Presented at the McCord Museum

Transcription

Haida Art
Mapping an Ancient Language
The complete texts of the exhibition
Presented at the McCord Museum
From April 29 to October 22, 2006.
Table of Contents
Introduction
1. Life and Art on Haida Gwaii
2. Ceremonial Art
2.1. Transformations
2.2. Containers of Wealth
2.3. Potlatch
2.4. Mythical Animals
2.5. Performance
2.6. Crests
3. Individual Styles
4. Art for Export
5. The Shaman's Art
6. George Mercer Dawson (1849-1901)
7. A Visual Grammar
8. Gambling Game
9. References
10. Credits of the exhibition
Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language
© McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006
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Introduction
We Haida were surrounded by art. Art was one with culture. Art was our
only written language. Throughout our history, it has been the art that
has kept our spirits alive.
—Robert Davidson
On their lush island home off the Northwest Coast, the Haida fashioned a world of
outstanding artistic expression, one that sustained them through near annihilation in the
late 19th century. This exhibition shines a light on one strand of their rich heritage by
presenting an outstanding selection of historic Haida artworks. Most of these objects
were collected in 1878 by George Mercer Dawson during his travels in Haida Gwaii.
In the past, as today, Haida artists could be male or female. Their creative
output was astonishing—carved and painted chests, lifelike masks, finely
woven baskets, complex songs and dances, intricate tattoo designs, imposing
totem poles. The Haida artworks in the McCord Museum reflect one collector’s
tastes, and as the objects are mainly carved and painted, they were likely
made by male artists.
Contemporary Haida artists are constantly exploring the ancient language of their art; it
is the foundation on which new endeavours are built and the grammar with which future
histories are written. We asked renowned Haida artist Robert Davidson to guide the
selection of historic artworks and discuss their significance. His insights are woven into
the exhibition commentary.
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1. Life and Art on Haida Gwaii
Haida Gwaii is a homeland of towering cedar trees, spectacular seascapes, and a rich
and diverse array of natural resources. Archaeology places the arrival of the earliest
peoples on the Northwest Coast at about 12,000 years ago, as soon the last glacial ice
receded. By 5,000 years ago, Haida ancestors were organizing seasonal harvests of
salmon and halibut, hunting sea and land mammals, and filling baskets with edible
plants. Clams and mussels, available in abundance, were steamed and consumed all
year round.
Within this bountiful universe, their culture attained great sophistication and complexity,
characterized by a growing population, a surplus supply of food, and an emphasis on
wealth and status. Permanent villages facilitated the secure storage of food, tools and
luxury goods, and allowed specialized craftspeople to devote more time to art. Although
objects of carved and painted wood have not survived beyond a few hundred years,
discoveries of engraved antler and bone objects dating back 2,500 years show that a
recognizable artistic vocabulary already existed at this time.
Europeans
Spanish explorer Juan Pérez was the first European to sight Haida Gwaii in 1774,
followed by British navigator James Cook in 1778. Soon European and American
merchants were exchanging clothing, glass beads and steel knives for sea otter pelts
and a range of Haida goods, such as canoes, carved bowls and spoons, and painted
storage boxes. The Haida first contracted smallpox from these visitors in 1791. Massive
devastation did not strike until 1862, however, when travellers to Victoria brought a
smallpox epidemic back to Haida Gwaii. Within two years, the population had declined
so severely that entire villages were abandoned, leaving survivors to regroup in Masset
and Skidegate.
Mortar
Before 1860
Haida, artist unknown
Basalt
Collected by George Mercer Dawson, 1878
McCord Museum, ME892.33.3
When did the Haida begin to imbue all aspects of their world, including the ordinary, with a
distinctive aesthetic sense? Why did their artistic production take the form it did? This
undecorated mortar was created by pecking and grinding a boulder using stone tools. Despite the
difficulty of shaping this material, the artist achieved both a practical and visually pleasing result.
Mortar
Before 1860
Basalt
This stone mortar, carved to represent a frog, may have been used for grinding burned
clamshells to make lime, which was then mixed with flakes of dried native tobacco leaves. The
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lime chemically released the psychotropic compounds in the tobacco, creating a mixture that was
chewed on ceremonial occasions.
Mortar
Before 1860
Basalt
A frog is depicted on one end of this stone bowl, while a human being with hands upright is on the
other. Stone bowls or mortars in the shape of animals may predate the production of carved
wooden bowls, but stone examples continued to be made until the mid-19th century.
Seal or fish club
1800-1850
Yew wood
McCord Museum, ACC1204A
The Haida created a considerable body of art that appears to have used carved and painted
embellishments to evoke magical or symbolic properties. This club, meant to kill trapped fish or
seals, depicts a human being wearing a headdress in the form of a powerful killer whale.
Fish club
1800-1850
Yew wood
McCord Museum, ACC1204B
Eagles, whales and seals all consume fish, and therefore artists often represented these
intimidating natural hunters on fishing gear. A whale or other sea creature is portrayed on this
club, with a human figure as the blowhole.
Halibut hook
1800-1850
Wood, spruce root, sinew, iron
McCord Museum, ACC1239
Fish hooks were often designed and carved in the image of the marine life they were intended to
entice. This hook depicts a fisherman with a halibut on his hat and another in his mouth—a clear
indication of the desired outcome.
Halibut hook
1800-1850
Wood, spruce root
Gift of the Natural History Society of Montreal
McCord Museum, M13176
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Halibut hooks were made of two different types of wood. A barb to which the bait would be affixed
was lashed to the lighter variety with spruce root. The denser wood was usually carved. Here it
represents a cormorant, evoking the power of this skilled ocean diver.
Codfish hook and float
1800-1850
Red cedar, vegetable fibre, spruce root, iron
For historic Haida artists, the line between practical necessity and aesthetic impulse seems to
have been non-existent. This codfish hook is suspended from a wooden float. With minimal
carving, the float has been transformed into a seal holding a fish in its mouth.
Paint dish
Before 1878
Basalt
Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Skidegate, 1878
The Haida artist’s palette has always consisted of three main colours: black, red and blue-green.
Traditional mineral-based pigments, or trade pigments such as vermilion, were pulverized in a
stone dish, mixed with oils or grease, and then applied with a paintbrush made of porcupine
guard hairs. This paint dish depicts a frog.
Knife reworked into a chisel
1800-1850
Wood (reworked walnut gunstock?), steel blade (stamped: J. Russell & Co., Green River Works),
cotton cloth
McCord Museum, ME892.18
Steel blades obtained from traders were mounted in elaborately carved handles. The haft on this
reworked blade portrays a thunderbird grasping its tail. An important upper world creature in
Northwest Coast beliefs, the thunderbird could cause thunder by flapping its wings and lightning
with the flash of its eyes.
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2. Ceremonial Art
Traditional Haida society was highly structured, reflecting differential access to
resources and power, as well as complex religious beliefs about animal and spiritual
realms. The Haida were divided into two social groups or moieties-Raven and Eagle-and
each of these comprised a number of lineages. Marriages took place between Ravens
and Eagles, with children joining their mother's moiety.
Permanent winter villages had as many as 40 huge cedar-plank houses arranged in
rows along the shoreline, with each house occupied by 25 to 40 family members. The
villages were politically independent units, using lineage-owned territories and led by the
highest ranking chief.
Each lineage granted members entitlement to economic resources such as fishing spots,
hunting or collecting areas and house sites. However, the wealth that provided the
impetus and context for artistic production came mainly from intangible riches inherited
from ancestors: the rights to dances, songs, names, masks and regalia, as well as to
crests and other identifying symbols, made visible through the carved and painted
creations of artists.
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2.1. Transformations
At the heart of Haida belief and art lies the power of transformation. The mythical beings
depicted derive their power, in part, from their ability to change their shape and travel
from one cosmic realm to another. A bear becomes a human, an ovoid can be an eye or
a joint, a U-form is a fin or perhaps a tail. Haida artists exploit these visual puns to the
fullest, and in so doing, explore fundamental philosophical perceptions of duality and the
nature of change.
Bowl
1790-1820
Wood (alder?)
Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Q’una (Skedans), 1878
According to Robert Davidson, “These bowls rank amongst the highest of all the artwork. The
shape, the execution, the form—it all comes together to create these beautiful pieces. Whoever
made these was smiling.”
Bowl
1790-1820
Wood (alder?)
These two elegant bowls are among the earliest works in the collection. The formline composition
is at such a high degree of abstraction that the creatures represented are not identifiable. The
meaning of such designs was embedded in oral tradition, ancestral privilege and the cultural
knowledge of its maker and owner.
Spoon
1800-1850
Mountain sheep horn, mountain goat horn (handle), copper rivets
McCord Museum, ACC1233.7
A highly accomplished artist carved the handle of this spoon, possibly illustrating a popular
myth—Raven with a broken beak. A blind halibut fisherman snares the beak of the mischievous
Raven, who has been stealing bait. Raven struggles and finally his beak breaks off. He later
snatches it back and hurriedly sticks it on, but the beak just dangles from his chin.
Horn bowl
1800-1850
Mountain sheep horn
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This graceful bowl was created by steaming a mountain sheep horn and bending it to fit into a
mould, where it hardened. The carver then masterfully wrapped a human-like figure—perhaps
representing the sun or wearing a sun motif headdress—across the outside of the bowl.
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2.2. Containers of Wealth
A variety of carved and painted containers were made using the bentwood technique. A
box is constructed from a single plank into which wedge-shaped cuts, or kerfs, are made
where the corners will be. The plank is then steamed and bent at three corners, and
pegged or sewn together with spruce root at the fourth. Large boxes were used to store
a chief's regalia, preserved food or water, while smaller ones were serving dishes at
feasts. Boxes were treasured possessions, often passed down from generation to
generation.
Bentwood box
1800-1850
Red cedar wood, paint
Collected by George Mercer Dawson, vicinity of Alert Bay, 1878
Boxes were generally painted with conventionalized representations of animal or supernatural
beings on two opposite sides, and simple, asymmetrical compositions on the remaining two
sides. The “face” on the lower half of the box may represent Kugannjaad, Mouse Woman, who
assists those who are about to cross the boundary between the human and non-human worlds.
As Robert Davidson explains, “I like to see Kugannjaad as the spirit of the image. Without her, it’s
not complete.”
Bentwood bowl
1790-1820
Wood (alder?)
The complex imagery and distinctive shape of the ovoids confirm that this is an early bowl by a
very talented artist. On one end is a sea creature with a human clutching its forehead and another
human upside down under its muzzle. At the opposite end, a human’s legs and body emerge
from another creature’s mouth.
Bentwood bowl
1800-1850
Wood (alder?)
A hawk with talons drawn up under its hooked beak is depicted at one end of this bowl. The head
of a thunderbird is carved on the opposite end. Formline wings and feathers take shape across
the sides.
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2.3. Potlatch
The potlatch is a large ceremonial feast hosted by a powerful family on the occasion of a
birth, death, naming, installation of a new chief or raising of a totem pole. The hosts
garner prestige and legitimize their social status by distributing gifts and displaying
crests symbolizing their inherited rights. Between 1885 and 1951 the Canadian
government outlawed the potlatch-an act that threatened the survival of Haida beliefs
and traditional art. Yet the Haida persevered, and recent decades have seen an
outpouring of new cultural and artistic energy.
Dish
1800-1850
Alder or spruce wood, opercula
Dishes and bowls in a variety of shapes and sizes were expected at a feast, and those that were
particularly well designed drew both comment and admiration from guests. The extremely fine
walls of this bowl are covered in elaborate formline designs composed of ovoids and U-forms.
Dish
1800-1850
Alder or spruce wood
The flared ends of square bowls are generally engraved to depict a creature that cannot be
readily identified, perhaps linked to mythological and transformational themes. A head with two
eyes is usually portrayed at one end of the dish. The hindquarters or tail is shown on the opposite
end.
Dish
1800-1850
Alder or spruce wood, opercula
Wooden bowls were sometimes decorated along the broad flange of the rim with an inlay of
glossy white shells. These are the opercula, or “trap doors” of a marine snail (Astraea gibberosa).
Opercula can be gathered easily in places along the coast where mink, who eat the snails,
discard the shells.
Dish
1800-1850
Alder or spruce wood, paint
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Most dishes and bowls were originally painted, but the oils from the seafood they held penetrated
the wood and destroyed the paint’s adhesion. The end carvings of this dish show faint traces of
red and black staining that indicate the earlier presence of paint.
Dish
1800-1850
Alder or spruce wood
Gift of the Art Association of Montreal
As Robert Davidson points out, “There is a formula to bowls of this shape. There are no straight
lines; the front and back are concave and the sides convex. They usually have the same structure
and the creatures they represent are generic.”
Ladles
1800-1850
Mountain sheep horn
McCord Museum, ACC1232A, ACC1232B
These graceful ladles, made of steamed and shaped mountain sheep horns, would have been
used at feasts to transfer food from serving dishes to eating bowls. The end of one handle has
been carved and incised to depict a bird’s head.
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2.4. Mythical Animals
The Haida artist's visual vocabulary consists of animals and mythological beings. Artistic
representations of these creatures could be naturalistic or rendered in such an abstract
form that interpretation, if possible at all, depended on the inclusion of standard
recognition features. Raven is the trickster-creator of the Northwest Coast, and can
usually be identified by his large beak. The most imposing natural animal of the Haida
world, the killer whale, is signified by a tall dorsal fin, fluked tail and rounded snout with
many teeth.
Bowl
1800-1850
Wood (alder?)
A superb carver has depicted a raven’s head protruding from one end of this bowl, a human
clasped in its beak. Another human with outstretched arms grasps the front of the bowl. A hawk’s
head emerges where the raven’s tail should be, and complex formline designs trace wings (or are
they killer whale teeth?) across the sides.
Painted basketry hat
1875–1900
Haida, woven by Isabella Edenshaw (about 1858-1926) and painted by Charles Edenshaw (about
1839-1920)
Spruce root and bark, paint
The renowned weaver Isabella Edenshaw created hats and baskets on which her husband
Charles painted beautiful designs. In this instance, he has depicted the myth of Raven with a
broken beak. The hat displays Charles’s “signature”—a four-pointed star with each point divided
into red and black segments.
Raven rattle
1800–1850
Wood, paint, sinew, cotton
Raven rattles were an important part of a chief’s ceremonial regalia. A raven is shown holding
something in its beak, possibly evoking the legend of Raven bringing sunlight to the world. A
human reclines with his tongue extended to a frog’s mouth, perhaps a symbolic reference to
exchange with the animal and supernatural world.
Mask
1800-1850
Wood, paint, hair
Collected by George Mercer Dawson, possibly in Q’una (Skedans), 1878
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In Haida myths, more than 50 supernatural killer whale chiefs are recognized as controlling the
food resources of the sea. The whale chiefs can be identified by unique traits, including multiple
dorsal fins. This mask may depict a supernatural human or ancestor with two blue killer whale fins
over his eyes, indicating a lineage affiliation.
Killer whale rattles
1800–1850
Wood, paint, spruce root and cedar bark string, pebbles or lead shot
McCord Museum, ME892.11.1, ME892.11.3
Although these two rattles are readily identified as killer whales, we cannot assume today that all
meanings and their subtle distinctions are translatable over boundaries of culture, time and
space. Among the Haida, specialized knowledge of an object or image’s meaning was limited to
those who held the rights to interpretation.
Carved killer whale fin
1800-1850
Wood, paint, cedar bark streamers
This carved fin was once attached to a headdress or wooden helmet. Killer whale fins were
frequently shown with a face at the base, sometimes explained as the creature’s spirit or a person
carried by the whale. Cedar bark streamers originally fringed the back of the carving.
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2.5. Performance
Dance performances are an integral part of a potlatch, feast or other ceremony. On such
occasions, art is integrated with song, dance and re-enactments of the experiences of
ancestors. A dramatic way of recreating the past is through the use of masks, which
come alive when animated by the movement of a skilled dancer, especially in front of a
fire. While dance presentations are deliberately crafted to impress, the purpose of the
performance is to validate the ancient history and prerogatives of the mask owner's
family.
Staff
1890-1910
Wood
A ceremonial staff is carried as a symbol of the office and status of a chief. The staff is
elaborately carved with crest figures and consists of two interlocking sections. During a potlatch,
the chief pulls them apart to signal the beginning of gift distribution to the guests.
Mask
1813-1816
Possibly Haida, artist unknown
Wood, paint, fibre
Collected by Hudson Bay Company Chief Factor James Keith (1782-1851)
Many fine early masks collected on the Northwest Coast are now believed to have been made for
sale to traders. Foreign visitors were anxious to acquire carvings and the local artists obliged
them. Particularly popular were masks that portrayed women of high rank wearing a large labret,
or wooden plug, in their lower lip.
Swan rattle
1800-1850
Wood, paint, pebbles or lead shot
This unusual rattle, carved in the form of a swan, is one of only two known to exist. Though rattles
representing birds are common, most utilize the bird’s body as the globe of the rattle. Here the
swan is carved out of a piece of wood that has been split, hollowed and reassembled.
Puffin forehead mask
1800-1850
Red cedar, paint, eagle feathers?, fur, fibre
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Masks often represented mythological animals and birds. In Haida mythology, puffins occupy a
significant place because they are diving birds that suddenly disappear into the cosmic zone
beneath the sea. For this reason, puffin bills were suspended on shaman’s rattles.
Mask
1800-1850
Wood, paint, animal hair
Masks were used by chiefs in winter ceremonies and potlatch performances, and by shamans in
curing sessions. Blue masks like this one are sometimes associated with people who have
narrowly escaped drowning, whose skin has changed colour from long exposure to cold water.
Rattle
1800-1850
Wood, metal wire, paint, hide, pebbles or lead shot
This rattle’s spherical shape suggests that it may have been used by a shaman. The sounds of
rattles provided rhythm for songs, dances and chants, and were believed to attract spirits to the
ceremonies. The front of this rattle depicts a human face, while the back represents a bird,
perhaps a raven.
Rattle
1800-1850
Wood, paint, hide, pebbles or lead shot
This rattle has the face of an animal, perhaps a bear, on one side. As is often the case with round
rattles, the back represents the body of the creature. Here, the animal’s joints and claws are
depicted in formline on the reverse side.
Ceremonial whistle
1800-1850
Wood, seal bladder, fibre, cotton, wool, paint
Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Skidegate, 1878
This carving is actually a wooden whistle, activated when the attached seal bladder was
squeezed. It was used in a dance borrowed from the Kwakwaka’wakw, which re-enacts a young
man’s possession by a cannibal spirit. Dance and songs along with rituals tame the man, bringing
him back to his human self.
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2.6. Crests
Animal images in Northwest Coast art of the 18th and 19th centuries are most often
explained as crests: stylized representations of supernatural creatures encountered by
ancestors. Stories related to these key events were told and retold, defining the social
position of the specific family or lineage in Haida society. Certain prerogatives were
associated with crest images, including names, songs and rights to ancestral lands, as
were specific obligations. As symbols of power and prestige, crests were the primary
subject matter of historic Haida art.
Bowl
1790-1820
Wood (alder?), abalone shell, opercula
A beaver and a hawk occupy opposite ends of this striking bowl. Feet and feathers compete for
space. Iridescent abalone shell lights up the creatures’ eyes, and the rim is embellished with
inlaid opercula.
Bowl
1800-1850
Wood (alder?)
A beaver is shown chewing on a stick. At the opposite end, a human face appears at the joint of
the tail, symbolically evoking the beaver’s human attributes. As Robert Davidson explains, “
When we enter the supernatural world of the beaver, he is human and his cloak is hanging up.
When he enters our world, he puts on his cloak and becomes a beaver.”
Bowl
1800-1850
Wood (alder?)
A creature (perhaps a bear),with large ovoid eyes gazes out from the front of this bowl. At the
opposite end, its tail has been replaced by a hawk’s face, with its characteristic hooked beak. Like
many treasured feast bowls, this one has original repairs made with copper staples.
Bowl
1800-1850
Wood (alder?), glass beads
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A plump grouse or mythical bird is the carver’s subject on this unique feast bowl. The wing and
tail feathers start as subtle formline designs but the tips are carved in relief. The artist has chosen
to enhance the piece with inlaid European glass seed beads, obtained through trade.
Spoons
1800-1850
Mountain goat horn
McCord Museum, ACC1233.1, ACC1233.2
The Haida obtained sheep and goat horns in trade with the Tshimshian and other mainland
groups. The very resilient material of these large tapered spirals can be carved with woodworking
tools. Horn also becomes soft and flexible when soaked and heated.
Spoon
1800-1850
Mountain goat horn
This horn spoon is unusual in having a very abstract design on the handle, and two engraved
parallel lines running the length of the spoon.
Spoon
1800-1850
Mountain goat horn, copper rivets
Many spoons are made in two pieces. In this instance, both the bowl and the handle are made of
black mountain goat horn. The separate elements were attached using copper rivets. The figure
may represent a bear in semi-human form.
Spoon
1800-1850
Only a master carver could create the interlacing abstract figures on this handle. They may be
(bottom to top) a wolf or sea monster and on the back, a creature’s tail or Kugannjaad (Mouse
Woman), and a sea monster or whale with a dorsal fin (abalone shell inlay in the teeth is
missing).
Spoon
1800-1850
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Haida horns spoons are among the most elaborate forms of artistic expression. The figures here
may be (bottom to top) a mosquito with bulging eyes, a bear, a bear with an upside down human
in its mouth, a bearded sailor, a killer whale or sea monster, and a raven.
Spoon
1800-1850
The figures on this spoon are difficult to decipher, with the exception of the creature at the top. It
is a killer whale with a pierced dorsal fin—the hole may evoke a portal or doorway to the
supernatural world.
Spoon
1800-1850
The figures may be (bottom to top) a killer whale holding a human in its mouth (the whale’s tail
extends down the back of the handle), a raven, a human, and another human wearing a hat.
Spoon
1800-1850
This spoon depicts a raven and a watchman wearing a distinctive hat with rings symbolizing a
family emblem or the number of potlatches given by the owner. Watchmen, thought to have
supernatural powers, are often carved on the tops of totem poles, from where they survey the
village and sea, warning the chiefs in the event of arriving danger.
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3. Individual Styles
The Haida believe there is a supernatural being, Master Carpenter, who
is the ultimate carver-artist. His creations look so real that they seem to
be staring back at you. That's what these bowls are-they're alive. What
gives them life is composition, proportion, flow and energy. They all have
energy.
—Robert Davidson
The fat harbour seal was a favourite theme of Haida bowl carvers, probably because
seals were an important source of oil, and their meat and blubber were highly valued for
feasts. These bowls are hollowed sculptural representations of the entire body of a seal.
Other anatomical details, abstracted in formlines, cover the surface. Although the
different carvers were all working within a strict set of artistic conventions, stylistic and
conceptual differences can still be discerned. The variation in individual styles is
outstanding.
Feast bowls
1800-1850
Haida, artists unknown
Yew wood
McCord Museum, ACC1171, ACC1175, ACC1176, ACC1181, ACC1182, ACC1184, ACC1185
These bowls date from over a century ago, yet they still exude oolichan and seal oil. Oolichan oil
(extracted from a small type of smelt) was a nutritious, natural source of iodine that was used to
season almost every meal. The Haida obtained it through trade with the Tsimshian.
Feast bowl
1800-1850
Yew wood, opercula
This bowl resembles the graceful curves of the seal bowls, but it depicts other creatures. One end
portrays a sea otter with large ovoid eyes and clawed feet, which can be seen on either side of
the bowl. A hawk, with its hooked beak, is represented at the opposite end.
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4. Art for Export
Haida art was much admired and was sought after by neighbouring groups as one facet
of a thriving trade that extended across the Northwest Coast for millennia. Haida Gwaii
lacked certain prized natural resources available on the mainland, such as mountain
sheep and goats, oolichan oil and mineral pigments. In exchange, the Haida offered a
range of products-canoes, copper shields, carved and painted chests, and basketry
hats-all characterized by meticulous workmanship and artistic excellence.
Following contact with Europeans, the Haida tailored some of their artistic production for
sale to seamen and traders. In the 1820s, Haida artists began carving argillite pipes,
which were purchased as mementos and carried back to New England and Europe. As
the sale of argillite artworks became an increasingly important source of revenue, artists
responded by creating new forms: decorative panel pipes, plates and eventually
miniature totem poles. Many of these carvings stand out as masterpieces of Haida art.
Argillite
Argillite is a soft and fragile black stone from a quarry at Slatechuck Creek, near the
village of Skidegate. A block of argillite was first cut to an approximate shape with a
carpenter's saw. The artist then carved out the design using a chisel and file. The piece
was next polished with a dried sea sponge or shark skin, and a dark glossy sheen was
obtained by applying lamp black, petroleum or black shoe polish.
Charles Edenshaw
One of the best known Haida artists is Charles Edenshaw. A master engraver, painter
and carver, Edenshaw produced ceremonial and crest art for his own people, while at
the same time creating art for sale to collectors and museums. He overcame the
enormous challenges of his era-the onslaught of disease, the growing influence of
Christianity, and the prohibition of the potlatch-to become a great innovator in Haida art
and an inspiration to today's artists.
Model Totem Poles
Haida argillite carvers began to make model totem poles in the 1860s, and the form
became increasingly popular over the decades that followed. As with the full-size
versions, the carved figures were crests or characters in the mythical adventures of
lineage ancestors. Model poles were usually more freely sculptural than large poles, as
carvers did not have to grapple with the physical and conceptual limitations imposed by
the tree trunk.
Charles Edenshaw photographed with a few of his works, Masset, BC, about 1890,
photographer unknown, Canadian Museum of Civilization, 88926
One of the best known Haida artists is Charles Edenshaw. A master engraver, painter and carver,
Edenshaw produced ceremonial and crest art for his own people, while at the same time creating
art for sale to collectors and museums. He overcame the enormous challenges of his era—the
onslaught of disease, the growing influence of Christianity, and the prohibition of the potlatch—to
become a great innovator in Haida art and an inspiration to today’s artists.
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Pipe
1820-1850
Argillite
This pipe is the earliest argillite carving in the McCord collection. The main figure is a raven.
Beneath the raven's beak are two intertwined creatures, and on the other side, a seated bear.
Behind the raven is a sculpin. The underside of the pipe depicts two human figures.
Pipe
1850-1900
Argillite
Inspired by the scrimshaw and pipes made by European sailors, argillite carvers sometimes
depicted foreign seamen. This example portrays two men playing a tug-of-war game, with a
European-type face carved on the bowl. The pipe is unfinished; the figures on similar ones have
heads carved of ivory.
Panel pipe
1920-1930
Argillite
Gift of Miss Marion Ives
As the trade in argillite pipes increased, some carvers began to produce more elaborate
examples that have come to be called panel pipes. The figures are (left to right) an eagle holding
a human being in its talons, Bear Mother in human form with her hand in a bear’s mouth and a
killer whale.
Carving depicting the Bear Mother myth
1900-1925
Brown argillite
This rare brown argillite carving illustrates episodes of the popular Bear Mother myth. A young
woman out berry picking is seduced by a grizzly bear and gives birth to a pair of cubs, who
become human children at will. Bear Mother is rescued by her brothers after they kill her
husband. This mythical encounter underlies a set of agreements between humans and bears.
Platter
1890-1925
Argillite
Gift of the Canadian Guild of Crafts
This platter is impressive both for its size and elaborate design. The form evokes the general
shape of a canoe and the design elements of a raven rattle. The main figure is a raven, with its
body and wings detailed in formline. A hawk’s head emerges from the raven’s tail feathers.
22
Platter
1890-1925
Argillite, opercula, abalone shell
McCord Museum, MEL973.162
This spectacular oval platter portrays Wasco, a giant sea creature who is half wolf and half killer
whale, alongside a much smaller dogfish. The eyes and tail fins of both creatures are inlaid with
iridescent abalone shell. The composition is also enhanced by opercula inset along the rim and a
textured background.
Bowl
1890-1900
Argillite
Gift of Dr. Frank Buller
The carver of this beautiful bowl clearly understood the composition of earlier wooden bowls—the
carving marks are very long and confident. The bowl depicts a raven lying on its back, holding a
grizzly bear in its beak, with another raven’s head on its tail.
Bowl
1900-1925
Argillite, abalone shell
Gift of the Canadian Guild of Crafts
This small bowl depicts a beaver shown in a typical pose, holding onto a stick. Although the
overall design lacks complexity, the artist has enhanced the bowl's appearance by inlaying
abalone shell for the beaver's teeth, eyes, ears and joints (one ear and a hat are missing).
Chest
1900-1925
Haida, artist: Thomas Moody (about 1877–1947)
Argillite
This miniature chest, by Skidegate artist Thomas Moody, was modelled after the wooden chests
designed to hold ceremonial objects in a chief’s home. He has depicted a bear on one side and a
beaver wearing a hat with three potlatch rings on the other. The lid depicts a bear, in formline,
with a frog in high relief.
Platter
1900-1925
Argillite
The main figure on this platter is a shaman, shown with long hair and a nose ornament, who is
healing a patient. This carving is unusual in having a formline design on the underside, depicting
an unknown creature. Certain artists enjoyed experimenting with novel approaches.
Carving of mythological figures
1900-1925
23
Argillite
Gift of Dr. A. E. Johannsen
The use of texture in this compact depiction of interlacing figures is interesting. To the left is the
shaman, with his back against a hawk; next is a bear, its paw in the hawk’s beak. The mythical
creature Wasco (sea wolf), with its curled tail and dorsal or pectoral fin, is at the base.
Carving of a shaman
1900-1925
Argillite, ivory
Gift of Miss Marion Ives
A shaman is depicted in this powerful carving. He holds an ivory rattle; a second rattle is missing.
Male shamans always wore their hair long, sometimes up in a bun. Here the shaman wears a hat
and an apron fringed with deer hoofs or puffin bills.
Model totem pole
1900-1925
Argillite, metal
This model pole is carved in the distinctive compact style of full-size Haida totem poles. The
figures are (bottom to top) a bear or wolf, the turned-up tail of a killer whale with the head and
dorsal fin shown on the side of the pole, a human, a small creature (a wolf or fox?), and a bear
with a frog emerging from its mouth and a bear cub in human form between its legs.
Model totem poles
1900-1925
Haida, attributed to John Cross (1867- 1939)
Argillite
Gift of Hayter Reed
McCord Museum, ME937.19.1-2, ACC4535
These two model poles may have been made by the same carver, Skidegate artist John Cross. In
the 1870s, Cross was trained in tattooing and later turned his talents to argillite carving. The
figures are (bottom to top) Bear Mother holding two cubs with a frog at her feet, a dogfish and fish
swimming under her, a raven wearing a hat with a potlatch ring, and an eagle or thunderbird
gripping a fish (salmon?) in its talons.
Model totem pole
1900-1925
Argillite
This pole, representing the Dogfish Woman crest, is related to the story of a female ancestor who
could turn into a dogfish (a small shark) and enter the undersea realm. The figures are (bottom to
top) a frog, a beaver, a dogfish wearing a headdress showing the nostrils and gills of a shark, and
Dogfish Woman.
24
Model totem pole
1921
Haida, attributed to Thomas Moody (about 1877-1947)
Argillite
McCord Museum, M1807.1
This is a model of a full-size pole that stood in the Haida village of T’aanuu. The figures are
(bottom to top) Bear Mother holding her cubs, Sea Chief (a creature whose eyes fall out of their
sockets at night and who has no teeth and swallows his food whole) and an eagle holding a
human in its talons.
Model totem pole
1900-1925
Argillite
Gift of Mrs. Walter Molson
The figures are (bottom to top) a bear holding a halibut in its mouth, a raven in semi-human form,
represented with a human head but with wings and a broken beak, and Bear Mother with a cub
above her head.
Model totem pole
1900-1925
Haida, attributed to Thomas Moody (about 1877-1947)
Argillite
The figures are (bottom to top) Bear Mother with two cubs above her head and a cub at her feet,
Bear Mother’s brother holding two spears, and a raven with a halibut in his mouth and a human
between his wings.
25
5. The Shaman's Art
Shamans were powerful men, sometimes women, who served as intermediaries
between the natural and supernatural world. They were called upon to cure the sick, to
influence the weather and bring success in hunting and fishing, and to secure the
outcome of trade or war expeditions. Their work was infused with art, as paintings and
carvings brought powerful spirit helpers to physical life. Shamans sometimes created
their own tools, but they might also direct artists to make them.
Soul catcher
1800-1850
Animal bone
Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Virago Sound, 1878
Shamans were thought to see the soul departing from an ill person’s body. Their task was to
capture the lost soul in a double-ended soul catcher, trap it inside with a plug of shredded red
cedar and then blow it back into the patient. Special songs and dances were also a part of the
cure.
Amulet
1800-1850
Ivory, animal bone and teeth, hide thong
Amulets were an important part of a shaman’s paraphernalia. The largest element of this amulet,
made from an animal’s jawbone with one tooth still in it, depicts an eagle carved in deep
formlines. The smaller charms may have served as a rattle, creating a sound thought to summon
the shaman’s otherworldly helpers.
Crane amulets
1800-1850
Animal bone, paint
McCord Museum, ME892.8.2, ME892.8.4
The shaman wore a neck ring, a wooden frame from which a number of amulets hung. They were
made of different hard materials, mainly ivory, the canine teeth of bears and sea lions, antler and
bone. Birds and otters were the most common figures, followed by fish and whales.
Killer whale amulet
1800-1850
Animal bone
26
Shamanic artworks show a strong emphasis on creatures from the liminal space of the intertidal
zone, like octopus, or from the depths of the ocean, like halibut. Shamans frequently had a
special association with killer whales and used carvings and painted motifs to draw on the
supernatural strength of these powerful animals.
Amulet
1800-1850
Animal bone, paint
The creature represented by this amulet remains enigmatic. Shamans’ helpers often included
mysterious animals made up of parts of different creatures or endowed with strange combinations
of attributes. Amulets were designed to reflect the owner’s personal experiences in the spirit
world.
27
6. George Mercer Dawson (1849-1901)
George Mercer Dawson was born in Pictou, Nova Scotia, and moved to Montréal in
1855 when his father, John William Dawson, became principal of McGill University. At
the age of 11, George contracted spinal tuberculosis, an illness that stunted his growth
and left him with a hunched back. He nevertheless completed his education and went on
to become one of Canada's pre-eminent scientists-first and foremost a geologist, but
also an early anthropologist and pioneer photographer.
In 1878, while working for the Geological Survey of Canada, Dawson was sent to Haida
Gwaii to describe the geology and geography of the islands. As was the case during
previous surveys, Dawson expanded his mandate to include detailed reports on the
lifeways, languages and art of the Aboriginal people he encountered. His published
accounts of the Haida, and photographs of their villages and totem poles, are a historical
resource that continues to be widely consulted.
Watercolour
S. W. Entrance to Nodales Channel
About 1878
Artist: George Mercer Dawson
Watercolour on paper
Gift of Mrs. Donald Byers
McCord Museum, M982.81.7
MANUSCRIPTS:
Manuscript of “The Haida Indians,” published in George Mercer Dawson’s Report on the Queen
Charlotte Islands, Geological Survey of Canada, Report of Progress for 1878-1879 (Montreal:
Dawson Brothers, 1880). McGill University Archives, G. M. Dawson papers, MG.1022.
Field journal entitled “Queen Charlotte Island Cruise, 1878” [May 27-October 17, 1878], published
in The Journals of George Mercer Dawson: British Columbia, 1875-1878, edited by Douglas Cole
and Bradley Lockner (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1989). McGill University
Archives, G. M. Dawson Papers, MG.1022.
Lecture by George Mercer Dawson entitled “Nature & effects of the so called Potlatch system
among the Indians.” McGill University Archives, G. M. Dawson Papers, MG.1022.
PHOTOGRAPHS:
George Mercer Dawson, 1885. Photographer: William J. Topley. British Columbia Archives, A08368.
George Mercer Dawson (third from right) with his field crew at Fort McLeod, BC, 1879.
Photographer unknown. Library and Archives Canada, PA-051137.
28
7. A Visual Grammar
Over thousands of years, distinctive art styles developed along the Northwest Coast.
The peoples of the northern region-comprising the Haida and their mainland neighbours,
the Tlingit to the north and Tsimshian to the east-shared a highly sophisticated style of
graphic representation. This formline design system can be compared to a formal
language based on a kind of visual grammar. True masters of the art adhere to the
"rules" while also achieving endless variations and surprising innovations.
The Formline Design System
The design principles underlying the northern style were named by Bill Holm, an artist
and art historian, in a landmark 1965 book, Northwest Coast Art: An Analysis of Form.
The system is founded on the principle that creatures can be represented by delineating
their body parts and details with varyingly broad formlines that always join to create an
uninterrupted grid over the designed area. Holm identified two additional design units-the
ovoid and the U-form-as building blocks of compositions.
The formline system was first and foremost a painted art. An artist's equipment included
sets of different-sized templates of ovoids and U-forms that were traced onto the design
field without prior sketches. A great deal of painting was also done freehand. The
colours used were the typical black and red, sometimes complemented by green or blue.
Holm concluded that when making a three-dimensional object such as a bowl, a spoon
handle or a totem pole, the artist first conceived of the design in two dimensions and
then mentally "wrapped" it around the three-dimensional surface before carving it out in
relief.
Stretching the Alphabet
Robert Davidson has developed his own way of describing the visual grammar of Haida
art. He sees the ovoid and U-form shapes as the components of an alphabet that can be
stretched, pulled, rendered as positives or negatives, and otherwise manipulated with
endless possibilities, within a specific framework of understanding. Davidson views the
formline as the skeleton of the composition, within which energy fields can be directed
by creating and balancing positive and negative spaces.
Davidson's awareness of space-either defined within a shape or surrounding oneextends beyond purely formal concerns to the cultural and ceremonial space within
which the composition has meaning. For although today we rely on written words to
define the components of this artistic tradition, no historic word for "art" or for "formline"
has been found in the Haida language. Within this oral society, artists composed images
and communicated ideas: art was performed.
29
8. Gambling game
An Unusual Canvas
Gambling games were popular among the Haida, and these, too, provided an
opportunity for artistic expression. This set of gambling sticks was stored in a deerskin
container, which opens up to reveal a formline painting that may depict a mythological
aquatic creature. The 50 maple sticks are decorated with painted bands and motifs
burned into the wood. The tips are inlaid with abalone shell. At first glance the drawings
are difficult to appreciate as they are wrapped around the sticks. Decades ago, an as yet
unidentified McCord Museum volunteer devoted many hours to sketching twodimensional copies, providing a rare opportunity to study and appreciate these intriguing
images.
Gambling game
1800-1850
Haida, artist unidentified
Hide, paint, maple wood, abalone shell
McCord Museum, ME892.2.0-55
30
9. References
In addition to the contributions made by Robert Davidson, the exhibition commentary
was based on the work of numerous artists, community elders, art historians and
anthropologists, presented in the following publications:
Berlo, Janet C., and Ruth B. Phillips. Native North American Art. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1998.
Davidson, Robert, and Ulli Steltzer. Eagle Transforming: The Art Of Robert Davidson.
Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre; Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1994.
Holm, Bill. Northwest Coast Indian Art: An Analysis of Form. Seattle: University of
Washington Press, 1965.
McDonald, George. Haida Art. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1996.
McLennan, Bill, and Karen Duffek. The Transforming Image: Painted Arts of Northwest
Coast First Nations. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press; Seattle: University
of Washington Press, 2000.
MacNair, Peter, Robert Joseph, and Bruce Grenville. Down from the Shimmering Sky:
Masks of the Northwest Coast. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre; Seattle: University of
Washington Press; Vancouver: Vancouver Art Gallery, 1998.
Suttles, Wayne (ed.). Northwest Coast. Vol. 7 of Handbook of North American Indians.
Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1990.
Vaughan, Thomas, and Bill Holm. Soft Gold: The Fur Trade and Cultural Exchange on
the Northwest Coast of America, 2nd ed. Portland, OR: Oregon Historical Society Press,
1990. First published 1982.
31
10. Credits of the exhibition
An exhibition produced under the direction of Dr. Victoria Dickenson, Executive Director
and Moira McCaffrey, Director, Research and Exhibitions, McCord Museum.
Curatorial Team
Robert Davidson, Guest Curator
Moira McCaffrey, Director, Research and Exhibitions, McCord Museum
Guislaine Lemay, Curatorial Assistant, McCord Museum
McCord Museum Team
Project Management: Geneviève Lafrance, Coordinator, Exhibitions
Design: Line Villeneuve, Head, Exhibitions
Dolorès Contré Migwans, Assistant, Native Programs
Anne MacKay, Chief Conservator
Alain Lalumière, Chief Technician, Exhibitions
John Gouws, Technician, Exhibitions
Denis Plourde, Conservation Technician
Renée Riedler, Intern
Erin Fraser, Technician
Simon Lalumière, Technician
Nike Langevin, Head, Communications and Promotion
Amanda Kelly, Officer, Communications
Karine di Genova, Officer, Communications
Christian Vachon, Head, Collections Management
Natalie Monet, Collection Technician
Marilyn Aitken, Photographer
Stéphanie Poisson, Coordinator, Information Management
France Desmarais, Head of Strategic Initiatives
Revision and Translation
Karin Montin, English revision
Hélène Joly, French translation
The McCord Museum wishes to thank the McGill University Archives and Diane
Randall, Assistant to Robert Davidson, for collaborating on this exhibition.
32

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