Creating a biliterate environment for foreign language teaching to

Transcription

E UROPEAN CENTRE FOR M ODERN L ANGUAGES
CENTRE E UROPEEN POUR LES L ANGUES V IVANTES
Nikolaiplatz 4, A-8020 Graz, Tel.: +43-316-32 35 54, Fax: +43-316-32 35 54 4, e-mail: [email protected]
CC-ED/GRAZ (98) Workshop 10
Report
Workshop 10/98
Creating a biliterate environment
for foreign language teaching to young learners:
Implications for curriculum design and methodology
Graz, Austria, 9-13 June 1998
Co-ordinator: Charles Mifsud
Report
Workshop 10/98
Creating a biliterate environment
for foreign language teaching to young learners:
Implications for curriculum design and methodology
Graz, Austria, 9-13 June 1998
Co-ordinator: Charles Mifsud
The European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML) has published various
studies concerning innovative approaches in modern language teaching and
learning. However, the opinions expressed in the publications are not to be
regarded as reflecting the policy of the Governing Board of the Enlarged
Partial Agreement of the ECML or its Secretariat.
The present report can be downloaded free of charge from the ECML
website: http://www.ecml.at.
Applications for reproduction and translation should be addressed to the
Executive Director of European Centre for Modern Languages, Council of
Europe, Nikolaiplatz 4, A-8020 Graz, Austria.
© AUGUST 1999
Table of contents
1. Introduction....................................................................................................................7
1.1. Objectives ...................................................................................................................7
1.2. Work methodology and results ....................................................................................7
1.3. Development ...............................................................................................................7
2. Organisation of the workshop.........................................................................................8
3. Introduction to the workshop..........................................................................................9
4. Themes of the workshop ................................................................................................9
Theme 1: Learning literacy in a bilingual setting...............................................................10
Theme 2: Teaching and assessing literacy in a bilingual setting.........................................10
Theme 3: The role of stake-holders and the environment...................................................11
Theme 4: Strategies, opportunities and resources for the development of biliteracy...........12
Theme 5: Developing teacher-education programmes and strategies
for the development of biliteracy .......................................................................12
5. Workshop presentations ...............................................................................................13
5.1 Reading in two Languages, Charles Mifsud ................................................................13
Reading development ..............................................................................................13
Transfer of linguistic and literacy knowledge across languages................................15
Implications for teaching and assessment.................................................................17
Bibliography ...........................................................................................................18
5.2 A coherent framework for the promotion of the teaching and learning of literacy
in a bilingual context / Un concept cohérent pour favoriser l'apprentissage/
enseignement de la lecture et de l'écriture dans un contexte bilingue, Renate Delhey ..19
Le contexte géographique et culturel .......................................................................19
Les fondements pédagogiques .................................................................................20
Les activités de bain de langue dès la maternelle .....................................................21
Du discours oral au discours écrit ou du dialogue au texte narratif écrit ...................22
Vers une vraie compétence de l'écrit et de l'oral dans les deux langues ....................24
Conclusions.............................................................................................................24
Bibliographie...........................................................................................................25
5.3. Learning to read and write in the bilingual setting of Slovenia /
Apprendre à lire et à écrire dans les environnement bilingues de la Slovénie
Learning to read and write in the bilingual setting of Slovenia, Lucija Čok ................26
I. The Slovenian bilingual context ...........................................................................26
II. Lire et écrire en deux langues..............................................................................28
II.1. A quel moment démarrer? .......................................................................29
II.2 Quelle difficultés sont à prévoir? ..............................................................30
Quelle procédure adopter pour l’enseignement de l’écrit?.......................31
Comment faciliter l'alphabétisation en deux langues? .............................31
Workshop report 10/98
European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML)
5
Rapport d’atelier 10/98
Centre européen pour les langues vivantes (CELV)
5.4 Resources and opportunities to promote biliteracy Valerie Sollars ..............................33
What does being literate imply?...............................................................................33
How and where does literacy development start?.....................................................33
Creating a need for literacy......................................................................................34
Literacy in two languages ........................................................................................34
Resources and opportunities ....................................................................................35
Conclusions.............................................................................................................36
References...............................................................................................................36
6. Networking ..................................................................................................................37
7. The way forward ..........................................................................................................38
8. Appendices ..................................................................................................................39
Appendix 1: Workshop programme..................................................................................41
Appendix 2: Group work report on Theme 4 ....................................................................43
Appendix 3: A model of how literacy can be integrated across the curriculum .................45
Appendix 4: Report on school visit in Carinthia /
Compte rendu de visite dans une école en Carinthie .....................................47
Appendix 5: Evaluation of the workshop..........................................................................49
Appendix 6: List of participants / Liste des participants....................................................51
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1. Introduction
1.1. Objectives
This workshop focused on the teaching and assessment of literacy in bilingual settings and explored
ways of enhancing literacy development. Throughout the workshop participants developed criteria
for evaluating literacy development in bilingual situations and investigated the implications for their
own educational and cultural context.
1.2. Work methodology and results
The workshop dealt with six central themes:
−
−
−
−
−
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Literacy within a bilingual setting;
Teaching literacy in first and second-language situations;
The role of stake-holders (schools, teachers, parents & children);
Resources and opportunities for developing biliteracy;
Assessment of literacy in first and second-language contexts;
Developing a whole-school policy for teaching literacy in foreign language contexts.
Participants were offered opportunities to focus on one of the above themes and to produce in
conjunction with colleagues a set of criteria for their selected theme with reference to a biliterate
context.
The various teams of participants were presented with opportunities to plan and produce relevant
materials in line with the criteria and methodology to be promoted.
1.3. Development
The work of the workshop developed in four related phases.
Phase 1:
In the first phase the workshop themes were presented to the participants, with opportunities for the
discussion of themes. Each discussion group produced a set of criteria for their topic within a
biliterate context.
Phase 2:
From the established criteria, participants were invited to:
a) draw implications for the curriculum;
b) identify a type of methodology to be promoted;
c) set up production teams in line with criteria and methodology to be promoted.
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Phase 3:
Production teams discussed, planned and produced materials. There were opportunities for the
sharing of ideas and for cross-cultural comparisons between the school systems of various countries.
The materials produced by the various workshop groups were reviewed.
Phase 4:
Networks for the harmonisation and dissemination of results of a number of projects were set up.
2. Organisation of the workshop
The animators were:
−
Charles Mifsud (co-ordinator), Department of Arts and Languages in Education, University of
Malta, Malta, lecturer and teacher educator;
−
Lucija Čok, Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, director of the Science
and Research Centre of the Republic of Slovenia, Koper;
−
Renate Delhey, Ministerium der Deutschsprachigen Gemeinschaft, Abteilung Organisation
des Unterrichtswesens, teacher educator and animator;
−
Valerie Sollars, Department of Primary Education, Faculty of Education, University of Malta,
Malta, lecturer and teacher educator.
The list of participants included researchers of early literacy development in bilingual situations,
practising teachers of primary foreign language education, teacher educators, advisors and
inspectors.
The working languages of the workshop were English and French. Simultaneous interpretation was
provided.
Participants in the workshop were invited to bring with them to Graz the following items:
1.
Something typical of their country of origin: music, postcards, posters, a souvenir; to show to
the other participants;
2.
a write-up (not more than 500 words) about how literacy (both reading and writing) is
promoted in both languages in your particular situation;
3.
A sample of material used to support literacy in the two languages; e.g. a storybook, an
activity book, etc.
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3. Introduction to the workshop
Mr Claude Kieffer, Executive Director of the ECML, welcomed the participants to the workshop
and outlined the aims and activities of the European Centre for Modern Languages in Graz. He then
introduced the team of animators.
After the introduction of the animating team, the participants were asked to introduce each other in
pairs. Then they were asked to discuss the following question, again in pairs:
“In your opinion what are the main issues that should feature in this workshop with regard to
the area of literacy in bilingual situations?”
Participants presented the results of their discussion on coloured cards which were posted on a
number of boards. This would allow for opportunities at the end of the workshop to compare the
expectations of the participants with the outcomes of the workshop.
In order to recognise as early as possible the different contexts that the participants were coming
from, participants were asked to consider the following in groups:
1.
2.
What are the common features?
What are the contrasting features?
4. Themes of the workshop
At the end of the first day of the workshop the five themes of the workshop were presented:
1.
Learning Literacy in a bilingual setting;
2.
Teaching and Assessing Literacy in a bilingual setting;
3.
The role of stake-holders and the environment (children, teachers, parents, authorities, schools,
etc.) in the development of biliteracy;
4.
Strategies, Opportunities and Resources for the development of biliteracy;
5.
Developing teacher-education programmes and strategies for the development of biliteracy.
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The participants were presented with the following points for consideration throughout their
discussions:
Theme 1: Learning literacy in a bilingual setting
(The following statements and questions are intended to guide your discussions on this theme. You
may wish to use these and to add to them or you may wish to come up with your own set of
statements and questions.)
1.
When learning to read and write, an individual may have a certain degree of readiness for
bilingual literacy. This readiness for reading and writing depends on the level of competence
in the second language. Taking into account the peculiarities of the bilingual context you come
from, could you identify some of the difficulties that you encountered when you were learning
to read and write in two languages?
2.
A child finds the first motivation to learn to write in the family milieu. This stimulus helps to
create the culture of writing. What might be the motivation to learn to read and write that
spring from the family milieu in the bilingual context you belong to?
3.
Writing is an integral part of a child's own experience. The social and cultural milieu is the
context in which this culture develops. There is richness in variety. In your opinion, which are
the characteristics of your linguistic context that stimulate the motivation to read and write in
two languages?
4.
When teaching second and foreign languages school systems attempt to meet the demands of
the European multicultural and plurilingual context. The pedagogy adopted at different school
levels as well as the didactics of language teaching (as first, second or foreign language) have
developed additional strategies and techniques that facilitate the shift from speaking to reading
and writing in the second language or encourage the development of bilingual literacy?
Bearing in mind your own experience how would you present the strategies used in your
bilingual context?
5.
To what extent have the above strategies been included in school programmes and syllabi in
your own context?
Theme 2: Teaching and assessing literacy in a bilingual setting
1.
Which general policies should guide the work of primary teachers in the area of literacy in
bilingual settings? Who should determine these policies?
2.
What are the main considerations that the primary school teacher should bear in mind when
planning for literacy work in bilingual settings? What should be the short and long-term
objectives?
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3.
The teaching of literacy should be based on observations and interactions with children. It is
through observation, and ongoing assessment, that the rich content of what children learn can
be extended. Equality issues are to be reflected across the curriculum, resources, assessment
and record-keeping procedures.
4.
How can parents collaborate with teachers to support the literacy development of young
bilingual learners inside and outside school?
5.
Why is it important that the development of literacy is assessed and that teachers take into
account the home literacy of bilingual children when making judgements about this? What is
the role of the children, the parents and the teachers in the assessment of literacy
development?
6.
Respectful assessment needs to take into account a range of factors and achievements. It
values also the participation of the person being assessed as well as the perspectives of those
carrying out the assessment. It should include self-assessment and collaborative assessment as
well as the assessment of one person by someone else.
Theme 3: The role of stakeholders and the environment
1. The context
Situate teaching/learning languages in a context.
What are the environment-related factors that have influenced the choice of your project in
teaching/learning languages, as well as the choice of strategies and structures used?
2. The project
Create a specific oral and written language project in a pre-determined context.
Identify the stakeholders that have supported the design of your project. What criteria have you
made use of in the definition of the project?
3. The environment
Create a positive environment in teaching/learning languages in schools and out of schools. What
initiatives have you and the other stakeholders in the child's education (parents, authorities,
institutions, etc.) taken to create a positive teaching/learning environment? What are the positive and
negative outcomes of this strategy?
4. Child's achievements
A child is the author of his/her own learning. What are the opportunities that a child can benefit
from in order to develop his/her speaking and writing skills in languages (in the school and out of
the school)?
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5. Teacher's achievements
How do you consider your role in this field?
What has encouraged your work? What obstacles have you overcome on the way? What kind of
help do you expect?
Theme 4: Strategies, opportunities and resources for the development of biliteracy
1.
Children show great variation in their motivation and attitudes towards reading and writing in
two languages at a young age. To what extent are these two variables influential in
determining the success or otherwise of biliteracy? How do motivation and attitudes impinge
on the teaching context?
2.
Learning to read and write in a second language are beneficial processes. Yet, biliterate
environments are to be created without a threat to the first language. Which teaching strategies
can be adopted to ensure equal opportunities for learning and using both languages in the
school context?
3.
Bilingual and biliterate teachers may be an all-important resource who can facilitate the
teaching/learning processes with young learners. On the other hand, monolingual teachers may
compel children to associate one language with one teacher and avoid code switching. Discuss.
4.
In what ways can classroom activities and school policies reflect functional literacy in two
languages as it is experienced in the community and society in which the children are being
brought up?
5.
To what extent does the influence of the home hinder or help in the provision of opportunities
and resources for the development of biliteracy?
Theme 5: Developing teacher education programmes and strategies for the development of
biliteracy
1.
What specific programmes and courses (both pre-service and in-service) are offered to
teachers of bilingual children in your country? What are the content, methodology and
duration?
2.
What specific knowledge base and skills (for example in the areas of child and language
development) should feature in teacher-education programmes for primary education teachers
who work with bilingual children? Which of these should feature in pre-service and in-service
programmes?
3.
What should be the role of field-experiences in pre-service teacher-education programmes?
4.
What specific attitudes should such teacher-education programmes seek to develop?
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5.
The promotion of the awareness of individual differences such as cognitive styles, interests
and needs should feature prominently in teacher education programmes.
5. Workshop presentations
Before the workshop presentation the participants were asked to describe examples of tasks and
activities which promote literacy through oral skills in the primary bilingual classroom.
There were four plenary presentations. The first presentation of the workshop by Charles Mifsud,
dealt with theories of reading development in two languages and their implications for teaching and
assessment. The second presentation of the workshop by Renate Delhey (Belgium) presented a
coherent framework for the promotion of the teaching and learning of literacy in a bilingual context.
The third presentation of the workshop by Lucija Čok (Slovenia) dealt with biliteracy education in
Slovenia. The fourth presentation of the workshop by Valerie Sollars discussed resources and
opportunities to promote biliteracy.
The summaries of the four presentations follow below.
5.1 Reading in two languages
Charles Mifsud
Reading development
Marsh, Friedman, Welch and Desberg (1981) proposed a four stage theory for reading development.
According to their claim, at each stage of the developmental process the reader has particular
intellectual skills that change as s/he grows up. These intellectual skills are highly associated with
the stage of intellectual development that the reader is at. Literacy development can parallel the
intellectual development of the Piagetian theory. Many children when they start reading instruction
are in the pre-operational stage or in the transitional stage to concrete operations and they cannot
deal with more than a few items at the same time. As a result the strategies that they use, although
reasonable, are oversimplified. The four stages are:
Stage 1 – Linguistic guessing
At the onset of reading acquisition children learn “rote associations between an unsynthesized visual
stimulus and an analysed oral response”. In this stage the child is not able to use the phonological
code in order to decode words. The strategies available to children are rote learning and linguistic
guessing. Children are unable to read unknown words in isolation. When reading an unknown word
in context children substitute the unknown word with a syntactically and semantically appropriate
word without paying any attention to graphic features of that unfamiliar words.
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Stage 2 – Discrimination guessing
In this stage the child begins to pay attention to graphemic features of words and also to use context
and linguistic cues to help him read. The strategies that children use in this stage are rote learning,
guessing based on visual cues and guessing based on visual and linguistic cues. The graphemic
features that children's decoding strategies are based on, are limited to the first letter at the beginning
and later on additional features such as word length, final letter, etc. are processed.
Stage 3 – Sequential decoding
Entering this stage of reading development coincides with entering into the stage that Piaget called
concrete operations (at about the age of 8 years). The new strategy which children acquire in this
stage is decoding from left to right. There are two major factors in the development of this strategy.
The first one is environmental and has to do with the increase in the number of the printed items that
the child encounters. As the print vocabulary grows it places a great load on the child's memory. The
second factor is cognitive and is related to the ability that children have to master quite complex
rules when entering the stage of concrete operations. So the child can now attend both the sounds
and the meaning of a word, s/he can analyse words into phonemes, and s/he can use graphemephoneme correspondences to read unfamiliar words. However, only regular words can be decoded in
this stage since children are unable to use higher order hierarchical rules.
Stage 4 – Hierarchical decoding
In this last stage the child is able to use a decoding strategy using higher order rules. Children are
now able to read words that involve conditional rules. It is also in this stage that children can use
spontaneously the strategy of analogy in order to read unknown words. Because these word patterns
require conjunctive, disjunctive and class inclusion rules, the child will typically not enter this stage
until the middle years of childhood (after the age of 10 years).
Frith (1985) modified Marsh's theory of reading development in order to provide links with models
of skilled reading. These strategies follow each other in strict sequential order:
Phase 1 involves a logographic strategy:
Children can instantly recognise familiar words by using salient graphic features. However, letter
order is largely ignored and phonological factors are secondary and the phonology is retrieved only
after the word has been recognised. The child will refuse to respond when presented an unfamiliar
word in isolation but s/he will be prepared to guess an unfamiliar word when encountered in text
using contextual or pragmatic cues.
Phase 2 involves an alphabetic strategy:
The child adopts the alphabetic strategy first for writing and later for reading. In the first step of this
phase the child is reading using a logographic strategy but s/he is writing using a basic level of
alphabetic strategy. In the second step of this phase the child uses a more advanced level alphabetic
strategy for both reading and writing. The child uses grapheme-phoneme correspondences; letter
order and phonological factors are crucial and the child is able to pronounce unfamiliar and nonwords since words are sequentially decoded grapheme by grapheme.
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Phase 3 involves an orthographic strategy:
This is the last phase in the development of reading and writing where children shift to an
orthographic strategy. Orthographic skills refer to the instant analysis of words into orthographic
units without phonological conversion. The orthographic units ideally coincide with morphemes.
The orthographic strategy replaces the analogy strategy and can be differentiated from the
logographic and the alphabetic strategies in the sense that in order to form these larger units
(morphemes) in the orthographic strategy, the child has to synthesise phonemic elements into
meaningful units.
This model suggests that there are causal links between reading and spelling. Experiences with
reading influence children's spelling and experiences with spelling influence children's reading.
Transfer of linguistic and literacy knowledge across languages
Two hypotheses of language acquisition
1.
Transfer of linguistic knowledge from one language to the other can only occur where specific
structures and distinctions are similar in the two languages.
Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis – Differences between particular features of a learner's first and
second languages were believed to lead to difficulty in L2 acquisition, because L1 knowledge would
interfere with the L2. Studies have shown that contrastive analysis did not in fact account for or
predict the errors which L2 learners really made.
2.
Transfer can occur even when the two languages appear dissimilar.
It has been proposed that young infants can initially discriminate between all speech sounds which
are relevant to all human languages. As they get older, this capacity is progressively lost until only
those sounds relevant to the native tongue are retained.
One of the conditions of transfer is the level of language in question. At a surface level (for
example, the sound system, the lexicon, and specific orthographic features) transfer has been found
to be dependent on the degree of similarity or difference between languages. Where there is
dissimilarity, transfer can result in interference. In this case, knowledge of one language is unhelpful
for learning a second language. These surface-level features are specific to each language and must
be mastered separately for each language. At a metalinguistic level, on the other hand, positive
transfer has been found even between languages which differ greatly at a surface level. In this case,
knowledge in one language or orthography can facilitate acquisition of another.
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A. Transfer of surface-level linguistic knowledge
1.
It seems that the greater the difference between the native language and L2, the less accurate
the L2 pronunciation, although further study of a larger sample of languages would be needed
to verify this.
2.
Similarly, vocabulary learning has been found to be facilitated when L1 and L2 are similar.
There is evidence that in dissimilar languages, vocabulary learning is independent for and
specific to each language.
3.
This independence has also been found for certain aspects of literacy acquisition. For
example, ease of acquisition depends in part on orthographic depth. At this surface level of
literacy acquisition, that is, the mastery of specific characteristics of each orthography.
B. Transfer of metalinguistic-level knowledge
i. Phonological awareness
There is some evidence for transfer of phonological awareness across languages, although this is not
entirely clear-cut.
On the one hand, Verhoeven (1994) has found transfer between Turkish and Dutch in the ability to
discriminate phonemes. However, his tasks did not require children to manipulate phonemes. There
is a high correlation between Spanish and English phonological awareness, and their main study
showed that Spanish phonological awareness predicted performance on English reading tasks which
involve phonological analysis. On the other hand, no transfer of phonemic awareness between
Italian and English on a phoneme oddity task has been found.
Other studies reviewed found a bilingual advantage on tasks measuring phonological skills, but the
design of these studies does not permit us to see to what extent this transfer is direct, and to what
extent it occurs via growing literacy knowledge. However, in some cases at least, the ability to
analyse the component sounds of spoken language does appear to be a transferable skill.
ii. Grammatical awareness
There is some initial evidence that some aspects of grammatical awareness may be transferable
between languages, and that children with knowledge of more than one language may have an
advantage over their monolingual peers on tasks which are designed to tap this awareness. There are
problems with the kind of research design used so far. Judgement tasks do not allow us to know
what the child knows about the aspect of language they are judging. These tasks, as well as
correction and cloze tasks, confound syntactic and semantic factors so that it is impossible to
separate out performance reflecting grammatical and semantic awareness. A second problem is that
in the studies which have found correlations between grammatical tasks across languages, no control
has been made for other aspects of language ability, so that it is not possible to know to what extent
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the correlation is due to transfer of grammatical awareness and what may be due to general language
ability.
Implications for teaching and assessment
The points that we have raised have implications for how one might go about teaching young
children to read in L2 or bilingual contexts, and how one might proceed with an evaluation of the
attainment of adequate literacy skills. Geva (1997) identified the following implications for teaching
and assessment:
1.
The research evidence suggests that certain aspects of literacy acquisition appear to be
universal while others appear to be L1-L2 specific.
2.
Given that children have had adequate exposure and instruction in the L2, one should expect
to find strong positive correlations between parallel L1 and L2 measures of various component
reading skills, such as accurate and fast word recognition, the ability to decode unfamiliar
words, text reading efficiency and reading comprehension.
3.
Performance in L2 can be predicted from performance on parallel measures in the L1.
Underlying cognitive measures administered in one language (e.g., phonological processing,
memory, serial naming speed) can predict reasonably well performance on similar reading
indices in the other language. Therefore, by evaluating children's performance in the L1 we
should be able to generate reasonably accurate expectations about the child's performance in
the L2.
4.
A normally developing child, who has well developed decoding skills in L1 should be able to
develop with ample exposure and appropriate instruction good decoding skills in the L2 as
well.
5.
In L2, as in L1, it is useful to consider development not only in terms of accuracy, but also in
terms of speed. For L1 and L2 alike, children continue to develop the speed with which they
recognise words, access the lexicon or read texts, long after they have attained high accuracy
rates. To enhance the development of accurate and fast reading, children need to have ample
opportunities to practise reading. Teachers must remember that L2 readers read more slowly
than L1 readers, even if they appear to resemble L1 readers in terms of accuracy.
6.
Depending on the particular L1-L2 languages and orthographies involved, specific elements
may be more difficult to acquire in the L2.
7.
There may be negative phonological transfer: difficulty in distinguishing certain phonemes in
the L2 due to fuzzy phonological representations may lead to spelling errors. Second language
teachers cannot assume that all L2 learners are struggling with identical linguistic concepts.
Rather, while all children need to develop L2 oral and written language skills, certain
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linguistic units may be more challenging to children with specific L1 backgrounds. They will
therefore require specific training with these units.
8.
Another significant conclusion from the review is that the development of various aspects of
oral and written language processing skills is not synchronous, and more importantly, that
word-based reading skills are less dependent on the attainment of oral language skills than
discourse processing. For example, a child who has acquired only rudimentary L2 vocabulary
and grammatical knowledge may in fact demonstrate well developed L2 word decoding skills.
Depending on the languages involved, L2 word recognition may even be more accurate than
what he or she can do in the L1. These observations have important implications for
instructional practices and for the assessment of potential learning failure. They suggest that
L2 oral and reading skills should be taught concurrently rather than sequentially, since it
appears that the acquisition of efficient word recognition skills is less dependent on L2 oral
language proficiency than is the development of listening comprehension.
9.
This knowledge can also provide guidance in clinical settings involving the assessment of L2
learners who may be at risk for reading failure. In such settings one is constantly challenged by
the difficulty of teasing apart phenomena associated with normal L2 reading acquisition from
authentic warning signs of L2 reading failure. There is enough research evidence to suggest
that assessment can proceed separately for oral and written language indices, and that the
assessment of potential at-risk status may take place even when the child has not developed yet
adequate oral language skills. Relying heavily on oral language indices to guide teachers in
this regard may be misleading. Refraining from an assessment until a child who has serious
difficulty in developing word recognition skills has developed adequate oral language skills,
while well intentioned, could be detrimental. Such a child may require early identification and
intensive instruction focusing on the development of word recognition skills and compensatory
strategies, in addition to the development of oral language communication skills.
Bibliography
Geva, E. (1997) Issues in the Development of Second Language Reading: Implications for Instruction and
Assessment. Paper presented at the International Workshop on Integrating Literacy, Research and
Practice. March 13-14, London, England.
Marsh, G., Friedman, M., Welch, V. and Desberg, P. (1981) A Cognitive Development Theory of
Reading Acquisition. In MacKinnon, G.E. & Waller, T.G. (Eds.), Reading Research:
Advances in Theory and Practice. New York: Academic Press.
Perfetti, C.A. (1997) Reading Ability. New York: Oxford University Press.
Goswami, U., & Bryant, P. (1990) Phonological skills and learning to read. United Kingdom: Erlbaum.
Verhoeven, L.T. (1994) Acquisition of Reading in a Second Language. Reading Research Quarterly. Spring
25, 2, 91-114.
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5.2 A coherent framework for the promotion of the teaching and learning of literacy in a
bilingual context /
Un concept cohérent pour favoriser l'apprentissage/enseignement de la lecture et de
l'écriture dans un contexte bilingue
Renate Delhey
Le contexte géographique et culturel
La Communauté germanophone est la plus petite Communauté de Belgique de par l'étendue de son
territoire et de par son nombre d'habitants peu élevé: 870 km2 pour 68 000 habitants. L'Allemagne,
la Communauté française de Belgique, les Pays-Bas et le Grand-Duché du Luxembourg sont ses
voisins immédiats. Dans le contexte fédéralisé de la Belgique, ce coin de pays vert, de caractère
essentiellement rural, est aujourd'hui politiquement et culturellement bien protégé et gère de façon
autonome ses matières culturelles et d'enseignement. Située au carrefour de cultures différentes et
face à ses nombreux changements de nationalité survenus au cours de son histoire, la Communauté
germanophone a évolué sur les terres de Charlemagne comme un précurseur de l'Europe.
Ici, la présence de plusieurs langues et cultures montre que les traditions et les mentalités différentes
ne doivent pas nécessairement être concurrentes et diviser les peuples. Bien intégrées et
respectueuses l'une de l'autre, elles sont complémentaires, s'ajoutent et s'enrichissent mutuellement.
L'apprentissage/enseignement du français seconde langue est encouragé très tôt dans les écoles. Des
périodes de seconde langue sont organisées dès la première année de l'école primaire, pour les
enfants de 6 ans. Souvent même les enfants vivent en contact avec les deux langues depuis la
maternelle. Dans les 70 implantations d'enseignement fondamental, les 10 écoles d'enseignement
secondaire, les 3 instituts d'enseignement supérieur et même dans les instituts d'enseignement
spécialisé, les langues s'enseignent et se vivent à travers les cultures et les monnaies des voisins. La
formation des instituteurs est assurée dans deux Etablissements Supérieurs Pédagogiques en trois
années d'études, après l'école secondaire. Les professeurs de langues des écoles secondaires font
trois ou quatre années d'études en français dans les établissements et les universités de la
Communauté française.
Un concept méthodologique pour une continuité d'apprentissage de la maternelle à la sixième année
primaire. Ce concept est le résultat d'un long travail de formation continue de plus de dix années.
Le travail a débuté par une étude du terrain, a bénéficié d'un appui scientifique pendant plusieurs
années (assuré par le CIAVER1), a été approfondi par de nombreuses sessions de formation continue
et a abouti à une synthèse dans le cadre d'un programme de coopération européenne en 1995 et
1996.
Parallèlement à ces actions, des enseignants se sont rencontrés de nombreuses fois dans des groupes
de travail afin d'élaborer du matériel pédagogique et ces rencontres ont été d'une grande richesse
pour tous les partenaires impliqués.
1
CIAVER: Centre international audiovisuel d'études et de recherches, St-Ghislain/Mons, Belgique.
19
Les fondements pédagogiques
C'est à partir d'une étude de la situation de l'enseignement du français, à l'école primaire en
Communauté germanophone, qu'une équipe de pédagogues s'est interrogée sur le manque
d'efficacité de certains modèles pédagogiques traditionnels pour construire un concept nouveau, axé
sur le développement de compétences linguistiques communicatives et actives.
Quelques réflexions fondamentales paraissent être essentielles pour atteindre cet objectif:
1.
La langue étrangère doit devenir, tout comme la langue maternelle, un outil au service de
l'enfant afin de lui permettre de communiquer et d'agir sur le monde qui l'entoure. Pour
développer toutes ses potentialités, il faut amener l'enfant à s'approprier la langue maternelle
et l'inciter à suivre le même chemin pour l'acquisition d'une deuxième langue. Les premiers
apprentissages, les premières démarches s'installent en langue maternelle. Les comportements
développés sont réutilisés lors de l'appropriation de la deuxième langue qui, à son tour, apporte
un éclairage complémentaire sur la première langue et sur le monde environnant.
Progressivement, lorsque la structure cognitive de l'élève s'élargit, l'apprentissage du monde se
fait tantôt dans une langue, tantôt dans l'autre et enrichit la structure de pensée de l'enfant. Il
faudra sans aucun doute tenir compte des interactions entre les deux langues, des interactions
entre les apprentissages et installer des convergences méthodologiques pour les deux langues,
tout en prévoyant des outils spécifiques à chacune d'elles.
2.
A travers les langues, on développe les stratégies d'apprentissage propres à l'enfant, c’est-àdire ses capacités naturelles d'apprentissage, en partant d'une perception globale de la langue
vers l'analyse de ses éléments.
3.
A travers la langue maternelle d'abord, la langue seconde ensuite, l'enfant développe très tôt
les comportements ainsi que les connaissances et les aptitudes dont il aura besoin pour tous
les apprentissages qui lui permettront de vivre dans une société solidaire et tolérante. Cela
veut dire que l'apprentissage des langues étrangères ou secondes à l'école fondamentale
participe nécessairement de façon intégrée aux grands objectifs de l'Education. Il faut donc
rompre l'isolement dans lequel sont plongés l'enseignement et l'enseignant des langues en se
rapprochant de façon complémentaire de l'enseignement des matières différentes et mettre en
oeuvre des programmes de langues qui s'inscrivent totalement dans une dynamique
d'acquisition des matières principales. L'enseignant chargé du “cours” de seconde langue devra
posséder la connaissance de ces matières ou être sensibilisé aux disciplines en question.
4.
Il ne s'agit pas seulement de connaître une autre langue, mais aussi une autre manière de
percevoir le monde et d'accepter, chaque fois que c'est possible, de vivre temporairement de
nouvelles habitudes afin d'intégrer les aspects culturels liés à la langue apprise. Seul ce que vit
l'enfant est susceptible de lui faire acquérir plus de compréhension, de tolérance et d'ouverture
d'esprit.
5.
Le projet est exigeant. Pour le réussir, il faut mettre en place les moyens matériels et humains
nécessaires à son succès. Il faut surtout créer des conditions favorables à l'apprentissage de la
20
seconde langue, c’est-à-dire, construire un environnement positif, installer un climat sécurisant
et proposer à l'enfant des tâches de vie dans des situations riches.
Nous distinguons deux étapes dans l'apprentissage des langues: les activités de “bain de langue”,
libératrices de la langue et les activités de construction et de structuration de la langue.
Les activités de bain de langue dès la maternelle
Dès sa naissance, l'enfant baigne dans la langue orale et écrite. La richesse de cette langue et la
densité de ce bain influencent profondément ses acquisitions spontanées et naturelles. Il est
avantageux que l'enfant soit régulièrement “plongé” dans un bain de langue riche et authentique.
Ceci est vrai pour la langue maternelle comme pour la langue seconde. Il n'est pas nécessaire, pas
souhaitable même, que l'on comprenne chaque mot, chaque élément de façon isolée. Si le contexte
est riche et motivant, l'enfant aura la possibilité de développer ses capacités de concentration et
d'écoute active et de construire lui-même le sens des messages par approximations successives, en
formulant des hypothèses, en les transformant en cas de doute et en reconstruisant constamment son
savoir à partir de ce qu'il aura déjà découvert. Il pourra ainsi construire sa propre démarche du savoir
et mettre en oeuvre toutes ses facultés de compréhension et d'imagination pour créer ses images
mentales et sa représentation de l'histoire. Dans des contextes trop pauvres, la compréhension est
plus difficile parce qu'il faut comprendre chaque mot, chaque élément isolé.
Parmi les activités libératrices de la langue, citons:
−
−
−
−
−
les activités d'expression corporelle et musicale;
la narration de contes et d'histoires;
les activités artistiques (bricolage, musique, peinture, marionnettes, théâtre...);
les activités fonctionnelles de cuisine, de jardinage...;
les activités ludiques et les activités sportives.
Toutes ces activités dites de “libération” de la parole constituent une base solide aux différentes
activités d'expression orale, de construction du discours oral qui permet de prendre une certaine
distance par rapport au vécu immédiat, de construction et de structuration de l'écrit, de découverte
d'un texte inconnu et de pratique de l'expression écrite. Ces activités d'une importance capitale sont
hélas souvent négligées ou même abandonnées dès l'école primaire. Elles ne peuvent pas être
réservées à l'école maternelle uniquement; même à l'adolescence, elles ont leur place dans de
nombreuses activités comme les activités théâtrales par exemple.
21
Voici deux exemples:
Les contes, les histoires
Il s'agit d'une approche authentique, majoritairement globale, dans un flux de paroles riches. Les
textes sont soigneusement choisis en raison de leur contenu attrayant, de leur structure cohérente, de
leur richesse en émotions et de leur style essentiellement narratif. Les illustrations aident à
comprendre, elles laissent néanmoins de la place à l'imagination. L'enseignant parle à un rythme
normal, il adapte le rythme et l'intonation de la parole, le registre et l'intensité de la voix,
l'expression du corps et en particulier celle du visage. Il prévoit des pauses, des temps de réflexion.
L'enfant a le temps de réagir, de formuler des hypothèses, de vivre l'enchaînement temporel des
histoires, de développer son imagination et de préparer ainsi la structuration du discours oral
d'abord, du discours écrit par la lecture et l'écriture ensuite. Tout ce qui est concret est limité au
point de vue de l'imagination et tout ce qui est imagination, c’est-à-dire l'image que l'on crée
mentalement, reste.
Les rythmes corporels et la musique
La musique favorise l'envie de s'exprimer, de communiquer. De plus, elle conduit à la détente et
crée une grande disponibilité aux stimuli extérieurs. Par la musique, le jeu, le mouvement, l'enfant
pourra se découvrir et découvrir l'autre. Par le bain de langue lors de séances de rythmes, de
musique et d'expression, l'enfant apprend, à travers l'écoute et le mouvement, à organiser l'espace et
le temps, à développer sa motricité fine, à créer des situations imaginaires, à intérioriser les rythmes
spécifiques à chaque langue et à capter les gestes et les mimiques liés à leur culture respective. De
plus, ces activités lui permettent de développer sa mémoire auditive et sa mémoire motrice ainsi que
son intelligence émotionnelle.
Du discours oral au discours écrit ou du dialogue au texte narratif écrit
Dans les civilisations actuelles, l'enfant est constamment en contact avec l'écrit avant qu'il
n'apprenne à lire et à écrire. Ce contact se fait généralement très tôt, parfois dans plusieurs langues.
Très tôt aussi l'enfant réalise que l'écrit est différent de la parole, tout en ayant la même fonction de
communiquer un message à quelqu'un. Il découvre que, grâce à l'écrit, on peut non seulement
comprendre le monde, mais également agir sur lui. Cette nouvelle langue symbolique va éveiller sa
curiosité, son envie de savoir. Il est donc important que l'écrit soit présent à l'école, comme c'est le
cas à l'extérieur de l'école. Dans notre conception, l'apprentissage de la lecture et de l'écriture se fait
d'abord dans la langue maternelle. En seconde langue, on ne peut pas écrire ce qu'on ne peut pas
dire. L'écrit permet une structuration supplémentaire (on prend distance par rapport à l'oral) et
enrichit les performances orales. Si l'élève n'est pas capable de produire un discours oral, il ne
pourra pas aborder l'écrit. Il faudra donc toujours d'abord développer les compétences orales en
s'appuyant encore une fois sur les compétences acquises en langue maternelle. L'essentiel de ce
travail se fait à partir de situations audiovisuelles présentées sous forme de dialogues. Les enfants
s'identifient aux personnages des dialogues, jouent les scènes en utilisant les répliques présentées ou
créées. Il est important que les situations soient audiovisuelles, bien construites, insolites, et qu'à
22
chaque réplique enregistrée ou dite par le maître, corresponde un dessin qui facilite la
compréhension. Il n'est pas toujours souhaitable que le dialogue soit mémorisé avant d'être joué. Il
est de loin préférable que la présentation de la situation soit suivie d'une dramatisation non verbale
ou verbale, réalisée avec les moyens dont l'enfant dispose: gestes, mimiques, paroles... L'essentiel
est que la communication s'établisse, qu'elle soit cohérente et que la situation ne soit pas seulement
axée sur les actes de parole. Après la première dramatisation qui aura permis une compréhension
globale de la situation, commence un travail rigoureux de mémorisation et de correction phonétique
qui demande un réel effort de la part de l'élève. Une dramatisation élargie peut alors être proposée,
soit sur la situation de départ, soit en combinant des éléments de deux ou trois dialogues connus.
On peut proposer ensuite des exercices de familiarisation avec l'écrit, comme:
−
−
−
−
copier des mots, des expressions connues dans des bulles;
compléter un texte, une phrase lacunaire, en choisissant des mots dans une liste donnée;
reconstituer des phrases, les remettre en ordre;
placer la phrase correspondante sous le dessin.
Lorsque les enfants peuvent construire un discours oral (en racontant chronologiquement, ils
structurent le texte dans leur tête), le maître leur suggère de garder la trace écrite de cette histoire et
leur demande de la lui dicter. L'enseignant écrit l'histoire sous la dictée des enfants et affiche le
texte. Il propose les changements nécessaires à la composition du discours écrit cohérent. A ce stade
interviennent des éléments de la grammaire du texte (la pronominalisation, les substitutions
lexicales, les connecteurs logiques, le choix des modes et des temps...). Vers la fin de l'année, les
élèves sont capables de composer le discours écrit à partir de situations connues et jouées. C'est le
moment de leur proposer des textes de lecture relatant des situations inconnues; ces situations
nouvelles comportent néanmoins un grand nombre d'éléments connus. Ce sont les lectures
découvertes pour lesquelles l'enfant découvre le message que contient le nouveau texte, présenté
dans un contexte familier. Suivent alors des exercices plus techniques de vérification de la
compréhension, de discrimination visuelle et de lecture rapide, sélective ou fonctionnelle, ainsi que
des exercices d'écriture. Les différents textes ainsi constitués forment la “mémoire” de la classe.
Synthèse
C'est en construisant avec les élèves un texte cohérent que nous abordons l'écrit. L'analyse des
phrases et des mots n'améliore pas nécessairement le langage de l'enfant. Si un objectif est de
comprendre les écrits des autres, un objectif tout aussi important est de pouvoir toujours mieux
s'exprimer. C'est pourquoi il n'est pas possible de négliger la grammaire du texte. C'est un pas
important: un texte est le fruit d'une organisation différente de la pensée. On pourrait remonter plus
haut et s'intéresser au livre, à l'ouvrage, à la bibliothèque. Les activités de bain de langue y ont
contribué. Les livres lus ne voyagent pas dans le sac de l'enseignant; ils sont exposés dans le “coin
bibliothèque” de la classe et les enfants peuvent les consulter librement.
23
Vers une vraie compétence de l'écrit et de l'oral dans les deux langues
Garder les “traces” du vécu
Au fur et à mesure des activités proposées et en vue de favoriser un travail autonome et différencié,
l'enseignant constitue avec les élèves un fichier-vocabulaire avec des fiches thématiques d'abord
(mots-images) et des fiches plus complètes, classées par ordre alphabétique ensuite (le même mot,
rencontré dans des situations différentes). Ce matériel servira à se remémorer le lexique appris, son
orthographe, ses variations grammaticales, à faire en temps voulu des révisions, des synthèses, grâce
à un travail de recherche et de classement. On rassemble, on ordonne, on s'informe, on informe les
autres. Avec ce matériel, les enfants peuvent travailler seuls, à deux ou en groupes. La grammaire se
construit par et avec les enfants. Elle n'est pas un but en soi, mais un moyen que l'enfant doit
maîtriser au fur et à mesure pour pouvoir s'exprimer correctement. Peu à peu, les fichiers seront
remplacés par des cahiers et des ouvrages de référence.
La priorité étant toujours donnée à l'oral, les activités deviennent plus exigeantes: compréhensions à
l'audition plus fines, dialogues plus riches, documents authentiques, pièces de théâtre... Les textes
des enfants se construisent également à partir de contes, d'histoires, du vécu... Aux différents
exercices de lecture déjà mentionnés s'ajoute la lecture solitaire pour les plus avancés. On travaille
de façon différenciée dans des ateliers (télé, cuisine, bricolage, bibliothèque, correspondance...), en
projets, en contrats de travail ou de façon tout à fait autonome en travail libre. Lire et écrire
deviennent une nécessité pour agir, pour s'informer, pour informer les autres ou pour s'amuser.
L'élève comprend que sans connaissances lexicales et grammaticales, il ne pourra pas réaliser ses
projets.
Conclusions
Ce concept a été construit, je l'ai déjà souligné, avec des enseignants, avec les formateurs
d'enseignants responsables de la seconde langue et avec l'appui scientifique du CIAVER. Il exige
bien souvent de la part des professionnels agissant sur le terrain de se détacher de leur propre vécu,
du modèle qu'ils ont reçu eux-mêmes à l'école. En plus de cette performance, le projet leur demande
de se détacher des problèmes quotidiens pour voir l'ensemble du concept et son intégration dans le
projet de l'école. L'équipe a essayé de tirer un bilan en établissant une liste des compétences
acquises par les enfants en fin de parcours, au service des deux langues apprises 2.
A travers ce concept, l'enfant aura appris à:
–
–
–
–
développer ses propres compétences d'apprentissage;
développer ses images mentales;
découvrir le sens des messages;
accepter le flou en osant avancer dans une langue riche, très différente de la sienne;
2
Französisch als Zweitsprache: “Entwicklung von Sprachkompetenzen”. Ministerium der Deutschsprachigen
Gemeinschaft, Pädagogische Arbeitsgruppe, 1994.
24
–
–
–
–
être un acteur créatif;
s'informer et travailler de façon autonome;
travailler avec et pour les autres, respecter leurs différences; et
se servir de deux langues, oralement et par écrit, dans des situations de la vie quotidienne bien
sûr, mais bien au-delà de cela, dans des situations imaginaires, insolites et tout à fait inconnues.
Bibliographie
Dolto F., La cause des enfants, Editions Robert Laffont 1985. Paru dans “Le livre de poche”, 10/1989.
Delhey R., Apprentissage précoce, Avancer avec les enseignants, in Le Français dans le Monde, n° 245,
nov./déc., 1991.
Delhey R., Réussir l'enseignement de la seconde langue à l'école primaire, Un défi? in Von Schule zu
Schule, September 1990.
Delhey R., Enseignement d'une langue seconde à l'école primaire par le concept du CIAVER, in Von Schule
zu Schule, Juni 1988.
Leralu C., Quelle formation pour des enseignants bilingues?, in Education et sociétés plurilingues, pp. 11-18,
n°3, déc 1997.
Marbehan R., La grammaire du texte, in L'Educateur des Communautés francophone et germanophone de
Belgique, février 1995.
Wambach M., La pédagogie du CIAVER, in CIAVER, Enseignement audio-visuel des langues vivantes –
25e anniversaire, 1966-1991.
Wambach M., Vers la création d'une école bilingue: un projet pilote pour l'enseignement du français en
Communauté germanophone de Belgique, in Von Schule zu Schule, April 1991.
25
5.3. Learning to read and write in the bilingual setting of Slovenia
Apprendre à lire et à écrire dans les environnement bilingues de la Slovénie /
Learning to read and write in the bilingual setting of Slovenia
Lucija Čok
I. The Slovenian bilingual context
The Republic of Slovenia, with its 20.000 km², is one of the smaller European countries. With
regard to the ethnic compositions of its population, it is quite homogenous: the data of the 1991
census show that 87,5% of 1.962.606 inhabitants were Slovenes. Besides the Slovene nationals,
there are approximately 3.000 Italians in the municipalities of Izola, Koper and Piran near the border
with Italy and about 8.500 Hungarians living at the border with Hungary. Both groups of inhabitants
were separated from their nations of origin by the state border. At the same time, about
100.000 Slovenes remained in Italy and 4.500 in Hungary.
The members of nations who have forever been living in an area and were separated from their
nation of origin by a state border are called autochtonous national minorities; they are thus
differentiated from immigrants who settled on the territory of another state by choice. In the
Republic of Slovenia, there are many immigrants from the republics of former Yugoslavia; they
come to Slovenia in search of better living and working conditions. A special group of non-Slovene
inhabitants is formed by approximately 6.000 Romanians, who due to social backwardness, a
different way of life and traditions need special assistance to be included into modern living and
working conditions. Slovenia is a tiny nation which has for a long time lived under the rule of
foreigners and fought for the recognition of its rights as a nation. A large part of the Slovene people
still lives on the other side of the borders of the Republic of Slovenia. We are therefore especially
sensitive as far as the relations with minorities are concerned and pay much attention to the
protection of their rights.
The Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia contains the basic stipulations of the international
documents on the protection of human rights and freedoms, including those which concern the
protection of the minorities. The Constitutions and legislation guarantee every citizen of Slovenia
fundamental human rights including the right to use his mother tongue and his culture and to
develop national particularities and special protection is provided for the members of the
autochthonous Italian and Hungarian national minorities. The Constitution guarantees them special
common rights in order to ensure that these two minorities can develop freely and be represented on
our territory. These rights grant most importantly: free use of their mother tongue in private and
public life, use of their national symbols, establishment of their own cultural activities and
information and education in their language, participation in matters of general public concern
through their representatives in the Parliament and local government as well as free communication
with their nation of origin.
It is especially important for every minority group that education in its mother tongue is provided
for its members, therefore education is one of the most important fields in reflecting the state's
26
attitude towards its minorities. Education for the members of the Italian and Hungarian national
minorities forms part of the national educational system in the state. In addition to the basic goals
and tasks of normal state schools, the schools of the members of the two national minorities have
special tasks stipulated by law. The basic premise of education for national minorities is their right
to education in their mother tongue, the right to learn about the culture and history of their nation of
origin as well as of the environment which they live in. Education for the members of the two
national minorities is based on common premises but as a consequence of different social and
historical circumstances. Two different models developed in Slovenia. Italian national minority
members receive education in schools where all classes are in the Italian language and which offer
special curricula adapted to their needs; Slovene is one of the compulsory subjects. There are such
kindergartens and schools in the municipalities of Izola, Koper and Piran; in smaller places, there
are branch campuses providing education for children from the first to the fourth grade. In the
school year 1994/95, 571 children attended schools with the instruction in the Italian language and
313 children attended this type of kindergarten in the region. In the nationally mixed region, there
are also two grammar schools and one technical school. A small percentage of the students seek
employment after having finished the secondary school; the others, however, continue their studies
at one of the higher education institutions in Slovenia or, most probably, at universities in Italy.
Another educational model is implemented near the border with Hungary in the municipalities of
Lendava, Salovci-Hodos and Moravske Toplice where the Hungarian national minority lives:
students attend the classes offered in both languages together regardless of their nationality.
Kindergartens and schools attended by students of the Slovene and Hungarian nationality together
are called bilingual classes. Such method of work makes it possible for the students of both
nationalities to learn the other language and culture in addition to their own. The students are
separated only when learning their mother tongue because the level of difficulty is higher and the
subject should be learnt at a higher level. 1.217 students attend bilingual schools in this area. After
primary school, students can continue their education at a bilingual secondary school in Lendava or
at Slovene secondary schools outside the nationally mixed area. The students who wish to continue
their education in their mother tongue are given this opportunity in secondary school as well. The
law guarantees the members of national minorities the right to participate in designing the curricula
and in kindergarten and school administration. Co-operation with the parent country in the field of
in-service teacher training, organisation of field trips and textbook preparation is extremely
important. Only in these ways can schools keep in touch with the language and the culture of their
nation of origin, therefore a special attention is paid to such contacts. Slovenia has signed special
agreements with the Republic of Italy and the Republic of Hungary, they regulate also the protection
of the minorities and the assistance in providing their education on both sides of the border. The
concern for the development and preservation of their own identity is not only the right of the
minorities, but also a responsibility of the majority nation. Therefore the common aim of education
in the nationally mixed region is to create such conditions which will make it possible for all the
children attending school in these areas to learn well their mother tongue and at the same time also
the second language and culture. In nationally mixed areas in the Republic of Slovenia, all children
from kindergarten up learn the language of their neighbours; in these regions, generations who can
communicate without any problem grow up, which is a sound basis for active coexistence of the
inhabitants of these areas.
27
Education of Minorities: WEALTH IN DIVERSITY. Video, Republic of Slovenia, Ministry of
Education and Sport, 1995.
II. Lire et écrire en deux langues
La Constitution garantit le bilinguisme dans deux régions en Slovénie: celle de la côte slovène
(italien/slovène) et celle de Prekmurje (hongrois/slovène). Les deux langues sont officielles dans ces
deux territoires bilingues, mais leur emploi quotidien et leur rôle dans les domaines d'emploi ne sont
pas paritaires. Le hongrois et l’italien, en tant que langues minoritaires, sont confrontés à toutes les
difficultés que connaissent les langues secondes parlées dans un environnement majoritaire.
Si la proximité de l’Italie impose l'italien par le biais des mass media, des journaux, du tourisme
quotidien et des contacts officiels, le voisinage hongrois ne présente pas la même offre. Le texte
précédent explique les raisons et les causes qui ont conduit, en Slovénie, à deux différents modèles
de scolarisation dans les territoires bilingues.
Par conséquent, il est compréhensible que, dans les différents modèles, des méthodes différentes
soient introduites dans l'enseignement de la lecture et de l'écriture bilingues. Par ailleurs, les rythmes
diffèrent dans l'apprentissage de l'alphabétisation en deux langues. Les écoles de la côte bilingue –
qu’il s’agisse de l'ethnie italienne ou des écoles majoritaires – introduisent l'alphabétisation en
seconde langue après l’alphabétisation de la première langue. Dans les écoles bilingues de
Prekmurje, l'alphabétisation en première et en seconde langue se fait simultanément.
Le processus d'analyse des deux cas mentionnés ne peut pas s’appuyer sur des prémisses
généralisables. Face aux questions soulevées dans le cadre de l'alphabétisation bilingue, on cherche
des réponses possibles, plus au moins valables, plus ou moins satisfaisantes. Dans la recherche des
cas slovènes, j'ai concentré mon attention sur quatre aspects: le moment du démarrage, les difficultés
de prévision, les méthodes et les stratégies à appliquer et les sources de l'input que l'apprenant reçoit
au cours du processus de l'apprentissage dans le cadre de l'alphabétisation bilingue. Par conséquent,
j'ai formulé quatre questions:
1. Si le système éducatif introduit l'alphabétisation bilingue, à quel moment devrait-il le démarrer?
2. Quelles difficultés doivent être prévues dans l'apprentissage de la lecture et de l’écriture?
3. Quelle procédure adopter pour l'enseignement?
4. Comment faciliter l'alphabétisation en deux langues? Qui peut le faire?
28
II.1. A quel moment démarrer?
Certains facteurs doivent être pris en compte dans la prise de décision relative à l'alphabétisation en
deux langues. J’en présenterai les plus significatifs.
−
L'enfant, ses compétences globales, ses aptitudes à suivre le processus d'apprentissage de la
lecture et de l'écriture (reading and writing readness).
−
La famille qui a transmis à l'enfant les premières notions sur le système abstrait du signe
graphique, qui l'a accompagné dans le monde de l'écrit.
−
L'environnement qui encadre chaque individu dans la culture de l'écrit existant, les
conventions sociales et culturelles qui déterminent le niveau de cette culture et qui forment les
rapports de l'individu vers la langue écrite.
−
La pratique éducative réalise les objectifs éducatifs; elle est caractérisée par l’environnement
culturel et la tradition éducative du pays; elle reflète le niveau de la société – tant sur le plan
professionnel que matériel – qui fait évoluer cette pratique.
−
Le type de langues/cultures en contact: les deux langues/cultures que l'individu rencontre
peuvent stimuler son intérêt, répondre à ses besoins. Mais elles peuvent également être
imposées par des mécanismes d'accommodation et d’assimilation.
En tenant compte de ces différents facteurs qui apparaissent dans des situations variées, une analyse
détaillée de la dimension dans laquelle l'apprenant va apprendre à lire et à écrire est d'une
importance cruciale au moment de la prise de décision. Il n'y a pas de prémisses qui soient valables
pour toutes les situations. Dans la pratique éducative slovène, les enfants apprennent à écrire la
langue seconde entre 6 et 8 ans. L'alphabétisation dite bilingue dans l'environnement de Prekmurje
se vérifie simultanément pour les deux langues (slovène, hongrois), tandis que sur le territoire
bilingue de la côte slovène, la phase de l'alphabétisation en seconde langue (pour les Italiens le
slovène, pour les Slovènes l'italien) est reportée d’une année par rapport à l'alphabétisation en
première langue.
29
II.2 Quelles difficultés sont à prévoir?
L’acquisition des compétences langagières à l’oral et à l’écrit ne signifie pas simplement « devenir
lettré »; il s’agit également de maîtriser deux organisations mentales:
LANGUE: système de symboles (sons, signes), organisation mentale,
convention culturelle et sociale,
forme de code standardisé
langue parlée
langue écrite
Verbaliser la pensée en formulant des sons
•
•
•
transformer la pensée en message
transformer les sons en lettres,
les énoncés en textes
introduire le message dans le temps
dans la situation communicative
dans le contexte social
•
•
•
introduire le message dans l’espace
en signes conventionnels
en forme demandée
Les difficultés qui peuvent surgir lors de l'alphabétisation en première langue peuvent être
résorbées au moment de l'apprentissage de 1'écrit en langue seconde. Elles peuvent toucher
l'apprenant dans les aspects généraux de sa personnalité. Elles sont liées aux compétences
cognitives, aux aptitudes perceptives, affectives, motrices différenciées des apprenants. Elles
peuvent se vérifier au niveau de la motivation, c’est-à-dire au niveau de l'effort intellectuel à
relever un défi ou un obstacle.
Dans l'apprentissage de la lecture et de l’écriture en deux langues, il faut prendre en compte la
particularité de chacune des graphies, les divergences sur le plan de la morphosyntaxe et de la
sémantique entre les deux langues, ainsi que les divers aspects de la pragmatique. Les
interférences entre les différents niveaux sont à prévoir. Le rythme individuel dans la progression
des apprenants peut être ralenti, retard facilement interprété comme un échec. Les échecs
survenant dans l’alphabétisation peuvent démotiver l’apprenant dans l’apprentissage successif
des langues.
30
Quelle procédure adopter pour l’enseignement de l’écrit?
En Slovénie, après avoir examiné le contexte primaire dans lequel l'alphabétisation en première
langue est introduit, il a été décidé d'appliquer la même stratégie pour l’enseignement de la
langue seconde. Cette stratégie prévoit les phases suivantes: écouter/distinguer les sons,
comprendre le sens de 1'énoncé, voir l'énoncé écrit, le reproduire, 1'analyser par unités, produire
des énoncés semblables, produire/créer des énoncés originaux.
Par exemple:
Compréhension du message oral
Ecoute et compréhension globale de l'énoncé: Peux-tu m'acheter une glace au chocolat?
Distinction des unités sémantiques: peux-tu-m'acheter- une glace au chocolat
Distinction des mots, des syllabes, des sons
Transformer les sons en signes graphiques: po – peux.
Compréhension du texte écrit
Distinction des unités sémantiques, comprendre leur sens, reconnaître les accords et les
relations qui lient les unités
Comprendre le contexte, le texte, définir le sens et le message global
Interpréter l'intention, les effets.
Comment faciliter l'alphabétisation en deux langues?
C’est l’environnement qui garantit le succès de l'alphabétisation; autrement dit, c’est le contexte
extrascolaire qui stimule l’intérêt pour le bilinguisme. Grâce au soutien accordé, les apprenants
ont réussi à créer un rapport positif vis-à-vis de l’apprentissage de l’écrit en seconde langue et à
accepter l’effort intellectuel qui accompagne cet apprentissage.
Si l'apprenant reconnaît dans son environnement les éléments de la seconde langue/culture, si le
même environnement valorise les différences entre les deux langues et les deux cultures en
mettant en avant, par des approches parallèles, le vécu de l'apprenant, il suffira à l'école de suivre
le processus démarré dans la famille et soutenu par l’environnement.
Dans les deux modèles de l'éducation bilingue en Slovénie, le contexte linguistique et culturel a
été examiné à la lumière de deux approches pédagogiques différenciées. Le bilinguisme
d'immersion dans le cas de Prekmurje a été soutenu par l'environnement, lui-même bilingue au
moment de la prise de décision (1959). Plus tard l'enseignement bilingue intégré a été développé
suite à des recherches effectuées dans le domaine de la définition des compétences bilingues et
multiculturelles. Dans le cas de la côte slovène, l'ethnie italienne minoritaire, beaucoup moins
nombreuse que l’ethnie hongroise, n'a pas suffisamment marqué l'environnement. Même si les
valeurs de la culture et de la tradition méditerranéenne et romane empreignent l'environnement,
les domaines de l'emploi de la langue italienne ne suffisaient pas à rendre le bilinguisme assez
vigoureux. En considérant la langue seconde comme un porteur de l’héritage de la culture
bilingue, autant les familles (excepté les familles de nationalité mixte) que l'environnement
reconnaissent la langue seconde comme une partie intégrante du contenu de l’instruction et
31
comme une valeur éducative au moment de la prise de décision (1959). Dans le processus
d'évolution, la langue seconde a conservé la même valeur dans la vie et le même statut dans
l'enseignement.
Cependant certains principes sont observés dans les modèles d'éducation bilingue différenciés,
même s’il existe différentes méthodes de l'apprentissage de la lecture et de l’écriture dans deux
langues. Ces principes sont les suivants: stimuler le transfert des connaissances dans
l'alphabétisation bilingue, suivre une progression logique dans la présentation de 1'écrit, choisir
dans l'enseignement des deux langues des activités et des techniques ludiques, heuristiques et
créatives, offrir aux apprenants des contenus intéressants et originaux.
Les différents contextes linguistiques et culturels d’apprentissage de la Slovénie
Italie
TV, radio, journaux
tourisme, contacts officiels
Hongrie
journaux, livres
contacts officiels
SLOVENIE
Ethnie tsigane
Alphabétisation en L1
Côte slovène multilingue
Langues slovène – italienne
Langues:
croate,
albanaise et al.
Alphabétisation successive
en L2
Alphabétisation en L2
(slovène)
serbe,
Prekmurje bilingue
Langues: slovène – hongroise
Alphabétisation simultanée
L1/L2
Immigration
32
5.4 Resources and opportunities to promote biliteracy
Valerie Sollars
What does being literate imply?
Literacy is essential because it enables us to function efficiently and independently in highly literate
societies. As adults, reading and writing are processes which are engaged in:
–
for several reasons (to seek information; to confirm thoughts and/or opinions; to take decisions;
for communication; for entertainment/leisure; for religious purposes etc.);
–
in a multitude of places (in the street; in shops; at restaurants; at the theatre; at home; in waiting
rooms; in religious places; while travelling; at work).
Availability and accessibility of materials is imperative in the literate world. We read a very wide
range of material (menus, letters, trash mail, shopping lists, billboards, certificates, documents,
reviews, books, newspapers, magazines, instruction leaflets, travel brochures, timetables, maps,
tickets, notices, advertisements, packaging, cartons, packets, tins etc.). All this reading material
clearly indicates that over time and as a result of our experiences and interactions with print, we
engage in literacy activities with a purpose and evidence of literate behaviour can be found all
around us.
Our own personal definition of literacy and the use we make of the available material has
implications for the provision of resources and teaching strategies which are adopted in formal
teaching.
How and where does literacy development start?
Literacy development in the first language occurs very early on in life during the pre-school years.
Before children even start coming to school, they are participating in literate activities. The extent
of their participation varies as does the availability and accessibility of materials at their disposal.
Children may come from backgrounds which offer them a context which is rich in print with which
they interact actively. At another extreme, children may be marginally interested in the print-related
material available, which may come in abundance or be rather scarce. Thus, when helping young
children develop literacy skills, both their home background and their own involvement with the
print available need to be taken into consideration. Literacy develops through imitation and pretendlike activities; through social interaction and through active participation.
33
Creating a need for literacy
Young learners must see a reason for having or wanting to do something. They acquire their oral
language successfully because of the positive experiences and reinforcement they get when
experimenting with it. They have the right motivation towards oral language because they can
communicate meaningfully with others. Similarly, they start developing and associating literacy to
positive experiences when the reading activity stimulates their interest, arouses their curiosity and
offers a challenge. The reading tasks and activities which children engage in are not to be considered
as language exercises but a means of seeking and retrieving information. This raises the concern
about cognitively appropriate activities which are not too easy or too difficult.
Literacy in two languages
To date, very little research has been specifically conducted in the area of literacy in a second
language with young learners. Given what is known of first language acquisition and emergent
literacy as well as from our understanding and knowledge of second language learning, it becomes
apparent that several factors need to be taken into consideration when dealing with literacy in two
languages.
Learners’ needs and characteristics take priority. The following questions need consideration:
–
–
–
–
Why is it important for an individual to develop literacy in two languages?
At what age is s/he expected to do so?
What demonstrations of literacy in both languages does the individual encounter?
What opportunities does the individual have to practise reading and writing in both languages?
The answers to these questions suggest that success in reading has to be analysed in the light of
factors which contribute towards making it a meaningful experience. Learner characteristics such as
IQ, literacy skills in their first language, age, parents’ socio-economic status are some features
which may predict children’s success at second language learning.
The learners’ needs are of utmost importance. Why, where, when and how will the second language
be used?
If second language teaching and learning are to occur in a formal context, what resources are
available and what opportunities are provided for engaging children in meaningful and purposeful
experiences? Apart from availability of resources, teaching methodologies adopted also contribute
towards success in second language learning. For example, can children clearly distinguish between
both languages or do they engage in code switching? Are they immersed in the second language or
is exposure to it merely restricted to the classroom lessons? Is the second language supported in the
home environment, in school and in society? Are children being taught by monolingual or bilingual
teachers? Is the second language being taught by non-native speakers of the language?
34
Resources and opportunities
Teachers have to capitalise and make use of a variety of resources to instil encouragement and
curiosity towards the second language, especially where children may not have intrinsic motivation
towards learning and using the second language. Apart from meeting their class teacher who uses
the second language, other people can be invited to the classroom – the head of school; older
children from other classrooms; children in the same class for whom the target language is the
mother tongue; parents who may share stories with the youngsters.
One way of encouraging children towards wanting to participate in activities using the second
language can arise from choosing topics which children would like to investigate further. Topics
need to interest both boys and girls and opportunities should be given to the children to identify the
topics they want to investigate further.
Children should be encouraged to write stories and engage in various forms of writing for different
audiences. This includes preparing cards for different occasions, writing letters to friends, writing
messages to classmates. The teacher can further encourage reading by putting up messages and
notices for children to read, for example, notices concerning events which are expected to take place
later on during the school day.
Collaboration and teamwork should also feature in the young learners’ classrooms. Pairs or groups
of children can discuss and exchange ideas within the classroom, across classrooms in the same
school or even with children in other countries over Internet and through letter writing.
Children need to have a heightened awareness of their own learning. Thus, meaningful experiences
ought to be provided and another way of achieving this is by engaging children in the organisation
of field trips. They can be involved in checking calendars and timetables; looking up telephone
numbers; writing letters requesting permission; following the route to be taken on maps and
preparing thank you notes.
The list of opportunities and resources is endless. Below are other ideas which can be used with
young learners:
–
Card games and board games where children have to read and follow instructions. Example:
bingo, happy families, snap, Kim’s game.
–
Language games: sequencing (stories); colouring cards (listening comprehension); grouping
(finding friends); finding the odd one out; word games (dominoes; scrabble; search words;
crossword puzzles); spot the difference (pictures with a number of dissimilarities for observation
skills).
–
Following simple recipes, even some which are typical of countries of the target language. In
this way children can follow sequences and put things in order.
35
–
Drawing and following maps, of the classroom, of the school, children’s homes, the school’s
village/town. Children can be introduced to ‘fictitious’ maps. Pairs of children can be given
two versions of the same map – version A would have all the information; version B would
have some missing information. A child with map B may be encouraged to ask questions; the
child with map A will give directions.
–
Making posters and advertising. Children in one class can work on a topic, set up an exhibition
and then invite children from other classes. They have to prepare the invitations, tickets for
‘admittance’ to the exhibition, posters advertising their work.
–
Reading books of different genres – fiction and non-fiction; myths and legends; animal and
nature books; concept books; stories; articles from children’s journals/newspapers; cuttings
from newspapers and children’s magazines; joke/humorous books; riddles; rhymes.
–
Making books with children – flip books; pop-ups; ‘'feely’ books; photo albums.
Conclusions
Whatever resources and opportunities are presented to young learners to encourage them towards
learning and using the second language, the needs of the learner are of major concern in determining
successful experiences. The uses to which second language will be put determine the emphasis
which ought to be given to basic interpersonal communication skills or cognitive academic linguistic
proficiency.
Secondly, literacy develops in meaningful settings. The selected activities must appeal to children
and they have to see a reason for engaging in them.
Literacy development is strongly related to other language skills – listening, speaking and writing.
Language skills are interrelated and development in one area influences development in other areas
(Teale, 1986).
Success in first language literacy skills assist and facilitate literacy development in a second
language. Following the inter-dependence hypothesis (Cummins, 1988), literacy skills in the first
language can facilitate literacy skills in the second language.
References
Cummins, J. (1988) Second language acquisition within bilingual education programs. In
L.M. Beebe (ed.). Issues in second language acquisition; Multiple perspectives (pp.145-166).
New York: Newbury House.
Teale, W.H. (1986) The beginnings of reading and writing: Written language development during
the pre-school and kindergarten years. In M.R. Sampson (ed.). The pursuit of literacy. Early
reading and writing (pp. 1-29). Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt.
36
6. Networking
One of the aims of the workshop was to promote innovative practices in the promotion of literacy in
bilingual contexts. As a result, the following networking groups were established:
1. Teacher education and curriculum development for the promotion of early biliteracy
The aims and objectives of this network are to engage in information sharing, study of the current
situation in teacher education and the drawing up of principles and guidelines for future practice.
The projected results are the improvement of teacher education standards and the exchange of
teaching methodology ideas and materials. Participants in this workshop are teacher educators from
teacher education institutions from Armenia, Ukraine and Russia.
2. Methodology for the promotion of the production skills in bilingual contexts
The aims and objectives of this workshop are to delineate basic methodological principles in the
teaching of speaking and writing with a view of making recommendations to materials writers,
curriculum designers and teacher educators. Teachers, teacher educators and materials writers from
Romania, Estonia, Greece, Georgia, Malta, the Czech Republic, Finland, Iceland, Cyprus and
Slovenia are to participate.
3. The design and production of curricular materials for the teaching and learning of literacy in
the early years
This network will investigate innovative and more effective ways for the teaching of literacy skill.
This is to be achieved through a review of the relevant literature and current teaching and learning
methodologies, in particular classroom-based ones. Teachers, teacher educators and material writers
from Bulgaria, Austria, Slovakia, Belarus, Latvia, Lithuania and Norway are to participate.
A number of participants have kept in touch through electronic mail. Others have managed to
conduct a number of follow-up meetings in small groups.
37
7. The way forward
The following concluding remarks were drawn up by Charles Mifsud, the co-ordinator of the
workshop:
There is both a NEED and a DEMAND for Bilingual Education, for which there is limited
provision. However, the ‘infrastructure’ and support are lacking both generally and in specific
countries and contexts. The current limitations are that there is no existing theoretical framework.
There is a dire need for research especially evaluation of the value-added effects of existing
programmes. Teachers are often not prepared for mixed-ability, multi-level and collaborative
teaching. Teachers need also to be able to recognise and meet individual needs. Curricula need to be
re-written to be suited to bilingual contexts and the relevant methodologies, resources and materials
are to be promoted.
Weak ‘infrastructure’ leads to a weak ‘methodology’, which in turn leads to demotivated teachers
and students. This often results in semi-lingual/semi-literate.
Biliteracy
A large body of knowledge and research in the development of literacy in the first language does
exist. However, this is limited in the case of the development of literacy in two (or more) languages.
Often the methodology is outdated and based on translation and non-communicative approaches.
Biliteracy has to arise out of a real need for communication. Specific components of teacher
education curricula need to be dedicated to biliteracy methodology with related field-experiences.
There is a need for task-based communicative approaches and a better description of the
psycholinguistic processes involved in the acquisition/learning of literacy in two languages. It is
important to:
–
–
–
specify a distinction between emergent literacy and later stages;
strengthen the link between home/family literacy and school literacy;
develop more refined models of assessment.
The following general aspects were considered by the workshop participants:
–
Literacy can be seen as a set of mechanical skills or pleasant activities which are child-driven. In
some countries, emphasis is placed on handwriting techniques even at the initial stages of
literacy development. In addition, literacy is introduced through emphasis given to the alphabet;
presentation of words with the same pronunciation patterns; sorting of phonemes and the
formation of rules.
38
–
Literacy in a second language can occur when literacy in the first language/mother tongue is still
at the initial stages of development. On the other hand, in some situations, literacy development
in a second language may follow development in the first language.
–
Methodologies vary depending on whether literacy is seen as a set of skills and rules or whether
it is a developmental process which emerges and makes sense as the readers bring their
individuals understanding and experiences to bear on the text. In other words, some people view
the reading process as following the bottom approach, where letters, graphemes and phonemes
are basic to beginners; others opt for the top-down model which advocates the importance of the
readers’ understanding and general knowledge, without undue emphasis being given to
phonemes, letter sounds and graphemes. Probably, the most satisfactory answer is provided in an
interactive approach, where both reader experiences and text resources and cues are brought
together to help with understanding.
The way forward is to have a better specification of objectives and framework for the teaching and
learning of biliteracy and teacher education for it.
8. Appendices
Appendix 1: Programme of the workshop
Appendix 2: Group work report on Theme 4
Appendix 3: A model of how literacy can be integrated across the curriculum
Appendix 4: Report on school visit in Carinthia / Compte rendu de visite dans une école en
Carinthie
Appendix 5: Evaluation of the workshop
Appendix 6: List of participants / Liste des participants
39
Appendix 1:
Workshop programme
Monday 8
14.00
Tuesday 9
09.00
09.45
11.00
11.30
12.30
14.30
15.15
15.45
16.30
17.00
Wednesday 10
Morning
Afternoon
Thursday 11
09.00
09.45
10.30
11.00
11.45
12.30
14.30
15.30
16.00
17.00
Friday 12
09.00
09.45
10.30
11.00
11.45
12.30
14.30
15.30
16.00
17.00
Saturday 13
09.00
10.30
11.00
12.30
14.30
16.00
Final preparatory meeting of animators
- Day One
Introduction to the workshop
Objectives of the workshop
Introduction of animators
Introduction of participants
Coffee break
Introduction to the group work
Work in groups
Lunch
Work in groups
Coffee break
Group reports
Preparation for school visits
End of day one
- Day Two
School visits
Burgenland (East) – Bilingual setting
Carinthia (South) – Bilingual setting
City tour of Graz
- Day Three
School reports
Literacy in bilingual settings
Coffee break
Literacy in Slovene bilingual settings
A framework for promoting literacy in bilingual
settings – a case study
Lunch
Formation of theme groups
Production teams
Coffee break
Production teams
End of day three
- Day Four
From oracy to literacy
Resources and opportunities for promoting
biliteracy
Coffee break
Two languages – One way
Production teams
Lunch
Finalise group presentations
Coffee break
Group presentations
End of day four
- Day Five
Group presentations
Coffee break
Networking/Collaborative research project
Lunch
Presentation of networks & Workshop evaluation
Workshop conclusions
41
Plenary
Plenary
Pair work/Plenary
Plenary
Group work
C. Kieffer
C. Mifsud
Animators
Participants
C. Mifsud
Group work
Plenary
Plenary
(German/Croatian)
(German/Slovene)
Plenary
Plenary
C. Mifsud
Plenary/Video
Plenary
L. Čok
R. Delhey
Plenary
Group Work
C. Mifsud
Group
Work
Plenary/Video/Pair work
Plenary
C. Mifsud
V. Sollars
Plenary
Group Work
R. Delhey
Group work
Plenary
Plenary
Plenary/Group Work
Plenary
Appendix 2:
Group work report on Theme 4
This is an example of a group work report
Group work report on Theme 4:
Topic:
Strategies, opportunities & resources for the development of biliteracy
Group members: Jacqueline Fridriksdóttir (Iceland)
Michael Matsangos (Cyprus)
Alexander Ponimatko (Belarus)
Abdul Sultan Mohammad (Norway)
Anja Zorman (Slovenia)
Because of the diversity in the understanding and definition of second language teaching in the
representative countries, the members of the group identified different settings of bilingual
education. Cases which were considered, even on the basis of the schools visited during this
workshop included:
−
the similarity of the groups with two languages, for example: German/Slovene;
Croatian/Slovene; Estonian/Russian where usually one of the languages is the national
language of a neighbouring country or the language of the environment;
−
the age when the second language is taught;
−
the diversity or similarity in the pupils’ background. There could be classes where all
pupils have a common language which they use at home. Alternatively, there could be
classes where the language spoken/used at home by the pupils differs. A third instance can
occur where, within the same class, some pupils are monolingual and some are bilingual to
different degrees.
The working group put forward a set of questions which need to be answered depending on the
constraints and situations in the specific classrooms and countries. The situation and
environment determine one’s understanding and definition of literacy, its teaching, the use of
resources and materials.
−
What is literacy?
−
Should literacy be taught simultaneously or consecutively? Why?
−
How do you teach literacy simultaneously? How do you teach it consecutively?
−
What resources are needed?
−
What methods and approaches are recommended?
43
−
What role should both languages have in the curriculum? Should the languages be used
interchangeably within a lesson? Within the day? During the week?
−
Who should be teaching the languages? Should it be one bilingual teacher using both
languages? Should it be two monolingual teachers with each using a specific language?
In an attempt to answer these questions, the following general aspects were considered:
−
Literacy can be seen as a set of mechanical skills or pleasant activities which are childdriven. In some countries, emphasis is placed on handwriting techniques even at the initial
stages of literacy development. In addition, literacy is introduced through emphasis given
to the alphabet; presentation of words with the same pronunciation patterns; sorting of
phonemes and the formation of rules.
−
Literacy in a second language can occur when literacy in the first language/mother tongue
is still at the initial stages of development. On the other hand, in some situations, literacy
development in a second language may follow development which would have gone on in
the first language.
−
Methodologies vary depending on whether literacy is seen as a set of skills and rules or
whether it is a developmental process which emerges and makes sense as the readers bring
their individual understanding and experiences to bear on the text. In other words, some
people view the reading process as following the bottom-up approach, where letters,
graphemes and phonemes are basic to beginners; others opt for the top-down model which
advocates for the importance of the readers’ understanding and general knowledge, without
undue emphasis being given to phonemes, letter sounds and graphemes. Probably, the
most satisfactory answer is provided in an interactive approach, where both reader
experiences and text resources and cues are brought together to help with understanding.
44
Appendix 3:
A model of how literacy can be integrated across the curriculum
Jacqueline Fridriksdóttir (Iceland) presented a model of how literacy can be integrated across the
curriculum. The model is reproduced below:
Theme:
Domestic animals.
Subjects involved:
Maths, biology, art, music, Icelandic and English.
Age group:
8-9 year olds.
Activities:
–
Field trip to the “Domestic Zoo” in Reykjavík. Children taught the
names of the animals in English. Staff at the zoo talk about the animals
found there. Children draw pictures and write about the animals
(Icelandic).
–
In class talk about the animals they saw and ask what sounds they
make.
–
Children draw pictures of animals that are found in the home and on
the farm. Use picture dictionaries to find out how to write the names of
the animals. Then children are asked to tell the class anything about the
animal of their choice.
–
Song “Old MacDonald” taught with picture support.
–
Sing along.
–
Read the words of the song. Sentences are in the correct order (on
overhead).
–
Read the words of the song. Sentences are in the incorrect order.
–
Children get a card with either the name of the animal or the sound it
makes (e.g. cow-moo). The whole class gets up and makes the sound
of the animal on the card and the children have to find their pair
(organised chaos).
–
Children work in pairs putting the sentences of the song into the
correct order.
–
In pairs or groups of four the students produce their own game of
‘memory’ and play the game.
–
Fill in the blanks: a copy of the song is given to the children but the
name of the animal and the sound it makes are left blank for them to
complete.
–
Children carry out a survey on the animals they have got.
–
Children transfer this information into a graph.
45
Appendix 4:
Report on school visit in Carinthia /
Compte rendu de visite dans une école en Carinthie
The workshop programme featured also visits to two schools, one to the Volksschule Schwabegg
in Carinthia and the other one to the Volksschule Stinatz in Burgenland. Here follows a report on
the visit to the school in Carinthia:
Visite d'une classe bilingue allemand/slovène
1ère année de l’école primaire
Ecole de SCHWABBEG en Carinthie (Kärnten)
I. Contexte
Un groupe de participants a visité une classe de neuf élèves de l’école primaire dans une petite
école de village. Huit enfants sont inscrits dans la section bilingue allemand/slovène. Un élève
d'origine slovène a opté pour le système monolingue allemand. Deux enseignantes se partagent
les cours: une enseignante titulaire bilingue (allemand/slovène) et une enseignante de langue
allemande. L'accueil était exceptionnel: la présence du bourgmestre de la commune, de
l'inspecteur du projet bilingue, du chef d'école, des institutrices et des enfants a largement
contribué à l'ambiance chaleureuse qui régnait tout au long de notre visite. Nous voudrions
remercier toutes ces personnes pour leur amabilité et leur prévenance.
II. Aménagement et organisation de la classe
−
L'espace est grand, propre, clair, aéré.
Le mobilier est neuf, de grande qualité et fonctionnel: une grande armoire, des tables, des
chaises de deux tailles différentes pour les petits et les élèves plus grands, le bureau de
l'enseignante se trouve dans un coin de la classe, près du tableau quadrillé et aimanté en
forme de triptyque.
Des étagères basses, ouvertes contiennent des livres (en allemand surtout), des jeux, du
matériel didactique spécialisé, des boîtes appartenant aux élèves...
Il y a un point d'eau, du matériel audiovisuel, un ordinateur, de grandes surfaces
d'affichage.
−
Les enfants sont assis en rangée horizontale, face à l'enseignante et au tableau. Ils parlent
uniquement à leur maîtresse, rarement entre eux.
−
Les productions des enfants sont affichées au mur et accrochées au plafond ou à des fils
tendus aux murs. Elles sont essentiellement de type artistique.
−
L'environnement langagier écrit a été exclusivement créé par l'adulte. Il n'y a pas de
productions écrites des enfants. Les écrits sont pour la majorité en langue allemande
(règles de grammaire, lettres spécifiques de l'alphabet, mots de vocabulaire autour d'un
thème...), parfois en slovène (alphabet spécifique, noms des chiffres, lexique) et parfois
dans les deux langues pour le lexique relatif aux thèmes abordés (les animaux de la ferme,
les quatre saisons...) ainsi que les lettres de l'alphabet communes aux deux langues.
47
III. Les méthodes d'enseignement
Le thème à l'étude est: “Les animaux de la ferme et les produits qu'ils procurent à l'homme”. On
travaille surtout au développement des compétences d'écoute, de compréhension de
mémorisation par répétitions.
Les activités sont uniquement orales et s'articulent autour de trois activités:
1.
Une séquence en deux langues: introduction du vocabulaire nouveau à l'aide d'objets
apportés par la maîtresse bilingue. Les enfants doivent les reconnaître, les nommer, dire de
quelle matière ils sont faits et dire leur provenance.
Issus d'un milieu rural, les enfants n'ont pas de difficultés: ils s'expriment spontanément
dans les deux langues, à l'aide de mots surtout.
2.
Une séquence en allemand par l'enseignante monolingue: l'interprétation des mots
nouveaux dans le lexique connu des animaux de la ferme.
La maîtresse fait parler les enfants par le jeu des questions-réponses (l'enseignante pose les
questions, les enfants donnent les réponses), le jeu du vrai-faux (la maîtresse “se trompe”),
la mémorisation de phrases correctes par la répétition.
Les enfants sont très actifs, ils rient, ils répètent les phrases individuellement et en chœur.
3.
La fixation des notions apprises, en slovène par le professeur titulaire.
L'enseignante de langue allemande s'est retirée dans un coin de la classe avec l'élève à
option monolingue. Ils perfectionnent les notions apprises à l'aide d'un jeu de mémory et
d'un tableau de synthèse. Pendant ce temps, la titulaire fait répéter les phrases en slovène.
Les enfants se fatiguent un peu de répéter les mêmes mots, ils sont moins concentrés; les
institutrices sont soucieuses de montrer toutes les variantes aux visiteurs.
IV. Le matériel didactique, les ressources
Citons:
les objets apportés par les enseignantes;
−
les aides visuelles: cartes-images et cartes-mots en deux langues, le tableau magnétique;
−
les aides auditives: les consignes précises, les incitations, les questions, l'intonation de la
−
voix, la phonétique...;
l'expression du corps: le visage, les gestes...;
−
−
le jeu de mémory...
V. Discussion – Echanges
La discussion qui a suivi cette séquence était très animée, d’autant plus qu'elle s'est déroulée en
allemand, en français et en anglais.
La présence de l'inspecteur, M. Thomas Ogris, et du chef d'école a permis de situer le projet
bilingue dans son contexte structurel et pédagogique.
Les participants ont félicité les enseignantes pour leur enthousiasme et leur dynamisme
communicatifs qui ont permis d'installer un climat d'apprentissage très motivant. Ils ont interrogé
les responsables sur la continuité de ce projet au degré supérieur et dans l'enseignement
secondaire ainsi que sur l'attitude des parents par rapport à ce problème. Il existe bien quelques
écoles secondaires bilingues allemand/slovène, mais pas en quantité suffisante pour permettre
cette continuité pour tous les élèves.
Les participants étaient enchantés de l'aménagement exemplaire de cette petite école rurale.
48
Appendix 5: Evaluation of the workshop
Twenty-nine participants completed the evaluation sheets at the end of the workshop and were
asked to rate on a scale of 1 – 5. Firstly, they were asked about how far the workshop had met
their expectations and secondly, how relevant the content of the workshop was to their particular
needs. For the first question, the average mark was 3.9; for the second question 3.8, indicating a
fairly high degree of satisfaction.
Comments made on the evaluation sheets are summarised below, with the number of participants
who referred to that comment indicated next to it:
1) What did you particularly like about the workshop?
Presentations of animators
School visits
Diversity of the participants
Atmosphere of tolerance
Plenary sessions
Programme
Setting up of networks
Animation
Group reports
16
8
8
6
6
5
5
3
3
2) Was there anything that could have been different?
More time for group work
Different sequencing of the programme
More time for large group discussion
Better selection of the participants
More information on assessment of literacy
More videos
Shorter travel time to the schools
No rain
6
5
4
2
2
1
1
1
3) What aspects of your work will this workshop influence:
Teaching strategies
Change in policies
Professional development
Teacher education
Knowledge of the situation in other countries
Reflection on one's own situation
Materials design and development
Networking
17
15
12
4
4
4
3
2
49
4) What future action do you propose for the ECML?
Follow-up workshops in this area of specialisation
Dissemination of materials and experiences
Dissemination of results
Networking
Better selection of participants
Design of teacher education curricula
Influencing national policies
Drawing up of assessment criteria
Exchange of teachers
Establishment of a European school
Deal with country-specific problems
20
4
4
3
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
5) Other comments:
Better selection of participants
Excellent job on the part of the presenters
Workshop to start on Monday
Slower pace of the presentations
Sweden and Denmark should join ECML
Fruitful
Thank you very much
Animators to chair the group workshops
More workshops on higher education
A workshop on psycholinguistics
Do not send workshop reports to Ministries but to the training institutions
50
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Appendix 6:
List of participants
Albania / Albanie
Mme Gazmenda Miha
Member of the Group of Curriculum Design in Albania, L’école des langues étrangères, “Mahmeed
e Ali Lungu”, Lugji 28 Nintoriss Pall 431/1 N 38, Elbasan
Fax: +355-545 36 58
E-mail: Armenia / Arménie
Ms Karine Margaryan
Head of the English Department, Kvant College, 23 Bagratuniats Street, 375106 Yerevan
Fax: +374-2-50 64 29 (c/o Prof. S. Zolyan)
E-mail: [email protected]
Austria / Autriche
Ms Julia Martinovic
Volkschule St Egyden, A-9536 St. Egyden/Kärnten
Fax: E-mail: Azerbaijan Azerbaïdjan
Mme Tchaman Babakhanova
Docteur ès lettres, Faculté de français de l’Institut national des langues d’Azerbaïdjan, 57/32, rue
Gandja, 370126 Baku
Fax: +994-12-93 56 43
E-mail: Belarus / Bélarus
Mr Alexander Ponimatko
Assistant Professor, Minsk State Language University, Department of Methodology, Zakharov 21,
220662 Minsk
Fax: +375-172-236 75 04
E-mail: Belgium / Belgique
Mme Renate Delhey
B-4700 Eupen
Fax: +32-87-556 475
E-mail: Bulgaria / Bulgarie
Ms Galina Doneva
Prestige Language School, 57, Dondukov, BG-1000 Sofia
Fax: +359-2-988 06 00
Mme Branimira Lekova
Assistante en chef, Université de Thrace, BG-6000 Stara Zagora
Fax: +359-42-30 610
E-mail: -
51
Croatia / Croatie
Mr Mladen Dolenc
Senior Advisor, Department for International Co-operation, Ministry of Education and Sports, Trg
burze 6, HR-10000 Zagreb
Fax: +385-1-46 10 490
Cyprus / Chypre
Mr Michael Matsangos
Inspector of English in Primary Education, District Education Office, Nicosia
Fax: +357-2-30 51 26
E-mail: Czech Republic / République tchèque
Ms Jana Pavlíková
Faculty of Education, University Jan Evangelista Purkyne, Department of English Language and
Literature, Ceské mládeze 8, CZ-400 96 Usti nad Labem
Fax +420-47-52 12 053
Estonia / Estonie
Ms Piret Pitk
Head teacher, Collegium Education Revaliae, Vene str. 22, EE0001 Tallinn
Fax: +372-6-31 35 41
E-mail: Finland / Finlande
Ms Anna-Kaisa Mustaparta
Counsellor of Education, National Board of Education, PO Box 380, SF-00531 Helsinki
Fax: +358-9-77 47 73 35
France
Mme Geneviève Vermès
Université de Paris VIII - Saint-Denis, UFR de psychologie et de français langue étrangère, 2, rue
de la Liberté, F-93526 Paris
Fax: +33-1-42 72 31 48
Georgia / Géorgie
Mr Irakli Topuria
Director, Centre for Language Studies, 2.26 of May Square, 380015 Tbilisi
Fax: +995-32-00 11 27
Greece / Grèce
Ms Cleopatra Kossovitsa
The Pedagogical Institute of the Ministry of Education, 239, Mesogion Street, GR-15341 Agia
Paraskevi, Athens
Fax: +30-1-601 42 51
E-mail: -
52
Iceland / Islande
Ms Jacqueline Fridriksdóttir
Teacher Trainer, Iceland University of Education, IS-105 Reykjavík
Fax: +354-563 39 66
Latvia / Lettonie
Ms Vineta Tetere
7, Skolas Street, LV-2150 Sigulda
Fax: +371-7-820 171 (c/o B Sermulina)
E-mail: Lithuania / Lituanie
Ms Jolanta Augustiniené
Medeina Primary School, Medeinos st. 27, LIT-2022 Vilnius
Fax: +370-2-61 20 77
E-mail: Luxembourg
M. Lucien Thill
Directeur adjoint, Lycée de Garçons Esch sur Alzette, 71, rue du Fossé, L-4123 Esch sur Alzette
Fax: +352-57 09 94
E-mail: Malta / Malte
Mr Charles L.Mifsud
Head of the Department of Arts and Languages in Education (DALE), Faculty of Education,
University of Malta (UOM), Room 320 – Tal-Qroqq, MSIDA MSD 09
Fax: +356-345 667 / 346 557
Ms Valerie Sollars
Lecturer, Department of Primary Education, Faculty of Education, University of Malta, Msida
Fax: +356-31 79 38
Ms Mary Anne Spiteri
Education Officer, Curriculum Centre, Education Division, The Mall, Floriana
Fax: +356-24 86 91
Moldova
Mme Marie Bujoreanu
Vice-Doyen de la Faculté des relations économiques internationales, Académie d’études
économiques de Moldova, 61, Banulescu Bodoni, MD-20 Kishinev
Fax: +373-2- 23 35 15
E-mail: Netherlands / Pays-Bas
Ms Jannette A.Wermer
Drienerwoold onderwijsadviseurs, Postbus 1177, NL-7500 BD Enschede
Fax: +31-53-48 54 400
E-mail: -
53
Norway / Norvège
Mr Abdul Sultan Mohammad
Toyen Skole, Postboks 2072 Toyen, N-0608 Oslo
Fax: +47-22-57 17 83
E-mail: Romania / Roumanie
Ms Miruna Catalina Carionopol
Principal , “George Cobusc” English Bilingual School, 29-30 Olari Street, RO-Bucarest 2
Fax: +40-1-252 77 63
E-mail: [email protected] / [email protected]
Russian Federation / Fédération de Russie
Ms Marina Volkova
Department of Linguistic and Translation, Tula State University, Lenin Prospect 92, 300600 Tula
Fax: +7-872-33 13 05
E-mail: Slovak Republic / République slovaque
Ms Darina Marceková
UK Fakulta tel. vychovy y sportu, Mudronova E. 58, SK811 03 Bratislava
Fax: +421-7-37 23 26
Slovenia / Slovénie
Ms Lucija Čok
Minister of Education, Science and Sport, Trg OF 13, SLO-1000 Ljubljana
Fax: E-mail: [email protected]
Ms Anja Zorman
PRE-SETT assistant for Italian, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Department Koper,
Cankarjeva 5, SLO-6000 Koper
Fax: +386-66-272 106
E-mail: Switzerland / Suisse
Mme Pia-Franziska Effront
Directrice, Ecole bilingue de Genève, 136, chemin de la Montagne, CH-1224 Chêne-Bougeries
Fax: +41-22-34 97 094
“The Former Republic of Macedonia” / “L’ex-République yougoslave de Macédoine”
Mme Jelena Jovanovska
Conseiller pédagogique, Etablissement pédagogique auprès du Ministère de l’Education, Unité
régionale à Gostivar, “Ilindenska” no. 156, 91230 Gostivar
Fax: +389-42-212 832
E-mail: Ukraine
Ms Olga Mischenko
Boguslav Pedagogical College, Mykolaivska str 98, apt 45, Kyiv
Fax: +380-44-216 28 49
E-mail: -
54

Creating a biliterate environment for foreign language teaching to

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