Passive possession in Oceanic
Transcription
Passive possession in Oceanic
Passive possession in Oceanic Bill Palmer Surrey Morphology Group University of Surrey [email protected] Presented at LAGB 2006 University of Newcastle This paper was prepared with support from UK Arts and Humanities Research Council grant APN19365. This support is gratefully acknowledged. 1. Possession in Oceanic Possessor-indexing constructions: direct vs indirect. Standard Fijian: (1) a. ulu-gu head-1SGP ‘my head’ b. no-gu Bale GENPOSS-1SGP house ‘my house’ Indirect possessor-indexing hosts: Standard Fijian: (2) a. no-gu Bale GENPOSS-1SGP house ‘my house’ b. ke-gu uBi FOOD-1SGP yam ‘my yam (to eat)’ c. me-gu yagona DRINK-1SGP kava ‘my kava (to drink)’ ‘Relational classifiers’: The hosts classify: - the relation that holds between possessor and possessum (Lichtenberk 1983a, 1985), - not the possessum noun. Standard Fijian: (3) a. no-gu niu GENPOSS-1SGP coconut ‘my coconut (to sell)’ b. ke-gu niu FOOD-1SGP coconut ‘my coconut (to eat)’ c. me-gu niu DRINK-1SGP coconut ‘my coconut (to drink)’ Indirect possessor-indexing hosts: Oceanic languages vary in number of possessorindexing hosts. Standard Fijian has three: • ke- items eaten • me- items drunk • no- relations with items not eligible for direct marking or for ke- or me- marking (residual). Many Oceanic languages have two indirect possessorindexing hosts, one for items eaten or drunk, and one for residual items: Kokota: (4) a. b. c. no-gu suga GENPOSS-1SGP house ‘my house’ (Palmer 1999:141) ƒe-mai tege CONSM-1EXCP turtle ‘our turtles (to eat)’ (Palmer 1999:131) ƒe-gu bia are CONSM-1SGP beer those ‘my beers (to drink)’ (Palmer 1999:131) Some Oceanic languages have one invariant indirect possessor-indexing host: Yapese: (5) a. b. c. waay roo-k’ tmg basket POSS-1SGP PN ‘Tamag’s basket’ (Jensen1977a:245) ææ ggn roo-k’ ART food POSS-3SGP ‘its food’ (Anon 1999:G13) ææ raan roo-k’ ART water POSS-3SGP ‘his water (to drink)’ Some have more than three hosts: Paamese: (6) a. b. c. d. ani one-n coconut GENPOSS-3SGP ‘his/her coconut (to use)’ (Crowley 1996:388) ani aa-n coconut FOOD-3SGP ‘his/her coconut (to eat)’ (Crowley 1996:388) ani emo-n coconut DRINK-3SGP ‘his/her coconut (to drink)’ (Crowley 1996:388) ani ese-n coconut DOMESTICATED-3SGP ‘his/her coconut (growing on his/her land)’ (Crowley 1996:388) Some Oceanic languages have a large number of possessor-indexing hosts forming a true classifier system: - St Matthias group - most Micronesian - most New Caledonian Canonical semantic function of possessor-indexing strategies: • Direct: canonical inalienable relations (most body parts, some kin). • Indirect with FOOD host: items eaten. • Indirect with DRINK host: items drunk. • Indirect with CONSUMABLE host: items eaten or drunk. • Indirect with GENPOSS host: default category. Non-canonical semantic functions. In some languages a FOOD or CONSUMABLE host occurs with semantically non-canonical relations: Standard Fijian: (7) a. ke-na malumu FOOD-3SGP club ‘his club (he will be killed with)’ b. ke-na vosa FOOD-3SGP speech ‘his talk (ie. talk about him)’ c. ke-na FOOD-3SGP ‘his size’ levu big This has been called ‘subordinate possession’. (Pawley 1973:162-163; Lichtenberk 1985:106-107) the possessor has no control (…he is the patient, target or involuntary experiencer) (Pawley 1973:162) Pawley and Lichtenberk both note that ‘subordinate possession’ marking may also occur with “intimate property”. (See also Lynch 1973:92-96) It has also been called ‘passive possession’. (Lynch 1996, 2001) ‘Passive possession’ excludes possession of characteristics and intimate items. (Lynch 2001:205-208) Lynch (2001:195) defines passive possession as: • possession by the logical object of a nominalised verb (‘my being hit’); • possession of nouns referring to things: – done to or about the possessor (‘my wound (I received)’; ‘her story (told about her)’); – precipitating suffering on the part of the possessor (enemies; weapons used on the possessor); – seen as ‘suffered’ by the possessor (parasites, disadvantage etc.). Existing claim: Oceanic languages mark ‘passive possession’ with one of two strategies (Lichtenberk 1985:119; Lynch 1996:99-101; Lynch 2001:196-205): • a FOOD or CONSUMABLE host; or • direct possessor-indexing. Direct marking of ‘passive possession’: Gela: (8) na tutugu-gu ART story-1SGP ‘my story (told about me)’ (Lynch 2001:201) udi tanom-a-di banana plant-NOM-3PLP ‘the planting of the bananas’ (Lynch 2001:200) Manam: (9) But… there’s a pattern in the data: A FOOD/CONSUMABLE host occurs where the possessum is: • a noun referring to entities or items that act on, are used against, or affect the possessor, typically negatively; • a noun referring to entities in a relationship over which the possessor has no control. Direct possessor-indexing occurs where the possessum is: • a noun referring to pictures, stories, songs etc about the possessor; • a nominalised verb. Palmer (2006) hypothesises: • undergoer and subject matter possessors can be treated differently; • undergoer possessors are typically indexed in the same way as possessors of items eaten; • subject matter possessors are typically indexed in the same way as possessors in inalienable relations, but can be indexed in the same way as possessors of items eaten; • nominalised verbs may be possessor-indexed differently to underived nouns. This splits one of Lynch’s definitional types: • possession of nouns referring to things done to or about the possessor I propose the following narrower definition of passive possession: the distinctive formal treatment of possessum-possessor relations in which: a) the possessum acts on or directly affects the possessor; or b) the possessor has no control over the fact of the relation. Relations where the possessor is the subject matter of the possessum do not represent passive possession, but a separate semantic relation. Palmer (2006) surveyed 7 genetically and areally dispersed Oceanic languages to test these hypotheses and an earlier version of this definition. Here I extend the survey to 22 languages and investigate the phenomena in greater depth. I survey possessor-indexing with four types of semantic relation between possessor and possessum: • passive possession as defined here; • possession of intimate items; • possession of characteristics; • possession by subject matter. Only underived nouns are surveyed. Palmer (2006) also surveyed possessor-indexing of nominalised verbs, finding that nominalised verbs follow a distinct pattern to that found with underived nouns. For reasons of time nominalised verbs are excluded from the present paper. The languages surveyed are: Yapese (isolate) Loniu (Admiralties) Mussau (St Matthias) Manam (Western Oceanic, North New Guinea) Mangap-Mbula (Western Oceanic, North New Guinea) Keapara (Aroma dialect) (Western Oceanic, Papuan Tip) Gapapaiwa (Western Oceanic, Papuan Tip) Motu (Western Oceanic, Papuan Tip) Kiriwina (Kilivila dialect) (Western Oceanic, Papuan Tip) Kuanua (Tolai) (Western Oceanic, Meso-Melanesian) Kokota (Western Oceanic, Meso-Melanesian) Gela (Southeast Solmonic) Arosi (Southeast Solmonic) Paamese (Southern Oceanic) Lewo (Southern Oceanic) Iaai (Southern Oceanic) Ponapean (Micronesian) Puluwat (Micronesian) Kiribati (Micronesian) Eastern Fijian (Standard Fijian dialect) (Central Pacific, Fijian) Eastern Fijian (Lauan dialect) (Central Pacific, Fijian) Western Fijian (Nadrogā dialect) (Central Pacific, Fijian) 2. Passive possession Passive possession with FOOD or CONSUMABLE host Instruments used on the possessor: Standard Fijian: (10)a. ke-nai wau b. no-nai wau FOOD-3SGP club GENP-3SGP club ‘his club (he will be killed with)’ ‘his club (he possesses)’ (Schütz 1985:460) c. ke-na dali d. no-na dali FOOD-3SGP rope GENP-3SGP rope ‘his rope (to be used on him, ‘his rope (owned by him)’ eg. for binding or strangling him)’ (Lichtenberk 1985:109) e. ke-mu bai f. no-mu bai FOOD-2SGP enclosure GENP-2SGP enclosure ‘your enclosure (you are kept in)’ ‘your enclosure (you own)’ (Geraghty p.c.) nraunikau nraunikau h. no-na g. ke-na FOOD-3SGP witchcraft GENP-3SGP witchcraft ‘his witchcraft (used against him)’ ‘his witchcraft (he makes)’ (Geraghty p.c.) (Pawley 1973:159) Paamese: (11)a. aai aa-n wood FOOD-3SGP ‘his stick (he will be hit with)’ b. aai ona-n wood GENP-3SGP ‘his stick (he will hit s.o. with)’ (Crowley 1982:216) c. voolet aa-m bullet FOOD-2SGP ‘your bullet (you will be shot with)’ b. e. (Crowley 1982:221) aa-m sitrav FOOD-2SGP belt ‘your belt (you will be strapped with)’ (Crowley 1982:216) siiho aa-m mask FOOD-2SGP ‘your mask (I will frighten you with)’ (Crowley 1982:217) Tolai: (12) a. ra-na ram FOOD-3SGP club ‘its (the pig’s) club (they hit it with)’ (Mosel 1984:38) c. ra-na kankan FOOD-3SGP anger ‘[their] anger towards him’ (Mosel 1984:38) “Unfortunate” (potentially dangerous) personal relationships: Mangap-Mbula: (13)a. ko-ŋ koi bizin CONSM-1SGP enemy PL ‘my enemies’ b. toro-ŋ close.associate-1SGP ‘my close associate’ (Bugenhagen 1995:102) c. ka moori d. kusi-ni CONSM.3SGP woman spouse-3SGP ‘his mistress’ ‘his wife’ (Bugenhagen 1995:102) (Bugenhagen 1995:93) Other possessums negatively affecting possessor: Mangap-Mbula: (14) ko-ŋ miaŋ CONSM-1SGP shame ‘my shame’ (Bugenhagen 1995:98) Paamese: (15) ipu aa-m loss FOOD-2SGP ‘your loss/disadvantage (playing a game)’ (Crowley 1982:217) Gela: na vahagi (16)a. a-dira CONSM-3PLP ART sickness ‘their sicknesses’ b. a-dira na mate na ART CONSM-3PLP ART death ‘their deaths’ (Ivens 1937:1092) (Ivens 1937:1092) Possessums making possessor ‘who they are’: Gela: a-gua na tutugu b. na tutugu-gu (17)a. na ART CONSM-1SGP ART story ART story-1SGP ‘my traditional story (I respect about ‘my story (about me)’ myself or my lineage, or which tells how we got to be where we are today)’ (Crowley 2002:531) c. a-gua na tidalo na ART CONSM-1SGP ART ancestral.spirit ‘my ancestral spirit’ (Crowley 2002:531) Relationships beyond control of human possessors: Paamese: (18) ahol aa-m intended.spouse FOOD-2SGP ‘your intended spouse (reserved for you at birth)’ (Crowley 1982:217) Gela: (19) a-na kema na ART CONSM-3PLP clan ‘his clan’ (Codrington 1885:259 ) ka-miu lita FOOD-2SGP leader ‘your leader’ (Early 1994:277 ) Lewo: (20) Relationships beyond control of non-human or inanimate possessor: Mangap-Mbula: (21)a. man ko-n ruumu bird CONSM-3PLP house ‘a house for the chickens’ (Bugenhagen 1995:154) c. b. le-ŋ ruumu GENPOSS-1SGP house ‘my house’ (Bugenhagen 1995:380) zin moori kar ka-n they woman village CONSM-3PLP ‘the women of the village’ (Bugenhagen 1995:136) Lewo: (22) ka-na yaru FOOD-3SGP man ‘its (the bulldozer’s) operator, driver, expert user’ (Early 1994:211) Alienable parts of inanimate wholes: Mangap-Mbula: (23)a. ruumu ka kitiibi house CONSM.3SGP post ‘house posts’ (Bugenhagen 1995:100) c. woogo ka saama canoe CONSM.3SGP outrigger ‘outrigger of a canoe’ b. ke zoŋo-ono tree fork-3SGP ‘fork of a tree’ (Bugenhagen 1995:94) (Bugenhagen 1995:100) Lewo: (24)a. ka-na wi FOOD-3SGP water ‘its (the battery’s) water’ c. d. wi b. ma-na DRINK-3SGP water ‘her (drinking) water’ (Early 1994:214) ka-na kausu FOOD-3SGP washer ‘its (the tap’s) washer’ (Lynch 2001:206) ka-na wil FOOD-3SGP wheel ‘its (the truck’s) wheel’ (Early 1994:292) Passive possession with ‘semi-consumable’ host ‘Semi-consumable’ possessor-indexing host in Kilivila: Kilivila: (25)a. a-gu tetu SEMICONSM-1SGP yam ‘my yams (plants in garden)’ c. d. b. ka-gu tetu CONSM-1SGP yam ‘my yams (to eat)’ (Senft 1986:53) a-gu kwabila SEMICONSM-1SGP large.garden.plot ‘my large garden plot’ (Senft 1986:298) a-gu tobaki e. ula tobaki SEMICONSM-1SGP tobacco GP.1SGP tobacco ‘my tobacco (I intend to smoke)’ ‘my tobacco (I will give away)’ (Senft 1986:50) ‘Semi-consumable’ host with physical and psychological states: Kilivila: (26)a. a-gu daka SEMICONSM-1SGP dryness ‘my thirst’ (Senft 1986:53) c. b. daka-la dryness-3SGP ‘it’s dryness’ (Senft 1986:212) e-geda [a-la leya] 3SGS-bite SEMICONSM-3SGP anger ‘He is very angry.’ (lit. ‘His anger bites him.’) (Senft 1986:113, 307) ‘Semi-consumable’ host with inheritance and uncontrolled relationships: Kilivila: (27)a. a-gu kwabu SEMICONSM-1SGP heritage ‘my inheritance, my heritage’ b. a-gu kumila SEMICONSM-1SGP clan ‘my clan’ (Senft 1986:298) (Senft 1986:51) Indirect PART and passive possession Indirect PART possessor-indexing host in Nadrogā: Nadrogā: (28) e-ru duku ulu PART-3PLP each head ‘their respective heads’ (Geraghty 2000:245) PART host with passive possession in Nadrogā: Nadrogā: (29)a. mu haa b. le-mu haa PART.2SGP spear GENPOSS-2SGP spear ‘your spear (to spear you with)’ ‘your spear (you own)’ (Geraghty p.c.) c. e baa PART.3SGP sickness ‘his sickness (he is suffering from)’ d. le-a baa GENPOSS-3SGP sickness ‘his sickness (he is expert at curing)’ (Geraghty p.c.) Passive possession with dedicated classifier Dedicated passive possessor-indexing classifier host in Iaai: Iaai: (30)a. nçç-n ykyc b. dçç-n spear PASS-3SGP fight POINT-3SGP spear ‘spear for fighting’ ‘his/her spear’ (Ozanne-Rivierre 1984:61) (Ozanne-Rivierre 1984:97) c. y i nçç-n wia kçnç thing PASS-3SGP turn.over ground ‘plough’ (lit. ‘thing for turning over ground’) (Ozanne-Rivierre 1984:61) d. ke aat i baate-n nçç-n he ka haduç ART man LOC side-3SGP PASS-3SGP go PURP help ‘someone there at hand to assist’ (Tryon 1968:123) Passive possession unmarked No formally distinct category of passive possession: Lauan: (31) a o-na dali ART GENPOSS-3SGP rope ‘the rope he uses, owns, is tied up with’ (Geraghty p.c.) Aroma: (32) ƒe-ku ƒiro GENPOSS-1SGP axe ‘my axe (I own or will be used on me)’ (Craig p.c.) Direct marking of passive possession? Direct intimate or passive in Tolai? (33)a. tika-na-marua-gu some-C-firewood-1SGP ‘some firewood to warm me’ b. (Mosel 1984:44) ra pulpul-i tura-na ART parcel-POSS brother-3SGP ‘his brother’s parcel (into which he has been wrapped)’ (Mosel 1984:45) Directly marked passive possession in Kiribati? Indirectly possessor-indexed kai = ‘victory’: Kiribati: (34)a. e a toka a-u kai 3SGS PRF get.on POSS-1SGP victory/defeat ‘I am victorious.’ (lit. ‘My victory has risen.’) (Sabatier 1971:138) b. e tae a-na kai 3SGS get.off POSS-3SGP victory/defeat ‘He is beaten.’ (lit. ‘His victory has gone down.’) (Sabatier 1971:339) Directly possessor-indexed kai = ‘defeat’: Kiribati: (35)a. e a toka kai-u 3SGS PRF get.on victory/defeat-1SGP ‘I am punished.’ (lit. ‘My defeat has risen.’) (Sabatier 1971:138) b. e maoto kai-u 3SGS break victory/defeat-1SGP ‘I got my revenge.’ (lit. ‘My defeat has broken.’) (Sabatier 1971:138) Passive possession summary Table 1: Passive possession marking indexing Yapese unmarked Loniu ?unmarked Mussau FOOD Manam unmarked MangapMbula CONSUMABLE Aroma unmarked attested inclusions instruments used on possessor ‘unfortunate’ personal relationships, shame, alienable items with nonhuman possessors, parts of manufactured items Gapapaiwa CONSUMABLE sickness Motu CONSUMABLE enemies, generation Kilivila ‘semiconsumable’ physical and emotional states (typically negative), clans and heritage Tolai CONSUMABLE/ instruments used on possessor, negative emotions directed at possessor / ?direct firewood warming possessor, parcel possessor wrapped in Kokota unmarked indexing attested inclusions Gela CONSUMABLE enemies, danger, sickness, death, ancestral spirits and legends, clans, individuals in uncontrolled relationship with possessor Arosi CONSUMABLE instruments used on possessor Paamese FOOD instruments used on possessor, defeat, spouse assigned to possessor Lewo FOOD individuals in uncontrolled relationship with possessor, alienable items with nonhuman possessors, parts of manufactured artefacts Iaai dedicated classifier Instruments and agents effecting possessor predicate Kiribati unmarked/?direct ?defeat suffered by possessor Ponapean ?unmarked Puluwat ?unmarked Standard Fijian FOOD Lauan unmarked Nadrogā PART enemies, instruments used on possessor, alienable items with inanimate possessors, parts of manufactured items instruments used on possessor, sickness 3. Intimate possession Intimate possession with direct possessor-indexing Traditional clothing when worn: Manam: (36)a. baligo-gu grass.skirt-1SGP ‘my grass skirt (when worn)’ b. baligo ne-gu grass.skirt GENPOSS-1SGP ‘my grass skirt (when not worn)’ (Lichtenberk 1983b:301) Paamese: (37) tinivuse-n penis.sheath-3SGP ‘his penis sheath’ (Crowley 1996:412) Possessions in close contact with the possessor’s body: Arosi: (38) beŋa-mu bed-2SGP ‘your bed, your sleeping place’ (Capell 1971:58) Puluwat: (39)a. pro-y box-1SGP ‘my coffin’ c. rani-y water-1SGP ‘my bath water’ b. yææ-y pr GENPOSS-1SGP box ‘my box’ (Elbert 1974:62) raan d. wnmæ-y DRINK-1SGP water ‘my drinking water’ (Elbert 1974:62) Possessions an integral part of the possessor’s daily domestic life: Iaai: (40) aabaa-n home-3SGP ‘his/her residence’ (Ozanne-Rivierre 1976:103) Yapese: (41) fea-n possessions-3SGP ‘his possessions, his belongings, his personal property’ (Jensen 1977b:18) Loniu: b. um a yo (42)a. umw-w house-1SGP house LOC I ‘my house’ (family holding) ‘my house’ (residence) (Hamel 1994:48) c. khna u land weDLEXC ‘our land holding’ d. k a u land LOC weDLEXC ‘our land’ (Hamel 1994:49) e. tElE-m canoe-2SGP ‘your canoe’ (Hamel 1994:49) f. tun a su/u canoe LOC they ‘their canoe’ (Hamel 1994:50) e. tapwa-m basket-2SGP ‘your basket’ a ww h. tp basket LOC youSG ‘your basket (Hamel 1994:20) Intimate possession with CONSUMABLE host Gapapaiwa: (43)a. ka-na gara CONSM-1SGP clothing ‘her clothing (to wear)’ b. i-na gara GENPOSS-1SGP clothing ‘her clothing (to sell at the market)’ (McGuckin 2002:304) Tolai: (44)a. o ra mal a-i ra tutana DEM ART dress CONSM-POSS ART man ‘the man’s dress (he is wearing)’ (Mosel 1984:39) b. ka-n ta mal GENPOSS-3SGP some dress ‘any dress of his (he is to own)’ (Mosel 1984:18) Intimate possession with DRINK host Paamese: (45)a. aisin ma-k clothing DRINK-1SGP ‘my clothes’ b. aim ma-k house DRINK-1SGP ‘my house’ (Crowley 1982:213) c. aim ona-k house GENPOSS-1SGP ‘my house’ (Crowley 1982:214) Lewo: (46)a. ma-na DRINK-3SGP ‘his shirt’ b. ma-miu DRINK-2PLP ‘your house’ sota shirt (Early 1994:212) yuma house (Early 1994:212) Intimate possession with dedicated classifiers Iaai: ito (47)a. ume-n HOUSE-3SGP hut ‘his/her hut’ c. b. (Ozanne-Rivierre 1984:71) kub ii- FLAT.ITEM-3SGP mat ‘his/her mat’ (Ozanne-Rivierre 1984:71) ei ii- FLAT.ITEM-3SGP land ‘his/her field’ (Ozanne-Rivierre 1984:71) d. taŋ-en taŋ CONTAINER-3SGP basket ‘his/her basket’ (Ozanne-Rivierre 1984:106) e. hoo-n hu BOAT-3SGP boat ‘his/her boat’ (Ozanne-Rivierre 1984:54) Intimate possession unmarked No formally distinct category of intimate possession: Standard Fijian: (48)a. na no-gu malo ART GENPOSS-1SGP loincloth ‘my loincloth (worn or not)’ b. c. (Geraghty p.c.) na no-gu ituutuvi ART GENPOSS-1SGP blanket ‘my blanket’ (Geraghty p.c.) na no-na vale ART GENPOSS-3SGP house ‘his house’ (Schütz 1985:445) Intimate possession summary Table 2: Intimate possession marking indexing attested inclusions Yapese direct ‘personal possession’; dwelling places Loniu direct land; dwelling places; canoe; personal goods Mussau direct dwelling places; canoe; tree; personal goods Manam direct traditional garments when worn Mangap-M unmarked Aroma direct dwelling places; place; some personal possessions Gapapaiwa CONSUMABLE garments when worn Motu direct traditional garments when worn Kilivila direct traditional garments when worn; bedding; ‘personal possession’ Tolai CONSUMABLE/ garments when worn/ direct bedding; sleeping places; catafalque; ?firewood; ?enclosing parcel Kokota direct bedding indexing attested inclusions Gela direct/ bedding; dwelling places; village/ CONSUMABLE traditional items of personal adornment Arosi direct bedding Paamese DRINK/ direct clothing; bedding; dwelling places; house parts/ penis sheath Lewo DRINK most garments; bedding; dwelling places; some house parts Iaai direct homes Kiribati direct garments; bedding; dwelling places; land; canoe; personal adornment Ponapean direct dwelling place; seat; land Puluwat direct coffin; bathwater; sandals; some buildings; land Standard Fijian unmarked Lauan unmarked Nadrogā unmarked 4. Characteristic possession Characteristic possession with direct possessor-indexing Physical characteristics: Gela: (49) na volapa-na na tiola ART width-3SGP ART canoe ‘the width of the canoe’ (Miller 1974:271) Mangap-Mbula: (50) bura-ana strength-3SGP ‘his/her strength/power’ (Bugenhagen 1995:97) Ponapean: (51) neme-Ø flavour-3SGP ‘its taste’ (Rehg 1981:177) Psychological characteristics: Aroma: (52)a. vamaƒi-ku thought-1SGP ‘my permanently held principles and opinions’ b. ƒe-ku vamaƒi GENPOSS-3SGP thought ‘my passing thoughts’ (Craig 1980:125) Loniu: (53) rn/i-m muwan attitude-2SGP bad ‘your bad attitude’ (Hamel 1994:137) aonega-na wisdom-3SGP ‘his wisdom’ (Lawes 1896:4) Motu: (54) Customary ways and behaviour: Kokota: (55)a. puhi-na-na kastom-na ka ƒai way-3SGP-that custom-that LOC weINC ‘the way of our custom’ (Palmer 1999:136) b. ira no-u puhi aƒo thePL GENPOSS-2SGP way youSG ‘your way’ (ad hoc rule for game) (Palmer 1999:136) Ponapean: (56) tuwe-Ø manner-3SGP ‘his nature, his manner’ (Rehg 1981:177) Responsibilities and characteristic duties: Gela: (57) na lutu-na na vunai ART work-3SGP ART chief ‘the headman’s duties’ (Miller 1974:272) Ponapean: (58) peise-Ø responsibility-3SGP ‘his responsibility’ (Rehg 1981:174) Mangap-Mbula: (59) buga-ana obligation-3SGP ‘his/her obligation’ (Bugenhagen 1995:97) Characteristic possession with FOOD/CONSUMABLE host Innate and other uncontrollable characteristics: Standard Fijian: (60) ke-mu levu FOOD-2SGP big ‘your size’ (Geraghty 1983:249) Mangap-Mbula: (61) ko-ŋ daama CONSM-1SGP year ‘my age’ (Bugenhagen 1995:380) Characteristics uncontrolled by inanimate possessors: Standard Fijian: (62)a. ke-na yaŋa FOOD-3SGP usefulness ‘its usefulness’ c. ke-na kaukauwa FOOD-3SGP strength ‘its strength’ b. no-na yaŋa GENPOSS-3SGP usefulness ‘his/her usefulness’ (Schütz 1985:459-460) d. no-na kaukauwa GENPOSS-3SGP strength ‘his strength’ (Schütz 1985:459-460) Particularising characteristics: Paamese: (63)a. haiali aa-n uiit sucker FOOD-3SGP octopus ‘an octopus’ suckers (no other thing having such suckers)’ (Crowley 1982:218) b. manu aa-n b. manu ona-n sore FOOD-3SGP sore GENPOSS-3SGP ‘his/her (unusually large, ‘his/her (ordinary numerous or noticeable) sore’ unremarkable) sore’ (Crowley 1982:220) Characteristic possession with PART host Nadrogā: (64)a. gu yabaki PART.1SGP age ‘my age’ b. mu levu PART.2SGP big ‘your size’ (Geraghty 2002:839) (Geraghty p.c.) Characteristic possession with dedicated classifiers Iaai: (65)a. mani-k man STRENGTH-1SGP strength ‘my strength’ (Tryon 1968:69) b. ho-fuuc wa-n SOUND-3SGP oral-speak ‘his/her speech’ (Ozanne-Rivierre 1984:67) Characteristic possession unmarked No formally distinct category of characteristic possession: Lauan: (66) o-mu bii GENPOSS-2SGP weight ‘your weight’ (Geraghty p.c.) Lewo: (67)a. sa-la pelaga la GENPOSS-3PLP manner PL ‘their behaviour’ (Early 1994:416) kasi so-ma GENPOSS-2SGP year ‘your age’ (Early 1994:459) b. Characteristic possession summary Table 3: Characteristic possession marking indexing attested inclusions Yapese direct age; physical characteristics; smell; sound; customary ways & behaviour Loniu direct psychological characteristics; flavour Mussau direct/ FOOD ??/ age Manam direct physical & psychological characteristics; smell MangapMbula direct/ FOOD physical characteristics; responsibilities; sound; luck/ age Aroma direct age; physical & psychological characteristics; customary ways & behaviour Gapapaiwa FOOD physical characteristics; responsibilities; customary ways & behaviour Motu direct physical & psychological characteristics Kilivila direct physical characteristics; customary ways & behaviour Tolai direct physical & psychological characteristics; customary ways & behaviour; secrets; taboos Kokota direct age; sound; customary ways & behaviour; handwriting indexing attested inclusions Gela direct physical characteristics; responsibilities; customary ways & behaviour Arosi direct characteristic idioms; responsibilities Paamese FOOD particularising characteristics, especially characteristic afflictions Lewo unmarked Iaai direct/ some physical characteristics; responsibilities/ classifiers sound; strength Kiribati direct physical & psychological characteristics; customary ways & behaviour Ponapean direct physical & psychological characteristics; flavour; responsibilities; customary ways & behaviour Puluwat direct age; customary ways & behaviour Standard Fijian FOOD/ innate physical characteristics; characteristics of inanimate objects/ colour; shape direct Lauan unmarked Nadrogā PART physical characteristics; age 5. Possession by subject matter Direct possessor-indexing of subject matter Gela: (68)a. na toƒale-mu ART picture-2SGP ‘your picture (of you)’ c. e. f. na tutugu-gu ART story-1SGP ‘my story (about me)’ b. ni-mua na toƒale GENPOSS-2SGP ART picture ‘your picture (in your possession)’ (Miller 1974:276) d. ni-gua na tutugu GENPOSS-1SGP ART story ‘my story (which I wrote)’ (Crowley 2002:531) na uloulo-na na vunai ART lament-3SGP ART chief ‘the chief’s funeral song, made and sung about him’ (Miller 1974:273) na belo-na ART bell-3SGP ‘its bell’ (ie. ‘the bell signifying something’) (Miller 1974:277) Kiribati: (69)a. taeka-ia word-3PLP ‘their reputation, what is said about them’ c. b. a-ia taeka POSS-3PLP word ‘their words/messages’ (Sabatier 1971:6; Jacobs 1984:484) anene-u d. a-u anene song-1SGP POSS-1SGP song ‘the song composed about me’ ‘the song I composed or sang’ (Sabatier 1971:13) Possessor-indexing of subject matter with FOOD/CONSUMABLE host Standard Fijian: (70)a. ke-na vosa FOOD-3SGP speech ‘his talk (about him)’ (Geraghty p.c.) b. no-na vosa GENPOSS-3SGP speech ‘his speech, utterance, language’ (Pawley 1973:159) c. ke-na meke d. no-na meke FOOD-3SGP dance GENPOSS-3SGP dance ‘his dance (concerning him)’ ‘his dance (which he possesses)’ (Schütz 1985:460) e. ke-na yagona f. me-na yagona FOOD-3SGP kava DRINK-3SGP kava ‘his kava’ (drunk in his honour) ‘his kava’ (which he drinks) (Geraghty 1983:248, p.c.) Possessor-indexing of subject matter with PART host Nadrogā: (71)a. e lawata PARTP.3SGP poem ‘poem about him’ b. le-a lawata GENPOSS-3SGP poem ‘poem he composed’ (Geraghty p.c.) Possession by subject matter unmarked No formally distinct category of possession by subject matter: Lauan: (72) a o-mu sere ART GENPOSS-2SGP song ‘your song (you composed it, you sing it, it’s about you)’ (Geraghty p.c.) Lewo: (73) sa-u toutou GENPOSS-1SGP picture ‘my photo (either taken of me, or which I took)’ (Lynch 2001:199) Possession by subject matter summary Table 4: Marking of possession by subject matter indexing attested inclusions Yapese direct pictures; songs Loniu direct stories Mussau direct stories Manam Direct pictures; songs; stories; letters; books MangapMbula direct/ FOOD pictures; news/ talk Aroma direct pictures Gapapaiwa direct stories Motu direct stories; talk Kilivila direct pictures; songs; talk Tolai direct pictures Kokota direct pictures; books; history indexing attested inclusions Gela direct pictures; stories; songs; news; bell signifying something Arosi Direct pictures Paamese no data Lewo unmarked Iaai Direct stories Kiribati Direct pictures; songs; words Ponapean Direct pictures; news; books Puluwat direct pictures; stories; thoughts Standard Fijian FOOD talk; anything interpretable as having a subject matter; anything done in honour of possessor Lauan unmarked Nadrogā PART poem 6. Overview of semantically non-canonical possessor-indexing Distribution of indexing strategies across semantic types Table 5: Overview of indexing strategies by semantic type. direct direct direct direct direct direct direct/ CONSUMABLE direct direct direct direct direct characteristic direct direct direct/ FOOD direct direct/ CONSUMABLE direct CONSUMABLE direct direct direct Kokota Gela direct direct direct direct direct direct Arosi Paamese direct direct direct ?unmarked direct FOOD Lewo Iaai direct direct unmarked direct Kiribati direct direct unmarked direct/ classifiers direct Ponapean Puluwat Standard Fijian Lauan Nadrogā direct direct direct direct direct FOOD direct PART unmarked PART/ FOOD Yapese Loniu Mussau canonical body parts by subject matter direct direct direct direct direct direct Manam MangapMbula Aroma Gapapaiwa Motu Kilivila Tolai direct direct direct direct FOOD/ direct unmarked PART/ FOOD intimate direct direct direct passive unmarked ?unmarked FOOD items eaten items drunk unmarked CONSUMABLE FOOD DRINK direct unmarked unmarked CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE direct CONSUMABLE direct direct CONSUMABLE/ direct direct direct/ CONSUMABLE direct direct/ DRINK DRINK direct/ classifiers direct unmarked CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE semi-consmble CONSUMABLE/ ??direct unmarked CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE FOOD CONSUMABLE FOOD DRINK classifiers direct unmarked unmarked unmarked FOOD classifier unmarked/ ?direct ?unmarked ?unmarked FOOD unmarked PART/ FOOD CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE FOOD FOOD DRINK DRINK unmarked FOOD classifiers FOOD DRINK DRINK DRINK FOOD FOOD DRINK DRINK Marking of possession by subject matter: • Most surveyed languages mark possession by subject matter. (19/22 ie. 86%) • Overwhelming tendency for subject matter possessors to be marked in the same way as possessors of canonical inalienable body parts. (18 direct/PART (90%) vs 2 FOOD/CONSUMABLE (10%)) Marking of characteristic possession: • Most surveyed languages mark characteristic possession. (20/22 ie. 91%) • Strong tendency for characteristic possession to be marked in the same way as canonical body part possession. (18 direct/PART (72%) vs 6 FOOD/CONSUMABLE (24%) vs 1 dedicated classifiers (4%) Marking of intimate possession: • Most surveyed languages mark intimate possession. (18/22 ie. 82%) • Strong tendency for intimate possession to be marked in the same way as canonical body part possession. • Some tendency for intimate possession to be marked in the same way as possession of items drunk. (16 direct/PART (73%) vs 5 DRINK/CONSUMABLE (23%) vs 1 dedicated classifiers (4%) Marking of passive possession: • A significant minority of surveyed languages do not appear to mark passive possession. (at least 8/22 ie. 36%) • Strong tendency for passive possession to be marked in the same way as possession of items eaten. (11 FOOD/CONSUMABLE (at least 69%) vs 1 ‘semi-consumable’ (6%) vs up to 3 direct/PART (up to 19%) vs 1 dedicated classifier (6%)) Subordinate and passive possession ‘Subordinate possession’. • The four non-canonical semantics types are not marked alike in any surveyed language except possibly Kiribati. • Passive possession, characteristic possession, and possession by subject matter are only marked in the same way in Standard Fijian and Nadrogā Fijian. • The notion of ‘subordinate possession’ is an artifact of the primacy of Fijian data in earlier research. Lynch’s broader ‘passive possession’. • Possession by undergoer and by subject matter are treated differently in all surveyed languages except Standard Fijian and Nadrogā. • The notion ‘passive possession’ does need to exclude subject matter possessors, contra Lynch. Non-canonical use of direct and PART possessor-indexing: extending ‘inalienability’ Table 6: Non-canonical direct/PART marking. direct direct direct direct direct direct direct/ CONSUMABLE direct direct direct direct direct characteristic direct direct direct/ FOOD direct direct/ CONSUMABLE direct CONSUMABLE direct direct direct Kokota Gela direct direct direct direct direct direct Arosi Paamese direct direct direct ?unmarked direct FOOD Lewo direct unmarked Iaai direct direct unmarked direct/ classifiers Kiribati direct direct direct direct Ponapean Puluwat Standard Fijian direct direct direct direct direct FOOD classifiers direct unmarked Lauan Nadrogā direct PART unmarked PART/ FOOD direct direct FOOD/ direct unmarked PART/ FOOD Yapese Loniu Mussau canonical body parts by subject matter direct direct direct direct direct direct Manam Mangap-Mbula direct direct Aroma Gapapaiwa Motu Kilivila Tolai intimate direct direct direct passive unmarked ?unmarked FOOD direct unmarked unmarked CONSUMABLE direct unmarked CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE direct CONSUMABLE direct semi-consumable CONSUMABLE/ CONSUMABLE/ direct ??direct direct unmarked direct/ CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE direct CONSUMABLE direct/ FOOD DRINK DRINK FOOD direct/ classifier classifiers unmarked unmarked unmarked/ ?direct ?unmarked ?unmarked FOOD unmarked PART/ FOOD Implicational hierarchy 1: direct/PART marking. canonical body parts > by subject matter characteristic intimate > ?passive Direct/PART marking: • Languages only treat passive possession in the same way as canonical body part possession if the language also marks possession by subject matter, characteristic possession, and (with the exception of PART marking) intimate possession in that way. • Subject matter and characteristic possession are equal in the hierarchy. • Intimate possession is not ranked lower than subject matter and characteristic possession only because of the one Paamese directly marked intimate item. Implicational hierarchy 1’: direct/PART marking. canonical > body parts by subject matter characteristic > intimate > ?passive This agrees with Nichols’ (1988) proposed hierarchy of inalienability: kin terms and/or body parts > part/whole and/or spatial relations > culturally basic items But, the fact that the indexing strategies classify relations shows that inalienability is not necessarily a lexical property of nouns (contra Nichols (1988:574), and that the hierarchy applies to inalienable relations as well as to inalienably specified nouns. Also, additional levels in the hierarchy are required between part-whole and culturally basic items for: • items with possessor as subject matter; • characteristics. And possibly a level below culturally basic items for: • passively possessed items. Is this a conceptually plausible extension of ‘inalienability’? The data also shows that inalienably possessed material objects (‘culturally basic items’) are not restricted solely to: • items essential for the possessor’s livelihood. (Chapell & McGregor 1995:4) Instead, Oceanic languages may treat as inalienably possessed: • items essential for possessor’s livelihood; or • items in close physical contact with the possessor’s body (clothing when worn; bedding etc); or • both. Non-canonical use of FOOD/ CONSUMABLE possessor-indexing: passive possession and beyond Table 7: Non-canonical FOOD/CONSUMABLE marking. Yapese Loniu Mussau Manam Mangap-Mbula Aroma Gapapaiwa Motu Kilivila Tolai Kokota Gela Arosi Paamese Lewo Iaai by subject matter direct direct direct direct direct/ CONSUMABLE direct direct direct direct direct direct direct direct ?unmarked unmarked direct Kiribati direct Ponapean Puluwat Standard Fijian direct direct FOOD Lauan Nadrogā unmarked PART/ FOOD characteristic passive items eaten items drunk direct unmarked unmarked direct ?unmarked CONSUMBLE direct/ FOOD FOOD DRINK FOOD direct unmarked CONSUMBLE direct/ CONSUMABLE CONSUMBLE CONSUMABLE direct unmarked CONSUMBLE CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE CONSUMBLE direct CONSUMABLE CONSUMBLE direct semi-consumable CONSUMBLE direct CONSUMABLE/ CONSUMBLE ??direct direct unmarked CONSUMBLE direct CONSUMABLE CONSUMBLE direct CONSUMABLE CONSUMBLE FOOD FOOD FOOD DRINK unmarked FOOD FOOD DRINK direct/ classifier FOOD DRINK classifiers direct unmarked/ unmarked ?direct direct ?unmarked FOOD DRINK direct ?unmarked classifiers DRINK FOOD/ FOOD FOOD DRINK direct unmarked unmarked FOOD DRINK PART/ PART/ FOOD DRINK FOOD FOOD Implicational hierarchy 2: FOOD/CONSUMABLE marking: items eaten > passive > characteristic > subject matter FOOD/CONSUMABLE marking: • Languages only treat subject matter and characteristic possession in the same way as possession of items eaten if they also treat passive possession that way. • Languages only treat subject matter possession in the same way as possession of items eaten if they also treat characteristic possession that way. • Intimate possession does not participate in this hierarchy. Non-canonical use of DRINK/ CONSUMABLE possessor-indexing: intimate possession Table 9: DRINK/CONSUMABLE marking of intimate possession. intimate passive items items eaten drunk Gapapaiwa CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE Tolai CONSUMABLE/ CONSUMABLE/ CONSUMABLE direct ??direct Gela direct/ CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE Paamese DRINK/ FOOD FOOD DRINK direct Lewo DRINK FOOD FOOD DRINK Implicational hierarchy 3: DRINK/CONSUMABLE marking: items drunk > DRINK/ CONSUMABLE passive > FOOD/ CONSUMABLE intimate DRINK/ CONSUMABLE DRINK/CONSUMABLE marking: • Languages only treat intimate possession in the same way as possession of items drunk if they also treats passive possession in the same way as possession of items eaten. The presentation’s end. References Anon, 1999, ‘Guwchiig.’ (‘Dolphins.’) In PALM - Pacific Area Language Materials CD-ROM. 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