The Birth of Langue des Signes Franco

The Birth of Langue des Signes Franco-Africaine:
Creole ASL in West and Central French-speaking Africa
Nobutaka KAMEI, Dr. (Kwansei Gakuin University, Japan)
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
In most countries of West and Central French-speaking Africa, Deaf people are reported to
use American Sign Language (ASL) [Ethnologue 2006].
However, through my fieldwork in
Cameroon, Benin, and Gabon, where the majority of hearing people speak French, I observed a
common sign language with the following characteristics: (1) a vocabulary similar to ASL, (2) the
mouthing of spoken French, (3) finger-spelling of ASL, (4) modifications of finger-spelling
(adapting it to written French), (5) loan words from written French, (6) modification of signs
(adapting them to written French), (7) formation of idioms borrowed from French, and (8)
indigenous signs.
I consider this sign language to be a contact language created between ASL and
spoken/written French.
From an historical context, educational activities have existed for deaf
children in 11 French-speaking African countries sponsored by the Christian Mission for the Deaf
(CMD), which has been managed by Deaf Americans and Africans. The combination of French
literacy education and the use of ASL in the classrooms has led to the birth of a new sign language
that exists neither in the United States nor in France, but only in Africa.
Considering its unique
linguistic characteristics, its original history, and its wide use in French-speaking Africa, I propose
naming this language “Langue des Signes Franco-Africaine (LSFA).” This paper will show not
only a new distribution of African sign languages but also the capabilities of Deaf Africans who
have constructed another unique language community.
KEYWORDS
French-speaking Africa; Langue des Signes Franco-Africaine (LSFA); creole ASL
Naissance de la Langue des Signes Franco-Africaine :
l’ASL créole en Afrique francophone Ouest et Centrale
Nobutaka KAMEI, Dr. (Université de Kwansei Gakuin, Japon)
[email protected]
RESUME
Dans beaucoup de pays en Afrique francophone Ouest et Centrale, il est rapporté que les gens
sourds utilisent la Langue des Signes Américaine (ASL) [Ethnologue 2006]. Mais, dans ma
recherche sur le terrain au Cameroun, au Bénin et au Gabon, où la majorité des entendants (les gens
qui ne sont pas sourds) parlent français, j’ai observé une langue des signes commune ayant les
caractéristiques suivantes : (1) un vocabulaire ressemblant à l’ASL ; (2) des mouvements de la
bouche comme pour le français parlé ; (3) l’alphabet signé de l’ASL ; (4) une modification de
l’alphabet signé pour s’adapter au français écrit ; (5) des mots empruntés au français écrit ; (6) une
modification des signes pour les adapter au français écrit ; (7) la création d’idiomes empruntés au
français ; (8) des signes indigènes.
Cette langue est considérée comme une langue de contact
créée entre l’ASL et le français écrit et parlé.
En référence au contexte historique, des actions
éducatives pour les enfants sourds avaient lieu dans 11 pays en Afrique francophone proposées par
la Mission Chrétienne pour les Sourds (Christian Mission for the Deaf (CMD)), administrée par des
sourds américains et africains.
La combinaison de l’alphabétisation en français et de l’utilisation
des signes de l’ASL dans les classes a eu pour résultat la naissance d’une nouvelle langue des
signes qui n’existait ni en Amérique ni en France, mais uniquement en Afrique.
En considérant
ces caractéristiques linguistiques uniques, cette histoire originelle et cette vaste utilisation dans
l’Afrique francophone, je propose de nommer cette langue la “Langue des Signes Franco-Africaine
(LSFA)”.
Cet article peut montrer la nouvelle répartition des langues des signes en Afrique et
aussi la capacité des sourds africains ayant formé une autre communauté linguistique.
MOTS-CLES
Afrique francophone ; Langue des Signes Franco-Africaine (LSFA) ; ASL créole
INTRODUCTION & METHODS
Although linguistic research on sign languages of the Deaf has been conducted worldwide,
very little research has been done in Africa, particularly in French-speaking countries (Table 1,
Figure 1).
In general, it is believed that American Sign Language (ASL) is widely used among the
Deaf in most French-speaking African countries.
Ethnologue, the world’s largest language
database, has reported that ASL is used in Chad, Burkina Faso, Gabon, Democratic Republic of the
Congo, Central African Republic, Côte d’Ivoire, Mauritania, Madagascar, Benin, and Togo
[Ethnologue 2006].
Scattered descriptions, however, suggest the existence of a unique sign
language similar to ASL, such as “language des signes du sourds Africain francophone,” “ASL in
French word order,” and “Francophone Sign Language” [Tamomo 1994; Lane et al. 1996; Stephen
F. Austin State University 2003].
In this paper, I ask three questions, using a different disciplinary approach for each. The
first, “What is this sign language?” will be answered using a linguistic approach. The second,
“Why has this language spread so widely in French-speaking Africa?” will employ an historical
approach. And third, “What is the attitude of the Deaf toward this language?” will be addressed
using an anthropological approach.
I have been conducting field surveys on the cultures and sign languages of Deaf communities
in West and Central French-speaking Africa since 1997 (eastern part of Cameroon (i.e.
French-speaking provinces): 1997-1998, 2002, 2005; Gabon: 2003; and Benin: 2004).
Informants
have included Deaf people and hearing people those who have been involved with the issues of the
Deaf. This research was conducted using video recordings of their sign language, interviews on
their history, and through anthropological participant observation.
RESULTS
(1) What is this sign language? (Linguistic approach)
In the countries of Cameroon, Gabon, and Benin, I observed a common sign language with
the following characteristics: (1) a vocabulary similar to ASL, (2) the mouthing of spoken French,
(3) finger-spelling of ASL, (4) modifications of finger-spelling (adapting it to written French), (5)
loan words from written French, (6) modification of signs (adapting them to written French), (7)
formation of idioms borrowed from French, and (8) indigenous signs. This sign language has both
of the characteristics of ASL and French, and thus can be considered a contact language created by
utilizing both ASL and spoken/written French.
(2) Why has this language spread so widely in French-speaking Africa? (Historical approach)
From a historical background, educational activities have
existed for deaf children in 11 French-speaking African countries
sponsored by the Christian Mission for the Deaf (CMD), which has
been managed by Deaf Americans and Africans [CMD 1956-2006].
In 1956, Dr. Andrew J. Foster, a Deaf African-American,
founded the Christian Mission for the Deaf (CMD) in Michigan,
USA.
He and his colleagues founded 31 schools for the deaf in 13
African countries in 30 years.
Foster is and called “the Father of
Deaf Education in Africa” and respected among Deaf Africans [Titus
Dr. Andrew J. Foster
1925-1987
(Photo: Christian
Mission for the Deaf)
1994].
The CMD set up one of the world’s earliest educational institutes run by the Deaf themselves
using sign language.
The CMD hosted annual teacher training courses for youths in
French-speaking Africa at their center in Nigeria from 1976 to 1987. The course administrator
was Foster, a Deaf American, and the instructors were Deaf teachers from Benin.
161 trainees
participated from 19 African countries, most of whom were reported to be Deaf from
French-speaking countries (Figure 2).
As a result of the summer courses, the number of CMD schools rapidly increased from 5 to
31 in just 14 years (1974–1987).
Deaf instructors and trainees tried to modify ASL to fit the
context of French-speaking Africa. The combination of French literacy education and the use of
these modified ASL signs in the classroom led to the birth of a new sign language that exists neither
in the United States nor in France, but only in Africa.
Deaf Beninese instructors published
dictionaries of this new sign language, disseminating it to French-speaking Africa [Tamomo 1994].
(3) What is the attitude of the Deaf toward this language? (Anthropological approach)
Today, this contact sign language is widely used in every aspect of life among the Deaf,
including education, religious activities, and everyday life.
While some signers no longer
recognize the origin of their sign language, others feel a necessity to distinguish it from ASL.
It is
important to note that the spread of this sign language was not a process of oppression, but rather, a
creative process, one that naturally emerged with the development of Deaf communities.
Today, it
is no longer seen as a foreign sign language, but has become their primary language.
DISCUSSION
Considering its unique linguistic characteristics and history, wide use in French-speaking
Africa, and indigenous quality, I propose naming this language “Langue des Signes
Franco-Africaine (LSFA: Franco-African Sign Language).”
Definition
Langue des Signes Franco-Africaine (LSFA) is a generic term for sign languages widely
used among the Deaf in French-speaking West and Central Africa with two distinct
characteristics, loan signs from ASL and an influence based on spoken/written French.
In
short, LSFA can be defined as a generic term for creole sign languages consisting of ASL and
French in Africa.
Noteworthy facts on LSFA
(1) LSFA is not ASL.
LSFA is similar to ASL, one of its origin languages, but differs from ASL
in its vocabulary, history, language use, and signers’ awareness.
(2) LSFA is not “Signed French.”
LSFA was created under the influence of spoken/written
French, also one of its origin languages, and contains French-mouthing and words borrowed from
French.
It also contains grammatical elements of French, but differs from “Signed French” (the
way of signing that follows French word order exactly).
(3) LSFA has no relationship with LSF (French Sign Language).
LSFA is an ASL-based
creole sign language influenced by spoken/written French, not by LSF.
No evidence exists to
suggest that LSF was introduced to Africa during the French colonization era.
Moreover,
following the independence of African countries, France did not export its sign language until after
the 1990s.
LSFA was born without any influence of LSF and reveals few similarities to it.
(4) LSFA is not only a school language but also a community language.
When deaf education
in French-speaking Africa first began, Deaf educators tried to modify ASL, adapting it to
spoken/written French for their French literacy classes.
Later, it became a natural sign language
used in Deaf communities outside the schools, and was handed down from generation to generation.
These educators published several Sign-to-French dictionaries using this unique sign language.
(5) LSFA is not a “killer language.”
LSFA itself was not introduced from foreign countries, but
rather, was created within African Deaf communities.
from urban and rural African life.
It also contains many indigenous signs
The spread of this sign language was not a process of
oppression, but rather, a creative one, constructed by African Deaf educators and communities over
a span of many years.
Referring to it as “LSFA,” and not “ASL,” will provide new perspectives
for researching this language and its relationship to African Deaf history.
(6) LSFA may not be a specific language.
I consider LSFA to be a tentative generic term for
various sign languages and I also recognize the potential of renaming each variation as a specific
sign language in the future.
This paper has shown not only a new distribution of African sign languages, but also the
capabilities of Deaf Africans who have constructed another unique language community.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by the 21st Century COE Program “The Study of Social
Research for the Enhancement of Human Well-being” of Kwansei Gakuin University (Japan).
The field research was conducted through a Grant-in-Aid from the Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology, Japan, “A Study of Cognitive Linguistics on African Sign
Languages” (adopted in 2004, no.16652027; Chief researcher: Dr. Ritsuko Miyamoto [Akita
University]).
I express my deepest respect and gratitude to all the following persons and
organizations: the Deaf and hearing informants in Cameroon, Gabon, and Benin; the Christian
Mission for the Deaf (USA); Gallaudet University (USA); and Kyoto University (Japan).
REFERENCES
Christian Mission for the Deaf. 1956-2006. Silent Witness; Deaf Witness.
Christian Mission for the Deaf. http://www.cmdeaf.org/ (accessed on August 1, 2006).
Foster, Andrew J. 1975. Social aspects of Deafness: the school years. In: VIIth World Congress of
the World Federation of the Deaf: Full citizenship for all Deaf people (July 31-August 8, 1975.
USA). 354-356.
Higgins, Francis C. 1948. Schools for the deaf in the world. In: American Annals of the Deaf. 93-1
(January 1948). 49-60.
Institute of German Sign Language and Communication of the Deaf, University of Hamburg.
International Bibliography of Sign Language.
http://www.sign-lang.uni-hamburg.de/bibweb/ (accessed on August 1, 2006).
Kamei, Nobutaka. 2004. The sign languages of Africa. In: Journal of African Studies (Africa
Kenkyu) (Japan Association for African Studies) 64 (March 2004): 43-64.
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Lane, Harlan, Robert J. Hoffmeister & Benjamin Bahan. 1996. A journey into the Deaf-world. San
Diego: Dawn Sign Press.
Monaghan, Leila, Constanze Schmaling, Karen Nakamura, & Graham Turner eds. 2003. Many
ways to be Deaf. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press.
SIL International. Ethnologue. http://www.ethnologue.com/ (accessed on August 1, 2006).
Stephen F. Austin State University. 2003. Dr. Victor Vodounou.
http://www.sfasu.edu/hs/faculty-vodounou.htm (accessed on August 1, 2006).
Tamomo, Serge. 1994. Le Langage des Signes du Sourds Africain Francophone. Cotonou, Bénin:
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Table 1: Sign Languages of Africa [Kamei 2004, modified]
Little research has been conducted in French-speaking Africa.
[Ethnologue 2006; International Bibliography of Sign Language 2006]
1
Moroccan Sign Language
Morocco
2 Algerian Sign Language Algeria
3 Tunisian Sign Language
Tunisia
4 Libyan Sign Language
Libya
5 Egypt Sign Language
Egypt
6 Bamako Sign Language
Mali
7 Gambian Sign Language
Gambia
8 Guinean Sign Language
Guinea
9 Sierra Leone Sign Language
Sierra Leone
10 Adamorobe Sign Language Ghana
11 Ghanaian Sign Language
Ghana
12 Nigerian Sign Language
Nigeria
13 Hausa Sign Language
Nigeria
14 Chadian Sign Language
Chad
15 Congolesian Sign Language
Democratic Republic of Congo
16 Ethiopian Sign Language
Ethiopia
17 Kenyan Sign Language Kenya
18 Ugandan Sign Language
Uganda
19 Tanzanian Sign Language Tanzania
20 Zambian Sign Language
Zambia
21 Zimbabwe Sign Language Zimbabwe
22 Mozambican Sign Language Mozambique
23 Namibian Sign Language Namibia
24 South African Sign Language
South Africa
25 Madagascar Sign Language Madagascar
Figure 1: Sign Language Map of Africa [Kamei 2004, modified]
This map shows the outline of the area where each sign language is used.
[Ethnologue 2006; International Bibliography of Sign Language 2006]
Figure 2: Two maps of Africa relating to the birth of the new sign language
(a: left) French-speaking countries (22 countries)
This map shows the countries that use French as its official language.
(b: right) Countries of the CMD trainees (19 countries)
This map shows the countries of origin for the young trainees who participated in the annual
teacher training courses hosted by CMD in Nigeria (1976-1987).
A total of 161 Africans
participated from 19 countries [CMD 1956-2006].
The educational activities of the CMD covered almost all of French-speaking Africa and offered
classes with modified ASL and French literacy.
This situation led to the birth of a new contact
sign language that exists only in Africa.
(a) French-speaking countries
(22 countries)
(b) Countries of CMD trainees
(19 countries)