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- iBrarian

Association for the Development of Education in Africa
ADEA Biennial Meeting 2003
(Grand Baie, Mauritius, December 3-6, 2003)
Background paper - ERNWACA
Emerging Trends in Research on the Quality of Education
A synthesis of Educational Research Reviews From 1992-2002
in eleven countries of West and Central Africa
by
ERNWACA
Pai Obanya
Working Document
DRAFT
PLEASE DO NOT DISSEMINATE
• Original Version in English •
The papers that are summarized in this document were commissioned by ADEA or
prepared for its Biennial Meeting (Mauritius, December 3-6, 2003). The views and
opinions expressed in the papers and summaries are those of the authors and should
not be attributed to ADEA, to its members or affiliated organizations or to any individual
acting on behalf of ADEA.
The Biennial Meeting papers are working documents still in the stages of production.
They were prepared to serve as a basis for discussions at the ADEA Biennial Meeting
and should not be disseminated for other purposes at this stage.
© Association for the Development of Education in Africa (ADEA) – 2003
Association for the Development of Education in Africa (ADEA)
International Institute for Educational Planning
7-9 rue Eugène Delacroix
75116 Paris, France
Tel.: +33(0) 1 45 03 77 57
Fax: +33(0)1 45 03 39 65
[email protected]
Web site : www.ADEAnet.org
Biennale de l’ADEA – Grand Baie, Maurice – 3-6, décembre 2003
Réseau Ouest et Centre Africain de Recherche en Education
Educational Research Network for West And Central Africa
Emerging Trends in Research
on the Quality of Education
A synthesis of educational research
reviews from 1992-2002
in eleven countries of West and Central Africa
ERNWACA
with support from ADEA
Pai Obanya
Preliminary Report
9 October 2003
Bamako, MALI
ROCARE / ERNWACA • Tel: (223) 221 16 12 / 674 83 84, Fax: (223) 221 21 15 • BP E 1854, Bamako, MALI
Bénin • Burkina Faso • Cameroun • Côte d’Ivoire • Gambia •Ghana • Guinée• Mali • Nigeria • Niger • Sénégal • Sierra Leon •
Emerging Trends in Research on the Quality of Education
/ ERNWACA
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 3
Togo
/
RESEARCHERS
The review process mobilized over 80 researchers in 11 countries, including seasoned and
junior researchers and new ERNWACA members who received literature review training.
Women led 36% of the teams and represented 35% of the total number of researchers. All
teams received support from ERNWACA’s Regional Coordination and the ERNWACA
National Coordinators and national coordinating and scientific committees.
BENIN
Naim Salami
Léa Afouda-Gaba
Sulpice Dossou
Orobiyi Gansa
Toussaint Noudogbessi
Léonie Ali Tangni
Noël Vignon
Patrice Hinnoude
Thierry Azonhe
Arnauld Gbaguidi
Eudes Gbaguidi
Serge Dahande
Armel Aveke
Aline Somakpo
Béatrice M’po
Elvire Dossou-Yovo
BURKINA FASO
Célestine Palé Traoré
Binto Ouedraogo
Ernest Ilboudo
Calixta Banbara
Zakaria Belgo
Sansan Kambiré
Toudwindé Kindo
Sayouba Ouedraogo
Alizata Sama
Dieudonné Sanou
Sayouba Sawadogo
Michel Sawadogo
Souleymane Soré
Sylvain Soubeiga
Sidiki Traoré
Satta Traoré
Etienne Yaro
CAMEROON
Joseh Tamukong
Eugène Kengne
Brigitte Matchinda
Henry Tatangang
Moses Mbangwana
George Fonkeng
Maxwell Sigala
Therese Tchombe
Gilbert Tsafak
Pierre Fonkoua
CÔTE D’IVOIRE
Raoul François-Xavier
Koné
Kassi Eba
Saouré Kouamé
Evelyne Azoh
Hélène Nathalie Kouamé
Wognina Bamba
Amanoua Alain Yao
GAMBIA
Makarieh A. Njie
Jonathan Mogbo
Musa Sowe
Lamin Ceesay
Fatou Bin’ Njie-Jallow
Grace Bangali
GHANA
Kate Addo-Adeku
James A. Opare
Ama Banini
Emerging Trends in Research on the Quality of Education / ERNWACA
MALI
Koura Diallo
Sitapha Keita
Almoudou Touré
Cheick O.Fomba
NIGER
Laouali Malam Moussa
Maman Saley
Abdelkader Galy
Mariama Ibrahim Aly
Rakia Rabiou
NIGERIA
Mary Ladi Ango
Chinyere Ohiri-Anicher
Olanitemi O. Busari
Bade Adegoke
SENEGAL
Valdiodio Ndiaye
Ndiaye Ndoye-Ndiaye
Fatim Bâ
Fatoumata Binetou Diallo
Oumy Ndoye Seck
Sékouba Badji
TOGO
Philippe Amevigbe
Yawovi Tchamégnon
Hounou Ambroise
Rambert
Fortuné Amevigbe
Colette Assogba
Koffi Mel Yikpo
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 4
ABSTRACT
This synthesis document provides an overview of education research from 1992 through 2002 in West
and Central Africa, presents the policy implications for the research, and suggests future directions for
education research and capacity-building.
It was prepared by the Education Research Network for West and Central Africa (ERNWACA) in the
context of a continent-wide study of the Association for the Development of Education in Africa
(ADEA) on the quality of basic education in sub-Saharan Africa. The ERNWACA work was
designed both to make African education research available to the ADEA process and to update
Overlooked and Undervalued (ERNWACA, 1997), which reviewed education research from 1960
through 1991 in seven countries.
Because African education research is still notoriously hard to access, the same methodology as that
used for the 1997 publication was used. Eleven national ERNWACA teams combed their territories,
visiting universities, ministries of education, documentation centres, research institutes and
development partners to access research reports. Each team produced a national annotated
bibliography, including summaries of the documents retained for review. A regional consultant then
used the summaries to prepare this synthesis. The review is representative rather than exhaustive,
because the document collection and review work was constrained to a brief six-week period in March
and April 2003.
The review deals with four major themes: 1/ pedagogical renewal and teacher development,
2/ decentralisation and diversification of delivery systems, 3/ implementing of reforms and
innovations and finally, 4/ curriculum relevance and use of African languages. Within those broad
themes the synthesis covers research on traditional areas such as girls’ education, community
participation in education, and non-formal education and newer areas in which less research has been
generated to date, such as the use of information and communication technologies in teaching and
learning and the impact of and response to HIV/AIDS by the education sector.
Policy implications for the research reviewed include increasing attention to early childhood
education; rebuilding teacher morale and developing lifelong learning opportunities for teachers that
encourage creativity; accompanying quality improvement programs with deprivation-reduction
measures, especially in rural areas – where learner achievement is significantly lower than in urban
areas; actively recruiting more women teachers, ‘un’gendering curriculum materials and creating girlfriendly learning and legal environments; moving from rhetoric to practical realities when it comes to
African languages; bringing a sector-wide and multi-sector approach to reforms and innovations,
learning from successes and failures; and understanding the cultural dimensions of education.
The potential of new research approaches is also discussed, including action research – especially
when working to improve the quality of teaching – and formative research and evaluation – when
implementing reforms and generalizing innovations. The synthesis concludes with concrete
suggestions on how to build individual and institutional capacity so as to strengthen regional education
research.
In a second phase of this collaborative work between ERNWACA and ADEA, the partners hope to, in
association with ERNWACA’s sister network, ERNESA, bring the most pertinent documents
consulted in the review process out of desk drawers, dusty shelves and personal hard drives, making
them available in electronic format via Internet, thus responding in part to the outcry from
participating researchers about the accessibility of African education research.
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 5
ACRONYMS
ADEA
Association for the Development of Education in Africa
AED
Academy for Educational Development
EFA
Education for All
IDRC / CRDI
International Development Research Center
ENS
École normale supérieure
ERNESA
Education Research Network for East and Southern Africa
FAWE
Forum for African Women Educators
FCUBE
Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education (Ghana)
FEMSA
Education in Mathematics and Sciences for Women in Africa
GES
Ghana Education Service
ICT
Information and Communication Technologies
MEBA
Ministry of Basic Education
NGO
Non-governmental organization
PTA
Parent-teacher association
ERNWACA / ROCARE
Educational Research Network for West and Central Africa
Réseau Ouest et Centre Africain de Recherche en Éducation
PRODEC
Programme Décennal de l’Education (Mali)
ROCARE
See ERNWACA
SARA
Support for Analysis and Research in Africa, Washington, DC
UBE
Universal Basic Education (Nigeria)
UNICEF
United Nations Children’s Fund
USAID
United States Agency for International Development
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 6
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 – Introduction and Background ...................................................... 7
1.1 Overall Context
1.2 Quantitatively Speaking
1.3 Getting into Quality
Chapter 2 – Pedagogical Renewal and Teacher Development ...................... 12
2.1 Education Developments
2.2 Research Activities and Emerging Trends
2.2.1 The pre-school experience
2.2.2 Teacher development
2.2.3 Teaching and learning
2.2.4 Education technology
2.2.5 Gender issues
2.2.6 Action research
Chapter 3 – Decentralisation and Diversification of Delivery Systems ....... 18
3.2.1 Community involvement
3.2.2 Non-formal education
3.2.3 Evaluation of structures and processes
Chapter 4 – Implementing Reforms and Innovations in Basic Education .. 22
4.2.1 Education of girls and equity issues
4.2.2 Specific innovations
4.2.3 Formative research and evaluation
Chapter 5 – Curricula Relevance and Use of African Languages ................ 27
5.2.1 Bilingual education policies and practices
5.2.4 First language foundation and mastery of other competencies
5.2.5 HIV/AIDS threat and response
Chapter 6 – Conclusions and Recommendations ........................................... 31
6.1 Challenges of the Synthesis Exercise
6.2 Policy and Research Implications of the Findings
6.3 Fertilizing Nascent Educational Research Resources
Bibliography .................................................................................................... 37
ERNWACA Transnational Studies ................................................................. 37
Bénin ............................................................................................................... 37
Burkina Faso ................................................................................................... 41
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 7
Cameroon / Cameroun ....................................................................................
Côte d’Ivoire ...................................................................................................
Gambia ............................................................................................................
Ghana ..............................................................................................................
Mali .................................................................................................................
Niger ................................................................................................................
Nigeria .............................................................................................................
Sénégal ............................................................................................................
Togo ................................................................................................................
46
52
59
60
65
68
72
77
81
Figures
Figure 1.2a : Coverage of the Four Research Themes
Figure 1.2b:
Country Level Coverage of Research Themes
Figure 6.3a
Education Research Capacity Tripod
Figure 6.3b
Research through Impact back to Research Cycle, via capacity building
Tables
Table 1.2a :
Coverage of the Four Research Themes from Four Analytical Perspectives:
Initiative, Inspiration, Methodology, Research outlet
Table 1.2b :
Dates of Documents Reviewed
Table 3.1 :
Extracts from Burkina Faso’s Law on the Decentralisation of the
Management of Education
Table 4.2.1 : Girls’ Representation in Science-based Programmes (adapted from FEMSAMali, 1999)
Table 6.1 :
Comparative Analysis of Types of Research Documents Reviewed:
1960-1991 vs. 1992-2002
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 8
1.
INTRODUCTION
AND
BACKGROUND
1.1
Overall Context
This is a synthesis of educational research review studies conducted in eleven Western and
Central African countries in the first half of the year 2003. The review was commissioned by
ADEA (Association for the Development of Education in Africa) and was carried out by
national offices of ERNWACA (Educational Research Network for West and Central Africa),
under the overall coordination of its regional secretariat, based in Bamako, Mali.
While there is understanding within ERNWACA of the need for a holistic approach to
education from the pre-school experience through higher and continuing education, this work
focussed on basic education, today’s number one priority area of educational development in
Africa, with a special emphasis on quality issues. Because quality in education has been such
an elusive concept, every effort was made to delineate specific boundaries for it in the
guidelines to the project.
These guidelines specified that the research review searchlight should target the following
four themes:
Pedagogical renewal and teacher development;
Decentralisation and diversification of delivery systems;
Implementation of reforms and innovations;
Curricula relevance and use of African languages in basic education.
ERNWACA offices in eleven West and Central African countries submitted analytical
reviews and annotated bibliographies, in keeping with the guidelines. They also provided
analytical insights into recent developments in education, in keeping with the Education for
All (EFA) momentum, in their various countries. The countries are Benin, Burkina Faso,
Cameroon Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, the Gambia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, and Togo. All
countries (with he exception of The Gambia) attempted to classify their submissions
according to the four themes suggested in the guidelines. Nine of the ten other countries (with
the exception of Côte d’Ivoire) covered all four themes. Côte d’Ivoire did not cover the
decentralisation theme, a new area where research is being conducted at the national level but
is not yet complete.
The Review was intended as a follow-up to an earlier work by ERNWACA, published in
1997, under the title Overlooked and Undervalued. This was also a review of research studies
in the region, and it covered the period up to 1991. The present review covered the period
1992-2002, a decade marked by intensive political and social transformations in the region.
Most of the countries have been subjected to the vagaries of the wind of democracy and
structural adjustment. Some of the countries (Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone) witnessed
varying degrees of political turbulence and so could not take part in the study. All the
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 9
countries were in the pursuit of Jomtien1 and are signatories to the Dakar Declaration and the
new EFA goals of April 20002. At the time the review was undertaken, all the countries were
involved in developing their EFA national action plans. A number of countries (e.g. Burkina
Faso and Mali) had in fact launched their ten-year (‘decennial’) plans for the development of
basic education. Ghana and Nigeria were implementing universal basic education
programmes, while the Republic of Benin has been pursuing its EQF (École de Qualité
Fondamentale).
Reforms are still going on in all the countries, in search of innovative strategies for tackling
the numerous problems facing basic education: society ownership, funding, infrastructure,
teachers and other educational personnel, quality, relevance, efficiency, and capacity gaps in
various forms and categories. The review was expected to explore the extent to which
research (i.e. systematic inquiry and analysis) is being generated in the region, as a potential
resource for addressing the multiple and complex issues related to quality education.
While the exercise focused on basic education, ERNWACA researchers, responding to the
network’s new vision of a holistic approach to education, did review certain documents about
pre-school education, secondary education, and higher education, in relation to basic
education. The development of basic education requires knowledge of what precedes it and
an understanding that basic education is not an end, but rather the foundation for successful
secondary and continuing studies – lifelong learning opportunities that should be available for
all Africans.
1
The World Conference on Education for All was held in 1990 in Jomtien (Thailand), where 155 governments
were represented. The result was the World Declaration on Education for All, which compromises 10 articles.
Every person shall benefit from educational opportunities designed to meet their learning needs (Article 1);
universal access to basic education – for all children, youth and adults – shall be ensured (Article 3), focusing on
learning acquisition (Article 4); basic education should be understood in a broad scope in which learning begins
at birth and there is a variety of delivery systems for diverse needs (Article 5).
2
The World Forum on Education in April 2000 in Dakar (Senegal) agreed on six Education for All (EFA) goals.
The Dakar Framework for Action declared that all children of primary-school age would have access to and
complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality by 2015 (goal 2) and all gender disparities in
primary and secondary education would be eliminated by 2005 (goal 6). Early childhood care and education and
learning opportunities for youth and adults would be greatly increased, especially for the most vulnerable and
disadvantaged children (goal 1), levels of adult illiteracy would be halved (goal 4), and all aspects of education
quality would be improved (goal 6).
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 10
1.2
Quantitatively Speaking
Figure 1.2a shows the relative strengths of each of the four themes in the body of literature
reviewed.
FIG. 1.2a : Coverage of the
Four Research Themes
Relevance / African
languages
22%
Pedagogy / Teacher
Development
33%
Reforms / Innovations
25%
Decentralization /
Diversification
20%
Theme 1 on pedagogical renewal and teacher development was the most popular, representing
35% of the total literature reviewed, followed by literature on Theme 2: reforms and
innovations (25%), Theme 3: curricula relevance and use of African languages (22%) and
finally by Theme 4, the theme on which the least was available: decentralization and
diversification of delivery systems (20% of the literature). These numbers could be an
indication of more intensive development and research activities in the areas covered by
Theme 1.
FIG. 1.2b : Country Level Coverage of Research Themes
100%
3
13
12
13
10
11
10
8
11
24
14
11
14
6
60%
15
13
14
12
9
12
27
42
20
12
18
9
14
14
20%
3
0
15
40%
14
14
18
80%
15
10
13
13
19
Senegal
Togo
12
0%
Benin
Burkina Faso
Cameroun
THEME 1: Pedagogy / Teacher training
Cote d'Ivoire
Gambia
Ghana
THEME 2: Decentralization / Diversification
Mali
Niger
THEME 3: Reforms / Innovations
Nigeria
THEME 4: Relevance / African languages
Figure 1.2b shows that coverage of the four research themes is not strictly even among the
participating countries. Theme 1 on pedagogy and teacher development is still dominant in
two countries (Côte d’Ivoire and Niger), while the other three themes dispute the second
position in most of the countries.
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 11
Table 1.2a shows the coverage of the four themes by ten of the eleven countries (excluding
The Gambia) that submitted reviews classified in the manner suggested in the guidelines.
Table 1.2a : Coverage of the Four Research Themes from Four Analytical Perspectives
ANALYTCAL
PERSPECTIVE
1.
INITIATIVE
1.1 Individual
1.2 Institutional
INSPIRATION
2.1 Internal
2.2 External
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Fieldwork
3.2 Reflections
& Analysis
4.
RESEARCH
OUTLET
4.1 Official reports
4.2 Theses &
Dissertations
4.3 Journals/Books
THEME
1
THEME 2
THEME 3
THEME 4
TOTAL
%
704
109
57
48
62
61
47
70
240
288
45%
55%
31
152
31
74
18
105
23
94
103
425
20%
80%
123
74
84
60
341
65%
60
32
39
56
187
35%
72
63
70
59
264
50%
78
33
26
16
32
21
27
31
163
101
31%
19%
183
105
123
117
528
100%
2.
TOTAL
The Table looks at the research reviewed from four analytical perspectives, as follows:
Initiative: was the source of the research initiative institutional or individual?
Inspiration: where did the inspiration for the research come from, internal or external
sources?
Methodology: did the research project involve any form of fieldwork, or was it limited
to analysis and reflections?
Outlet: were the research findings communicated as official (government or
institutional) reports including conference proceedings, part of academic/professional
course dissertations, or published in academic journals or books.
While the Table shows the general trends, there are notable variations among the countries.
The following features of the Table deserve some comments, as they are of particular
relevance to the research capacity gap that the research reviews have brought to the fore.
First, there is a fairly good mix of individual and institutional research, with the latter having
a slight advantage (45% / 55%).
Second, there is a strong preponderance (80%) of external inspired research, i.e. initiated
and/or commissioned by external agencies, usually in the form of situational analysis for the
launching of projects or in the form of evaluation of on-going or completed projects.
Third, research in the form of fieldwork has a good edge over research in the form of
analysis/reflections (65% / 35%).
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 12
Fourth, official reports – from government and institutions – and proceedings of conferences
and workshops are the predominant sources of the research information reviewed (50%), as
against academic dissertations (31%), and journals and books (19%).
Table 1.2b shows that the majority of the documents reviewed dated from 1997 on.
Table 1.2b : Dates of Documents Reviewed
Dates of documents reviewed
1997 - 2002/3
1992 - 1997
1.3
Percentage of total
80%
20%
Getting into Quality
A huge amount of information lies behind bar figures, thus the quantitative dimensions of this
synthesis should be regarded as simply introductory to the more qualitative analysis that
follows. The next four chapters will discuss the research reviewed in the order in which the
themes are listed in the guidelines. Chapter two will discuss pedagogical reforms/teacher
development, chapter three decentralisation and diversification, chapter four the
implementation of reforms and innovations, chapter five relevance of education and use of
African languages. The last chapter (chapter six) will attempt to draw appropriate lessons
from the entire exercise, for policymakers and for researchers.
Each chapter will begin with an overview of current educational debates and developments in
the sub-region in relation to the particular theme being discussed. This will be followed by an
attempt to relate reported research activities to the debates and developments and to identify
emerging trends.
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 13
2.
PEDAGOGICAL RENEWAL
AND
TEACHER DEVELOPMENT
2.1
Education Developments
In nearly all the countries participating in the literature review on the quality of education,
there has been an increasing emphasis on in-service and decentralised on-the-job training of
teachers. This, in response to changing demands being made of teachers as facilitators of
learning and of child development. In some countries (e.g. Benin), new teachers have not
been recruited for years, for economic/financial reasons. In such cases, re-educating serving
teachers has become the most viable option.
This option has also had its impact in three main directions: the strengthening of teacher
continuing education institutions, increased localisation of in-service training – bringing the
activity closer to the schools (e.g. GAP: Groupe d’Animation Pédagogique in Burkina Faso;
CAFOP: Centre d’Animation et de Formation Pédagogique in Côte d’Ivoire; and CAP:
Centre d’Animation Pédagogique in Mali) –, and intensified training of trainers, mainly
inspectors and pedagogical advisers. In conjunction with these developments, there is an
increased realisation of the importance of distance learning in the professional improvement
of teachers. There are also debates on the practical utility of initial teacher training, more
particularly on issues related to the length of training.
There has also been an influx of ‘new methodologies’ into the school system, promoted
largely through new teaching-learning guidelines and localised in-service training
programmes. The new methodologies go by different names, such as active methods, audiovisual methods, pedagogy by objectives (outcome-based learning), etc.
Also clearly discernible from the reviews is a greater realisation of the importance of early
childhood care and education, as an integral part of basic education and as a foundation for
school-based learning. There is however no evidence of increasing government involvement
in the provision of this level of education.
2.2
Research Activities and Emerging Trends
The research activities reviewed tend to mirror the prevailing trends in the development of
basic education services in areas related to the subject of Theme One: Pedagogical Renewal
and Teacher Development. They tended to focus on the following issues.
1. The pre-school experience
2. Teacher development
3. Teaching and learning
4. Education technology
5. Action research
6. Gender issues
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 14
2.2.1 The pre-school experience
UNICEF seems to have taken the lead here in showing, through research evidence to support
the view, that basic education is concerned with meeting the totality of the survival and
learning needs of the individual. This is done in its study in Benin, linking educational
readiness to an enabling environment that includes adequate health and nutrition.
The education readiness hypothesis is then taken up in a number of studies exploring the
relationship between pre-schooling and the cognitive and affective dimensions of
performance at the primary level, as illustrated by a number of studies from Cameroon, Côte
d’Ivoire and Niger.
The Côte d’Iviore studies show that pre-schooling does not significantly improve the chances
of adaptation to school life. They also show that children who have been through pre-school
institutions have only a slight head start in reading over those who have not been through preschool institutions. One of the studies even claims that children who have not been to nursery
schools even have an edge over the otherwise privileged children in numeracy skills.
A study from Niger, on the other hand, found that pre-schooling facilitates all forms of
learning, as well as psychological adaptation to the primary school. Nchungong Chwefung in
a 1996 study in Cameroon found that school conditions – particularly the extent to which
teachers are trained in early childhood education methods – do make a difference.
Onuchukuw and Ifeanacho (2001) studied education in nursery schools to assess relevance to
the development of the Nigerian child. They found that there is no unified and defined
curriculum for nursery education; 32% to 80% of the books used (depending on the school)
were of Western origin; poems, nursery rhymes and plays were completely American or
European; English was the predominant language followed by French while no Nigerian
language was used; and in some schools there was prolonged electronic bombardment via
CNN on television, computers, and computer games. It was recommended that government
develop a curriculum for nursery education based on the philosophy and objectives of
Nigerian education.
2.2.2 Teacher development
The following issues dominate available studies on teacher development:
Learning needs and conditions of serving teachers: A reasonably well designed study from
Togo (Adjoké and Biyou, 2001) found that primary school teachers in the Kara region in the
north of the country had a lot of ‘handicaps’, even though they were strongly motivated
reasonably well qualified, and experienced. Their handicaps were that:
58% of the them had no initial teacher training and no on-the-job training;
71% were temporary and auxiliary teachers with poor working conditions;
91% needed to upgrade their mastery of basic school subjects (language and
mathematics).
Reports from Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire, among others, support the view that teacher
development has to be carried along with measures in other areas: reducing class sizes,
improving the availability and quality of materials, etc.
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 15
Ghana’s FCUBE (Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education) programme was subjected to
‘beneficiary assessment’ at the end of the first half of its implementation period. According to
Daaku (2002):
The study reviewed assessments of pupils’ performance comprising continuous
assessment, performance-monitoring tests, school performance appraisal meetings,
criterion referenced tests, basic certificate examinations, etc. Constraints identified
include inadequate accommodation for teachers, overloaded curriculum, lack of
instructional materials, etc. Teachers manufactured scores for pupils. The
assessment process is cumbersome and time-consuming. There is ineffective
monitoring.
It was suggested that teachers be encouraged to give a reasonable number of exercises to
pupils regularly, to record marks as soon as the exercises are graded, and use the raw scores
for effective monitoring. Both teachers and principals thus need continuous assessment
training.
Teacher training and influence on performance: Research evidence (from Côte d’Ivoire in
particular – Atedji et. al., 1995, for example) shows that teachers with the BEPC tend to be
more effective teachers than those with the baccalaureate, which is a higher qualification. The
work of Alota (2000) in Cameroon corroborates this finding. Reports from some countries
show that non-qualified teachers (e.g. who have gone through CAFOP to obtain the minimum
academic qualification of the baccalaureate) have turned out to be the ‘evils of the system’.
This is because higher academic qualifications have not significantly improved their teaching
competence.
Appropriateness of pre-service training programmes in general: Most of the studies stressed
the existence of numerous ‘lacunae’ in existing teacher education programmes. Some of the
researchers have cried out against policy instability, especially the frequent changes in the
length of pre-service training, as borne out by historical research evidence from a number of
francophone countries.
Evaluation of specific programmes and structures for the training of trainers: Most of the
studies in this category (e.g. Dagbisso et al. in Côte d’Ivoire) were concerned with the
institutional capacity of in-service training institutions. A peer review of Gambia College’s
School of Education (N’jie et al., ERNWACA, 2002) recommended improved quality
assurance systems within the institution so to maintain quality programs while significantly
increasing student enrolment to meet education reform objectives to expand the national
education system.
2.2.3 Teaching and learning
Research on teaching and learning address two main issues:
The effectiveness of ‘new methodologies’: One group of studies on this subject deals with
observations of classroom interactions. The general finding (as illustrated by the work of
Ouedraogo, 2000 in Burkina Faso) is that classroom activities are characterised by ‘rigidity’.
The conclusions of a study from Côte d’Ivoire (Coulibaly, 2000) explains the ‘rigidity’ as
occasioned by:
Insufficient and poor training, leading to poor mastery of appropriate teaching
techniques;
Poor supervision;
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 16
Large and unmanageable classes;
Low teacher morale.
The second group of research is in the form of experiments. They all report significantly
higher performance by students taught via a variety of ‘active’ methods – eclectic methods,
play methods, integrated learning strategies, use of multiple classroom resources (e.g. Ashu,
Cameroon, 1992,).
Factors affecting learner performance in specific subject areas. In this case the emphasis was
still on teaching techniques, and very little on learner and environmental factors affecting
learning. The natural sciences also seem to be the major area of concentration. In nearly all
the reported cases (e. g. Njumo in 1999 and Zeufack in 1990 – both in Cameroon), the use of
concrete materials and active participation by learners do enhance student learning.
2.2.4 Education technology
Use of audio-visual materials. Dagbisso et al. in Côte d’Ivoire (1999) found that teacher
trainers lack the capacity to select and use appropriate audio-visual materials. Another study
from Côte d’Ivoire (Anet, 1999) and one from Burkina Faso found that audio-visual materials
used in teaching in primary schools increase acquisition of notions and, according to
Yameogo (1998, Burkina Faso) encourage children to develop a critical attitude toward
media. The studies recommend reducing costs of such materials for schools as well as
training teachers and teacher trainers from all disciplines in the use of audiovisual materials,
for example in how to develop questionnaires to help students analyse TV and radio
programs.
New information and communication technologies. Several studies (Cameroon, Gambia,
Ghana, Nigeria, Togo) insisted that teachers should also be trained in the use of computers,
Internet, CD ROMS and other new media as well as (Kengne, 2000 in Cameroon) in the use
of educational software to develop didactical materials. It was also recommended that
teachers, particularly science teachers, also receive training in maintenance and repair of
equipment. They should not just be taught the computer, but how to use it in teaching. These
recommendations stemmed from general reviews of education reforms and teacher training
programs and from literature reviews aimed to inform government policies in the area of new
information and communication technologies (ICT) in education.
The only study based on classroom experimentation came from Nigeria and found that
computer-assisted instruction enhanced learners’ cognitive achievement in social studies
among secondary school learners (Ajelabi, 2000 in Nigeria).
Distance learning. Demand for teachers has outpaced supply and untrained contractors are in
West and Central African classrooms. Several countries are experimenting the use of open
and distance learning in teacher training to help provide relief. In Senegal, the Ecole Normale
Supérieure is running several such programs, for example via the Centre d’application,
d’étude et de ressources en apprentissage à distance (since 1998). While several studies
suggested the value of distance learning, none researched it specifically. There were no
evaluations of new programs and their potential for contributing to initial and continuing
education for teachers. This could be due either to the paucity of such work at this stage or to
the fact that reviewing researchers, not finding the documents in the main documentation
centres visited, did not make a particular effort to seek them out from pertinent institutions.
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 17
2.2.6 Gender issues
Gender composition of the teaching force at the primary level: Research from Burkina Faso
shows an increasing ‘feminisation’ of the teaching corps both in urban and rural areas, with a
tendency towards having more and more women in the lower professional cadres. Reports
from Niger, on the other hand, show very low representation of women in the teaching force.
This finding is explained by the low enrolment of girls in primary schools and the constraints
imposed on women by marriage. Studies from both Gambia and Mali strongly recommend
the active recruitment of more women teachers and even suggested that this would increase
student enrolments. A FAWE study (Sangaré et al., 1999) found that there are very few
female candidates for the entrance exam to teacher training institutes in Mali. Also, while
women teachers in rural areas were revered as models, women teachers in urban areas were
perceived as less effective – due to multiple domestic and social responsibilities (baptisms,
marriages, funerals) – and often have difficulty with their directors regarding schedules, class
attribution, involvement in examinations, participation in training workshops, and transfers.
The authors recommended incentives for women teachers.
Gender bias in teaching and learning materials: More fundamental issues on gender bias in
basic education are raised in the conclusions of a study from Ghana (CRRD, not dated) after
an analysis of language, mathematics and science textbooks:
Numerous instances of systematic gendering were found throughout the texts…
Males were typically found in occupations demanding more skills, knowledge and
diplomacy. Males, as opposed to females, were portrayed as doing more challenging
jobs…while females were more often portrayed as dancing and singing or cooking
and tending a child. Males are…put at the forefront of all major events.
Systematically the texts imprint gender bias and gender stereotyping of occupations,
leisure activities, domestic labour and attributes on the minds of pupils.
2.2.6 Action research
Action research, used in a smattering of the studies reviewed, seems to be an approach that
can facilitate work with teachers for improved quality of teaching. Teachers become active in
innovating and solving their own problems and, when implemented on large scales (i.e. PPSE
program in Guinea – not reviewed in this exercise) research action can encourage systemic
change. Training reports and handbooks from 1998 in Burkina Faso, not research per se,
rather documents about action research projects (Briba Toe; MEBA) describe how teachers
received support from pedagogical advisors and resource teachers to develop and experiment,
via observation and descriptive report writing, tools for group reading. The action research
exercise led to wider use of these group reading techniques in primary schools in
Ouagadougou.
The Ecoles-Témoins (model school) program in Côte d’Ivoire in the mid to late 1990s (see
Toure; MENFB) was conceived with a good dose of parent involvement, enriched teachinglearning materials, continuous assessment, improved school climate, and teacher support
through close supervision. Part of the strategy was to train teachers in action research. It was
found that their participation in collaborative projects defined and developed at the school
level contributed to:
Improved students performance on examinations;
Enhanced pedagogical skills of teachers;
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 18
Greater self-confidence and trust among teachers;
Increased parent involvement in school affairs;
Funding has however remained a problem.
The evaluation reports recommended exchange among teachers, continuing education for
them, reorganization of school/class schedules to improve pedagogy, and action research
training for other actors including parents.
According to Tettey-Enyo et al. (1996 in Ghana), action research has been firmly established
in many departments at University College of Education Winneba for pre- and in-service
teacher education.
Follow-up studies should be conducted on these and similar programs to assess longer term
impact on improved quality of teaching and the role of action research in that process.
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 19
3.
DECENTRALISATION
AND
DIVERSIFICATION
OF DELIVERY SYSTEMS
3.1
Most African countries recognize that the basic learning needs of children, adolescents, youth
and adults cannot be fully met by formal schooling alone. The concept of alternative
education delivery systems has therefore been encouraged, especially since Jomtien in 1990.
The idea that government cannot go it alone in matters of provision of education has also
gained ground in the past decade. Governments all over Africa have accordingly attempted to
strengthen and expand partnerships in favour of education, particularly on basic education.
An essential aspect of partnerships has been an increasing attempt to involve a variety of
stakeholders in the provision and management of education. The major stakeholders in most
places have been parents’ associations and local communities. The countries participating in
the research review that is the subject of this synthesis provide some evidence of governments
trying to ensure that, in educational matters, power really lies with the people, as in the case
of Burkina (see Table 3.1).
Table 3.1 : Extracts from Burkina Faso’s Law on the Decentralisation of the Management of Education
ART. 80 - PROVINCE
ART. 81 - COMMUNE
Prise en charge de l’enseignement préscolaire dans les
zones non-érigées en commune: à ce titre, elle
acquiert, construit, et gère des établissements
préscolaires.
Prise en charge de l’enseignement primaire dans les
zones non érigées en commune: à ce titre, elle
acquiert, construit et gère des écoles primaires.
Construction et gestion des établissements secondaires
autre que nationaux.
Prise en charge du développement de l’enseignement
préscolaire dans la commune: à ce titre, elle acquiert,
construit et gère des établissements préscolaires.
Prise en charge avec l’appui de l’Etat du
développement de la formation professionnelle et de
l’alphabétisation.
Participation a l‘établissement de la tranche
provinciale de la carte scolaire nationale.
Prise en charge de l’enseignement primaire dans la
commune: à ce titre, elle acquiert, construit et gère des
écoles primaires.
Contribution au développement de l’enseignement
secondaire: à ce titre elle construit et gère des
établissements secondaires.
Prise en charge avec l’appui de l’Etat du
développement de la formation professionnelle et de
l’alphabétisation.
Participation à l’établissement de la tranche
communale de la care scolaire.
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 20
3.2
Submissions from the countries that participated in this review show that on-going research
activities related to decentralisation and diversification of education delivery systems hinge
around the following areas of concern:
1. Community involvement;
2. Non-formal education;
3. Evaluation of structures and processes of decentralisation.
3.2.1 Community involvement
Available studies on this topic focus mainly on the extent to which parents and communities
are involved in school support and in the running of les écoles communautaires and how this
involvement impacts access to and quality of education Most of the studies were conducted
in Mali, where external agencies and NGOs have been particularly active in promoting the
community school concept and increased community involvement in school management.
Studies were also conducted in Benin, Burkina Faso, Niger, and Togo.
Findings on the level of community involvement show that it is in the form of a gradient, the
determining factors being (a) level of ongoing social mobilisation, (b) material wealth in the
community, and (c) management capacity in the school and the community. A first group of
findings (e.g. Cossou for ERNWACA, Benin, 2001) asserts that écoles communautaires, ones
created and run by the community, do yet truly exist, because parents are little involved and
sometimes merely pay unemployed graduates to occupy public school classrooms left void of
teachers. Other studies found that community involvement is significantly more intensive in
rural areas (e.g. Ilboudo and Kabore for ERNWACA, Burkina Faso, 2001; and ROCAREMali, 1997).
Some research reported significantly higher performance in language and math by pupils in
community schools. One study reported higher performance by pupils in conventional public
schools, in Grade 1, with a reverse situation after Grade 2. The authors suggested the shift
was due to the fact that community schools were established in areas with no ‘culture’ of
schooling; by the end of Grade 2, thanks in part to the ability of teachers to mobilise and
create confidence among parents, pupils had apparently overcome certain cultural handicaps,
i.e. not having a sibling who had been schooled. While community participation does not
automatically translate to greater student performance, it clearly seems to increase access to
basic education and reduce repetition rates (ROCARE-Mali, 1997 and 2001).
That conclusion is corroborated by a number of other research findings, i.e. in Ghana (Baku
and Agyeman, 1997), which found that parents are in fact involved and that this has exerted a
positive influence on access, retention, and success in learning.
In a context of increasing decentralization of school management, roles and responsibilities
change and need to be discussed and redefined. Dialogue seems to be key – at the community
level, between central and regional authorities, between NGOs and government. The two
ERNWACA transnational studies on community participation (2001 and 2002) recommend
school involvement in community development projects and further research on schoolcommunity collaboration. Several studies strongly recommend legal frameworks to structure
and support the development of partnerships for positive participation of NGOs and PTAs in
education (e.g. Tounkara, ERNWACA-Mali, 2001; N'jie, ERNWACA-Gambia, 2002). The
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 21
Gambia study found that PTAs were most involved with infrastructural development and
maintenance projects, and suggested that parents, with adequate training and funding, could
be more involved in quality issues such as monitoring teacher effectiveness and incorporating
local content.
Findings on the impact of the community schools are interesting in that no clear-cut
conclusions can be drawn from them. More questions have been raised than answers, and this
simply means that more research is needed.
3.2.2 Non-formal education
Three major trends run through the research reviewed under this heading, as shown in the
following illustrative examples.
Koranic schools: These schools are found all over Islamised countries and societies,
and they are the first and only avenues for education for a substantial population. Yet,
as research evidence shows, civil society capacity for managing them (when they are
absorbed into the mainstream basic education system) is low, while NGOs do not
appear to be sufficiently interested in them (Malam Moussa, Niger, 2001). The
Malam Moussa study suggested: « le développement d’une nouvelle offre qui intègre
les points forts de l’école formelle actuelle, de l’école coranique et des programmes
d’alphabétisation et de formation des adultes. » Other studies recommended the same
(e.g. GRENF, Niger, 2001; Njie, 1999) suggested the same.
Functional Literacy Programmes: Evaluation of their benefits, beyond mere
acquisition of literacy and numeracy skills, were carried out in Ghana. One of the
studies (Agye-Bein, 2001) reported that 87% of 18 769 beneficiaries – mainly women
– agreed that they experienced improved earnings as a result of the functional skills
acquired along with literacy. A similar study in a different region of the country
(Hodzi, 1999) came to the conclusion that:
FL (Functional Literacy) has made some positive impact on the women, their
families and the cluster of communities. Thus, it was observed that FL is an
effective tool for empowering deprived, disadvantaged illiterate rural women.
Their economic capabilities had been enhanced, and they had consequently
embarked on saving in a bank. Knowledge on family planning methods had also
improved, although water and sanitation were still a problem.
Traditional apprenticeship systems: Conclusions from a series of participant
observations in Benin (Akpaka and Gaba, 1992) show the positive and negative sides
of the informal apprenticeship system prevalent in West and Central Africa. The
system is known for being closely intertwined with life within the immediate
community. The relationship between teachers and learners exists at three levels –
trainer/trainee, father/child, entrepreneur/worker. At the same time, the level of
theoretical knowledge is poor; there are no teaching support materials, while the
conditions of work are usually difficult. In short, absorbing the informal
apprenticeship system into mainstream basic education would require remedying the
observed shortcomings of current practices. A study in Benin and Togo on vocational
training tried to shed light on the situation by researching dual training models in
which learners alternate between coursework and apprenticeship work. Researchers
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 22
studied ‘journal’ entries by apprentices ‘on the job.’ Based on that analysis, training
programs for different professions within the informal sector were tailored to
harmonize practical learning needs with material covered in coursework (Grandbois,
ERNWACA, et al., 2001).
3.2.3 Evaluation of structures and processes
Research from Burkina Faso has been singled out for particular mention here because it
provides a methodology for building research and evaluation into educational policy
development. Another point of strong interest is that one of the studies is an outsider
evaluation, while the second study is a self- (or an auto-) evaluation. Policy development
would always benefit from the points of convergence and even divergence of the two forms of
evaluation.
The outsider evaluation (Bomoney, 2002) examined the political decentralisation of the
country and the administrative decentralisation (or deconcentration) which the policy imposes
on the functioning of the Ministry of Basic Education (MEBA), and found that the structures
and processes could still be improved by:
Further administrative and technical strengthening;
Raising the level of autonomy of local level structures;
Improving the capacity of managers at the school level.
The self-evaluation by the Ministry (MEBA, 2000) set out to examine the gains of
decentralisation and the problems encountered in the course of its implementation. Not much
was reported on the achievements, while the problems were not stated in the annotated
bibliography. The important lessons are however outlined in the recommendations. They are
concerned with the need for:
Effective decentralisation to local education authorities;
Harmonising teachers’ salaries;
Reducing the growing tendencies towards ‘regionalism, ethnic chauvinism and
nepotism’;
Improving financial control down the line;
Increasing the level of funding to decentralised structures;
Ensuring that decentralisation is not carried out at the expense of national cohesion.
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 23
4.
IMPLEMENTING REFORMS
AND
INNOVATIONS
4.1
Reforms and innovations are terms that have been over flogged in the discourse on education
in Africa since the early 1960s, when most countries in the region attained political
independence. With ‘no more business as usual’ in the aftermath of the Jomtien World
Conference on Education for All (1990), reforms and innovations in a wide variety of forms
and scope (as well as in depths of intensity) have been heralded and experimented.
The summaries and annotated bibliographies that informed the present synthesis point
regarding reforms and innovations have focussed on:
Popularising the ‘expanded vision’ of basic education, as championed by Jomtien;
Improving the performance of the system, by paying due attention to access, equity,
relevance and efficiency issues;
Meeting the challenge of resource constraints;
Addressing various forms of capacity gaps.
Gender equality in education is a condition for development and most reforms address how to
attain full and equal access to and achievement in education of good quality for girls, at least
on paper. While progress has been made, most West and Central African countries, however,
are far from eliminating the gender gap by 2005 and in ensuring education for all, including
all girls, by 2015 – goals set by the international community at the World Forum on Education
in Dakar in 2000.
Ongoing debates in the region centre on the need to broaden the scope of participation in
educational development work. There are also long doubts as to the level of political will to
carry out reforms. These doubts have been well captured in the following quotation from the
Burkina Faso report:
Si dans les documents officiaux, l’objectif principal des plans d’action des innovations
et autres stratégies vise la généralisation et la pérennisation des actions d’éducation,
le constat actuel est que concernant les différentes expériences entreprises on parle
plutôt d’extension et non de généralisation.
Pourquoi une telle situation?
L'impression générale est que la tendance actuelle est de faire une extension à la
demande et en fonction des besoins des bénéficiaires et du milieu et non de procéder à
la généralisation tous azimuts, qui provoque souvent des résistances qui finissent par
faire échouer l’innovation ou la réforme dans son ensemble.
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 24
4.2
The following three issues dominate the research reviewed under the theme of generalising
and sustaining reforms and innovations:
Education of girls and equity issues
Specific innovations: double-shift schooling, book loans, school feeding
Formative research and evaluation
4.2.1 Education of girls and equity issues
Research activities in this area include equity in the broader sense of eliminating obstacles to
education as well as gender inequity. A good example of an ‘inequity in general’ problem
comes from Mali (Sangaré et al., 2000), in an analysis of opportunities for, and achievement
in basic education, showing clear rural/urban, more developed/less developed region, as well
as boy child/girl child discrepancies.
The early studies on education of girls (e.g. Cossou, Benin, 1998) showed that girls’
education was not being adequately researched. A year 2001 study by Gnasounon and Aloffan
– also in Benin – showed that research on the issue was receiving attention, in response to
increased attention to girls’ education in post-Jomtien national action plans.
The research confirms obstacles to girls’ education. These have been classified as ‘objective’
and ‘subjective’ factors in one of the reports from Côte d’Ivoire (Dédy, Bih and Koné,
ROCARE, 1997). The first is a constellation of socio-cultural and economic obstacles to girls’
education, while the other involves perceptions of the experience of schooling. Thus, factors
like distance between home and school, and parents’ inability to pay for schooling would be
regarded as objective issues, while factors like gender hostile school environments and
curricula would be regarded as ‘subjective’ factors.
In the latter case, the emphasis is specifically on factors affecting girls’ participation in basic
education. Here, an illustrative study for Mali (Koura Diallo, 2001) showed that negative
attitudes to girls’ education are still prevalent in the rural areas of the Ségou region of Mali.
Nearly all the findings confirm however that the opportunity cost problem is real. The same is
true of the non-performance of education systems. The collusion in most cases (e.g. Sedel,
1999 and Trah et al., 1996 – both in Côte d’Ivoire) shows that a combination of
environmental/social environment and school/pedagogical encouragement is necessary to
ensure the full participation of girls in primary education.
National laws should be developed and implemented to end early marriage of the girl child
and curb sexual harassment. The numerous girls’ scholarship and mentor programs in the
region, as well as the model schools, should be studied and lessons put to use.
Studies from Niger found that, as illustrated by a study of girls from nomadic communities,
failure to adapt education to cultural traditions makes schooling irrelevant to the immediate
needs of girls, and his creates a ‘subjective’ type obstacle to ensuring that the basic learning
needs of girls are met (Lewis and Carter, 1994). On the other hand, women’s visibility (like in
their active participation in communal development programmes) tends to have a positive
impact on the promotion of girls’ education (Rabiou, 2002).
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 25
The under representation and poor performance of girls in math, science, and technical
subjects is one area that has received some attention by FAWE and the FEMSA programme in
recent years. That issue is the subject of a survey reported by Mali, which showed severe
under representation of girls in several science-based programmes (Table 4.2.1).
Table 4.2.1 : Girls’ Representation in Science-based Programmes (adapted from FEMSA-Mali, 1999)
Number of
Girls/Women
% Female
Institution(s)
Total persons
Lycée Technique
___________
___________
___________
New Admissions, 1995-96
Total enrolment, 1995-96
390
1 381
40
146
10%
11%
New Admissions, 1996-97
453
64
14%
___________
___________
___________
Teachers of junior classes
(1er cycle fondamental)
9,677
2,184
23%
Teachers of senior classes
(2eme cycle)
1,515
326
26%
Écoles techniques professionnelle,
1996-97
4.2.2 Specific innovations: double-shift schooling, book loans, school feeding
The studies highlighted in this section have one thing in common. Each of them carries a
lesson on why educational reform and innovation projects do not often go far. At the same
time, each study acknowledges the rationale for the innovative interventions, in addition to
showing the value such projects have added
Double-shift schooling receives a good deal of attention in the research reported from
Burkina Faso (Balima, 1996; Nikiema, 1996; Sawadogo, 1999). While achieving the goal of
increasing access, the intervention is reported to have in some cases been rejected by
stakeholders, due to lack of consultation. Another study reports that teaching and learning
time is grossly inadequate, while a third study observed a wide gulf between
conceptualisation and execution.
Three studies on double shift schooling in Côte d’Ivoire (Gbla and Kouassi, 1996; Ouattara
and Pongathié, 1998; Konan, 1998) combined interviews, observations, and analysis of
examination results. They draw similar conclusions along the following lines:
Double shift schooling has been successful in tackling the problems of access and of
unduly large classes;
At the same time, it has given rise to poor performance by learners because it ‘has
shortened learning time.’
The findings of similar research in Niger (Mainassara, 1998) seem to have probed deeper into
the problem. No significant difference is found between examination test scores of doubleshirt and single-shift students. The problem, the author claims, is that children no longer read
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 26
nor carry out calculations, regardless of organization of school schedules. ‘Therefore, it is the
quality of the entire system that should be blamed and not the double shift alternative’.
Mainassara explains that teacher opposition to double-shift schooling was a manifestation of
their resistance to change.
From Côte d’Ivoire comes some interesting studies on book loans to learners (e. g.
MENFEB, 1999). Again, the researchers laud the intentions of the innovation, but found that
its execution was hampered by late delivery, a high rate of loss of books, poor storage, and a
plethora of administrative and logistical problems.
From Côte d’Ivoire also comes a number of researches on school feeding. The general
consensus is that it has contributed to ‘democratising education’ by increasing access,
reducing drop-out and repetition, and in fact attracting more girls to school. The researchers
however observed that school feeding has not had any direct impact on academic
performance. The clear lesson here is that education problems have multiple causes and
require multi-pronged solutions.
4.2.3 Formative research and evaluation
Formative research and formative evaluation are tools for policy planning and
implementation. They promote dialogue and develop human and institutional capacity. They
are process focused and highly participatory. Tornes and Feldman3 argue that a main
challenge for any reform is to make the various levels involved in the process communicate
and relate to each other in ways that help meet the goals of the reform in question. Thus, they
propose that with a longitudinal, systems approach to gathering data and communicating
during the reform process with the various groups of stakeholders, the formative model is well
suited to cope with the challenges of a sector approach where the focus in on comprehensive
processes. It should be noted that unlike action research there is no assumption in the
formative research model that practice must be redefined in line with research finding with
the researchers playing an active part in initiating new practice. Formative research produces
findings to be used along with other sources of information, and this implies that researchbased knowledge is not seen as superior to or more true than the knowledge of policy makers,
practitioners and other stakeholders.
Through formative evaluation, actors gain information and skills necessary to adapt programs
plans to account for new factors and realities encountered during initial stages of
implementation. An example from is again of particular interest, because it illustrate how, in
practical terms, formative research and evaluation can be built into programme development.
Ghana is concerned with learner performance on a yearly basis, as part of the implementation
process of its FCUBE (Free Compulsory Basic Education) programme.
Available reports from Ghana deal with yearly criterion-referenced testing of pupils in the
fifth and sixth grades in literacy and numeracy, and the findings can be summarised thus:
Performance of children in public schools have improved significantly over the years;
3
Tornes, Kristen. A Model for Formative Research, based on experiences from the cooperation between
Norwegian and Nepalese ministries of education, Report to NORAD, Norwegian Ministry of Education and
Research, 2003, 24p. AND Feldberg, Karen and K.Tornes. Sector Wide Approach Programmes in the
Development of the Education Sector: From Project to Process and Partnership. Oslo: Norwegian
Ministry of Education and Research, 2002.
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 27
However, children in private schools perform significantly better than those in public
schools;
Pupils in urban schools have significantly higher scores than those in rural schools;
The quality of teaching, school management, and facilities is highly correlated with
performance.
See Section 3.2.3 under ‘Decentralisation’ for more examples of formative research.
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 28
5.
CURRICULA RELEVANCE
AND
USE OF AFRICAN LANGUAGES
5.1
The spate of reforms that characterise educational development work in Africa since the
1960s, and which intensified after Jomtien, is intended to make education more relevant to
local and national needs. Curriculum development, including curriculum adaptation, has been
emphasized in this regard.
Language has all along been seen as a relevance as well a quality issue in education in Africa.
The countries participating in this review have approached the language issue in basic
education from two different poles. While Nigeria and Mali have a long tradition of using
indigenous languages in education, the other countries in the region have had varying degrees
of experimentation.
It has, since Jomtien, become a policy intention to lay the foundations of education in the
learner’s best-known language. This has not however reduced controversy over the subject.
Arguments are still raging over what to do in heavily multilingual communities, the
possibilities of teaching technical and scientific concepts in African languages, the risk of
children not sufficiently mastering the ‘official’ languages, etc.
In spite of such controversies, there have been more intensive activities in mother-tongue
education in the past decade, especially in literacy programmes. Bilingualism in education has
become more readily accepted in official circles, while most African countries now have
language-in-education policies. Experimental bilingual education programmes are steadily
growing in number, the most well known of these being the pédagogie convergent of Mali.
There has also been a strong tendency for burning societal issues to be reflected in the school
curriculum. The 1980 decade saw the emergence of environmental and population education.
Today, a major preoccupation is HIV/AIDS. This immense threat to human survival has also
found its way into the school curriculum, including (as should be expected) the school
curriculum of the countries covered by this synthesis.
5.2
The research reported in the country submissions can be classified under the following topics:
1. Bilingual education policies;
2. First language foundation and mastery of other competencies;
3. HIV/AIDS threat and response.
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 29
5.2.1 Bilingual education policies and practices
The research literature under this topic deals mainly with the evaluation of aspects of ongoing
experiments on bilingual education in which the mother tongue is taught along with French in
a number of experimental schools and on a relatively limited scale.
Mali began experimenting the use of national languages in education since 1979. In 1987, the
concept of pédagogie convergeante was introduced. This involves the use of active teaching
methods, beginning instruction in national language and gradually introducing more French
each year until 6th grade exams are taken in French. Bilingual instruction became law in 1999
in Mali and is a cornerstone of the 10-year education reform launched in 2001. As of 2002,
11 of the 13 national languages are used in formal and non-formal education.
On instructional materials in the mother tongue, researchers working in various places drew
similar conclusions. The materials are insufficiently available to pupils and the content is
inappropriate (Koné, 2000 in Mali). They are not developed in any systematic manner
(Nikiema in Burkina Faso, 1993).
On attitudes regarding use of the mother tongue in education, one study reported that teacher
attitudes were dependent on the type and level of information they received (Haidara, 2000 in
Mali). Another set of studies (e. g. Doumbia, 2000 in Mali) reported an ‘imbalance’ in school
and classroom use of languages in favour of French, i.e. to the disadvantage of the first
language of the community.
On learner performance, a series of studies from Niger (National Bilingual Education Project,
2002) reported that test scores had become ‘lamentable’ over the years. All the same, children
in experimental schools promoting bilingual education scored significantly higher can those in
non-experimental schools in formal school examinations. The same study also complained of
insufficient training for supervisory personnel.
An earlier independent study of the Niger experiment (Hovens et al., 1997) reported that the
experimental schools were not doing well. They no longer received the people’s warm
embrace that they had enjoyed in the 1980s. This they attribute to ‘poor material and
pedagogical support’.
From Nigeria, a country with a long tradition of bilingual education, come some interesting
research findings. A survey in Rivers State (Afiesimama, 1995), which had operated a
government-sponsored native language readers’ project for over a decade, showed that:
Outside the state capital (Port-Harcourt), English and the mother tongue are widely
used in oral communication in primary and junior secondary schools. There is,
however, a strong preferences for English;
In these places, literacy in the mother tongue is ‘almost non-existent’ in primary
schools;
In the state capital, English is exclusively used for instruction in schools;
The readers that were supposed to serve as support material to mother tongue
education were found mainly dumped in the office of the head teacher.
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 30
A second study (Ogbonna, 2002) investigated ‘parental medium of instruction preferences’ in
the northern city of Kaduna and summarised the pattern of preferences a follows:
English only
47%
Mixture of English and the mother tongue
35%
Mother tongue first, English later
10%
Mother tongue only
06%
A similar survey in the western Nigerian city of Ibadan (Oyetade, 2001) yielded the following
instructional language preference patterns:
Simultaneous use of English and the mother tongue
70%
English only
24%
Mother tongue only
06%
Inconclusive as these findings are, there are useful lessons and insights to enlighten on-going
experiments in bilingual education.
5.2.2 First language foundation and mastery of other competencies
The research findings here touch on the well known controversy as to whether or not learning
in the mother tongue in the early years of schooling would facilitate both transfer to the
official language at a later stage and acquisition especially of scientific concepts. A summary
of the findings:
Rural populations better appreciate learning in the mother tongue because they see the
need to valorise their native languages (Diarra, 1995 in Burkina Faso).
Children in experimental schools promoting bilingual education right from the early
years performed significantly better on formal examinations in the first and second
grades than children in conventional primary schools (Coulibaly and Fomba, 2001 in
Mali 2001).
Instruction in the mother tongue facilitated mastery of mathematical operations and
French language acquisition (PROPELCA, 1995 in Cameroon).
Problems understanding scientific and mathematical concepts do arise. Partly because
concepts that conceptually mean different things (i.e. in English) have a common
indigenised vocabulary. Code switching and mixing can be addressed by developing a
methodology for the translation of concepts from national to official language and vice
versa and for using the translations in problem-solving (Kanouté, 2000 in Mali).
Perhaps the most appropriate comment to make on the results of the research reviewed is that
the controversy rages on. That in itself is good for the advancement of knowledge.
5.2.3 HIV/AIDS threat and response
Official HIV/AIDS prevalence rates in ERNWACA member countries range from less than
1% in Senegal to 6% in Togo and, in the heaviest hit countries, 9.7% in Côte d’Ivoire and
11.8% in Cameroon. It is estimated that 7 000 000 persons are infected by HIV, that there are
2 500 000 AIDS orphans, and that 430 000 persons died of AIDS in 2001.4
Available research literature on the educational dimensions of the HIV/AIDS pandemic
comes from Côte d’Ivoire and Togo. They deal with impact evaluation of anti-Aids
4
UNAIDS, 2001.
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 31
campaigns, the level of knowledge and awareness of causative and preventive measures by
students, parents, teachers and the general population, as well as surveys of patterns of
preventive action by adolescents.
Yao (1998) in Côte d’Ivoire found that national campaigns on HIV/AIDS have not
significantly altered parental attitudes to discussing sexuality freely with their children.
Teachers however showed a greater degree of awareness of the pandemic, while adolescents
were adopting preventive measures, even in cases where home and school environments were
unfavourable. This is in slight contradiction with the conclusions of a study by Alla and
Manda Siga (1998), also in Côte d’Ivoire, which confirmed that the ‘correct messages’ did get
to adolescents, but regretted that, in spite of this, they still engaged in risky sex behaviour.
Amevigbe, Mensan, and Tchamegnon, in a year 2002 ERNWACA study in Togo, assessing
the impact, in the education sector, of the national AIDS awareness campaign in its fourth
year of operation, found that HIV/AIDS preventive education was able to bring about
‘desirable behaviour and attitude change’ in schools. However, the various partners engaged
in the campaign intervened in an ‘anarchic’ manner, while most of the messages were rejected
by parents on cultural grounds. The researchers therefore recommended a ‘participatory
model’ of HIV/AIDS preventive education.
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 32
6.
CONCLUSIONS
AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
This final chapter will dwell on:
Challenges of the synthesis exercise;
Policies and Research implications of the results;
Fertilizing the nascent educational research resources in the sub-region.
6.1
Challenges of the Synthesis Exercise
It has not been an easy job producing an ‘abstract of abstracts’. The research reviewers, the
authors of the annotated bibliographies, admitted they experienced considerable challenges
linked to the material situations in the countries covered by the study. This, according to one
of the reports, was due to the low level of an ‘archival culture’ in Africa, meaning that storage
and retrieval of documents was a Herculean task. One report also made reference to the need
to develop a ‘research communication culture’ in the region.
In other words, the problem the national review teams faced was not simply that of having
little to review, but mainly that of not knowing where to locate what was available. To carry
the work further would have required two types of resources, time and money, but the two
were in limited supply.
In preparing the synthesis (the abstract of abstracts), one had the strong suspicion that the
national teams had other forms of challenges, in addition to the ones just highlighted.
There was a problem distinguishing between research and non-research. Thus official
policy documents, programme briefs, narrative conference reports, etc. were
oftentimes considered as research reports. In such instances, the annotated
bibliographies could not sate the objectives, methodologies, limits, findings and
recommendations of such ‘studies’;
Even when the reports were published in academic journals, there were numerous
cases in which speculative articles and opinion papers were treated as research;
There was also a considerable amount of mix-up regarding the four themes. In some
cases, the response was to put in everything that was available/accessible, irrespective
of their bearing on the specific theme being discussed;
In addition, it was sometimes difficult to classify a document under a single theme
because it could indeed deal with two themes or even all four;
Finally, the process of writing document summaries, while seemingly straightforward
can be a complicated one. Despite standard project guidelines, there were several
writers for each national review, each with his/her style and ‘reading’ of a document.
A very striking observation, from a rapid overview of the annotated bibliographies, is the
preponderance of externally inspired research – 80% of the total (see Table 1.2a). This is
certainly an indication of the weight of external assistance in the development of basic
education in the countries covered by the study. It is also an indication of the level of
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 33
contribution of external cooperation agencies to capacity building in the area of educational
research, since the nationals of each country did most of the work. It also illustrates the extent
to which research is built into externally supported projects, a good lesson to be imbibed by
national projects.
The same overall view reveals that 50% of the research reviewed came form official
documents (government or institutional). Dissertations/theses/end-of-course project reports
account for 31%, while academic journals and books account for only 19%. This pattern of
research publication outlets has implications for accessibility of research findings.
Government and institutional documents are often not easily accessible to the
academic/professional research community. Theses and dissertations are not often for public
consumption, while academic journals and books are neither bestsellers nor easy-to-read
materials.
It is worth noting that the percentage of academic memoires and theses for the Overlooked
and Undervalued exercise (ERNWACA transnational study, 1997), which reviewed education
research in seven ERNWACA countries from 1960 through 1991, was 61% – as compared to
31% for such academic reports in the current exercise (see Table 6.1). This could be an
indication that education research in the region, dominated by research conducted for an
academic degree through the 1980s and early 1990s, is moving into new circles. Are African
researchers contributing more to government and institutional thinking on the future of
education? What will be the impact?
Table 6.1 : Comparative Analysis of Types of Research Documents Reviewed: 1960-1991 vs. 1992-2002
Percentage of Total research documents reviewed
1960-1991
(for the Overlooked and
Undervalued exercise)
1992-2002
(for this current
review process)
Official government, institutional,
conference reports
31%
50%
Academic papers (mémoire,
dissertation, theses)
61%
31%
Published manuscripts
8%
19%
Document Type
Table 6.1 also shows that the percentage of published work reviewed increased from 8% to
19%. Does this indicate that there are more channels for the publication of African education
research? And will the next decade’s review reveal that the research is moving into again
more public spheres?
To a certain extent the patterns of educational research outlets is related to academic
traditions. This is illustrated by the examples of Côte d’Ivoire, Togo, and Nigeria. In the first
two of these countries, there is an upsurge in the post-graduate training of education sector
personnel, and this has given rise to the mémoires, which account for 57% of the 79 entries
from Côte d’Ivoire and 70% of the 60 entries from Togo. Nigeria has a much longer tradition
of academic research in education. The country also boasts of a good number of specialised
journals on the subject. That seems to explain the high preponderance of journal articles in its
entries: 49 out of 53, or 92.5%.
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 34
6.2
Policy and Research Implications of the Findings
We would like to reiterate that the research reviewers did not have sufficient time and
resources to do an exhaustive job. We must also admit that it was not always possible, from
the annotated bibliographies, to adequately assess the quality of most of the research
reviewed. And there are clear cases of results being far from conclusive. Finally, just as
something can get “lost in translation” from Djoula to French or Ibo to English, depths of
understanding can be sacrificed in the distillation process from over 500 research reports to
500 one-page document summaries. Even with these caveats, the ‘policy utility’ of the work
already completed is worthy of some serious attention. The following are illustrative
examples.
1. The Pre-school Experience: There is, in the research reviewed, contradictory evidence
as to whether or not attendance at a pre-school institution facilitates adjustment to, and
learning in school. What is perhaps clearer in the findings is that the conditions of
teachers and of teaching/care at that level does matter. The implication is that the
Dakar EFA goal number one on quality and comprehensive early childhood care and
education needs to be taken seriously.
2. Teachers’ Academic Qualifications not Making a Difference: This comes out clearly
in the findings. The implication is certainly not that academic qualifications should be
discounted in teacher education. It is rather that those traits that make for teacher
competency (empathy with learners, creativity, lifelong learning skills, professional
motivation/morale) should be given equal prominence.
3. Reality of Urban-Rural Dichotomy in Educational Achievement: Nearly all the
formative education projects reported show that learner achievement is significantly
lower in rural areas, as most are in deprived zones or regions within a country. The
implication of this is that, for education quality improvement programmes to succeed,
they must be imbued by ‘deprivation-reduction’ measures.
4. The Gender Gap is as Wide as Ever: The findings reported by Mali (Koura Diallo
2001), by Ghana (CRRD 2000), and a good number of others confirm that negative
attitudes to girls’ education are still prevalent, especially in the poorer sectors of the
community and in rural areas. So also is what the Ghana study calls ‘Systematic
Gendering’. Systematic gender-biased access to science, mathematics, and technical
subjects is illustrated in Table 4.2.1. The implication of all this is that there is still a lot
to be done to move gender equity in education from the realm of rhetoric to that of
concerted action.
5. African Languages in Education Remains a Major Challenge: The research reviewed
showed that:
a. People’s language of instruction preference is neither for ‘mother tongue only’
nor for ‘official language only’;
b. On the issue of language of instruction preference, there is nothing like an
Anglophone/Francophone divide;
c. Training for teachers, the availability and suitability of materials, and political
will are all needed to ensure the success of policies promoting African
languages in basic education.
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 35
The implication again is that there is still the challenge of moving from rhetoric … to
practical realities.
6. Lessons on Why Innovations and Reforms Do Not Often Go Far: These can be drawn
from a number of formative research and evaluation reports on some of the ongoing
reforms in the participating countries, particularly on (a) double-shift schooling,
(b) écoles communautaires, (c) ‘new methodologies’. A strong message from the
conclusions of such formative research is that the success of reforms and innovations
can best be assured if they address a cluster of related issues (e. g. teachers,
infrastructure, funding, materials).
7. The Culture Dimensions of Education: The research reviewed showed the need to
develop more culturally acceptable messages for teaching and sensitisation
programmes. For example, communities in one case did not take kindly to the use of a
wooden penis and real condoms in HIV/AIDS prevention education. The same is true
of programmes of education for nomadic populations in Niger that treated them as if
they had a sedentary lifestyle. These are further lessons on why innovations and forms
do not often go far.
8. Action Research and Formative Research/Evaluation as ‘Promising Practices’: The
reviewed showed a number of innovative ways in which research can be integrated
into programmes. In the Écoles Témoins program in Côte d’Ivoire, teachers and
communities engage in action research to improve the quality of education. Ghana’s
FCUBE is being fully accompanied by systematic, formative evaluation. There are the
surest ways of providing research backing for ongoing projects and for turning them
into genuine learning experiences as well.
6.3
Fertilizing Nascent Educational Research Resources
This exercise demonstrates that some serious research on the quality dimensions of basic
education is going on in West and Central Africa, even though a good deal of this work is not
known because of the poor state of research communication and archival culture.
Another message that comes through is that more and better research will be needed to
accompany ongoing educational development work in the sub-region. More research entails
extending the scope and coverage of existing research. Better research means raising the
scientific and technical standards. It also means making educational research more policy
oriented, as well as improving the channels for research dissemination.
The foundation for more and better research can be built only by strengthening existing
research capacity at the country and sub-regional levels. Considering the conditions under
which educational research is conducted, as revealed in the country submissions used for this
synthesis, the task of capacity strengthening ought to be a tripod-like affair, as illustrated in
Figure 6.3a below, in which persons (individuals/groups of researchers) are empowered to
work in strong teams/institutions, in order to undertake quality research.
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 36
FIG. 6.3a : Educational Research Capacity Tripod
KNOWLEDGE-BASED
EDUCATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
Institutions
Persons
Research
FOR PERSONS: Exposure to formal training in research methods would help bridge an
important skill gap area in the sub-region. This would require (a) increasing the number of
researchers, to create a critical mass of competent persons in virtually all the participating
countries, and (b) innovation in a number of key directions:
Exposing education specialists to research methods in other disciplines, particularly
participatory/qualitative methods, as ‘better’ research for development must respect
the interdisciplinary and multi-faceted nature of education problems;
Involving researchers right from the conception phase of projects, to influence how
issues are addressed – from an historically researched and scientific point of view –
and to ensure that research is built into every phase of the project, as a means of
generating knowledge for its development;
Likewise, involving policymakers, planners, and practitioners in research projects
initiated by researchers – to keep researchers grounded;
Strengthening the skills allied to, and indispensable for ‘better’ research – data
management, ICT skills, documentation, reporting/presentation for a variety of endusers, self-development, etc.;
Exposure to research trends in other parts of the world.
FOR INSTITUTIONS: The need here is for a group of re-skilled researchers working together
within or outside strictly institutional arrangements.
The ‘strictly formal institutions’ would require strengthening through (a) formal
training for their individual functionaries, (b) ‘on-the-job’ training through
involvement in development-oriented education research, (c) re-tooling, particularly in
the domain of ICT and networking with other institutions, and (d) the development of
a research agenda that orients most research activities towards areas of direct
application to on-going educational development projects;
The ‘less formal institutions’ would be interest group networks around specific areas
of educational development. Interdisciplinary groups would be necessary here, to
ensure ‘better’ research through the mutual enrichment from a variety of ‘ways of
knowing’. Such less formal structures would also require retooling, in much the same
way as the strictly formal ones.
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 37
FOR RESEARCH ACTIVITIES: The mission and goal should be QUALITY and
RELEVANCE. The ultimate goal of developing persons and institutions is to ensure that this
happens. From the comments and observations of the ERNWACA reviewers, activities that
would enhance the relevance and quality of educational research would be:
Training on research techniques, on a continuous basis;
Publications that meet the highest academic and technical standards;
Creativity in the area of research communication;
Strong involvement in policy-oriented research;
Intra-national and international networking.
Figure 6.3b : Research through Impact back to Research Cycle
Conduct
Research
Build
Capacity
Communicate
Findings
RESEARCHERS
PUBLICS
Feedback
=
use of findings in planning, promotion,
implementation and evaluation of
practices and policies
The above Figure puts together many of the elements listed above, to represent a continuous
cycle of learning, researching, and sharing. We begin (with the blue circle on the left)
building researcher competencies (individual/institutional), then engage in research and
communicate findings to different publics for impact on practices and policies, and finally
feed knowledge gained and lessons learned back into the cycle.
The research activities reviewed in the course of this exercise indicate that the seeds for the
development of the badly needed ‘more and better’ research to accompany educational
change in West and Central Africa have already been sown. The seeds need to be nourished
and nurtured and to ensure a fruitful yield. Empowering the nascent research competence that
already exists can best do that.
9 Oct. 2003 / Page 38
BIBLIOGRAPHY
This bibliography lists the documents reviewed by the eleven West and Central African
countries participating in the ERNWACA / ADEA literature review on the quality of
education, 1992-2002. If consulting the soft copy, search by keyword with your word
processor. To read the summary for a particular reference, consult the Annotated
Bibliography for the relevant country (see Document number cited here).
TRANSNATIONAL STUDIES BY ERNWACA
ERNWACA, Transnational View of Basic Education: Issues of Access, Quality and
Community Participation in West and Central Africa, synthesis of national research
reports from 7 countries, with the participation of SARA/AED/USAID; Regional
Coordination of ERNWACA, Bamako, Mali, 2002, 222p.
In English: Overview chapter, www.rocare.org/Chapter1-Eng-TransnationalView,ERNWACA%202002.pdf,
entire publication : www.rocare.org/ERNWACA%20transnational%20studies%20-%20English.pdf;
In French: Overview chapter, www.rocare.org/Chapter1-Fr-PerspectivesTransnationales,%20ROCARE%202002.pdf,
entire publication: www.rocare.org/ERNWACA%20transnational%20studies%20-%20French.pdf.
ERNWACA / ROCARE, Recherche opérationnelle sur la coopération en éducation de
base dans cinq pays de l'Afrique de l'ouest francophone : la contribution des
communautés à la prise en charge de l'école, rapport de synthèse, avec la participation de
la Fondation Paul Gérin-Lajoie et le CRDI (Canada) ; Coordination Régionale du ROCARE,
Bamako, Mali, 2001, 57p., www.rocare.org/fpgl_operational_research.pdf.
ERNWACA, Overlooked and Undervalued: a synthesis of ERNWACA reviews on the
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- iBrarian

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