Professional Didactics and Teacher Education: Contributions and

Transcription

Professional Didactics and Teacher Education:
Contributions and Questions Raised1
EL MOSTAFA HABBOUB, YVES LENOIR
Riassunto: Sulla base dei risultati della tesi di dottorato (attualmente in fase di conclusione) e di un articolo di ricerca del primo autore, questo articolo prende in esame l’idea
di didattica professionale, in primo luogo facendo riferimento alla deinizione delle sue
caratteristiche, in secondo luogo presentando la cornice concettuale, che prende da tre
correnti teoriche, la teoria dello sviluppo di Piaget, la psicologia ergonomica e del lavoro, la didattica disciplinare. L’articolo sottolinea la diferenza tra formazione iniziale
dell’insegnante e formazione nelle attività, da cui emerge la didattica professionale. La
sezione seguente dell’articolo esplora vari contributi che questa forma di didattica deve
ofrire alla formazione dell’insegnante, inclusa la funzione essenziale della nozione di
situazione e logica dell’azione. Il testo conclude con una serie di domande relative a vari
tipi di conoscenza, le relazione tra due tipi di didattica e la dimensione sociale coinvolta
nell’implementazione della didattica professionale nella formazione iniziale dell’insegnante.
Abstract: Based on results from the irst author’s research paper and doctoral thesis (currently being inalized), this article examines the conception of professional didactics, irst
by referring to its characteristic deinition, then by presenting its constitutive conceptual
frame, which draws from three theoretical currents: Piagetian developmental psychology, ergonomic and work psychology, and disciplinary didactics. he article then distinguishes between initial teacher education and training for the occupations from which
professional didactics emerged. he following section explores various contributions that
this form of didactics has to ofer to teacher education, including the central function of
the notion of situation and the logic of action. he text concludes by raising a number
of questions relative to, among other things, the place of various knowledge types, the
relations between the two types of didactics, and the social dimension involved in the
implementation of professional didactics in initial teacher education.
Key Words: teacher education, professional didactics, disciplinary didactics, contributions, questions raised.
EDUCATION SCIENCES & SOCIETY
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El Mostafa Habboub and Yves Lenoir
1. Introduction
his text draws on some of the results of two research studies2. Its objective is to assess the relevance of introducing professional didactics into
the ield of initial teacher education. In the perspective of professionalizing the teaching occupation, which is currently promoted in initial teacher
education, it is important to question the usual modes implemented, especially since reforms of this training call for a competency-based approach.
Indeed, the impact of this professionalization combined with the use of
competencies to train future teachers is by no means insigniicant. he
question now arises: What is the potential contribution of professional didactics to teacher education, which has undergone substantial change with
the introduction of new aims and operational modes?
After presenting the principal components of professional didactics, we
will distinguish the ield of teacher education from training for other occupations, including continuing adult education, the ield in which this form
of didactics was originally developed and applied. Next, we will identify
the potential contributions of professional didactics to teacher education.
Because the use of professional didactics appears to hold more than simply
potential contributions, we will also deal with questions regarding its implementation in this ield.
2. The development of professional didactics
2.1 The definition of professional didactics
he deinition of professional didactics has changed little between 1992
and December 2009. Professional didactics, whose origins lie in continuing professional development (Ginsbourger, 1992; Pastré, 1992a, 2002),
emerged «on the one hand, based on the questions and objectives stemming from professional training in which the main preoccupation concerns the modes and conditions of acquiring and transmitting professional
competencies, and on the other, based on the convergence of a number
of communities: didactic specialists, psychologists, and ergonomists facing
the same types of problems» (Samurçay, Pastré, 1998, 119)3. Presented as a
recent approach (Pastré, 2004b), professional didactics takes into account
the temporal dimension of development (Mayen 1998a; Pastré, 1992a) and
COMPETENZA E PROFESSIONALITÀ
Professional Didactics and Teacher Education: Contributions and Questions Raised
13
is grounded in a perspective of competency development (Mayen, 1997,
1998a, 1998c; Pastré, 1997, 1999c, 2002). Training for competencies is
therefore at the heart of its concerns (Ginsbourger, 1992; Mayen 1998a;
Pastré, 1992b, 1997, 1999a, 1999b, 2006).
As highlighted by Pastré (1999a), professional didactic engineering
represents everything «relative to the production of educational resources,
whether using new technologies or not, and founded on work situations
that provide bases for training and the development of professional competencies» (Pastré, 1999a, 403). In other words, to design and ensure training, professional didactics adopts work analysis as its main task (Mayen,
1997, 1998b, 1998c, 2003; Pastré, 1992a, 1992b, 1992c, 1995, 1997, 1999a,
1999b, 1999c, 2002, 2004a; Samurçay, Rogalski, 1998). It is based on situations, which it considers to be the training-related medium par excellence (Mayen, 1997, 1998b, 1998c, 1999, 2003; Pastré, 1992b, 1999a, 2002;
Rabardel, Six, 1995).
In short, professional didactics generally targets three major objectives;
the irst two are practical and the third, theoretical. he irst objective is the
analysis of work and the development of training (Mayen 1998c, Pastré,
2002; Vidal, Samurçay, 1998). he second is the mastery «of situations to
the greatest extent possible, by constituting them as problems to be solved.
However, this constitution process always results in some of the complexity of reality being lost» (Pastré, 1999b, 28). he third is the description of
professional situations (Ibidem) and «the modelling of speciic professional
competencies in their developmental dynamic and in terms of transposing
work situations into training situations» (Vidal-Gomel, Samurçay, 1998,
118).
To reach these objectives, professional didactics is based on a conceptual frame involving at least three diferent but complementary disciplinary
areas.
2.2 The conceptual frame of professional didactics
To ensure genuine work analysis, from the start, professional didactics
has been based on the conluence of three theoretical currents: Piagetian
developmental psychology, ergonomic and work psychology, and the didactics relative to the disciplines.
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2.2.1 Developmental psychology – As previously stated, professional didactics
was originally developed in the ield of continuing education for adults.
Early on, practitioners of adult training dreamed of retaining the integrative and developmental aspect of Piaget’s work and the cognitivist theory of
functional learning through action. In other words, they sought to combine
cognitive development and functional learning. his is the general framework in which professional didactics should be situated (Pastré, 1992b).
Piagetian developmental psychology draws from the work of Vergnaud
(1992), who underscores the role of conceptualization in action. On the
one hand, this current reduces the gap between the pragmatic concepts
underlying the implementation of daily concepts developed by Vygotskian
socio-constructivism (Pastré, 2002). Vygotsky advanced a dynamic, living
conception of knowledge and conceptual development as well as a social
conception of this development (Mayen, 1998a), which had received little or no consideration from Piaget (1974) (Pastré, 1999d). On the other
hand, Vergnaud’s contribution is central in the perspective adopted by professional didactics. As Pastré (1994a, 2001, 2004a) reminds us, Vergnaud
(1994a, 1994b) associates a situation not only with its functional dimension,
but also with its conceptual dimension, specifying that it is the schemes4
that are conceptual in a situation. Vergnaud (1994a) deines a scheme as
a “functional dynamic totality” (1994a,180), an «invariant organization of
conduct for a class of given situations» (Vergnaud, 1996b, 283), insisting
on the importance of operational invariants as concepts- or theorems-inaction. Otherwise said, there is no situation without a scheme. Together,
the scheme and situation form the scheme-situation pair as a founder of
the process of learning through active adaptation (Pastré, 2002).
It should be speciied that the need to use the concept of situation stems
from its crucial importance in ensuring the development of competencies
and from the fact that it concords well with the pragmatic and operational
dimension of knowledge. «A situation is primarily what makes sense to a
subject. It is a set of issues, opportunities or threats, and the intelligence
linked to the situation is above all the ability to negotiate it successfully.
his is why it is not very surprising that concepts acquire meaning only in
reference to the situations that allow for them to be used» (Pastré, 1999b,
47). he situation is also and simultaneously part of a larger class with
which it shares a set of common characteristics, what Pastré (1999a, 2002)
and Mayen (2004a) refer to as the conceptual structure of a situation or
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what Galpérine (1966) refers to as an orientation base (Mayen, 2004b),
since the success of the action partly depends on its orientation. Drawing
on Pastré (1999c), Mayen (2004a) deines the conceptual structure of a situation as «the network of relations between the characteristic variables of
a situation, the ordering of its common traits into a meaningful coniguration» (Mayen, 2004a, 3). he conceptual structure of a situation is based on
the activity to be carried out (Mayen, 2001). Designing teaching/learning
situations thus provides bases for a training process targeting the development of competencies. Hence the intervention of the teacher not only as a
mediator, but also as a creator of didactic situations (Vergnaud, 2000).
Besides Piagetian constructivism and Vygotskian socio-constructivism,
the conceptual frame of professional didactics is completed by the contributions of work psychology, and more speciically the psychology of cognitive ergonomics and disciplinary didactics (Pastré, 2002, 2004a; Samurçay,
Pastré, 1998).
2.2.2 Ergonomic cognitive psychology – he current of ergonomic and work
psychology (Pastré, 2002) indeed emphasizes an examination of the cognitive dimension of professional activity (Mayen, 1998a; Pastré, 1997, 1999a,
1999b, 2002, 2006). Cognitive psychology, especially in terms of cognitive
ergonomics, constitutes a second major contribution to professional didactics.
With Francophone work psychology, professional didactics became enriched by «the techniques and methods of work analysis. Most importantly,
this work analysis provided professional didactics with a study of the cognitive dimension of professional activity» (Pastré, 2002, 11) by distinguishing
between prescribed work and actual work, task and activity. he reference
especially concerns Faverge (1955) and Leplat (1985, 2000). he reference
made to Faverge (1955) is tied to the fact that this author considers work
to be a behaviour by which individuals seek to adapt themselves to the
characteristics of a situation using an active approach. Drawing on Leplat
(1985, 2000), who is inspired by Faverge, Pastré (2004a) distinguishes and
articulates what, in a work context, is related to the prescribed task and to
the activity. He maintains that «there is always more in the actual work
than in the prescribed task» (Ibidem, 11). Furthermore, Leplat (1991, 1997)
introduces the ergonomic dimension of developing competency frameworks. his work analysis is directed toward competencies (Pastré, 1997).
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By establishing «synthesis between the training dimension and the work
analysis dimension» (Ibidem, 91), professional didactics should be able to
«identify the conceptual structure of the situation, the central core enabling
the constitution of an occupational framework» (Pastré, 2004a, p.7). his
is because, according to Leplat (1985, 2000), the work situation is not only
deined by the modes of what is prescribed; it also «includes certain objective dimensions of the situation that will guide activity. Consequently, it
can be said that the work analysis developed by Leplat is organized around
the situation-activity pair, the situation including the prescription and cognitive structure of the task, and making for an introduction to the analysis
of the activity, which remains the purpose of the analysis» (Pastré, 2002,
11).
It is important to note that the analytical approach used in professional
didactics also enriches ergonomic cognitive psychology. Indeed, professional didactics irst borrows from this form of psychology its approach
for analyzing the task as a “given objective under determined conditions”
(Leontiev, 1976, 96). It then analyses the activity in terms of its progress,
which is expressed by the actual task (Leplat, Hoc, 1983). hus, in a concern for diachronic analysis, professional didactics complements ergonomic
cognitive psychology, as it goes beyond identifying the competencies applied through and within a task; it imposes the need to analyse these competencies in a development perspective, in order to go from a work analysis
that is “task-activity” oriented to one that is “competency” oriented (Leplat,
1991, 1997). Hence the insistence of professional didactics on situations
in which are produced ruptures in the use of competencies, as this is what
enables an identiication of the indicators of evolution (Pastré, 1997).
If the relations between professional didactics and ergonomic cognitive
psychology appear to be both simple and obvious, can the same be said of
the relations between professional didactics and disciplinary didactics?
2.2.3 Disciplinary didactics – he third reference area called upon by professional didactics is that of disciplinary didactics. While the relation between
professional and disciplinary didactics is characterized by certain elements
that bring the two areas closer together, it also raises a number of questions.
With a view to reconciling the two, Samurçay and Rogalski (1998) advance
that professional didactics is parallel to disciplinary didactics insofar as «the
transposition process and the management of the didactic situation are two
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key concepts in educational analysis. he epistemological analysis of the
knowledge in play is here replaced by the analysis of professional tasks
and activities» (Samurçay, Rogalski, 1998, 340). his reconciliation can also
be illustrated by the fact that professional didactics «concerns more than
actions. It also increasingly touches upon enunciation and dialogue. he
disciplinary didactics are concerned not only with the best possible restitution of verbalizable knowledge, but also with actions» (Vergnaud, 1996a,
43); they are oriented toward the acquisition and application of endorsed
knowledge. Two diferences between these didactic ields have nevertheless been noted: the place of scholarly knowledge and of practise, and the
importance given to concepts (Ibidem). In other words, what characterizes professional didactics is its interest in the development of professional
competencies in action without reference to a given discipline, but rather
to professional practises (Rogalski, Samurçay, 1994) – which in no way
precludes the recourse to concepts stemming from the system of scientiic
disciplines.
But disciplinary didactics cannot be referred to without taking into account certain limits. hese limits have been articulated by Pastré (1997,
2004a) and by Samurçay and Pastré (1998). One of them concerns the
concept of activity, whose place and function constitute one element opposing professional and disciplinary didactics. In the beginning, although
the two forms of didactics originated following the methodical intent of
learning in and through an activity, in the case of professional didactics,
learning was related to situations in a practical objective of mastery. he
disciplinary didactics, for their part, involved learning knowledge «with an
epistemic objective of understanding» (Pastré, 2004a, 5). Pastré (Ibidem)
nevertheless nuances this opposition, citing the fact that the mastery of a
professional situation requires the mobilization of operational knowledge
for the action, whose origin is diversiied (occupational knowledge, scientiic and technical knowledge): «to learn situations, it is necessary to have
access to knowledge, even if assimilating this knowledge is a necessary but
insuicient condition for the mastery of situations» (Ibidem, 5).
hese relations between professional and disciplinary didactics will be
discussed further when we raise certain questions relative to the implementation of the former in initial teacher education. Because we especially
examine the use of professional didactics in this form of education, we
must now, for clariication purposes, address the issue in three steps: irst,
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world of education in coming years» (Gouvernement du Québec, 2001b, ix,
original quote), that of the teaching staf in occupational training seeks to
align this training with changes in the sector of professional occupational
training and to make it «better adapted to the new realities of this sector»
(Gouvernement du Québec, 2001a, ix). A training aim pursuing general
teaching practise targeting social, cultural, and cognitive objectives – preparing students for future studies – contrasts with a training aim pursuing
teaching with the central objective of inserting students into economic life
via the learning of an occupation.
he second distinction concerns the targeted population. hat of professional education, unlike that of general education, is trained in view of
the labour market. he students in this teaching sector must develop competencies speciic to one of the ofered occupations. General education, for
its part, prepares students for pre-university studies in a cégep6, and, later,
university studies. In addition, the population of primary and secondary
level students is globally homogeneous insofar as it is made up of youths7.
For teachers, this population stability and homogenization create a diferent situation than that in which the population is unstable and made up of
both young and adult students, as is the case in occupational training. he
greater adult population makes this sector characterized by the heterogeneity of its population (Comité d’orientation de la formation du personnel enseignant (COPFE, 1998). his heterogeneity has a direct impact on
teachers’ professional act and necessitates a diferentiation in the teaching
act (Gouvernement du Québec, 2006; Caron and St-Aubin, 1997).
he third diference between the two areas concerns the teaching staf.
First, recruiting teaching staf difers in that future teachers of general education pursue their studies seamlessly, while future teachers in occupational
training for the most part have professional experience; they have already
practised an occupation. Second, the teaching staf in general educational
training contrasts with that of professional occupational training when
it comes to professional identity. While training for a profession, for instance education, is essential in constructing the professional identity of
its members (Altet, 1994), for general education, initial training targets
the construction of a professional identity in line with the missions of instruction and socialization mandated by the Quebec ministry of education.
Professional identity is either generalist at the preschool and primary levels
– as teachers «have taught most of the subjects speciied in the basic school
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we will distinguish initial teacher education from occupational training,
which, it must be recalled, constitutes the original ield of professional didactics; second, in continuity with this irst point, we will expose various
potential contributions of professional didactics to initial teacher education; third, we will address several questions raised by the recourse to professional didactics in initial teacher education and requiring both relection
and adjustment.
3. The specificity of initial teacher education in terms
of occupational training
As already mentioned, professional didactics has, until recently, been
chiely concerned in the ield of occupational training5. he interest in professional didactics applied to the ield of teacher education and training is
relatively new. he ields of occupational training and its teacher education,
on the one hand, and so-called general education and its teacher education, on the other, can be distinguished by several aspects. hese diferences
raise questions concerning the contributions, conditions and limits that
can be generated by the recourse, in teacher education, to an approach
drawing upon professional didactics, whose links with occupational training are well established. his is why, before considering these contributions, conditions and limits, it is important to distinguish the speciicities
diferentiating the ield of occupational training and its teacher education,
and so-called general education and its teacher education. In comparing
the characteristics of these two ields of teacher education, we will limit our study to ive elements. hese elements concern the training aims
of the two ields, their respective populations and teaching staf, and the
professional identity sought by each, as well as their apprehended goals
and respective didactic approaches. We would like to highlight that this
comparison concerns Canada, and more speciically Quebec. here should
nevertheless be strong similarity with other teacher education systems in
the world (Organisation de coopération et de développement économiques
[OCDE], 2006a, 2006b).
he irst diference concerns the aims of these two areas. Although the
training of teaching staf in general education (preschool, primary, and secondary) in Quebec targets adaptation to «the changes afecting the system
as a whole, in order to adapt them to the new realities that will deine the
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regulation to a single group of students» (Gouvernement du Québec, 2001b,
169, original quote) – or its identity is strongly marked by the discipline
to be taught. At the secondary school level, for example in the teaching of
languages, mathematics or science and technologies, the disciplines constitute monodisciplinary exit proiles (Gouvernement du Québec, 2001b). If
professional identity is especially constructed following the practice of the
teaching profession (Habboub, Lenoir, Tardif, 2004), in the case professional occupational training, the developed identity will be professional, in
the sense of an identiication with the occupation that is taught.
he fourth diference between these two training and teaching areas
concerns their respective goals, and has to do with an epistemic relation to
distinct knowledge. In general education, as much in preschool as in primary and secondary school, teaching subjects are relative to the missions
of socialization and instruction, with variable intensity. Besides the learning of “living together” (socialization), it is the knowledge belonging to
the various academic disciplines (instruction) that constitutes the teaching
content. Qualiication, the third mission bestowed upon the school system,
is understood in terms of academic success, in a perspective of preparation for further training, for further studies. In professional occupational
training, it is the professional practises or social practises of reference – in
the sense given by Martinand (1986) – that are imposed (Habboub, 2005)
and that provide the backdrop and purpose of this training. Both the area
of occupational education and its related teacher education are characterized among other things by the speciicity of the teaching content, since
«they are not traditional academic disciplines and, for this reason, they are
scarcely “universitarized” and evolve rapidly» (Pelpel, 1996, 21).
Finally, the ifth diference concerns the didactic approaches used in
each area. In general teacher education, the use of didactic disciplines is
systematic. In the case of professional teacher education in Quebec, likely
due to a lack of research8, the situation is quite diferent, as it is centred on
the development of professional competencies appropriated according to
the tasks to execute in the context of the occupation or profession. his is
why this form of training has adopted a double logic required by the competency-based approach: an action logic (Raisky, 1993) and a situational
logic (De Ketele, 2007). Disciplinary knowledge constitutes the «central
lever for analyzing and theorizing professional situations and practices»
(Lenoir, 2008, 314). he emphasis in teacher education placed on the proCOMPETENZA E PROFESSIONALITÀ
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fessionalization of the teaching occupation and on the competency-based
approach requires a conception of professionality distinct from the previously dominant one. Conceiving of the teacher’s professionality in this new
conceptual frame requires its apprehension as a complex and integrating
system in which various knowledge types – content-related, contributory, and professional – intersect and intertwine with one another and with
practices in usage, with habitus9, values, ideological options, etc., each of
these knowledge types being itself composed of various knowledge types.
his is the fundamental issue that appears to be generating the current
situation in all professional teacher education. It must be observed that the
conceptualization of the initial teacher education process struggles to make
necessary links between the elements of professionality recommended by
the ministry of education (Gouvernement du Québec, 2001a, 2001b) and
the teaching activities related to the teaching content.
In the perspective of conceptualizing an approach enabling an actualization of such links, we have conducted an analysis of some 80 texts
produced by the designers of professional didactics in the context of our
master’s degree in education science (Habboub, 2005). hen, in the frame
of the doctorate currently in progress (Idem, 2010), we have carried out another critical review, this time on texts addressing professional didactics in
teacher education. his work has allowed us to observe that in Europe, a set
of devices in initial teacher education today draw from professional didactics. Basing ourselves on the work and results of international study days
organized by the Canadian Research Chair in Pedagogical Intervention
and by the Centre de recherche sur l’intervention éducative (CRIE) of
the Université de Sherbrooke on the relations between professional and
disciplinary didactics (Lenoir, Pastré, 2008a), we now turn to the possible
contributions of – as well as the questions raised by – the use of professional didactics in teacher education.
4. Potential contributions of professional didactics to initial teacher
education
We will attend to what we consider to be contributions of professional
didactics to initial teacher education. We will present only ive, once again
without pretending to exhaustivity and even less to a hierarchization of
their importance, and will describe each briely.
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First, both fundamentally and globally speaking, professional didactics
is part of the movement of revaluing the area of professions that had been
progressively disqualiied «all along the 18th and 19th centuries as underscored by Stichweh (1991, 1994)» (Lenoir, 2008, 311). he system of scientiic disciplines irst resulted, as Stichweh explains, in «a subordination and
subservience of the system of professions to that of disciplines» (Lenoir,
Larose, Dirand, 2006, 18) and in the fact that the university hold on training processes led to the «devaluation of knowledge directly stemming from
or associated with the actual practice of the profession» (Ibidem).
Second, professional didactics clearly stresses the primordial place of
action (the productive dimension) and its analysis as a conceptualization
(the constructive dimension), whose fundamental importance in terms of
indissociable and complementary functions is explicitly emphasized. One
could say in essence that all professionalizing training is animated by a
logic of action. his is all the more true in education because it is a service
profession, based on social interaction. On the one hand, the insistence
on conceptualization is central to works in professional didactics and this
insistence is not only relevant in terms of teaching action, in terms of the
need to take a critical and thoughtful distance, but also in terms of teaching/learning processes in which conceptualization is fundamental, regardless of the favoured cognitive approach. On the other hand, the emphasis
placed on the need to approach a training process from the standpoint of
a professional act imposes a re-centring of teacher education on teaching
practise, but a practise that can only be activated directly and closely in
line with the conceptualization. he actualization of the competency-based
approach expected in both teacher education curricula and teaching itself
imposes the use of this logic of action and of conceptualization in action,
with the efect of overcoming the age-old opposition between theory and
practise.
his angle of approach based on the professional act requires decreased
compartmentalization between action and its analysis. Pastré (2006) speciically points out that «not everything is learned through action. Many
things are learned only through retrospective analysis… Didactization thus
essentially consists in combining learning through the practise of the activity and learning through analysis of this activity. Action and relection
are equally indispensable… Activity analysis after the fact is probably the
principle avenue leading to the level of conceptualization. Not everything
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is learned in the ield. Not only can lasting faults be acquired therein, but it
has been observed that certain related errors are persistent and resist correction» (Pastré, 2006, 340-341). As we have noted elsewhere (Lenoir, 2008),
«Vanhulle… strongly emphasizes the central importance of promoting the
exercise of ‘distanced relectivity’ in teacher education. his relectivity thus
reinforces the previously cited position of Pastré (2006) concerning the
tension between experience (professional action within a situation) and
knowledge in a teaching/learning situation, between what he qualiies as
an operational model and the cognitive model that ‘is expressed according to two registers of conceptualization, namely a practical register and
an epistemic one’» (Ibidem, 315-316; see also Pastré, 2008b). Professional
didactics therefore underscores the inseparability of theory and practise,
as well as the need for mediation through a conceptualizing “distanciation” aforded by a posteriori verbalization. «his distancing ability relative
to common-sense daily practise enables the development of relective distancing, or critical capacity, the awareness of relations with the self, others
and the social and natural worlds – and the actions resulting from them
– all of which requires the production of verbalized knowledge capable of
functioning as tools for analyzing reality» (Ibidem, 316).
hird, professional didactics principally examines the competencies to
develop through life-based situations. he notion of situation is central,
consistent with the centring on the logic of action and the professional act.
It well highlights the fact that, in a training or education process, what is
“central” is neither the student, nor the trainer/teacher or the knowledge,
but rather the situation as a meeting point between the learning subject
and the educator in terms of the required learning. Professional didactics
thus paves the way, in our view, for the orientation that should be adopted
in teacher education.
In this perspective, pursuing a professionalization process would result primarily from situational analysis (see the situation-activity pair).
Although, for professional didactics, the place and function of knowledge
appear secondary because it is the situation and activity it requires that is at
the heart of the process of developing competencies, this form of didactics
nevertheless ofers a diferent logic for conceiving of learning. As noted by
Pastré (2004a), there are two possibilities: either «the logic of training construction consists… in constructing a type of learning enabling the assimilation of knowledge, going from simple to complex or from fundamental
24
concepts to applications and inferences based on them» (Pastré, 2004a, 6),
or «training can be organized around situations representative of an occupation. In this case, it is the situation that is the principal organizer and
that leads – according to need and thus in a fairly opportunist manner – to
drawing from information belonging to various disciplines, and that does
not necessarily mobilize the whole of each disciplinary knowledge type»
(Ibidem). In our view, teacher education that is professionalizing should
promote the second possibility, that aforded by professional didactics.
Understanding the work involved in teaching implies understanding
and identifying the components of professional knowledge that characterize this work. hrough activity analysis, professional didactics ofers a way
to identify this knowledge. It seeks to examine how operators can use their
practical knowledge to make it evolve into a more rigorous conceptualization. It adopts analysis as its principal procedure, accomplished in three
phases: «1) analysis10 of the professional task to extract from it a problem
situation that is relevant from a cognitive standpoint; 2) didactic integration of this competency through the construction of a simulation; 3) integration of this simulation into a training device» (Pastré, 1992c, 205). hus,
by calling on various concepts on an operational level, including that of situation, professional didactics «identiies the competencies to be developed
in view of constructing training based on problematized didactic situations
issuing directly from the professional activity, by transposing them to create didactic situations» (Idem, 1992b, 34). In this perspective, as already
mentioned, the area of professions is inscribed in an action logic, which no
longer belongs to that of the system of scientiic disciplines, but which sees
disciplines as indispensable additives or ingredients and no longer as ends.
Moreover, as Bouillier, Asloum and Veyrac (2008) highlight, «professional
didactics may constitute a relevant frame of reference for the didactization
of what Pastré (1994) calls the ‘live’ part of professional situations that
leads to an adaptation to the singularity and complexity of work situations»
(190).
Fourth, Vanhulle (2008) aptly signals a number of diiculties raised by
the implementation of professionalization processes that must combine
knowledge, competencies and experiences in real situations. Speciically,
professional didactics emphasizes the importance of experience and, more
generally, of what is implicit and tacit in professional action, in terms of unspoken or practical knowledge types, incorporated competencies, habitus,
25
etc. Professional didactics insists on the importance of experience, as both
«the goal of the activity and the concept for the activity» (Mayen, 2008,
58), as «it occupies a place and exerts an active function in systems of representation, positioning, thought and action for all players» (Ibidem, 59). We
should not neglect the fact, in teacher education, that future teachers have
a great deal of experience relative to school and teaching/learning processes, in addition to that which they acquire in practicums in the milieu.
his experience and its diverse implicit elements need to be made explicit,
formalized, debated in view of their respective professional activities.
Fifth, as we have mentioned elsewhere (Lenoir, 2008), «professional didactics… has the double advantage of centring on the actual situation in
its complexity, and on the progress of the activity in a sense difering from
that of disciplinary didactics» (Lenoir, 2008, 313). If it pursues an «attempt
at rich synthesis between the development of professional competencies to
ensure appropriate education and the essential acquisition of disciplinary
knowledge needed to design teaching/learning situations» (Ibidem, 313314), and in so doing it asserts, through its founding orientations based on
professional action in a situation context, «the need to consider the teaching practise in its complexity, multidimensionality, and multireferentiality»
(Ibidem, 314). In our view, this imposes the need to conceive of professionalizing teacher education using an approach we characterize as circumdisciplinary, which goes beyond the interdisciplinary perspective (Lenoir,
2000a; Lenoir, Larose, Dirand, 2006). Formed using the Latin preposition
circum, “around” – adverbial accusative of circus, “circle” – circumdisciplinarity seeks to express the fact that professional training refers not only to
disciplinary knowledge and other endorsed knowledge, but also to social
practises of reference, knowledge required for action, used as frameworks
in training. It is therefore a question neither of apprehending professional
training in one or another sense of transversality within two or more scientiic or academic disciplines (through), nor of going beyond the discipline
and hence leaning toward unity in science based on a set of unifying principles, concepts, methods, and goals acting on a metascientiic level and leading to the fusion of various programs or of practise as an indistinct whole
(beyond), nor of centring on competencies (below), but rather of action
that is integrative, synthesizing and dynamic (in a dialectical, praxeological
structure), and inalized by the professional act between the various knowledge constituting professional knowledge, which can in no way be reduced
to mere disciplinary knowledge (Lenoir, 2003).
26
5. Questions concerning the use of professional didactics in the
frame of initial teacher education
he use of professional didactics in the frame of initial teacher education does not only present contributions; it also raises questions. We will
critically examine two speciic points relative to the origins and primary
aims of professional didactics that, in our view, must be carefully analyzed
in the perspective of its implementation in teacher education: the social
aspect and the knowledge that is taught.
Let us begin with the social aspect. Pastré (2002, 2004a, 2008a) points
out at numerous occasions that the theoretical origins of professional didactics can be found in the convergence of cognitive ergonomics, Piagetian
psychology reinterpreted by Vergnaud, the Vygotskian vision, and the current of disciplinary didactics, whose own origins lie in Piagetian thought
(Lenoir, 2000b; Vergnioux, 1991), all of which is geared toward practise,
professional education, and continuing professional training. If, on the one
hand, the concern for the context in which this practise is implemented
is indeed marked in professional didactics – conceptualization being apprehended as an “adaptation to the context” in the Piagetian sense (Pastré,
2008a) – and if, on the other hand, the reference to Vygotsky implies an
authentic concern for intersubjective social interactions, considering that
the intersubjective dimensions are indeed taken into account, this is not
the case for social factors in their external context characterizing both social relations and institutional structures, which can be explained by the
fact that professional didactics has principally been involved in professional
training in a business setting. But in professional teacher education, the
social stakes are quite diferent, since the aims constitute a fundamental
question. Pastré (2009) refers to Rabardel in order to highlight the fact
that professional didactics is based on the idea of the “capable subject”.
It is insuicient, in the area of education, to acknowledge the potential
malleability of human beings and their ability to develop their potentialities to act; it is also important to pose the question of the social aims of
these questions, and more speciically of professional action on the part of
teachers and trainers, as well as of the social context in which this action
is inscribed. It is thus fundamental to pose this question as much in terms
of the various stakes – political, economic, ideological, cultural, ethnic, etc.
– involved in all educational processes, as in that of the ethical issues that
must guide the educational act. We have already shown, for example, the
27
extent to which ethical concerns may be diverted to managerial or economicist aims in education (Lenoir, 2004), the question of the “how”, of
procedures, having evacuated that of the “why”, the aims (Enriquez, 1993).
Such a diversion leads to the adoption of a performance model, economic
reason having prevailed over democratic values such as solidarity or sociability, hence considered outdated because they cannot be measured and
accounted for. he ethical question is thus in the service of organizations.
But this ethical question, which has been seized by businesses, can only be
a disguised ethic, as Enriquez shows, in that it is in fact much more of an
ethology that «borrows its canons from animal behaviour science to implement devices of voluntary servitude ensuring adhesion to the exclusive objectives of businesses and organizations» (Ibidem, 28). In sum, professional
didactics cannot, in our view, be implemented in the context of teacher
education without being associated, through an efort of reconiguration,
with sociological and ethical perspectives.
Furthermore, it should be kept in mind that schooling pursues two aims
historically established during the radical reform of educational systems of
democratic nation-states in the 18th and 19th centuries: that of instruction,
which is realized through the teaching of disciplinary knowledge, and that
of socialization, whose irst sense refers to civic education. his last type of
education cannot be reduced to an adaptation to the work world, even less
to a tendency to conceive of “living together” as a psychological manipulation seeking social control and subjugation. Although it cannot address
this aim speciic to the academic educational process – like disciplinary
didactics, for that matter – professional didactics must, in order to ind its
place in the area of professional teacher education, distance itself from the
performance logic required of professional training in a business context
to open itself to the other social dimensions in which professional teacher
education and education itself are immersed.
But it must also be questioned – and this is our second point – in epistemological terms with regard to the status and function of knowledge.
If professional didactics acknowledges the importance of knowledge, its
apprehension difers according to the speciicity of teacher education. As
previously mentioned (Habboub, Lenoir, Tardif, 2008), for professional didactics, reference to disciplinary didactics cannot be made without taking
into account certain limits. hese have been articulated by Pastré (1997,
2004a) and by Samurçay and Pastré (1998). One of them concerns the
28
concept of activity, whose place and function constitute one element opposing professional and disciplinary didactics. In the beginning, although
the two forms of didactics originated following the methodical intent of
learning in and through an activity, in the case of professional didactics,
learning was related to situations in a practical goal of mastery. However,
disciplinary didactics involves learning knowledge «with an epistemic objective of understanding» (Pastré, 2004a, 5). Pastré (Ibidem) nevertheless
nuances this opposition, citing the fact that the mastery of a professional
situation requires the mobilization of operational knowledge for the action,
whose origin is diversiied (occupational knowledge, scientiic and technical knowledge): «to learn situations, it is necessary to have access to knowledge, even if assimilating this knowledge is a necessary – but insuicient
– condition for the mastery of situations» (Ibidem, 5). In our view, because
teaching is a relational occupation by which a contributor intervenes in
the relation established by a learning subject with knowledge objects, in
view of creating conditions more favourable to the student’s establishment
of a learning process (Lenoir, Larose, Deaudelin, Kalubi, Roy, 2002), it is
essential irst to distinguish (Lenoir, in press) between, on the one hand,
knowledge on practise and formed by scholarly discourse elaborated by
research, by the scientiic discourse produced by researchers in the world of
research, that is, the psychoeducational, didactic, organizational and other
endorsed knowledge stemming from their work – and, on the other hand,
knowledge stemming from practise, know-how, procedures, routines, recipes, skills, techniques, etc., in short structured discursive fragments issuing
from social practices in education setting out explicit procedural competencies required for action.
his practise-related knowledge largely relates to what Pastré (in press)
designates as an “operative model”, distinguishing this from a cognitive
model. «he cognitive model of an academic subject is composed of the entirety of acquired knowledge enabling an understanding of the functioning
of a given object… he operative model of a subject is primarily deined by
a goal… his goal enables the selection of organizing concepts providing
bases for diagnosing a situation. his is why an operative model constitutes a distortion with regard to its corresponding cognitive model… An
operative model is selective because it is oriented by the goal of an action
and the diagnosis of this situation that it implies. Besides organizing invariants, it comprises indicators gathered in the situation, which allow for
concrete evaluation; it generates a categorization of situations organized
29
into broad classes, and this enables an orientation of action: each class of
situations will correspond to an adapted procedure. An operative model is
thus constructed based on the goal of the action and essential properties of
the situation required to guide action. his set of essential goal-properties
constitutes what we have termed the conceptual structure of the situation». his quote clearly stresses that the logic of action must underlie all
professional training, including teacher education. An approach based on
the professional act topples the conception that radically separated theory
and practise and that subjugated the latter to the former, instead of seizing them in the perspective of a continuous back and forth movement of
necessary and mutual enrichment.
But it is also important to distinguish between, on the one hand, contributory knowledge stemming from education science and disciplinary
knowledge, a whole of endorsed knowledge serving as a reference, as contributory discipline-tools (epistemology, history of education, educational
psychology, educational sociology, educational economics, etc.) that shed
light on professional knowledge and give it meaning, and, on the other
hand, the knowledge to be taught, the discipline-objects11 (Lacombe,
1989), issuing at least in part from the scientiic disciplines (mathematics,
linguistics, history, chemistry, etc.). hese disciplines inluence the cognitive teaching content of academic disciplines and in some cases are at the
source of the academic knowledge contained in teaching curricula, not all
academic knowledge being a transposition of scientiic knowledge (Hansi,
2001).
It should not be forgotten that the knowledge issuing from the disciplines that are taught constitute the raison d’être of the school (its function
of instruction), along with the function of socialization. But professional
didactics has not yet confronted this aim of instruction, or of transmission,
in other words, of the cultural heritage. Unless the aim of the educational
system is reduced to occupational preparation, to the production of “human capital” ready to serve economic interests, education has a fundamental social aim, namely that of educating human beings for autonomy, for
the ability to apprehend clearly and critically the world in which they live,
for consequently interacting with others within increasingly complex social
relationships, and for acting both on and in the world. In short, the primary
aim of the school is emancipatory in nature. his issue is all the more important inasmuch as many primary school teachers, in Quebec in any case,
30
remain confused when it comes to the notions of knowledge, situation,
device, etc. Almost obsessed with the development and implementation
of activities that they consider likely to “seize” their student’s attention,
they forget to infuse these activities with the knowledge to be learned, as if
the situations themselves were suicient (Lenoir, 2006). hus, for instance,
analysis of videotaped practises shows that the use of problem solving in
learning situations concerns relational, socio-afective or organizational issues, but does not address cognitive content (Ibidem).
To resume the analyses of Vanhulle (2008), in the process of professionalizing teachers, the “training culture” «centred on the development of
competencies deemed necessary to exercise the profession» (Vanhulle, 2008,
227) and the “professionalization culture” «which refers to the transfer of
competencies and knowledge in deined professional contexts» (Ibidem)
are supplemented by the “educational culture” «founded on the transmission of referential knowledge stemming from education science (including
didactics) and on its appropriation by prospective practitioners» (Ibidem).
How can professional didactics take into account this “educational culture”,
the issue of the transmission/(re)construction of knowledge prescribed by
teaching curricula? he status and place of this educational culture cannot
be neglected, since it is centred on the teaching subjects for the teacher
and on the learning subjects for the student, even when the objectives are
speciied in terms of competencies. he place of disciplinary knowledge is
profoundly changed in the frame of professional training, insofar as this
knowledge in no way constitutes the aim of professional training as is the
case in disciplinary training, but rather becomes a set of essential and indispensable conceptual mediation tools. In dynamic professional training,
it is the professional practices that constitute the aim; it is the professional
activities to realize, according to the prescribed task, in the frame of situations that are central to this training.
We wish to recall that «according to Raisky (2009)… “professional didactics, under Pierre Pastré, essentially developed in the context of training devices for adults and continuing education, in which the question
of disciplines is scarcely present” [106]. he fundamental question posed,
then, is that of clarifying and operationalizing the relation to be established between professional action and the competencies it requires, on
the one hand, and the knowledge to be taught, on the other. In the frame
of teacher education, as in the practice of this profession, the sole mastery
32
6. Conclusion
It has been our intent, in this article, after having recalled the principal
characteristics of professional didactics and its speciicity with regard to the
area of teacher education, to highlight various contributory elements that
might enrich or reinforce this form of education, while revealing what we
consider to be two of its primary and inherent stumbling blocks in light
of its origins and areas of application. Studies in this branch of didactics
may, in our view, constitute a major contribution to teacher education, but
there remains research to be carried out – on the theoretical, empirical, and
operational levels, as well as in terms of social stakes – in order to conceive
of and ensure its successful insertion into the ield of education.
Authors’ Presentation: El Mostafa Habboub, doctoral student in education science and member of the CRCIE and of the Centre de recherche sur l’intervention
éducative (CRIE).
Yves Lenoir, research director, full professor, holder of the Canada Research Chair
in Pedagogical Intervention (CRCIE), member of the scientiic management
committee of the Institut de recherche sur les pratiques éducatives (IRPÉ) and
of the CRIE.
Notes
1 his
article was translated from the French by Joachim Lépine, M.Ed.
First, the results of a master’s thesis dealt with critical analysis of the French
language academic literature related to professional didactics and the didactics
of professional knowledge (Habboub, 2005; Habboub, Lenoir and Tardif, 2008).
Second, the primary results of a doctoral research work, entitled L’usage de la didactique professionnelle dans les situations de formation initiale à l’enseignement
des sciences et technologies [the use of professional didactics in situations of initial teacher education in science and technology] (Habboub, 2010), is currently
being inalized by the irst author under the supervision of the second. he intent
of this doctoral research is to identify, describe and distinguish the aims, justiications, foundations and operational modes of the use of professional didactics in
the frame of initial teacher education.
3 In this article, all translations are ours unless otherwise noted.
4 We have translated the word schème as “scheme” in order to respect the intent of the French; however, translation always entails a shift in meaning.
5 We would like to recall that occupational training (the teaching of occupations) is a teaching sector that has gone by diferent names, such as special educa2
31
of the professional act, perfect though it may be in the appropriation of
its complexity, is insuicient. Unless the cognitive aim of the educational
act is excluded in favour of the aim of socialization, or unless the cognitive process is reduced to mere technological-instrumental dimensions, the
disciplinary knowledge to be taught must be at the heart of the teaching
practice» (314-315).
If, for instance, for Samurçay and Rogalski (1998), disciplinary and professional didactics adopt parallel approaches, the former makes the transposition and analysis processes primarily carry on knowledge involved in
an epistemic objective of understanding, and the latter, on the tasks, situations, and professional activities involved with a pragmatic objective of developing competencies. But the problem of moving beyond this parallelism
remains. How can a truly integrative perspective between the three cultures
addressed by Vanhulle (2008) be ensured? For his part, Raisky (1993) advances that teaching/learning systems in teacher education should be identical to professional situations in actual workplaces and should have the
same properties as actual educational activities. However, although Raisky
(1993, 1995, 1996, 1998, 1999) distances himself from didactic transposition and from the didactic processes targeting the decontextualization of
the knowledge in question, would it be possible to conceive, in a teaching/
learning context, of modelling a situation-activity or situation-knowledgeactivity of reference isomorphic with the situation of daily work? Does this
signify, unrealistic though it may be, that training should exclusively take
place in the milieu of practice? he risk of blunders is quite high, as demonstrated by the English experience. Atkinson (1998) and Goodson (1995)
have already sounded the alarming when it comes to training carried out
exclusively in the ield and based solely on practical experience. Learning
by doing is assuredly one relevant avenue, but it is insuicient insofar as, if
it constitutes a sealed training universe, it cannot guarantee the development of relective and critical thought as well as metacognitive abilities
permitting distanciation from and conceptual analysis of one’s own practises. Is it not more realistic to think in terms of homomorphic situations,
as conceived by Raisky (2008), inspired by Vergnaud (1981, 2000)? he
question, in our view, still stands today, particularly in view of the links to
be ensured between teaching content, disciplinary didactics and professional didactics.
33
tion (enseignement spécial), the teaching of arts and trades (l’enseignement des arts et
métiers), trades training (l’enseignement des métiers), and, more recently, vocational
education (enseignement professionnel). It is also known as professional training
(formation professionnelle) in secondary school. It is therefore essential not to confuse professional occupational training with professional teacher education. In
Quebec, this training is under «the responsibility of school boards and of certain
private establishments». It ensures study leading to qualiication for both young
and adult students. It also promotes integration into the world of work as well as
mobility and adaptation to the labour market. With the new program organization in efect in Quebec, professional education must also enable the pursuit of
studies for interested students (Gouvernement du Québec, 2001a, p. 11, 2002a).
6 he Quebec school system is structured in the following way: two-year preschool education (including one mandatory year at 5 years of age); six-year primary education (from 6 to 11); ive-year secondary education (12 to 16); three-year
technical education (17 to 19) or two-year pre-university education (17 to 18) in a
“collège d’enseignement général et professionnel” or “cégep”; three-year irst-cycle
university education (four years for doctors, engineers and teachers) leading to a
bachelor’s degree; three- or four-year second-cycle professional or research training leading to a professional or research master’s degree; the doctorate whose time
frame is not ixed, but generally involves four to ive years of study, structured in
various ways according to the disciplinary and professional ields involved.
7 he term “youth” refers to young students in both general and professional education. To be considered youths in general education, students must be under 18
years of age, but must have attended an educational institution (Gouvernement du
Québec, 2003, 2005a). In professional training, the same criteria are applied with
certain additional speciications for students 18 years of age and above. he term
“adult” refers to students considered adults in general and professional education at
the secondary school level. he term “adult” designates students above the mandatory schooling age, which in Quebec is 16 (Beaudet, 2003), as well as students who
have acquired a secondary school diploma (Gouvernement du Québec, 2003).
8 According to Caillot (2002), «professional education is absent from the preoccupations of didactics researchers» (p. 3). And although Caillot (Ibidem) describes the situation of professional education in France, it is also applicable in
the case of Quebec. Indeed, few research works have studied professional training
(Gouvernement du Québec, 2006b; Habboub, 2005).
9 We have retained the word habitus in translation in order to respect the intent
of the French; however, translation always entails a shift in meaning.
10 he procedure for analyzing work activity, as an operationalization process,
seeks the development of training modalities (Mayen, 1998b, 2003; Pastré 1999b)
or situations targeting the development of professional competencies (Mayen,
1997, 1998b, 1998c, 1999b, 2003; Pastré, 2002).
11 We have translated the term disciplines-objets as “discipline-objects” in order
to respect the intent of the French; however, translation always entails a shift in
meaning.
34
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Professional Didactics and Teacher Education: Contributions and

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