, J.; WENGER, E. (1995), Situated Learning, Legitimate peripheral participation.
Cambridge University Press.
Cambridge:
MARQUES, Teresa Sá; OLIVEIRA, Pedro Guedes de; CASTRO, Eduardo Anselmo. As TIC para um país
competente. Universidade do Porto; Universidade de Aveiro; INESC Porto, Outubro de 2005.
PAPERT, S. (1994). A Máquina das Crianças: repensando a escola na era da informática. Porto Alegre:
Artes Médicas.
PAPERT, S. (1997). A Família em Rede. Lisboa: Relógio d’Água.
PAPERT, S. (2000).Change and resistance to change in education. Taking a deeper look at why Scool
hasn’t changed. In A. D. de Carvalho (ed.), Novo conhecimento. Nova aprendizagem. Lisboa:
Fundação Calouste Gulbienkian, pp. 61-70.
PAPERT, S.; CAPERTON, G. (1999). Vision for Education: The Caperton-Papert Platform. This essay
was written for the 91st annual National Governors’ Association meeting held in St. Louis, Missouri in
August of 1999. (Consultado em Maio de 2008, em http://www.papert.org/articles/
Vision_for_education.html).
PRADO, M. E. B. B.; VALENTE, J. A. A. Educação a distância possibilitando a formação do professor
com base no ciclo da prática pedagógica. In: MORAES, M. C. Educação a distância: fundamentos e
práticas. Campinas: Unicamp/NIED, 2002.
RHEINGOLD, H. (2000). The Virtual Community: Homestanding on the Electronic Frontier. Cambridge:
MIT Press.
SALOMON, G. (2002). Technology and Pedagogy: Why Don’t We See the Promised Revolution?
Educational and Technology, 71-75.
SCHIWER, R. (2002).Shaping the metaphor of community in online learning environment. Paper
presented to International Symposium on Educational Conferencing. The Banff Centre, Banff, Alberta,
June 1, 2002 http://cde.athabascau.ca/ISEC2002/papers/schwier.pdf (access in 23-06-2008).
SIQUEIRA, L. M. M. (2003). A Metodologia de Aprendizagem Colaborativa no Programa de
Electricidade no Curso de Engenharia Elétrica. Dissertação de Mestrado.
TAIPAS, E. S. C. (2008). O que vamos fazer com as Novas Tecnologias – Moodle. Jornal O Trigal.
N.º29, p. 4-5.
Dalila Alves Durães –
Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad de Granada, Espanha
Telefono: +351 939312578, E-mail: [email protected]
160
CRÉER DES PROGRAMMES DE FORMATION POUR LES 5 CONTINENTS :
ENJEUX, CONTRAINTES ET MEILLEURES PRATIQUES
Dominique Trouche, Morgan Riou - WhP International SAS, France
Abstract
Avec la globalisation des échanges au niveau européen et mondial, avec la tendance de rachat-fusionacquisition, avec l'émergence de nouveaux pays sur le marché mondial, avec les délocalisations, les
grandes groupes internationaux sont amenés à gérer un personnel de plus en plus nombreux et
réparti sur plusieurs continents.
Les responsables formation doivent alors faire face à des besoins nouveaux : concevoir rapidement
des programmes de formation adaptés aux besoins de chaque filiale, tout en tenant compte des
particularités locales afin les déployer de manière globale et rapide.
Aujourd'hui, le déploiement d’un programme de formation s’inscrit pleinement dans la stratégie
globale de l'entreprise. Ces formations à l'international sont souvent la conséquence d'un lancement
d'un nouveau produit à l'échelle mondiale, de nouvelles recrues, des performances de l’entreprise,
etc.…
L’enjeu est donc important et la connaissance de tous les aspects de déploiement de formation à
l'international doit être maitrisé afin de garantir à tous les apprenants une formation répondant à
leurs besoins et ainsi de renforcer l’image de l’entreprise à l’étranger : la formation accompagne
l’évolution de l’entreprise elle-même.
Parallèlement pour répondre à des contraintes budgétaires de plus en plus fortes, les traditionnels
cours de formation présentiels sont peu à peu complétés voire substitués par de l’autoformation et en
particulier le e-learning qui est la solution plébiscitée par les grandes entreprises internationales
aujourd’hui.
Les formations e-learning répondent en effet aux exigences des formations : grâce à l’application des
nouvelles technologies de l’information et de la communication, l’apprentissage à distance n’a plus de
frontière, est rapide, efficace, souple et économique.
Comment met-on en place des programmes de formation voués à être déployés internationalement ?
Comment valoriser cet investissement formation à l’échelle internationale dès le début ? Quelles sont
les contraintes à prendre en compte lors de la création du contenu pédagogique ? Peut-on facilement
« localiser » un module e-learning contenant des animations, des quizz, des enregistrements de voix
ou des séquences vidéo? Comment définir le niveau d'adaptation en fonction du pays ? Quel est le
rôle de la gestion de terminologie multilingue dans un déploiement de formation ? Quelles erreurs
sont à éviter pour ne pas dépasser le budget et respecter les délais ?
Lors de cette présentation, Dominique Trouche, président de WHP INTERNATIONAL, première
entreprise française de localisation et leader dans le déploiement de solutions e-learning mettra en
avant les bonnes pratiques pour concevoir des programmes de formation plus localisables.
Tout d'abord, l'accent sera mis sur l'importance de prendre en compte, le plus tôt possible, les
contraintes d’une formation vouée à être déployée sur les cinq continents. Plus les différents
intervenants seront sensibilisés aux enjeux de la localisation, plus les contraintes spécifiques sont
évoquées tôt dans le processus, c'est-à-dire dès la création du contenu pédagogique et la conception
du programme, plus le déploiement à l'international de cette formation en sera facilité.
Ensuite, les contraintes les plus essentielles, quelles soient technologiques (utilisation de fichiers
Flash, XML, MP3, HTML,...), culturelles (noms des personnages, des lieux…) ou linguistiques
(terminologie à utiliser, définition du style de langage écrit et oral) seront largement évoquées afin de
répondre aux exigences qualitatives, linguistiques, techniques et culturelles.
161
Enfin, cette présentation vous amènera à réfléchir sur des questions de coût, de délais et de qualité.
Tout au long de cette présentation, ces propos seront illustrés par des exemples concrets, qui
permettront aux responsables et aux concepteurs formation de se poser les bonnes questions et
d'effectuer des choix éclairés en fonction des réels besoins de leur entreprise.
162

ILF09 - Proceedings

Transcription

Documents pareils

Postcoïtum - LearningToBeMe.org

Individualisation de la formation

Tips for Learning French (written in English, then in French) By

Funny Learning ! La révolution pédagogique par les neurosciences

Evènements incontournables de la formation et du

Learning complex information and 3D objects with animations: Effect

APPREnTiSSAgE SOCiAL ET COMMUnAUTÉ D`APPREnTiSSAgE

Our Preschool We Love What We Do

Apprentissage automatique

French Immersion Weekend flyer - aatf