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Hekima Review
Journal of Hekima College
Jesuit School of Theology, Peace Studies
and International Relations
Number 45, December 2011
Address: P. O. Box 21215, Ngong Road, 00505 Nairobi – Kenya
Telephone: (+254-2) 576607/8/9
Fax: (+254-2) 570972
E-mail: [email protected] (for submission of articles)
[email protected]
[email protected] (for subscriptions)
Hekima Review - Edited-45.indd 1
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Editorial Board
Editor-in-Chief:
Assistant Editor:
Managing Editor:
Distribution:
Norbert Litoing, SJ
Evaristus Ekwueme, SJ
Raymond C. Tangonyire, SJ
Fr. Jocelyn Rabeson Solofonirina, SJ (co-ordinator)
Wilson Waweru, AA
Makasa Adrian Chikwamo, SJ
Marcel Uwineza, SJ
Gilbert Fungai Banda, S.J.
Members: Bazebizonza Ndaphet Raphael, SJ
Ndimba Jean-Christian Ndoki, SJ
Benjie Notarte, SMM
Etienne Mborong, SJ
Jacob Barasa, AA
Dieudonné Bomalose, SMM
John Ewu
Charlie B. Chilufya, S.J.
Staff Advisor:
Wilfrid Okambawa, SJ
The views expressed in this journal do not necessarily reflect the opinion of the editorial
board. We welcome letters to the editor in reaction to any of the articles published in
the Review.
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ISSN 1019-6188
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Contents
Editorial
Choosing Christ in the World
Norbert Litoing, SJ...................................................................................................5
Theological Issues
Acceptable Guests: A Plea for an Empathetic Missiology
Ferenc Patsch, SJ.....................................................................................................8
Christian Praxis and Political Involvement
By Munduni Angelo Dema, SJ...............................................................................24
Quand Roland-Roger devient sourd ! Engagement chrétien en Afrique dans
un contexte d’anarchie démocratico-révolutionnaire et de ‘dogalisation’ de l’homme
By Jean Luc Enyegue, SJ.........................................................................................30
Imagination théologico-politique en Afrique postcoloniale
By Yvon Christian Elenga, SJ..................................................................................44
Wanjiku’s Contribution to the Christological Debate
By Wilson Waweru, AA..........................................................................................49
The Church as Family in Africa: A Renewed Debate and Modern Challenge
to Christianity
By Etienne Mborong, SJ..........................................................................................58
The Fate of the Marian Dogmas of the Immaculate Conception
and the Assumption in the Ecumenical Debate
By Prosper Mushy, AJ..............................................................................................72
Scripture
Forgiven, forgive
By Uwineza Marcel, SJ............................................................................................86
Le démoniaque de Gérasene
By Aurélien Folifack, SJ..........................................................................................101
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Spirituality
Ignatian Spirituality as a Foundation for African Theology of Politics
Chikere Ugwuanyi, SJ.............................................................................................116
Building Ecumenism from Below
By Serge Patrick Simo, AA......................................................................................127
Peace Studies and International Relations
“Peace I bequeath to you, my own peace I give you”
By Choobe Maambo, SJ...........................................................................................145
Solution Focused Education: A New Model of Educating for Peace
and Development in Africa
By Matanzonga Mambyanga Ebuma, SJ...............................................................157
Human Rights in an Ecumenical Perspective
By Fidèle Ingiyimbere, SJ........................................................................................171
Reflections and Experiences 188
«Un cœur docile pour gérer la chose publique»
By Christian Ndoki Ndimba, SJ.......................................................................... 188
The Congolese Civil War: A Challenge to my Christian Faith
By Raphaël Bazebizonza, SJ*........................................................................... 193
Book Reviews...............................................................................................................201
Poems............................................................................................................................214
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Editorial
Choosing Christ in the World
Norbert Litoing, SJ *
M
ore often than not, great changes in human history have ensued from the unconscious dialogue of an individual human being with the great historical forces
which have been in motion for perhaps centuries before his or her birth. The
individual in question crystallizes the aspirations of his or her contemporaries and
voices them, channelling as it were their spiritual energy, sparking off a movement bigger than the idiosyncrasies that initially set him or her in motion. Mohamed Bouazizi’s
self-immolation on 17 December 2010 served as a catalyst for the Tunisian Revolution
and the wider Arab Spring. The manifesto of Stephan Hessel, former French diplomat,
entitled Indignez-vous!, has much to do with the birth of movements such as the Spanish
indignados, the French indignés, the Portuguese movement Geração à rasca, Occupy
Wall Street in the United States, Y’en a marre in Senegal and a host of other movements
across the globe which strive to humanize our world. The 2011 Nobel Peace Prize was
awarded jointly to Ellen Johnson Sirfleaf, Leymah Gbowee and Tawakkol Karman “for
their non-violent struggle for the safety of women and for women’s rights to full participation in peace-building work.” All these men and women filled with ubuntu join
a host of others such as Nelson Mandela, Gandhi, Desmond Tutu, Martin Luther King
Jr., Wangari Maathai, etc. whose lives and actions have gone a long way to render our
world a little bit more human. If these and others were able to crystallize our aspirations
and give them meaning, it was certainly because they were grounded in something or
someone (?) bigger than them. They are like trees whose roots dip into the pure sap of
life. We Christians identify this sap as the love of God expressed supremely in Christ’s
oblation. In a fast changing world, prone to embrace what Pope Benedict XVI terms
the “dictatorship of relativism,” we look up to Christ as our source of inspiration, the
inner force that sets us in motion as we toil for a world of justice and peace. His word
and sacraments serve as the compass that directs our wayward steps. Our dreams for
a better world receive from him their meaning and scope. In the midst of the fuss and
buzz that surrounds us, we choose to choose Christ as our paradigm par excellence
for reading the past, evaluating the present and envisioning the future. In fact, as Kofi
Annan, Ghanaian diplomat, seventh secretary-general of the United Nations, and 2001
* Norbert Litoing is a Cameroonian Jesuit. He is a student in theology at Hekima College.
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Editorial
Nobel Peace Prize laureate, tells us, “To live is to choose. But to choose well, you must
know who you are and what you stand for, where you want to go and why you want
to get there.”
The articles you will find in this issue of our journal endeavour to provide a vision
of the world inspired by the Christian faith. Our triptych peace-politics-theology is envisioned from different angles and the wide variety of topics makes the volume look
more like a mosaic. But, like in every mosaic, the different components serve a single
purpose, a single intention. The different pieces are there to serve the larger picture.
In our mosaic, the intention, the larger picture, the common concern of all the essays,
is this: how can we, from our Christian standpoint, offer to the world our contribution
for its betterment.
Under Theological Issues, Ferenc Patsch reflects on empathy, an essential attitude for
any genuine missionary venture. To be empathetic entails, amidst other things, interiorizing, as part of one’s identity, the role of a stranger and a guest. As such, becoming an
“acceptable guest” is a pre-requisite to a life-transforming preaching of the gospel. Where
the gospel fails to transform lives, there is a noticeable gap between the celebration of
sacraments and Christian praxis. Raymond Tangonyire addresses this dichotomy and
suggests a way forward for the transformation of our societies inspired by our Christian
faith. Bridging this gap leads us to a rediscovery of the fact that political involvement is
not incompatible with Christianity. Our commitment to the truth as Christians can inspire
us to toil for the realization of our aspirations for good governance and democracy in
many of our African states. This is the call which Munduni Angelo Dema addresses to
us. More often than not, others have stepped in to help us realize these aspirations, or
so they say. The Western intervention in Lybia and Côte d’Ivoire are still fresh in our
minds. Jean Luc Enyegue wonders whether such interventions do not put into question
the independence we struggled to acquire in the 1960s and the kind of challenges they
pose to the African theologian, particularly in relation to liberation and inculturation.
Yvon Christian Elenga abounds in the same direction by setting the framework for a
theologico-political imagination in post-colonial Africa which ushers in a soteriology
in consonance with the challenges we face on the Continent, living our faith in an inculturated manner. Inculturating Christianity is precisely what Wilson Waweru does by
sharing with us Wanjiku’s contribution to the Christological debate. By naming Jesus
“healer,” “relative,” “liberating and supportive leader,” “dependable neighbour,” and so
forth, African Christians express their faith in a personal, inculturated way, in consonance
with their deepest aspirations. These aspirations can be condensed in one: to be family.
In fact, the Church as Family of God is a strong paradigm for building an authentically
African Christian society. It serves as a hermeneutical key as well as a model of being
Church in Africa. This is what Etienne Mborong tells us, drawing from the concept of
Ujamaa of Mwalimu Julius Nyerere and the practice of the palaver in traditional African
societies, thus building an ecclesiology from below.
Under Scripture, Marcel Uwineza invites us to a contextual reading of Mt 18:23-35.
Drawing inspiration from the Rwandan post-genocide experience, he dwells on the
necessity for the forgiven to forgive. Forgiveness is only possible when we allow ourselves to be ‘invaded’ by God. When we forgive the same way we have been forgiven,
the healing process becomes complete. However, healing must not be sought for itself,
but only for the sake of a deeper communion with God in Jesus Christ. This is what
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Editorial
stands out from the reading Aurélien Folifack makes of the healing of the Gerasene
demoniac where, in his view, the emphasis is less on the healing of the demoniac than
on the unveiling of Jesus’ identity.
Under Spirituality Chikere Ugwuanyi offers us a very daring reflection at the crossroads of spirituality and the theology of politics. He explores the possibility of founding
an African theology of politics on Ignatian spirituality. Prosper Mushy examines the
status of the two Marian dogmas of the Immaculate Conception and Assumption in the
current ecumenical debate and suggests ways in which Mary’s role in the divine plan
of salvation can be articulated for our contemporaries.
Under Peace Studies, Choobe Mambo reflects on peace as a gift and argues that for
Africa to enjoy this gift, politics worth the name is a prerequisite. Authentic politics passes
through a good educational system. Ebuma Matanzonga argues for a solution-focused
education with a student-centered approach as pathway to peace and development on
the African continent. One of the things that need to be learned for sure is the respect
for human rights. Fidèle Ingiyimbere explores the question in an ecumenical perspective,
comparing the catholic approach to that of the protestant theologian Jürgen Moltmann.
Under Reflections and Experiences, Christian Ndoki conducts an interview with John
Paul III, in 2020. As strange as it may sound, this fictive interview leads to a reflection
on the role Christian faith can play in political life. The pre-text for this reflection is the
speech given by Pope Benedict XVI at the German Bundestag in September this year.
In the same vein, Bazebizonza Raphaël shares his reflections on the Congolese experience of civil war. His Christian reading of this experience leads him to a reassertion of
the primacy of the human person and the preponderant role the Church can play in
Congo to put this reality to the fore.
As usual, you will find a number of book reviews and poems at the end of our
volume. Please, enjoy!
As this is my last issue as editor-in-chief of Hekima Review, I would like to thank
all of you for your fidelity and support to our journal and wish you a merry Christmas
and a grace-filled year 2012.
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Theological Issues
Ferenc Patsch, SJ*
A
bstract: In this paper, which is to a great deal inspired by the scholarship of Anthony J. Gittins and Peter C. Phan, I propose that the attitude of missionaries
toward the host populations needs to be empathetic. Willing to rehabilitate the
very word “empathy” in missiological vocabulary, my contribution aims to promote a
generally empathetic culture by sophisticating the philosophical framework suggested
by Schleiermacher, Buber, and Gadamer and by outlining some basic components
of a new and gradually rising missionary spirituality which is more convenient to
our globalizing world.
Introduction: My proposal in this paper is that, in order to be effective in transmitting
the Good News, the attitude of missionaries toward the host populations needs to be
empathetic. The word “empathy” has a relatively rare explicit occurrence in the literature of missiology, notwithstanding the generally “empathetic culture” of the contemporary literature and despite of most of the recent author’s instinctive sense about its
relevance as an attitude and their implicit attempt to promote it.1 Is such a development
in missionary approach just wishful thinking? Is it just a mere dream to believe that this
new type of missiology, which is characterized by spiritual and empathetic sensitivity, is about to be born and spread out or is it rather a prophecy which is well based
on trustworthy prognosis? My contribution here aims to help this process by trying to
1
This generally “empathetic culture” of the literature does not need to be proved; as far as I know, the importance of empathy has never been explicitly contested by contemporary authors. Among the relatively rare examples of
explicit occurrence, cf. Laurenti Magesa, who, in his “Foreword” to the book of Michael C. Kirwen (The Missionary and
the Diviner, N.Y.: Maryknoll, Orbis Books, ix) urges missionaries to be “empathetic”. Furthermore: Thomas Hale writes:
“Empathy is a crucial attitude which will allow the missionary to truly enter into the lives and feelings of the people as
an equal, as a friend.” (Idem, On Being a Missionary, William Carey Library: Pasadena, California, 1995, 53); Luzbetak
advocates empathy as a way of overcoming ethnocentrism (cf. L.J. Luzbetak, The Church and Cultures, Techny: Divine
Word Publications, 1970, pp. 96-97; quotes: Lyman E. Reed: Preparing Missionaries for Intercultural Communication:
A Bicultural Approach, 1985, p. 88.). In addition cf. Cornille C., The Im-possibility of Interreligious Dialogue (Herder
& Herder: New York, 2008), 137-176; Peter C. Phan (relying on the work of Jay McDaniel) speaks about “deep listening” which is an “empathetic presence to others with the intention of affirming and honoring their well-being” (Idem,
“Peacebuilding and Reconciliation. Interreligious Dialogue and Catholic Spirituality”, in Robert J. Schreiter et al., ed.,
Peacebuilding. Catholic Theology, Ethics, and Praxis, N.Y.: Maryknoll, Orbis Books, 2010, 358). A possible reason of
the shortfall or complete absence of the term “empathy” in standard missiological works might be its often misunderstood
and distorted meaning. “Empathy” as a complete absorption of the other’s position (just as “tolerance” as a mere neutral
openness to the other’s position) is certainly not a desirable or genuine attitude in communication!
*
Ferenc is a Hungarian Jesuit. He is a visiting lecturer at Hekima College.
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grasp and outline some basic elements of a new missionary spirituality (and identity)
which is so desperately needed in our globalizing world. In doing this, I am indebted
to the empathetic theological approach of the British missionary and scholar, Anthony
J. Gittins and the American Catholic theologian who is native of Vietnam, Peter C. Phan
from whom I got essential insights.2
Willing to promote empathetic approaches in missiology and in missionary professional behavior (and rehabilitating the very word “empathy” in such realm), I will
revisit the two main politico-theological, and literary critical currents, that represent nonempathetic approaches. Next, after defining my terms (and demonstrating its limitations),
I will address the philosophical criticism of Martin Buber and Hans-Georg Gadamer,
in order to help emerge a new missionary self-image, characterized by vulnerability,
interdependence and voluntary weakness.
1. What Mentality Should Be Changed? – Remarks Concerning the Context
There are two, seemingly opposite, positions, manifested even in missiological
approaches, which represent two influential movements in the current social, cultural,
political, and theological arena. As we will see below, both of the two movements – labeled here as “colonialist” and “post-colonialist” – can be characterized as fundamentally
empathy-less mentalities.
Colonial mentality. – The term colonialism defines the specific form of cultural
exploitation that developed with the expansion of Europe over the last 400 years.
Since Renaissance times, European colonialism became a sufficiently specialized and
historically specific form of imperial expansion to justify its current general usage as a
distinctive kind of political ideology.3 It is impossible to deny that the perception of the
colonies as primarily established to provide raw materials for the burgeoning economies of the colonial powers was greatly strengthened and institutionalized. It is also a
fact, that the relationship between the colonizer and the colonized was locked into a
rigid hierarchy of difference, deeply resistant to fair and equitable exchanges, whether
economic, cultural or social. We must acknowledge as well that the ideology of race
was also a crucial part of the construction and naturalization of this unequal form of
intercultural relation (since in the colonies the subject people were of a different race).
As experts put it pertinently:
Race itself, with its accompanying racism and racial prejudice, was largely a product of the
same post-Renaissance period, and a justification for the treatment of enslaved peoples after
the development of the slave trade of the Atlantic Middle Passage from the late sixteenth
century onwards. In such situations the idea of the colonial world became one of a people
2
Some of their important books in this regard: Anthony J. Gittins, Come, Follow Me: The Commandments
Of Jesus; Invitations to Discipleship, Liguori Publications, 2004; Idem, Encountering Jesus: How People Came to
Faith and Discover Discileship, Liguori Publications, 2002; Idem, Reading the Clouds: Mission Spirituality for New
Times, St Pauls Publications, 1999; Idem, Ministry at the Margins: Strategy and Spirituality for Mission, New York:
Maryknoll, Orbis Books, 2002; Idem, Gifts and Strangers: Meeting the Challenge of Inculturation, New York: Paulist
Press, 1989; Idem, ed., Life and Death Matters: The Practice of Inculturation in Africa, Hardcover, Steyler Verlag,
2000; Peter C. Phan, “Peacebuilding and Reconciliation”, 332-365; Idem, Social Thought, Welmington: Glazier, 1988;
Idem, Responses to 101 Questions on Death and Eternal Life, New York: Paulist Press, 1997; Idem, Mission and
Catechesis: Alexandre de Rhodes and Inculturation in 17th Century Vietnam, New York: Orbis Books, 1998; Idem,
Being Religious Interreligiously: Asian Perspectives on Interfaith Dialogue, New York: Maryknoll, Orbis Books, 2004.
3
Cf. Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin, Key Concepts in Post-Colonial Studies (London:
Routledge, 1989), 45-51, 186-192, Ania Loomba, Colonialism/Postcolonialism (London: Routledge, 1989).
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Ferenc Patsch, SJ
intrinsically inferior, most just outside history and civilization, but genetically pre-determined
to inferiority.4
Living with this sense of superiority, civilizing “task” and paternalistic obsession
of “development” and “aid”, colonialists developed a complex ideology, whereas the
violent and essentially unjust processes of their activity stayed for long hidden. Today,
however, the scholarly task of dealing with the consequences of this ideology needs no
apology, especially if we consider that more than three-quarters of the current population on earth lives in a world whose life and culture have been essentially shaped by
the experience of colonialism.
Colonialism in the modern period appears not only to be a political and economic
enterprise but also a discursive intrusion into the cultural and perceptual spheres of
the colonized peoples. The whole exploitative process is made possible, and indeed
profitable, for a prolonged period by what Simon Samuel calls a “covert colonization
of the mind and psyche” of the colonized subjects. He writes:
Under colonialism the colonized are conveniently spaced into a discursive framework from
which they are portrayed, and they may perceive themselves, to be the colonized ‘other’,
lower in race, colour, culture, intellect, religious beliefs and practices. They may perceive
themselves to be different and therefore are destined to be ruled by a colonial superior ‘self’.
Thus modern colonialism is played out not only on the political and economic fronts but also
in the perceptual and cultural spheres of the colonized peoples.5
It is of little wonder that such a violation of human dignity and an underestimation
of culture of the local people, as well as their person, by the colonizers have left deep
wounds in the souls of the affected ones and led them to a vehement counter-reaction,
which marks massively a good part of the current, so called, Post-colonial literature.
Postcolonial mentality. – Although the formal colonialism on the political and economic front has been dismantled, at least to a large extent, by the decolonizing independent movements in the latter half of the 20th century, its effects in the perceptual and
cultural spheres still linger. Postcolonialism as a literary and counter-cultural discursive
strategy engages these remaining and lingering aspects of colonialism.6 This means that,
as a literary and cultural practice, the postcolonial mentality of resistance strives to rupture the politics of culture of the colonialists by means of a complex variety of creative
cultural productions of discursive responses, and as a critical practice it examines the
complexities and conundrums of the discourses that emanate from among the colonized
and dominated in a colonial or postcolonial context.7 Since the late Seventies, many
authors feel the urgent need to contribute in order to change the dominant narrative.8
4
Key Concepts, 46-47. Anthony J. Gittins explicitly criticizes missionaries to be “racists” and sometimes
seduced by imperialist/colonialist drives. He writes: “I believe it is […] true to argue that to some degree every one
of us tries to manipulate and control an unfamiliar situation; and, moreover, some missionaries, public profession to
the contrary, are xenophobic or even racist. This is nothing new; we are all aware of these things, at least dimly. But
to deny our limitations and tendencies is to resist grace.” (Gittins, Gifts and Strangers, 113).
5
Simon Samuel, A Postcolonial Reading of Mark’s Story of Jesus (New York: T & T Clark, 2007), 1.
6
Ibidem; cf. Key Concepts, 46-47. Concerning postcolonial theology cf. M. Steele Ireland: “Postcolonial
theology”, in William A. Dyrness – Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, eds, Global Dictionary of Theology, 683-686.
7
Samuel, A Postcolonial Reading, 1.
8
According to the groundbreaking work of Edward Said, Orientalism (1978) the “Orient” was basically a
political, ideological and imaginative creation of European culture during the post-Enlightenment period. Orientalism
was therefore a discourse of the West that controlled the nature and shape of knowledge as well as the ways it was
produced and disseminated. Postcolonial mentality is a reactionary counter-movement to this current (cf. Wong Wai
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The postcolonial current became extremely fruitful, inasmuch as Homi Bhabha defines
“postcolonial” as a tool that functions to direct our attention to “bear witness” to inequities in modes of representation between the West and the non-West.9
However, militarism cannot be defeated by militarism! With its mechanic and polarizing criticism, the postcolonial movement seems to represent rather just another onesided reaction which cannot do justice to the ex-colonizers and, in sum, fails to show
a genuinely new direction or a real intellectual and spiritual alternative.10
A more genuine solution must seek a more reconciled (that is, a more independent
from its counterpart) pattern of thought. Although no one is surprised by the violent
reaction from the part of the ex-colonized towards their former rulers, it is justifiable to
note that their reaction is just a parallelism of the action which caused it. In the deepest
sense, they represent just another side of the same coin.
The Common Denominator is a Lack of Empathy. – Even if these may seem strong
words, we can confess that, on the one hand, missionaries have been seen time and
again to pay little or no attention to the felt needs of their hosts, and were arrogant
and disrespectful, independent and unpredictable, and seen to have made exorbitant
demands on the people who were trying to extend tolerant hospitality. On the other
hand, however, even the postcolonial mentality, as a reactionary act, fails its purpose
by its one-sided passion. A story narrated by Aloysious Pieris, the influential Sri Lankan theologian, expresses the typical biases, wounds, and emotional shortcomings of
both sides.
At that time [in the 1960], some Protestant missionaries were hopping from one monastery to
another, speaking about Christ. The Buddhists accepted them, waged them a cup of tea, and
smiled. The Protestants left greatly upset because the Buddhists just smiled without accepting
Christ. The Buddhists, in turn, and as a token of goodwill, invited the Protestants to one of
their ceremonies. The Protestants took this as a diabolical plot to belittle their evangelizing
efforts. For them, the hour of darkness had come, and the hour of grace must strike. So on
the day of the ceremony, despite ostentatious assurances that they were guests of honor, the
missionaries distributed leaflets rather derogatory to Buddhism, with slurs on the character
and person of the Buddha. Since then, no Buddhist monk could ever again bring himself to
trust a Christian missionary – or a Christian, for that matter.11
Ching, “Postcolonialism” in Vigrinia Fabella and R.S. Sugirtharajah, eds, Dictionary of Third World Theologies, New
York: Orbis Books, 2000, 169-170.)
9
In other words, the term “postcolonialism” has come to mean not only a simple periodization after Western
countries dominated militarily, but also a “methodological revisionism that enables a wholesale critique of Western
structures of knowledge and power since the Enlightenment.” (Ibem, 169.)
10
We are not trying to deny that the radical currents are partly necessary and healthy: in effect, without using the term, Third World theologies have, since their inception, already engaged themselves in a postcolonial task
when they challenged the Western construction of Christianity and constantly work on the project of reformulating
contextual theologies that aims to free themselves from being a tool of the colonial masters. This engagement was
based on knowledge provided by the Enlightenment and, at the same time, carries away also its great difficulties and
limitations. Some theorists see already the problem: “Current postcolonial theory goes beyond, among other things,
binary notions and acknowledges that the contact between the colonizer and the colonized is complicated and intertwined.” (Idem, 170.) Yet, Third World theologies have benefited from postcolonial critics by “taking on a self-critical
perspective toward their strong dependence on a Third World identity.” Recognizing this co dependence has resulted in
their freezing themselves within a category of difference designed by the West. “Therefore, in their continuous search
for a way forward, Third World theologies must find ways to bread free of the restrictive demarcation constructed by
the West.” (Ibidem)
11
Aloysius Pieris, “Two encounters in my theological Journey”, in R.S. Sugirtharajah, ed., Frontiers in Asian
Christian Theology: Emerging Trends (New York: Maryknoll, Orbis Books), 118.
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Ferenc Patsch, SJ
The wounds, left behind by mutually empathy-less approaches, must be healed. Without reconciliation, there is no liberation, and no access to truth either. (Had Jesus Christ
suffered his death on the cross with rage and revengefulness, hatred and annoyance, we
would find it difficult to believe in the redeeming power of his suffering and death. Only
what is suffered with love, in touch with our own spiritual centre, is redeemed.) The so
called colonial legacy, with its still visible traces in souls, is, understandably, even now
a heavy burden on the shoulder of the so called Third World. It affects unavoidably its
intellectual and spiritual life, literary – including theological – production and culture.
Given this miserable situation, a certain shift or even a paradigm-change in Christian
missions is warmly welcomed, even if this need has not been thematized enough by
contemporary missiologists. My suggestion is that the most essential characteristic of
this new approach and missionary attitude should be its empathy.
2. Empathy as Missionary Tool: Its Meaning and Its Limitations
“All controversy over empathy is based on the implied assumption that foreign
subjects and their experience are given to us. Thinkers deal with the circumstances of
the occurrence, the effects, and the legitimacy of this givenness. But the most immediate undertaking is to consider the phenomenon of givenness in and by itself and to
investigate its essence”12
– Edith Stein, a German philosopher and one of the 20th century’s most significant
mystics, begins her phenomenological investigation on “empathy” with these words.
How is this phenomenon given to us? It seems appropriate to first study our subject
matter leaving aside, as far as it is possible, all unnecessary conceptual frameworks,
and rather focus on its everyday experience.
Meaning – Empathy, according to the common sense, is the capacity to recognize
and, to some extent, share feelings that are being experienced by another sentient being. If a friend tells me that he has lost his brother, I can become aware of his pain. It
is not necessary here to go into the basis on which I infer the pain. Perhaps his face
is pale and disturbed, his voice toneless and strained. Perhaps he also expresses his
pain in words. What counts here is the simple fact that human beings are, under circumstances, capable of empathy. In fact, empathy is one of the key cornerstones of
genuine human relationships.
With regard to intercultural and interreligious encounter between a missionary and
a person from an alien cultural, spiritual and religious background, empathy also calls
for a real understanding of the other “from within”, a certain penetration of the religious
mind-set of the other. Hence, empathy represents “the means to gain understanding of
the affective dimension of the other religion, of the religious desires and needs that lie
at the origins of particular beliefs and practices and of the experiences generated by
them.”13 Empathy as an understanding of the other is, therefore, a continuous and openended process. In a certain sense, one’s own experiences and orientations and a relative
familiarity with universal religious desires and emotions, can provide an analogy for
understanding the “religious Other” (yet, this understanding cannot claim to be perfect).
12
13
Edit Stein: On the Problem of Empathy, Transl. by Waltraut Stein, (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1964), 4.
Cornille C., The Im-possibility of Interreligious Dialogue, 140.
12
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Summarizing the most essential elements of what has been said before, empathy
means affective and cognitive self-identification with someone else to the extent that
we consider him or her (at least temporarily) more important than ourselves. In other
words, missionary empathy is to give priority to the religious Other. Empathy in this
strict sense is primarily a religious value (albeit its broad psychological and pastoralpsychological acknowledgement of its importance due to the academic achievements
of Karl Rogers and his school).14
Limitations – However, empathizing with the religious Other has its in-built and
inevitable limitations. If empathy means, to use a metaphor, to step into someone
else’s moccasin, we must admit, it is, and remains, an ideal, always asymptotically approachable but never fully reachable or realizable. It was the Prussian theologian of
the 18-19th century, Friedrich Schleiermacher, who optimistically envisioned a state of
complete understanding made possible by the miracle of divination. According to him,
the individuality of the author becomes wholly clear because the interpreter has transposed himself into the author’s horizon. For Schleiermacher, the genius of the author is
unique and cannot be subsumed under any other framework, yet it becomes intelligible
by reason of the corresponding genius and empathy (Einfühlung) of the interpreter.
His is the genius of divination, of the sudden insight that permits transposition into the
mind of the author.15
Despite the elegancy of Schleiermacher’s theory, philosophers since post-romantic
times, and, needless to say, some current (post-) modern authors express emphatically
its naiveté. Their criticism is based on not primarily psychological but rather ontological
reasons. In fact, the “Other”, if we try to do justice to its diversity, will always remain
alien for our understanding. There is no such genius who can transpose us to someone else’s position. Why? The reason sounds trivial. We are unable to change identity;
rather, we always look at others from our own limited perspective. There is nothing
we can do about it, everybody stands somewhere and has his or her own viewpoint.
We cannot help, thus, but in-building the other in what we hold to be true and valuable. It is impossible to switch off our own humanity: human beings do not just look at
others from their particular vantage point (or “horizon”) but also understand the others
and evaluate them exactly from where they stand. How could we take off our cultural
(and religious) clouds in order to become one with someone else? How could I change
14
Given this definition, I am aware of the possibility of misunderstanding and criticism, and of being able
to be reproached with pessimism, moral rigidity, and escapism, or become involved in endless discussion in the
name of reason or common sense psychology. However, in each mature form of religiosity the priority of the
“Other” (Other-centeredness) is an indispensible requirement, constantly emphasized by postmodern authors (cf.
David Tracy, Dialogue with the Other: The Inter-Religious Dialogue, Louvain: Peeters, 1990).
15
Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834) defined hermeneutics as “the art of understanding the discourse of
another person correctly” (cf. Richard E. Palmer, Hermeneutics: Interpretation Theory in Schleiermacher, Dilthey,
Heidegger, and Gadamer, Northwestern University Press: Evanston, 1969, 40, 84-97). He is often misinterpreted
as a Romantic theorist who considers the process of interpretation to consist of an “intuitive” and “empathetic”
identification with the thoughts and feelings of the author of a text. However, this psychological hermeneutics
does not adequately represent Schleiermacher’s view, since he sees “intuition” to be linked to a world which transcends both the cognitive and the practical life of the individual. The fact that a “pure” Einfühlung is impossible is
recognized and stressed by post-romantic philosophers. In his mastery work, Truth and Method (1960), Gadamer
comments: psychological interpretation “is ultimately a divinatory process, a placing of oneself within the mind
of the author, and apprehension of the ‘inner origin’ of the composition of a work, a recreation of the creative
act” (Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method, New York: The Seabury Press, 1975, p. 164; on Schleiermacher’s
project of a universal hermeneutics: Idem, 162-173).
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position and see with someone else’s eye?16 And, what is more, this insight is not as
new as it seems for the first time. Already in the high-middle-ages, the 13th century’s
top theologian St. Thomas Aquinas expressed this very insight with powerful clarity:
Cognita sunt in cognoscenti secundum modum cognoscentis (Things known are in the
knower according to the mode of the knower).17 There is no way out: Despite all our
empathetic endower, we are condemned to remain ourselves in each of our personal
encounters – with all of its consequences.
Understandably, this fact has its enormous implications even for an interfaith
encounter, and as such, even for a missionary setting today. We are always standing
somewhere when we meet, understand and evaluate someone. The American theologian
of religious pluralism, Paul F. Knitter puts it as follows:
No matter how much we may try to act differently, we are always – incorrigibly and incurably – going to view hear, and understand the other religious person from our own religious
perspective. […] Or we can’t step out of our own cultural, religious skin and, as it were, take
on the skin of someone else. So the ideal of ‘passing over’ to another religion, or of walking
in the moccasins of another religious person, is just that, an ideal – something we can, and
should, strive for, but only with the realization that we can never bring it off completely. One
of the moccasins remains our old one. In passing over, part of us stays behind. Or so it seems.18
Such insights, thus, unambiguously mark our inalienable and unavoidable (ontological) limits in empathizing with the religious Others. We have seen that it is not possible
to leave behind our own world and put ourselves into someone else’s. However, are
we even close to it? Is empathy condemned to be impossible as a whole? How does
a personal encounter really take place? Two highly significant philosophers from the
20th century come to our assistance to answer these questions and provide a way out
of the trap.
3. Some Philosophical Nuances: Inclusive Mutuality (Buber and Gadamer)
For the ontological reasons mentioned above, it seems that we need to bid farewell
to “empathy” in interpersonal relationships in general, and in intercultural and interreligious encounters in particular, acknowledging its impossibility (or, even more, harmful
colonialism). Can we do it indeed? In this section, I argue that it would rather be necessary to make some modifications and sophistication to our philosophical framework.
For now, let us continue with the ongoing analysis. Human beings are always communicating – This does not seem to be a revolutionary statement. Philosophers, sociologists and psychologists have not failed to call to our attention the fact that everything
done in a relationship is a form of a communicative act. As a result of our Being-together
(Mitsein) in the world, it is impossible not to communicate. However, there are huge
16
This is true in a broader sense as well. We, as humans, are not able to find a way out from the world as
such. There is no neutral standpoint or place that would show us the reality – including “the other” – “objectively”
as it is. “Neutrality,” namely, would mean here even “nonhistoricity,” “culture-lessness,” and even religion-lessness.
But human beings cannot be provided by a position “beyond this world”. The often-mentioned Archimedian standing
place, in space, in hyperuranium, outside of any limiting or biasing cultural viewpoint is essentially impassible. Unless
we are angels, such a standing spot does not exist (cf. Paul F. Knitter, Introducing Theologies of Religion, New York:
Maryknoll, Orbis Books, 2002, 216-219).
17
Summa Theologica, II-II, q. 1,a. 2. (quotes: Knitter, Introducing, 217).
18
Knitter, Introducing, 217.
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differences between the possible qualities of communication. Empathy, in its deeper
sense of the word, calls for a parallel and dialogical way of relating to others. This
form of communication was famously described by a giant thinker, the German-Jewish
philosopher Martin Buber (1878-1965).
Buber: The Healing Inclusion of “I-Thou” Dialogue. – “Through the Thou a man
becomes I.”19 – With this programmatic statement, Buber describes the very nature of
interpersonal communication. In contrast with the I-It relation/liaison, “[t]he primary
word I-Thou can only be spoken with the whole being” (that is, with our whole human
existence).20 It gives quality to life. Buber insists that a personal relationship will never
be given a new life except by that out of which true relationships always arise: the
revealing by two people of the Thou to one another. Over a long period of time, the
quality of close relationships depends on their trustable core – the genuine dialogue.
This dialogue is characterized by Buber as possessing qualities of “presence.” People
make themselves present to each other, “inclusion,” which is the process of letting another in one’s inner thoughts and feelings. The genuine dialogue is nonexploitive and
it is a great resource in relationships leading to reciprocal giving and mutual benefit.
Buber’s notion of the healing that occurs from the inclusive “meeting” in the I-thou
dialogue points to the human need for connectedness and the importance of the emotional bond. In this type of meeting, presence and directness, inclusion and immediacy
characterize the moment in which two people genuinely care about each other’s side
of the dialogue. Dialogue – in contrast to manipulative interaction – thus involves responsible position-taking by both people, whereas manipulative response focuses only
on one person’s expectations and definitions. In an I-thou dialogue, hence, partners do
not impose themselves on each other, nor do they attempt to have their partner see the
world in their manner. The imposer or manipulator is interested in another person’s
qualities only in terms of how they can be exploited for personal gain and interest.
This is not dialogue; dialogue is simultaneously self-delineating and self-validating, a
mutually healing inclusive meeting for both partners.21
Throwing a glance at our wounded world, in which colonial and postcolonial attitudes are still practiced, we need to detect a great need of being healed. Furthermore,
we experience inequalities where genuine “inclusion” (in contrast to mere as neutral
openness/tolerance or complete absorption/empathy)22 is practiced. Now, if we apply
Buber’s model to the case of current intercultural and interfaith encounters among missionaries and members of a non-Christian population, we might become convinced that
the ideal and genuine dialogue where partners express themselves without reserve and
free of semblance, brings the most fruitful partnership. I-thou dialogue is in and of itself
healing, inclusive, and generative. Practicing this kind of life-giving and empathizing
contact between interlocutors in intercultural and interfaith encounter is both the process
and the goal of missionary activity today.
Martin Buber, I and Thou, New York: Charles Chribner’s Sons, 1958, 28.
Buber, I and Thou, 3.
The act “meeting a fellow human being”, for Buber, is not at synonymous with empathy. Empathy, according
to him, means the transposition of oneself into another being, thus losing one’s own concreteness; while dialogue is
the opposite of self-limitation—it is the extension of the I. Thus, Buber emphasize more the element “mutuality” in
interpersonal encounter, however not transcuring the attitude of “empathy” (cf. Kalman Yaron: Martin Buber [18781965], in Prospects, vol. XXIII, no. 1/2, 1993, 136).
22
Cf. Sara L.H. Shady – Marion Larson, “Tolerance, Empathy, or Inclusion? Insights from Martin Buber”,
in Educational Theory, Volume 60 Number 1, 2010, 81-86.
19
20
21
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We have learnt from Buber that dialogue is a mutually healing process which incuses the other. But what is happening with the message itself, that is, the revelation of
God which the missionary is supposed to transmit or, better said, translate? Will it be
faithfully communicated or will it get necessarily distorted by the mutual and dialogical
event of the very act of proclamation? More recently another German philosopher has
essentially contributed to the understanding of the process at stake.
Gadamer: The Dialogue as Mutual Fusion of Horizons. – Hans-Georg Gadamer
(1900-2002), a former student of Heidegger, has developed his master’s position elaborating a coherent phenomenological-hermeneutical theory of understanding. In his opus
magnum, entitled Truth and Method (1960), Gadamer holds that the interpreter best
understands himself as a participant in a continuing conversation. Since understanding
is not automatic, whenever it does occur, it involves interpretation. Thus understanding and interpretation are indivisible – this is one of the cornerstones of Gadamerian
hermeneutics. An interpreter, in this sense, does not impose his own concepts and
understanding dogmatically but rather holds them open because he knows that they
have had and will have a further development, a history.23
There are two different horizons, one of the historian and the other of the tradition
he wants to understand, notwithstanding, this does not mean that they are, or should
be, alienated from one another. It does not mean that the historian needs to place
himself or herself in another (in “the other”) horizon in any other sense than that he
needs to place himself in it – that is, try to understand what the other is saying as true.
As the truth always means what is true from the historian’s own viewpoint, within his
own horizon, as well as within the other’s. Thus, concludes Gadamer, “[u]nderstanding
[…] is always the fusion of these horizons which we imagine to exist by themselves.”24
Understanding always projects the unity of a shared truth (even if the single horizon
enabling understanding is not given in advance).
The theological and missiological consequences of the Gadamerian view are numerous. For one, what is happening in a dialogue between the missionary and his interlocutor
from an alien religious and cultural background that sees from a different horizon? In this
case, the message undergoes a necessary shift of meaning – as it is often expressed with
a neologism, “inculturation” takes place.25 It is important to note that it does not mean
simply a pedantic translational process, not even an art of adaptation, nor “incarnation”
of a timeless, unchanging, and acultural sum of Christian truths (similarly as the eternal
Logos become flash) into a particular cultural world.26 Rather, inculturation is a mutual
23
Conversation is the process of concept formation, of coming to mutual understanding and reaching a
common meaning. But this continuing process in which shared concepts are formed takes place within the language
of dialogue. It is true: just as for Buber, the ontological presupposition of reaching a mutual understanding of a common subject matter, for Gadamer is not a result of a psychological empathy (this was the case by Schleiermacher) but
rather of the ontological reality of the language itself. As he famously puts it: “Sein, was verstanden werden kann,
ist Sprache (Being that can be understood is language)” and furthermore, as motto taken from Schleiermacher, “[e]
verything presupposed in hermeneutics is but language.” (Gadamer, Truth and Method, 432, 343). However, empathetic hearing, as an attitude, has its foundation even within the Gadamerian dialogue. Its locus is in the openness of
the interlocutor and the re-interpretability of his or her hermeneutical for-understanding (cf. Ibem, 235ff, 261ff).
24
Gadamer, Truth and Method, 273.
25
On inculturation in missiology in African context cf. for example: Laurenti Magesa, Rethinking Mission:
Evangelization in Africa in a New Era, Nairobi: Paulines Publications Africa, 1999; Idem, “Inculturation as Living
Faith”, in Gittins, ed., Life and Death Matters, 75-92; Oliver Alozie Onwubiko, The Church in Mission: Int he Light
of Ecclesia in Africa, Nairobi: Paulines Publications Africa, 2001, pp. 384-404.
26
Peter C. Phan passionately, and correctly, insists that the “metaphor of incarnation for the process of
16
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and intercultural encounter between the missionary and the follower of another religious
tradition, between the gospel and the cultures in which it is being incorporated (e.g.,
Jewish, Hellenistic, Roman, African, etc.) on the one hand and the local cultures on the
other. According to the hermeneutically conscious model of Peter C. Phan:
…inculturation is not just accommodation, in which two cultures are juxtaposed side by side
on a footing of mutual respect and tolerance but without producing an internal change in
either. Put in a formula, acculturation is A+B=AB. In inculturation, on the other hand, the
encounter between the two cultures occurs in three processes, namely, interaction, mutual
assimilation, and transculturation. Its formula is A+B=C.27
After the ongoing inculturation process, explains Phan, culture “A” is no longer
simply “A” but in interaction and assimilation with culture “B” becomes “C,” a fairly
new phenomenon which is not entirely reducible to the precedent stage. In exactly the
same way, culture “B” does not remain simply “B” but in interaction and assimilation
with “A” becomes “C,” a partly new complex. It would be a tragic misunderstanding to
underestimate the transformative power of the process of encounter. Culture “A” will
not become simply culture “B;” and culture “B” will not assimilate culture “A”. Rather,
while each culture retains its essential elements, through the fusion of horizons of both
participants, both cultures are internally transformed to constitute a new culture.28
In an inclusive and mutual dialogue, by maintaining who we are (aware of our prejudices and biases), we might open ourselves to the religious Other. As we have learned
from Buber and Gadamer, only by admitting that we cannot be totally empathetic is there
a possibility of getting beyond ourselves in opening to the religious Other. This creates
a new avenue to describing more accurately the image of the contemporary missionary.
4. Toward a New (Empathetic) Missionary Self-image
Have you ever listened to someone wholeheartedly, with all your undivided attention
and judgment-free awareness? Did you succeed to accept the other person even affectively, as if you yourself had felt his or her emotions? Could you persist in this attentive
and receptive state of soul for a longer period of time rejecting the temptation to interrupt the communication of your interlocutor? If you have tried to do so, you might have
experienced the two-fold miraculous effect of such an attitude on relationships. First, this
is the most effective, if not the only, way to get to know somebody as he or she really
is; secondly, the person who enjoys this vivid attention becomes more and more him/
herself and gradually opens up to you revealing his or her whole hidden world.29 I have
inculturation, in spite of its explanatory power, is ultimately misleading.” (Cf. Peter C. Phan, “Intercultural and Interreligious Dialogue: A Challenge to Christian Mission”, http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:5dRPcoiSqNo
J:www.ofm.org/capgen06/Relatio/04PhanEN.doc+peter+c.+phan+intercultural+dialogue&hl=hu&gl=hu&pid=bl&sr
cid=ADGEESiNvs94_2HCt9lw3J7xdu4cUjyYQ6YLOIA48XOPTFI5JrajyUwl2Mcp73Ib4BI8GsyNie6QPKUBLGrxARiNyZxWj13zIuHGHm_VOBl3cRBLN4YG7KTY3nPYVWJSwEVJOR7phZ3&sig=AHIEtbSs2JgW2qpgz1J9m
sGRXhjEyDEmfA). Indeed, the Gospel does not come to cultures straight from heaven, but is, always and necessarily,
already expressed “in specific languages and cultural forms.” Even the documents—inspired or not—in which it is
embodied were written, preserved, and canonized imbedded and vested interests and power struggles (Ibidem).
27
Cf. Phan: “Intercultural and Interreligious Dialogue”, 9, note 18; and Idem, Being religious Interreligiously.
28
Phan derive these formulas from the works of the Filipino liturgist Anscar Chupungco. For a discussion
of Chupungco, see his Being Religious Interreligiously, 32-34.
29
The effect of this attitude – since Karl Rogers (1902-1987) and, more recently, Marshall Rosenberg (b.
1934) – is a common place in Client-centered (compassionate) contemporary psychology (cf. Carl R. Rogers, Clientcentered Therapy: Its Current practice, Implications, and Theory, Boston: Mifflin, 1951; Marchall B. Rosenberg,
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heard spiritual fathers narrating that if they stayed silent, patient, and aware towards others, they told them things within 10 minutes that never had been disclosed before. If the
missionaries very first task is to learn about the environment and culture of their hosts,
we can simply not spare the phase which is what Jay McDaniel calls “deep listening,”
which is the empathetic presence to others with the intention of affirming and honoring
their well-being.30 In ‘listening” to others (as opposed simply to “seeing” them), in “listening with the ear of the heart,” to use the expression of Saint Benedict, we try to feel the
feelings, understand what they mean (as opposed to what they say), listen to their pauses
between their words, take their desires and goals as ours, and help bring them about.
And we cannot and should not spare this phase either – this is what makes life enjoyable!
Being the alpha and omega of all human relationships, empathetic communication is a
“must” for contemporary missionaries – and it will remain so for all foreseeable times!
What lesson are we supposed to draw from this for an up-to-date missiology?
Anthony Gittins rightly admonishes that a missionary today cannot demand any
more to be treated as a celebrity, much less as a “civilizer” or “God-bringer.” Rather
he or she must accept the humble role of a stranger or of a guest who came to serve
and who, in the best case, is treated generously and with respect by their hosts.31 To
interiorize this ancient-new status of guest claims a shift of self-understanding. To approach this role with a patronizing pose or an attitude of self-importance is equal to an
insult to the host and to demean the process. Missionaries need to be transformed by
their natural human empathy and ought to interiorize a non-judgmental attitude.32 Furthermore, today it would seem widely anachronistic if missionaries were go to another
culture to govern or as initiator, superior, teacher, and the like. Certainly, they will still
maintain the legitimate intention and vocation to convert the non Christian population
by proclaiming to them the Good News. But the way they may try to do it, the modus
procedendi, has definitely changed and becomes closer to the ideal experienced in and
through the life of Jesus Christ. Let us outline some of the main elements of this attitude.
First of all, the new missionary image must be sympathetic and solider towards the
poor of the poorest. There is no legitimate escape for us from the marginalized and the
needy anymore! And this is not just a question of “social sensibility”. The number one
condition of our existence in missionary setting is to become a member of the community, being one with our newly chosen people, we are called to serve, to be among
them with compassion and encouragement and not with triumphalism and threat. MisNonviolent Communication: The Language of Life, Encinitas, CA: PuddleDancer Press, 2003.)
30
Cf. Jay McDaniel, Gandhi’s Hope: Learning from Other Religions as a Path to Peace (New York: Maryknoll, Orbis Books, 2005).
31
Anthony J. Gittins writes: “I suggest that we missionaries need to work constantly to accept our marginal
and ambiguous status. We are no longer – if we ever truly were – primary movers, but collaborators and assistants,
servants. The primary agent of mission is the Spirit of God […]” (Gittins, Strangers and Guests, 132). Others have
the same experience, cf. Joseph Neuer, “The Missionary Priest”, in Dhavamony, ed., Evangelization, Dialogue and
Development, Roma: Università Gregoriana Editrice, 1972, 117-132, spec. 128-129; Giuseppe Buono, Missiology:
Theology and Praxis, Limuru (Kenya): Paulines Publications Africa, 20093, pp. 212-218.
32
With the wise explanation of Luzbetak: “Empathy means that the missioner fully understand and appreciates,
as the local people do, the reasons behind their way of life. A missionary with true empathy views all native ways and
values not through his colored glasses known as ‘enculturation’ but in full native context. Without approving polygamy
the missionary must understand why his people are polygamists, and without tolerating fetishism or promiscuity he
must understand why his people venerate fetishes and are promiscuous. Empathy means that I understand why my
people are what they are no matter what they are. Although empathy is internal, it is nonetheless clearly perceptible
to the local people, and it is a prerequisite for genuine apostolic identification” (Luzbetak, The Church and Cultures,
96-97; quotes: Lyman E. Reed, Preparing Missionaries for Intercultural Communication, 88.)
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sionaries are called to be known by and loved by abandoned people, abused people,
exploited people, condemned people empathizing with their being abandoned and
suffered. Those who are not aware that our world is populated with refugees, outcasts,
prostitutes, prisoners, homeless people are hardly adapted to go to the missions today.
This empathetic look, this watching through the eyes of the outcasts is the only way to
realize how we ourselves sometimes tend to contribute to oppression through sexism,
consumerism, ageism, clericalism, racism, classism and the rest, offending real persons
loved by their Heavenly Father and redeemed by his only Son Jesus Christ.33
Secondly, missionaries must interiorize, as part of their new identity, the role of
a stranger and of a guest. If a newcomer honestly present herself or himself, that is,
showing respect for the hosts and allowing them to take certain necessary initiatives,
this will facilitate the interaction, even though the price to pay may be some uncertainty
and powerlessness on the part of the missionary. But only by doing so will missionaries
be able to indicate their openness, integrity, and willingness to engage in relationship.34
Outlining this new aspect of self-image of missionaries, we must emphasize that they
go to their destinations at least as much receivers than givers. The old-dated model, according to which a missionary goes into the mission lands with an advanced technology
to modernize the underdeveloped, with a superior culture to civilize the barbarians,
with a true religion to wipe out superstitions, with a set of revealed truths to teach the
unenlightened is simply not bearable anymore. Unlike invaders and crusaders, strangers
and guests come with empathizing friendship and with a non-violent attitude. They then
are perceived by the hosts as “foreign,” “abnormal,” “alien,” “odd,” “strange.” “Can we
acknowledge,” asks Gittins accurately, “that we are ‘not pertinent,’ ‘abnormal,’ or ‘not
easily explained’? We are certainly familiar with fixing these labels on others; how easily
can we now remove the tags and apply them to our own personas and persons?”35 Some
empathy may help. As guests, we must depend on the generosity and kindness of our
hosts, respect and follow the rules and customs of the new environment, and we may
change the ways of life of the place only and exclusively if we are asked or allowed
to do so. In this respect, perhaps the virtues that were extolled in the past as requisites
of a successful missionary such as independence, self-reliance, risk-taking, and creativity might no longer be appropriate, at least during the phase of incorporation into the
local community, and must be replaced by a willingness to take on our shoulder the
burden of vulnerability, interdependence, and voluntary weakness, as components of
our new missionary identity.36
33
In this regard Gittins asks passionately: “How well are missionaries supporting political prisoners, persons
in prostitution, those caught in addictive behavior, religious minorities, women? How close are missionaries to […]
powerlessness, weakness, statuslessness, poverty, exploitation, homelessness?” (Gifts and Strangers, 133.)
34
Ibidem, 132. On missionary spirituality cf. Buono, Missiology, 120-127; and Neno Contran, “Missionary
Spirituality”, in Sebastian Karotemprel, Following Christ in Mission: A Foundational Course in Missiology, Nairobi:
Paulines Publications Africa, 1995, pp. 131-139; Callisto Locheng, Missiology: Introduction to the Roots of the Great
Commission, Nairobi: The Catholic University of Eastern Africa, 2011, pp. 59-73.
35
Gittins, Gifts and Strangers, 113.
36
For helpful reflections on the dynamics of gift-giving and gift-receiving as a model of mission, see Gittings,
Gifts and Strangers, 84-109 and Idem, Ministry at the Margins, 107-20.
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5. Vulnerable, Interdependent, Voluntarily Weak: Components of a New Identity
Vulnerability. – If we have never been really vulnerable before other people, if we
have always found refuge in the security of a group of like-minded missionaries, if we
have been meticulously socialized to think of our values and attitudes as normative for
and demanded of everyone, then it is hardly probable that we will be able to minister as
Jesus ministered.37 The balm to heal this narrow-minded attitude is empathy which can
provide us with the gift to see ourselves as others see us. It demands a radical shift in
view. Missionaries traditionally identify themselves, not at all as poor with the poor and
weak with the weak and marginalized with the marginalized. Rather they, implicitly at
least, see themselves as strong, resourceful, independent, pioneering, personal saviors.
The lesson to draw is not an easy one. A new missionary identity as a vulnerable person is provocative and challenging at the same time. As Gittins notes, “missionaries are
prone to misunderstand it, misappropriate it, or rebel against it.”38 However, it leads to
a completely new and much healthy relationship characterized by mutual dependence.
Interdependence – This is another challenge, which claims a not less radical countercultural paradigm-shift. In our post-modern contemporary world, some people try to
make a virtue of not owing anything to anyone. As members of a wealthy Western society (as it was often the case with missionaries), with all its in-built security standards,
and being resourceful and self-sufficient, it is easier to do, or at least to pretend to do,
so. Some may hold this attitude even “virtuous” and “responsible.” However, carried
to its logical conclusion, it necessitates a long range of reactions which are hardly in
harmony with any religious attitude in general, and certainly against the Christian way
of thinking, and in particular, ignoring others’ needs, neglecting ethical imperatives,
and building barriers or fences – physical or ideological or cognitive or whatever – to
keep others away and to delimit our own little world. Such an attitude, furthermore,
easily becomes a source of xenophobia, distrust and disregard toward others. Having
an empathetic sensibility in our hearts, however, it becomes clear how interdependent
our relationship is with the nature, with fellow human beings (the ones in “our” mission), and with God himself, an acknowledgement which can set us free from our own
individualistic egos and open up to recognize humbly our limitations and weaknesses.
Voluntary Weakness – Thirdly, to demonstrate another essential characteristic of a
new missionary identity, let me conclude this section with a personal story. Nearly fifteen
years ago I won a scholarship from the Hungarian state to visit various Indian universities
and conduct a research on interfaith dialogue. This was my first prolonged experience
in a totally different cultural context. Being a priest already but not yet a Jesuit, each
Sunday I tried to find some ecclesiastic communities to celebrate the resurrection of
the Lord with the local Christian people. One Sunday, at the end of a Catholic sermon,
where I had concelebrated, the priest unexpectedly gave me the microphone and asked
me to give a short talk to the community. I was surprised and unprepared. Being uneasy
with improvisation, I spoke about the first thing which came to my mind. It was a short
37
Cf. Gittins, Gifts and Strangers, 113. Giuseppe Buono quotes the testimony of Mgr Jean-Baptiste Bui Tuàn,
Vietnamese, bishop of Long Xuyen: “Out of experience I am persuaded that, in order for collaboration with Christ,
our Saviour, to be well prepared, the disciples of Christ need to take at heart a contemplative, ascetic, humble and
charitable spirituality, concentrating themselves on the good examples and on the words of Christ. A deep spirituality
is considered to be an indispensable condition in mission.” (Buono, Missiology, 203.)
38
Gittins, Gifts and Strangers, 131.
20
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exhortation emphasizing that among the many gods and goddesses worshiped around
us “the most powerful one” is Jesus Christ, whom we are all called to adore. The faithful
seemed not to be particularly moved by my words; they went home peacefully. Just a
couple of hours later, it occurred to me what sort of a message I had communicated!
All of a sudden I was hit by my “natural,” but essentially “pagan” missionary approach!
Though my speech was clearly motivated by good will and by my imaginary responsibility for the faith of the community, in reality, it flowed out of my own perplexity
and insecure state of soul concerning the de facto existing religious pluralism. I have my
excuses. My automatic thoughts were a result of an un-noticed culture-shock. However,
what shocked me later was the experience of how easily I could forget the original
message of Jesus Christ which originally had been communicated by powerless end
empathetic words of a slave. If empathy means a complete self-emptying, then the loving God of Christianity has gone to the extremes. Although he was a Lord and Savior,
nevertheless “he did not cling to his equality with God, but emptied himself, to assume
the condition of a slave, and became as [we] are” (Phil 2:6-7). His strength came and
showed up through his weakness (2Cor 12:9). If Jesus had indeed come as a powerful,
high-status, self-important, demanding figure, insisting on his privileged position and
the dignity of his office, what credibility would his mission have been able to benefit
us? The seal of his genuine authenticity seems to be the radicalism of his empathy.
6. Some Fruits of Empathy: Sympathy, Humility, Trust, and Hospitality
We have already outlined some components of the missionary’s new identity in
today’s world. It proves that the feeling of empathy, that is, working to understand the
meanings, functions and origins of another person’s inner world so that one can see
it – as far as it is possible – from their own point of view, is an essential and necessary
element in interacting with people of other cultures and religions. However, there are
many other predispositions, mental constitutions, tempers, and auxiliary fruits of empathy such as sympathy, humility, hospitality, trust, hospitality etc. Let us list them in
an attempt to get a clearer picture of contemporary missiology.
Sympathy. – Empathy is different from sympathy. In comparison to the former, the
latter seems to be secondary. We, indeed, need to have a certain amount of empathy
in order to feel compassion and sympathy, while those without empathy do not take
into account other people’s emotions. However, sympathy takes effort in a way that
empathy does not. Being sympathetic involves being emotionally moved by the feelings
and distress of the subject of someone’s caring. In missionary settings, this means that a
non Christian will be able to experience the missionary as being emotionally engaged
with his or her culture, faith and personal story as opposed to being emotionally passive or distant in their relationship.
Humility. – In contrast to the general belief, humility is not primarily a feeling. It
is rather a state of mind which is willing to acknowledge the partial nature of human
understanding and human realization. Humility is that which motivates one to search
for better understanding of the truth and thus, at a personal level, it is a fruit of an
empathetic listening to the other person. Catherine Cornille, Belgian theologian, writes
that intercultural and interfaith dialogue (which takes place in a missionary situation or
setting) calls for at least two forms of humility – humility towards other religious and
21
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Ferenc Patsch, SJ
cultural traditions and toward one’s own tradition.39 On the one hand, humility motivates
us to acknowledge that we as individuals cannot pretend to have a comprehensive
view of the beliefs and practices, philosophical and institutional development of alien
religious and cultural traditions. This urgently requires that we humbly remain open to
correction, acknowledging our imperfect understanding of the other. “Genuine humility,” notes Francis-Vincent Anthony, Indian theologian, “nourishes interest in the other
and stimulates self-critical awareness of the possible distortions in one’s understanding
of the other.”40 On the other hand, humility towards one’s own religious and cultural
tradition implies that we acknowledge the perfectibility of our own religious and cultural
understanding of the one truth, transcendent and inexhaustible, in being open to the
truth discovered in and by other traditions. By a humble attitude in interfaith dialogue
and missionary encounter one becomes aware of the contingency and historical conditioning of one’s own tradition. Insofar as ultimate reality is ineffable, that is, beyond
all human categories, it can be reached only in an infinite (eschatological) horizon and
through an attitude of total humility with regard to every actual knowledge about it.
Trust – Trust is another important fruit of empathy and an essential component of
interpersonal relationships since it strongly influences interaction. According to social
psychologists, if individuals trust their partners, the meaning attributed to their partners’
behaviors are more likely to be positive than if the individuals are mistrustful of their
partners or interlocutors.41 Trust involves a complex blend of cognitive and emotional elements and expresses the fundamental interdependence of the parties. Only empathically
can we obtain trustfulness. The aspects of trust based on learning involves the person’s
expectations about their partner’s reliability and dependability while the aspects of trust
based on affective factors involve hope, a feeling of basic security, and the strength of
the bond – all essential factors in interfaith dialogue and missionary encounter.42
Hospitality – Hospitality stands for the recognition of the other and for the openness
to learning from the differences that the other brings. In a way it is going beyond the
self-sufficiency of one’s own cultural and religious tradition. Hospitality in an interreligious and interfaith encounter generally begins with those elements of other religions
that in some way reflect or resemble one’s own.43 Hospitality of similarity may be rather
effortless, yet it may become extremely challenging when it comes to hospitality in
differences. It poses the challenge of accounting for the presence of distinctive truth
in another religion. Opening to such a possibility requires a great deal of empathetic
Cf. Cornille C., The Im-possibility of Interreligious Dialogue, 9-58.
Francis-Vincent Anthony, “Living and Sharing our Christian Faith in a Pluralistic and Global World:
Moving from Inculturation to Intercultruation”, in Third Millennium XIV (2011) 1, p. 102. “Humility indeed plays a
central role within Christian spirituality, as in most spiritual traditions. It is regarded as the path to the ultimate experience of God, as well as an expression of that experience.” (Ibidem) Cf. furthermore: Cornille C., The Im-possibility
of Interreligious Dialogue, 11.
41
Rempel, J. K, Holmes, J. G., & Zanna, M., “Trust in close relationships” Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 49 (1985), pp. 95-112. About the soco-economical consequences, see: Francis Fukuyama, Trust:
The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity, New York: Free Press, 1995.
42
Certainly, the breaking of and reestablishing of trust are often important issues in interpersonal – and
interfaith/missionary – relationships as well.
43
“Similarities” – writes Francis-Vincent Anthony – “may be related to common historical origin, mutual
or unilateral influences, or from the historical contingency of religious imagination. Similarities may be in terms of
worldviews, ethical teachings, conceptions of the divine, theological reasoning, religious virtues, etc. Appearance of
similarity already calls for the recognition of some truth of the other religion.” (Anthony, “Living and Sharing our
Christian Fait”, 104.)
39
40
22
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openness, theological creativity and hermeneutical effort. In this sense, paradoxically,
hospitality is more difficult toward religions that form part of the same family than
towards those who have no historical or religious connection; however, it can favour
growth in contributing to a more profound self-understanding and an increased capacity for healthy self-criticism.44
Missionaries are, as Jesus Christ was, first and foremost guests who need hospitality
in a foreign culture, maybe this is the most important lesson we could learn from the
approach presented above of an empathetic missiology in fieri. Guests have no absolute rights; the initiative belongs to their host – and they cannot do much more than
tolerate this highly delicate situation. And, what is more, the missionary must learn to
be a guest not simply as a means to an end, much less as a matter of fact. Rather, this
is simply his or her fate – privilege and burden – in a newly-chosen home-culture. It is
not just the host who must be converted. Missionaries themselves must learn to become
acceptable guests, potentially but not necessarily converted by the host into confidants.
A person who fails to convince as a guest will certainly not be worthy of trust in other
matters, certainly including religious issues.
Bibliography
Buono, Giuseppe, Missiology: Theology and Praxis, Limuru (Kenya): Paulines Publications Africa,
20093.
Gittins, Anthony J., Gifts and Strangers: Meeting the Challenge of Inculturation, New York: Paulist
Press, 1989.
Idem, ed., Life and Death Matters: The Practice of Inculturation in Africa, Hardcover, Steyler
Verlag, 2000.
Kirwen, Michael C., The Missionary and the Diviner: Contending Theologies of Christian and
African Religions, New York: Maryknoll, Orbis Books, 1987.
Laurenti Magesa, Rethinking Mission: Evangelization in Africa in a New Era, Nairobi: Paulines
Publications Africa, 1999.
Phan, Peter C., Being Religious Interreligiously: Asian Perspectives on Interfaith Dialogue, New
York: Maryknoll, Orbis Books, 2004.
Idem, “Peacebuilding and Reconciliation. Interreligious Dialogue and Catholic Spirituality”, in
Robert J. Schreiter et al., ed., Peacebuilding. Catholic Theology, Ethics, and Praxis, N.Y.:
Maryknoll, Orbis Books, 2010, 332-365.
Tracy, David, Dialogue with the Other: The Inter-Religious Dialogue, Louvain: Peeters, 1990.
44
Cf. Cornille C., The Im-possibility of Interreligious Dialogue, 177-210.
23
11/17/2011 4:02:48 PM
The Church and Politics
Christian Praxis and Political Involvement
By Munduni Angelo Dema, SJ
A
bstract: Argued by Karol Wojtyla (John Paul II), “every person is born into the world
to bear witness to the truth according to his or her own particular vocation”1. The
events of elections riggings, corruption, genocides, civil wars, acts of terrorisms, and
the general neglect of the public sphere by governments, manifest serious trends on how
the people of God are deprived of their rights and the truth, the truth which affects their
inmost being and their sphere of principles and relationship with God. Good politics and
governance for the kingdom of God calls for what Kroger calls “prophetic annunciation
of the good news of the Kingdom of God and a critical denunciation of every dehumanizing social condition”2. Secondly, we need to affirm that our God is a God of life, the
One who makes life worth living, and who calls us to respond by making life worth living.
I
ntroduction. In our societies today one central discussion that tends to gulp our recreational time is politics. “It is a dirty game”, some people would say; but where does
that dirt come from? In a world plagued by a litany of problems ranging from wars,
oppression, deaths, diseases, and so forth, is it too naïve to look towards rekindling
and sustaining the aspirations that have the synergistic goal of a social utopia? Can we
maturely contemplate alleviating or even overcoming the oppressive realities that lead to
dehumanisation and base human relationships on the ideal of love? The Catholic social
teaching says yes, and if we accept this invitation while participating in any discussion
on how we view this world and what action we should take, then the promising place
to start is by taking responsibility in ensuring that our government and politicians are
accountable to their people.
For an earnest thinker and observer, it takes no time to realize that our political
realms and governance is overly politicized to the tune where there is a ridicule of
democracy. Introspecting ourselves as God’s children, we notice that our history has
always unfolded “with the tension between reflection and action, work and study, prayer
and picketing”3, and we have also wondered whether active political involvement is
line with Christian expectations. Some of our politicians have taken advantage of our
disorientation. In June 2003, Uganda’s President Yoweri Museveni is quoted to have
said: “It is not wise for them [the clergy] to interfere in politics when they have enough
lubimbi [assignment] to do.”4 Just keep away from politics, the clerics were told. In
Karol Wojtyla, Sign of Contradictions (Milan: St Paul Publications, 1979), 120.
Joseph Kroger, “Prophetic – Critical and Practical –Strategic Tasks of Theology: Habermas and Liberation
Theology,” in Theological Studies 46/1:3-20.
3
Robert M. Brown & Gustavo Guitierrez, Makers of Contemporary Theology (Altanta Ga.: John Knox
Press, 1980), 34.
4
Kennedy Lule. “President Tells the Church to Keep Out of Politics,” in The Daily Monitor. Kampala, June
3, 2003.
1
2
*
Munduni is a Ugandan Jesuit. He studies at the Jesuit School of Theology, Hekima College, Nairobi,
Kenya.
24
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March 1992, Malawi’s Catholic bishops could not take derided politics anymore as
they issued a pastoral letter addressing political and social problems in Malawi, under
the one party government of the Malawi Congress Party of the then life president
Dr Hastings Kamuzu Banda. The letter opened the floodgates of all the frustrations
and forced out Dr Banda and his party in the 1994 elections. It was largely peaceful,
nonviolent transition from dictatorship to multiparty democracy.5
Nevertheless, in many parts of Africa, silencing the local Church by politicians has
not withered. The Church is told to shut up yet when things go wrong she is held accountable. This is the very reason why we are still surprised of the 1994 genocide in
Rwanda and the 2005 post election violence in Kenya. Did these people know that they
are sons and daughters of the same God? What happened to the values they learnt from
the faith in God? This has always been the jig-saw. It is my undertaking in this paper to
examine our faith and praxis visa-vies political involvement. First, I hope to explore on
what authentic politics really entails and how our cultural temperament finds itself at
crossroads with it. And then I will try to explore possible Christian responses in regards
to governance and democracy.
Understanding Politics from Plato’s Republic
A soiled understanding of politics today is that “it is a dirty game”. However, this
is an adulterated view of what the Greek philosophers fathomed. Ascribing to Plato’s
Ethics and Politics in the Republic, authentic politics is directly linked to the idea of
justice. Plato would ask: “is it better to be just than unjust?”6 The word “republic” in
Latin: Res-publica meaning “public matters”7 or “the state. An equivalent of the same
word in Greek is Politeia, which means the Constitution.8 However, Plato’s Republic does not start out about politics but with a Socratic dialogue about justice.9 The
state according to the Republic is a perfect whole in which each individual functions
for the wellbeing of the entire society. Every person is expected to fulfill his or her
appropriate function where justice in the platonic state becomes like that harmony
of relationship where the Planets are held together in an orderly movement. Plato
was convinced that a society which is so organized is fit for survival, and he held
justice as the citizen’s sense of duties. As a result, politics in the Republic is fatally
intolerable with botched governance. A disparagement was particularly held against
authoritarianism:
Tyranny is not a matter of minor theft and violence, but of wholesale plunder, sacred
and profane, private or public. If you are caught committing such crimes in detail you
are punished and disgraced; sacrilege, kidnapping, burglary, fraud, theft are the names
we give to such petty forms of wrongdoing. But when a man succeeds in robbing the
5
Steve sharra. “Youth, Leadership and Nonviolence.” A global education imperative, 2010-12-09
http://pambazuka.org/en/category/features/69458 (accessed: September 27, 2011).
6
Clay Diskin,“Reading the Republic.” Platonic Writings, Platonic Readings, ed., Charles L. Griswold,
Jr. (New York: Routledge, Chapman and Hall, 1988), 19–33.
7
A brief History of Rome . http://www.roman-empire.net/children/history.html (accessed: September 21,
2011).
8
Plato’s Republic. http://www.empirecontact.com/great/Plato’s_Republic.html (accessed: September 27,
2011).
9
Kelley L. Ross, “Plato’s Republic: An Analysis Plato’s Concept of Justice” (http://www.friesian.com/
plato.htm (accessed: September 14, 2011).
25
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Munduni Angelo Dema, SJ
whole body of citizens and reducing them to slavery, they forget these ugly names and
call him happy and fortunate, as do all others who hear of his unmitigated wrongdoing. 10
The above incident is not foreign to an African experience of politics in the continent. Nonetheless, “if the joy and hope, the grief and anguish of men of our time, . . .
are the joy and hope, the grief and anguish of the followers of Christ” 11, it should be
obvious that we the followers of Christ must be troubled with messed up systems of
governance. Mismanaged politics and governance does not only present a challenge
to our economic, social, political, and cultural world but to our very relations with the
world and it’s Creator. Muddled politics and governance is exploitative, segregating, oppressive, corrupt, dehumanizing, and causes loss of faith and skepticism. In other short,
it is totally wrong and undesirable. As sons and daughters of God, how can we just sit
down with our arms folded allowing our own destiny to be muddled by impostors. How
can we proclaim the Triune God as Father, Son, and the Holy Spirit to all people that
they are sons and daughters of the same God? Conceivably, we cannot answer these
questions without first examining some cultural paralysis.
Cultural Sclerosis in Africa and Political Decay
In biology, sclerosis is the term used to describe a situation where there has been
wear and tear to a bone, and where the body has attempted to make the bony area
stronger by depositing new bones and calcium into that area. Perhaps, of importance to dissect is the tear and wears that our cultures have undergone, making us
vulnerable to political decay. Therefore, how can our society religious praxis help
to deposit new bones and calcium in those corroded cultural areas?
Perhaps, it is paramount that we appreciate the dynamics and values of our societies
in relation to contemporary changes. I unquestionably believe that understanding our
society is tantamount to comprehending our background and the individuals who make
up the culture and how politics and governance within the society functions. Borrowing
ideas from Lisa Hoecklin, culture can be understood as a shared system of meanings
to which individuals or groups pay attention to. In other words, it is the fundamental
assumptions defining how to be a person and how one should interact with others
within a given group or with strangers12. Viewed from this line, Hoecklin’s thinks that
each person has several layers of cultural programming that are either dubbed through
education, professional training, or socialization13, and I deem this programming depends
on the variations in individual values and behavior within each culture; as such, a critical cultural appraisal seems the safest gateway for a suitable assessment of judgments
based either on religious beliefs, politics or governance. This helps in objectivity and
rebuff of the bad things done in the name of culture. The critical cultural appraisal also
helps in cultural appreciation and revitalization of our humanity with the rest of the
world. Nevertheless, cultural appraisal can easily be obscured by exaggerated cultural
dictates. Therefore, an attentive inspection of our society helps us with insights on how
“The Republic” http://www.friesian.com/plato.htm (accessed September 27, 2011).
Gaudium et Spes, n° 1.
Lisa Hoecklin, Managing Cultural Differences: strategies for Competitive Advantage (Wokingham: Addison –Wesley Publishing Company, 1996), 25.
13
Hoecklin, Managing Cultural Differences, 24.
10
11
12
26
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our world is perceived, how the self is experienced, and how life is organized. Shared
cultural patterns allow individuals of a group to see the same thing in similar ways and
this binds them together, but this bond should not be exclusive as it needs to be extended
to the gentiles as well since people in different cultures perceive the world differently
and have different ways of doing things. It is essential to be conscious that there is no
set standard for considering one group as intrinsically superior or inferior to the other.
Cultural sclerosis in Africa could be two-fold. The colonial burden could be one
phase which is the “result of desecration by the Western European powers in such
a way that the traditional cultures of the indigenous African people are eroded to
an extent that many traditional beliefs, social values, customs, and rituals are totally
destroyed or ignored.”14 The other aspect could be the effects of contemporary
secularism which is fueled by consumerism, competition, greed, corruption, and
individualism. Perhaps, revisiting some African religious values could bail us out
of the dungeon. Traditional religion and praxis in Africa was a great mast among
African communities. Whether in the private life or public, religious rites, beliefs,
and rituals were considered as integral part of life and life was never complete unless it is seen in entirety. Therefore, no distinction was made between the sacred
and the secular. The sacred and the secular often merged into a total persona of
the individual. Thus, a contemporary African politician who thinks religion should
be separated from politics would have found no place in traditional Africa since
life was not divided into compartments or divisions. As a matter of fact, there were
no special times for worship, for everyday and every hour was worship time. And
there were no creeds written down because through the traditions of the elders all
creeds and functions are carried in the individual’s heart. Each individual by his
very nature and life style is a living creed from the time one rises until one retires
at night. Thus, the practice of Christian faith in contemporary Africa surely needs to
be illuminated by the traditional religious beliefs.15
The Christian Praxis and involvement in politics
After a cautious cultural appraisal of the past and also an introspection of our own
consciousness as individuals or groups, we realize that we have heard the Word of God
and this Word draws to faith in Jesus Christ, and hearing this Word with reverence we
are inclined to proclaim it in faith. Therefore, as Christians, we are called to share the
abundance of this Divine Word and to stand for the truth which has a divine dimension.
As argued by Karol Wojtyla (John Paul II), “every person is born into the world to bear
witness to the truth according to his or her own particular vocation”16. Whether as a
politician or a peasant, I should not rob Peter to pay Paul. Jesus said it very clearly that
the truth must not be denied to men and women or concealed from them (Mt. 5:14-15)
but must openly be professed (Mt. 10:32).
The present media literature in our world today contains a number of highly disturbing descriptions of human alienation. The events of elections riggings, corruption,
14
Peter Adotey Addo, The Loss of African Traditional Religion in Contemporary Africa. http://www.afri-
kaworld.net/afrel/lossrelg.htm (accessed: September 21, 2011).
15
16
Addo, The Loss of African Traditional Religion in Contemporary Africa
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Munduni Angelo Dema, SJ
genocides, civil wars, acts of terrorisms, and the general neglect of the public sphere
by governments, manifest serious trends on how the people of God are deprived of
their rights and the truth, the truth which affects their inmost being and their sphere of
principles and relationship with God. In a corpulent scrutiny of the twisted realities of
our life, Karol Wojtyla stood firm in articulating that “there is a real tragedy in situations
which deny man the right to bear witness to the divine truth and the same time forcing
him to profess beliefs that fail to tally with or even flatly contradict his own deepest
convictions: man is thus forced to live a lie.”17
Taking Wojtyla seriously, it is evident that Christians have a huge project to accomplish. First, to acknowledge that they are called to meet God whether as politicians or
clerics or farmers or business people; “we are born in the world to bear witness to the
truth according to our own vocations”18, and in whatever we do we have a duty defend
“the rights of the poor, [and to show them] a life free from fear of being enslaved by
others, the liberation of the oppressed. [In fact, we must realize that] peace, justice,
love, and freedom are not private realities; they are not only internal attitudes. They
are social realities, implying a historical liberation”.19 Hence, the Christians should be
deeply disturbed when told not to be involved in authentic politics lest he or she is
“forced to live a lie”.20
C
onclusion. Good politics and governance for the kingdom of God calls for what
Kroger calls “prophetic annunciation of the good news of the Kingdom of God
and a critical denunciation of every dehumanizing social condition”21. Therefore,
given any political decay, Christians are called in charity and love towards a radical
paradigm shift in questioning how we should be governed as it is our responsibility.
Our first task is to raise awareness on the existential realities of our lives by bringing
forward scriptural vision and the will of God. Secondly, we need to affirm that our God
is a God of life, the One who makes life worth living, and who calls us to respond by
making life worth living. The Gospel of John puts this very clearly: The thief comes
only to steal and kill and destroy. I have come so that they may have life and have it
to the full” (Jn. 10:10). It is good that we act accountable in the public sphere without
forgetting to critique ourselves and our love for others. Given this task, we shall find
ourselves uplifted to a larger self and deeper joy to accept culpability and repentance
for things we have failed or omitted and to work with Christ. These patterns shall
rejuvenate in us a new process in bearing witness to Christ in the world as responsible
citizens of our countries.
Wojtyla, Sign of Contradictions, 121.
Wojtyla, Sign of Contradictions, 120.
19
Robert Brown & Gustavo Gutierrez: An Introduction to Liberation Theology (Altanta, Ga: John Knox
Press, 1980), 55.
20
21
Joseph Kroger, “Prophetic – Critical and Practical –Strategic Tasks of Theology: Habermas and Liberation
Theology.” Theological Studies 46/1:3-20.
17
18
28
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Bibliography.
Addo, Adotey, Peter. The Loss of African Traditional Religion in Contemporary Africa. http://
www.afrikaworld.net/afrel/lossrelg.htm
(accessed: September 21, 2011).
Brown, Robert M. and Gutierrez, Gustavo: An Introduction to Liberation Theology (Altanta, Ga:
John Knox Press, 1980).
Brown, Robert M. Gustavo Gutierrez: Makers of Contemporary Theology (Altanta Ga.: John Knox
Press, 1980)
Diskin , Clay.“Reading the Republic.” Platonic Writings, Platonic Readings, ed., Charles L. Griswold,
Jr. (New York: Routledge, Chapman and Hall, 1988).
Hoecklin, Lisa. Managing Cultural Differences: strategies for Competitive Advantage (Wokingham:
Addison –Wesley Publishing Company, 1996), p.25
Kelley L. Ross, “Plato’s Republic: An Analysis Plato’s Concept of Justice” (http://www.friesian.
com/plato.htm (accessed: September 14, 2011).
Kroger, Joseph. “Prophetic – Critical and Practical –Strategic Tasks of Theology: Habermas and
Liberation Theology.” Theologia Studies 46/1:3-20
Kroger, Joseph. Prophetic – Critical and Practical –Strategic Tasks of Theology: Habermas and
Liberation Theology.” Theologia Studies 46/1:3-20
Lule, Kennedy. “President Tells the Church to Keep Out of Politics.” The Daily Monitor. Kampala,
June 3, 2003.
Steve sharra. “Youth, Leadership and Nonviolence.” A global education imperative, 2010-12-09 http://pambazuka.org/en/category/features/69458(accessed: September 27, 2011).
Vatican Council II, Austin Flannery, Ed. “Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World”
Gaudium et Spes ( Leominster: Flower Wright Books Ltd, 1965).
Wojtyla, Karol. Sign of Contradictions (Milan: St Paul Publications, 1979).
29
11/17/2011 4:02:48 PM
Quand Roland-Roger devient sourd ! Engagement chrétien
en Afrique dans un contexte d’anarchie démocraticorévolutionnaire et de ‘dogalisation’ de l’homme
By Jean Luc Enyegue, SJ*
A
bstract: The African context appears as a strange combination of anarchy with
elements of democracy and revolution. It is characterized above all by dehumanization and anthropological poverty. These last years, more than ever, the West
has intervened in Africa to change political systems. Sometimes, this intervention has
taken the appearance of humanitarian aid to victims of war or natural catastrophies.
Whatever be its justification, this intervention raises the question of the independence
of Africa and puts questions to Theologians and Christians in Africa. How should they
commit themselves in this context? Flowing as a long poem in prose, to the rhythm of the
traditional balafon, this article examines this complex question and opens the way to
further reflections on African Theology of Liberation and Inculturation.
Introduction: Roland-Roger est le nom de l’un des destinataires des Lettres de Balafon.1
Il représente l’Occident, la France en particulier, dont Balafon chantait ainsi l’hospitalité :
« Pour moi, Tu as ouvert le grand battant de l’accueil » (Balafon, « à Roland-Roger «). Le
Père Mveng, en écrivant à Roland-Roger, professait sa foi en un monde où un certain
humanisme vaincrait ; en un monde où cinq continents se retrouveraient au rendezvous du donner et du recevoir. Il écrivait ces lettres au son du balafon, instrument de
musique que les seigneurs de la forêt2 n’utilisent qu’en temps de fête, jamais en temps
d’élégie. L’auteur de Balafon croyait fermement qu’à un tel appel, juste pour fêter,
chanter et danser, aucun homme qui soit vraiment homme ne pourrait rester indifférent.
Tous les représentants des grands continents feraient un pas, iraient de leur périphérie
vers le centre, chanteraient à l’unissons le chant de l’amour et fumeraient le calumet de
la paix. Aujourd’hui, « on »� écrit à Roland-Roger ; et en réponse on reçoit un message
écrit en sang africain. Le bruit des bombes résonne plus fort que le son du balafon. Les
cris de joie espérés se font discrets à côté des gémissements de femmes d’Afrique qui
pleurent leurs enfants, et de la jubilation, à la limite du cynisme, de Roland-Roger qui
croit accomplir un devoir d’humanisme ou d’humanitarisme : instaurer la démocratie et
protéger les populations civiles à coup de bombes et de drones. Le même humanisme,
Père ? Les sons de l’orchestre, puisque le balafon ne se joue qu’en orchestre, ne
concordent plus. Et l’on se retourne vers son auteur pour qu’il nous dise ce que l’on
Engelbert Mveng, Balafon (Yaoundé : Clé, 1972).
Cf. Laburthe Tolra, Les Seigneurs de la forêt (Paris : Publications de la Sorbonne, 1981). Laburthe Tolra
est l’un des grands connaisseurs de la culture des Beti du Sud Cameroun, culture à laquelle le Père Mveng appartenait.
Il est aussi l’auteur, entre autres, de : Initiation et sociétés secrètes au Cameroun. Essai sur la religion beti, (Paris:
Karthala, 1985).
1
2
*
Jean Luc is a Cameroonian Jesuit, currently studying at Jesuit School of Theology, Boston College,
MA-USA
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Quand Roland-Roger devient sourd ! . . .
serait en droit d’espérer. Car on sait, du souffle de Birago Diop, que les morts ne sont
pas morts ; qu’ils sont dans l’air et dans le vent, dans le feu qui s’éteint et les herbes
qui pleurent, et qu’à lui aussi, Mveng, ce son bizarre que produit son balafon est arrivé
à ses oreilles. Et quand le « je », représentant de l’Afrique dans Balafon, écrit à son
ami Roland-Roger, il ne reçoit plus en réponse qu’une sourde indifférence, parfois un
silence inquiétant, et même une jubilation dionysiaque. Roland-Roger est-il toujours en
vie ou a-t-il succombé aux mêmes bombes qui s’abattent sur « moi » ? Ma lettre ne lui
aurait-elle pas été transmise ? Et Mveng, vers qui « j »’accours, me demande, feignant de
ne pas le savoir : « que se passe-t-il ? » De chez Roland-Roger j’écris :
Les morts de la démocratie : éveil ou ensevelissement des derniers espoirs ?
De retour d’Amérique, le Français Alexis de Tocqueville écrivait un merveilleux livre
sur la démocratie en Amérique. Après trois ans en Europe et travaillant principalement
avec les jeunes, j’aurais aussi bien pu écrire un livre sur la démocratie en Europe. Mon
livre aurait contenu des pages enthousiastes vantant son système politique bien rodé et
marqué par un réel équilibre des pouvoirs ; une presse privée puissante ; une jeunesse
et un peuple généreux, qui a su intégrer dans sa culture et pour son bien propre des
valeurs de liberté, de respect, de démocratie. J’aurais vanté la générosité débordante
d’hommes sensibles aux problèmes dont souffre le monde. J’aurais marqué ma grande
émotion devant le mouvement de solidarité qui naquit après la catastrophe d’Haïti,
et qui naît à chaque catastrophe dont ce peuple a connaissance. J’aurais évoqué de
longues, longues pages d’amitié, de conversations spirituelles, d’échanges sur l’Afrique
et le monde. J’aurais noté combien il est possible d’améliorer leur connaissance de
ce continent africain si proche et si lointain. Cette Afrique dont le Père Mveng disait :
Ils m’ont dit / Mes frères, de vous répondre qu’en Afrique, / On n’aime pas les
hommes comme on aime ses colonies / Comme on aime les peuples protégés,
Blancs, Jaunes, Noirs et Rouges / Vous êtes, sous tous les cieux, notre unique cœur
Battant le rythme de la vie (Balafon, « Lettre collective »)
J’aurais aussi évoqué de très grandes inquiétudes, surtout à partir des crises politiques
actuelles dans le monde, et en Afrique particulièrement. Que les temps ont changé !
Mais vraiment ?
La boucherie de Bouchard. L’alarme du nouvel art de la guerre
Le général Bouchard, commandant de l’ « Opération Protecteur Unifié » ou « Harmattan » en Libye, déclarait dans Le Figaro, daté du 17 juin 2011 :
« Les hélicoptères britanniques et surtout français font un travail superbe. Non seulement à
l’attaque mais aussi dans les têtes. Les hélicoptères opèrent la nuit, subrepticement, et la seule
chose que voit l’adversaire, c’est le missile qui lui tombe dessus sans prévenir. L’effet est
unique, la peur casse ce qui reste de la volonté de combattre chez les partisans de Kadhafi.
C’est tellement efficace qu’on utilise aujourd’hui l’image des hélicoptères dans les tracts de
propagande largués au-dessus de la Libye. Regardez ce qui vous pend au nez… »�
L’homme de la technique qui préoccupait tant au 20ième siècle semble avoir atteint
dans cette déclaration du Général un chemin de non retour. Nous parlons d’hélicoptères
« qui font un travail superbe ». On n’y évoque ni le pilote, ni le commandant au sol qui
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Jean Luc Enyegue, SJ
les envoie au combat. L’alliage hélicoptère-missiles dont parle le général ne rencontre
un nom humain qu’en son ultime destinataire : Kadhafi et ses partisans! Le locuteur
dans ce schéma de communication est resté très loin derrière. Nous devons, et avec
grande sincérité, rendre grâce à Dieu que le nouvel art de la guerre soit arrivé à réduire
si considérablement les risques pour que des soldats meurent au combat. Ce sont des
morts de moins ! Mais nous rendons-nous assez compte du revers de cette médaille ?
Le mouvement qui a conduit l’Afrique aux indépendances dont nous fêtons cette
année le cinquantenaire dans plusieurs pays africain put être efficace parce que ses
leaders purent trouver des alliés en Occident. Roland-Roger partageait alors le désir de
la liberté, d’un nouvel humanisme mondial et du rejet des différentes formes d’horreur
ayant émaillé les années 1939-1945. Il s’agissait en général des alliés qui avaient été au
combat, corps-à-corps, pendant la Deuxième Guerre Mondiale. Ensemble, ils ont senti
l’odeur du sang et étaient arrivés à en être dégoûtés. Les guerres d’Irak et d’Afghanistan
ont perdu de leur popularité auprès de peuples occidentaux non pas parce qu’il y aurait
eu une grande amélioration sur les mobiles qui ont amené à les déclencher, sinon parce
qu’elles ont causé des morts, plusieurs morts occidentaux auxquels on peut ajouter une
situation de crise économique. Ce sont ces morts là qui émeuvent aujourd’hui RolandRoger ! Et les guerres, comme en Côte d’Ivoire et en Lybie, qui se livrent, officiellement
vues d’Europe, avec zéro mort pour son camp inspirent un intérêt lointain. Pendant ce
temps, l’autre camp compte des centaines, voire des milliers de morts ; il n’affronte pas
des hommes en chair et en os comme aux regrettables vieux temps de guerre, mais
des machines, des avions sans pilotes. Cela n’émeut plus grand monde qu’au nom de
l’humanitaire, le général Bouchard fasse larguer des tracs d’hélicoptères-assassins pour
que la population voie ce qui lui pend sous le nez, ou que des avions français larguent
des armes à un groupe que ce soit, alors même que les populations qui reçoivent ces
armes n’ont plus aucun accès à l’eau, aux médicaments, tassés depuis trois mois sous
une pluie de bombardements. Ils auraient espérés de la manne en cette traversée du
désert comme jadis on larguait des sacs de farine et de riz en zones de conflits en Afrique,
voilà qu’au contraire tombent du ciel des sacs remplis de munitions. « Tuez-vous vite,
qu’on en finisse avant le 14 juillet ! » La guerre moderne qui se développe en Afrique
a la prétention de protéger des civils au sol sans toucher le sol, en évitant tout contact
direct avec eux et en les maintenant à grande distance des frontières occidentales. Un
fait me semble curieux, déconcertant même. Alors que la flotte de l’OTAN est installée
dans la Méditerranée pour protéger les civils en Lybie, ses radars ne détectent pas les
barques de centaines de Libyens qui s’y noient en route pour se trouver un refuge vers
les terres de leurs libérateurs et protecteurs européens. L’inquiétant pour moi est que
personne n’interroge ces évènements ; le silence de l’Europe, de Roland-Roger, inquiète !
L’unanimisme inquiétant de l’Onu et la même ambigüité des discours
humanitaires
Les luttes pour les indépendances africaines ont pu compter également avec l’appui
de débats contradictoires à l’Onu. Les nationalistes, que l’historiographie coloniale
considérait pourtant comme des terroristes, pouvaient se rendre à la jeune ONU pour
défendre leurs idées et pour se faire entendre. Aujourd’hui, des résolutions unanimement votées à l’Onu sont un signe des gains obtenus par les habiletés diplomatiques,
voudrait-on croire, mais les opinions de notre monde sont-elles réellement si unani32
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mistes ? Ces derniers temps, j’ai reçu dans ma boîte mail un texte que j’ai lu avec peu
d’intérêt je l’avoue, mais dont un extrait a attiré mon attention parce qu’il décrit bien la
situation dans laquelle on se trouve. Le 30 juin 1936, racontait cet article, après l’invasion
de l’Ethiopie par l’Italie, le Négus Hailé Sélassié, ayant échappé aux bombardements de
Mussolini, fait le voyage de Genève pour plaider la cause de son peuple : « J’ai décidé,
dit-il, de venir en personne, témoin du crime commis à l’encontre de mon peuple,
afin de donner à l’Europe un avertissement face au destin qui l’attend, si elle s’incline
aujourd’hui devant les actes accomplis. C’est la sécurité collective ; c’est l’existence même
de la Société des Nations3 ; c’est la confiance que chaque Etat place dans les traités
internationaux ; c’est la valeur des promesses faites aux petits Etats que leur intégrité
et leur indépendance seront préservées ; c’est le choix entre d’un côté le principe de
l’égalité entre nations, et de l’autre celui de l’acceptation de leur vassalité ; en un mot
c’est la moralité internationale qui est en jeu. Je déclare à la face du monde entier que
l’Empereur, le gouvernement, et le peuple d’Ethiopie ne s’inclineront pas devant la
force ; qu’ils maintiennent leur revendication d’utiliser tous les moyens en leur pouvoir
afin d’assurer le triomphe de leurs droits. »� Il serait aujourd’hui impensable de voir un
terroriste déclaré défendre la cause pour laquelle il lutte dans le palais des verres de
New-York. Le discours de Kadhafi, le premier en 40 ans de pouvoir, dans cette auguste
assemblée aura certainement été le dernier. Il vaudrait pourtant avoir la patience de le
lire pour la pertinence des questions qu’il soulève.4
Les indépendantistes africains, comme Sélassié, ont su en plus compter avec un Occident qui se sentait coupable après les exactions de la Seconde Guerre Mondiale et qui
voulait créer un monde plus juste. Mais personne aujourd’hui ne s’inquiète du fait que lors
de son discours de victoire au soir du 6 mai 2007, le Président français qui aujourd’hui se
trouve en tête de ces nouvelles guerres en Afrique affirmait : « Je veux rendre aux Français
la fierté d’être Français. Je veux en finir avec la repentance qui est une forme de haine
de soi, et la concurrence des mémoires qui nourrit la haine des autres. »� Ne pas croire
en la repentance et au devoir de mémoire ! Ce ne sont pas de simples mots ; c’est une
réalité qui a gagné une bonne partie de la conscience européenne, devenue de plus en
plus amnésique aux thèmes de l’esclavage, de la colonisation, et des génocides passés.
Et cet effort d’oubli s’accompagne d’une cargaison d’arguments historiographiques et
politiques qui dédouanent l’Occident de toute responsabilité de ces crimes comme de
ceux d’aujourd’hui : la collaboration des africains eux-mêmes, leur goût à la guerre et
à la violence, leurs multiples ethnies et religions, leur primitivité, etc. La seule faute de
l’Occident, ainsi l’enseignent aujourd’hui les programmes d’histoire, est d’avoir créé des
frontières arbitraires qui favorisent ces conflits. Et quand tu leur demandes le nombre
de conflits interétatiques qu’il y a en Afrique pour une frontière mal tracée, ils n’ont
pas de réponse parce que dans l’imaginaire collectif, on leur fait croire que c’est toute
l’Afrique qui brûle ! Nous sommes en face d’une culture qui, pour alimenter son autoestime, essaie d’éliminer tout ce qui a trait au scrupule, à la culpabilité, aux remords…
L’Afrique sera donc plus seule que jamais face à ses problèmes ; ses cris résonneront
de moins en moins forts en dehors de ses frontières. Elle qui n’existe pour une large
partie de l’humanité que sous la forme que des pouvoirs intéressés ayant une mainmise
sur l’information mondiale voudraient donner d’elle. Elle se réduit à la maladie, à la
guerre et à la famine. Tout le monde voudrait bien l’aider, mais peu de gens voudraient
3
4
Laquelle, faut-il le rappeler, ne survivra pas à la Deuxième Guerre Mondiale et sera remplacée par l’ONU.
http://www.voltairenet.org/Discours-de-Mouammar-Khadafi-a-la
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s’y rendre pour partager sa vie dans ce qu’elle a d’allégresse, d’espérance, mais aussi
de douleur et de souffrance. Personne ne veut s’y rendre et retourner avec la bonne
information qui condamne l’injustice et le pillage généralisé dont elle est victime, de
peur d’être mis en marge par son propre peuple pour qui l’Afrique, comme aux temps
de l’esclavage et de la colonisation, est coupable d’avoir plusieurs ethnies, plusieurs
religions et des dirigeants corrompus et tous dictateurs. Telle est la raison principale de
toutes ses guerres. Et si l’on a besoin d’une quelconque preuve pour s’en convaincre,
on a qu’à allumer sa télévision et se voir répéter comment Kadhafi veut exterminer
son propre peuple ou comment Gbagbo veut tout faire pour s’accrocher au pouvoir
au prix du sang de ses compatriotes. Voilà pourquoi la civilisation de Roland-Roger
vole au secours des africains, qui ne sont toujours pas entrés dans l’Histoire.5 Les morts
d’Abidjan attribués à Gbagbo ou celles de Bengazi attribués à Kadhafi sont en réalité
inadmissibles pour toute personne raisonnable ; mais l’on se surprend, sans le vouloir
parfois, à se demander si ceux-là sont plus importants que les millions de Congolais
et de Darfouriens –et dans le même contexte aujourd’hui, des Syriens– qui meurent
depuis des années dans un silence quasi absolu.
Le drame anthropologique d’une aide humanitaire qui tombe du ciel
Jean-Marc Ela se demandait comment il était possible de s’intéresser à la culture
du peuple sans se préoccuper de la marginalisation des masses converties en objets
folkloriques. Comment ne pas évoquer ici cette question à l’heure où l’humanitaire a
atteint son apogée en Afrique et où ce même humanitaire ne finit pas dévoiler son
visage inhumain ?
Ceux qui se rendent aujourd’hui en Afrique avec la bonne volonté d’aider retournent
dans leurs pays et prononcent le seul discours que leurs concitoyens veulent entendre : maladie, famine, guerres, trop de misère. Il n’y a pas d’espace pour un discours
alternatif. Ils obtiennent de l’aide pour des missions humanitaires, ce qui est un acquis
important pour l’Afrique, et ils gagnent eux-mêmes du pain et des titres d’héroïcité :
comment ont-ils pu survivre dans un tel contexte ? Si quelqu’un demande à ces sortes
de trafiquants de misère pourquoi ils agissent ainsi, ils répondent en général que c’est
la seule manière de mouvoir les cœurs. La vérité est qu’ils ne se rendent pas compte
de la dramatique réalité anthropologique qu’ils transmettent. De généreux donateurs,
personnes très engagées pour la plupart et qui contribuent avec une intention droite à
une amélioration de l’humanité, sont en fait réduits par nos méthodes de demande de
fonds (faites de photographies spectaculaires sur la misère et la nudité du pauvre, comme
si l’on pouvait afficher dans la rue l’image d’un membre de sa famille que l’on aime) à
des monstres insensibles. Ces méthodes contribuent à annihiler anthropologiquement
le pauvre dont on dénie toute dignité sur une photo, un cliché ; mais aussi le donateur
qui, croyons-nous, est si insensible qu’il ne lève les fonds que sous l’incitation du sang et
de la misère la plus extrême. Ces méthodes zombies sont inhumaines et ne contribuent
pas beaucoup au rapprochement de l’humanité dont parle Balafon, sinon à une relation
basée uniquement sur le matériel et à distance. On envoie en fait de l’aide du haut du
ciel. Curieuse analogie avec tant d’autres dons qui tombent du ciel libyen…
L’aide en direction de l’Afrique se limite donc à l’image du bon samaritain qu’un
5
Voir: Allocution de Nicolas Sarkozy à Dakar, 26 juillet 2007. http://www.afrik.com/article12199.html
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ami bien intentionné voulut me faire présenter aux étudiants lors d’un chemin de croix.
Le bon samaritain était représenté dans son PowerPoint par la photo d’une jeune fille
blanche en bikini recueillant un africain en haillons sur une plage d’été. On devrait
certes mettre en valeur l’offre du bon samaritain dans notre forme d’évangéliser ; mais ne
s’agit-il pas d’un paradigme qui, s’il s’attaque avec une certaine efficacité aux urgences
du moment (sida, réfugiés, etc.), évite de toucher le mal à sa racine et esquive la réalité
de David-Urie qui définit de plus en plus au mieux la situation de l’Afrique ? Sommesnous, par nos moyens, à la hauteur de cette même politique du bon samaritain si nos
diocèses sont si pauvres ? La mission première d’une Eglise africaine pauvre ne serait-elle
pas de mettre à profit le peu de moyens qu’elle a pour lutter contre la mal à la racine,
au lieu de prioriser un apostolat d’assistance qui, s’il est vrai, répond efficacement aux
urgentes nécessités de l’heure, contribue très peu à les endiguer ?
Que l’on nous comprenne bien
Il reste, en Occident, une oreille attentive mais dont l’ouïe semble s’obscurcir chaque
jour par une désinformation et « malinformation » envahissante et dangereuse. Voilà
pourquoi on ne cessera de répéter sans cesse certaines évidences à Roland-Roger et ses
hommes-liges africains. La sauvagerie des bombes ne saurait fonder une quelconque
démocratie. La démocratie n’est pas cette célébration dont des leaders sensés avoir
été élus par le peuple et pour le peuple entrent dans des cités à coups de chars et de
bombes, sans le peuple pour les acclamer. Elle n’est pas non plus cette mise en scène à
l’odeur coloniale de la violence sadique des plus forts sur les plus faibles, ni cet écrasement du droit des peuples à disposer d’eux-mêmes à coups de bombes. La révolution
arabe échouera malheureusement en Lybie non pas parce que Kadhafi aurait refusé
toute négociation, mais parce qu’à la différence du Caire et de Tunis, dont les leaders
n’étaient pourtant pas moins oppresseurs, les démocrates de Bengazi se sont armés en
moins d’une semaine. Leur revendication avait cessé d’être démocratique ; elle était
devenue une rébellion. Ne les appelle-t-on pas « insurgés » ?
Par ailleurs, l’option militaire ne doit pas être la première solution à une crise postélectorale, sous prétexte que l’adversaire aurait nourri la réputation de « boulanger »,6 si
en fin de compte plus de 3000 citoyens doivent y perdre leur vie. Et aucun légalisme
ou légitimisme7 ne peut être assez sérieux pour mettre en péril le bien supérieur d’une
nation, et en premier de ses habitants. Le débat sur qui avait été élu aurait dû s’éclipser
en Côte d’Ivoire du moment où la logique de la mort devenait de plus en plus inévitable,
et il était du devoir des leaders des deux camps de sauver ce qui pouvait encore l’être,
en s’assoyant et en trouvant de douloureux compromis, humiliants à la limite pour leur
egos, pour qu’il n’y ait plus de mort. Mais le Président Ouattara avoue lui-même qu’il
n’a que très peu cherché la voie du dialogue durant toute la crise, et a préféré privilégier
6
En fait, si tu veux ruiner le boulanger en bombardant tous les champs de blés et en interdisant toute production et commercialisation des produits nécessaires à la production du pain, tu finiras par affamer le peuple. Il est vrai
que cela peut faire partie d’une stratégie politique, et la logique des sanctions économiques et des embargos : éviter
tout dialogue avec le boulanger et affamer le peuple pour que le peuple affamé fasse la sale besogne à notre place.
7
La légalité d’un vainqueur, fondée sur la Loi Fondamentale d’un pays, ne coïncidant pas nécessairement
avec sa légitimité, le soutien réel qu’il dispose au sein de son peuple. Ce qui met aussi automatiquement en doute la
question de la correspondance entre une légitimité qui se veut avant tout internationale, fut-elle de la CEDEAO, de
l’Union Africaine ou de l’Onu, et une légitimité qui serait nationale. Celle-là, lorsqu’elle est réellement fondée, n’a
besoin d’aucune arme pour s’imposer. Elle s’impose par elle-même comme en Lybie ou en Tunisie, ou en Inde sous
Gandhi sous l’oppression britannique.
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dès le début l’option militaire, puisque son dernier contact avec le Président Gbagbo,
de ses propres dires, date du 29 novembre 2010,8 entendons bien, au lendemain du
deuxième tour de la Présidence, bien avant même la proclamation des résultats par
quelque organisme que ce soit. De même, dans un monde global et complexe, le choix
de ses partenaires dans la recherche de sa propre autonomie –si tel est réellement l’enjeu
du combat politique que l’on prétend mener– ne peut être exclusif et orienté vers une
dynamique d’isolement nationaliste, surtout lorsqu’on n’a pas les moyens de vivre
sous embargo. Un mode, tout à fait ignatien, de garantir l’indépendance, consisterait,
non pas tant en un isolationnisme, aussi héroïque fut-il, sinon en la multiplication des
dépendances, en équilibrant une dépendance exclusive avec d’autres dépendances.9
Mais autre chose est de savoir la marge de manœuvre que laisse la dépendance exclusive et néocoloniale aux Etats africains pour multiplier des dépendances. L’expérience
tendrait même à montrer que toute tentative dans ce sens peut être source de guerre.
La sortie des monopoles et des chasses-gardées se fait généralement au prix d’énormes
sacrifices, preuve, s’il en fallait encore une, qu’il n’y a aucune indépendance octroyée.
Les indépendances s’arrachent…
Du « cri de l’homme africain » à l’engagement
Et pourtant, comme, le disait le Père Arrupe, « l’histoire le démontre. Ni la guerre,
ni la révolution violente n’ont jamais été des solutions pour résoudre le problème humain ; et jamais elles ne le seront. Elles naissent de la haine. Et la haine torture ; elle
ne soigne pas ; jamais elle ne peut être une solution humaine (…) Le diagnostique
de la guerre, de même que celui de la violence, montre que l’une comme l’autre sont
l’effet d’un virus : la haine. L’antidote de la haine est l’amour ; et l’effet de l’amour est
l’antidote de la guerre : la paix. »� Notre mission dans un tel contexte viserait à nous
centrer sur une recherche active de la paix et de la réconciliation entre nos peuples.
Elle consiste aussi en des réponses globales et intégrales qui incluent en leur principe
et fondement l’élément spirituel et culturel comme remède d’une paupérisation anthropologique dont l’essence est avant tout d’ordre culturel. Former, éduquer, l’humain,
africain comme européen, est le meilleur moyen de lutter contre la guerre, la maladie
et la famine. Nous devons en cela être conscient que notre voix sera étouffée, qu’elle
n’arriverait certainement pas à Roland-Roger dans les termes que nous voudrions. Les
mots dans notre monde ne signifient plus ce qu’ils devraient signifier ; ils peuvent
facilement être détournés de leur sens premier par des lobbyistes aux intérêts de toutes
sortes et mis au service de leur boulimie. On les déforme et manipule à sa guise. Ce
n’est d’ailleurs pas un hasard si une résolution presqu’unanimement adoptée à l’Onu,
comme la 1973 sur la Lybie, pose tant de problèmes d’interprétations aux différentes
parties l’ayant voté. Elle justifie tout et son contraire. Dans la mentalité générale, tout
le monde continue d’utiliser le concept de Tiers-Monde pour désigner une partie de
l’humanité économiquement en retard. Mais personne ne sait en réalité, ou bien des
personnes feignent de ne pas le savoir, que cette expression, à son origine, n’indique
pas qu’une victime, sinon aussi un agent responsable de cette marginalisation de fait.
La notion de Tiers Monde était inséparable de peuple « ignoré, exploité et déprécié. »10
8
9
10
http://www.jeuneafrique.com/Article/ARTJAJA2629p028-035.xml0/
D. Bertrand, La politique de S. Ignace de Loyola (Paris: Cerf, 1985), 385.
E. Jouve, Le Tiers Monde (Paris : PUF, 1988), 17.
36
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Du point de vue théologique, le Tiers Monde émergea à la rencontre de New Dehli
en 1981 comme le « fruit d’une amère oppression » caractérisé par « l’irruption de
classes exploitées, des cultures marginalisées, des races dépréciées à partir du revers
de l’histoire du monde jusque-là dominée par l’Occident. Cette irruption s’exprime
à travers des luttes révolutionnaires, des insurrections politiques et des mouvements
de libération (…) Il s’agit du soulèvement de tous ceux qui luttent pour une pleine
humanité et pour une place dans l’histoire. »11
Dans une telle logique, il est heureux de reconnaître que plusieurs réponses nous
ont déjà été données sur les problèmes africains depuis avant l’indépendance. L’identité
d’une théologie africaine l’atteste d’ailleurs dans ce qui pourrait être considéré comme
ses traits caractéristiques. Il s’agit d’une théologie contextuelle qui corresponde au
contexte de la vie et la culture dans laquelle vit le peuple. Cette contextualisation
signifie que la théologie africaine devrait principalement traiter de la libération des
Africains de la captivité culturelle. Mais, elle doit aussi réaliser la connexion entre
dimension culturelle et dimension socio-économique, étant donné que l’oppression
ne se manifeste pas uniquement dans la culture, sinon également dans les structures
politiques et économiques et dans les mass médias dominants. Voilà pourquoi la
théologie africaine devrait aussi être une théologie de la libération.12 Déjà en 1956, en
plein processus de décolonisation, de jeunes prêtres africains s’interrogeaient13 sur le
futur de la mission de l’Eglise en Afrique. Mais cette initiative singulière de l’histoire
de la théologie africaine avait été précédée par trente ans de réflexion –qui nous
manquent peut-être aujourd’hui– sur la personnalité africaine (African Personality)
appuyée par le mouvement de la Négritude. Ses recherches portaient sur la récupération d’une identité nègre, dans la fidélité à l’histoire africaine et s’appuyaient sur
le principe de solidarité entre tous les noirs de l’Afrique et de la diaspora. C’est ce
mouvement qui sera à l’origine d’une ligne politique panafricaniste,14 dont l’origine
remonte à Dubois aux USA. La Négritude nourrit la conviction selon laquelle notre
libération sera culturelle ou ne le sera pas. Sans la libération culturelle, il n’y aura pas
de libération politique.15
11
Cf. “Final Statement” nº 26. In J.R. Chandran, V. Fabella, S. Torres, eds., Irruption of the Third World
(New York: Orbis Books, 1983), 83.
12
Communiqué final du Congrès de l’Ecumenical Association of Third World Theologians (EATWOT),
célébré à Accra en 1977. In Appiah-Kubi, K.; S. Torres (eds.), African Theology en Route (New York: Orbis Books,
1979), 189-195.
13
A. Abble, J.C. Bajeux et alii, Des prêtres noirs s’interrogent (Paris : Présence Africaine, 1956).
14
Tout le monde aujourd’hui se plaint de l’échec de l’Union Africaine. Mais sait-on seulement que ces échecs
étaient prévisibles du moment où des deux modèles de panafricanisme qui étaient possibles dans les années 40, le
gaulliste (tout dans l’Union Française) évoqué à la Conférence de Brazzaville de 1944 et celui inspiré du mouvement
de libération des noirs aux Etats-Unis (plus indépendantiste et conquérant), c’est le modèle brazzavillois qui a semblé
prévaloir alors qu’une synthèse des deux aurait été plus judicieuse pour l’Afrique. Et en quoi consiste ce modèle gaulliste ? « …En Afrique française, dit De Gaulle, [lequel récupère par ailleurs à son profit un mouvement de libération
qui était devenu inéluctable] comme dans tous les autres territoires où des hommes vivent sous notre drapeau, il n’y
aurait aucun progrès qui soit un progrès, si les hommes, sur leur terre natale, n’en profitaient pas, moralement et
matériellement, s’ils ne pouvaient s’élever peu à peu jusqu’au niveau où ils seront capables de participer chez eux à
la gestion de leurs propres affaires. C’est le devoir de la France de faire en sorte qu’il soit ainsi. Vous étudierez ici [et
c’est là la meilleure !], pour les soumettre au Gouvernement [français], quelles conditions morales, sociales, politiques,
économiques et autres vous paraissent devoir être progressivement appliquées dans chacun de vos territoires pour que,
par leur développement même et le progrès de leur population, ils s’intègrent dans la communauté française avec leur
personnalité, leurs intérêts, leurs aspirations, leur avenir… » Cf. E. Mveng, Histoire du Cameroun (Paris : Présence
Africaine, 1963), 407-408. Je souligne ce qui est en italique dans le texte.
15
Benezet Bujo, Teologia africana nel suo contesto sociale (Brescia: Queriniana, 1988), 76.
37
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Un engagement théologique pour l’inculturation et la libération
Nous ne pouvons plus ignorer aujourd’hui les avertissements de nos aînés. Si l’Eglise
africaine ne s’inculture pas réellement, si elle ne se compromet pas pour la cause de
la grande majorité de ses membres, c’est-à-dire, des pauvres et exploités, elle ne serait
alors qu’une copie, mais alors une fausse copie (carbon copy), dirait P. Kalilombe, des
Eglises occidentales.16 Il ne serait pas du tout exagéré de faire observer que ce risque est
en train de prendre corps. Fabien Eboussi Boulaga parlait déjà de cette métamorphose
il y a 40 ans. Pour lui, les jeunes églises sont nées vieilles17 ; et si l’on n’y prend garde,
elles mourront avant leur âge de la raison qu’on attend toujours comme un enfant,
« mais l’enfant ne vient pas ».18 Meinrad Hebga dira plus tard qu’il était urgent d’élaborer
un discours théologique africain qui ne passe pas à travers la synagogue européenne,
« circoncision de l’esprit et du cœur ».19 Il défendait alors la nécessité de décentraliser
les Eglises du Tiers Monde en vue d’une meilleure inculturation du message chrétien.
La donne du monde a changé depuis lors. Si l’on ploie toujours sous l’oppression
en Afrique, l’on ne peut plus toutefois se permettre un quelconque isolement qui arracherait par force nos téléphones portables, brulerait nos télévisions et nos radios. Les
révolutions arabes elles-mêmes se sont déroulées au rythme de Facebook et Twitter.
Mais ce que nous pourrions tenter est de faire une élection claire et sans équivoque
qui nous identifie avec la situation réelle de nos peuples : pauvres, blessés, humiliés,
exploités, mais espérant tout de même. Nous ne répétons pas ici avec Hegba ou Eboussi une quelconque fin de la mission –il nous reste tant à faire pour nous permettre
un tel luxe – ; nous voudrions envisager tout au contraire ce qui pourrait constituer un
pilier fondamental de notre nouvelle évangélisation. De fait, les évêques d’Afrique et
de Madagascar répondirent à cette exigence en 1974 en décrétant la fin de la théologie
de l’adaptation et en embrassant un nouveau concept d’évangélisation qui consisterait
en : « Promouvoir l’évangélisation dans la coresponsabilité ».20 Dans cette nouvelle conception, l’Eglise africaine assumait la nécessité d’une incarnation de l’évangile comme
exigence fondamentale de sa mission. La question reste de savoir si cette incarnation
est arrivée jusqu’aux structures, jusqu’aux agents de cette évangélisation. Jusqu’à quel
point le nouveau missionnaire africain est-il proche de Jésus et de ceux qu’il aime ?
Jusqu’à quel point a-t-il dans sa chair les marques de sa souffrance ?
Assumer sans complexe des vieux modèles toujours actuels
Jean-Marc Ela affirmait que l’enjeu du christianisme africain est celui du christianisme d’une société qui se structure dans la pauvreté et l’oppression. Voilà pourquoi, à
son avis, toute théologie africaine devrait répondre avant tout au/du « cri de l’homme
africain ».21 En lisant ce livre, je n’ai pu m’empêcher de me souvenir d’une expérience
A. Shorter, African Christian Theology (London: Chapman, 1975), 145-146.
Fabien Eboussi Boulaga, “Métamorphoses africaines” in Christus 77 (1973), 37-38.
18
Histoire chantée par un Camerounais du nom de « Monsieur Cirage » autour d’un bébé qui se fait attendre
si longtemps qu’à sa naissance, il naît avec la calvitie et ses 32 dents.
19
Meinrad Hebga, Émancipation d’Églises sous tutelle : Essai sur l’ère post-missionnaire (Paris : Présence
Africaine, 1976). Cité par O. Bimwenyi-Kweshi, Discours théologique néo-africain (Paris : Présence Africaine, 1981),
280.
20
Documentation Catholique, nº 1664 (17.11.1974), 995.
21
Cf. Jean-Marc Ela, « Identité propre d’une théologie africaine », in Geffré, C. (éd.), Théologie et choc des
cultures (Paris : Cerf, 1984), 23-54. J.-M Ela, Le cri de l’homme africain (Paris : L’Harmattan, 1980). Ma foi d’Africain
(Paris : L’Harmattan, 1985).
16
17
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vécue en Inde il y a un an, auprès des jésuites indiens engagés auprès des Dalits, des
« Intouchables ». Pour eux, le service de Dieu et l’amour du prochain jusqu’au don de
sa propre vie prend sa forme concrète dans le service désintéressé –et parfois avec des
moyens de bord– auprès de ces pauvres parmi les plus pauvres. Jean-Marc Ela n’a-t-il
pas évoqué lui aussi une « théologie sous l’arbre » ? Il s’agit d’une théologie de solidarité
qui s’élabore coude-à-coude avec le paysan analphabète à l’écoute de la parole de Dieu
et dans les situations concrètes dans lesquelles cette parole lui est adressée.22 Il s’agit,
en fin de compte, de comprendre et de vivre la foi dans un contexte de libération des
opprimés parce qu’en Afrique les tâches de l’évangélisation s’inscrivent dans une région
du monde dans laquelle les puissances financières ont décidé, selon Jean-Marc Ela, de
faire de cette partie de l’humanité une réserve d’esclaves et de main d’œuvre moins
chère.23 On ajouterait aujourd’hui qu’elles ont décidé d’en faire une terre de malades,
de réfugiés, de sang, une réserve de pétrole et d’énergie bio-alimentaire alors même
que les humains qui y vivent continuent de mourir de faim. José Carlos Rodríguez Soto
évoque cette « nouvelle colonisation » dans un article intéressant intitulé « El saqueo de
África », entendez, « Le pillage de l’Afrique ».24 Dans cet article, il se fait porte-parole d’une
Afrique sans parole, livrée aux « nouveaux » envahisseurs.25 Il décrie l’achat d’immenses
parcelles de terres en Afrique par des pays arabes, asiatiques et européens. Leur finalité
est de « produire des aliments pour le Nord riche », surtout des céréales, ou des biocarburants. Un rapport de la Banque Mondiale signale d’ailleurs que pour la seule année
2009, 45 millions d’hectares, l’équivalent de la superficie de l’Allemagne et de l’Autriche,
ont été vendus.26 La course au Break up of Africa est si accélérée qu’elle s’est multipliée
par dix depuis l’année 1990, lorsque les gouvernements africains vendirent alors seulement 4 millions d’hectares. Dans l’article suivant attaché à ce dossier, Chema Caballero,
missionnaire xavérien en Sierra Léonne, raconte comment une entreprise européenne
a trompé les habitants du petit pays africain, en leur promettant la construction d’une
industrie qui donnerait du travail aux habitants. Non seulement que ces derniers ont
fini par perdre leurs terres, mais en plus, les postes de travail promis ne leur ont jamais
été offerts : ils ne sont pas qualifiés pour la production des biocombustibles.27 Ainsi
sepréparent les prochaines guerres d’Afrique, le Zimbabwe d’aujourd’hui, l’Afrique du
Sud de demain, et tous après-demain ?
Voilà pourquoi les paroles d’un croyant dans cette église africaine devraient toucher
à l’essence, à la racine même de l’être africain, un être pauvre. Etant donné que, comme
l’affirmait Engelbert Mveng, la pauvreté en Afrique n’est pas seulement un phénomène
Jean-Marc Ela, Le cri de l’homme africain, 8.
Ela, Le cri de l’homme africain, 166.
24
José Carlos Rodríguez Soto, « El saqueo de África” in Vida Nueva (Revue de la Conférence Episcopale
Espagnole), nº 2757 (Madrid, 11-17 juin 2011), 8-10.
25
Je crains que de telles initiatives se fassent de plus en plus rares avec le départ des derniers missionnaires
qui, seuls, pouvaient faire entendre la voix à leurs concitoyens. L’Europe, devenue peu chrétienne, ne croyant plus
ni en la vie éternelle ni aux flammes de l’enfer, devient sourde face à ce qui se passe loin d’elle. Elle ne peut plus
être ce continent que l’on pouvait considérer comme un allié pour la liberté. Le peuple européen, même chrétien et
religieux, se plaît de plus en plus à répéter les discours de ses dirigeants dans leur mission civilisatrice à travers le
monde, à force de bombes. Une terrible ignorance de la voix des faibles grandit en son sein. Et elle sait le justifier par
l’argument inter-ethnique, interreligieux, asiatique. Elle n’est plus responsable, pense-t-elle, que du bien des peuples.
Jamais de leurs maux. Et quand elle s’en charge, elle ne va plus à la rencontre de l’Afrique, elle lui ‘envoie’ de l’aide.
Le corps-à-corps devient de plus en plus rare. Comme à la guerre !
26
http://lulupo.blog.lemonde.fr/category/agriultureenvironnementclimat/vente-des-terres/
27
C. Caballero, « Silencio » in Vida Nueva, nº 2757, 11.
22
23
39
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socio-économique ; elle est la condition humaine qui, dans ses souches, s’est vue déterrée, traumatisée, appauvrie. La pauvreté africaine est une pauvreté anthropologique28
qui s’inscrit dans l’histoire et le quotidien de ce continent. La relation entre les structures
de péché qui sucent le continent et la nature de l’homme africain apparaît alors sous le
prisme d’une paupérisation anthropologique que précède et accélère une dramatique
paupérisation socio-économique. Le problème est que la paupérisation anthropologique
en question ne concerne plus que le pauvre Lazare ou le pauvre africain étalé sur le
chemin qui mène de Jérusalem à Jéricho (Lc 10,25-37) ; avant Lazare, elle est passée par
le ‘pauvre’ riche (Cf. Lc 16,19-31), dans une dogalisation de la race humaine.29
La composition des lieux dans ce dernier texte nous renseigne sur la condition du
riche. Il a des habits luxueux, organisent des grandes fêtes tous les jours. Il a aussi une
grande maison, et un chien, dog, bien évidemment. Le texte nous dit aussi que devant
le portail de sa maison se trouve un pauvre. Si le riche n’a pas de nom, lui, le pauvre,
s’appelle Lazare. Il est couvert de plaies. Il a faim et voudrait en vain se rassasier des
miettes qui tombent de la table du riche. Il y a enfin notre Dog. C’est son rôle qui nous
intéresse ici pour mettre en exergue cette paupérisation anthropologique (dogalisation) dont nous venons de faire mention. Par réflexe, on a tendance à considérer que
cette paupérisation anthropologique ne concerne que Lazare. De fait, il est celui qui
a perdu toute dignité. Il manque le minimum vital ; il est même réduit aux soins d’un
chien. Oui, c’est bien le chien qui voit ce que son patron ne voit pas. Il voit que cet
homme est blessé et lui lèche les plaies. En étant soumis aux soins d’un chien, Lazare
a une humanité niée, il est un sous-homme. Celui que Dieu a fait à son image et ressemblance (Gn 1,27), un peu moins qu’un dieu (Ps 8) se trouve maintenant dans une
condition un peu moindre qu’un chien. Et que dire du riche ? Il est tout simplement
dans la même condition. Il est aveugle ; son chien se fait ironiquement plus sensible
que lui. Il y a un renversement de situation dramatique qui s’en dégage. L’homme dont
la mission était de prendre soin de la création et de veiller sur son frère vient de céder
son rôle à son chien. Ce riche-là a tout simplement cessé d’être lui aussi un peu moins
qu’un dieu. Il se comporte pire que son chien. Voilà pourquoi il va en enfer. Non pas
parce que Dieu le punit ; sinon parce qu’il avait déjà choisi de ne plus être homme,
à image et ressemblance de Dieu, dans cette vie. Le problème c’est que son sort final
se convertit en une opportunité de conversion dans le texte. Il prend enfin conscience
de la mauvaise vie qui a été la sienne. Reste maintenant à savoir si cela peut encore
fonctionner dans un contexte où l’enfer ne fait plus peur à personne et où être-homme
a cessé d’être une fin tant on multiplie des normes contraires à la vie.
Pour en sortir, inculturation et libération. Pentecôte de l’Afrique
Le tam-tam dit : Pentecôte ! / Pentecôte, Pentecôte ! répond le balafon, / Le tambour, Pentecôte
!/ L’air de vibration sur ma lèvre de silence, Pentecôte !/ Mes grelots, Pentecôte!/O mes clochettes,/ Dans mes pieds de cadence, Pentecôte !
(Balafon, « Pentecôte sur l’Afrique »)
Mveng en appelait à la Pentecôte, à une Afrique où toutes les races, toutes les
ethnies, toutes les religions, s’unissent au service de l’homme. L’Afrique du Sud Noire,
28
29
Engelbert Mveng, L’Afrique dans l’Eglise: paroles d’un croyant (Paris : L’Harmattan, 1985), 209-210.
L’expression est nôtre et s’explique dans le paragraphe qui suit.
40
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alors qu’elle gisait sous l’Apartheid, a pu développer une théologie propre et originale.
Notre problème au moment d’aborder la question sud-africaine est de voir comment le
christianisme s’y est comporté dans le contexte particulier de l’Apartheid. Il est curieux de
noter pour commencer que la lutte politique en Afrique du Sud a toujours été soutenue
par une élaboration doctrinale. Dans celle-ci s’est développée une Théologie Blanche
Sud Africaine et une Théologie Noire Sud-Africaine. Pour la Théologie Blanche, il était
question de justifier théologiquement le fait que 17% de la population d’un pays soumette, exploite et opprime les 83% restantes. La solution en de pareils contextes est de
développer une théologie de l’élection de soi comme supérieur et de la non élection/
malédiction de l’autre qui justifie notre mépris à son égard. Mais il s’agit en réalité de
le mépriser et de trouver un coupable autre que lui-même de manière à l’emmener à
rendre grâce à Dieu dans ses cultes pour l’avènement de l’homme blanc chargé d’une
mission civilisatrice à son égard. La théologie noire quant à elle naît de la condamnation du statu quo et est une théologie de libération. En 1983, le théologien Sud-Africain
Allan Boesak rappelait qu’après 331 années d’esclavage, de discrimination raciale et de
deshumanisation systématique, ceux qui espéraient l’ « éternisation » du statu quo se
trouvaient confrontés à une dure réalité, par eux-mêmes inespérée : le peuple refusait
d’accepter l’injustice et était disposé à embrasser le défi du temps.30
Ce constat intervient dans un contexte, le niveau maximum peut-être jamais atteint
en Afrique du Sud, de récupération de la conscience nègre (Black Consciousness Movement) qui trouve ses antécédents historiques dans les revendications et mouvements des
19ième-20ième siècles, plus concrètement la Négritude, l’African Personnality et l’African
Humanism. Le dénominateur commun de cet « Internationale Nègre » se trouve dans
l’assomption par l’élite politique et religieuse nègre opprimée dans le monde entier
du cri de l’Homme Noir, que d’autres réduisent à l’Africain. Il était donc impossible
d’imaginer une vie politique et religieuse des noirs sans que celle-ci trouve des racines
dans une relation entre sa foi (d’Africain) et son cri (de l’Homme Africain). Notre petite
recherche ne nous a pas permis d’établir un lien historique entre Mveng et Ela dont
cette théologie semble constituer la synthèse de leur théologie de la libération. Mais une
constante est certaine : la théologie et l’engagement du chrétien en situation d’injustice et
d’oppression consistent à embrasser sa cause,31 s’incarner en celle-ci, se crucifier en elle.
Elle est ce chemin de croix que l’on ne peut éluder sans trahir notre peuple et en finir
avec la consistance qu’aurait pour lui le message chrétien. En Christ, en effet, la bonne
nouvelle est arrivée aux pauvres et ceux-ci seront libérés (Lc 4, 18-19). La théologie
nègre apparaît dès lors comme une théologie en rébellion contre « l’esclavage spirituel »
du peuple nègre et contre la perte de sa dignité et de sa valeur humaine. Elle est une
théologie à la recherche de nouveaux symboles pour affirmer l’humanité nègre. Elle est
une théologie d’opprimés et pour la libération des opprimés.32 Elle invite à ce que les
portes de la passion derrière lesquelles l’Afrique s’est enfermée s’ouvrent pour que nous
sortions et proclamions à l’unissons, chacun dans sa langue (mais comprise par tous),
le message de pardon, de liberté et de paix que nous apporte le Seigneur Ressuscité.
Toute autre perspective théologique qui ignore cette dure réalité, anthropologique,
de l’homme africain –reflet de la dogalisation de l’humanité dans son ensemble– corre A. Boesak, Se questo è tradimento, sono colpevole (Torino: Claudiana, 1989), 54.
M. Buthelezi, “An African Theology or a Black Theology?” in B. MOORE (éd.), Black Theology. The
South African Voice (London: Hurst, 1973), 29-35.
32
B. Moore (éd.), Black Theology. IX.
30
31
41
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spond à ce que Manas Buthelezi appelait une théologie ethno-objectiviste ou romantique.
Celle-ci se limiterait à prendre en considération des structures objectives de pensées que
contient la cosmo-vision africaine, essentiellement tournée vers son passé historique,
sans aller au-delà pour atteindre le lieu-où-se-trouve-concrètement l’homme africain, son
présent historique d’où s’élabore son futur. Voilà pourquoi Manas Buthelezi proposait
d’ailleurs une théologie anthropologique, existentielle-concrète. Reprenant M. Buthelezi,
il semblerait donc aussi que toute inculturation qui se limite à être conceptuelle, cultuelle,
et qui ne prenne pas en considération l’aspect liturgique global de l’homme africain, le
souffle de l’esprit que contiennent les chants de ses tontines, de ses funérailles, de ses
hymnes nationaux, des ses chants populaires chrétiens33 qui n’ont pas toujours de place
dans la liturgie grégorienne, serait du pur fanalako.34 Elle augmenterait une religiosité
superficielle, syncrétique, et finirait par tuer dans sa jeunesse une église à peine née.
Une théologie de la libération en Afrique aujourd’hui ne s’inspirerait donc pas de notre
politique, elle-même à court d’idée et d’inspiration. Elle s’inspirera, comme le dirait
Desmond Tutu, de notre foi.35 Mais il s’agit d’une foi en situation qui serait proche de
ce qu’Allan Boesak a appelé Situational Theology ou encore Contextual Theology. Cette
théologie, aussi défendue par Jean-Marc Ela, souligne l’historicité du croyant africain,
un être-en-situation, et garantit la modificabilité de cette situation. Elle nous invite donc
aujourd’hui à affronter le kairos, le moment de vérité, de l’homme africain.
Voici comment « je » te réponds :
Quand Roland Roger devient sourd, continue de l’appeler, de jouer au Balafon et
battre le tam-tam, peut-être qu’un voisin finira par t’entendre. Continue de chanter et
de fêter au rythme du Balafon, parce que seule la joie qu’il procure te maintient en
espérance. Cette étonnante espérance, ta force intérieure, finirait par toucher ceux qui
ne croient plus, et peut-être reviendront-ils au centre, avec toi, pour boire à l’unique
véritable source : l’amour de Dieu manifesté dans le cœur sacré de son Fils Jésus. Entre
temps, tu fais bien d’appeler Ela. Des problèmes de l’histoire méritent des réponses historiques pour ne pas prendre Dieu pour un fou ou pour un indifférent, voire complice
silencieux de ce qui nous arrive. S’il n’est pas responsable du mal que souffrent les
hommes, on ne peut faire recours à lui avant d’avoir épuisé les recours qu’il a mis en
l’homme pour son propre salut. Il ne nous a pas obtenu le salut par un geste spectaculaire comme sauter du haut du temple, transformer des pierres en pain ou descendre
de la croix. C’est par les blessures de sa Croix, la croix des hommes assumée par amour
que nous avons été guéris. Rassemble aussi tes frères, ratisse large. Parle-leur, qu’ils
comprennent les enjeux du moment et acceptent d’embrasser les vertus de l’amour,
de la justice, de la paix et du bien commun comme leur forme d’être et de subsister.
C’est en ces valeurs que la véritable liberté trouve ses racines, non dans la violence et
33
Je me demande parfois si la ferveur des Mouvements Charismatiques n’a pas une relation directe entre
le goût pour l’Africain de chanter et la connexion entre ce qu’il chante dans ces églises à ciel ouvert et sa situation
concrète. Il est bon de critiquer le caractère échappatoire de ces solutions placebo, mais il serait peu malin que sa
ferveur ne cause pas de vraies frayeurs à la froideur de certaines de nos liturgies, sorties directement des cathédrales
romaines. Le juste équilibre entre les deux tendances s’avère nécessaire dans une pratique de l’inculturation en Afrique.
34
Version falsifiée de la langue zulu née d’une adaptation inventée par les sud-africains de langue zulu pour
se faire comprendre par des blancs incapables de comprendre du zulu authentique.
35
Desmond Tutu, “The Theology of Liberation in Africa” in K. Appiah-Kubi; S. Torres (eds.), African Theology en Route, (162-168), 168.
42
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le mépris de la vie. Le chant du Balafon ne signifiait pas non plus que tout de l’Afrique
était vie et hospitalité comme vous êtes si souvent tentés de l’affirmer ; que ce mythe
ne vous ferme pas à la réalité : l’africain est égoïste, tue son frère, l’exploite, l’opprime.
Voilà pourquoi le mal régnant trouve des alliés en son sein. Aucune prison ne guérit
une telle corruption, aucune justice ne solde une telle injustice. Prie et apprends à prier.
Que les cœurs se convertissent et reviennent à Dieu.
Bibliographie
Abble, A., Bajeux, J.-C. et alii. Des prêtres noirs s’interrogent. Paris : Présence Africaine, 1956.
Appiah-Kubi, K., S. Torres (eds.). African Theology en Route. New York : Orbis Books, 1979.
Arrupe, Pedro. La Iglesia de hoy y del futuro. Bilbao: Mensajero, 1982.
Bertrand, D.. La politique de S. Ignace de Loyola. Paris : Cerf, 1985.
Bimwenyi-Kweshi, Oscar. Discours Théologique Néo-Africain. Paris : Présence Africaine, 1981.
Boesak, A. Se questo è tradimento, sono colpevole. Torino: Claudiana, 1989.
Bujo, Benezet. Teologia africana nel suo contesto sociale. Brescia: Queriniana, 1988.
Buthelezi, M.. “An African Theology or a Black Theology?” in B. Moore (éd.), Black Theology. The
South African Voice. London: Hurst, 1973.
Chandran, J.R., V. Fabella, S.Torres, eds., Irruption of the Third World. New York: Orbis Books, 1983.
Documentation Catholique, (nº 1664, 17.11.1974).
Eboussi Boulaga, F. “Métamorphoses africaines” in Christus 77 (1973).
Ela, Jean-Marc. Le cri de l’homme africain. Paris : L’Harmattan, 1980.
--------------. Ma foi d’Africain. Paris : L’Harmattan, 1985.
-------------. « Identité propre d’une théologie africaine », in Geffré, C. (éd.), Théologie et choc des
cultures. Paris : Le Cerf, 1984.
Hebga, M., Émancipation d’Églises sous tutelle. Essai sur l’ère post-missionnaire. Paris : Présence
Africaine, 1976.
Jouve, E.. Le Tiers Monde. Paris : PUF, 1988.
Mveng, E.. Balafon. Yaoundé : Clé, 1972.
--------------. Histoire du Cameroun. Paris : Présence Africaine, 1963.
--------------. L’Afrique dans l’Eglise: paroles d’un croyant. Paris : L’Harmattan, 1985.
Rodríguez Soto, J.C.. “El saqueo de África” in Vida Nueva (Revue de la Conférence Episcopale
Espagnole), nº 2757 (Madrid, 11-17 Juin 2011).
Shorter, A. African Christian Theology. London: Chapman, 1975.
Tolra, P.-L.. Les seigneurs de la forêt. Paris : Publications de la Sorbonne, 1981.
----------------., Initiation et sociétés secrètes au Cameroun. Essai sur la religion beti. Paris: Karthala,
1985.
http://lulupo.blog.lemonde.fr/category/agriultureenvironnementclimat/vente-des-terres/
http://www.jeuneafrique.com/Article/ARTJAJA2629p028-035.xml0/
http://www.lefigaro.fr/international/2011/06/16/01003-20110616ARTFIG00720-l-otan-ira-aubout-de-sa-mission-en-libye.php.
http://unevingtaine.blogs.nouvelobs.com/archive/2011/06/18/david-gakunzi-sur-les-bombardements-humanitaires-3-poison-in.html
http://www.voltairenet.org/Discours-de-Mouammar-Khadafi-a-la
http://www.afrik.com/article12199.html
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Dieu, César et Tribun
Imagination théologico-politique en Afrique postcoloniale
By Yvon Christian Elenga, S.J.*
A
bstract: « L’Africain, au fond de lui-même, au cœur de lui-même, au cœur de sa
société et dans la dynamique de la vie de tout le continent, est un colonisé, un décolonisé, un néo-colonisé et post-colonisé obligé de reconstruire son espace de vie et
de construire une destinée de liberté réelle et de créativité humanisante. Identité, libération
et reconstruction sont ainsi des ‘catégories dialectiques’ qui définissent l’Africain en tant
qu’Africain ici et maintenant, et portent le souffle de toute notre histoire contemporaine ».
[KÄ MANA, Théologie africaine pour temps de crise. Christianisme et reconstruction de
l’Afrique, Paris, Karthala, 1993, p. 33.]
I
ntroduction: La fin de la colonisation —ou, plus prosaïquement, l’entrée de l’Afrique
dans l’ère postcoloniale— ne marqua pas seulement le début d’un tournant dans la
modernité africaine. Elle ouvrit une période de crise qu’occasionne toute transition.
La « rupture instauratrice » avec les dominances du colonat traduisait vaille que vaille
le contentieux que les Etats nouvellement indépendants n’ont cessé de traîner. Ce
contentieux porte sur deux pans. Il y a d’abord la création des nations sur des circuits
commerciaux dont on a fait des oligopoles impériales. Ensuite, cette sortie des formes
traditionnelles des sociétés a été bâtie sur l’idée selon laquelle l’Afrique entrait dans une
nouvelle ère et qu’il était nécessaire de se « moderniser ». L’accession à l’indépendance
de plusieurs pays africains a donc ouvert la voie à une définition de la place de l’Eglise
dans la sphère publique. En maintes occasions, il lui a fallu trouver la mesure entre
prophétisme, compromis ou silence. Je voudrais aborder ici la question de l’Eglise, et,
par elle, celle de la religion, dont elle est à la fois le langage et la force géopolitique.
Cette présentation tente une généalogie des transformations de l’héritage théologicopolitique de l’Etat africain moderne pour mieux découvrir les nœuds de l’engagement
politique de l’Eglise. 1) Je m’expliquerai d’abord sur la réappropriation d’un modèle
qui fut imprégné de présupposés théologiques et je montrerai comment les philosophies modernes ont accompagné, puis prolongé, les orientations fondamentales d’une
rationalisation politique. Dans le contexte africain, une telle trajectoire n’est pas linéaire.
L’autonomie du politique s’est dissout dans un neutralisme qui épuise les possibilités
de réalisation de l’Etat. Comment reconfigurer une nouvelle structure si l’on ignore les
risques d’absolutisation ? 2) Ensuite, je ferai le lien entre les formes de souveraineté
et de responsabilités qui peuvent aider à une nouvelle visibilité de l’Eglise pour une
sotériologie qui dépasse la distinction entre le temporel et le spirituel. L’histoire du
salut et l’histoire humaine sont ici envisagées comme expression omniprésente de la
grâce. Dieu, César et tribun sont, en l’occurrence, les paraboles appliquées des agents
* Yvon Christian Elenga is a Jesuit. He hails from Congo. He lectures at the Jesuit School of Theology
(ITCJ) in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire.
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Dieu, César et Tribu
d’une sotériologie contemporaine. Cette réflexion est éclairée par le célèbre passage
de l’épître aux Romains (13, 1-7)1.
Sur la doctrine de la souveraineté de l’Etat moderne
L’héritage des Temps modernes
La théologie politique, conçue sur ces prémisses, fonde la doctrine de la souveraineté
de l’Etat moderne sur les développements des concepts théologiques. Voilà pourquoi
C. Schmitt a pu écrire :
Tous les concepts prégnants de la théorie moderne de l’Etat sont des concepts théologiques
sécularisés. Et c’est vrai non seulement de leur développement historique, parce qu’ils ont
été transférés de la théologie à la théorie de l’Etat— du fait, par exemple, que le Dieu toutpuissant est devenu le législateur omnipotent—, mais aussi de leur structure systématique,
dont la connaissance est nécessaire pour une analyse sociologique des concepts. La situation
exceptionnelle a pour la jurisprudence la même signification que le miracle pour la théologie. C’est seulement en prenant conscience de cette position analogue qu’on peut percevoir
l’évolution qu’ont connue les idées concernant la philosophie de l’Etat au cours des derniers
siècles. Car l’idée d’Etat de droit moderne s’impose avec le déisme, avec une théologie et
une métaphysique qui rejettent le miracle hors du monde et récusent la rupture des lois de
la nature, rupture contenue dans la notion de miracle et impliquant une exception due à une
intervention directe, exactement comme elles récusent l’intervention directe du souverain
dans l’ordre juridique existant2.
Cette ligne de réflexion rejoint celle du diplomate et théologien espagnol Donoso
Cortès (1809-1953). Schmitt admet avec lui que le traditionalisme de la doctrine tridentine
du péché va bien au-delà de la défense dogmatique. Il s’inscrit dans une visée politique.
Par conséquent, la « théologie politique » concerne la faisabilité et la réalisation de la
décision politique3. Schmitt est d’avis avec les théoriciens de la contre-révolution, parmi
lesquels on compte L.-G.-A. Bonald (1754-1840), J. M. de Maistre (1753-1821) et Cortès,
que la réappropriation politique des analogies théologiques participe à la formation des
concepts politiques. Ainsi comprise, « la soi-disant théologie politique de Schmitt n’en
est pas une, mais cette expression prend sens dans des polémiques précises engagées
par le juriste, elle ne peut pas qualifier son œuvre elle-même, comme on le fait si souvent »4. Cette expression est et demeure essentiellement politique.
Il est commun désormais de reconnaître que la modernité théologico-politique
considère trois aspects de la relation entre politique et religion. Il s’agit de la rationalisation politique de la religion, de ce qu’on nomme séparation de la politique et de la
religion, et des effets conjugués du politique et du théologique. Chacun de ces aspects
1
Lire Raymond Deniel, « Omnis potestas a Deo. L’origine du pouvoir civil et sa relation à l’Église »,
Recherches de Science Religieuse, 56 (1968) : 43-85 ; Jean-Noël Aletti, « La soumission des chrétiens aux autorités
en Rm 13, 1-7. Validité des arguments pauliniens », Biblica, 89 (2008) : 457-476.
2
Carl Schmitt, Théologie politique, traduction et présentation par J.-L. Schlegel (Paris : Gallimard, 1988),
46. Cette traduction française réunit en un seul volume les deux ouvrages écrits en 1922 et 1970 avec le même titre.
On les désignera ici par TP 1 et TP 2.
3
TP 1, pp. 62-75. 4
Paul Valadier, recension de T. Paléologue, Sous l’œil du grand Inquisiteur. Carl Schmitt et l’héritage de
la théologie politique, Paris, Cerf, 2004, in Archives de Philosophie, 67/4 (2004) : 682. Lire aussi J.-F. Kervégan,
« L’enjeu d’une ‘théologie politique’ : Carl Schmitt », Revue de Métaphysique et de Morale 2 (1995) : 201-220 ; Paul
Valadier, « Carl Schmitt : une théologie politique ? », Etude (novembre 1996) : 497-505.
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Yvon Christian Elenga, S.J.
éclaire l’apport de la religion, en l’occurrence le christianisme, dans la formation de
l’Etat moderne. Même si la religion est circonscrite dans la sphère privée, elle n’en
demeure pas moins un trait de la vie publique. Or donc, les relations entre ces deux
domaines se maintiendront précisément dans la détermination des normes éthiques
d’une société politique.
La souveraineté postcoloniale
Une épistémologie des théories de l’Etat et de son introduction en Afrique ne peut
faire fi de son applicabilité contrastée en Afrique5. Car, ici comme ailleurs, deux typologies vont prévaloir : l’une reposant sur une conception unitaire à coloration monothéiste,
et l’autre plus ouverte sur l’idée de la multiplicité des groupes sociaux. Ces groupes
sociaux sont, en fait, des groupes d’individus repliés parfois sur eux-mêmes au nom de
l’exigence de la liberté et de l’égalité. Par conséquent, ils portaient en eux une vision
de la société démocratique propice à l’émergence de l’individualisme.
La politique coloniale de « mise en valeur » et le contrôle politique direct des territoires conquis offraient au colonat un espace de configuration. La figure du Léviathan
a été mythifiée dans le processus de transition du pouvoir colonial. Elle ne tint pas
compte des signifiants communautaristes des sociétés africaines.
La pensée au service du besoin d’Etat a permis de cerner l’idéologie nationaliste
dont les consonances n’ont pas les mêmes échos en Europe qu’en Afrique. A l’analyse,
l’Etat postcolonial ne constitue pas une originalité. Comme le dit J.-F. Médard, « l’Etat
est une question de degré avant d’être une question de nature. Un système politique est
plus ou moins étatisé et ceci peut s’apprécier à partir de l’évaluation des capacités de
l’Etat selon un certain nombre de dimensions »�. Voilà pourquoi les épithètes, nombreux
jusqu’à l’excès, viennent qualifier les diverses appréhensions de l’Etat : « Etat mou »,
« Etat fort », « Etat sous-développé », « Etat sur-développé », « Etat gendarme »6, « Etat
historien », « Etat théologien »�, etc. Qu’il s’agisse du monopole de la force publique
légitime, de la capacité de pénétration ou d’extraction, ou de la capacité de régulation
des comportements, le bilan de l’Etat postcolonial est très contrasté dans ses caractérisations quantitatives et qualitatives, structurelles et fonctionnelles. L’omniprésence de
l’appareil étatique et son impuissance à créer des conditionnalités de construction de
sociétés démocratiques et de production de ressources nécessaires ont conduit à la recherche d’une voie alternative. Le modèle « unitariste » de l’Etat proposé par l’Occident
visait une réduction institutionnelle cohérente du dispositif social et religieux.
Ecclésiologie et sotériologie : une vision théologico-politique Dieu et César
La configuration de l’espace politique dans les sociétés politiques modernes reconnaît à chaque institution son lieu de perception de la vie civile. En ce qui concerne
le rapport entre religion et politique, cette reconnaissance est souvent définie par une
5
Lire E. Le Roy, « L’introduction du modèle européen de l’Etat en Afrique francophone : logiques et
mythologiques du discours juridique », in Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch et A. Forest, eds., Décolonisation et nouvelles
dépendances, Lille, PUL, 1984, p. 81-122.
6
Médard, « L’Etat patrimonialisé », 27.
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Dieu, César et Tribu
formule proverbiale, reprise en manière de raccourci, qui veut que chacun se mêle
de ses affaires : « Rendez à César ce qui est à César et à Dieu ce qui est à Dieu » (Marc
12, 17). Une telle attitude relève d’une conception trop fonctionnelle du politique. La
distinction entre Dieu et César appelle certainement une sérieuse analyse. Car si on ne
peut ignorer que l’homme qui veut servir son pays au poste le plus élevé est d’abord
un homme véritable, on doit lui reconnaître la capacité de faire émerger des convictions
profondes dont certaines peuvent être spirituelles.
En tant que composante de la société civile, l’Eglise et tous ceux qui en incarnent
la symbolique participent de la dynamique de la société démocratique fondée sur
l’ouverture. Cette tâche d’accompagnement signifie que l’institution religieuse fait partie
de la communauté politique au sein de laquelle elle s’efforce de maintenir le plaidoyer
en faveur d’une société juste et démocratique. Les élections, en l’occurrence, doivent
ouvrir la voie à une telle aspiration. Comme l’écrit P. Valadier, les religions «ne seront
pas un pouvoir rival ou ‘complémentaire’, encore moins supérieur, elles proposeront leur
message, comme message de vie, créateur d’un lien social et porteur d’un avenir qu’une
démocratie tend toujours plus ou moins à oublier au profit des sollicitations immédiates ». Voilà pourquoi la distinction entre Dieu et César ne peut s’interpréter comme
une opposition entre le religieux et le politique.
« Sans cette souveraineté, écrit P. Valadier, on ne sortirait pas de la ‘condition naturelle’ où chacun juge de son bien et par conséquent s’oppose à la conception qu’autrui
se fait de son propre bien »7. Cette justification de la souveraineté de l’Etat ne rompt pas
totalement les liens avec la religion.
Eglise, sacrement de salut
La compréhension de l’Eglise comme sacrement s’explique pratiquement dans la
manière dont sont institués les sacrements en son sein. Cette institutionnalisation commence avec la caractérisation sacramentaire du « mystère de Dieu » dans son œuvre de
rédemption. Le symbole de cette rédemption reste, pour nous, le sang et l’eau sortis du
côté transpercé du Christ en croix (Jn 19, 34).
La prise de conscience de l’Eglise comme étant liée intimement à l’histoire du
salut la rend totalement participante de cette œuvre dans l’humanité. W. Kasper est
souvent revenu sur ce lien intime entre le Christ et l’Eglise. Pour lui, la notion d’Eglise
sacrement prend en compte la distinction entre le Christ et l’Eglise. Voir l’Eglise exclusivement comme le sacrement du Christ ou la continuation du Christ incarné ne rend
pas suffisamment la dépendance de l’Eglise au Christ. L’Eglise serait une « hypostase
quasi-mythologique »8.
Cela ne doit pas effacer le sens du Christ présent en son Eglise. Lorsqu’on applique
à l’Eglise la notion de sacramentalité, on vise par ce fait même la conjonction du Christ
et de la communauté croyante. Il ne s’agit pas de « transactions individuelles », comme
dit A. Dulles9, mais bien plus. Il s’agit de reconnaître que l’Eglise devient, par la grâce,
porteuse du sens du Christ en tant que « sacrement de la rencontre avec Dieu » (E.
7
Paul Valadier, « Permanence du théologico-politique. Politique et religion, de nouvelles donnes », Recherche
de Sciences Religieuses 94/4 (2006) : 550.
8
Walter Kasper, Glaube und Geschichte( Mainz: Matthias-Gründwald, 1970): 294.
9
Avery Dulles, Models of the Church ( New York/London/Toronto/Sydney/Auckland: Doubleday, 1987):
67.
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Yvon Christian Elenga, S.J.
Schillebeeckx). « L’Eglise est ici bas le sacrement de Jésus-Christ, comme Jésus-Christ
lui-même est pour nous, dans son humanité, le sacrement de Dieu »10. Ainsi comprise,
la sacramentalité unit profondément l’Eglise au Christ. C’est précisément à travers
l’Eucharistie que l’Eglise porte sa sacramentalité à sa source. L’Eglise est « un sacrement
qui parle »�. En retour, l’Eucharistie, dans le mystère qu’il révèle est essentiellement un
événement christologique et ecclésiologique.
S’il est vrai qu’il n’est pas d’existence humaine sans fibre spirituelle, on peut légitimement s’interroger sur la corrélation entre spirituel et le temporel. Comment vivre
un idéal politique sans âme ou se passionner d’une spiritualité désincarnée ? Jusqu’où
peut-on aller lorsqu’on sait les risques d’un fanatisme subversif ou d’un populisme instrumentalisant ? Il est bien de l’ordre du religieux de souhaiter et de prier pour qu’en
travaillant à ce monde qui passe, l’homme songe au monde qui ne passe pas. Vouloir
éloigner la dimension spirituelle du domaine politique serait exposer la conscience
collective à la manipulation des volontés citoyennes.
C’est dans cette sphère que le « monde vécu » en privé est convoqué pour faire
partie du consensus tant recherché. Trois aspects de ce monde vécu peuvent servir
d’indicateur d’interprétation. D’abord la culture. Qu’elle soit religieuse, politique ou
philosophique, la culture prépare chacun à disposer d’une suite d’informations lui permettant d’interpréter la pratique du quotidien. Il y a ensuite la société en tant que cadre
légitime au sein duquel les individus affichent leur appartenance. Là encore, religieuse,
politique ou philosophique, cette appartenance privée ne se porte pas sous cape. Elle
est un trait d’identité. Enfin, la personnalité. Elle s’expose dans la parole et l’action pour
montrer ses compétences et ses performances.
C
onclusion: Le parcours proposé ici nous a replacés au cœur du mystère de l’Eglise
fondé en Jésus Christ. La portée spirituelle et l’implication historique de cette
reconduction insistent sur celui qui est le fondement de ce mystère. A travers
l’exposition des paradigmes que sont la réconciliation, la justice et la paix, on n’a pas
pour autant épuisé ce mystère. Mais ce qui s’offre à l’analyse est d’abord et avant tout le
sens de l’Eglise, dans sa vocation et sa mission. Elle ne leur est fidèle que parce qu’elle
tient à porter le mystère du Christ dans le monde. Elle devient ainsi sacrement de celui
qui l’institue dans sa sacramentalité, le Christ. On comprend dès lors que, réconciliée
avec le Christ, l’Eglise devient le sacrement de la réconciliation ; unie au Christ, elle est
le sacrement de la communion ; appelée à proclamer la Parole, elle est le sacrement qui
parle. Il ne saurait en être autrement car le service de Dieu s’accomplit dans le monde.
Plus concrètement encore, la Deuxième Assemblée Spéciale pour l’Afrique du Synode des Evêques a permis de situer la sacramentalité de l’Eglise au cœur de la vie de
l’Eglise. Sa mission irremplaçable s’en trouve réaffirmée dans sa double fidélité : fidélité
à Dieu et fidélité à l’homme. Voilà pourquoi dans le témoignage vécu et dans la Parole
partagée, le vrai sacrement de la réconciliation, de la justice et de la paix demeure le
peuple de Dieu. Il constitue tout à la fois le lieu de la manifestation, et la médiation
historique. On peut donc penser l’œuvre historique de salut comme relevant de Dieu,
exercée dans la cité politique par César, et proclamée par le tribun.
10
Henri de Lubac, Méditation sur l’Eglise (Paris : Aubier, 1953), 157.
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By Wilson Waweru, AA
A
bstract: The name “Wanjiku” in its ordinary Kenyan usage represents the unprofessional, marginalized and voiceless people who have worthwhile life-experiences to
contribute to the life’s banquet but whose ideas never reach the discussions board
room. For my case here, Wanjiku would represent the humble Christians at Ndaragwa
Catholic Parish in Nyahururu Diocese of Central Kenya whom I interviewed in February
2011 to know who they say Jesus is to them. It is clear from them that they have tried to
“name Jesus” in a personal way which facilitates their encounter with God. I have tried
to present their contribution as faithfully as I could, though I knit the fabric of their unity
of thought in my own artistic way.
I
ntroduction: The main intention for this paper was to demonstrate that “Wanjiku” has
something to offer to the scholars who grapple with the question of African Theology
and African Christologies. Her input is not so much scholarly but one of spontaneity from her contextual daily life upon which Christological scholars could base their
reflection and evaluation in order to construct an Orthodox Christological paradigm.
Most of the articles we come across in the journals and reviews present to us scholars
flexing their academic muscles of their intellectual prowess and even at times engaging
in hair-splitting arguments that can never bring food at table.
The work of scholars in some such articles is at times so high a speculation that only
appeals to the mind but unfortunately defying the gravitational law of falling: “decanting
in the heart”. The writings of such scholars often present to us their mind and rarely their
hearts. In the contrary; their intended audience, incarnated in “Wanjiku”, lives from the
heart unnecessarily perturbed by great intellectual jargons that are the object of these
scholars. This explains the disparity between the scholars’ speculations that remain in
the comfort zones of the library shelves and Wanjiku’s treasured integral experience,
not lived from the library shelves but often never get there due to the feeling of fear
and prejudice that it could not stand the test of time and fire.
The findings are presented as they were received with the hope that they may
become raw materials for the scholars for further reflection and analysis. This partly
explains why this paper may not seem so academic and thus a long list of bibliography
is absent as it is the case of other scholarly papers. The main reference is the Christians’
lived experience and their conceptions of Jesus are organized under six subtitles. As
such, the bibliography is the people’s response as synthesized in the presentation. In
order to put these models of Jesus in to perspective, I will give a general overview of
enterprise of Theology and the question of God in Africa, the African concept of God
and then elucidate theology as an anthropological endeavour after which I will give a
conclusion.
*Wilson is an Augustinian of the Assumption from Kenya, currently studying theology at the Jesuit
School of Theology, Hekima College-Nairobi.
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Wilson Waweru, AA
The Question of God in Africa
The God question in Africa is ineluctable for the African at the face of agitating
problems of the origin and the purpose of the universe in which he/she lives, the meaningfulness of life and the threat of death: whether natural or artificial. The question of
the existence and nature of the operation of the Supreme Being (God) has perturbed
humankind down the history: the primitive and the civilized alike. Man (generic),
however primitive he/she may be realizes his/her insufficiency from which he/she is
compelled to inaugurate a project in search for fulfillment outside himself/herself, either
in another creature or in the Supreme Being.
Other created realities are limited in as much as they cannot meet all the needs or
the full realization of man/woman. For this reason, it would be metaphysically repugnant to resign in to a being lesser than the self as one looks for the meaning of life.
Similarly, it would be senseless to empty the self in to an equal since there will be no
substantial change and no rational being can spend resources and energies for such a
project. The exteriorization of the desire for perfection and security plunge him into the
inevitable belief in gods or God. It is worth mentioning that the teleology of this project
on contextual theology and African Christology is not towards futility.
Most Africans have the concept of an Immanent and Transcendent God whose
presence is felt in their midst: though invisible. Others have a notion of a hidden God
who lives far away from men operating through gods and spirits by the principle of
subsidiarity. Such a God, for them, acts in person only under extreme necessity. The
Mende of Sierra Leone believes that God retired into the heavens after creation due to
the nuisance of man and has little to do with the world now.1 The gods act in proxy
to represent such a God to whom the people look upon as more close, friendly and
concerned.
The existence of God is neither self-evident nor obvious for most Africans. The
knowledge about his being is immediate either by reflection on the universe or passed
down through myths. Children come to know about God from their parents and elders
from their earlier days as they learn to speak. The God question in Africa has been
influenced by external factors, for instance, other world Religions and Philosophies
from ancient times.
Ancient trade centers in North Africa have brought together peoples of different
convictions, which have doubtlessly created an impact on the African and his view
about God. The question of migration of the African has influenced the worldview since
he has battled against various geographical conditions in that process. This may have
affected, modified or perhaps made him forget some of his beliefs. A transformation
from migrating to a settled lifestyle could also bring about a shift in the notion of God.
Some of the oldest concepts of God or gods can be traced from the earliest Centers of
Civilization in Africa that include Egypt, Sudan and Abyssinia. They came about either as
a result of parallel inventions and discoveries or cultural diffusion from one community
to the other in the course of interaction and cultural interchange.
The Africans in history have encountered the Hebrews, the founders of the Jewish
religion, and this has left an indelible mark in the African culture. Christianity is thought
to have arrived in Africa around the year 42 AD. Traditions hold that St. Mathew is
1
Geoffrey Parrinder, African Mythology (London: Paul Hamlyn, 1967), 34.
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believed to have evangelized Abyssinia while Mark is believed to have evangelized
Alexandria. However, reliable evidence fixes it at around 180 AD.2 During the infancy
of the Islamic Religion, some adherents escaped as refugees to a Christian Kingdom in
Abyssinia under King Negus in the year 613 AD.3 These examples are meant to express
how difficult it is to talk of a purely African concept of God.
Despite all this, there is the original idea of God (Substratum) upon which all these
foreign ideologies become inherent. There is only ONE GOD. Nevertheless, God is experienced differently depending on the diverse dispositions people have towards him.
By way of analogy, the scientists patiently kneel to study the laws of nature with the
hope it unfolds itself before their eyes while the Christians contemplate God instead
for Him to manifest Himself to them. The great difference between the naturalists and
the Christians is that the former all the way alone towards their desperation but the latter have God walk two thirds the way to meet them. He makes the initiative to reveal
Himself to the seeker and grants the necessary grace to venture into this pilgrimage.
This, therefore, implies that the task ahead of me is to complement Wanjiku’s view of
God, seen through an African eye and bringing out the factors that contributed to her
perspective of approaching God and God’s descent to meet man.
The Africans’ Ideas about God
The idea of God is indigenous to the Africans. He is a real person to them. Their
experience of God is conditioned by geographical factors, social set-ups, cosmic forces,
catastrophes, epidemics and daily occurrences. In each African community, there is a
specific local name for God that implies His Transcendence though there is the possibility of other subordinate names besides this one.
This God is believed to be the creator of the universe. He has absolute control over
all creatures. He is unreachable since His abode is thought to be beyond the skies. His
Transcendence and Immanence, however, could paradoxically be reconciled with His
ever presence, ever active and ever acting character in the universe.4 According to most
Africans, God is unique and incomparable to the gods, spirits or ancestors. These subordinate forces are depicted as dependent on God. Their difference is explicit in times of
sacrifices and worship to which the Supreme Being received a greater share and more
reverence than these subordinate deities. The unique nature and incomprehensibility of
God is evident since there was seldom a representation of him in images or carvings in
spite of their expertise in art and craft that have earned them the plaudits of foreigners.
God was thought to live in a place contiguous to the furthest an African’s mind can
extend or ascend, though this neither implies God’s non-existence nor His withdrawnness. Though most Africans were polytheistic, they conceived of a Being who was at
the apex of the Spiritual realities surrounded them. They were thought to assist God
in the administration of the universe: Him being the Commander. God was not to be
pestered with, they thought, which forced them to seek for the mediatory function of
their ancestors, spirits and other deities to avoid offending Him unnecessarily.
Thomas P. Neill, History of the Catholic Church (Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1957), 29.
Bandru D. Kateregga, Islam and Christianity: A Muslim and a Christian Dialogue (Nairobi: Uzima Press,
1997), 42.
4
E. Bolaji Idowu, African Tradition Religion (NY: Orbis Books Maryknoll, 1973), 137.
2
3
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Wilson Waweru, AA
God was seen as an absolute and perfect King in communities whose political setups were in the form of Chiefdoms, Monarchies or Kingdoms. To arrive at God’s reality,
they ascended from tangible and physical realities (Kings, Chiefs or Monarchs) to the
intangible and Spiritual reality: God. He was understood as the Being who epitomized
a hierarchy of administration. This for instance, influenced the people of West Africa to
formulate a proverb that states: There is no King as God.5
He is believed to control the universe; its cosmic forces, epidemics and catastrophes. This made the Africans to appease him to secure harmony in the universe. They
looked upon him with awe thereby attributing to him works that superseded human
capacities. The Agikuyu, for instance, have a proverb denoting this which goes: Mwaki
wa Ngai uraragio ni igoto.6 This proverb can literary be translated as God’s fire keeps
aglow throughout the night with a dry banana bark. He is a Benevolent Deity to the
Africans who readily accepted them when they sought reconciliation with him, following their disobedience.
Theology as an Anthropological Endeavour
Theology as a discipline of knowledge is a human endeavour that is done within a
certain context. The environment in which one doing theology lives is quite important
since God cannot be experienced in a vacuum. This implies that human analogies borrowed from one’s context will be quite vital in building a viable theology. What we live
daily or we even fear to approach determines how we venture to unfold the mystery
of creation that envelops us. Human beings stand in awe before the mystical powers in
the creation and would make all efforts to tap and tame them for their use in order to
ensure their security. This implies that the intimacy with which one is linked with his
or her surroundings, the closer one is linked with the creator of these surroundings.
Similarly, the closer one is to the creator, the better he or she understands him/herself
and inserts him/herself well in the universe.
One who thinks of doing a relevant theology in Africa must think in the terms the
sacred places, sacred times, sacred people and the like. The geographical situationing is
vital in this task because it provides the resources for theologizing. Most of the Africans
have a concept of a mountain God and most of their sanctuaries are located in these
places. It is from these mountains that people get analogies to represent God like the
snow and ice to depict his purity. The Agikuyu of Central Kenya believed in Ngai (God)
who is the creator and giver of all things, he who has no father or mother, and has no
origin of any kind. He is Transcendent; living in the “skies” though he has temporary
homes on earth situated on the four cross- designed Mountains within the Gikuyu Land.7
They also call God Mwene Nyaga which literary translates the owner of the snow. For
Africans living in the mountainous surroundings, their relationship with God will take
these orientations. This would mean that they have to protect their ecosystem since any
action contrary to this is interpreted as a direct attack against God.
Theology in Africa is also influenced by seasons because the rituals performed in
the activities proper to these seasons give a peculiar understanding of God. Planting,
7
5
6
Geoffrey Parrinder, African Mythology, 31.
G. Barra, 1000 Kikuyu Proverbs (Nairobi: K.L.B., 1998) ,118.
Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya (Nairobi: Heinemann, 1938), 233-236.
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weeding, and harvesting events were celebrated differently just like birth, initiation,
marriage and death were esteemed differently. Drought or an epidemic sends a different impulse to the people and they have to respond differently to God from the way
they would respond as in the case of a child’s birth. Sickness impacts the casualty in
a particular way and influences one’s relationship with God and the others. It means
therefore that a person who theologizes after a sick spell will do it differently from the
one who has enjoyed health all through. This determines to what extent a people will
understand God as a healer and his medium as a medicine man. In all these adventures,
God is experienced differently and therefore the theology that arises is also different.
When the Africans were going out to war with their neighbours or even to raid their
animals and women, they had to perform various rituals including abstinence from sex
which determined their victory or defeat. This was deeply ingrained in their theology
and anyone who contravened these requirements could not be allowed to participate in
these events. In case the transgression was severe, they could be punished by excommunication from the community or worse still by execution.
Human beings have different personalities which inspire the sort of the thought
patterns they are inclined to. Angry people will relate to God in an aggressive way
while jovial people will relate him in an endearing way. As a result of this, different
ideas about God emerge and this contributes to the formation of a people’s theology.
Closely related to this is the age of the one doing theology. A young person who has
a lot of possibilities and energies will relate differently from an old man/woman who
is in the “college of death” preparing to go the way of the ancestors soon. One very
close to death may regret over wasted years or may be grateful for the achievements
attained which means what he/she formulates as a theology will be consequent of these
experiences. The young will have the concept of a very powerful God who is capable
of doing everything just as their ambition is.
Models of Jesus the Christ in Africa
Jesus is a foreigner in African Traditional Religion in the mere use of the terms
from a missionary point of view. However, as God and as the Second Person of the
Most Holy Trinity, he has always been in Africa: known or unknown since creation.
To inflate this assertion, I borrow St. Paul’s words in which he says: ‘Men of Athens, I
have seen for myself how extremely scrupulous you are in all religious matters, because
I noticed, as I strolled round admiring your sacred monuments, that you had an altar
inscribed: To An Unknown God. “Well, the God whom I proclaim is in fact the one you
already worship without knowing it.” (Acts 17:23). This calls for justice from my point
of view as I attempt this investigation of Jesus the Christ from an African perspective.
Jesus the Christ defies our law of anthropological anachronism and what I talk
about him as received from the Missionaries still apply even before they brought this
idea to us. Jesus as the man of history once came to Africa as a refugee when Herod
was hunting him down to kill him. He related with the Africans in a specific way and
in particular, Simon the Cyrene helped him to carry the cross in his most vulnerable
moment. To construct an African Christology, we need to solicit ideas from what we
know of the Jesus of history and human experiences among the Africans that would
have a Christological dimension. This means that I will attempt constructing both an
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Wilson Waweru, AA
Ascending and a Descending Christology. I got an opportunity to go to our village while
writing this paper and I collected the various images of Jesus that people down there
have about Jesus. I will use these ideas to construct “Wanjiku’s African Christology”.
Christ as a Relative
Jesus the Christ has been introduced to us as a guest who is here to live among us
forever. When he became God Incarnate, he accepted to become incarnate in all cultures
at all times in all places. There are Africans who would regard him as a family member
or an elder. They give him attributions as the patron of the lonely, the neglected, the
unloved and the outcast. This is because an elder or a family member has to take care
of the vulnerable and weak members as their defense. There are those who see him as
the beloved son of the owner of the home or the first born of an esteemed elder and
thus an heir of the family property. Jesus from the scripture has been presented to us
as the heir of all that belongs to the Father.
There are others who would consider Jesus as their elder brother which flows from
the trust they invest in their elder brothers who are their instructors, source of inspiration
and models. There are those who go a step further and regard Jesus as the child of their
mother attributing no gender to Jesus and thus he is seen as either male or female. He
is looked upon as a bread winner and there are those who are too allegorical to refer
to him as family pot in which they cook and distribute food from for the nourishment
of the family. Here he gets the title: the life animator in the family.
Jesus the Christ as a Faithful Friend
In a world where people live as casualties of betrayed relations or foiled love, the
Africans think of taking recourse to a strong and immutable foundation upon which
they can build their love relationships. He takes the image of an honest intimate friend
who can never betray them. They therefore look at Jesus as a real person who enters
into relations with people and loves unconditionally more than any other human being.
He takes the place of a dear spouse to inspire the faithful since he is the most faithful
person and consoles those who have been betrayed.
As a faithful friend, he accompanies the people in their trouble, sufferings and frustrations. From this perspective, they regard him as their other self who has feet, body,
eyes, ears, hands and walks with them wherever they go. He is seen to participate in
their daily lives to the point of removing the cooking pot from the fire place with the
cook safely, cutting fodder for their animals with them protecting them from snake bites,
washes utensils with them and walks guarding them and their children from all dangers.
He is also seen to compliment the little efforts they make in their lives. This makes them
feel his strong presence in their lives and they are comfortable calling Jesus their life.
Jesus the Liberating and Supportive Leader
Most of the people spoken to during my research indicated that we are all looking for liberation from, liberation for and liberation with. We find ourselves in different modes of captivity and we can only be truly human when we are fully saved and
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liberated. We are weak and we require firm support from a loving person whom in
this case we are calling Jesus. He comes to us in Africa as a helper of all times in all
our needs. In the process of liberating from our captivity, he sets us free from our tiny
prisons of selfishness, the snares of our enemies and diabolic inclinations and acts as
a true caretaker who guides and directs us into recreating freedom. He also looks for
the lost and brings them back to the sheep’s fold for security against the rapacious and
ravenous wolves. After this liberation, he empowers the liberated for a mission with
others through acts of wonder.
Jesus ensures that his projects do not collapse by supplying unfailing support to
his co-workers since he is their constant benefactor. He does this by transforming their
interior lives since he is deep seated in the throne of their consciences making it a
sanctuary from where they make their decisions. He keeps a watchful eye like a good
shepherd on those he has liberated so that they may not precipitate themselves to their
former condition. He walks alongside them being their source of hope and as their
confidante guardian tutelage and tutors them as they walk on the way of righteousness.
As a matter of fact, it is he who makes them rise every day, sustains them, nourishes
them and makes them capable of every good work. To this extent, he is perceived as
the owner of all that they are, all that they have, all they do and all that they desire
since he is at the same time their provider and sustainer.
Moreover, he identifies and fulfills their needs. In case of danger, he drives it away
from their door posts and he becomes their refuge and a fortress that is dependable
since he has never and can never let them down. He is counted upon as a warrior,
bodyguard, security and an assurance who defends them in all instances and assures
them security from all the four corners from which the winds of tribulations blow. As
an expert warrior, he arrests, breaks and diverts all the arrows shot at them by their
detractors. He is seen as one who fights their battles and who fights alongside them
when they are attacked. By fighting for the oppressed he becomes the voice of the
voiceless. For the landless, he is viewed as the compassionate land owner who can
divide it among the squatters as generously as he wills.
He offers a shoulder for them to lean on and cry upon when they are weak, helpless and frustrated from when he cajoles them since at this point he acts as their solace
and comforter. After such a spell, he sets them free from all sorts of anguish and renews
their strength daily. For those who truly depend on Jesus, he expands their territory
which is an expression of the prosperity that goes with those who trust and wait upon
him. He does all this with the aim of giving them the indispensible peace that cannot
be received from any other source. This brings them blessings, good tidings and makes
their farms productive.
Other images of Jesus are drawn from the compound of an African. The gate is a
very important thing for an African and basically in many cultures. The gate is symbolic
as to who enters through it and who is not allowed to pass through it. Jesus in Africa
is regarded as the firm gate of their lives. He determines who he allows to enter into
their compound and who he denies that entry. He also becomes the gate that offers a
way out when they reach the dead ends of their lives. When Africans are pressed to
the corner and they have no one to turn to, they look at Jesus as their faithful and wise
advocate who pleads their cause.
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Wilson Waweru, AA
Jesus the Christ: The Messenger Guiding his People in the Light
There are Africans who associate Christ with light particularly the sun and, in our
days, the candle. He is seen as the unfading sun that enlightens every morning with
good news and gives the people a new purpose of living even when it appears insensible to attempt living another day. He comes to us as the bearer of wise counsel from
the Father which becomes the food for his lost and found sheep. Those who live in
darkness of hatred and life denying lifestyles can never claim to have experiences this
true light. The upright Africans do not do worthwhile activities in the dark for instance
eating since it is thought that the evil spirits can possess you through the food eaten in
the dark. He is for them their light and master.
Jesus is highly regarded and consulted when the Africans want to make life determining decisions. He is considered as the source of inspiration for any good intended
act. Even further, he is seen as the path maker where there are none and the path finder
for the lost. He is always there for them to protect them from all the temptations and
deliver them from their effect if they are overcome. He performs the role of a teacher
to instruct them in the way of righteousness: the path of wisdom. He, at the same time,
enlightens their conscience. This is why some of them call him their formator in the
school of love, faith and hope. This implies that he gives them hope for a better future.
In case they tend to forget their relationship with Jesus and its demands, he is always
there to remind them.
Jesus the Dependable Neighbour
Jesus is regarded as a trustworthy neighbour who is always there to complement the
needs of the poor village mates. He never keeps grudges like the worldly neighbours
when livestock stray in to their gardens but he is the one who takes the initiative to
forgive and forgive unconditionally. He is long-spirited to the frail and he is not hasty
in judging them. He is there to arbitrate in case of any dispute and ensures that each
one gets his/her rightful due. Due to his availability and readiness to fulfil his promises
some Africans call him “The one who says and does.”
Jesus the Healer
Jesus has been referred to as the “Most Awesome” who cannot even be named.
This attribute comes from their experience of him since they have cried to him in times
of pestilence and plagues and he has cured them. He is called by a personal name:
“my healer”. As a medicine man, he is seen to suffer with the sick and offers his life as
a sacrifice for the healing of those who suffer. He cures the sick so that he can entrust
them with a mission to fulfil. That is the reason why some Africans call him the constant
caller and the mission giver. His greatest mission is perceived as oriented to bring recovery to all the sick of all kinds. He is believed to share his healing power with those
who are in good terms with him.
C
onclusion: This paper aimed at presenting Wanjiku’s contribution to contextual
theologies and African Christologies in order to show how relevant she is to scholars today. I wanted to demonstrate that theology is an anthropological activity
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where we talk about God with the help of our language and analogies. By doing so,
we only show what God is not, since we cannot comprehend him and what we say
about him is merely limited to human parameters. I make use of the created world to
support “Wanjiku” considerations as she demonstrates the reality of the creator who is
the source of this universe. Consequently, I affirm with her that God is not a monopoly
of any culture and therefore, theology being an event and an experience of God, any
culture is capable of having its peculiar theology.
Concerning “Wanjiku’s” view about African Christologies, I synthesize what I received from her and in turn employ common models applied to Jesus to show that what
Jesus does is only by attribution. I pick important attributes that Africans highly praise for
one who has concern for the society and I predicate this to Jesus. In as much as I would
endear to construct an African Christology without reference to the Bible, it would be
a project to futility since the prime source of Christology is the Scripture. Nevertheless,
I am conscious that Jesus, being God-With-Us, is trans-cultural and what is said about
him in the Jewish culture as recorded in the Bible can be said of him in any culture.
Nevertheless, if the above wisdom would only be taken at the horizontal or rational
level only, we would end up formulating a very beautiful androchristodicy that is not
sufficient for salvation. We shall be trying to create Christ in our image and likeness
which will turn out to be a mirage project vanishing into a parallax. From a vertical
point of view, which is from a faith perspective, we need to internalize these concepts
in faith so that they can become life-giving. We need to integrate both dimensions to
have a life giving Christology. That is why I had the audacity to attempt at constructing
an African Christology because I am convinced that it is a possible project.
Bibliography
Adegbola, E. A. Ade. ed., Traditional Religion in West Africa, Nairobi, Uzima Press Ltd., 1983.
Ayisi, Eric O., An Introduction to the Study of African Culture, Nairobi, East African Publishers,
1992.
Bahemuka, Judith M., Our Religious Heritage, Nairobi, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., 1983.
Barra, G., 1000 Kikuyu Proverbs, Nairobi, K.L.B., 1971.
Barret, David B., Ed., African Initiatives in Religion, Nairobi, East African Publishing House, 1971.
Bruquet, A. C., Comparative Religions, Middlesex, Penguin Books, 1958.
Idowu, Bolaji E., African Traditional Religion, New York, SCM, Press Ltd., 1973.
Jahn, Jenheinz, Muntu: An Outline of Neo- African Culture, Faber and Faber Ltd., 1961.
Kateregga, Bandru D., Islam and Christianity in Dialogue, London, Uzima Press Ltd., Nairobi, 1997.
Kenyatta, Jomo, Facing Mount Kenya, Nairobi, Heinemann, 1938.
Metuh, Emefie I., God and Man in African Religion, London, Geoffrey Chapman, 1981.
Mugambi, Jesse, African Religious Heritage, Nairobi, Oxford University Press, 1976.
Neill, Thomas P., History of the Catholic Church, Milwaukee, Bruce Publishing Company, 1957.
Nyamiti, Charles, African Tradition and the Christian God, Eldoret, Gaba Publications, 1977.
Parrinder, Geoffrey, African Mythology, London, Paul Hamlyn, 1967.
______________ African Traditional Religions, London, S.P.C.K., 1962.
Ranger, T. O., Historical Study of the African Religion, Nairobi, Heinemann, 1973.
Shorter, Aylward, Prayer in the Religious Traditions of Africa, Nairobi, Oxford University Press, 1975.
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The Church as Family in Africa: A Renewed Debate and
Modern Challenge to Christianity
By Etienne Mborong, SJ*
A
bstract: Problematizing the idea of church as family in Africa today is inevitable
in an African ecclesiology. The concept of “family” is both a hermeneutical key
for inculturaltion and also a model of being church in Africa. Going from the
person of Jesus Christ, the Ujamaa and Palaver models of church as family can be
developed and lived in such a way that the church becomes a locus for dialogue, healing – physical and spiritual – and an active protagonist of sustainable development. It
is also a place for education through the word and the ear. Nevertheless, this church is
challenged by an anthropological poverty, “la pauperisation anthropologique” which
justifies the misery in the church. The parish, a family of families, can be the place
where some of these challenges are met through sharing the joys and sorrows of the
day-to-day Christian calling.
I
ntroduction: The model of the church as family is one of the most striking and challenging images of the church. It is striking because it touches a fundamental reality of
the African context and challenging because this image remains like an eschatological
ideal to be reached, an already-but-not-yet foundation of the ecclesia in Africa. Yet, the
pertinence of this topic makes it necessary to re-launch the church as family1 model
debate in Africa. The Nigerian Bishop Albert Obiefuna in his speech in the Assembly of
the Bishops of Africa commonly called African Synod, made it clear that “the blood of
family and tribe was thicker than the water of baptism.” In this light, it seems important
to understand this conflict of ideas from an ecclesiological and spiritual perspective.
The synthesis given by Karl Rahner of the church and sacrament situates this debate
at its very threshold:
Christ is the primal sacramental word of God, uttered in the one history of mankind, in which
God made known his irrevocable mercy . . . and did this by effecting it in Christ and effected
it by making it known. [T]he Church is the continuance, the contemporary presence, of that
real, eschatologically triumphant and irrevocably established presence in the world, in Christ,
of God’s salvific will. The Church is the abiding presence of that primal sacramental word of
definitive grace, which Christ is in the world, effecting what is uttered by uttering it in sign2
1
Some readers may be tempted to say that it is an old debate that does not need to be raised again today.
This is quite true. But considering the present realities that continue to challenge the image of the family, we find
it necessary to revisit the question, not with the aim of providing solutions but simply attempting to understand the
reality to be integrated in the process of church-building in Africa. That is why the main objective of this paper is to
attempt a general exploration of this model by showing the possibilities of its realisation.
2
Karl Rahner, The Church and the Sacraments, trans. by W. J. O’Hara (TunbridgeWells, Burns & Oates
Publishers, 1986), 18. We can thus, proceed with a simple syllogism: if Christ is the primordial sacrament of God, and
the Church is the primordial sacrament of Christ, therefore the family (and all its members) is the primordial sacrament
of the Church. The spiral of God’s flows in this way to create an impact in our world and if any of these stages fail,
the structure and infrastructure of evangelisation will be interrupted. Thus, it is important that the smallest tissue the
sacramental universe, Church be considered with special attention. The family is the melting pot of all sacraments.
*
Etienne is a Cameroonian Jesuit, currently studying theology at Hekima College, Jesuit School of
Theology, Nairobi-Kenya.
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The Church as Family in Africa
This rahnerian definition of church is appropriate for our reflection here because it
permits us to go beyond the judicial perspective to a more theological understanding
of the church while situating this work at the heart of certain major terminologies such
as Christ, word, world. The theological perspective stands as the additional mark of the
church brought about by the Vatican II. This theology opens up further possibilities of
reflecting and building new conceptions of Church in Africa, church-as-family.
From another point of view, Jürgen Moltman, in his chef d’oeuvre The Crucified
Christ, presents the church as a sign of hope to the people. The church can only be
defined from its relation with its members and between the members themselves. Our
commitment in the church is meaningful only if it is born from a transcendental vision
and gives hope to the world. The church’s service in the world is aimed at transforming people and the cosmos. This image of the church is more relevant to the African
context. The community life of the African family reflected in its ecclesia is a sign of
hope to the people. Despite the critics we may give to the missionaries who founded
the early African church, there is this element of physical hope they gave to the Africans
in times of sicknesses, diseases, famine, drought, catastrophes. Africans would always
run to the church in times of difficulties with the hope of being saved from the situation they were going through. It is thus important to start by seeing the foundational
principles of African family that are identified to the Church.
Fundamentals of African Family
There are certain fundamental issues about the African conception of family that
are important to have in perspective as we seek to portray the image of the church in
Africa as family. Though the Vatican council defines family as the domestic sanctuary
of the Church,3 there are still some disparities with the African conception of family4.
The African concept of family is different from the western concept where family is
conceived only in the nuclear sense. This difference can be seen in the definition of
the family as constituted of father, mother and child(ren).5 The concept of family in the
African context is larger than the three-fold western concept. There are many things
that make Africans to consider themselves as members of the same family; blood pact,
other forms of alliances or brotherhood/sisterhood, traditional initiation, villagers or
communities drinking from the same spring.6 The African family goes beyond the world
of the living or the physical world, in the western concept of the term. An African family
include “the living, dead and the not-yet-born.”7 In this way, the idea “extended family”
or “enlarged family” has no meaning in an African context. It is important to note that
marriage is the official institution that institutes a family but there are other bonds that
Apostolicam Actuositatem, n° 11.
There may be an exception in some urban areas where westernisation and post-modernisation, through the
powerful hand of globalisation are seriously off-rooting the cultural and traditional values of peoples to impose the
values of one culture, the strong culture of capitalism. It is the culture that identifies globalisation, and wants to be the
culture to which all world citizens identified. The pluri-cultural societal defies the entry into globalisation with cultural
identities and values. The destruction of the notion-state and the proliferation of the one-media system have greatly
affected the cultural values of peoples especially the family. And African families, especially in the cities exposed to
the speed of globalisation are being badly hit.
5
6
Bénézet Bujo, Plea for change of Models for Marriage (Nairobi: Pauline publications Africa, 2009), 82.
7
Bujo, Plea for Change, 18.
3
4
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Etienne Mborong, SJ
can make African consider each other as brothers and sisters. It is thus not strange to
find someone who has as many mothers as the women of his/her village and of fathers
as the men can be counted.
The family in Africa is a community of members. The community is multi-facial:
the community is always both visible and invisible, this dimension is not limited to the
living; and the invisible community is not limited to the dead, but embraces the entire
“supraterestral” world including not only the spirit but God himself. In the African
conception therefore, the community is a totality, the whole of human sphere. It even
includes the cosmos. In this community, the human person is a “microcosm” within
the “macrocosm”8 that occupies a very important role there in. Thus, the concept of
community and of the African family is very broad though not vague. It is the place
where the living, meet with the living dead and the not-yet-born.
Another important aspect of the African family is that it is a solidary community.9
The African mentality of clan solidarity should always be taken with a critical hand.
The fundamental duty of the community to accompany the person, all the members of
the community from birth, throughout life, in initiation into adulthood, marriage, old
age and death, remains very significant in all African societies. The African sense of
community holds to the principle that: the person is a human being because the others
are and the community is10. In the element of African solidarity, all other elements are
represented or appear more clearly. If a member of the community is unwell or dying,
it is the community that is unwell and dying. The death, unlike in Europe and America,
are accompanied by the community till their last breath11. In some African cultures, for
instance among the Nso of western Cameroon, if a member of the community dies
alone without anybody to “close his/her eyes,”12 it is considered a curse to the whole
community that requires sacrifices to the ancestors. These fundamentals of African
familyhood identified in the church provide a ground for various forms the church in
Africa can embrace as a family of God’s children.
Models of the Church-As-Family
The Christ Model Of The Family
The most appropriate image of the family we get from the Scriptures is the image of Jesus’s family. Jesus’s conception of the family evolved over time, as he went
deeper into his mission and in the establishment of the kingdom. He did not content
himself with his divine familyhood but rather humbled himself to extend this divine
8
Engelbert Mveng, “Essai d’anthropologie negro-africaine,” in Bulletin de théologie Africaine n°1 (1979)
and also see Mveng in his L’Afrique dans l’Eglise: Paroles d’un croyant (Paris, 1985), 11.
9
Cfr Bénézet Bujo, The ethical dimensions of community: the African model and the dialogue between
north and south, chap 11, individual and community.
10
John S. Mbiti, in his African Religions and Philosophy (London: Heinemann, 1969) has a famous saying
about this aspect of individual and community; “I am because we are; and since we are, therefore I am.”
11
Bujo, The ethical dimensions of community, 21.
12
This is very symbolic to mean that there should be that presence and kind attention to accompany the
dying to the world of the dead. It is just like handing him/her over to the ancestors. Since a Nso man or woman in an
important journey does not travel alone, the community needs to journey with him/her to the doors of the other world
as a sign of respect not only for the dying but for the dead, the living and the not-yet-born. Some people may doubt if
these things of the African cultural values are not archaic but when cultural values become believes, they hardly leave
the person even at the heart of post-modernism.
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family life he shared with the Father and the Spirit, to the whole of mankind through
incarnation. This incarnation was made possible through the availability of a modest
family on Nazareth. When we read the texts well we have the impression that this
family started out of an arranged marriage, the normal procedure for marriage in most
African cultures. The fact that they were not accepted to stay in any of the houses in
Bethlehem, (to Heinz Schürmann, this does not mean refusal to hospitality by the people of Bethlehem) their own blood city, can metaphorically mean that their familyhood
was not going to be limited to any little geographical area but that it was going to be
a universal family. Furthermore, we find this family going on exile by force to Egypt in
Africa, still showing that the family was destined to be universal. Blood was not going
to be the link for Christianity but an adherence by spiritual conviction or other brotherhood/sisterhood alliances.
As Jesus grew up understand his mission and spreading the good news of the
Kingdom, he made this universal perspective clearer. To him, “anyone who does the
will of God, that person is my brother and sister and mother.” (Mark 3:35). Jesus “distances himself from it [his blood family] and in the process establishes a new concept
of family.”13 After his death, we will find many member of his so-called nuclear family
becoming members of the new Christian communities (Acts 1:14). In effect, Jesus’s
conception of the family will not be far from the African conception of family. The
African understanding of the small Christian community is an attempt to enter into this
model too; “A genuine family spirituality is developed that includes all people that
takes no account of origin, ethnic group, race or colour.”14 It is the place that unites
people around the Word of God, the word that gives meaning to the union and makes
the members break bread and also share life experiences together. It is the prophetic
and authentic evangelical community. Each encounter of such a family (ecclesia), is
a moment in which every member does his/her faith examination, expressing his/her
reactions including his/her health situation.15 In fact, it is the evangelical16 community.
Consequently, the foundation of church-as-family Christianity is the birthplace of every
other African family model of being church today including the Ujamaa.
The Ujamaa Model: A Familihood Of Faith-Doing-Development
Mwalimu Julius Nyerere17 developed the African model (theory) of family called
15
E. Vangu Vangu, Théologie Africaine et Calvaire des Peuples: la spiritualité africaine en questions (Paris :
L’Harmattan, 2008), 153.
16
By evangelical we mean here, the word proclaimed in the Holy Scripture, the tradition of the universal
Church, the historical and traditional reality of the community in question and the reality of the individual members
of the community. These all constitute the holistic gospel, or good news of the church family of God. More about the
church as evangelical family shall be discussed in the section dealing with the educational role of the family.
17
Son of Chief Nyerere Burito of the Wazanaki kingdom at Butiama, Julius Nyerere was born in 1922 around
Lake Victoria. He went to Makerere College in Uganda when he finished his primary education at Tabora. Before
leaving for his Masters of Arts degree at Edinburgh University, he taught at St. Mary’s School where he studied at
Tabora. He returned to the Trust Territory of Tanganyika in 1952 and started teaching in St. Francis’ School, Pugu,
near Dar Es Salaam. In July 1954 he drafted a constitution that led to the formation of the Tanganyika African National
Union (TANU) and was elected as its president. In 1955 and in 1956, he addressed the Trusteeship council of the UN,
asking freedom for his people and asking Britain to declare that Tanganyika was going to be a democratic state. As
an active agent of peace and non-violence, he accepted to be member of the Legislature in 1957. He worked hard for
the independence of Tanganyika, which at last came on December 9, 1961. Instead of holding on to power as head of
government, in January 1962, he resigned from this position. During this time he wrote his African Socialism, Uja13
14
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Etienne Mborong, SJ
Ujamaa from village level, to national and then continental levels. Ujamaa is the Swahili
term coined by Nyerere for his philosophy of African socialism which means, “familyhood”. According to him, “traditionally, we lived as families with individuals helping and
supporting each other on terms of equality…”18 the idea behind this model of family was
that other citizens were to be treated in the same way one treats the blood members of
one’s own family. This was to be the basis for socialist equality in a society where there
were to be no classes and in which there was no profiteering or taking of advantage of
another.19 This type of community is likened to the early Christian communities of the
Acts of the Apostles (4:32-35), which was probably the inspirational texts of Nyerere
given that he was also a very devoted Christian.
After freedom and unity of the people the first responsibility of the religious,
political or social leader and/or institution is to lead the people to self-fulfilment and
accomplishment in acts of development that protect and promote their dignity. The
primary duty of the community, of the Ujamaa model of Church is to build agents of
development20. Understanding the complexity of development, Mwalimu also proposes
a complex solution that leads to it. Development will not come from a unilateral solution
but from an involvement of all the means at the disposal of the community as family.
In his Education for Self-reliance (March 1967), Arusha Declaration (august 1967),
Socialism and Rural Development (September 1967), it can be noticed very clearly that
Mwalimu’s option is certainly for an integral development in which every member of the
community contributes his/her best and also enjoy the fruits of this work. In these texts
among others, coming out of poverty, ignorance, disease and death entails a structural
and durable solution rooted in the history and tradition of the people. The revitalisation of the traditional institution of Ujamaa, in which every member has a role to play,
however small or big, is the best way to respond to the needs and objectives of the
society. In the Arusha Declaration which could be considered as his political agenda,
Nyerere lays down the platform for the development of Tanzania. This platform seems
crucial to us not only to our African continent but as a scheme for development to the
Church as an agent of development and human promotion in Africa. The family plays
a very important role in this process of development:
• Development starts from within the community (family or Ujamaa)
• Wealth accumulation is always for human development realised in the Ujamaa
• For our development, we have to depend on ourselves and on our own resources
• Real development has to start with the family education that encourages selfreliance and creativity
• Sustainable development should not neglect agriculture (food security), the
back bone of development. Hunger has destabilised many families in Africa.
maa or Familyhood and worked out the Republican Constitution with party colleagues without any colonial power
intervention. On December 9, 1962, after the first ever universal adult suffrage that gave Nyerere 97% of the votes,
he became the first president of the Republic of Tanganyika, later to become Tanzania. During his mandate as head of
State, he worked without fatigue for nation-building and encouraged his citizens to put in all their effort and means to
sustain national unity and progress. Just like Jesus, Nyerere was called Mwalimu, which means in Kiswahili, teacher.
18
Julius Nyerere, Principles and Development (Dar es salaam: Government Printer, 1968), 8.
19
Julius Nyerere, Arusha Declaration, the spirit behind the declaration is to destroy social classes and to put
everyone at the same level.
20
Pope Paul VI, Populorum Progressio, definition of authentic development and its challenge for the Church,
No. 14.
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One thing that we can learn from Mwalimu’s Ujamaa is that the Church’s Christian
communities work like “vijijis”, small villages or families, where everybody knows
everybody else and cares for everybody and where everybody has something special
and particular to do for the construction of these “vijijis”. It shows a new way of ecclesiology. How can our Church be a big “kijiji” where the main actors are professional
in various human domains? We can thus perceive the type of familyhood the Church
should promote in Africa. Implying a courageous way of making the family a place
where the responsibility and true leadership spirit is formed with the feeling and sense
of the common good in mind. In this light, other models of family can be developed
from the Ujamaa family model.
An instance of other models of family can be seen from the development Orobator21 makes of the church. He brings a socio-political model of the church-as-family that
seeks to accomplish the social mission of the church. In this light he opens up new
possibilities of imagining the church in Africa and reinventing its social mission. The
African church’s way of being mission is as a community. The church as family “symbolise the new self-understanding of the church in Africa.”22 He goes on to analyse the
various crises, the “signs of time” this church should take into account. For the church
in Africa to be able to identify its mission today, it needs to be able to use its capacity
to discern together. This is the role of the palaver in the community.
Closely linked to the Ujamaa model is the Palaver model of church-as-family in Africa
which are all born from the evangelical community formed around the person of Christ.
The Palaver Family Model: A Sacramentally Reconciled African Community
The word palaver is pregnant not only with meaning but also with authority and
potential. The palaver can create or destroy the community.23 The verdicts of the palaver
in the African context have the power to give life or to take life. It is like a pharmacon
which can give life and also give death at the same time. The words of the palaver in
most African community are taken to be laws that have to be respected by the community. The palaver is a process, a kind of “chain logic” of question and response between
the speakers or interlocutors. Entering into the art of palaver is “setting out on a journey
of exploration.”24 It is expressed in various genre and forms. The intention here is to
explore only one of these genres necessary for the understanding of Church as family.
Sometimes the role of the palaver in the African church can be comparable to the
role of the magisterium in the church. The African palaver is not only ethically important
in the construction of the community but institutionally significant in the harmonisation
of powers in the community. The Palaver in the African context “enlightens the conscience” and “appeals to that conscience”25 guiding the human person to act correctly.
The palaver has a very vibrant and influential in most African communities. In fact,
the palaver is more like the conscience of the community that binds the community
21
A.E. Orobator, The Church as family: African ecclesiology in its Social Context (Nairobi: Paulines publications Africa, 1999)
22
A.E. Orobator, The Church as family, 12.
23
Bujo, Foundations of an African Ethic, 68.
24
Bujo, Foundations of an African Ethic, 76
25
Address of Pope John Paul II International Congress on Moral Theology, November 12, 1988, in The Pope
Speaks, 34, 1989, 99.
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Etienne Mborong, SJ
together irrespective of age, gender, social or traditional status and is not only rational
but involves other dimensions of human life.
The word palaver in English dictionaries or palabre in French dictionaries mean
useless, senseless and interminable discussion. According to BIDIMA26, a Cameroonian
philosopher, palabra in the African sense is a game of words that allows for application
and creativity; it also means conflict but not dispute as the colonialists understood it
to be. He thus develops ten types of palavers in the African context. To this Bujo adds
another type of palaver called the healing palaver, which “proceeds by means not of
argument but of dialogue… it must be called a community of healing dialogue.”27 The
palaver in these various dimension exercised in the African communities according to
various circumstances, plays a very important role revealing the word of God incarnated
in man’s words and vice versa, and thus, is the primordial arena for human and divine
encounter. Through the palaver, the African community plays a sacramental role of
sanctifying its members and through them sanctifies the church.
The palaver is an “efficient institutionalisation of communicative action. If an important decision is to be arrived at over matters that affect the people as community, the
wisest representatives of the people are called together for a palaver.”28 According to
Bujo, it is a group of “wise men” and we add that in most cases, it is constituted of wise
women and also some brave, courageous and respectful youths of the community. Among
the Fulbe in the North of Cameroon, the role of the women’s wing of the “palaver” is
very important. The wise men would not pronounce the final word without attentively
consulting with the women and the youth. In this way, the African element of palaver
in the community defies the conception that women are relegated to the background in
the African context. Unfortunately, important elements of the African community such
as the significant role played by the palaver are not usually taken into consideration
when important changes have to be taken concerning the structure of African societies.
The role of non-men groups such as women, young people and the incapacitated is
not neglected in the process of decision-making in all the palavers in African societies.
A good palaver inevitably consults with the non-”men” groups and lets their opinion
be heard in one way or another. In most cases, the western way of proceeding does
not consider this important element of the construction of African societies and thus
gives themselves the responsibilities of “restructuring” the African societies by “giving”
the Africans their rights violated by their traditional institutions. This false civilisation,
instead of curing and transforming conflicts, injures the African societal structures by
imposing from above artificial ready-made or one-size-fit-all structures that do not suit
in the African context. An historic example of this false civilisation is the “The Fourth
World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development and Peace” in Beijing,
4-15 September 1995. The irrelevance of this conference to most African communities
arises from the fact that its findings29 were very blanket views of decisions that did not
consider individual realities of the continent. In some places it is remembered today
26
Jean-Godefroy Bidima, Le Manuel des Palabres (Colonie de Côte d’Ivoire, 1915) Parole, Intersubjectivité et Contrôle, in Anales de Desclasificación / vol. 1 : La défaite de l’aire culturelle n° 1 / 2004. This document is
downloadable online: http://www.desclasificacion.org/pdf/Manuel%20des%20Palabres.pdf
27
Bujo, Foundations of an African Ethic, Beyond the Universal claims of Western Morality, trans. by Brian
McNeil (Nairobi: Paulines Publications Africa, 2001), 68.
28
Bujo, Ethical Dimensions, 36.
29
Fourth World Conference on Women, “Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action” (15 September 1995).
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only for its folkloric prints; African women among others came out in their colourful
African dresses. Their false objective to emancipate the African woman was not necessary because they had been preceded in that noble task by very structure of the African
societies they neglected in their plans. The African woman has an inviolable position
in the African society. Unfortunately, the church can sometimes be listed among the
types of false civilisations Africa has experienced. It is my intention in this reflection
to reconsider this positioning of the church, preoccupying myself with the task of recontextualising the church in the concept of family in Africa. At this stage of our reflection, the element of palaver as a bond in the community stands very significant in the
building of the ecclesial koinonia in Africa.
Membership into the palaver is not limited to rational30 competence alone but also
depends on other qualities like experience; being outstanding in the community through
braveness, or because he or she is the best warrior, best hunter, has highest number of
children in the community or outstanding by one’s evil actions31. The evil one will also
be considered in the palaver because his/her evil has to be dealt with since it affects
the community. In this light, the palaver model of church as family raises a great for
ecclesiology in Africa.
The palaver challenge of the church as family
What keeps the union of the family is the capacity of the family to communicate
and to inter-relate between its members from all various age or class groups. This
communication is expressed mainly in the palaver actions and dialogue. There are two
types of family palavers. The first type takes place in a narrow family circle, the nuclear
family. This is a very restrained conception of the palaver. The second consideration of
palaver which is the most appropriate representation of the palaver is the large family
palaver. In other words, it involves a larger circle in its invigoration and transmission of
the vital force of the large family. Family palaver could be concerned with things like
the division of inheritance or the elaboration of the function and actions of the members
of the community, contraction of marriage, deposition or imposition of a family chief
or king, to solve family conflicts32 and many other reasons. It sometimes plays the role
of the judicial authority of the family.
All conflict related palavers – in fact most palavers are aimed at resolving a conflict
–end with a shared drink or meal in common, where the ancestors are not forgotten.33
This portrays the Eucharistic aspect of the church as a palaver family that washes each
other’s feet and celebrates the purification and sanctification of each other together. The
manducation aspect remains fundamental in the understanding of the anthropological foundation of African marriage and family. A family that does not eat together is a
30
The difference between the African palaver and the western palaver (Habermas) is the rationality criteria.
The western palaver rationality is Cartesian while the African rationality is epistemologically complex.
31
In some African communities witchcraft is considered evil in as much as it remains individual and personal.
The African palaver sometimes does not destroy the evil of some individual members of the community but rather
looks for ways of taming it and making it communal. Once the evil is tamed and domesticated, it ceases to be considered evil but one of the character traits and strengths of that community. The Oku people of Cameroon are known to
be specialists in making thunder even in a dry season’s broad day light. The legendary myths of this people say that
it was first the property of an individual that was doing a lot of harm to the society before it was taken from him and
made community property reserved to a few good and wise people in the society.
32
Bujo, Foundations of African Ethics, 72.
33
Bujo, Foundations of African Ethics, 73.
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seriously heading towards its own ruin and death. In this meal, the whole family of the
living, the living dead and the not-yet-born are gathered around the same pot of life.
This ecclesiastical union around a meal is sacramental and sanctifying. Exegetically, the
palaver raises the challenge of reading and interpreting the scriptures as a community
as b=not as the sole responsibility of any individual. Thus, the church family does not
only nourish the soul but also forms personality in the community.
The African Family Church: The Primordial Place For Education
In most African contexts, there is no need for a magician to predict the actions
and attitudes of a person. The family name or the name of one’s house is enough for
people to say who you are. The type of house one comes from determines the type of
person he or she will be or is. In other words, your house determines the educational
qualification you may have in society.34 This is to say that, the African family plays a very
important role in the formation of children and the transmission of values. A disciplined
family, will only bring up, coeteris paribus, disciplined children. In this section, we
intend to explore the fact that the church as family is a great school for her members.
The school of the African family church requires but twofold preliminaries: the word
and the ear. The word in an African context should not be confused with the western
volatile word – verba volans – but “is exactly the word that constitutes the seed of life
and is inherent in the one who listens well and through the ear enters the heart where
it is digested, and by accepting it becomes a life-giving being.”35 What builds the Christian family is the word. In the African perspective, the word always does something,
good or bad in the community. In principle, it is intended to do only good but when
it is not well digested it can bring “disaster, and even death” in the community. That is
why in most African communities, teaching and the formation of the young is always
the duty of the elderly and of the wise of the community so that their word does not
lead to death but to life. In fact, the word of the African family church is the Word of
God, “because the Word of God cannot be without the people of God, and again, the
people of God cannot be without the Word of God. Who would like to preach it and to
hear it preached where there are no people of God? And who could or would believe
the people of God where there is not the word of God?”36 In the African context, this
makes a lot of meaning because to some Africans, the mouth that has no ear is a death
mouth and an ear that has no mouth is a dry tree.
The family is the first school, highly challenged today in the usage of the various
forms and media of education available in the formation of the child and make him
or her stay as close as possible to the family and go as far into the world as possible
without getting lost in the universal and without losing his or her family particularity.
We are thinking here of the idea of boarding schools, catering centres for kids when
they are not in schools, restaurants becoming family tables and family homes serving
34
In most African societies, if one’s father was a blacksmith, he was bound to be a blacksmith and there are
duties reserved only for the descendants of blacksmiths because their profession permitted them to have certain feelings and characters that hunters, builders, wine tappers, warriors and others could not have. This can lead to a kind of
imprisonment and discrimination in the African societies of this type.
35
Bujo, Plea for Change, 85-86.
36
M. Luther king; quoting from Von den Konziliis und Kirchen, quoted by G. Sauter, Der Ursprung der
Kirche, in Bujo, Plea for Change, 86.
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only as dormitories for sleeping, the internet, television, game centres taking over the
rabbinic role of the pater familias, just to cite but these; “It is here that the father of the
family, the mother, children, and all members of the family exercise the priesthood of the
baptized in a privileged way ‘by the reception of the sacraments, prayer and thanksgiving, the witness of a holy life and self-denial and active charity’. Thus the home is the
first school of Christian life and ‘a school for human enrichment’”37 The African model
of the church as family where the word of God is incarnated in man’s words and the
words of man purified in God’s word, where there is no dichotomy between what is
said and what is done, remains a challenge for the universal church not only in the
west but also a challenge to Africans struggling to be authentic and at the same time
relevant to the fundamental changes happening in the modern world. Only a spiritual
look at these difficulties gives meaning to the model of church as family in Africa today.
The Spirituality of African Familihood: Beyond Barrenness
The word in the African community does not have power only to form and to
educate but also to create and even procreate. This conception of the word permits to
understand the mystery of the incarnate word made flesh and to give meaning to barrenness or biological infertility in marriage. The idea of the African family as model of
the church in Africa can be criticised because of its over-insistence on biological reproduction. The question that can be asked is; how can this image of union for the sake
of children only stand as the foundation of the African marriage and then this image of
marriage or of family stand as the major model of the church? One can even go as far
as saying that the church as family is an interested union for the sake of children only.
If we cannot make children we cannot make a family in the African context. Can we
still talk of church where there is no fruitfulness or where there is barrenness?
If we stick to this idea, it jeopardises the image of the church as mother to whom
all the children are hers even when they are weak and sinful. The African familyhood
can be accused of being selective and open only to her strong and fertile children. Thus
it is not a good image for the church; the church as family. For a long time barrenness
is still considered as a curse opposed to the blessing of being fertile. In the European
concept, the quest for children in the modern families is not a good model for a church
that wants to be universal. In the European context, the children can be gotten through
various forms apart from conjugal consummation. The question that arises in the midst of
this link between the foundation of the family and children is on the dignity of children
and the sincerity of the union of couples – are children objects or a loving free gift?
To an extent, this critique can be considered to be relevant but another understanding of the difficult reality of barrenness in marriage has to be given here. It is true that
many marriages have broken, and families separated because of the question of fertility
or of the begetting of children. Bujo, in line with Cardinal Ratzinger takes the biblical
dialectical examples of Sarah and Hagar, Rachel and Lea and of Hannah and Peninna,
to show the fertilising power of the word.38 Sarah and Hannah became fertile through
the word of God. It is the word that transforms their barren wombs into fertile ones.
The ultimate example of the power of the word that makes fertile is the New Testament
37
John Paul II, Post-Synodal Apostolic Exhortation Ecclesia in Africa, on the Church in Africa and its
Evangelizing Mission towards the Year 2000.
38
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Etienne Mborong, SJ
image of Mary in the incarnation. In effect, when the word is “chewed and digested”
as in the African context, “it is God who becomes Flesh.”39
In the African perspective therefore, fertility is not to be linked only to biological
reproduction but to the fundamental union of the word and the ear. Such an intercourse
of the word spoken and the word heard, of the “worder”40 and the listener, cannot but
impregnate the listener with an original action that when born into the community can
only give life and recreate the community. The listener becomes the bearer of the word
that vivifies and en-vigours. This African conception of fertility in the church as family
renews the image of the man as husband and the woman as wife making them to “live
a holistic life … by working for the good of the community.”41
Fertility thus, is the renewing and the procreating of the new people of God. It
becomes again more powerful when the pro-creators of the community freely choose
to remain unmarried and childless for the sake of the community. In most African communities, in as much as emphases are apparently laid on the reproduction of children,
ancestors are not named according to the number of children one has but according to
the good works done in the community, according the life-giving, and renewing practices one made in the community. Fatherhood and/or motherhood are not biological
but also social. In this perspective, the African ecclesiology is founded on the African
spirituality of family or matrimonial fertility good deeds and not only of children. With
this importance given to the word, the universality of the children of God become more
meaningful since everyone at all levels is challenged to be not only listener but doer
of the word of God. This is, to my view, the key to African solidarity; we are led to be
welcoming by the word chewed and digested. The praxis of this word should lead the
members of the community to enhance positive change in and transform their communities. In this way, there will be no street children, homeless or refugees in African because
everywhere we go and in any situation whatsoever, one is always a child to, a parent
of, and at home. Thus, “infertility and virginity can be truly effective fertility through
the promised word of God, provided [that] it is accepted and thoroughly digested”42
If we have to call the church a family, the spirituality of family including a spirituality of marriage have to be well developed from the African reality in such a way that
the universal harmony of the concept makes for an African church that seeks to be
relevant to her people. This universalization does not exclude the fact that there are
certain particularities among Africans on the idea and practice of family that may find
difficulties becoming universal. Those areas need to be considered with a lot of attention as they remain a challenge to be taken seriously in every ecclesiological discourse
in Africa south of the Sahara.
Challenge of the African concept of church as family
The African concept of church as family faces many modern challenges that need to
be taken into consideration in our quest to give theological meaning to the idea. These
This word does not exist in English language but expresses well my intention here. I mean by this, the one
who does not only have the word but is the word. He chooses to unveil himself not only in the word but as the word.
41
42
39
40
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are existential realities that do not leave any Christian indifferent. One major reality
of the African people is poverty and misery. The type of poverty the Africans have is
neither material nor physical because most of the greatest mineral reserves and fertile
lands including wealthy human resources are found in Africa. The poverty of the continent is what Mveng calls “La pauperisation anthropologique”43 of the African people.
Pauperisation in simple terms is act of making someone poor; depriving someone of
food or money or rights; “nutritional privation”; “deprivation of civil rights” and others.
In this stage, it is only existential. It becomes fundamental when it is anthropological,
when the pauperisation is anthropological. It means you lose even your very essence of
being human. He traces this type of impoverishment to colonisation and to the colonial
form of evangelisation. But it should be understood in a broader and deeper perspective
than just the effects of colonisation.
Nevertheless, the challenge of the church as family is to go beyond the critique of
the colonial system into a reconstruction44 of the African church from within its small
unit, the parish.
Parish as Family of Families
A critical moment and a practical challenge of the theory or model of the church
as family is the pastoral reality of some parishes across Africa. In Chad and precisely in
the diocese of N’Djamena for example, my experience there shows that the spirit that
guides the creation and membership in small Christian communities is one’s belonging
to the ethnic group of that community. A Mundang for instance, from the North West
will prefer to go to the other end of the city to pray in a Christian community of other
Mundangs instead of joining a Christian community of Ngambayes, from the south,
meeting next door. This type family, or call it ethnic solidarity seriously affects the
dynamism of parish life. One can easily be tempted to say that blood is really stronger
than the waters of the fountain of Baptism.
The exhortation of Pope Benedict XVI seems pertinent here: “[...] To this end, I
exhort you to make your church the place in which you learn to hear the Word of God,
the permanent ‘school’ of Christian life from which every activity of this young and
busy parish originates.”45 He exhorted the community to “give life to family pastoral
ministry characterized by an open and cordial welcome to new families, and to favour
reciprocal knowledge so that the parish community increasingly becomes a ‘family of
families,’ where couples come together with their children, able to share with each
other, not only the joys but the inevitable difficulties of initiating family life.” He had
a particular request for families in difficulty: “Do not leave them alone, but be close to
them with love, helping them to understand God’s authentic plan for marriage and the
family.” The response of Father Antonio Magnotta the parish priest remains relevant
and universal in its challenge “Our parish never disappoints the hopes of parents.” In
fact, the parish should be a place where families encounter each other and are fortified
to face the difficulties of being family in faith, hope and love.
43
Engelbert Mveng, L’Afrique dans l’Église: paroles d’un croyant (Paris : L’Harmattan, 1985), 207. This
can be translated as the act of making someone anthropologically impoverished.
44
Ka Mana, Théologie Africaine pour temps de crise: christianisme et reconstruction de L’Afrique (Paris :
Karthala, 1993), 22.
45
Benedict XVI, Inauguration of New St. Corbinian Church for Diocese of Rome, March 21, 2011 (www.
zenit.org)
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Etienne Mborong, SJ
The challenge that arises from the conception of church as family is that there
should not be a separation between family and church. The church community cannot
be conceived independent from the family. They are the same community in such a
way that the joys and sorrows of the individual families that constitute the church community are the joys and sorrows of the community.
C
onclusion: The church in Africa in her focus of becoming family in the African
sense of the term implies the coming in of various aspects of the African culture
and of the church’s tradition in a scriptural discursivity46 that opens this church
to her today’s locus and to the mysteries of Christ He bridegroom. It does not only
serve as a hermeneutical key for inculturation in Africa but also as an African way of
remaining church in a fast globalising world. In this light, certain questions arise as we
struggle to deepen the possibility of this model of the church: how can we modernise
the concept of family with the irresistible rise of modernisation or of globalisation? With
the replacement of the community of village spring with pipe born or tap water in the
houses, how can we maintain the sense of familyhood in the community or village?
In a nutshell the point in this paper has been to attempt to redefine and re-launch
the idea of church as family in Africa. Through the inspiration of some theologians
especially Bénézet Bujo, the fact that the church should be family in Africa if at all
she wishes to be relevant and meaningful to the African, has been defended. The total
African community of living, dead and not-yet-born, has led to a deeper spirituality of
the family with a renewed image of man as husband and of woman as wife in relation to the begetting of children. With the example of an African model of family, the
Ujamaa, we have attempted to show that this form of church will have a development
effect in the society and thus will be fertile in her chewing and digesting of the word
that creates and vivifies her. She is also a place of the education of her young ones in
the transmission of values especially the value of discipline. This ecclesiological model
knows challenges and is challenging both to the Africans who struggle to put this ideal
into practice and to the western type of ecclesiology that seems to have gone far from
this traditional understanding of family values.
The image of church-as-family does not only reveal the sacramentality of the African
church – by understanding, interpreting and appropriating the seven sacraments and
by enhancing the development of other sacraments in the church – but also integrates
the African cultural values of family and marriage with that of the church in the proclamation of the kingdom.
46
Kinyongo Jeki, a Congolese philosopher, develops the idea of dicursivity in a course on Epistemology and
philosophy of sciences. According to him discursity is a scientific method necessary for any science that desires to be
plural and multi-epistemological. Discursivity is an academic palaver that is interdisciplinary and integrates various
contributions.
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Bibliography
African Synod II, Post-Synodal Apostolic Exhortation Ecclesia in Africa, ON THE CHURCH IN
AFRICA and its EVANGELIZING MISSION TOWARDS THE YEAR 2000.
Bidima, Jean-Godefroy, Le Manuel des Palabres (Colonie de Côte d’Ivoire, 1915) Parole, Intersubjectivité
et Contrôle, in Anales de Desclasificación / vol. 1 : La défaite de l’aire culturelle n° 1 / 2004. This
document is downloadable online at http://www.desclasificacion.org/pdf/Manuel%20des%20
Palabres.pdf.
BEIJING DECLARATION AND PLATFORM FOR ACTION FOURTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON
WOMEN, 15 September 1995.
Bujo, Bénézet. Plea for change of Models for Marriage, Nairobi, Pauline publications Africa, 2009.
____________, The ethical dimensions of community: the African model and the dialogue between north
and south, Nairobi, Paulines Publications Africa, 1998.
____________, Foundations of an African Ethic, Beyond the Universal claims of Western Morality,
Translated by Brian McNeil, Nairobi, Paulines Publications Africa, 2001.
Mana, Ka. Théologie Africaine pour temps de crise: christianisme et reconstruction de L’Afrique,
Paris, Ed. Karthala, 1993.
Mveng, Engelbert. “Essai d’anthropologie negro-africaine”, in Bulletin de théologie Africaine No.
1 1979.
____________, L’Afrique dans l’Eglise. Paroles d’un croyant, Paris, Karthala, 1985.
Nyerere, K. Julius. Principles and Development, Dar es Salaam, Government Printer, 1968.
_____________, Arusha Declaration, 1967.
Orobator, Abongkhianmeghe, E. The Church as family: African ecclesiology in its Social Context,
Nairobi, Paulines publications Africa, 1999.
Rahner, Karl. The Church and the Sacraments, trans. W. J. O’Hara, TunbridgeWells, Burns &
Oates Publishers, 1986.
Vangu Vangu, Emmanuel, Théologie Africaine et Calvaire des Peuples: la spiritualité africaine en
questions, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2008.
71
11/17/2011 4:02:50 PM
The Fate of the Marian Dogmas of the Immaculate
Conception and the Assumption in the Ecumenical Debate
By Prosper Mushy, AJ
A
bstract: This article examines the two Marian dogmas of the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption as considered in the current ecumenical debate. It is an
attempt to re-examine the present status of the Marian doctrine and devotion in
various Christian Churches and how the role and place of Mary in the divine plan of
salvation should be proposed today. Included in the proposals is that extreme positions
with regard to the doctrine and devotion to Mary do not have any spiritual benefits for
the churches, but rather tend to obscure the central role that Mary holds in the divine
plan of salvation.
I
ntroduction: Among the consequences of the schisms that ruptured the Christian
Church in the last millennium is that, each of the separated churches developed its
own structures of authenticating doctrine and consequently its own doctrines.1 It is
within this context that the major doctrinal developments that took shape within the
Roman Catholic Church can be situated. These include among others, the definition of
the two Marian dogmas of the Immaculate Conception 1854, and the Assumption 1950.
These two doctrines still create a big ecumenical problem and have ever since been
perceived by non-Catholics as not being congruent with Scripture.2 The same applies
to the 1870 definition of papal infallibility by the First Vatican Council, as it placed the
relations between the Catholic Church and other Christian communities into a much
more critical state.
In this article I examine the fate of the two Marian dogmas in the current ecumenical debate. I begin by providing a brief overview of how Mary is considered in the
non-Catholic churches and then proceed to highlight the contexts in which the two
doctrines were defined. Thereafter I will examine the manner in which these doctrines
are considered in two separate ecumenical dialogues, namely, the ‘unofficial’ dialogue
that is undertaken by the Groupe des Dombes in France, and the International AnglicanRoman Catholic dialogue.
An Overview of How Mary is considered in the Non-Catholic Churches
Before venturing into the consideration of the specific contexts in which the Catholic
Marian doctrines were defined, a brief overview of how Mary is considered outside the
1
The year 1054 is remembered as the year when the greatest of all schisms ripped the Christian Church.
The filioque clause which had been introduced to the creed by the church leaders of the West became a major cause of
controversy that eventually led to the split between the Greek and the Latin Churches. Few centuries later, the Lutheran
and English Reformations brought further divisions to the Western Church.
2
Cf. The Malta Report, pars. 20 & 22. See also, Alan C. Clark and Colin Davey, eds., Anglican/Roman
Catholic Dialogue: The Work of the Preparatory Commission (London: Oxford University Press, 1974), 107-114.
Fr. Prosper Mushy holds a doctoral degree in sacred theology (STD), from Catholic University (KU)
Leuven, Belgium. He is currently teaching systematic theology at Apostles of Jesus Scholasticate,
Nairobi-Kenya and the neighbouring institutions.
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The Fate of the Marian Dogmas of the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption in the Ecumenical Debate
perimeters of the Roman Catholic Church could be of significance.3 To begin with, the
Greek Orthodox Church has preserved much of the patristic tradition on Mary. However, this church rejects the dogma of the Immaculate Conception. The ground for such
rejection is to be found not only in the differences that characterize the East and the
West on the questions of Original Sin and the filioque, but also in the misunderstanding by the East of the Catholic dogma of the Immaculate Conception. In the Orthodox
tradition, Original Sin is equated with mortality hence inability to accept its absence in
Mary. The West however views original sin as the absence or lack of sanctifying grace.4
Besides, while the Eastern tradition on Mary stresses the honour due to her as the
Mother of God, the West stressed more on her power of intercession. In any case, it
must be noted that the Second Vatican Council recommended that the developments
of doctrine that have taken shape both in the West and in the East be seen as “mutually complementary rather than conflicting” (Unitatis Redintegratio, 17). If this recommendation is seriously taken into account it is possible for the two churches to arrive
a common understanding of Mary.
The Church of England does not speak with one voice with regard to matters of
doctrine. This is because Anglicanism has, over centuries, experienced some challenges
that resulted from schisms which have in turn given rise to new denominations. Yet
the High Church of England has retained much tradition in common with the Catholic
Church. For instance, one finds a lady chapel in most of the Anglican Churches. Some
of the churches have pictures and statues of Our Lady. It should also not be forgotten
that the restoration of the Shrine of Walsingham which had been destroyed in 1538
means that the place is now a place of pilgrimage for both Catholics and Anglicans.
There are also some Marian prayers (among them the Rosary and Angelus) that have
been recommended for the use among Anglicans some of which are contained in the
Anglo-Catholic Prayer Book of 1931.5
To conclude with is the manner in which Mary is considered in the Churches of
the Reformation. It must be recalled that the early reformers did not maintain extreme
positions regarding the place and role of the Mother of the Redeemer in the history
of salvation. The negative position reflected in the contemporary Protestantism is to a
large extent the consequence of some of the positions in the theology of the Reformation. Continental Protestantism seems to embrace a very negative position with regard
to the role and place of Mary in the divine plan of salvation. Calvinism embraces a
more negative picture of Mary than Lutheranism. However, it is important to note that
among the Lutherans there are some groups which foster devotion to Mary such as the
Berneuchner and Hochkirchliche Bewegung.6 Having said this, I will now proceed
to highlight the circumstances that led to the Marian doctrines.
The Contexts in which the Catholic Marian Doctrines were defined
The Catholic Marian doctrine of the Immaculate Conception was officially defined
Hilda Graef, Mary: A History of Doctrine and Devotion (London: Sheed & Ward, 1963), 134-135.
Anselm of Canterbury, Cur Deus Homo (on the reason for the incarnation), the treatise on The Virginal
Conception and on Original Sin and his Orationes. Anselm’s view with regard to the Original Sin was taken over by
the Council of Trent.
5
Graef, Mary: A History of Doctrine and Devotion, 134-135.
6
Graef, 134-135.
3
4
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by Pope Pius IX in the Constitution Ineffabilis Deus, of December 8, 1854. The doctrine
holds that: “The Blessed Virgin Mary was preserved from all stain of Original Sin in the
first instance of her conception, by a singular grace and privilege of almighty God, in
consideration of the merits of Jesus Christ, saviour of the human race, has been revealed
by God and must, therefore, firmly and constantly be believed by all the faithful.”7
Some few remarks as regards the content of this doctrine could be of significance. In
the first place, Original Sin is in no doubt understood in the context of the teaching of
the Council of Trent which constitutes a land mark in the centuries-long debate on this
subject (see, Canons 788-790 of the Council of Trent). Secondly, the definition contains
some weighty concepts or phrases that require some explanation. To begin with is the
phrase, “...in the first instance of her conception...” The term conception as applied here
does not mean “the active or generative conception by her parents” nor “the passive
conception” which precedes the infusion of the rational soul. Rather, Mary was preserved
from all stain of original sin “at the first moment of her animation, and sanctifying grace
was given to her before sin could have taken effect in her soul.”8
Besides, the privileged or grace that is granted to Mary was “in view of the merits
of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the human race.” This phrase is certainly concerned
with addressing the manner in which Mary is redeemed. Already, the Franciscan, Duns
Scotus had shed some light on the question of Mary being pre-redeemed. Accordingly, “a redemption that preserves from sin is more perfect than one that frees from
it.”9 Thus, “far from exempting Mary from the redemption, her immaculate conception
implies an even greater dependence on it than the lesser perfection of the redemption of the baptised.”10
As a matter of fact, the belief in the Immaculate Conception was expressed and
celebrated in the rites and liturgies of the Catholic faithful before being officially
proclaimed as part and parcel of the Church’s faith.11 There was, so to speak, a general
belief in Mary’s Immaculate Conception among the Catholic faithful in many parts of
the world. To establish the certainty of such belief, the Pope took initiative to write to
the Roman Catholic bishops throughout the world seeking to ascertain their feelings,
together with that of the clergy and the lay faithful. The findings reveal that the responses
from the bishops were enormously positive. Out of 603 bishops consulted, 546 were
in favour while 56 or 57 opposed, and only 4 or 5 thought the matter could not be defined. About 10 bishops asked for an “indirect definition that would not condemn those
who held Mary not to be immaculately conceived.”12 In defining the doctrine the Pope
underlines, among other factors, the popular belief of the faithful (the sensus fidelium)
as the basis for Mary’s Immaculate Conception.
Similarly, the circumstances that led to the proclamation of the bodily Assumption
of the Blessed Virgin Mary in 1950 are reminiscent of those of 1854 even though in
7
Ineffabilis Deus: Apostolic Constitution of Pope Pius IX on the Immaculate Conception (December 8,
1854) in http://www.newadvent.org/library/docs_pi09id.htm (Accessed on 05/04/2011). See also E. D. O’connor,
Immaculate Conception, in New Catholic Encyclopedia 7 (2003), 334.
8
Cf. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07674d.htm (Accessed on 21/10/2011).
9
Hilda Graef, Mary: A History of Doctrine and Devotion, 300.
10
Graef, 301.
11
James Hennesey, “A Prelude to Vatican I: American Bishops and the Definition of the Immaculate Conception,” Theological Studies 25, no. 3 (1964): 411.
12
Eamon Carrol, “Papal Infallibility and the Marian Definitions: Some Considerations,” Carmelus 26, no.
2 (1979): 216.
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this particular case one could not rule out the fact that there was an interplay between
Papal infallibility and the sensus fidelium. The doctrine was defined by Pope Pius XII,
in the apostolic constitution Munificentissimus Deus on November 1, 1950. It states:
“The Immaculate Mother of God, the ever-Virgin Mary, having completed the course
of her earthly life, was assumed body and soul into heavenly glory.”13 Certainly, there
is an intrinsic connection between the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception and that
of the Assumption (Cf. Munificentissimus Deus, pars. 4-6). The preservation from sin
also implies the exception from the incorruptibility of the body. Thus the Blessed Virgin Mary “did not have to wait until the end of time for the redemption of her body”
(Munificentissimus Deus, par. 5).
In any case, some studies show that the belief in Mary’s Assumption existed in the
mind of the Catholic faithful with evidences being traced back to the mid-19th century.14
It is for this reason that Pope Pius XII wrote the encyclical Deiparae virginis Mariae15
of May 1, 1946, seeking to be furnished by the belief in Mary’s Assumption which
was already reflected and celebrated in the liturgies of the Catholic faithful in many
parts of the world. Again, the responses were positive. Out of 1191 bishops consulted,
1169 were in favour of the definition; 22 opposed and only 6 questioned the revealed
character of the Assumption. The rest thought the definition was inopportune.16 In
defining the doctrine the Pope underlines, among others, the “outstanding agreement
of the Catholic prelates and the faithful,” as the main factor that grounds the belief in
the Assumption.17
Such were the contexts in which the two Marian doctrines were defined. Before
venturing into the ecumenical debate on these dogmas, I will make some few remarks
regarding what has just been said above. In the first place, the two Marian doctrines
are not explicitly reflected in the Scripture. In other words, the Holy Scripture does
not speak plainly about Mary’s Immaculate Conception or her being assumed into
heaven. However, the Scripture provides the context for what has been described
as the ‘common faith concerning the place of Mary in the divine purpose’. Secondly,
at the time when the dogmas were defined, theological schools were marked by
dissonance as regards whether the two doctrines should be made official in the
doctrine of the Church.18 Thirdly, the two Marian doctrines constitute practical cases
whereby the truth of faith was posited by means of the popular belief of the faithful
(the sensus fidelium).19 In other words, the doctrines are clear examples of the cases
in history where popular faith played part in the development of dogma. Last but not
least, in both cases the respective Popes sought the consent of the bishops, clergy
13
Pius XII, Munificentissimus Deus in AAS 42 (1950) 753-771, par. 44. This Citation is from J. W. Langlinais,
Assumption of Mary, in New Catholic Encyclopedia 1 (2003), s.v. “Immaculate Conception.”
14
Carrol, “Papal Infallibility and the Marian Definitions,” 230. See also, G. Geenen, “L’Assomption et les
souverains pontifes: Faits, documents et textes,» Angelicum 27, no. 4 (1950): 337-338.
15
Pius XII, Deiparae Virginis, May 1, 1946, in AAS 42 (1950) 782-83.
16
Cf. Carrol, “Papal Infallibility and the Marian Definitions,” 231. See also, James L. Heft, “Papal Infallibility
and the Marian Dogmas,” One in Christ 18, no. 4 (1982): 320.
17
Munificentissimus Deus, par. 12, http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/P12MUNIF.HTM (Accessed
on 22/10/2011).
18
Graef, Mary: A History of Doctrine and Devotion, 250-351. See also, Wolfgang Beinert, „Der Glaubenssinn
der Gläubigen in der systematischen Theologie,“ in Mitsprache im Glauben? Vom Glaubenssinn der Gläubigen, ed.
Günter Koch (Würzburg: Echter, 1993), 52.
19
Gérard Philips, The Role of the Laity in the Church, trans. by John R. Gilbert and James W. Moudry (Cork:
Mercier, 1955), 74-75.
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together with the lay faithful before proceeding further with the formal articulation and
proclamation of the doctrines in question.
Far more important, it must be noted that during the two instances of the Marian
dogmas the consultation made by the popes was only limited to the bishops, clergy, and
the faithful of the Roman Catholic Church, a fact that presents an ecumenical problem.20
Within the present context when the churches are seriously engaged in the quest for
Christian unity, the question of the reception of the Marian doctrines by the non-Catholic
Christians is not only wanting, but has also been raised in ecumenical dialogue with
various magnitude. The main question that seems to shape this debate is the following: In case of full communion with the Roman Catholic Church, will the non-Catholic
Christians be required to subscribe to the Marian doctrines for which they were not
consulted? I will briefly highlight the extent to which this question is considered in the
ecumenical debate. My scope is limited to the dialogue carried on by the Groupe des
Dombes in France and the International Anglican-Roman Catholic Dialogue.
a.The Groupe des Dombes
The Groupe des Dombes is ‘an unofficial but highly influential and creative dialogue
body’ in the ecumenical arena. Founded in 1937 by Abbé Paul Couturier, the group
constitutes 40 theologians of both Catholic and Protestant churches.21 Since its foundation
the Groupe has issued a number of documents on various ecumenical themes such as
‘Episcopal Ministry’, ‘The Holy Spirit in the Church and the Sacraments’, Marie dans le
dessein de Dieu et la communion des saints (Mary in the Plan of God and in the Communion of Saints), and of recent “UN SEUL MAITRE” - L’autorité doctrinale dans l’Église
(“One Teacher”: Doctrinal Authority in the Church).
The Marian doctrines are discussed in the second document on this list, that is, Mary
in the Plan of God and in the Communion of Saints.22 It is important to take note that
Mariology is considered to be at the heart of the tensions between Roman Catholics and
the churches of the Reformation. This is because after the separation of the churches the
Catholic Church has gone ahead to define two dogmas on Mary without the consultation of the other churches. As already observed, within the current ecumenical debate
these doctrines are perceived as stumbling blocks in the quest for Christian unity. It is
for this reason that the underlined document deals specifically with the Marian doctrine
and devotion.
The document is structured into three main sections. The first section is ‘an ecumenical reading of history and scripture’ (pars. 1-203); the second section addresses
some of the ‘the disputed questions’ (pars. 204-288); and the third section calls for ‘the
20
Patrick J. Hartin, “Sensus fidelium: A Roman Catholic Reflection on Its Significance for Ecumenical
Thought,” Journal of Ecumenical Studies 28, no. 1 (1991): 74-87. See, Francis A. Sullivan, “The Significance of
Vatican II’s Decision to Say of the Church of Christ Is Not That It “Is” But That It “Subsists In” the Roman Catholic
Church,” Centro Pro Unione Bulletin 29, no. 1 (1986): 6. See also, Luis M. Bermejo, Church Conciliarity & Communion, Jesuit Theological Forum Studies, Vol. 4 (Gujarat: Sahitya Prakash, 1990), 60.
21
See, for further information, Alain Blancy, “The Group of Les Dombes,” One in Christ 23, no. 3 (1987):
236-238. David Carter, “Mary - Grace and Hope in Christ: Some Reflections,” One in Christ 41, no. 2 (2006): 69.
22
Groupe des Dombes, Marie dans le dessein de Dieu et la communion des saints (Paris: Bayard Éditions/
Centurion, 1999). English translation, Alain Blancy, Maurice Jourjon, and The Dombes Group, Mary in the Plan of
God and in the Communion of Saints: Toward a Common Christian Understanding, trans., Matthew J. O’Connell
(New York NY: Paulist Press, 2002).
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conversion of Churches’ with regard to their attitude on Mary (pars. 289-338). This is
the section that addresses ‘the Catholic dogmas of the Immaculate Conception and
Assumption.’ The same section is also linked to a brief section where the Groupe des
Dombes appeals for “the conversion of churches” with regard to their outlook on Mary.
To begin with, the Groupe des Dombes is fully aware of the complexity that challenges
the current ecumenical debate with regard to the Marian doctrines. The complexity of
the matter is stated as follows:
The dialogue between Protestants and Catholics is here marked, in a concentrated form, by
the whole classic disagreement on the normative character of the biblical testimony, on the
reading and understanding of Scripture within the living tradition of the Church, on the ‘sense
of the faith’ of the faithful (which in this instance finds expression primarily in piety), the
intervention of the Magisterium, and the reception of magisterial definitions.23
In this quotation two positions can be underlined regarding the doctrine on Mary.
On the one hand, there are churches that stick to the “the normative character of the
biblical testimony” in the consideration of the role and place of Mary in the mystery of
salvation (the churches of the Reformation). On the other hand, some churches read
and understand the Scripture “within the living tradition of the Church or the ‘sense of
the faith’ of the faithful” (The Roman Catholic Church).24
However, the procedure that is followed by the Groupe des Dombes in addressing
the complex question of the Marian doctrines is quite encouraging. The group explores
the basis for the non-reception, in other churches, of the dogmas of the Immaculate
Conception and of the Assumption. The churches of the Reformation single out, among
the factors that contribute to the non-reception of the two doctrines, the lack of sufficient basis in the Scripture and the fact that they were defined after the separation of
the churches, moreover by Popes independent of the church council.25
In addressing these concerns the Groupe des Dombes devotes a greater part of the
document to establishing the context in which the two doctrines gain their historical and
theological significance. Thus the Marian doctrines are better understood in the context
of the Christological doctrine and in the light of Mary’s “cooperation” in the economy of
grace.26 Given this perspective, the Groupe des Dombes invites the churches to embrace
this renewed vision or horizon for the understanding of the Marian doctrines.
Significantly, the Groupe sees the need “to move beyond” the past controversies
into a better perspective of understanding the two doctrines. Such move would entail
a basic recognition that diversities among Christians do not undermine the basic aspect
of communion manifested by the one faith in Christ. As Knapp-Fisher suggests, the
churches should admit to the principle of “ecclesiological contributionism” which involves
“the sharing of all particular insights into truth which each Church has been enabled to
Groupe des Dombes, Marie dans le dessein de Dieu et la communion des saints, par. 140.
The manner in which the sensus fidelium is considered to contribute to the clarification of the truth of the
fait is rather complex. I have discussed this elsewhere. Cf. Prosper Mushy, Sensus Fidelium as a Locus for Theology:
Some Perspectives on the Use of the Concept in Ecumenical Dialogue, Saarbrücken, Lambert Academic Publishing,
2010.
25
Groupe des Dombes, Marie dans le dessein de Dieu et la communion des saints, pars. 237-239. For similar
concerns, Cf. Anglican - Roman Catholic International Commission, Mary: Grace and Hope in Christ (Harrisburg,
London: Morehouse, 2005), par. 61.
26
Groupe des Dombes, Marie dans le dessein de Dieu et la communion des saints, pars. 269-272.
23
24
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preserve.”27 However, such process not only requires humility and readiness to receive,
but also the promptness to share the necessary insight of the faith.
Most significant, in the section dealing with ‘the conversion of churches,’ the respective churches are urged to reconsider their position or outlook with regard to Mary in
order to avoid hanging on some extreme theological positions. While the reformation
churches are urged to re-examine their position or attitude towards the Mother of the
Jesus, Catholics are cautioned on ‘the excessive devotion and doctrine on Mary, which
has at times threatened to overshadow or even compromise the doctrine of Christ.’ Thus,
“theological and pastoral discernment must be on guard against scorning the faith of the
humble, even while evangelising it in a way that keeps a mother goddess from hiding
behind the traits of Mary and keeps the faithful from thinking that an effective relationship with Mary constitutes the whole of Christianity and the whole of the Church.”28
One could see that the Groupe des Dombes endeavours to embrace a balanced theology and devotion to Mary, which ‘neither underrates nor exaggerates her figure and
role in the mystery of salvation.’ The matter is therefore left within the responsibility
of the theologians to examine the manner in which the role of Mary in the mystery of
salvation is to be proposed. Theologians are “to dispense any Mariology that is solely
centred on the person of Mary in isolation from theology.” Instead, they ought to develop a Mariology that is integral to “the mystery of Christ and the Church.”29 In addition,
Catholics are urged to be cautious when making reference to sense of the faithful or
sensus fidelium for the reason that “what is interpreted as such could also be a matter
of religious sentiment rather than the fact of the faith.”30
Far more important, the Groupe des Dombes addresses the complex question regarding whether the Marian doctrines are a requisite for the non-Catholics in case of a full
communion with the Catholic Church.31 On this point, the Groupe urges Roman Catholics
to acknowledge that, the two doctrines did not belong to “the common expression of
faith at the time of the separation.” The Groupe des Dombes recommends the following:
Would not the wisest thing be to agree on the following? The Catholic Church would not posit
the acceptance of both dogmas as a precondition for full communion among the churches. It
should simply request partners with whom it renews this communion to respect the content of
these dogmas and not to judge them contrary to the gospel or to the faith, but to regard them
as free and legitimate conclusions flowing from the reflection by the Catholic consciousness
on the faith and its internal coherence.32
Accordingly, the Marian doctrines may not be obligatory for those Christians who
were not in full communion with the Catholic Church at the time of defining the doctrines. Yet, the contents of such dogmas must be adhered to by the non-Catholics as
forming coherence with the gospel message. A similar position has been adopted in the
recent Anglican–Roman Catholic dialogue on Mary (to be considered later).33
27
Groupe des Dombes, par. 275. Cf. The Gift of Authority, par. 27. See also, Church as Communion, par.
28. See especially, Edward Yarnold and Edward Knapp-Fisher, “The 1976 Venice Agreed Statement on ‘Authority in
the Church’, Two Comments,” the Ampleforth Journal 83, no. 1 (1978): 58.
28
Groupe des Dombes, Marie dans le dessein de Dieu et la communion des saints, par. 292.
29
Groupe des Dombes, par. 294.
30
31
32
33
Cf. Anglican - Roman Catholic International Commission, Mary: Grace and Hope in Christ, par. 63. See,
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In addition, the Groupe des Dombes proposes that the two doctrines be viewed in
the perspective of the Second Vatican Council’s notion of the ‘hierarchy of truths’ (Unitatis Redintegratio, 11). The notion of the ‘hierarchy of truths’ acknowledges that even
though all Christian truths relate to the same foundation, that is, the mystery of Christ,
they are not presented on the same level. “Some truths lean on more principal truths
and are illuminated by them.” Hence, in this particular case, the Marian doctrines should
be viewed as “prepositional truths” which ultimately refer to the mystery of Christ and
“guide the life of the people of God.”34 Roman Catholics should therefore be disposed
to appreciating the various ways in which other Christians hold and express the doctrine
of Mary within their traditions. Such would also be in respect to the legitimate variety
in theological expression as advocated by the Second Vatican Council. Catherine Clifford believes that the reception of the present document may depend on “the extent
to which the churches prepare to interpret and apply the principle of “the hierarchy of
truths” to the Marian dogmas.35
Therefore, one could say that the Groupe des Dombes tries to establish the way in
which the truth taught by the two Marian doctrines conforms to the central mystery of the
faith. In fact, among the recommendations put forward is that the appeal to the sensus
fidelium in matters of doctrine must take a significant account of the criteria applied in
determining its authenticity.36 Besides, the controversy over the Marian doctrines ought
not to undermine the explicit recognition of the special role and place of Mary in the
economy of salvation. After all, the Groupe des Dombes calls for the conversion of the
churches as regards their attitude towards Mary. The churches are called to re-examine
the place and role given to the Mother of Jesus within their churches and hence the
need for conversion.
b. The Anglican-Roman Catholic Dialogue
The question of the Marian doctrines has also featured as one of the crucial subjects in the international Anglican-Roman Catholic Dialogue. Ecumenical conversations
between these two sides is traced back to the meeting between the then archbishop
Michael Ramsey of Canterbury and the late Pope Paul VI which took place in Rome,
March 1966. This meeting authorized the formation of a joint preparatory commission
to organize the process of ecumenical dialogue between the Anglican Communion and
the Roman Catholic Church.37 The issues that needed immediate attention before the
establishment of full communion between the two sides were listed in the 1968 Malta
Report of the Anglican and the Roman Catholic Church. These include the question of
Edward Yarnold, «Mary in the ARCIC-I Final Report,» One in Christ 21, no. 1 (1985): 72.
34
Groupe des Dombes, Marie dans le dessein de Dieu et la communion des saints, par. 296. See especially,
The World Council of Churches and Roman Catholic Church,-The Notion of “hierarchy of truths”: An Ecumenical
Interpretation. Cf. Jeffrey Gros, Harding Meyer, and William G. Rusch, eds., Growing in Agreement II: Reports and
Agreed Statements of Ecumenical Conversations on a World Level 1982-1998 (Geneva: WCC Publications, 2000),
876-883.
35
Catherine E. Clifford, The Groupe des Dombes: A Dialogue of Conversion (New York: Peter Lang, 2005),
234. See also, Heft, “Papal Infallibility and the Marian Dogmas,” 322-327.
36
This problem seems rather complex for it extends to as far the criteria for determining when exactly consensus characterises the whole body of the faithful on a particular truth or doctrine. It could be an impasse in ecumenical
debate and does not seem to have foreseeable solutions.
37
William Purdy, The Search for Unity: Relations between the Anglican and Roman Catholic Churches from
the 1950s to the 1970s (New York, NY: Geoffrey Chapman, 1996), 59.
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the Petrine primacy, infallibility and Mariology.38 The Report recommended that “the
question of authority, its nature, exercise and implications,” be carefully examined as it
constitutes one of the areas of doctrinal disagreement.39 As can be observed, the question
of Mariology was, from the very beginning, listed among the subjects that relate with
the exercise of authority in the Church. This is for the reason that the Marian doctrines
were defined by the Popes without the involvement of the church councils.
Nevertheless, given these concerns, the question concerning the exercise of authority in the Church was considered as one of the principal items for dialogue between
the Anglican Communion and the Roman Catholic Church. This happened before 1969
the year in which the Anglican-Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) was
formed with the task of facilitating the process of dialogue between the two sides.
First and foremost, ARCIC had to deal with the question of the exercise of authority
in the Church before moving on to consider the subject of Mariology. This exercise
was accomplished in three phases, the results of which were incorporated in the following documents: Authority in the Church I, Authority in the Church II, and The Gift
of Authority: Authority in the Church III. For the sake of clarity it may be important to
observe that the first two documents constitute the preliminary stages that eventually
culminated to the later. The scope of this paper does not guarantee a detail discussion
on these documents. However, I will briefly highlight some of the paragraphs that deal
with the Marian doctrines.
As has been noted, it was part of the recommendations of The Malta Report (1968)
that before taking any further steps towards the establishment of full communion between
Anglican Communion and Roman Catholic Church, the question of the Petrine primacy,
infallibility and Mariology needed to be examined.40 The first two issues were already
examined by ARCIC in its dialogue on authority thus making it possible to engage on
the question of Mariology. The results of ARCIC’s dialogue on the subject of Mariology
are registered in a document entitled Mary: Grace and Hope in Christ.41 This document,
which constitutes the subject of discussion here, reflects ARCIC’s determination to test
the consensus already achieved on the subject of ‘authority’ to the complex question
of Marian doctrines.
The question of the Marian doctrines came to be discussed by ARCIC in view of
the difficulties that Anglicans experience with regard to papal infallibility. Already, the
question appears in the first ARCIC document on authority in which it is stated: “Anglicans doubt the appropriateness, or even the possibility, of defining them as essential to
the faith of believers” (Authority in the Church I, par. 24). However, the second ARCIC
document on authority reflects a growing convergence over the issue. It is asserted that,
“Anglicans and Roman Catholics can agree in much of the truth” that the “two dogmas
are designed to affirm.” The degree of consensus is thereafter recapitulated as follows:
We agree that there can be but one mediator between God and man, Jesus Christ, and reject
any interpretation of the role of Mary which obscures this affirmation. We agree in recognizing that Christian understanding of Mary is inseparably linked with the doctrines of Christ
and of the Church. We agree in recognizing the grace and unique vocation of Mary, Mother
38
The Malta Report, pars. 20 & 22. See also, Clark and Davey, eds., Anglican/Roman Catholic Dialogue:
The Work of the Preparatory Commission, 107-114.
39
The Malta Report, pars. 20 & 22.
40
Cf. The Malta Report, par. 20. See also, Mary: Grace and Hope in Christ, par. 1.
41
Cf. Anglican - Roman Catholic International Commission, Mary: Grace and Hope in Christ.
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of God Incarnate (Theotokos), in observing her festivals, and in according her honour in the
communion of saints. We agree that she was prepared by the divine grace to be the mother
of our redeemer and receive into glory. We further agree in recognizing in Mary a model of
holiness, obedience, and faith of all Christians (Authority in the Church II, par. 30).42
Already, the Commission tries to situate and articulate the role and place of Mary
within the divine plan of salvation. Certainly, according to ARCIC Mary should be
honoured in a way that does not underrate or exaggerate her role in the divine plan
of salvation. This implies that Mary’s role in salvation history should be considered in
a way that is inseparable from the mystery of Christ.
In reading Mary: Grace and Hope in Christ, my focus goes to the specific paragraphs
that deal with the Marian dogmas (pars. 58-63). A careful scrutiny of these paragraphs
reveals that Catholics are put to task to respond to the Anglican concerns with regard
to the grounds for the definability of the Marian dogmas. Among the main concerns is
their lack of explicitness in the Scripture and the particular circumstances that prompted
their formulation (par. 61). I have already noted that the two dogmas were defined by
the Popes without the involvement of church councils.
With regard to these concerns it is, in the first place, asserted that the agreement
on the Marian doctrines that is reflected in the document arises from the “common faith
concerning the place of Mary in the divine purpose” (par. 58). Thus, “the teaching about
Mary in the two definitions of 1854 and 1950, understood within the biblical pattern
of the economy of grace and hope outlined here, can be said to be consonant with
the teaching of the Scriptures and the ancient common traditions” (par. 60). However,
as may be observed, this passage does not categorically state that the Marian dogmas
are contained in the Scriptures. Rather, the teaching they express can be said to be in
accordance with the Scriptures.
According to David Carter, the assertion underlined in the paragraph does not meet
the criteria stated in the Anglican Articles of Religion even though it is further stated that,
“nothing can be required to be believed as an article of faith unless it is revealed by God”
(par. 60).43 Conversely, the Catholic position is that the two doctrines were defined on
the basis of “the sensus fidelium, the liturgical tradition throughout the local churches
and the active support of the Roman Catholic bishops” (par. 62). In any case, it is more
important to see that the references to the sensus fidelium in this document are taken
from the ARCIC documents on authority. This implies that, the way in which the sensus
fidelium is understood, notably, in The Gift of Authority, is central to the understanding
of the convergence that emerges in this document with regard to Marian definitions.
With regard to the other Anglican concern that the doctrines were defined by the
Pope outside the council, it is clarified that the doctrines “were not made in response
to controversy, but gave voice to the consensus of faith among believers in communion
with the bishop of Rome” (par. 62). This is to say that the doctrines were the result of
the sensus fidelium.44 At this point, Catholics appeal for the necessity of having the two
See, Yarnold, “Mary in the ARCIC-I Final Report,” 70.
Carter, “Mary - Grace and Hope in Christ: Some Reflections,” 66. Article VI of the 1571 Articles of Religion
states: “Holy Scripture contains all things necessary to salvation: so whatever is not read therein, nor may be proved
thereby, is not to be required of any man, that it should be believed as an article of the faith, or be thought requisite or
necessary to salvation.”
44
Questions have been raised with regard to the nature and scope of the appeal made to the sensus fidelium
in relation to the Marian dogmas. In the two cases it was the sensus fidelium of the Roman Catholics alone that was
42
43
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doctrines understood in the context of the teaching of the Second Vatican Council, notably, Dei Verbum which brings out clearly the centrality of Scripture in “the reception
and transmission of revelation” (par. 61).
A far more fundamental question addressed in the document is whether the Marian
doctrines will be a requisite for Anglicans in case of a full communion with the Roman
Catholic Church. At this point, the document echoes the position already proposed by
the Groupe des Dombes. Accordingly, considerations have to take account of the fact
that the two doctrines were defined at the time when some believers were not in communion with the Roman Catholic Church. Hence, even though they may be required
to recognise the two doctrines as “legitimate expression of the Catholic faith,” the acceptance of the precise wording of such teachings ought not to be obligatory. It seems
clear that, in addressing this question the Commission takes into consideration the very
fact that there are some Anglicans who hold the Marian dogmas “as legitimate but not
binding expressions of the truth concerning Christ and salvation.”45
In the light of the above one could say that the present document represents a
growing convergence between Anglicans and Roman Catholics on the doctrine and
devotion to Mary. There is much in the document that needs to be desired, especially
the common ground for the consideration of the Marian doctrine and devotion. The
Commission highlights the context in which the Marian doctrine and devotion find a
proper meaning (par. 78). Such context takes a significant account of the common
sources of Mariology such as Scripture, theological interpretations and the liturgical
tradition. Moreover, such context is crucial for it depicts the historical circumstances
in which the sensus fidei of the people of God took shape at the times the doctrines
were defined. Besides, one need to appreciate the call made by the Commission which
urges both Anglicans and Roman Catholics to ensure for a “re-reception”46 of the two
doctrines in accordance with the context that is underlined in the document as well as
the convergence already reflected in the ARCIC documents on authority, notably, The
Gift of Authority (par. 63).
c. A Critical Appraisal
I have so far attempted to highlight the manner in which the Marian doctrines of
the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption are considered in the ecumenical debate. What comes out very clearly from this debate is the need to avoid extreme positions or exaggerations on the Marian doctrine and devotion. While the Roman Catholic
Church is cautioned as regards certain traits on the Marian devotion that at times tend
towards exaggeration, the churches of the Reformation are blamed for not honestly
acknowledging the role and place that Mary holds in the divine plan of salvation. For
consulted. Thus the question is whether the fact of not consulting the non-Catholics does undermine the authenticity
of the Marian doctrines. Cf. Hartin, “Sensus Fidelium,” 74-87. Francis A. Sullivan, “The Sense of Faith: The Sense/
Consensus of the Faithful,” in Authority in the Roman Catholic Church: Theory and Practice, ed. Bernard Hoose
(Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002), 85-93.
45
Cf. Mary: Grace and Hope in Christ, par. 63. See especially, the footnote attached to paragraphs 63. See
also, Yarnold, “Mary in the ARCIC-I Final Report,” 72.
46
This term refers to a kind of “re-recognition” and “reappropriation” of “some elements of ecclesial communion,” or tradition which may have been “forgotten, neglected or abused” owing to the very fact that the Church
is also marked with “human finitude and sin.” Cf. The Gift of Authority, par. 25. See, Jean-Marie Tillard, Church of
Churches: The Ecclesiology of Communion, trans., R. C. De Peaux (Collegeville MN: Liturgical Press, 1992), 124.
See also, Jean-Marie Tillard, “Reception-Communion,” One in Christ 28, no. 4 (1992): 310-311.
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this reason, the Groupe des Dombes calls for the conversion of the churches as regards
their attitude towards Mary.
While the Roman Catholic Church has been at the forefront in ensuring that Mary
is appropriately honoured in the liturgy in accordance with her role and place in the
divine plan of salvation, there are times when the devotion to Mary has tended towards
exaggerations. Signals of such exaggerations could still be detected in the old generation
of believers who keep on with the recitation of the rosary during the Eucharistic celebration. It is also possible to come across some forms of inflated veneration of the statue
of Mary along with what could be described as the distorted theology that is detectable
in some of the Marian songs. To cite an example: One of the popular Swahili Marian
songs which were composed in Tanzania during the Marian year (1988) constitutes the
following wording: “Tunakushukuru Mama Maria, kwa neema unazotujalia...” This
is actually a song of thanksgiving to Our Lady for the graces “she bestows on us.” The
problem is precisely that Our Lady is, in this context, conceived as the one bestowing
graces on us, contrary to her being our intercessor to God who is the author of all graces.
After all, it should not be forgotten that the famous sect of Legio Maria which is
most popular in the Western part of Kenya was once a devotional group in the Roman
Catholic Church. However, it is difficult to tell whether the dissident sect does actually
stand as a representation of the negative consequences of the exaggerations on the
Marian devotion in the Roman Catholic Church as noted by the Groupe des Dombes.
On the other hand, exaggerations on the Marian doctrine and devotion should not
be taken as a scapegoat by the churches of the Reformation for failing to acknowledge
the rightful place that Mary holds in the divine plan of salvation. The Scripture speaks
of Mary as the Virgin Mother of Jesus. In this way, she is among those who can lead
us to the full comprehension of the mystery of Christ. It is for this reason that theology
throughout centuries has been devoted to exploring the character and the person of
Mary the Mother of Jesus. Certainly, as Karl Rahner observes, the reality of incarnation,
the God becoming man is a turning point in our way of speaking about God. The fact
that God became man means that “no doctrine of God is possible any more without a
doctrine of man, no theology without anthropology.”47 We cannot speak of God without
speaking of man.
In the post-incarnation era it becomes difficult to speak of God without acknowledging that the Son of God was born of the Virgin Mary, and that God assumed a human
nature in the womb of a virgin-lady from Nazareth. Hence, at the very heart of the divine
plan of salvation stands a woman – Mary of Nazareth. She played an important role in
the saving history of humankind. She is in no doubt among those who are important in
God’s redemptive plan and hence constitutes a subject for theology.48 As Cyril Vollert
observes, if we wish to know Jesus, we must not only seek to know who his Father
is, but we must also know who His Mother is. “We do not sufficiently understand the
work of redemption unless we are aware of the special way Mary was redeemed, and
the special activity allotted to her in the redemption of the rest of us.”49
47
Karl Rahner, Mary Mother of the Lord (Freiburg: Herder & Herder, 1963), 26. See also, Karl Rahner, ed.,
Encylopedia of Theology: A Concise Sacramentum Mundi (London: Burns & Oates, 1975), s.v. “Man (Anthropology).”
48
Rahner, Mary Mother of the Lord, 26.
49
Cyril Vollert, “The Scientific Structure of Mariology,” in Mariology, ed. Juniper B. Carol (Milwaukee:
The Bruce Publishing Company, 1957), 25-26.
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All in all, the Groupe des Dombes rightly urges the churches to re-examine their
current Mariology most especially with regard to whether such theology respects and
rightly situates Mary’s role and place in the divine plan of salvation. In other words, the
doctrine and devotion to Mary should be placed within the perspective of the mystery
of Christ. One has to recall here the tradition that is held and cherished in the Orthodox Church whereby in all Marian icons the Mother is often presented together with
her Son. Such tradition that associates the Mother with the Son does rightly underscore
the inseparability of the Marian devotion from the central mystery of Christ. Yet, such
tradition, though also reflected in the Roman Catholic Church, has unfortunately been
overshadowed by some of the portraits of Mary that emerged from the Marian apparitions in various parts of the world. In any case, there is a need for the various churches
to rehabilitate their doctrine and devotion to Mary so that it may conform to the central
message of the Gospel. This goes along with the various icons or portraits of Mary that
are placed in various churches.
C
onclusion: There is no doubt that the Marian dogmas of the Immaculate Concep-
tion and the Assumption cause some tensions in the ongoing quest for Christian
unity. However, the consensus that emerges from the ecumenical debate seems
to give hope for a common understanding of the Marian doctrine and devotion. So
far we have seen that when the two dogmas are viewed or placed within the broader
context of the role and place of Mary in the divine plan of salvation, their coherence
and conformity to the central message of the Gospel becomes more apparent.
This goes along with the explicit recognition that not all Christian truths are placed
on the same level (Unitatis Redintegratio, 11). Some truths such as the Marian doctrines
lean on more fundamental truth, that is, the mystery of Christ. Hence Mary’s role in
the divine plan of salvation has to be considered in a way that is inseparable from the
mystery of Christ. It is from this perspective that the Second Vatican Council in Lumen
Gentium chapter 8 situates Mariology within the context of Christology and ecclesiology when it speaks of “the Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of God in the mystery of Christ
and the Church”.
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________. “Reception-Communion.” One in Christ 28, no. 4 (1992): 307-322.
Vollert, Cyril. “The Scientific Structure of Mariology.” In Mariology, edited by Juniper B. Carol,
Vol. 2, 1-29. Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing Company, 1957.
Yarnold, Edward. “Mary in the ARCIC-I Final Report.” One in Christ 21, no. 1 (1985): 70-72.
Yarnold, Edward, and Edward Knapp-Fisher. “The 1976 Venice Agreed Statement on ‘Authority
in the Church’, Two Comments.” the Ampleforth Journal 83, no. 1 (1978): 48-61.
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Scripture
Forgiven, forgive
The Performative Action of Jesus’ Parable
(Mt 18:23-35)
By Uwineza Marcel, SJ*
A
bstract: Forgive them, spare me this word please! What they have done is beyond
understanding; it is just difficult to imagine that they could do this ... How do I
open up again after so much betrayal and abuse of my trust? At one moment or
another we have uttered these words. Yet when we let God ‘invade’ us, great things happen… Enemies shake hands. We begin to put ourselves in the shoes of those whom we put
outside our operating space. We understand that we are all sinners standing in mercy
of God (Rom 3:23-24). Yet in no way does this call for naïve reconciliation, instead it
is an inward call to realise our potential for self and mutual destruction and how this
can be avoided: by forgiving. The power of what we can become instead of what we are.
The power of forgiveness is fully revealed in God who does more than what he is asked
by his servants. God who raised Jesus to life, not taking revenge against those who killed
him. This power extends reconciliation to where there is conflict, healing where there is
violence and hope in hopeless milieu. This is the power revealed in weakness; such is the
power of forgiveness. It is the power the unforgiving servant lacked. This is the point that
this article addresses using Jesus’ parable of the unmerciful servant.
I
ntroduction: One Rwandan proverb goes: ntazibana zidakomanye amahembe, (the
cows living together inevitably hit each other’s horns). People who live together have
in one way or another to cope with each other’s weakness, differences and learn to
let go. Having lost many family members due to the April-July 1994 Rwandan genocide,1
the issue of forgiveness and reconciliation is close to my heart. When I finished the
Jesuit novitiate in 2003, I went back to my former village to pray at the tombs of my
beloved parents, brothers and sister. There I met Mr. Nkurunziza, the man who killed
my brothers and sister. On seeing me, he ‘froze’, he did not know how it happened that
we met. A few minutes later, he came towards me; I did not know what to do! I was
afraid for I did not know his plans, as the contentious saying goes, once a thief always a
1
The Rwandan genocide against the Tutsi systematically killed close to a million sons and daughters of
Rwanda, neighbours rose against their neighbours. The world was looking on and did nothing to stop it.
*Uwineza is a Rwandan Jesuit. He is a student at the Jesuit School of Theology, Hekima College,
Nairobi.
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thief! But God has his ways! He came and knelt before me and said: Marcel, mbabarira,
uzi ibyo nakoze, niba wabona akanya mu mutima wawe, ngirira imbababazi, forgive
me for you know what I did. If you have some little space in your heart for me, forgive
me. Here I was! My Christian discipleship was challenged to the core. Now love was to
be shown more in deeds than in words.2 Was he genuine? Did he mean what he said?
These were the questions running in my mind! I did not know what forced me and
I found myself hugging him, saying, may the God who has inspired the desire to seek
forgiveness continue to give you his grace. I survived the genocide not because I was any
better but for a reason: I was given more days; I pray that I may live them well. I forgive
you. I bought him a bottle of beer, and later I left.
If this paper discusses anything, it is about forgiveness. Forgiven, forgive. That is
the theme of my article to be discussed in the light of the parable of the unforgiving/
unmerciful servant found in Matthew 18:23-35. It is difficult to forgive but it is possible.
The following pages tell us how.
Setting of the parable
Literary context
In the Synoptic Gospels, we find the parable of the unmerciful and unforgiving3
servant only in Matthew in chapter eighteen at the end of the ecclesial discourse (Mt
18:23-35). The parable is said when Jesus is still in Galilee before he goes to the district
of Judea across the Jordan (Mt 19: 1). One may refer to the parable as the climax of this
discourse. In 18:21, Peter comes up to Jesus and asks a question. The parable belongs
to Jesus’ answer to Peter. It ends with verse 35, which is also the conclusion of the discourse. Both verses 21 and 35 speak of forgiving one’s brother (or sister); which is the
theme of the dialogue between Jesus and Peter. In 19:1 we encounter the transitional
verse, typical of the Matthean speech compositions: Now when Jesus had finished these
sayings/words… (7:28; 13:53; 19:1; 26:1). There is a change of place. Jesus goes away
from Galilee and begins his journey to Judea. Large crowds follow him in the region of
Judea beyond the Jordan and he heals them (19:1-2).
The parable of the unmerciful servant like some other Matthean parables is a ‘kingdom of heaven parable.’ There is, moreover, the motif of accounts and payment which
is also present in The Workers in the Vineyard (20:1-6) and The Talents (25:14-30). This
motif of accounts appears to be one of Matthew’s favourite themes.
In chapter eighteen, we see what it means to enter and receive the Kingdom of
God. It means entering into an intimate relationship with the heavenly Father, each
person living equally precious to God. The greatest ones in the Kingdom are those who
humble themselves making themselves like little children (18:1-10). All disciples are
God’s children no matter how little (v.10) they may be. The parable of the lost sheep
(18:12-14) summarises Jesus’ mission to seek after the lost sheep of the house of Israel
(10:6; 15:24).
2
George E Ganss, The Spiritual Exercises of Saint Ignatius. A Translation and Commentary (St Louis,
Missouri: The Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1992), no. 230.
3
In this paper, I will be using these two terms interchangeably.
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Prior to the parable of the unforgiving servant, Matthean Jesus explains how to deal
with someone’s sin (brother or sister) in the light of the Father’s concern that not one
should perish. The goal is to win him or her back as expressed in Leviticus 19: 17-18:
“you shall not bear hatred for your brother in your heart. Though you may have to reprove your fellow man, do not incur sin because of him. Take no revenge and cherish
no grudge against your fellow countrymen.”
Most importantly, belonging to the Kingdom entails forgiveness (Mt 18:21-35). The
concern for another’s sin in vv.15-17 is motivated by a desire to remove any stumbling
block from the person and the community. There is no place for retaliation. The Sermon
on the Mount expresses it well: you have heard eye for eye, tooth for tooth but I say to
you… (5:22f); those living in Matthean community must live in the forgiving love of the
Father as articulated by Isaiah 40:2, 43:25.
Peter’s offer to forgive seven times is a response to Jesus’ teaching and in contrast
with the sevenfold vengeance for Cain (Gn 4:15 & Lev 26:21). Jesus’ answer of forgiving seventy times seven is in contrast to the vengeance for Lamech: “If Cain is avenged
sevenfold, then Lamech seventy-sevenfold” (Gen 4:24). Seven and its multiples are symbolic for fullness. For Jesus, unlimited forgiveness takes place of retaliation. The parable
of the unforgiving servant illustrates that living in the Kingdom means experiencing
the immeasurable forgiveness of God. Those who belong to the Kingdom reflect that
forgiving nature in their relationship with others.
Matthew concludes each of his five discourses with a reference to judgment. We
see this in 8:12; 13:42, 50; 18:34; 22:13; 24:51 and 25:30. The ecclesial discourse is
no exception (18:34). With the unforgiving servant, Matthean Jesus underlines how
condemnation can be avoided: through forgiving one’s neigbour from the heart (v.35).
The language of warning is certainly threatening and frightening. God’s wrath, that is,
the strict punishment which the torturers will execute and the hopeless duration of the
imprisonment (v.34) are all motifs favoured by Matthew.
Analysis of the Parable
The parable stands within the dialogue between Peter and Jesus (vv.21-35). There is
a distinction between Peter’s question v.21: how often must I forgive… and the reaction
of Jesus (vv.22-35). Jesus’ reaction consists of the real answer to the question (v.22).
The ensuing parable (vv.23-35) is an illustration of Jesus’ answer. This illustration is
introduced by “that is why”, or “therefore” or “thus” (v.23 depending on the version of
bible), which is characteristic of Matthew.
The parable is framed by the introductory v.23 and the application v.35. The narrative has three parts: vv.24-27 (the king and the servant); vv.28-30 (the servant and his
fellow servant) and vv.31-34 (again the king and the servant). The three scenes follow
certain sequence of time. The second scene repeats the first, yet stands in contrast to
it. Compare verses 26 and 29: the servants fall on their knees and their petitions are
almost identical. The third scene revokes the first because in the second scene the servant has behaved improperly. In v.34 there is, at the end, almost the same expression
as at the end of v.30.
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Structure of the parable4
Introduction
Words
Actions
Scene 1
(king and servant)
Scene 2
(servant & fellow
servant)
Scene 3
(king & servant)
18: 23-25
18: 26
18: 27
18: 28
18: 29
18: 30
18: 31
18: 32-33
18:34
I. The king and his subject
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
The King’s decision to settle accounts with his servant, 23
The servant with impossible debt, 24
The decision to force payment, 25
The plea for mercy, 26
The cancelling of the debt, 27
II. The Servant and his Fellow Servant
a. The servant forcing his fellow servant to pay a small debt, 28
b. The plea for mercy, 29
c. The refusal of mercy, 30
d. The report of the other servants, 31
III. The King’s response
a. The rebuke from the king (32-33)
b. The renewing of the original debt, 34
IV. The application of the parable by Jesus (35)
This structure gives four main points: the three scenes are bound closely together
by the introductory situation of each. It starts with master and servant in 18:23-25:
a king wished to settle accounts with his servants. When he began reckoning, one was
brought to him… It continues with this servant and his fellow servant in 18:28: but
the same servant, as he went out, came upon one of his fellow servants… it goes on with
the fellow servants and the master in 18:31: When his fellow servants saw what had
taken place, they were greatly distressed, and they went and reported to their lord all that
had taken place. It concludes with the application of the parable in 18:35.
The words in which the first servant pleads with his master for mercy in 18:26 are
almost verbatim as those used later by the second servant asking him for patience in
18:29: so the servant fell on his knees, imploring him, ‘Lord, have patience with me, and
I will pay you everything’ and then, so his fellow servant fell down and besought him,
‘Have patience with me, and I will pay you.’ This agreement in language dramatically
emphasizes the divergent reactions to the plea in each case. In 18:27, we read: And
4
The New Interpreters’ Bible, Vol. VIII (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1995), 380.
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Uwineza Marcel, SJ
out of pity for him the lord of that servant released him and forgave him the debt. Yet in
18:30: He refused and went and put him in prison till he should pay the debt.
The verb proseku,nei (worship) in v.26 is typically Matthean (see Mt 2:2) and almost
certainly contains a religious connotation. That verb is absent in the almost identical v.29
where we find παρεκάλει (to beseech). The fellow servant could not ‘worship’ the first
servant. Yet, since the verb ‘to beseech’ also appears in v.32, in connection with the first
servant, and since Matthew sees in the lord a king who symbolizes God, the guess is
justified that in v.26, the evangelist might have replaced the original ‘to beseech’ by his
favourite proseku,nei (worship) . Matthew rewrites in an allegorizing way, the reader
together with the servant should fall on their knees and revere the lord and king who
is God, seeking God’s mercy.5
In v.27, ‘The lord of that servant’ occurs again in 24:50 in a context of eschatological
judgment. The sovereign was moved with compassion, released him, and cancelled the
debt. The verb to ‘cancel’ is used to refer to forgiveness pertaining to sins. This refers to
6:12 where the word for sins is literary ‘debt.’ The word ‘debt’, technically ‘a loan’’ also
occurs in Rom 15: 27. In response to the plea of the servant for mercy in the form of
the time to repay the enormous debt, the sovereign responds with nearly unimaginable
grace in the full dismissal of all indebtedness. It is not difficult to hear in this verse the
echo of the gospel of the forgiveness of sins.
In v.28, the forgiven servant proceeds to force a fellow servant to pay a relatively
small debt of a ‘thousand denarii.’ There were six thousand denarii to a single talent, and
the servant himself had himself forgiven a debt of 600,000 times greater, if we ignore
the obvious hyperbole. Yet he even uses physical violence in his demand for payment:
he laid hands on him, and took him by the throat. This also refers to a wicked servant
who beats a fellow servant in 24:49.
In v.31, other servants were distressed, reported the affair to their master. Here we
are led to assume that these other servants knew of the cancellation of the first servant’s huge debt.
In v.33, the heart of the parable, “should not you also have shown mercy to your
fellow servant, as I have shown you mercy?” we encounter the central point in Jesus’
teaching, expressed in forgiveness of others (6:12, 14-15). It is the merciful that are pronounced blessed and who will also obtain mercy (5:7). As the disciple judges others, so
will God judge the disciple; and by the measure in which the disciple gives to others,
by the same measure will God give the disciple (7:2). Disciples are to act towards others
as God has acted toward them – mercy (Lk 6:36), in forgiveness, and in love. We also
see this in 1Jn 4:11 and James 2:13, which closely resemble Mt 18:33.
In v.34, torturers, though disallowed by the Jews, were common in Roman prisons;
in the case of unpaid debt, friends and relations would have accordingly been more
urgent in raising money. Given the enormity of the debt, the imprisonment would have
to be permanent. This verse demonstrates concretely the teaching that as one treats
others so also will one be treated, a point made explicit in the following verse: so will
your heavenly father do to you, unless each of you forgives his brother and sister from
his heart (v.35).
5
60.
Jan Lambrecht, Out of the Treasure: The Parables in the Gospel of Matthew (Louvain: Peeters Press, 1971),
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The conclusion in 18:32-34 is appropriate from dramatic as well as literary point
of view. Since the reaction in 18:30 (non-forgiveness) was not modelled on that in
18:27 (forgiveness), then, conversely, 18:27 will be remodelled on 18:30. Consequently,
18:32-34 reads: Then his lord summoned him and said to him; ‘You wicked servant! I
forgave you all that debt because you besought me; and should not you have had mercy
on your fellow servant, as I had mercy on you?’ And in anger his lord delivered him
to the torturers, till he should pay all his debt. This justifies the title we have chosen
for this article, ‘forgiven, forgive.’ We may extrapolate and say that parables are not
merely for the sake of information. They call for action and conversion. They are
performative.
Apart from the concluding v. 35, in which Matthew interprets the parable for his
context; the dramatic unity of the story is perfect. It shows no signs of internal thematic
changes. The ordinary human reaction to such a story would be that the first servant
got what he deserved and should have known better in such a situation. The emphasis
is not on the master’s mercy but on the servant’s lack of mercy and on his absolute
stupidity in displaying his lack of mercy in such a way and at such a time.
Exegesis of the Parable and Matthean editing
In verse 21, the first clause is the equivalent of a conditional ‘if-clause’ or protasis:
if my brother [or sister] sins against me, how often…? The future tense “shall I forgive”
has to be understood in the sense of “must I forgive.” At the end of verse 22, there is a
Greek numeral construction ἑβδομηκοντάκις ἑπτά of which “seventy times seven” is the
literal translation. The Septuagint of Lamaech’s song (Gen 4:23-24), however, renders
the Hebrew “seventy-sevenfold” by means of the same construction ἑβδομηκοντάκις
ἑπτά: if Cain is avenged sevenfold, Lamech seventy-sevenfold (Gen 4:24). It is possible
that in Jesus’ answer (v.22), reference is made to this song, but that does not mean that
the original Hebrew is to be preferred. In both cases, the sense is the same: over and
over again, without limitation. Nonetheless, it should be noted that while the passage
in Genesis deals with vengeance, Matthew’s is concerned with forgiveness. These are
two sides of the coin. Vengeance can never be equated with forgiveness.
An important exegetical element is present in the translation of v.26: the servant fell
down, did him homage saying. The original Greek has it this way: pesw.n ou=n o` dou/
loj proseku,nei auvtw/| le,gwn\. The literal rendering is: having fallen, he worshipped
saying. This is close to what the wise from the East did: εἴδομεν γὰρ αὐτοῦ τὸν ἀστέρα ἐν
τῇ ἀνατολῇ καὶ ἤλθομεν προσκυνῆσαι αὐτῷ (for we have seen his star in the east, and are
come to worship him, Mt 2:2b). Worshipping is expressed by a gesture of reverence.
Worship is only reserved to God, not to human beings. For the evangelist the lord of
the parable is God. We can compare the different attitude of the second servant towards
the first servant in v.29 where the verb “to worship” is absent: πεσὼν οὖν ὁ σύνδουλος
αὐτοῦ παρεκάλει αὐτὸν λέγων (And his fellow servant fell down at his feet, and besought
him, saying). These verses (26 and 29) demonstrate that we are dealing with God with
a human being and a human being with another human being. Consequently, there
is a vertical and horizontal dimension demonstrated by the parable, but also a vertical
and horizontal dimension of sin.
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Robert Gundry maintains that the parable is thoroughly written in Matthean vocabulary and style that Matthew himself must be considered its creator.6 However, certain
elements of unevenness in the existing text strongly militate against this view. A writer
who worked without an existing text would avoid such irregularities.
There are a number of irregularities but one has to see them in a nuanced way.
The parable itself does not give an adequate answer to Peter’s question in v.21. This
is, however, nicely done by v.22. Peter asks: how often, as many as seven times? Jesus
answers: seventy times seven, meaning always. The parable deals with neither the frequency nor the repetition of the forgiveness. Instead, it stresses the necessity of compassion. Those to whom debts are forgiven must themselves also forgive others. “In
the question and answer of Peter and Jesus, the quantity of the forgiveness is treated,
but in the parable its quality.”7
The double expression avnqrw,pw| basilei (person-king) is strange as elsewhere
in the parable that person is no longer called king but ‘master’ or ‘lord’ (vv. 25, 27,
31, 32 &34; compare with v. 21). This suggests that the term ‘king’ could have been
perhaps added by Matthew. This may be a Matthean pattern to specify the ambiguous
avnqrw,pος (man) at the beginning of parables with an appositional noun.8 We have
good examples in Mt 13:45 (merchant); 20:1 (landowner) different from Mark 12: 1 (a
man) and Mt 22:2 (king) and also different from Luke 14:16 (a man).
In v.24 the first servant owes ‘ten thousand talents.’ Ten thousand talents are an
extravagant sum of money, an inconceivably large amount. Yet in v. 26 the servant
proposes: lord, have patience with me, and I will pay you everything. Is this a realistic
proposal? How can such a big sum be indicated by “loan” (v.27)? The question therefore
arises of whether a more original text has not been altered, even though speaking in
parables has its own freedom.9 If one accepts the sum of 10,000 talents as an original
part of the parable, δουλος must mean ‘a slave’ but, in accordance with the oriental
usage, ‘minister’ or official’. The parable would then be about a king and one of his
governors. But the lesser sum would permit one to think of a master and servant, and
then we can understand v.31: ‘fellow servants’
Remember the talent was the largest unit in the whole of Near East. Josephus says
that the total Judean tax for one year totalled only 600 talents and if we compare the
Old Testament sums associated with the building of Solomon’s great temple (1Chron
29:4-7); the sum of 10,000 talents does appear incredible. Matthew may have greatly
inflated the figure in order to magnify God’s magnificence.10 Parables, by their nature,
often employ hyperbole for effect, and there is no reason to require that every point
correspond to historical reality.11
In verse 22, Jesus answers Peter’s question. Yet in v.35 Jesus speaks to all the disciples (unless each of you, second person plural). We can also consider the beginning
Quoted in Lambrecht, Out of the Treasure, 56.
John Dominic Crossan, In Parables: The Challenges of the Historical Jesus (New York: Harper & Row
Publishers, 1973), 105-106.
8
W. D. Davies and Dale C. Allison, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel according to
Saint Matthew, Vol. II. (Edinburgh, T& T Clark, 1991), 797.
9
J. Wilfrid Harrington, Parables of Jesus: A Contemporary Approach to the Parables (New York: Alba
House, 1974), 79.
10
Davies, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary, 798.
11
Hagner A Donald, World Biblical Commentary: Matthew 14-28 (Dallas: Word Books Publishers, 1998),
535.
6
7
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of the discourse 18:1: the disciples approached Jesus and said: who is the greatest in the
kingdom of heaven, the disciples direct a question to Jesus. Although we know that Peter
often appears as the spokesperson for the others so that we should not be surprised by
the transition from singular to plural, the slight inconsistency may still point to a writer
who did not enjoy absolute editorial freedom.
There is a tension in recent scholarship between the mercy of the lord in v.27 and
his angry, implacable reaction in v. 34. This raises the question whether the original
parable did not end with the open question of v. 33: should you not have had pity on
your fellow servant, as I had pity on you. Otherwise, we may be led to think that God
sometimes regrets his good actions.
Matthew 18:21-35 is Matthean as far as style and vocabulary are concerned. The
use of expressions or terms such as “the kingdom of heaven” (v.23), “then” (vv. 21 and
32) and prosekuvei (‘revere,” v.26) are a few examples.
There is at the end of the following parables: The Weeds among the Wheat (13:24);
the Guests invited to the Feast (22:2) and the parable the Unforgiving servant (18:34), an
allusion to the future last judgment. This is another element that could substantiate the
argument of Matthew’s editing to fit the needs of his community.
In v.24, there is a tension between the immense sum of ten thousand talents and
the servant’s claim in v.26: I will pay you everything. Martinus C. de Boer has adduced
good reasons which show that Matthew has increased the sum. According to de Boer,
the parable originally spoke of ten thousand “dinarii.” One denarius was the day’s wages
of a labourer (see Mt 20:2). A Talent is about ten thousand denarii. The term ‘talent’
is employed by Matthew alone, in this parable and also in that of the Talents (25:1430), and nowhere else in his gospel. De Boer thus assumes that in 25:14-30, Matthew
changed from the original pounds of the Q-Parable (see Lk 19:12-27) into talents.12 A
second reason consists in the fact that such Matthean editing explains the actual tension in ‘The Unforgiving servant.’ If Matthew has not modified the numbers but only
the money/currency (ten thousand talents instead of ten thousand denarii), then there
should not be a tension. For ten thousand denarii can be taken as a loan (v.27) and
that sum is not so big that repayment is to be excluded.
Some scholars argue that the change into talents is probably connected with the addition of ‘king’ in v.23a. Does Matthew want to present the servant as a governor who had
collected many taxes in a large region? This is not unlikely but it is difficult to prove.13
In verse 35, the phrase ‘heavenly’ Father is a characteristically Matthean expression
(see also 5:48; 6:14, 26, 32; 15:13; 23:9), just as “Father in the heavens.” The whole of
verse 35 also reminds of 6:15, part of Matthew’s comment on the petition for forgiveness:
But if you do not forgive others, neither will your Father forgive your trespasses (also in
Mk 11:25). Jesus reminds his readers of the condition which he explicitly formulated
directly after the Lord’s Prayer (6:14-15: mandatory forgiving). Therefore, in 18:21-35,
the important petition of the Lord’s Prayer receives one more special mention.14 Further,
human forgiveness is not the prior and necessary condition for God’s forgiveness; it is
12
W. D. Davies and Dale C. Allison, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel according to
Saint Matthew, Vol. II. (Edinburgh, T & T Clark, 1991), 796. Although one can also argue that Luke is the one who
changed from talents to pound!
13
Lambrecht, Out of the Treasure, 30.
14
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rather the required consequence. We can explain this using Israel’s history. God chose
Israel as his elect. Out of love, he saved them from slavery in Egypt. Yet as a response,
Israel was to be faithful to the covenant. God’s love for us entails responsibility and a
response on our part.
As the enlargement of the debt in v.24 points to the gravity of sin, the expression
from your heart (end v.35) also stresses the quality of human forgiveness.15 The insistence to forgive from your hearts means in all sincerity, not just in word or appearance.
We also find this well articulated in Paul’s letter to the Romans 6:17 and 1Peter 3:4-4.
Forgiveness has to find place in the inner core of our being. This is close to Matthean
Jesus’ words: not every person who calls me ‘Lord, Lord’ will enter into the kingdom of
heaven, but only those who do what my Father in heaven wants them to do (7:21). With
all these elements of unevenness, we can postulate that Matthew reworked an already
existing parable? But is it then possible to reconstruct that pre-Matthean parable?16 Even
if it is not possible, the postulate can stand.
From the above arguments, we can conclude that the parable itself is a comment
on Jesus’ answer in v.22. Most probably vv23a and 35 are pure Matthean composition.
If so we can postulate an introduction which sounds more or less as follows: ‘someone
wished to settle accounts with his servants’ (v.23b). In the pre-Matthean parable that
person was not a king. The sum of money was large but not exaggeratedly immense:
ten thousand denarii. The servant does not genuflect in adoration before his lord, but
falls on his knees and implores him, just as the fellow servant does later before the
major servant.
Meaning of the parable
Can Jesus represent a God who is immensely merciful and suddenly harsh and
cruel? Does God regret his previous goodness? The main point of the parable is not
constituted by the third scene but by the second and the first. What is striking is not the
strict judgment at the end and the rigid command in v.25: both elements are required.
The hearer must be touched by the overwhelming offer of mercy by the lord.17 The
hearer understands that this lord can only be God, and the servant, a guilty, sinful human
being. The lord does much more than he is asked. He grants more than the required
postponement of payment. He gives total remittal. The lord’s mercy is grandiose.
Listening to the parable, one becomes like the fellow servants; one is upset and
distressed because of the inextricable conduct of the favoured first servant. The man
who received mercy himself becomes merciless! How could a man who has himself
experienced such mercy be so harsh and merciless towards another? That is unacceptable; it is a crying shame. The first servant should have realised that he was encountering
exactly the same situation as the one he had found himself in. It is precisely because of
that second scene that the parable is told. Of course, the second scene cannot be told
without the first. By means of the second scene, Jesus impresses a rule of conduct. That
is the heart of the matter: the appeal to mercy, the imperative of compassion. God’s
17
15
16
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gift to us brings about our duty towards others. The God-given vertical mercy becomes
horizontal commission from person to person.18
God is merciful and all who receive God’s mercy must also be merciful towards
others. This is the impressive teaching of the parable. Yet if we stop here, we risks neglecting the Christological dimension of the parable. Jesus has not only come to bring a
teaching. In himself, in his appearance on earth, God’s compassion is manifested.19 In
Jesus that mercy has taken a concrete, personified human form. Jesus alone could proclaim God’s goodness with messianic authority and exhort his hearers to the appropriate
answer. In Christ, an actual event has taken place and an urgent concrete challenge to
conversion has sounded forth. He is remaking a new creation based on forgiveness, not
on retaliation. Without this Christological implication the parable remains colourless; it
may be a cold lesson in morality.
The parable is spoken in a language which is more performative than informative.
Listening to the parable the hearer must endeavour to realise that Jesus is actually speaking of God and humanity. For Jesus, God’s mercy should have effect in those who have
been forgiven a grateful, fruitful reaction towards their neighbours.
God grants forgiveness to the person who is a sinner and does so in an expectedly
generous way (first scene). Reflecting further, the listener understands: this is what
people do; and I am one of them (second scene)! Yet one inwardly experiences Jesus’
appeal to radical conversion: as a forgiven person I must also forgive my neigbour.
That is the built-in logic. That is the performative force of the parabolic language. The
hearer is called to a transformation of life; one must choose or decide. This explains
why a true parable aims at conversion, not just information. It is not we who explain
the parable; rather, the parable explains how we should perform.
There are some tendencies of some Christians who put themselves forward as
models for God. “They have forgiven others; then they address God in order to obtain his forgiveness. God’s mercy is not some cheap commodity, some grace which
can be obtained in a magic way. Human involvement is required before God can do
anything.”20 In contrast to this thinking, in this parable Jesus underlines that God’s forgiveness precedes our effort. Our own experience of forgiveness moves us to forgive.
Who of us can forgive our neigbour if he or she had not first personally experienced
God’s overwhelming mercy?
Matthew accentuates the ongoing nature of forgiving others, over and over again.
Yet the added parable does not deal with repeated forgiveness but with the ground and
the seriousness of the willingness to be merciful. Further, by means of the title ‘king’
and the extravagant enlargement of the debt (ten thousand talents), Matthew stresses the
distance between God and our human world. He visualises the depth of human sinfulness and guilt and thus illustrates the unbelievable wonder of God’s merciful forgiveness.
Conduct in the community of disciples is to be patterned after the mercy and grace
of God’s free forgiveness of sins – an important basis for the existence of the community. As God freely forgives those who have sinned against him, so are the disciples
to freely forgive those who sin against them. The failure to forgive others casts doubt
on the genuineness of a person’s discipleship. The refusal to forgive will be reflected
20
18
19
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upon the disciple in God’s refusal to forgive him or her. Therefore in keeping with the
thrust of the large discourse, we see the importance of a person’s conduct towards other
members of the community. The community must treat its members as God treats them.21
Relevance of the parable to Rwanda and beyond
Through the parable of the unmerciful servant, we come to the realisation that ultimately the wellbeing of our lives and that of the broader community depends on our
relationships with others. The goal of reconciliation is to bring people together. It helps
us transcend an impasse which has the capacity to destroy or paralyse us. Forgiveness
or reconciliation includes imagination, risk, and exploration of what it means to ‘start
again.’ It is a celebration of the human spirit. It is about making what is impossible
possible. This is exactly what the lord of the servant does by cancelling the unimaginable debt. Forgiveness is about the complexity of really people engaging one another
in the quest for life. It is an art rather than a science.22 This is what makes our parable
relevant. The unforgiving servant lacked the art of the heart. He had no place to learn
to let go just as his master had done.
In the period after 1994 Rwandan genocide, it was hard to imagine that the survivors
will ever see eye to eye with those who killed their relatives. This was worse given the
fact that even some Church leaders had betrayed and/or abandoned those who needed
them most, shuttering their trust in the God of the Church. Here is one story:
At the Mugonero Church complex, 8000 refugees gathered, not only believing that the president of their Church, Pastor Elizaphan Ntakirutimana, would protect them from the murderers, but also because he had lured them there. On 16th April 1994, the Adventist Sabbath, the
President of the Church drove into the complex, leading a motorcade of soldiers and militia.
When the seven pastors in the crowd wrote to him, asking him to intercede in prayer to
God for them, Ntakirutimana is said to have responded, ‘Your problem has already found a
solution. You must die...You must be eliminated. God no longer wants you.’ The killing lasted
for a total of eleven hours.23
Another tragic event close to this occurred in Nyamata and Kibeho Catholic Parishes.
There, more than 40,000 Tutsi were killed and are ‘partly’ buried in these Churches
which have become national memorial centres. On the one hand, no doubt Pastor Elizaphan had in the past asked God to forgive his sins but here he was in the place of
God, declaring: God no longer wants you ... On the other hand, we cannot forget some
Rwandese who, having deeply experienced the mercy and love of God, accepted to
give their lives for those who sought refuge to their homes. One example is that of Mr
Kabera Emmanuel who hid me in a big bee hive compound, stopped many killers to
invade the bee compound and brought me food every night. It is not an exaggeration to
say that what Kabera did for me pushed me to forgive Mr Nkurunziza whom I referred
to at the beginning of this article. The profound, freely and sincerely experienced love
is performative. Though I know this cannot be generalised, what Kabera did for me
Donald, World Biblical Commentary, 540.
Charles Villa-Vicencio, The Art of Reconciliation (Cape Town: Life & Peace Institute, 2002), 4.
Elizaphan Ntakirutimana was sentenced to a ten-year prison term for his role in the Mugonero Church
complex massacre. Cf. Andrew Mykuth, “The Tutsi’ faith in a man of God proves fatal”, Philadelphia Inquirer, September 30th, 2003 http://www.myakuth.com/Projects/rwan4.htm, accessed 10 October 2011.
21
22
23
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allowed me to see eye to eye with Mr Nkurunziza! There was no reason to seek a forgiving invisible God when I had experienced a loving visible God living in the person of
Kabera. Through Kabera’s help, I was given more days; I am called to live them well.
On my side, there will be many times to seek forgiveness too.
The parable of the unmerciful servant reveals that engaging enemies and adversaries
require tolerance, sometime to sit down and think together. This is partly the objective
of Rwandan traditional courts, commonly called Gacaca. It requires compassion and
understanding which have to emerge leading possibly to the beginning of a relationship. It is probably what Jesus meant by these words: “Should anyone press you into
service for one mile, go with him for two miles. Give to the one who asks of you, and
do not turn your back on one who wants to borrow (Mt 5:41-42). In the context of
Rwanda, forgiving and seeking forgiveness demand going an extra mile on both sides:
the survivors and the killers. What is clear is that people did not kill themselves, but
what is beautiful is the ability that the human person has for self-transcendence. This
was what the first servant lacked when we look at how he treated his fellow servant.
The first servant failed to realise that the king did more than what he was asked. He
granted more than the required postponement of payment. He gave total remittal. This
is where God’s justice transcends human understanding of justice. A good example is
how the Lord pays the same salary to his workers even to those who came at the last
hour (Mt 20:9f).
There are four elements which are important for relationships to be re-established:
confession, repentance, restitution, and forgiveness. This requires a context of grace
and acceptance, acknowledgement that a wrong has been committed (confession) and
transformation (repentance). It is through human encounter that the healing process
begins, ability to extend the hand to the one who has wronged us and the latter acknowledges the wrong and also extends the hand asking for forgiveness. The parable
of the unmerciful servant in its second scene lacks these aspects. However, in Rwanda,
there are people who slowly show us the liberative nature of forgiveness. Immaculée
Ilibagiza, in her book Left to Tell, gives a wonderfully testimony:
How would I [Immaculée] face the reality of being alone, without my entire family? Would
I really be able to forgive? Did God really have a reason to spare my life? What would be
this mission in this New Path? To what extent would I be able to appreciate Mulinzi’s help
and/or forgive him, after he let my brother die and abandoned me and my friends in the
midst of the Interahamwe?24 [Immaculée later came to this realization:] “God left me to tell
my story to others and show as many people as possible the healing power of His love and
forgiveness.” I met face to face with the killer of my own mother and brother, and forgave
him: “he looked up at me for only a moment, but our eyes met. I reached out, touched his
hands lightly, and quietly said what I’d come to say. ‘I forgive you.’”25
We understand how Immaculée profoundly understood that there is a reason why
she survived the genocide: “God left me to tell my story to others and show as many
people as possible the healing power of His love and forgiveness.”26 The unmerciful
servant missed out the reason why he was immensely forgiven and this is the heart of
24
Interahamwe were the trained militia by President Habyarimana government and they worked tirelessly
to kill during the genocide.
25
Immaculée Ilibagiza, with Steve Erwin, Left to Tell: Discovering God Amidst the Rwandan Genocide
(London: Hay House, 2006), 204,208,209.
26
Imaculee, Left to Tell, 208-209.
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the parable: “should not you also have shown mercy to your fellow servant, as I have
shown you mercy? (Mt 18:33)
The parable of the unmerciful servant demonstrates that conversion is a process of
learning, the beginning of a new way of living. “Conversion involves different attitudes
towards and relationship with those from whom one often continues to be estranged.”27
When people accept to forgive each other, dialogue and reciprocity are at the centre of
their struggle to understand what went wrong. Through dialogue, they learn to be fully
human by realising that they are incomplete to the extent that they are alienated from
one another. Looked closely, this is the image we get when we look at the relationship
between the first and second servants. There is no dialogue at all.
The parable of the unforgiving servant shows us today that reconciliation is a
process which starts by wanting to see what other people who have wronged us and
know what made them the kind of people they are. When some of them retrospectively examine themselves, they realise that they did not know what they were doing.
This demonstrates the anthropological nature of forgiveness.28 Further, Hannah Arendt
argues: “forgiveness is a process, not an event. To say I forgive you is not necessarily
to forgive.”29 In narrating the parable of the unmerciful servant, Matthean’ Jesus thus
wakes us up from our comfort zone. It is possible to ask for forgiveness now and a
few minutes we are unable to grant it to another person who committed a similar
mistake. Jesus wants us to go and see - if circumstances allow, the one who wronged
us or whom we have wronged, because if we do not, we will meet him on our way
and we may not react differently from the first servant. This is relevant for a number
of wounded Rwandese, Kenyans, Ivoirian, to name a few, who lost their relatives and
property during the genocide, the 2007 and 2011 post-election violence respectively but
also an invitation to those who wronged them to seek forgiveness and restore broken
relationships. This does not exclude justice; the latter is part of the process. Indeed by
giving the parable of the unforgiving servant, Jesus is remaking a new creation based
on forgiveness, not on retaliation. This parable therefore teaches us that being human
involves a process of engagement between strangers and adversaries as a basis for the
possibility of a relationship and a space within which to deal creatively with issues that
make us less human.30 The parable reveals our potential for self and mutual destruction
and how this can be avoided: by forgiving.
To women who have been raped, bore unwanted children and those who got infected by HIV and AIDS; it is not easy to say: please forgive the one who raped you! It
may be a fruitless exercise to begin explaining how Jesus invites them to forgive when
they know all that they are undergoing to accept the fate that has entirely changed
their life. This is the case for many African women due to war, genocide and domestic
violence. It makes us realise that most wrongs are far more serious and disturbing to
victims than they are to perpetrators. However, things become worse when we are not
even able to forgive ourselves, when we continue to blame ourselves and mourn the
wrongs done to us while those who did them seem to have moved on and do not care
about what they did. Jesus’ parable, in this case, invites us to begin by ‘self-forgiveness’
Villa-Vicencio, The Art of Reconciliation, 8.
Miroslaw Volf, Exclusion and Embrace: A Theological Exploration of Identity, Otherness, and Reconciliation (Nashville: Abingdon, 1996), 8.
29
Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958), 236-43.
30
Volf, Exclusion and Embrace, 17.
27
28
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to avoid being prisoners within ourselves. Forgiveness may therefore not be an outward act done to the other, but an inward self-acceptance of the fact that, despite their
regrettable and painful consequence, what has not killed us has/can inevitably made/
make us strong.31 My aunt Languid has understood this despite the fact that she lost her
entire family in 1994 and was left with no one to fetch water for her in her late seventies. This is the power of faith that moves us to hope amidst hopeless situations. This
is the power of God manifested in our utmost brokenness.
C
onclusion: Some people have the word ‘sorry’ too quick on their lips but when
you live with them longer, you realise that they do not mean what they say by
their ‘quick’ sorry. The parable of the unforgiving servant challenges this attitude.
Forgiveness has essentially to do with ‘who we can become’ rather than ‘who we are.’
This is why it is performative. We are capable of overcoming dehumanisation which
often shapes our lives and dehumanising attitudes towards others. Matthean parable of
the unforgiving servant is indeed an amazing story that clearly demonstrates how it is
easy to instantly forget how much we have been forgiven and loved by God who immensely forgives us and invites us to do the same. Yes, ‘forgiven, forgive.’
This article has critically examined the literal setting and context of Jesus’ parable
of the unforgiving servant (Mt 18:23-35). It has argued that this Matthean parable is a
climax to the community discourse in which forgiveness is a valuable tool for community life. I have then exegetically analysed the parable showing its inconsistencies but
also the plausible editing of an existing pre-Matthean story which Matthew might have
used to convey a message of forgiveness to his community.
The article lastly discussed for the relevance and the performative character of the
parable in the context of post-genocide Rwanda and beyond. Drawing from different
and touching examples of those who survived the genocide, the article has argued that
forgiveness is possible but it is on ongoing graced process.
Bibliography
Arendt, Hannah. The Human Condition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958.
Crossan, John Dominic. In Parables: The Challenges of the Historical Jesus. New York: Harper &
Row Publishers, 1973.
Davies, W.D. and Dale C. Allison. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel according to Saint Matthew, Vol. II. Edinburgh, T& T Clark, 1991.
Donald, Hagner A. World Biblical Commentary: Matthew 14-28 (Dallas: Word Books Publishers, 1998.
Farmer, William R. International Bible Commentary. Minnesota: The Liturgical Press, 1988.
Friedrich Nietzsche, Twilight of the Idols, 1888,
http://www.quotationspage.com/quote/38037.html, accessed 15 October 2011.
31
Friedrich Nietzsche, Twilight of the Idols, 1888, http://www.quotationspage.com/quote/38037.html,
accessed 15 October 2011.
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Ganss, George E. The Spiritual Exercises of Saint Ignatius: A Translation and Commentary. St
Louis, Missouri: The Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1992.
Harrington, J. Wilfrid. Parables of Jesus: A Contemporary Approach to the Parables. New York:
Alba House, 1974.
Immaculée, Ilibagiza, with Steve Erwin, Left to Tell: Discovering God Amidst the Rwandan Genocide. London: Hay House, 2006.
Johnson, Timothy Luke. The Writings of the New Testament: An Interpretation. Rev. ed. London:
SCM Press, 1999.
Lambrecht, Jan. Out of the Treasure: The Parables in the Gospel of Matthew. Louvain: Peeters
Press, 1971.
Mykuth, Andrew. “The Tutsi’ faith in a man of God proves fatal”, Philadelphia Inquirer,
September 30th, 2003 http://www.myakuth.com/Projects/rwan4.htm, accessed 10 October 2011.
Stein, Robert H. An Introduction to the Parables of Jesus. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1981.
The New Interpreters’ Bible. Vol. VIII. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1995.
Villa-Vicencio, Charles. The Art of Reconciliation. Cape Town: Life & Peace Institute, 2002.
Volf, Miroslaw. Exclusion and Embrace: A Theological Exploration of Identity, Otherness, and Reconciliation. Nashville: Abingdon, 1996.
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Analyse narrative de Marc 5,1-20 By Aurélien Folifack, SJ*
A
bstract: The healing of the Gerasene demoniac is the most spectacular and famous
healing miracle in Mark gospel. This article through a narrative analysis of this
episod tries to show that what is at stake in this miracle, is not the healing of the
man, but the identity of Jesus and his mission. The revelation of the identity of Jesus as
the ‘Son of the most high’ and his announcement among gentiles, is much more emphasised than the healing of the demoniac man. The healing of the demoniac of Gerasene,
serves the purpose of the gospel of Mark, to show that Jesus is the ‘‘Son of God’’(Mc 1,1),
and offers an opportunity to study this gospel. The christological emphasis of this miracle,
leads to understand that in our continent where so many people suffer from sicknesses
and diseases, and rush in churches in search of healing, this must not be seek for itself
but with the aim to come to an encounter with Jesus.
I
ntroduction: De tous les épisodes d’exorcismedans l’évangile de Marc (1,21-28 ; 7,2430 ; 9,14-29), l’épisode du démoniaque de Gerasene, est le plus fameux. Il est aussi
le plus long et le plus détaillé de tous les épisodes du genre dans les évangiles.
Plusieurs types d’analyses ont été consacrées à cet épisode : analyse socio-politique1,
psychologique2, sémantique3, rituelle4, et même narrative5 (implied’s reader). Toutes ces
analyses attestent de l’intérêt accordé à cet épisode. Nous voulons consacrer aussi à cet
évangile une analyse narrative, pour mettre en lumière comment à travers la contruction
des personnages, ce récit met en évidence la perspective globale de l’évangile de Marc.
Cette perspective de l’évangile de Marc comme l’indiquent les commentateurs6 veut
répondre à la question : « Qui est Jésus ? ». Et dès le premier verset Marc indique cette
intention de mettre en lumière la personnalité et l’identité de Jésus en le présentant
comme ‘‘Fils de Dieu’’. Cette intention de Marc est en compétition avec une autre perspective saillante dans l’évangile, celui de la suite de Jésus, illustré par bien d’épisodes
comme celui de l’aveugle Bartimée (Mc 10,45-52).
1
C. Burdon, ‘‘To the Other Side’ Construction of Evil and Fear of Liberation in Mark 5.1-20’’ JSNT 27/2
( 2004) 149-167; S. D. Moore, Mark and Empire: “Zealot” and “Postcolonial” Readings’’Postcolonial Biblical
Reader (2006); C. I. D. Joy, “Mark 5:1-20. A Postcolonial Subaltern Reading’’ Bangalore Theological Forum,
37/2 (2005)26-39.
2
A. J. R. Uleyn, ‘‘The Possessed Man of Gerasa. A Psychoanalytic Interpretation of Reader Reactions.
’’Current Issues in the Psychology of Religion (1986) 90-96 ; P. G. Horsfield, ‘‘The Gerasene Demoniac and the
Sexually Violated ’’St Mark’s Review, 152 (1993) 2-7.
3
J. A. Kleist, ‘‘The Gadarene Demoniacs ’’CBQ 9/1 (1947) 101-105.
4
C. S. LaHurd, ‘‘Reader Response to Ritual Elements in Mark 5:1-20 ’’ Biblical Theology Bulletin, 20
(1990) 154-160; D. Jasper, ‘‘The Gap in the Story. The Implied Reader in Mark 5: 1-20’’ SEA 64 (1999) 79-88.
5
J. Starobinski, ‘‘An Essay in Literary Analysis.Mark 5: 1-20’’ Ecumenical Review, 23/ 4 (1971) 343-418.
6
Voir par exemple, K. Stock, Vangelo Secondo Marco. Introduzione e Commento(Padova: DLP, 2002).
*Aurélien is a Cameroonian Jesuit. He is currently the assistant novice master at the Jesuit novitiate
in Bafoussam, Cameroon.
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Il va de soi que ces deux perspectives fondamentales de l’évangile de Marc, traversent
beaucoup d’épisodes qui le constituent et aussi celui du démoniaque de Gerasene.
Le but de ce travail est de montrer à l’aide de l’analyse narrative comment Marc construit les personnages pour mettre en valeur la perspective globale de son évangile qui
est de réveler progressivement l’identité de Jésus. Il s’agit de montrer comment l’analyse
narrative détaillée d’un récit permet de mettre en valeur ses aspects théologiques. Bien
évidement, nous laissons de coté d’autres aspects de cette analyse : l’analyse de l’intrigue,
la perspective du lecteur, les implications spatio-temporelle, etc..
I-Etude synoptique du texte
On constate que chacun des évangélistes synoptiques, Matthieu Marc ou Luc a
réorganisé ce récit en fonction de sa perspective respective. Luc et Marc ont gardé une
forme assez développée du récit tandis que le texte de Mathieu qui parle de deux
démons est réduit aux éléments essentiels de ce qui pourrait être le récit original7. Matthieu centre ainsi son récit sur la rencontre entre Jésus et le démoniaque, et l’exorcisme
spectaculaire. Le but de cet analyse synoptique est d’évaluer l’impact des differences
synoptiques du point de vue narratif.
En faisant l’étude synoptique du texte, on constate des différences et des accents
diverses selon chacun des évangiles : la description longue de la souffrance du démoniaque chez Marc et Luc, la breveté de la discussion entre Jésus et les deux démoniaques,
la finale brève de Matthieu.
Matthieu recentre son récit sur Jésus. Ainsi, les gens de la ville accourent pour rencontrer non pas le possédé mais Jésus. La perspective de Matthieu est centrée fortement sur la suite de Jésus. Il entoure, la série des trois miracles (la tempête apaisée, les
deux démons de Geradasene, la guérison du paralytique Mt 8,23-9,8) de deux miracles
d’appel à le suivre (demande du scribe 8,18-22 et l’appel de Matthieu 9,9-13). Devenir
disciple est la perspective de fond qui traverse l’évangile de Matthieu et caractérise aussi
notre épisode tel que raconté par Mathieu. Par contre Luc tout comme Marc mettent
en relief Jésus mais aussi le démoniaque.
Marc et Luc ont une description longue et assez similaire du possédé. Cette description détaillée du possédé et de sa souffrance soulignent le caractère extraordinaire
de la libération. La révélation de l’identité de Jésus est en jeu dans cette action thaumaturgique grandiose.
D’un point de vue narritatif, la description longue et détaillée du possédé chez
Marc et Luc revêt plusieurs interêts. D’abord, elle contribue à étoffer le personnage du
possédé et donner de la saveur au récit.
Ensuite, le premier dialogue assez développé chez Marc et Luc, nous révèle l’identité
des acteurs en présence, mais surtout servent à renforcer la première tension narrative8.
La finale quant à elle, est supprimée chez Matthiew, tandis que chez Marc et Luc,
elle donne lieu à deux nouvelles tensions narratives. Avec l’arrivée des gens de la ville
Ceci ne signifie pas pour autant que nous remettons en question l’antériorité de Marc sur Matthieu.
Dans l’analyse narrative, l’intrigue c’est ‘‘l’élément déclancheur du récit correspondant dans l’intrigue
au moment du nouement ’’ cf. Marguerat, D.- Bourquin, Y., Pour Lire les Récits Bibliques (Paris-Geneve-Montreal :
Labor et Fides, 1998), 63.
7
8
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et des fermes et la supplication (ou demande) faite à Jésus, on se pose la question chez
Marc comme chez Luc de savoir ce qui va se passer ? Chez Matthieu par contre, le récit
se termine sans que soit offerte la réponse à cette question. Il faut passer au récit suivant de la guérison du paralitic (Mt 9,1) pour se rendre compte que Jésus, traversant en
barque, a effectivement quitté la région.
L’autre tension narrative est créee par la demande de l’ex-possédé d’être avec Jésus.
Le refus de Jésus et l’envoie en mission du possédé rend possible la proclamation de
Jésus en Décapole.
Effectivement cette mission de l’ex-possédé en Decapole est supprimée chez Matthieu. Chez Marc et Luc, cette proclamation continue la révelation de Jésus commencée
lors du premier dialogue avec le possédé.
D’un point de vue narratif, on peut dire que la finale du récit d’une part initie deux
nouvelles intrigues9 de résolution, mais d’autre part continue l’intrigue de révélation de
Jésus, commencée lors du prémier dialogue.
En d’autre terme, si le récit de Matthiew est contitué d’une intrigue de résolution et
une de révelation, le récit de Marc et tout comme celui Luc contient trois intrigues de
résolution et une intrigue de révélation qui couvre tout le récit.
Tableau 1 : Les différences synoptiques dans le traitement du récit
Motifs
Matthieu
Marc
Luc
Lieu du Miracle
Gadarenes
(gadarēnōn)
Gerasene
(gerasēnōn)
Gerasene
(gerasēnōn)
(Gadarhnwn)
(Gerashnwn)
(Gerashnwn)
Désignation du possédé
Deux démoniaques
Un homme ayant un
esprit impur
Un homme ayant
des démons
Description du possédé
Violents.
-Il brisait ses
chaines
-Il brisait ses chaines
-Nu
-Se cognait sur les
pierres et se blessait
-Criait nuit et jour
Habitation du possédé
Les tombes
-Les tombes
-Les tombes
-La montagne
-Le désert
9
Dans l’analyse narrative, l’intrigue ‘‘ c’est cette structure unifiante qui relie les diverses péripéties du récit
et les organise en une histoire continue. L’intrigue assure l’unité d’action et donne sens aux multiples éléments du récit.
’’ Dans l’intrigue on distingue de manière classique trois moments : le nouement ou la la complication, le sommet
ou climax, et le denouement ou résolution. L’intrigue de résolution c’est ‘‘une intrigue dont l’action transformatrice
opère au niveau pragmatique (exploit, guérison, sauvetage, etc)’’. L’intrigue de révélation ‘‘c’est une intrigue dont
l’action transformatrice consiste en un gain de connaissance sur un personnage de l’histoire racontée.’’ Cf. Marguerat,
D.- Bourquin, Y., Pour Lire les Récits Bibliques (Paris-Geneve-Montreal 1998), 54-56.73.
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Aurélien Folifack
Dialogue entre le
démoniaque et Jésus
Désignation de Jésus
par le démoniaque
-« Que nous veux-tu,
Fils de Dieu? Es-tu
venu ici pour nous
tourmenter avant le
temps? »
-«Que me veux-tu,
Jésus, Fils du Dieu
Très-Haut? Je t’adjure
par Dieu, ne me tourmente pas.»
«Que me veux-tu, Jésus, Fils du Dieu TrèsHaut? Je t’en prie, ne
me tourmente pas.»
-«Sors de cet homme,
esprit impur!»
-Jésus ordonnait en
effet à l’esprit impur
de sortir de cet homme.
-«Quel est ton nom?»
-« Quel est ton nom?»
-«Mon nom est Légion, car nous sommes
nombreux.»
- «Légion», réponditil, car de nombreux
démons étaient entrés
en lui.
-«Si tu nous chasses,
envoie-nous dans le
troupeau de porcs.»
-«Envoie-nous dans
les porcs pour que
nous entrions en eux.»
-Les démons supplièrent Jésus de leur
permettre d’entrer dans
les porcs.
Fils de Dieu
Fils du Dieu Très-Haut
Fils du Dieu Très-Haut
-Les gens de la ville
et des fermes, arrivant
voient le démonique
dans son bon sens
-Les gens de la ville
et des fermes arrivant,
voient le démoniaque
dans son bon sens.
-Ils sont saisis de
crainte
-Ils sont saisis de
crainte
Les gens de la ville et
des fermes supplient
Jésus de quitter leur
région
Les gens de la région de
Garasene demandent à
Jésus de les quitter
-L’ex-démoniaque
supplie d’être avec
Jésus.
-L’ex-démonique supplie d’être avec Jésus.
-«Va dans ta maison
auprès des tiens et
rapporte-leur tout ce
que le Seigneur a fait
pour toi dans sa miséricorde.»
-«Retourne dans ta maison et raconte tout ce
que Dieu a fait pour
toi.»
L’ex-démoniaque et les
gens de la ville et des
fermes
Les gens de la ville et
des fermes et Jésus
Jésus et l’exdémoniaque
104
Les gens de la ville
supplient Jésus de
quitter leur région
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II- Analyse narrative de Marc 5, 1-20
Nous allons concentrer l’analyse narrative de ce récit sur l’étude des principaux
protagonistes : Jésus et le démoniaque. Mais cet épisode du démoniaque de Gerasene
met en action plusieurs autres personnages qui, suivant l’évolution du récit, apparaissent
ou se retirent progressivement. Contentons nous de souligner quelques caractéristiques
de ces autres personnages.
Les disciples, les bergers et les gens de la ville
Les disciples ne sont pas mentionnés. Ils sont pourtant présents et sont témoins de
tout ce qui va se passer, notament de la révélation de l’identité de Jésus, resté cachée à
eux dans l’épisode de la tempete apaisée. Les bergers témoins du miracle se distinguent
par la peur qui les pousse à fuir et ensuite se melent aux gens de la ville venus constater
les faits pour demander le départ de Jésus. La perte du troupeau, pourrait justifier cette
décision de faire partir Jésus, mais l’analyse du texte ne le laisse pas montrer clairement.
Les bergers et les gens de la villes, sont representatifs de ce monde paiens, écrasés par
la manisfestation du numineux, du sacré devant eux, mais qui n’adhèrent pas à Jésus.
Les deux protagonistes du récit
Jésus et le démoniaque sont les seuls personnages qui occupent la scène du début
à la fin et cette quasi omniprésence fait d’eux les deux protagonistes. En fait le récit
est centré sur l’affrontement entre Jésus et les forces du mal qui ont pris possession de
l’homme. Selon que le démoniaque est protagoniste, le récit sera lu comme mettant en
valeur la fonction anthropoloique : la libération du possédé et sa tranformation comme
croyant et sympathisant de Jésus. Mais selon que Jésus est le protagoniste, l’accent
sera mis sur la fonction christologique du récit. Une fonction qui met en valeur le
combat aux dimensions cosmiques de Jésus avec les forces démoniaques et sa victoire
sur celles-ci.10 Il s’agira au long de cette étude des personnages de montrer que Jésus
est le protagoniste principal de ce récit.
1 - Le démoniaque
Le démoniaque est un personnage complexe, car l’état de possession en lui-même
suscite une sorte de dédoublement de la personnalité habitée par une force extérieure.
Tant qu’il est possédé ce sont les démons qui parlent en lui. Et une fois, libéré, on
parlera d’ex-possédé. La construction de ce personnage se joue aussi sur sa révélation
dans la première et la troisième partie du récit.
La narration de Marc veut mettre l’accent sur l’exorcisme, mais aussi sur ses effets
sur l’ex-démoniaque comme modèle de croyant et anticipation (prolepse) de l’annonce
de l’évangile aux païens. Les arguments sont nombreux dans la narration pour soutenir
ce point de vue anthropologique.
10
Dans notre manière d’étudier les personnages Jésus et le démoniaque, nous nous inspirons de l’étude des
personnages Zachée et Jésus en Lc 19, 1-10, faite par J. N. Aletti, L’Art de Raconter Jésus Christ (Paris : Seuil, 1989)
17-38.
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Rencontre du possédé avec Jésus
La manifestation de l’ex-démoniaque comme modèle de croyant est de prime abord
mis en exergue par sa demande suppliante d’être avec Jésus, qui sans être une déclaration de foi explicite, manifeste une adhésion à la personne de Jésus.
Ensuite Marc situe son récit en territoire païen. Pour cela la guérison spectaculaire
entraîne la peur des gens de la région, qui supplient Jésus de quitter leur territoire. On
est en droit de penser que ce départ de Jésus, narrativement, justifie la proclamation que
fait l’ex-démoniaque dans toute la région de la Décapole. Ainsi la présence de Jésus en
territoire païen a pour but de manifester non seulement son pouvoir thaumaturgique,
mais aussi de faire proclamer la venue du règne de Dieu dans cette région.
La souffrance du possédé
La longue description de la souffrance du démoniaque a pour but de justifier sa
libération, mais est aussi un signal qui justifiera sa requête d’être avec Jésusen signe
de reconnaissance. Cette description suggère une situation d’aliénation11 et d’isolation
profonde dans laquelle vit l’homme. Il est possédé et cette situation de possession se
révèlera au lecteur plus profonde encore quand le démon révèlera qu’il est une légion. Il
vit dans les tombes, lieu de la mort, lieu habituellement non fréquenté et lieu d’isolation
de la vie de la société. Ce lien avec les tombes suggère un processus de mort lente
dans laquel les forces destructrices qui le contrôlent le conduisent inexorablement. Les
gens de la ville ont souvent tenté de le contrôler et de le maîtriser mais, habité par une
force incontrôlable, il avait souvent brisé les chaînes, pour demeurer dans une liberté
et une solitude absolues. L’aliénation est aussi physique car s’il se blesse constamment
en se cognant avec les pierres et a perdu le sommeil, c’est qu’il est devenu étranger
à son propre corps apparemment nu (v.15) et qu’il maltraite infatigablement sans se
rendre compte. Aliené, torturé, le démoniaque est devenu prisonier des puissances
démoniaques qui de l’extérieur le contrôlent. Ainsi Jésus ne pouvait rester indifférent
à une telle souffrance.
Le conflit avec le possédé
Cette isolation et aliénation profondes dans lesquelles vit le possédé pourraient
justifier la frénésie qu’il manifeste dès que Jésus sort de la barque (v.1.6). On pourrait
penser que sa souffrance est si grande que même inconsciemment le possédé désire
être libéré, quoique sa précipitation et son prosternement sont immédiatement suivis
d’une agressivité (v.7) qui rend la situation ambiguë. En fait par son prosternement, le
démoniaque atteste déjà de la supériorité de son adversaire. * Mais cella ne supprime
pas son agressivité, exprimée en ces termes : ‘‘Qu’est ce que tu as à faire avec moi,
Jésus Fils du Dieu Très-Haut ?’’ qui traduit non pas un désir de rencontrer Jésus, mais
de s’opposer à Jésus. Mais en reconnaissant en Jésus le fils du Très-Haut, le démoniaque confirme qu’il est en présence d’une puissance supérieure. Et son aggressivité se
transforme en une supplication faite au nom de Dieu : ‘‘Je t’adjure12 au nom de Dieu, ne
11
Nous avons emprunté le mot ‘aliénation’ à J. Starobinski, ‘‘An Essay in Literary Analysis- Mark 5: 1-20
’’Ecumenical Review 23/4 (1971) 391.
12
orkizō: to give a command to someone under oath, adjure, implore. Cf. F. W. F. Danker- W. Bauer’s, A
Greek-English lexicon of the Greek New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature (3edit.) (London-Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 2000), 723.
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me tourmente pas’’( v.7). Cette affirmation du démon est grave et presque criminelle,
car au nom de Dieu, il est en train de démander à Jésus le laisser continuer à torturer le
pauvre homme. Ainsi le démon révèle son dessein maléfique et destructeur : celle de
vouloir au nom de Dieu, continuer à torturer et rendre prisonier l’homme.
Le dessein maléfique du démon, se révèle par la suite quand le narrateur nous
révèle qu’il s’était opposé à l’injunction de Jésus de quitter l’homme (v. 8). On peut
donc affirmer qu’à l’ordre de quitter l’homme, le démon a répondu par une supplication
faite au nom de Dieu. Dans la suite du récit Jésus accepte le dialogue avec les démons,
mais il s’agit en fait d’une stratégie pour les mettre hors d’état de nuire à l’homme, et
libérer le démoniaque. La description du démoniaque et l’affrontement avec Jésus ont
donc pour but de montrer la capacité destructrice des forces démoniaques, justifier la
libération du démoniaque et mettre en valeur la dimension anthropologique du récit.
L’intériorité de l’homme possédé
Les sentiments et désirs du possédé pas clairement exprimés, nous fournissent aussi
des indices pour mieux saisir la construction de ce personnage.
Une première idée des sentiments et désirs du possédé nous est donnée au début du
récit par la course et la prosternation du possédé (v.6) qui traduisent un désir d’affronter
Jésus et une (re)connaissance de ce qu’il est ‘le Fils du Dieu Très-Haut’ (v.7.9). Cependant
à cause de son état on ne peut pas mettre à son compte cette confession.
Mais la supplication de l’ex-démoniaque d’être avec Jésus, nous introduisent dans
ses désirs et sentiments. La supplication traduit un désir profond de suivre Jésus et une
certaine attraction pour la personne de Jésus. Et l’usage de l’expression ‘être avec lui’
traduit le désir de devenir un disciple de Jésus et de partager sa vie. Ce désir pourrait
exprimer une foi quoique non confessée mais naissante en la personne de Jésus. Ce
désir exprimée est aussi la première prise de parole et le premier geste de re-socialisation
du démoniaque après un long moment d’isolation et de solitude.
L’expression ‘être avec lui’ est utilisée lors de l’appel des disciples qui ont entre
autre mission d’être envoyés pour proclamer la bonne nouvelle (Mc 3,14). L’usage des
paroles ‘être avec lui’ et être envoyé en mission pour ‘proclamer’ sont caractéristiques
de l’être disciple chez Marc13. Puisque le démoniaque ne sera pas admis à suivre Jésus
et partager sa vie, mais seulement envoyé en mission pour proclamer ce que ‘Dieu a
fait pour lui’, il ne devient pas disciple au sens plein du terme. Il est simplement un
témoin de Jésus ou un modèle de croyant.
Dès le début du récit, le narrateur, nous présente la rencontre entre Jésus et le
démoniaque comme un affrontement. A la fin du récit, on revoit les deux personnages
dans une situation non conflictuelle où l’homme demande à être avec Jésus. Il y a ainsi
une évolution ou un apaissement de la relation du (ex-) démoniaque à Jésus entre le
première et le deuxième moment de leur rencontre. Une évolution qui s’oppose à celle
des bergers d’une part et des gens de la ville et des fermes d’autre part. Si l’ex-démoniaque
veut suivre Jésus qui l’a libéré, les autres au contraire ont réagit négativement, par la
peur, et le refus d’accueillir Jésus.
Ajoutons par ailleurs que l’expression du désir de rester avec Jésus après une
13
K. Stock, The call of the disciples, 14-15.
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guérison est unique, dans l’évangile de Marc14. Pourquoi, Jésus refuse-t-il d’admettre
ce païen à être avec lui ? Le récit ne nous donne pas de réponse satisfaisante à cette
question, sinon le désir de l’envoyer témoigner de lui en région païenne, où certainement, ils connaissent le Dieu d’Israël15.
Silence et paradoxes à propos de l’homme
Un silence significatif dans le récit et qu’il convient de souligner, se retrouve dans
la mention du fait que le démoniaque guéri est habillé. Le narrateur ne nous a pas dit
précédemment qu’il était nu encore moins quand et qui l’a revêtu. Le lecteur est en
droit de penser que cet état nouveau prépare ce qui va suivre : son désir de réintégrer
la société, en manifestant son désir de suivre Jésus. Le décrire comme habillé, c’est-àdire- restauré dans sa dignité d’homme, le prépare au rôle qu’il veut désormais jouer :
être avec Jésus. La proclamation dans la Décapole et les réactions qui s’en suivent sont
les manifestions de cette réinsertion dans la société, par cette nouvelle capacité de communiquer rendue possible par sa libération et son envoi en mission.
Le dernier point à souligner, est le hiatus entre l’injonction de Jésus et ce que l’exdémoniaque proclame effectivement. Alors que Jésus lui a démandé d’annoncer ce que
le Seigneur a fait pour lui et la miséricorde qu’il a montrée envers lui, l’ex-démoniaque
proclame ce que Jésus a fait pour lui. Ceci ne contredit en rien le fait que l’ex-démoniaque
devient un modèle de croyant et témoin de Jésus, bénéficiaire de la bonté de Jésus et
qui proclame ou témoigne de ce que ce Jésus a fait pour lui en milieu païen. Ce hiatus,
stratégiquement pensé prépare la mission de Jésus en milieu païen, notament dans les
villes de la Décapole (Mc 8).
Tout ces élements concourent à faire de l’homme le modèle de croyant et témoin
converti par l’action de Jésus et proclamant ce que ce Seigneur Jésus a fait pour lui.
Ces éléments nous indiquent la portée anthropologique de notre récit. Mais l’étude de
la construction du personnage de Jésus, nous montrera qu’il est un protagoniste plus
important que le possédé.
2-Jésus
Beaucoup d’éléments du récit veulent mettre l’accent su Jésus d’une part sur son
identité, sa révélation comme ‘fils du très haut’ et d’autre part sa mission : la victoire
sur les forces démoniaques.
Jésus au centre de la narration
Soulignons d’entrée de jeu, que l’analyse de la dynamique de la narration, nous
révele que Jésus est au centre des trois rencontres qui caractérisent notre récit : la rencontre entre Jésus et l’ex-possédé, la rencontre entre Jésus et les gens de la ville et des
fermes et enfin la rencontre entre Jésus et l’ex-possédé. L’intrigue souligne donc que
14
Cf. K. Stock,Marco. Commento Contestuale al Secondo Vangelo (Biblia e Prighera 47; Roma 2003) 90.
On verra plus tard l’aveugle Barthimée qui suit Jésus sur la voie (10, 52).
15
K. Stock, Marco.Commento Contestuale al Secondo Vangelo, 90-91 explique que les païens devaient avoir
une connaissance du Dieu d’Israël et de sa puissance. Par ailleurs, il souligne aussi que dans l’évangile de Matthieu,
il est plus explicitement mentionné que la mission de Jésus est d’être envoyé d’abord au peuple d’Israël (Mt 15, 21 ;
10, 6). Il est fait allusion à cette mission exclusive en Israël dans l’évangile de Marc avec l’épisode de la femme syrophénicienne (Mc 7, 27).
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Jésus est le protagoniste principal du récit, et est au service de la révélation de son
identité. La narration toute entière est au service cette la portée Christologique du récit.
Dès le début du récit, l’accent est très vite centré sur la personne de Jésus, qui seul
est mentionné descendant de la barque (v.2) alors qu’il a traversé avec ses disciples
(v.1). Déjà la traversée de la mer (eis to peran) vers la frontière16 du totalement autre,
frontière, de la souffrance humaine, de l’incroyance, de l’adversaire représenté par la
légion de démons, annonce cette révélation de Jésus dans l’action thaumaturgique qui
va s’accomplir.
Jésus rencontre le possédé : affrontement et révélation
En effet, la description détaillée du démoniaque et de sa souffrance, (v.2-5) a pour
but de mettre l’accent sur le possédé et sa souffrance, mais par ailleurs cette description
a pour but de préparer au caractère spectaculaire de l’action thaumaturgique de Jésus
(v.13). Aussi l’affrontement avec Jésus et la révélation de l’identité des démons (une
légion), contribuent à expliquer l’ampleur de la souffrance et justifier les moyens que
Jésus prendra pour libérer l’homme. Dans l’évangile de Marc aucun possédé n’est décrit
avec autant de détails et sa souffrance aussi grande. Ainsi l’exorcisme qui suivra sera
le plus spectaculaire et le plus grandiose accompli par Jésus. La grandeur et l’ampleur
de ce miracle atteignent des dimensions cosmiques: les cochons, la mer, les bergers et
les habitants sont impliqués. Nulle part ailleurs, dans l’évangile de Marc, on n’a vu un
miracle avoir de telles dimensions. Ce caractère grandiose du miracle suscite la peur
des habitants de la région devant une révélation aussi grandiose du sacré.
La dimension christologique du récit, est donc mis en exergue par la rencontre
entre Jésus et le démoniaque. Dès sa sortie de la barque, le démoniaque court et se
prosterne devant lui, en signe d’adoration (v.6). Par ce geste d’adoration et puis la
confession de l’identité de Jésus qui suivra, le démon montre qu’il se trouve en face
d’une force supérieure. Dans l’affrontement qui suit, le narrateur se sert du démoniaque17 pour révéler aux disciples supposés être témoins de cette scène l’identité et la
mission de Jésus : ‘‘Qu’il y a-il-entre toi et moi, Jésus fils du Dieu Très Haut Je t’adjure
au nom de Dieu ne me tourmente pas’’. La révélation de l’identité et de la mission18
de Jésus n’est pas propre à ce récit car dans un autre récit d’exorcisme à la synagogue
de Capharnaüm, le démon affirme connaître Jésus et l’interpelle en ces termes : ‘‘Qu’il
y-t-il entre toi et nous, Jésus de Nazareth? Es-tu venu pour nous perdre ? Je sais qui tu
es: le Saint de Dieu.’’(1,22). Dans les deux récits d’exorcisme, la révélation de Jésus
n’est pas identique. Dans l’exorcisme à la synagogue de Nazareth, Jésus est présenté
comme ‘Jésus de Nazareth’ et ‘Saint de Dieu’. Dans le récit du démoniaque de Garasene,
le démon révèle Jésus comme ‘Fils du Dieu Très Haut’19, et ne l’interpelle pas comme
16
L’idée de la traversée de la mer comme mouvement vers la ‘frontière’, nous l’empruntons à J. Starobinski,
‘‘An Essay in Literary Analysis- Mark 5: 1-20 ’’ Ecumenical Review 23/ 4 (1971) 383.
17
A propos des déclarations du démoniaque, il n’est pas facile de faire la distinction entre le démoniaque
(l’homme) et les démons qui parlent en lui. Cette ambiguïté persiste jusqu’à la libération.
18
K. Stock, Marco.Commento Contestuale al Secondo Vangelo, 48.
19
Cette révélation est une autre preuve du fait qu’on se trouve en milieu païen, car l’expression ‘Dieu TrèsHaut’ est une expression présente en milieu païen. Dans le livre de la Genèse14, 18-22 Melkisedek bénit Abraham
en utilisant l’expression ‘Dieu très-Haut’. Ainsi‘‘Melchisédek, roi de Salem, fit apporter du pain et du vin: il était
sacrificateur du Dieu Très-Haut. Il bénit Abram en disant: « Béni soit Abram par le Dieu Très-Haut qui crée ciel et
terre » ’’. Cf. K. Stock, Marco. Commento Contestuale alSecondo Vangelo, 89.
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Jésus de Nazareth, preuve qu’il ignore ses origines. Par cette confession de Jésus comme
‘Fils du Dieu Très-Haut’, le démon reconnaît la présence d’une puissance et d’une
force supérieure. La révélation de Jésus comme ‘‘Fils de Dieu’’ traverse tout l’évangile
de Marc. Déjà dès le début de l’évangile, Jésus est présenté comme Fils de Dieu (1,1).
Durant son baptême (Mc 1,11) et sa transfiguration (9,7), Jésus reçoit la confirmation
de son identité comme fils de Dieu. A la fin de l’évangile le centurion déclare après sa
mort « Vraiment cet homme était le Fils de Dieu » (15, 39).
Par ailleurs, l’affirmation du démon de Gerasene, tout comme celle du démon de la
synagogue de Capharnaum (Mk 1,21-28) 20, contient aussi la révélation de la mission de
Jésus, qui est celle de mettre fin au règne des démons et instaurer le règne de Dieu. En
déclarant ‘Je t’adjure au nom de Dieu, ne me tourmente pas’, le démon reconnaît cette
mission de Jésus, tout en s’y opposant énergiquement. Et l’ironie de la scène consiste
dans le fait que c’est au nom de Dieu que le démon s’oppose à la mission de Jésus.
La défaite de la légion des démons
En révélant l’identité de Jésus et en voulant s’opposer à sa mission, le démon
s’engage dans une bataille qu’il sait vaincue d’avance, car il a reconnu l’identité de son
adversaire : le Fils du Dieu Très-Haut. Ainsi son aggressivité se transforme en supplication faite au nom de Dieu. ‘‘Je t’adjure21 au nom de Dieu ne me tourmente pas.’’ (v.7).
En fait le narrateur nous dit au verset suivant (v.8) que Jésus avait tenté de l’exorciser.
Cette résistance est un élément qui pousse Jésus à une investigation plus profonde ‘‘quel
est ton nom ?’’, qui signe la défaite des démons. En révélant son nom et son identité, la
légion de démons avoue son infériorité et change de ton. De l’arrogance et l’agressivité
des premiers moments de la rencontre, on passe à une supplication qui atteste qu’ils
sont défaits et qu’ils s’engagent désormais dans une recherche de compromis. La légion
démons, demande à ne pas être envoyée hors de la région mais dans le troupeau de
porcs qui était en train de paître à côté (v.12). La précipitation des porcs dans la mer
signale le transfert de la violence du démoniaque vers les porcs. Cette précipitation des
porcs au fond de la mer estle signe de la puissance libératrice de Jésus et une preuve
de la guérison du possédé.
Jésus rétablit l’homme possédé dans sa dignité
Le signe évident de la libération de l’homme, c’est de le voir rétabli dans sa dignité
d’homme, habillé et dans son bon sens. Cette libération est le signe de la victoire de
Jésus sur la légion et met en valeur la dimension christologique de cette narration. Cette
manifestation de Jésus comme fils du Très-haut est également anthropologique, en ce
sens que c’est en libérant l’homme otage des puissances démoniaques que Jésus se
révèle comme fils de Dieu. Par ailleurs, ce centre christologique est aussi eschatologique
en ce sens, c’est la totalité de la région qui est libérée des démons, de toute une légion
soit 6 à 10 milles démons.
On peut néanmoins s’intérroger sur le désir des démons de rester dans la région22.
20
Dans l’exorcisme de la synagogue de Capharnaum, la révelation et l’opposition à la mission de Jésus sont
encore plus explicites car le démon déclare à Jésus : ‘‘ Es-tu venu nous détruire ?’’.
21
Comme nous l’avons mentionné plus haut, orkizō peut avoir le sens de implorer, adjurer.
22
J. Gnilka, Marco (Assisi, 1987) 279, tente de donner une réponse à cette question. Il explique que “ I
romani erano la forza occupante e non avevano intenzione di abbandonare il paese. E proprio a questo corrisponde la
prima richiesta: Gesù non dovrebbe cacciare i demoni dalla regione”.
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Le narrateur ne nous dit rien sur ce désir qui pourrait faire penser à une compromission
de Jésus avec les démons.
La libération du possédé resitue Jésus comme centre d’attention du récit. L’arrivée
des gens de la ville et de la région suite au récit des bergers témoins, créent une nouvelle
situation qui provoquera le départ de ce dernier de la région. L’attitude des gens de la
ville traduit le fait qu’ils se trouvent devant une manifestation du sacré qui dépasse leur
entendement et qui suscite non pas l’adhésion, mais la peur. Les gens de la région font
l’expérience de la manifestation de la puissance salvifique et souveraine de Jésus et sont
aussi pris de peur comme les disciples dans l’épisode de la tempête apaisée (4, 41)23.
Jésus et le possédé guéri
Jésus est encore le centre d’attention quand le possédé désormais guéri supplie
‘‘d’être avec lui’’ (v.18). Car autrefois possédé par une légion de démons, l’ex-possédé
subit une autre influence mais cette fois celle positive de Jésus. Contrairement aux
démons, Jésus exerce son influence positivement de l’extérieur, laissant au sujet la capacité de se décider par lui-même. En effet, Jésus s’adresse à la liberté du sujet pour lui
demander de retourner chez lui annoncer aux siens ce que le Seigneur a fait pour lui
et comment il a été miséricordieux envers lui (v.19). Dans d’autres récits de miracles,
Jésus recommande souvent le silence, mais le récit du démoniaque de Gerasene est le
seul récit où Jésus demande explicitement au bénéficiaire de propager la nouvelle. On
pourrait penser que cet envoi en mission de l’ex-possédé est préparatoire à la prochaine
mission de Jésus en région païenne.
A la fin du récit, c’est Jésus l’objet de l’annonce quand l’ex-démonique parcourt
toute la Décapole. Malgré le fait que l’ordre lui a été donné de mettre le Seigneur au
centre de sa proclamation (v.19), le démon plutôt ‘‘s’en alla et commença à proclamer
dans la décapole ce que Jésus a fait pour lui ’’ (v. 20). Cette proclamation contribue à
étendre la portée de l’action de Jésus. Déjà étaient informés les gens de la ville et des
fermes, maintenant c’est dans toute la Décapole qu’on parlera de ce miracle de Jésus.
De plus c’est avec étonement que ce le récit du démoniaque est accueilli. D’une manière
éloquente, la proclamation du démoniaque en Décapole, contribue donc à souligner la
dimension christologique du récit.
Par ailleurs, notons que la supplication du possédé d’être avec Jésus et la proclamation qu’il en fait survienent après sa libération. Cette organisation narrative correspond
à une perspective importante de l’évangile de Marc, qui fait presque toujours précéder
la foi ou la suite de Jésus par le miracle24. Dans le cas de notre récit, cette précédence
du miracle sur la suite de Jésus et la proclamation, veut faire ressortir un autre pointe
Christologique forte : Jésus apparaît dans ce miracle comme les multiples autres miracles
caractéristiques de l’évangile de Marc, comme le ‘Dispensateur de la grâce divine’25, qui
Cf. K. Stock, Marco.Commento Contestuale al Secondo Vangelo, 90.
Pour se rendre compte de la précédence du miracle sur la foi, ou la suite de Jésus, il suffit de comparer les
miracles de guérison en Marc avec leur version dans l’évangile de Matthieu, ou l’ordre est souvent inversé c’est-à-dire
la foi précède le miracle. Par exemple dans la version de Marc de la femme herromoisse, (5 : 25-34), celle-ci est
guérie avant que Jésus ne reconnaisse sa foi qui l’a sauvé. Dans le récit de Matthieu (8 : 20-22), Jésus reconnaît sa foi
et elle est ensuite guérie. Il est vrai que dans le cas de notre récit, la préccedence de la guérision sur la suite de Jésus,
est presque automatique. Car on ne peut pas espérer une confession de foi d’un homme possédé par les démons.
25
Cette perspective fondamentale de l’évangile de Marc est mise en lumière par les commentateurs qui
cherchent àexpliquer le travail rédactionel de Matthieu à l’aide de la source Marc. Par exemple U. Luz, Matthew
23
24
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Aurélien Folifack
veut avant tout libérer l’homme en le rétablissant dans sa dignité. Pour Jésus, le plus
important a été accompli, après la libération de l’homme possédé, les autres chosent
peuvent suivre, adhésion, désir de le suivre et proclamation.
Jésus est le Fils du très haut
On peut conclure que tout le récit semble construit pour aboutir à ce centre christologique : la révélation de Jésus comme ‘Fils du Dieu Très-Haut’, victorieux des forces
démoniaques et proclamé par un païen en terre païenne. C’est l’aspect messianique
de la proclamation du royaume annoncé dès le début de l’évangile (Mc 1, 15) qui se
manifeste ainsi de façon grandiose, et symboliquement de façon eschatologique, par
cette grande victoire sur la totalité symbolique des forces du mal dans la région. Cette
manifestation du règne de Dieu orientée vers le salut et la dignité de l’homme, est supérieure à toutes les forces qui oppriment l’homme par leur capacité de déstructuration
et de dégradation. Cette œuvre est universelle, car elle n’est pas seulement réservée
aux juifs, mais aussi aux païens26.
Notons aussi que ce centre Christologique est osculté, par la demande faite à Jésus
de quitter la région. Une demande qui atteste que les gens de la ville et des fermes
environnante n’ont pas pu reconnaître cette manifestation du ‘Fils du Dieu Très-Haut’
mais celui est resté pour eux un personnage mystérieux et étrange qui suscite la peur.
En effet à l’action de Jésus deux réactions ont suivi, une négative celle des berges et
des gens de la région, et celle positive de l’ex-démoniaque qui a contribué à mettre en
lumière la révélation de Jésus.
III-Le texte dans son contexte
Des quatre évangiles, Marc est celui qui contient le plus de récits d’exorcisme. Aux
quatre récits explicites d’exorcisme (1,21-28 ; 5,1-20 ; 7,24-30 ; 9,14-29), il faut ajouter
l’épisode de la tempête apaisée (4,35-40) et la guérison du sourd-muet (7,31-37) avec
des forts accents d’exorcisme, les sommaires de plusieurs exorcismes accomplis (1,34 ;
3,11-12), le choix des disciples pour accomplir les exorcismes et leur succès dans
l’accomplissement de ces actes de puissance (3,15 ; 6,13) ainsi que l’approbation que
Jésus donne à un autre exorciste qui exerce en dehors du groupe (9,38-40). Tous ces
récits portent à croire que l’évangile de Marc est la trame d’un conflit aux dimensions
cosmiques entre les démons et l’Esprit Saint (3,22-30) ou encore un conflit théologique
entre la parole de Dieu et les traditions humaines27(7,13). Mais tous ces exorcismes
témoignent du règne de Dieu qui est présent et à l’œuvre à travers la personne de
Jésus (Mc 1,15). A travers ces récits d’exorcisme Jésus se présente dans l’évangile de
Marc comme un guérisseur et un exorciste compatissant avec la souffrance humaine.
La guérison du démoniaque de Garasene en est une preuve concrète. Ces exorcismes
sont la preuve concrète de la manifestation du règne de Dieu.
1-7.A Commentary (Minneapolis 2007), 97, explique que “ Matthew’s most important basic theological decision was
to use the gospel of Mark as the only foundation from which alone Jésus proclamation can shed light. Theologically
that means: He joined Jesus’ ethical proclamation of the kingdom of God ( in Q) to the story of God’s activity in Jesus
(in Mark), thus making it the proclamation of grace.”Les parenthèses de la citation et leur contenu sont miennes.
26
K. Stock, Marco. Commento Contestuale al Secondo Vangelo, 91.
27
C. Burdon, “To the Other Side’ Construction of Evil and Fear of Liberation in Mark 5.1-20”JSNT 27/2 (
2004) 151-152.
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Dans ce sens, notre récit intervient après l’appel des disciples (Mc 3,13-19) et le
discours de Jésus en parabole sur le règne de Dieu (Mc 4, 1-33). Avec le miracle de la
tempête apaissé, le récit de la libération du démoniaque de Gerasene, inaugure une
serie de miracles qui sont une preuve de la manifestation concrète du règne de Dieu,
après l’annonce de celui-ci en paroles dans les paraboles. Ces paraboles et cette série
de miracle constituent la première étape de la formation des disciples récement appélés.
Dans son contexte plus immédiat, le récit du démoniaque de Gerasene est précédé
par le récit de l’apaisement de la tempête avec des relents d’exorcisme et le récit en
sandwich de deux guérisons : la fille de Jaïrus et la femme hemmoroïde. Le contexte
de notre épisode semble dont celui d’une série de miracles, ayant des points communs
au niveau de la structure et du type, mais aussi des différences, qui permettent à notre
récit de jouer une fonction bien précise dans l’ensemble.
Ainsi, inséré dans cet ensemble de miracles, le récit du démon de Gerasene acquiert
une fonction très spécifique : révéler l’identité de Jésus aux disciples. Quoiqu’ils soient
à peine mentionnés dans le récit, ils sont présents de façon silencieuse.
En effet la mention d’autres témoins qui racontent aux gens de la villes et des fermes
ce qui est arrivée au démoniaque* et aux cochons (v.16) pourrait faire penser qu’il s’agit
des disciples. Ils ne sont pas directement impliqués dans le récit, mais au niveau du
macro récit de Marc, on peut bien affirmer que le récit a cette fonction de leur réveler
l’identité de Jésus, bien avant l’évènement de la transfiguration.
En effet dans le récit de la tempête apaisée, les disciples se posent des questions sur
l’identité de Jésus (4,41), la réponse leur est donnée dans la série de miracles successifs :
l’exorcisme et des deux guérisons. A la question, ‘‘Qui est celui-ci ?’’, le narrateur répond
par le miracle de l’exorcisme du démoniaque qui s’attaque à Jésus en l’appelant ‘‘Fils
du Dieu Très-Haut’’(5,7). Jésus est donc le ‘Fils de Dieu’. Cette présentation de Jésus est
l’horizon et l’objectif du narrateur de Marc, persceptible à divers endroits de l’évangile.
En révelant l’identité de Jésus, le récit acquiert une fonction didatique qui s’insère bien
dans l’ensemble préccedant les paraboles (4, 1-33) et la série de miracles ( 4, 35-43).
La foi ou son abscence est autre lien qui relie notre récit à ceux qui l’entoure. Contrairement à la femmehémorroïsse et à Jaïrus, les disciples dans la barque manquent
de foi (Mc 4,39) et méconnaissent l’identité réelle de leur maître. La femme accourt à
Jésus avec une foi si ardente que Jésus ne peut lui refuser la guérison. Le fait de toucher
Jésus avec la conviction de guérir de son mal est un signe de foi, dans la possibilité
qu’a Jésus de restaurer la santé. Avec une foi semblable Jaïrus accourt et se prosterne
devant Jésus (5,23). La prosternation de Jaïrus, tout comme celle du possédé de Gerasene devant Jésus sont un signe qui révèle qu’ils reconnaissent en Jésus la possession
d’un pouvoir divin.
Dans le miracle du démoniaque de Gerasene, il n’est pas fait mention de manifestation ou de confession explicite de la foi, excepté le désir manifesté par l’ex-possédé
d’être avec Jésus. Tandis que dans les miracles suivants, la femme hémorroïsse tout
comme Jaïrus montrent qu’ils sont femme et homme de foi. Ainsi l’absence du motif
de la foi dans l’épisode de la tempête apaisée et celle du démoniaque de Gerasene est
suppléée dans les épisodes suivants.
On est donc tenté de penser que les quatre miracles se complètent et forment une
section bien cohérente autour des motifs de la foi, de l’identité et de la suite de Jésus.
L’exorcisme du démoniaque sert à révéler l’identité de Jésus, restée inconnue ou obHekima Review, No. 45, December 2011
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Aurélien Folifack
scure aux yeux des disciples. La foi de la femme hémorroïsse et de Jairus, supplée au
manque de foi des disciples dans l’épisode la tempête apaisée, tout comme à l’absence
explicite du motif de la foi dans l’épisode du démoniaque. L’ensemble de la session a
donc une fonction didatique pour les disciples : un enseignement sur l’identité de Jésus
à travers les miracles et la révélation, et sur la foi à travers l’exemple de Jaïrus et de la
la femme hemorroïsse. Mais les miracles de guérisons et d’exorcisme en eux-même sont
une manifestation concrète du règne de Dieu.
Tableau 2 : La mise en séquence de l’épisode du démoniaque de Garasene.
Titre
La Tempête apaisée
Le démoniaque
de Gerasene
La femme hémorroïsse
La fille de Jaïrus
Thème
Sauvetage
Exorcisme
Guérison
Guérison
Modalité du
miracle
Parole performatrice de Jésus
Parole performatrice de Jésus
Communication
d’une force vitale
Communication
d’une force vitale
(Dimension cosmique)
(Dimension cosmique)
Initiative
Jésus
Jésus
La femme
Jaïrus
Foi
Foi (absente chez
les disciples)
Foi (non mentionnée)
Foi ardente de la
femme
Foi de Jairus
Disciples
Présents
Non mentionnés
Présents
Présents
Identité de Jésus
Obscure pour les
disciples
Révélée par le démon et le miracle
Connue de la
malade
Connue de Jaïrus
C
onclusion: Au terme de l’analyse narrative de ce pitoresque récit du démoniaque
de Garasene, nous pouvons tirer les conclusions suivantes.
Premièrement, ce récit sert la dynamique christologique de l’évangile, mettre
en valeur le personnage Jésus et sa mission.
Lors de la libération du possédé, Jésus est révelé comme ‘Fils du Dieu Très-Haut’.
Ce miracle accompli* en faveur de l’homme possédé sert à le faire connaître dans la
région notament dans les fermes et la ville environant le lieu du miracle ainsi que les
villes de la Décapole. Cette révelation comme nous l’avons vu* couvre le récit dans sa
totalité et est diversement accueillie. Chez les bergers, les gens de la ville et des fermes, la
manifestation de Jésus à travers le miracle suscite la peur, tandis que la proclamation du
démoniaque de la bonne nouvelle de sa libération dans la Décapole, suscite l’étonement.
Par ailleurs, la libération du possédé et la purification du la région des démons
contribuent aussi à souligner la portée messianique et donc christologique de notre récit.
C’est le règne de Dieu qui prend la place chez le démoniaque du règne des démons.
La portée anthropologique est aussi soulignée dans ce récit. Ce miracle n’est pas
seulement un moyen pour réveler Jésus et sa mission, mais elle sert d’abord au béneficiaire, le possédé. Libéré des puissances démoniaques, il retrouve sa dignité d’homme
libre, et peut exercer momentanement la profession de proclamateur de la bonne nouvelle de Jésus. Car éffectivement la santé qu’il a retrouvé est une bonne nouvelle qu’il
s’en va proclamer à travers les villes de la Décapole.
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Cette péricope, est donc construite pour soutenir la perspective de fond de l’évangile
de Marc : réveler l’identité et la mission de Jésus.
D’un point de vue pastoral, nous pouvons soutenir que dans une Afrique souvent
atteinte de plusieurs maux et maladies, la lecture de cet épisode pourrait aider à présenter
Jésus comme le guérisseur pouvant répondre aux problèmes concret de santé. Mais la
perspective fortement christologique du récit, pourrait aider les masses souvent à la recherche de guérison dans les Eglises, à comprendre que la guérison seule ne suffit pas.
Il faut ensuite désirer comme le possédé de se mettre à la suite de Jésus et témoigner
de l’expérience de la rencontre avec lui et comment une expérience a transformé sa
vie. C’est en ce sens que la guérison peut avoir un sens véritable et avoir un impact
durable dans notre vie.
Bibliographie
Dictionnaires et Grammaires
Danker, F. W. - Bauer’s, W., A Greek-English lexicon of the Greek New Testament and Other Early
Christian Literature (3rded.) (London-Chicago 2000).
Dufour, X. L., Dictionnaire du Nouveau Testament (Paris 1975).
Blass, F.-Debrunner, A., A Greek Grammar of the New Testament, and Other Early Christian
Literature (Chicago 1961).
Monographies
Aletti, J.N., L’art de Raconter Jésus Christ (Paris 1989).
Dufour, X. L., (éd.), Les miracles de Jésus Selon le Nouveau Testament(Paris 1977).
Focan, C., L’évangile Selon Marc (Commentaire Biblique: Nouveau Testament 2; Paris 2004).
Gnilka, J., Marco (Assisi, 1987).
Luz, U., Matthew 1-7. A Commentary (Minneapolis 2007).
Marguerat, D.- Bourquin, Y., Pour Lire les Récits Bibliques (Paris-Geneve-Montreal 1998).
Metzger, B. M., A Textual commentary on the Greek New Testament(Stuttgart 1994).
Stock, K., Marco. Commento Contestuale al Secondo Vangelo(Biblia e Prighera 47; Roma 2003).
Stock, K., The Call of the Disciples (Roma 2005).
Stock, K., Vangelo Secondo Marco (DLP ; Padova 2002).
Yamasaki, G., Watching Biblical Narrative.Point of View in Biblical Exegesis (London-Leiden 2007).
Articles
Burdon, C., “To the Other Side. Construction of Evil and Fear of Liberation in Mark 5:
1-20” JSNT 27/2 (2004) 149-167.
Horsfield, P. G., “The Gerasene Demoniac and the Sexually Violated” St Mark’s
Review 152 (1993) 2-7.
Jasper, D., “The Gap in the Story: The implied Reader in Mark 5: 1-20” SEA 64 (1999) 79-88.
Joy, C. I. D., “Mark 5: 1-20: A Postcolonial Subaltern Reading” Bangalore Theological Forum 37/2 (2005)26-39
Kleist, J. A., “The Gadarene demoniacs” CBQ 9/1 (1947) 101-105.
Lahurd, C. S., “Reader Response to Ritual Elements in Mark 5:1-20” BTN 20 (1990) 15-160.
Ska, J. L., ‘‘Un Narrateur ou des Narrateurs ’’, La Bible en Récit.L’exégèse Biblique à
L’heure du Lecteur (éd. D. Marguerat) (Le Monde de la Bible 48 ; Genève 2003) 264-275.
Starobinski, J., “Essays in Litterary analysis. Marc 5: 1-20” Ecumenical Review 23/4 (1971) 377-397.
Uleyn, A. J. R.,‘‘The possessed Man of Gerasa. A Psychoanlaytic Interpretation of Reader Reactions”Current
Issues in the Psychology of Religion(1986) 90-96.
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Spirituality
Ignatian Spirituality as a Foundation for
African Theology of Politics
Chikere Ugwuanyi, SJ*
A
bstract: In order to get a good insight into any academic discourse, it is always
safe to start with some sort of anthropological supposition(s). How does a discourse
understand what it means to be human would be lead question? One can actually say that the divisions of academic disciplines are based on different discourses of
being human. It is thus that we hear about homo-economicus, homo-politicus, to mean
the discourse on humans as agents of economic and political activities. Theology - the
discourses on God that is engaged by humans - presupposes that humans are beyond the
factual bodies and activities. Based on this claim, theology asserts that spiritual (metaphysical) realm does have an influence in the physical manifestation of personal and
societal life. Theological anthropological discourse could be considered an effort to publicly
acknowledge the “fact” of this influence, and tease out how things fit in.
Such anthropological presupposition underlines and underwrites this article. It is
my belief that while there are distinctions in discourse between human beings acting
and living in the political and spiritual arenas, the distinctions in discourse do not
warrant division in influence. In fact, mutual influence is desirable when one looks at
the run-away situation of the political life in Africa which seems to be heading towards
unnecessary political aporia. This paper modestly seeks to draw attention to this desirable influence, and suggest its urgency nowadays in the political life of the continent.
The use of Christian theology and Ignatian Spirituality is indicative of the possibility of
this mutual influence. The arguments, its manner of deployment and its cogency are
indicative of the plausibility of the influence. The disciplines of Spirituality and political
theology provide the context for this essay. In all, the objective is to enable humans live
a holistic life.
I
ntroduction: This paper wants to investigate three questions. The questions are: First,
is it plausible to found a theology of politics on the Spiritual Exercises of St Ignatius
given the general assumption that it is a “short manual with a profound and enduring
effect on Christian spirituality?”1 Second, if the response to the first question is in the
1
Tad Dunne, Spiritual Exercises for Today, A contemporary presentation of the classic Spiritual Exercises
of Ignatius Loyola (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1991), 7. I am using this translation as indication of what I
am trying to do in this article: make the Exercises contemporary to our time.
*
Chikere is a Nigerian Jesuit. He is a student at Jesuit School of Theology, Santa Clara University,
Berkeley, California
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affirmative, what kind/type or strain of theology of politics could Ignatian Spirituality
authentically support and sustain? Third, given the African context, can one use the
elements of the first and second question to suggest a theology of politics? These questions, at the onset, are presented in a theoretical format. The practical application(s)
and implication(s) shall be drawn at the end as possibilities/probabilities. The first question will establish my case: that spirituality offers us a great window into changing the
political practice of a society. The second question suggests that the core elements of
Ignatian Spirituality support the core elements of contemporary liberal political movements expressed currently as democratic politics. The third question suggests that African
societies would benefit enormously if they found their political life on spiritualties rather
than other variant grounds. This is where the implication(s) and application come in: in
research for foundations of African political movements, closer attention should be paid
to African spiritualities. This paper presumes two things: some general knowledge of
Ignatian Spirituality, because what will be highlighted is what is relevant to the purpose
of the work. It also presumes that democracy, in all its conceivable forms, is currently
the most viable form of political organization for contemporary societies.
First question - The Spiritual Exercises as a Political Text?
As a premise to responding to this question, let us make two historical notes. In
the history of Christianity, there is an agreed tension between the strictly Christian selfunderstanding as a pilgrim community and the life on earth of its members in a political
society. From Cyprian, we already have tensions that arise on how to reintegrate Christians who denied their faith because of political pressures.2 The problem that Cyprian
wrestled with was whether such Christians could be forgiven, and who should do that.
From Augustine we have a careful distinction and clarification of Christian responsibilities should a secular society fall apart, as Rome did in his time, and as Christianity got
blamed for the collapse of the empire. In the City of God, Augustine carefully interpreted
the history of the rise and fall of societies with the Christian perspective, and established
a tension between the two cities.
Fast forward to the 16th century when Ignatius wrote The Spiritual Exercises. The
question that is appropriate for our undertaking is: what could have been the political
situation which produced The Spiritual Exercises and how is it a response to the situation? One can get a sense of the political situation in the 16th century by reading Niccolo
Machiavelli’s political satire3 and treatise, The Prince. In the book, Machiavelli shares a
personal odyssey of serving faithfully in a political regime, and then loosing employment when the regime falls from power. The Prince4 is an attempt to win back political
favour from the Medici family by teaching the young ruler how to gain, control and
maintain power. When the Medici family fell, Machiavelli attempted anew to get into
power in the republican government of Florence that unseated the Medici. He failed.
2
St. Cyprian, The Letters of St. Cyprian of Carthage, Johannes Quasten, Wlater J. Burghardt and Thomas
Comerford Lawler, eds. Ancient Christian Writers Volume 3. (Mahah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1986), See letter 56, p. 204.
For a fuller discussion of Cyprian and reconciliation see John H Taylor, SJ, “St Cyprian and the Reconciliation of
Apostates” in http://www.ts.mu.edu/content/3/3.1/3.1.2.pdf (Accessed on Oct 1, 2011).
3
One needs to read other works of Machiavelli like Discourses on Levy to know that this work is a political
satire.
4
Nicollo Machiavelli, The Prince, trans. W. K Marriot (New York: David Campbell Publishers Ltd, 1992).
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Chikere Ugwuanyi, SJ
The principal question of The Prince which Machiavelli attempted to answer was this:
Is it better to love the ruler or to fear him/her. For Machiavelli, it is better to love the
ruler. But since the most important aim of politics for The Prince is to capture power
and hold, Machiavelli opted that it is better that a prince be feared since it is not feasible
to love and fear him at the same time in the political game.
Two things could be deciphered from the above brief highlight on The Prince. The
first one is that there is a correlation between the naturalistic anthropology (that humans
are finished product and cannot change) and the precarious nature of the political institution. Machiavelli discerned that instability in the political society affects the settled
human nature. The second thing that can be noticed is the relationship between means
and ends. For Machiavelli, there is a coherent link between what is politically plausible
and what is good. Thus, the political virtue is to adopt the necessary means to achieve
what is politically good. If the conservation of society (state) is the ultimate political
good, the ruler may use adequate means to achieve it. Thus, the political society and
its rulers must be adaptable in the means they employ to achieve the perpetuation of
the State, and to respond to the unchanging naturalistic anthropology.
The most obvious link between The Prince and the Catholic Church is that Machiavelli’s book was indexed. An indexed book generally entailed that the content of the
book or it’s author’s thoughts were suspected to have gone against Catholic Faith and
morals, or antipapal.5 Humber Wolf is dedicating scholarly life to listing and investigating the reasons behind books indexed and some of the political dynamics surrounding
some of them.6 The Prince is in the list of index, but the arguments used for indexing it
have not yet been made public. We can only suggest that the arguments related to the
Reformation’s contestation of papal authority and the description of ecclesial principate
in Chapter 11 of The Prince must have been a great worry. It is of note that Machiavelli
singled out “factionalism” and the pope’s powerlessness in dealing with it as the flaw of
a government that is organized like the Church’s structure. The second link is that The
Spiritual Exercises could read as a political text that is situated in the 16th century and
responds to “powerlessness” of the ecclesial governance. Let us explain these links.
The life of St Ignatius could be likened to the life of Machiavelli. They both served
in the courts and were conversant with the dynamics of winning and losing honour in
the medieval feudal society. Ignatius actually went out to defend his political household
against France and got injured in the process. The second operation on his leg that had
been shattered by a cannon ball during the military campaign was initiated ultimately to
please a certain court lady. Thus, just like Machiavelli’s political fortune is important to
understand The Prince, one must pay attention to the political dynamics in St Ignatius’
life and time in order to decipher the political dimensions envisioned in The Spiritual
Exercises. For him, situating Ignatius in the politics of 16th century is important in understanding why Ignatius’ manual could be read as a political text.
The second link is the text of The Spiritual Exercises. We find striking imageries of
political world in the “Call of the King” meditation and the “Principle and Foundation”
(PF). In the PF, one reads an invitation to weigh in ones creaturehood in the hierarchy
5
Amnon Raz-Krakotzkin, The Censor, the Editor, and the Text, The Catholic Church and the Shaping of
the Jewish Canon in the Sixteenth Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007), 37.
6
Cf. Hubert Wolf, Pope and Devil: The Vatican’s Archives and the Third Reich, translated by Kenneth
Kronenberg (Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2010).
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of other creatures and in the light of the creator. This means that at the onset of The
Spiritual Exercises, one is invited to consider how one fits into a narrative of relationships
and the purpose of that relationship. In the termatology of politics, Harold Saunders
has suggested that one paradigm of understanding politics is that it is a continuous
multilevel process of interactions which brings in different ways of thinking and relating.
For him politics is about “relationships among significant clusters of citizens to solve
public problems in a cumulative, multilevel, and open-ended process of continuous
interactions over time in whole bodies politic across permeable borders, either within or
between communities or countries”.7 In these multilayer relationships, in PF, one could
easily read St. Ignatius as presenting the schema for the relationship between humans
and the rest of the world. This political schema could not be more valid today given the
current political consciousness of environmental problems; and given the observable
political instability in the world in general and African in particular.
The significant imagery for our purpose is the “Call of the Kings” meditation in The
Spiritual Exercises. In Tad Dunne’s translation of The Spiritual Exercises which we have
opted to use for this work, he entitled the meditation on the “Call of the Kings” “Pull
and Counter Pull”. For him, this meditation is about decisions and discipleship within
the world history of the retreatant. This meditation is important because God intensely
desires to bring the Kingdom to the time and place of the retreatant.8 To help understand
his/her decision about discipleship as collaboration with God’s desires, retreatant must
reflect on the history of his/her “pulls”.
On the side that withdraws from God it may be a desire for security, or for sexual satisfaction,
or for power. On the side that draws toward God it is usually the opposite of the culture’s
dominant sin -- perhaps a pull toward risk as opposed to excessive security, or for genuine
affectionate love rather than sexual satisfaction, or for reliance on God’s Spirit for wisdom
rather than on brute political power.9
To talk about “brute political power” in our day, is to refer to how Ignatius articulated the political rivalries of his day, and how he weighed them against the Prince of
Peace (Is 9:6) who invites his followers to join him for proclaiming the Kingdom of
God. One could read Ignatius as categorizing most of the feuding powers of his time as
distracting calls from princes who want to maintain their power by the sword, treachery
and trickery well narrated by Machiavelli. In the spiritual realms which Ignatius puts
his writing, the “pulls” are by God and Satan. Each uses the same tactic, each luring
followers with prospects of results.
Now to our first question, “is it plausible to found a political theology on The Spiritual Exercises of St Ignatius?” My answer is that it is plausible. It is plausible because
the political situation of the 16th century offers us some historical backing to suggest that
The Spiritual Exercises is actually a spiritualization of Ignatius’ experience of the political
climate he lived in. I tried to demonstrate this historicization by presenting The Prince,
and showing how the “PF” and “Call of the Kings” are clear political moves by Ignatius.
We now turn to how we can use The Spiritual Exercises to found a Political Theology.
7
Harold H. Saunders, Politics is about Relationship: A Blueprint for the Citizens’ Century (New York:
Palgrave MacMillan, 2005), 47.
8
Tad Dunne, Spiritual Exercises for Today, 79.
9
Tad Dunne, Spiritual Exercises for Today, 81.
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Second Question: what kind/type or strain of theology of politics could Ignatian
Spiritual authentically support and sustain?
A leap was made from St. Augustine’s City of God to Machiavelli’s The Prince. There
were no explanations given for such jump at the time. Let me now offer at least an
explanation. The tension between the Church and politics as established by St. Augustine was the dominant theological working dynamic generally presumed and accepted
till the 16th Century. At some point in that period, there was cozier relationship mainly
because either the political powers used the Church to further its aims and vice versa.
I suggest that we make another leap to enable me offer another explanation. I suggest
that we take a leap from the time of St Ignatius, when the dominant political system
was the feudal politics, to our days when liberal political philosophy reigns. The second
question can then be put again, with some modification: is it possible to articulate a
contemporary liberal and democratic politics using The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius?
If you permit the second leap, I proceed then to provide a second explanation for the
first leap because in the second explanation we find a response to the second question
of this essay. Two notes before the explanation:
In the contemporary society, one can claim that the dominant political unit is the
sovereign nation state. This claim can be substantiated by a simple ‘Google Search’ of
the question “what is the dominant political unit of the world today?” There are over
450,000 responses ranging from entries in banal website like ‘wiki-answers’ to serious
journals of political science and philosophy.10 In most of the answers, there is a link
between the existence of the state and the legitimization of its existence through doing
the will of the people, or being established by the people. This legitimization process
favoured today calls to mind the political process expressed as democracies. So in earnest,
our question is, “can we support or sustain democracies using The Spiritual Exercises?”
Such support would come as a theological process, because while Ignatius was
influenced by the ‘secular’ politics of his day (to the degree that politics was considered
a secular thing by that time), it is evident over the centuries that The Spiritual Exercises
was used for drawing people closer to God through a personal metanoia. If the aim of
the conversion is for political purposes, we will have The Spiritual Exercises adapted
for political ends. If political engagement comes as a result of the metanoia, we have
a theology of politics that has its roots in The Spiritual Exercises. The first possibility is
technically called “political theology”, and the second is called “theology of politics”.
In the first instance, theology is understood through politics. In the second, it is politics
that is understood through theology. Since Philip W. Gray has taken pains to make the
distinctions between “theology of politics” and “political theology”, it more appropriate
to refer to his insights.11
The second explanation could be articulated like this. The leap was important in
order for us to see clearly how St. Ignatius changed the focus of the relationship between the Church and State by changing the founding motif for engaging in the state.
St. Augustine established the tension because of the historical period he lived in: when
10
This exercise was done on Sept 2, 2011. A journal like Journal of Political philosophy has no doubt that
liberal democracy is the most plausible form of governance in contemporary society. The debate within the journal is
what form(s) it should take, and how it fits into other human desires.
11
Phillip W. Gray, “Political Theology and the Theology of Politics: Carl Schmitt and Medieval Christian
Political Thought” in Humanitas, (Volume XX, Nos. 1 and 2, 2007), 175-200.
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Christians were being blamed for the collapse of the state. He established the tension
to show clearly where Christian implication in state affairs starts and how responsibilities could be apportioned. In the time of St. Ignatius, as we have seen in The Prince,
the state has become a theatre of trickery and treachery. St Ignatius, encountering God,
removes the engagement with the state from power play to power for service. Thus,
The Spiritual Exercises invites the retreatant to the conversion of heart that may lead
to engagement of the relationships that are suggested by “PF” and “Call of the Kings”.
What we make out of the paradigm shift Ignatius established in The Spiritual Exercises with regard to the politic of his time is to look at the predominant political systems
of our day, and then decipher from The Spiritual Exercises those elements that are most
useful to engineer a paradigm shift. The reason for using the Exercises for this task is
that the practice of politics in the contemporary society (especially in African political
scene) is so much like the political dynamics of the time of St. Ignatius. Now as in the
16th century, we have mostly quasi feudal systems where power is maintained by trickery
and treachery. Now as in the time of St. Ignatius, the honour being fought over is the
honour of court (tribe). Now, as in the 16th century, we have people like Machiavelli
who have tracts like The Prince that proposes how to gain power and remain in it, while
they themselves get opportunities to serve. One must not dismiss those tract peddlers as
simply evil men (even though naming them as such will be a welcome start) because
they do understand the contemporary political situation very well. What one must do is
to reimagine the way of approaching politics like Ignatius did, based on our collective
desire for relationships and our collective desire to be people of faith.
Thus, as we have done when we pointed out two dynamics in The Spiritual Exercises that gave insights of how St Ignatius was a person of his time, we now present
two insights that showed how he changed the mapping of political theology of his time.
The purpose of the Second Week of the Exercises is to follow Christ. In order to do
this, the disciple is invited in the prayers to know Christ better. As Dunn contextualizes,
“During the Second Week of the Exercises, you will enter into an intimate relationship
with Christ. You will see him more clearly. You will love him more intimately. You will
want to follow him more closely”…. As you meditate on these, ask God to give you
deep and abiding desires to be a partner with Christ in bringing the Kingdom. Ask to
experience this desire in a way that leads to a concrete choice about some important
relationship or path in your life”. To talk about love, intimacy and followership was vital
for Ignatius in changing the focus of the people who want to follow the Prince of Peace.
As against the maneuvers of court politics of his time, Ignatius proposes the disposition
of a disciple as good counter offensive to correcting the political anomaly of his day.
From the dynamics of the fourth week, the retreatant is invited to love Christ and in
loving him, go and love others. Howard Gray, SJ, opined that one of the four things
Ignatius invented which makes him a revolutionary for his time and ours is that he
enabled people to learn how love can enter into their lives as a basic way of being
human.12 By placing love as the basis for human experience, Ignatius ensures that
one always draws on the strongest emotions in human nature; and also draws on
the best motif for human actions. As St. Augustine would say,
Once for all, therefore, a short precept is presented to you: love and do what you will. If
12
Howard Gray, “Ignatian Spirituality: What Are We talking about and Why?” This is a Keynote at the
Jesuit Secondary Education Association, June 23, 2004 at John Carroll University.
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you should be silent, be silent out of love; if you should cry out, cry out out of love. If you
should correct, correct out of love; if you should spare, spare out of love. Let the root of love
be within; from this root only good can emerge.13
Or as he puts it while discussing the political and earthly cities already referred to
above,
Two loves have made two different cities: self-love hath made a terrestrial city, which rises in
contempt of God; and Divine Love hath made a celestial one, which rises in contempt of self.
The former glories in itself - the latter in God.14
Ignatius invites the retreatant to build a city on love in which God glories. Also,
in the footnote15 to the translation of St. Augustine about love and doing what one
wants, John W. Rettig underscores the context of such libertarianism with regard
to love in St. Augustine’s worldview. For Augustine, the love which permits all is
grounded in the facts that the beloved is created in the image of God, was redeemed
by God, and that his ultimate good is the focus of such love. Thus, the love that
permits all starts from God to the neighbor (the society) and back to God.
Third Question: Given the African political context, can one use the elements of
the first and second question to suggest a theology of politics?
The two insights (discipleship and love) reground the understanding of politics, and
initiate the best approach to it. It is now ripe to try to link these discussions into the
contemporary African political situations, and tease out how Ignatius could be of help
to further a theological reflection on politics. Let us first identify the political context
of Africa.
With some exaggeration and devoid of nuances, permit the use of Antony Otieno
Ong’ayo’s voice to posit that the biggest political problem in Africa is political instability; and that the instability is significantly a leadership crisis.16 The current “Arab Spring”
in North Africa, the continuous clamour for stable institutions in sub-Saharan African
states, and the great joy in the air whenever there is a successful political transition;
lend credence to the above assertion. Thus, when one wants to talk about political
situations in Africa, one is better placed if one could interpret it as a “pull” between
unstable and stable political life. At the risk of sounding redundant, political instability
is the “Chain of Amistad” that holds the African people to their knees while the ship17
of development sails on.
13
St. Augustine, Tractates on the Gospel of John, 112-124, Tractates on the First Epistle of John: 112124, trans. by John W. Rettig (Washington DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 1995). Tractates on the
First Epistle of John, VII, 8.
14
St. Augustine, City of God, (New York: Random House Inc, 1950), Book XIV, Chap. 28
15
See John W. Rettig comments on p. 223. He makes the point that St Augustine is not lax on love.
16
Antony Otieno Ong’ayo, “Political instability in Africa: Where the Problem lies and Alternative Perspectives” in The African Diaspora Policy Centre, (Amsterda: Stichting Nationaal Erfgoed Hotel De Wereld, Wageningen,
September, 2008). The whole paper offers a critical analysis of the contemporary political situation in Africa. While
I do not agree with the details of his analysis, I subscribe to the insights.
17
Paul Gilroy employs the image of “ship in motion” as one of the defining chronotopes for the place of
back person in the contemporary society. See Paul Gilroy, The Black Antantic, Modernity and Double Consciousness
(Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1993), 4.
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Political instability is used simply as a snap shot that captures the varieties of
problems that affect Africa. There is no need to list them because NGOs are better in
cataloging African problems. However, one could easily see that political instability has
fed economic and human crisis in Africa. For example, the bouts of famine in Somalia
are not entirely related to unfavourable agricultural weather, but mainly to the political
instability that prevents peasant farming and distribution of food.18 Another poignant
example is that illiteracy fuels insecurity (psychological and physical) and insecurity
breeds instability which is easily expressed through the political platform.19 From the
historical perspective, one could say that colonization and slavery jointly engendered
political instability in Africa because the two jointly produced the contemporary African leaders who blossom in political chaos.20 Finally from the economic perspective,
Graziella Bertocchi and Fabio Canova have demonstrated that colonization mattered for
economic growth in Africa. In fact, the difference types of colonization methods make
huge difference in the current economic situations of various countries in Africa. Thus,
the countries colonized by Britain, France and Portugal have significant differences in
economic development.21
The aim of singling out political instability is to give a collective name to the current
political quagmire in Africa. The instability in Africa is akin to the political instability
of 16th century Europe which gave rise to Machiavelli is work. It is to such instabilities that Ignatius wrote a spiritual exercise to reimagine the solutions advanced. At the
time, the Florence government of Machiavelli was changing with such frequency that
some governments lasted only a few hours.22 History showed very well that the simple
fact of changing governments for the sake of doing so does not bring stability. It is
actually one of the signs of instability. Ignatius opted for another form of change: to
stabilize the interior by “pulling” the heart and mind unto the true King. The irony of
the African situation is that we have some governments lasting many years, but their
vision changes every second.
If political instability is taken as the biggest political problem in Africa, where do
we find spiritual resource to combat it as Ignatius did for 16th century? Pope Benedict
XVI, in his homily during the opening Eucharist of Second Special Assembly for Africa
of the Synod of Bishops (2nd African Synod) asserted that “Africa constitutes an immense
spiritual ‘lung’ for humanity”.23 But he immediately added that this lung may be lacking
in “faith and hope”. One can then posit that one of the ways to profess the faith and
18
See the editorial of The Washington Post, “Somalia’s hunger: A man-made crisis requires action” (August
2, 2011).
19
PaanLuel Wel argues that illiteracy breeds “tribocracy” which is the highest contributor of political
instability in Africa. See Wel’s reflection, “Tribocracy: The New Political Philosophy for the New Country”
in New Soudan Vision, (August 3, 2011). Accessed from the website: http://www.newsudanvision.com/index.
php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2419:tribocracy-the-new-political-philosophy-for-the-new-country&ca
tid=5:columns&Itemid=14 (7/10/2011).
20
James Chiriyankandat, Colonialism and Post-Colonial Development in http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/
bin/9780199296088/burnell_ch02.pdf, (Accessed on 3/10/2011), 38-44.
21
See Graziella Bertocchi and Fabio Canova “Did Colonization Matter for Growth?” in JEL Classifications,
No. E00, 040, Q32, N10 (December, 1996) Found in http://www.crei.cat/people/canova/colonization.pdf (Accessed
on 10/10/2011).
22
Gascoigne, Bamber. “History of Florence” HistoryWorld in http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=aa69 (Accessed on 10/10/2011).
23
Benedict XVI, Homily during the “Eucharistic Celebration for the Opening of the Second Special Assembly
for Africa of the Synod of Bishops”, Vatican Basilica, Sunday, 4 October 2009. in www.vatican.va/.../homilies/.../
hf_ben-xvi_hom_20091004_sinodo-a. (Accessed on 01/10/2011).
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hope that African spirituality bears for Africans and for the world is to use it to imagine
a way out of political instability. Changing the imagination for solutions is possible
because African spirituality has a unique way of linking the spiritual and the material.24
Faced with political instability, St. Ignatius’ approach also comes handy for Africa
because it shows how a spirituality was able to reimagine the political temperature of
an epoch. Like the two paradigms of orienting thoughts and actions discussed above, St.
Ignatius invites Africans to “launch/plunge into the deep” (Lk 5:4), into its own spiritual
heritage and retrieve contemporary paradigms that would reimagine the contemporary
political universe for the better. And in providing parallel working tool to Machiavelli’s
analysis, African spiritualties would be capable of engendering tools for analysis of the
root causes of political instability. For the Christians in Africa, Ignatian spirituality offers
something timeless from the Christian tradition which is adaptable to the contemporary
context and contemporary needs.
Delimiting the essay as a way of conclusion
I am opting not to provide summary of our schema as is traditionally expected in
concluding a piece like this. I would rather indicate some of the limitations of the attempt
which serve as an invitation to continue the conversation. This essay has progressed
as if The Spiritual Exercises is equivalent to Ignatian Spirituality. They are not exactly
identical. Ignatian Spirituality aptly refers to the body of work that starts from Ignatius
and includes the family of works that was inspired by his imagination.25 Thus, this essay
falls under the Ignatian Spirituality. It is on purpose that I did not cite other works in the
Ignatian family that try to adapt The Spiritual Exercises for different purposes because
they are attempts to situate Ignatius’ classical manual in time and context. David T. Asselin’s guidance for adapting The Spiritual Exercises has been followed. He suggests that
adaptation of the Exercises is itself very Ignatian because the context of the retreatant
is primary in his/her experience of God. More so, from the beginning, it seems that the
thirty days, eight days, Annotation 18 and 19 are various forms of adaptations that were
in use by Ignatius himself and his immediate conferees.26 Thus adapting The Spiritual
Exercises should be the normal attitude to have towards the text.
In an equal measure, this essay has proceeded as if there is no difference between
the political instability of the medieval Europe and the contemporary political instability in Africa. Of course there are. Apart from colonialism and other factors mentioned
above, Africa’s political instability may also come from the presence of Christianity and
Islam, political ineptness of leaders, unrealistic expectations placed on government,
undue interference from foreign powers and from the fact that African states are still
young and under construction. Instabilities are part and parcel of political maturity.
These notwithstanding, Africa and the 16th century share the feeling and consequences
of instability. Thus, while the causes may be different, the realities are the same. The
differences in causes of instability between Africa and medieval Europe make the use
24
Yusufu Turaki, “Africa Traditional Religious System as Basis of Understanding Christian Spiritual Warfare”
Paper presented during The Lausanne Movement conference in Nairobi, 2000. Accessible in their website http://
www.lausanne.org/en/documents/all/nairobi-2000/194-west-african-case-study.html (Accessed on 4/10/2011).
1969), 1.
25
26
Pinard De La Boullaye, “Ignatian Spirituality” in http://www.ewtn.com/library/SPIRIT/IGNASPIR.TXT.
David T. Asselin, “Notes on Adapting the Exercises of St. Ignatius” in Review for Religious (Vol. 28,
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of Machiavelli and St. Ignatius to be analogical paradigm for analysis of cause and
searches for solution. Any use beyond these limits would be forcing the hands of time
The example of The Spiritual Exercises would then serve as sources of “faith and
hope” that changes are possible. African Christians can initiate the change by tapping
to the Ignatian Spirituality. Others can choose any classical spirituality that has roots
in African religion or other faiths in Africa. If such attempt is made, the case for this
article can rest.
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By Serge Patrick Simo, AA*
A
bstract: The mission of the Church is zeroed-in on God’s plan for the unity of his people
and the whole of humanity. The unity of Christians through baptism in the name of the
Trinity and the idea of communion are fundamental. Stemming from this, there is a
much felt need to reflect on the practical and ecumenical journey of Christians with regards
to Christ’s will for all the believers. To build Christian unity, the starting point has to be from
our commonalities other than dissimilarities. However, for ecumenism to be achieved there has
to be a risk taking. This is risk of freedom for strong commitment to unity in love, peace and
reconciliation. But, this commitment is not the prerogative of the Church leadership (ecumenism from above); it is a task which is integral to all Christians (ecumenism from below) as it
is a divine command.
I
ntroduction: Over the last millennium, the Catholic Church has made a great turn on
matters with regards to ecumenism. This turn almost amounts to what can be termed
as a change. This conversion which is mostly found in the official documents of the
Catholic Church is also found in the living sensus catholicus of Catholics. Yet, since the
promulgation of the Decree on Ecumenism, it has been easily possible to trace an appealing progress in the respect for ecumenism and for what it is all about. This has been
shown at the highest level of what I should call “Ecumenism from above.” If Pope John
XXIII used preferably to refer to fraters separati, Pope Paul VI, in his opening address
to the second session of Vatican Council II, used the expression communion christiane,
and at the start of the third session even Ecclesiae. The latter two terms have found their
way into the Decree on Ecumenism. This may appear to be a matter of simple politeness and charity, an act of peace and a step forward for reconciliation, but on closer
inspection the implication of this usage might have not very much impacted on the life
of Christians. It might have not gone far in the very daily life of those Christians who
are the first and even the privilege addressees of the Church documents and who most
likely are strangers to them. This is clear when we see the kind of hatred, suspicion,
intolerance, and violence which animates Christians against Christians. It shows that
there is a practical issue that has to be addressed. Christian unity cannot be isolated as
a special field for religious leaders; but there is a need to embrace both the above and
the below of ecumenism, and thus the need of an active participation of Christians in
the whole movement of unity. This is something that has to be told and taught to Christians. The ecumenical movement affects not only the teaching concerning the Church,
but also the understanding of scripture and tradition, the simple theology concerning
the mission of the Church in the world based on LOVE. The question at stake is: how
is it possible to conceive unity otherwise than in terms of a proselytism and/or unity of
the Catholica? To answer this question and its implications, I will build my convictions
on a set of assurances and certainties with the belief that the ecumenical spirit is the
*
Serge is an Augustinian of the Assumption from Cameroon. He is a student at the Jesuit School of
Theology, Hekima College-Nairobi.
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Serge Patrick Simo, AA
spirit that should call for pressing the beliefs that are held in common rather than the
points of disagreement.
A common Christian patrimony
Christian faith is something that has been handed down from our parents in faith
to us. It constitutes for us a certain patrimony. The Christian unity we are after is based
on the strong fact that all Christians believe in Jesus Christ as their founder. As such,
Jesus is for them God’s presence, God’s own body language in human form. He is the
one who established the new covenant based on his death and resurrection. Briefly,
Christianity has at least three aspects: a set of beliefs (mostly based on a Creed), a way
of life (Christian life, worship, and the expressing love), and a community of people1
(the Church). Different Christian groups place different weights on these three aspects,
but they complement each other. All three aspects are based on the life and teachings
of Jesus of Nazareth, who is also known as the Christ. Knowing that Christians share in
common a couple of things, there is already a common ground that can render easier
their stride towards unity. This is relevant because the effort at ecumenism recognizes
and takes with seriousness the commonalities and similarities among Christians, focuses
on them and constantly find in them reasons for engaging in unity. This does not rule
out the fact that there are dissimilarities that are to be contrasted, compared and in
which essential differences of self-identity would be found. But since it appears much
more convenient to build unity on commonalities than on dissimilarities, I want first
here to focus my reflection on the Christian common patrimony. The reason of this is
well expressed in the Rule of Life of the Augustinians of the Assumption:
(…) He (God) who unites us is stronger than that which separates us. We must constantly
transcend our divisions and limitations so that we can learn to accept and forgive each other.
If we put kindness and respect for persons before differences of opinion and distinctions
based on background, age, [religion], mentality or health, our diversity becomes richness.2
In fact, Christian denominations share among themselves a number of beliefs and
practices. Christians believe in one God, who created the universe and all that is in it.
All believe that this God is active in history, guiding and teaching his people. All major
Christian denominations have been called “ethical monotheism”. This term emphasizes
the belief in one God, and the fact that following this God commits us to a number of
specific ethical rules or principles.
In this sense, beliefs play in Christianity an important role. Christianity tends to put
more importance on proper belief than many other religions. More often, when we
say that someone is a Christian, we normally mean that the person accepts the major
Christian beliefs. But that is not the whole story because Christianity is also a way of
life and a community. But most Christians do not think it is appropriate to apply the
term Christian based simply on the fact that someone has Christian parents and grows
up as a Christian, or even based on the fact that the person admires many of Jesus’
1
Christians live in community. Jesus described himself as a vine and we as the branches. It is not possible
to be united with him without also being united with other Christians. The motivating force behind the Christian life is
love. Since love is a personal relationship, there’s no way to grow in love other than to be with others. This Christian
community is called the “Church”.
2
The Rule of Life of the Augustinians of Assumption, n°8.
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teachings. To be classified as a Christian, one is normally expected to accept the major
Christian beliefs, follow the way of life that Jesus taught, and be a part of the Christian
community. We must not only become Christian, we must learn to be Christian, and
we cannot do this on our own strength, on the basis of “feelings”.
Most Christian groups have standards of belief. Members are expected to accept the
standards of their community. This is not to say that Christians have no questions or
doubts. The most controversial aspects of Christianity and those that are emphasized in
presentations of Christianity tend to be beliefs, particularly beliefs about Jesus. However
Jesus’ teachings were primarily about how his followers should live. It is these teachings
that form the heart of Christian life for most Christians. The teaching of the Apostles is
key to unity. In the priestly prayer of Jesus in Jn17:20 Jesus says “I pray not only for
them, but also for those who will believe in me through their word (...)”. “Them” are
the Apostles; everyone who believes does so “through their word”. Thus we say that
the Church, the true Church, is apostolic, which is to say that it preserves the teaching
of the Apostles, which they received from Christ himself. This characteristic is also applied to the Church in the earliest succinct formulation of the faith, the Apostles’ Creed.
The most standard and accepted beliefs of Christianity is the “Apostles’ Creed” which
can rightly be termed Christian common patrimony and this is detailed in the Creed
defined at the First Council of Nicaea in 325.
a. Basic beliefs of Christianity
These are based on a Creed defined at the First Council of Nicaea in 325. Here are
the tenets of Christianity according to it: all Christians believe in one all-powerful God.
Christianity conceives of God as One. But it is not an isolated One. Rather, God is a
person, who is capable of affecting and being affected by others. This is implicit in the
concept of God as Father, which is one of the most characteristic teachings of Jesus.
The concept of God as personal ultimately led to the Trinity, which is surely one of the
most distinctive (and controversial) ideas in Christianity. Trinity here shall be used as a
symbol of God’s self-communication to us and not forcefully as a doctrine or dogma.
Christians believe in Jesus, the only begotten Son of God who was born of the Virgin
Mary. All Christians believe that for our sake Jesus became a man to save us. Forgiveness of sins is one of the key marks of Christianity. Christ died to seal our forgiveness
by God. Christians are expected to respond by forgiving each other, and acting as a
force for reconciliation in the world. Christians believe that Jesus suffered, died, was
buried, and rose again on the third day, i.e. on Sunday called the “Lord’s Day” when
Christians gather together for their worship. Christianity is based on historical events.
The Creed is only a summary, so it does not give the entire history of God’s dealings
with Israel. But that is part of the basis for Christian belief. Christians believe that Jesus
ascended into Heaven and seated at the right hand of God, the Father almighty, and
He will come again to judge the living and the dead.3
The Creed has an overall form based on the Trinity. Thus it deals first with the
Father, then the Son, and finally the Holy Spirit. Here, some minimal explanation is
necessary. Christians see Jesus as in some sense embodying God. This is based on his
teachings and actions, as well as on further discussions within the Christian community.
3
Unitatis Redintegratio, no. 22; John Paul II, encyclical on commitment to Ecumenism, Ut Unum Sint, no42.
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Every account we have of Jesus sees him as playing a role beyond that of a normal
teacher. Different sources express it differently. In some of the Gospels it is implicit in
the way Jesus acts: he forgives people’s sins, something that only God can do. In the
Gospel according to John, he says “I and the Father are one” and “he who has seen
me has seen the Father”. However he clearly is a normal human being, who sees God
as distinct from himself.
Based on this sort of evidence, Christians developed two separate but related concepts: the Trinity and the Incarnation. At this point, I am simply going to quote two texts
from the New Testament. These represent two ways that Jesus was understood within
several decades of his death: “In times past, God spoke in partial and various ways to
our ancestors through the prophets; in these last days, he spoke to us through a son,
whom he made heir of all things and through whom he created the universe, who is
the refulgence of his glory, the very imprint of his being, and who sustains all things by
his mighty word” (Heb 1:1-3a). “He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of
all creation. For in him were created all things in heaven and on earth, the visible and
the invisible, whether thrones or dominions or principalities or powers; all things were
created through him and for him. (…) For in him all the fullness of God was pleased
to dwell” (Col 1:14-16, 19)
There are two things to note in these passages. The first is that Jesus is seen as
a human vehicle for God to be present. Note that in these passages there is both a
distinction between Jesus and God, and an identification of Jesus with God. Jesus is a
human being. But he is God’s way of being present as a human being. He embodies
God completely. Christians altogether believe in the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit is the
bond that unites us with God. This is not “the Force”. God is personal, so the Holy
Spirit is a personal presence. All in all, the Creed gives basic tenets of Christianity, its
goal and attainment.
b. Some basic tenets of Christianity
Goal: To know, love and serve God, now and eternally. This is why Christianity is
a way of life. The unity of Christians is the one in knowing, loving and serving God.
The prayer of Jesus in the gospel of Saint John (Jn17:20-26) says something about this
unity. The substance of this prayer is that his disciples may be one. Truly, disciples are
already one, just as the Father and Jesus are one; and Jesus acts for their security so
that they may continue to be one. Some may say that the gift of unity is already given.
Obviously, it is given. Love, knowledge, service are also given already, but Christians
still have to keep them alive by really putting them into practice starting from below,
i.e from their fellow human beings through whom God is loved, known and served.
The type of unity or oneness Jesus was praying for is explained in Jn17:21-23: it is a
character of the Trinity; it links the Trinity with believers; it is observable to unbelievers; it prompts faith; it exhibits divine glory and it will one day be perfected. The verse
23 seems to imply that oneness is evident in love. In verse 26, it is the divine unity of
love that is referred to where all wills bow in the same direction, all affections burn
with the same flame, all aims are directed to the same end; brief one blessed harmony
of love. Therefore, the source from which the unity of Christians flows is the intimate
unity of the Three Divine Persons among whom there is mutual love and self-giving.
This is confirmed by Pope John Paul II in his encyclical Ut Unum Sint when he says
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that “Christian unity (…) has its divine source in the Trinitarian unity of the Father, the
Son and the Holy Spirit.”4
A
ttainment: Christianity places the largest value on love of God and of others, frequently shown by charitable works. This is the origin of hospitals and orphanages
through which unbelievers can come to faith. However, this is not enough to warrant eternal life, which is given as a gift from God. The charitable works are supposed to
emanate from gratitude for the gift of salvation. In other words, Christians are supposed
to imitate Jesus, who lived a life of service, healing, and teaching. Jesus is one of the
atypical few religious founders who never were a warrior. Needless to say, this aspect
of Christianity is often missed by the followers of Jesus who unfortunately think that to
look for peace, justice, unity we need to go for war, hostilities, confrontation and all the
like. As disciples of Jesus Christ, Christians are under a double obligation to love others
(believers or not) as Jesus loved them and to share the good news with them. Both do
not only go hand in hand but the second (sharing the good news) is best carried out as
an expression of the first (love). Ecumenism is therefore the privileged way of “speaking the truth in love” (Eph4:15) to other Christian denominations. Stepping forward in
speaking the truth in love to other Christian denominations requires that Christians win
out fearfulness, faithlessness, indifference and take the risk of freedom.
Ecumenism: Taking the risk of freedom
According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church, “Human freedom is a force for
growth and maturity in truth and goodness; it attains its perfection when directed toward
God, our beatitude.”5 If freedom attains its perfection when directed toward God and if
God’s plan is to gather all Christians into unity, thus Christians are to put their freedom
into that search for Christian unity.
To engage into the true search for Christian unity, Christians should take the risk
of freedom. Bellin Gita says: “There are always risks in freedom. The only risk in bondage is breaking free”6. Taking the risk of freedom should no longer be the effort and
the prerogative of the religious leadership alone, but the one of all the faithful as well.
Pope John Paul II acknowledged it when he said that “Together with all Christ’s disciples, the Catholic Church bases upon God’s plan her ecumenical commitment to gather
all Christians into unity”7. Better still; the risk taking of freedom should start from the
faithful, from our families, from small Christian communities. The point here is not for
Christians to venture into theological discussions and controversies with other Christian
denominations about which is the true Church Jesus intended to found. This is an area
where they are not in fact well built. The freedom I am mentioning here is not a freedom
from commitment and responsibility. But the freedom I talk about is the one for a strong
commitment to unity in love, peace, reconciliation among Christians and all believers.
Freedom is what people long for. It is what many people dream of. Freedom is one of
those valued prizes that are sought after politically, personally and religiously. I want
John Paul II, Encyclical on Commitment to Ecumenism, Ut Unum Sint, no 8.
Catechesism of the Catholic Church, # 1731.
6
Bellin Gita, Amazing Grace Series: The Flourishing Mind: Forgiveness (South Africa: BookSurge Publishing, February 5, 2010), 114.
7
John Paul II, Ut Unum Sint, no 5; Unitatis Redintegratio, no 2.
4
5
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here to base my arguments about the risk of taking freedom for unity by all Christians
on the Israelite exodus’ experience as mentioned in Ex14:5-18.
In fact, the pursuit of freedom can be the chasing of an illusion that only leads us
into more and more trouble. Nonetheless, our Biblical faith is the story of God’s loving
grace which bestows freedom on us: freedom from sin and death; freedom from fear
and the tyranny of false Gods; freedom from self-righteousness; freedom from thinking
that Christian unity is not possible at all. The question being raised here is, “Christians
where is your faith”?
Our Biblical faith is the story of men and women of faith who would rather die
than bow down before the idols of human empires. It is a story of men and women
who would rather dare seeking for Christian unity and peace than sinking into despair.
Are Christians not somehow slaves of their own dogmas, principles which they have
put higher than God’s command of love? Are they not slaves of their lack of interest
and/or fear to engage fully in Christian unity from their baptism? The risk of freedom in
Ex14:5-18 is the story of people who were called to freedom out of slavery. The story
of the exodus out of Egypt, led by Moses, brings us to an understanding of freedom
that is important for our own time, especially for peace and unity.
There is something Christians can learn from those forty years journey from slavery
to freedom. The first thing that emerges out of the story is that real freedom requires
the risk of faith. For those Hebrew slaves to take the first step toward freedom they
had to trust Moses, and more than that, trust the God who had sent Moses to lead them
out. It was not, as we shall see, a perfect trust. But they were persuaded to go. Having
trusted Moses and the God who sent him they went to the wilderness. They were set
free from Pharaoh. Christians have to trust their leaders and more than that trust Jesus
who prayed that through the teaching of the apostles all may be one (Jn17:20-21). This
was to set the disciples free for unity and love. We need to be aware of the fact that
real freedom is never really freedom from something. It must be freedom for something. It may be surprising that those Hebrews had to roam around the desert for forty
years. Unquestionably, it does not take forty years to get from Egypt to the Promised
Land. But forty years is a generation and it took a generation for the Jews to figure out
what they had been set free for and to learn the dimensions of that freedom. Maybe
as time goes on, Christians will also come to figure out what they have been really set
free for by Jesus and the size of that freedom. As God had called the Israelites out of
slavery to be a holy people, so Jesus called all the believers out of divisions, hatred
to be the Church, the holy people of God. Thus, division “openly contradicts the will
of Christ, provides a stumbling block to the world, and inflicts damage on the most
holy cause of proclaiming the Good News to every creature”8. That is why, Christians,
by virtue of their baptism, are bound to break isolation by taking the risk of freedom
and to get involved in the mission of Christ which is to gather into one the sons and
daughters of God (John 11:51-52).
Freedom is not freedom from commitment, from obligation or responsibility. Freedom is not emptiness. It is freedom for something; loyalty to something. It is fullness and
a commitment. When the Hebrews running from Egypt with Pharaoh hot on their trail
came up against the sea, Moses promised them that God would take care of them. He
waved his staff over the waters and with trust in God the water parted so they could
8
Unitatis Redintegratio, no1; Ut Unum Sint, no 3.
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cross on dry land. This was an affirmation of faith. Trust and Love for God needed to
be as strong as the chains that bound them in Egypt. That first daring step of faith was
saying that the God who gives freedom is the center of life now. Christians have been
set free to know, love and serve that Holy God who is the source of unity. Thus, the
foundation from which the unity of Christians flows is the intimate unity of the tree
divine persons among whom there is mutual love and self-giving.
Our common human experience shows that this is a critical issue in that period of
life we call teenage years. There is a time that comes for freedom from the ties of childhood in the family. There are countless forms of that declaration of freedom. However,
if there is only the declaration of freedom, and there is no new center of self and no
focus for meaning, then it is a distressed time. The task of growing up at its best is to
find a worthy center of self, a worthy vision of self which can sustain the freedom that
we seek. Christians have known that it only happens when there is a cause worth being committed to. This was true with Jesus Christ. Leo F. Buscaglia says: “If we wish to
free ourselves from enslavement, we must choose freedom and the responsibility this
entails”9. This is to say that, freedom that simply seeks no responsibilities, no obligations,
no commitments or freedom that refuses to offer the self in trust to any cause leads to a
fresh and dreadful slavery. The domino effect of it is noticeable every day. Nowadays in
many countries, people cry for freedom, peace, and unity. More and more they shout:
“Let my people go [for unity, peace, reconciliation…]”.
The parable of the return of the unclean spirit (Mt 12:43-45) says something here.
It spoke of a person who had an unclean spirit inside him. But that spirit was cast
out. The tyranny of that unclean repression was overcome. The impure spirit returns
to check out the scene. There is plenty of room and that space seems so appealing it
goes out and brings back seven other spirits more evil than itself and they all move
in. The constant fight against disunity, hatred among Christians should not be replaced
by a passive and/or sterile and theoretical unity. Ecumenism should be a continuous
and creative commitment for all the faithful. Not something good only for the week
of prayer for the Christian unity. We are always ready to be free from what we do not
like, but we are much less ready to fill the vacuum with something we are for, with a
new commitment. We quickly cut ties in relationships that are hard on us. We are very
slow to hammer out the ways to make them work. Instead we reach out for that illusive
freedom. We abandon the relationship and clean out the house. But the freedom we
reached for vanishes and we are seizing the air.
During the fiftieth general assembly of the United Nations, in his address to the
participants Pope John Paul II said, “The quest for freedom cannot be suppressed. It
arises from recognition of the inestimable dignity and value of the human person, and
it cannot fail to be accompanied by a commitment on behalf of the human person”10.
This conviction from the pope shows that freedom is not freedom from something;
it is freedom for something. To risk being free is to choose a worthy commitment. That
is what the Israelites had to learn in those forty years of wandering in the desert. In illo
tempore they discovered commandment, covenant, and community. Freedom that touches
on the responsibility of all the faithful and which I talk about is not evading from the
Leo F. Buscaglia, Personhood: The Art of Being Fully Human (Ventura U.S.A.: Ballantine Books, 1982), 49.
Address of his Holiness John Paul II to the United Nations Headquarters (New York) on Thursday, 5
October 1995 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana).
9
10
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rules in spite of what our today’s world culture might suggest. As the saying goes “The
rules are for breaking.” However in the wilderness the Hebrews learned and Christians
can learn that there is a framework for life. There are some rules that constrain us but
also give us life. In the desert the Jews received the commandments that could sustain
their freedom. In Christianity, Christians received from Jesus the commandment that will
sustain their freedom: “As the Father loves me, so I love you. Remain in my love. If you
keep my commandments, you will remain in my love, just as I have kept my Father’s
commandments and remain in his love” (Jn15:9-10). This commandment is all about
love: “Love one another. As I have loved you, so you also should love one another.
This is how all will know that you are my disciples, if you have love for one another”
(Jn13:34-35). I think unity of Christians is not that all may dwell under the same physical
roof because we may live under the same house but still have divisive and contentious
attitudes. But it is unity in love. It is about the divine unity of love where all wills bow
in the same direction, all affections burn with the same flame, all aims are directed to
the same end, one blessed harmony of love, that is one must see God in everyone.
To come back to the exodus’ experience, along with commandments the Jews
entered into Covenant with the giver of those commandments who had set them free
from Pharaoh. It was a commitment and a relationship that gave them an identity.
God said to them “I will be your God and you will be my people”. Let that shape who
you are and how you live out this precious freedom. And we are called to join that
covenant, to be in touch with the life-giving center that enables us to receive the gift
of freedom, to avoid the emptiness, to live fully in the spirit of Christ and to believe in
him. And for Pope John Paul II, “To believe in Christ means to desire unity; to desire
unity means to desire the Church; to desire the Church means to desire the communion
of grace which corresponds to the Father’s plan from all eternity. Such is the meaning
of Christ’s prayer: ‘Ut unum sint’.”11 To be truly Christian is to be Christian for others.
The Israelites in the desert journeyed together. They discovered community. Instead of
that false freedom that is free from care and responsibility for others, they found that
the real freedom God gave involved other people. This goes exactly with what Paul
wrote to the Galatians: “It is absolutely clear that God has called you to a free life. Just
make sure that you don’t use this freedom as an excuse to do whatever you want to do
and destroy your freedom. Rather use your freedom to serve one another in love; that
is how freedom grows” (Gal. 5:13).
The simple fact of being Christian should be already a motive to engage in peace,
reconciliation, love and unity. The ecumenical movement of Christians should be based
on that freedom; freedom for the sake of love, not freedom for freedom’s sake. Gregory
A. Boyd and Edward K. Boyd say that love is really the only reason worth creating! It
is not freedom for the sake of freedom that God values, it is love. Freedom is simply
the only possible means to this end.12
Freedom requires that we have something inside ourselves. Sir Edwin Arnold, a British poet (1832-1904) says: “Within yourself deliverance must be searched for, because
each man makes his own prison”13. The slavery from which the Hebrews escaped was
John Paul II, Ut Unum Sint, no9.
Gregory A. Boyd and Edward K. Boyd, Letters from a Skeptic: a Skeptic Wrestles with His Father’s Questions about Christianity (New York: David C. Cook, 1994), 25-30.
13
Edwin Arnold, in Dr Shon Neyland, Devotions from the Desert: Encountering God (New York: AuthorHouse, 2010), 44.
11
12
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not just an external power represented by Pharoah. It was in the heart of the slaves.
When they saw Pharaoh coming after them, they cried out and complained to Moses:
“Why did you bring us out of Egypt? (…) far better for us to be the slaves of the Egyptians than to die in the desert” (Ex14:11-12). They were not free in their hearts yet. The
God who called them out was just another Pharoah as far as they were concerned. It
took them a long time to discover that the Holy One who is the God of life could make
them truly free. Similarly, I think that ecumenism is not just to escape the external power
of division of Christians but besides to break away from internal slavery of thinking
that true unity is an illusion and that it is not possible, although Jesus prayed for it (cf.
John17:21). With faith, love and hope I believe that it is possible. Pope John Paul II also
said: “(…) we ask if all this (Christian unity) is possible, the answer will always be yes.
It is the same answer which Mary of Nazareth heard: with God nothing is impossible.”14
Consequently, Christians should not only proclaim loudly and proudly faith, hope and
love as the theological virtues. They have to live by, through and with them.
It is important to note that to worship our own freedom is to worship an empty
house that is made ready for new dictators. Bowless Samuel says: “The cause of freedom is the cause of God.”15 The freedom God gives us is a new commitment, a worthy
cause, a personal relationship that fills Christians up and makes them ready for life in
the Promise Land, that of peace, unity, reconciliation. God took a risk, let all the Christians take a risk to engage in true ecumenism affirming our similarities and celebrating
our differences.
Ecumenism from below: respect for difference, teaching and practicing unity
Any truthful assessment of our Christian life proves how far Christians are from the
standard of Christian freedom with which they began their spiritual journey from baptism.
The recovery of this standard demands of everyone who loves Jesus and his Church a
hard look at him/herself, for the greatest achievements of the Christian faith must begin
somewhere, and they always begin with someone, with the person. If Christians are
not capable of this assessment, I think ecumenism may yet become one of the most
renowned and colossal failures in the history of Christianity.
In fact, ecumenism demands a certain freedom from religious belonging and respect of differences in beliefs and cultural heritage. The differences or diversity that
come from Christians from all over the world enrich our Christian culture, bringing new
ideas and energy in relating to God and the neighbor. We all know that the Church is a
communion of men, women and children with the Triune God and with one another.
That communion is dynamically present in the world as the observable presence of the
invisible Christ and with him, through him the visible presence of God who is always
gracious and loving. The Church is made of Christians who are from families. These
families are considered as the domestic church. As such, it is where the Christian faith
is presumed truly received, assessed, nurtured, and well kept.
Stemming from this conviction, the awareness and the necessity of ecumenism,
i.e Christian unity, should be truly communicated, received, assessed, nurtured, and
John Paul II, Ut Unum Sint, no102; Unitatis Redintegratio, no 5-12.
Bowless Samuel in Joseph D’Souza, Benedict Rogers, Timothy J. Beals, On the Side of the Angels: Justice,
Human Rights, and Kingdom Mission ( New York: Biblica, 2007), 163.
14
15
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well kept. Let us note that Christian unity is not another doctrine of the Church but it
is part and parcel of the essence of the Christian faith. The social, religious and ecumenical values of unity, respect of others, peace are to be taught from below i.e from
our children instead of hearing these values only at Mass and once at home there is
no proper follow up. Here, I advocate for an ecumenism from below. The future and
the achievement of ecumenism depend on obviously the grace of God and on how
the generation to come will be able to appreciate, understand and work with others
in peace and unity. As a matter of fact, today, more than ever, children interact with
people of differing ethnicities, religions, and cultures. Their environment is increasingly
diverse, reflecting the communities where families live and work. Christian families have
therefore to prepare future active Christians i.e their children to take over and to hasten
peace, unity and reconciliation among Christians and in the whole world.
a. Ecumenism from below: respect for difference
It is no longer a secret that we live in a pluralistic or an increasingly diverse society.
Some Christian parents welcome this fact while others feel more hesitant, because they
have not had much contact with people different from themselves. Many children are
ahead of their parents regarding exposure to religious and cultural differences. Their
circle of friends, their schoolmates, and even their relatives are much more varied than
those of many generations ago. Still, parents should help their kids prepare to live, learn,
and work in communities that will become even more diverse. Teaching tolerance and
respect is important not just because it is part of our Christian heritage, but because the
person who learns to be open to religious differences will have more opportunities in
education, in helping people to live peacefully, in building bridges between people,
overcoming prejudice, self-centeredness, spiritual pride and many other aspects of the
Christian life. Warning about the danger of spiritual pride Aurobindo says: “The fly that
touches honey cannot use its wings; so too the soul that clings to spiritual sweetness
ruins its freedom and hinders contemplation”16.
In short, the future success of ecumenism depends also on education. Success of
ecumenism in both today’s and tomorrow’s Church depends on being able, with an
attitude of openness, to understand, appreciate, and work with Christians from other
denominations.
b. Ecumenism from below: Respect and tolerance
Respect means to feel or show esteem or honor for someone or something. It
is also a feeling or show of honor or esteem for someone or something. Tolerance
refers to an attitude of openness and respect for the differences (ethnic and religious)
that exist among people. Tolerance means respecting and learning from others, valuing
differences, bridging religious and cultural gaps, rejecting unfair stereotypes, discovering common ground, and creating new bonds. In this sense, tolerance is the opposite
of prejudice.
But does tolerance and respect mean that all behaviors have to be accepted? Of
course not. Behaviors that disrespect or hurt others morally and humanly speaking, or
behaviors that break moral and religious rules should not be tolerated. Attitudes that
Ghose Aurobindo, The Life Divine (Wisconsin: Lotus Press, 1990), 113.
16
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go against human rights and the value of a person as such are not to be tolerated.
However, this does not imply fanaticism or extremism, violence and physical retaliation
in order to counter act the bad and evil behaviors. Jesus gave to Christians a clear and
helpful golden command about how they should relate to people in general: “Do to
others whatever you would have them do to you. This is the law and the prophets”.
(Mt 7:12). This should always be imbued of love as the engine of our motives. This is
to avoid falling into the Hammurabi code or the lex talionis of “eyes for eyes, tooth for
tooth” (Ex 21:24; Mt 5:38), because by beating more and more the eyes the world will
end up being blind and by hitting the teeth more often the world will become toothless.
Non-tolerance does not mean abstaining from any criticism, censure or disapproval, but
Christians can put critical comments in the least offensive way and substantiate them.
Jesus enjoins his disciples to look critically at self-proclaimed prophets (Mt 7:15-20); in
the same breath he also commands them to take a long and critical look at themselves
(Mt 7:1-5; 21-23). Ecumenism should be understood broadly than verbal engagement.
It is a way of life: an open attitude towards others, seeking to reach out and welcome
people including those who are different or even antagonistic. And understood this
way I think, ecumenism is an encounter at three levels, like Jesus’ encounter with the
Samaritan woman (Jn 4:1-26): Firstly, Christians (Catholics, Orthodox, Protestants…) meet
each other as human beings, with common needs and aspirations, joys and sorrows,
hopes and struggles. Secondly, they meet as Christians, believing in the Triune but One
and the same God; sharing the same main beliefs (and here the life, death and resurrection of Jesus) and ethical values, although there are differing understanding of these.
Thirdly, they allege to be the witnesses of God. A fundamental part of ecumenism is to
remove the huge misunderstandings we have about each other’s denominational faith,
and then bear witness. I think that, a fruitful ecumenism is measured by its upshots:
a better understanding of each other’s faith and of one’s own. It should also lead to a
better relationship between Christians, strengthening their social commitment. In this
sense, ecumenism is a great school of respect. Respect is about accepting people for
who they are. Respect also means treating others the way you would like to be treated.
And this is to be taught and practiced.
Ecumenism from below: teaching and practicing unity
Respect is to be taught in subtle ways. Before they can speak, children closely
watch and imitate their parents. Kids of all ages develop their own values, in great
part, by mirroring the values and attitudes of those they care about. Therefore, the
more parents show by their Christian examples their interest and commitment to bring
unity, peace and reconciliation among people, the better the stronger their children
will learn from them and follow their examples. Our ecumenism from below teaches
that the great value of Christian unity as well as those of the Christians’ faith are to be
lived and practiced by all the faithful, starting from the domestic church, that is, the
Christian family: parents and children. It has been a common parlance that the life of
the Whole Church depends on or should be taken by its faithful. This has to be true
not only on issues that pertain to material goods but first and foremost to spiritual
good. That is why the role of Christian family in educating their children about the
Christian values such as peace, unity, reconciliation and all the like is important here.
Christian parents here are hailed.
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Many Christian parents live and work in diverse communities and have friends who
are different from themselves in some/ many ways. Christian parents’ attitudes about
respecting others are often so much a part of them that they rarely even think about it.
They teach those attitudes simply by being themselves and living their Christian values.
Christian parents who model respect and tolerance in their everyday lives send a powerful message. As a result, their children learn to appreciate differences, too.
Obviously, celebrating differences of others does not mean giving up one’s own
tradition or heritage. A particular Christian family (a Catholic one for example) has
its own venerable cultural and religious traditions that are something to be proud of.
Families can find ways to celebrate differences of others while continuing to honor and
pass down their own cultural and religious heritage.
Ecumenism from below: ways Christian parents can teach respect and tolerance.
Christian parents can teach respect and tolerance by being an example for their
family and also by using other ways as well. Sharing as one about tolerance and respect
helps children learn more about the Christian values Christian parents want them to
possess. Giving them opportunities to interact, play and work with others is important
as well. This allows kids to gain knowledge of the fact that everyone has something to
contribute and to experience differences and similarities. This includes:
• Reading the Gospels and see how Jesus lived because it has a powerful effect
on shaping attitudes.
• Christian parents should give their children the opportunity to attend Masses
and Sundays schools.
• Christian parents should discern their own attitudes. This is very important
because Christian parents who want to help their family to value diversity are
to be sensitive to religious and cultural type-casts and stereotypes that they
learned and that they may have tried to overcome. They have to reveal to their
family that an attitude of respect for others is always beneficial.
• Children are always listening. That is why Christian parents should be careful
about the way they talk about people who are different from them. Because,
what they say can unfasten attitudes of tolerance and respect.
• Christian parents should be able to answer children’s questions about differences in a Christian, honest and respectful way with the help of some biblical
passages. This teaches that it is acceptable to notice and discuss differences as
long as it is done with respect.
• They should acknowledge and respect differences within their own Christian
family. Parents, while demonstrating acceptance of their children’s differing
abilities, interests, and styles, they should value the uniqueness of each member
of their Christian family.
• Christian parents should keep in mind that tolerance does not mean tolerating
unacceptable behavior. It means that everyone deserves to be treated with
respect and should treat others with respect as well.
• They should help their children feel good about themselves. Children who feel
badly about themselves often treat others badly. Children with strong self-esteem
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value and respect themselves and are more likely to treat others with respect,
too. Parents should help their children to feel accepted, respected, and valued.
• Christian parents should also give children opportunities to work and play with
others who are different from them. This will be appreciated when they choose
a school or another facility for their children, because it will help them to cope
with a diverse population.
• Christian parents can learn together about holiday and religious celebrations
that are not part of their own tradition.
• They should honor their Church’s traditions and teach them to children, and to
someone outside the Catholic Christian family for example who wants to learn
about the diversity the Catholic Christian family has to offer. This includes
inviting him/her at one of a given religious feast.
If Christians parents encourage a respectful attitude in their children, talk about the
truth of the Christian moral values, instill them in their children, and model the behavior
they would like to see by treating others well, undoubtedly not only the conscience of
their children will be exercised to these Christian moral values but also these children
will follow the footsteps of their parents. They will live according to the will of Christ
who is the truth that sets us free.
a. Freedom and Christian moral truth based on conscience
True ecumenism is founded in Christ who is the Truth that set us free (Jn 8:31).
This is to say that it is because true Christians have and know the same Truth, whose
fullness reside in Jesus Christ, that they can base the search for unity on an operation of
conscience. It is essential that Christians have the spiritual capacity to know the Truth
and so to deliberate what act is good. We read in John 8: 31-32 “If you remain in my
word, you will truly be my disciples, and you will know the truth, and the truth will
set you free.” I want here to take Pilate to reflect on the danger of weakness in taking
on the mission of uniting Christians, hence bearing witness to the truth. Nowadays,
many Christians hold back in doubt, they recede from judgment and from facing their
responsibility to judge their commitment to peace, unity and reconciliation building. This
attitude brings about weakness and fearfulness as it brought about in Pilate (Jn 18:36-38)
the willingness to wash his hands and let the responsibility to judge fall to someone else.
This responsibility falls today on the whole Church, those who claim to be Christians,
to take over the mission of Jesus, that of bearing witness. The whole Church must bear
witness to the truth (Jn 14:6.17), the truth about unity, peace, reconciliation and many
other values in our own day. The Christian value of unity is not something to be kept
silence. There are many places in the world where the tension between Christians is
well pronounced but religious leaders and Christians who claim to be disciples of Jesus
Christ fail to assume their responsibility to bear witness to the truth, and in so doing to
resist the impulse toward a pusillanimous refusal to judge between good and evil acts.
Christians should develop what I can call an ecumenical conscience.
b. Ecumenical conscience.
“You will know the truth and the truth will set you free” (Jn 8:32). Based both on what I
have previously said and on John 8:32, I call an ecumenical conscience an act of judgment
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about the Christian morality of an action that pertains to ecumenism and which a Christian
is considering doing. Germain Grisez said: “Conscience is one’s last and best judgment concerning what one should choose.”17 For Christians the best choice in judging should be to
follow the way of Jesus Christ. Ecumenism can only be valuable if Christians follow the way
of Jesus. Christianity is not only a set of beliefs, a community of people, but mostly a way of
life whose engine is Christian love.
In fact, as we know, conscience in itself measures a contemplated act against the
ordinary standard of the moral law or divine law, which is the universal and objective
norm of morality and which is one aspect of the truth that sets us free and to which the
Church bears witness. The law of love that conscience applies is clear in our day today
life. That is why, conscience is the direct norm of our moral action since by making a
judgment of reason about the moral good or evil in a given context of a specific case,
and it loves us to avoid one thing or to do another thing.18 The conscience of Christians,
which should be here an ecumenical one, should lead them to commit themselves to
making Christian unity more practical than theoretical, that is to love and to live out
unity as a Christian moral action and to avoid all actions that go against the divine law
trough natural reason (i.e the truth “written upon our hearts,” as Paul says in Romans
2:15) and through revelation brought by and based on Christ command as well. This is
to say that, the judgment that the ecumenical conscience renders in terms of the Christian moral quality of any particular act pertaining to ecumenism presupposes both the
unity of truth based on our natural reason and the unity of truth based on revelation
brought by Jesus.
The ecumenical conscience does not decide whether such and such action is right
or wrong since it is distinct from the moral, but it makes a judgment to deliberate
whether a specific action suggested for unity is in harmony and in agreement with what
is christianly right or wrong, good or evil.19 That is why the search for peace, unity or
Christian unity should be for all the faithful, believers and not just an exclusive task for
some. By taking it as an exclusive task for some, Christians may fall in the danger of the
relativism of Pilate, receding from facing their own responsibilities, washing their hands
off and letting the responsibility of seeking for peace, reconciliation and unity fall to
someone else. It is only because all the Christians know the same truth whose fullness
is to be found in Jesus Christ that altogether can base their Christian moral act on an
operation of conscience. The decisions that come from an ecumenical conscience can
never be clandestinely or behind churches closed doors decided “truths”. If it was the
case Christians could never know, share the same truth whose fullness is to be found
in Jesus Christ and nor share together a common good, since peace, unity and reconciliation belong totally to the common good. As an alternative, it is vital that Christians
have that spiritual capacity to know the truth about the Christian faith, peace, unity and
reconciliation and from there to determine what act as a Christian is good.
Speaking of the judgment of the conscience Pope John Paul II once said that conscience is not only our last judgment before acting, it must also be our best. However,
if conscience is a human judgment, then it is also capable of error and is not infallible.
17
Germain Grisez, The Way of the Lord Jesus: Christian Moral Principles, vol.1 (Chicago: Franciscan Herald
Press, 1983), 76.
18
Pope John Paul II, Encyclical on the Fundamental Questions of the Church’s Moral Teaching, Veritatis
Splendor, (6 August 1993), no 34.
19
Cf. Catechism of the Catholic Church, # 1178.
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This is why the Church teaches that conscience must be properly formed. It must be
enabled to discern what actually does or does not correspond to the “eternal, objective
and universal divine law” which human intelligence is capable of discovering.20 In this
sense ecumenical conscience should be formed in order to discern what is the right
and true unity Jesus wants for his whole family and which freedom does his family
need for that purpose.
Here the freedom needed is a freedom for the truth and not a freedom from the
truth. Otherwise there would be no possibility of sharing in a true good. For this reason
the Fathers of Vatican II affirmed that “through loyalty to conscience, Christians are
joined to other men in the search for truth and for the right solution to so many moral
problems that arise both in the life of individuals and from social relationships. Hence,
the more a correct conscience prevails, the more do persons and groups turn aside
from blind choice and try to be guided by the objective standards of moral conduct”.21
Unmistakably, the ecumenical conscience demands that a Christian follows his/her
conscience in order to be morally responsible. But as Christians, there is something
more added on their conscience. They are human beings, certainly, but they are Christians and the former is forcefully the necessary condition for the latter. We cannot be
Christian (with ecumenical conscience) without being a human being (with conscience).
But we can be human being without being a Christian. Yet no human being can realistically claim that his conscience is simply infallible, since decisions of conscience
depend on conformity to the objective moral law and do not create the moral law. But
if conscience can be erroneous, therein lays the potential for tragedy. In spite of all
sincerity, a conscience in error neither fosters fulfillment nor serves the good. If conscience, therefore, is to serve its purpose, it must not only be sincere, it must also be
correct. And this is where Christianity takes over. Unbelievers are capable of unity by
following their consciences but basing their efforts only on the standard of this world
and on their consciences which is not infallible and therefore likely to be erroneous in
their means to that unity. There is the need of something greater. The sincere and correct conscience (the ecumenical one for Christians) is that Christians must accept with
responsibility and joy the opportunity to serve the cause of peace, unity, reconciliation,
etc. and faithfully as true creatures of God.
Living for Christ is to live as non-conformists to the standard of this world. The
world has its own way of looking for peace and unity. It is said that, who wants peace
should be ready for war. But for Christians, he who wants unity and peace should be
ready to love. Christians have to be peace-makers and to set their conscience on the
Spirit so that it may become an ecumenical conscience, since the “concern of the Spirit
is life and peace” (Rm 8:6). This is only how the ecumenical conscience can be sincere
and correct because based on the Spirit of God, who is the source, power, and principal
guide of Christian life, as well as the bond of union with Christ and with his Church.
However, this ecumenical conscience needs formation in order to be sincere and
correct. And that is the reason why Saint Paul says: “Do not conform yourselves to this
age but be transformed by the renewal of your mind, that you may discern what is the
will of God, what is good and pleasing and perfect” (Rom 12:2). If the education of the
conscience is already a lifelong task, it is also a lifelong task for the education of the
20
21
Dignitatis Humanae, n0 3.
Gaudium et Spes, no16.
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ecumenical conscience. Sensible and Christian education of the ecumenical conscience
teaches ecumenical virtues: love for truth, tolerance, acknowledgment and respect of
differences and religious traditions, admiration of other’s religious worship, collaboration
on public and moral issues, avoidance of stereotypes, selfishness and spiritual pride and
all the like. By doing it true freedom will be guaranteed and peace in the heart of all
Christians shall be engendered, because “the education of the conscience guarantees
freedom and engenders peace of heart”22. It is important to notice that, for Christians to
have a healthy fashioned ecumenical conscience does not mean that their freedom has
to be tied. It is, rather, to have a freedom that is full and complete, because in every
choice made on the ground of a healthy fashioned ecumenical conscience Christians
come one step closer to God and one step closer to what, in the heart of their hearts,
they truly wish to be.
c. Civilization of love/peace
Christianity as well as other religions has contributed a lot in forming civilizations. In his book Loraison problème politique Father Jean Daniélou states that
A world without God, is an inhuman world.� Christianity and other religions
are therefore called upon to make that God present in bearing witness to Him and
for Christians by proclaiming his rules, calling people to conversion and to follow
Jesus Christ, and breaking all kinds of enslavement. This is to say that the civilization of love must prevail to date. In his first encyclical, Redemptor Hominis, Pope
John Paul II explains that it is indispensable for man/woman, for his/her history,
destiny and understanding of him/herself, to welcome love.23 For this reason, it is
necessary for the Church, for all Christians to present to the men and women of our
time the experience of Christian love.24 The challenge is for all Christians to help
people to experience the love of God the Father, the grace of Jesus Christ and the
fellowship of the Holy Spirit, through not only the acts of mutual love, forgiveness,
search for unity etc. but also through the witness of charity “which possesses an
intrinsic power of evangelization.”25
To build a world where Christians love one another, where they experience the
love of Christ which uplifts them and opens them to the truth of the Gospel and
where care for the poor and the sick is carry out of true, sincere and correct love,
Christian families have first to accept the fact that the Christian family is the place
where Christian love is received, nurtured, and educated. The commitment to the
unity of Christians and its future life demands that Christian’s family may feel fully
concerned by Jesus’ prayer about unity of believers. The ecumenism from below I
advocate has thus the Christian family as the most privilege point of departure for the
achievement of Christian unity because the family is the “sanctuary of life”, hence of
Catechism of the Catholic Church, #1784.
John Paul II, Encyclical The Redeemer of Man, Redemptor Hominis, To his venerable Brothers in
the episcopate, the Priests, the religious families, the sons and daughters of the Church, and to all men and women of
good will, at the beginning of his papal ministry, no 10.
24
Cf. Apostolic Letter Novo Millenio Ineunte of Pope John Paul II to the Bishops, clergy and lay faithful at
the close of the great Jubilee of the year 2000, no42.
25
Post-Synodal Apostolic Exhortation, Ecclesia in Europa of Pope John Paul II to the Bishops, men and
women in the consecrated life and all the lay faithful on Jesus Christ alive in His Church the source of hope for Europe,
no 83.
22
23
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love.26 Therefore, Christians above all must seek in their quest for unity, peace and
reconciliation the logic of love. Because the oneness Jesus talks about is evident in
love (divine compassion), i.e. Father’s love for Jesus and for those who believe in
Jesus. That divine unity of love is the one whereby all wills bow in the same direction, all affections burn with the same flame, all aims are directed to the same end,
one blessed harmony in love not in justice because though love and justice are two
faces of the same reality, two components called to enrich each other, they seem
at times to be at loggerheads. John Paul II in his encyclical Dives in Misericordia
asks himself whether justice is enough. The answer is obvious. The need for love
nowadays is not only momentous but it is indispensable. History shows that justice
alone cannot extricate itself from hostility, resentment, division, hatred and even
human spitefulness, sometimes perpetrated for that very reason.
History and the experience of our own times show that justice on its own is
not enough and that, besides, it can lead to its own rejection and total destruction,
if no room is made for love, a deeper power, to shape all the elements of human
life. This is the reason why John Paul II who used more frequently the expression
“civilization of love” insisted on the need for forgiveness and mercy in sorting out
issues between peoples. Forgiveness asks for and forgiveness granted. The logic
of justice, as the pope says, is to be overcome and the logic of forgiveness is to be
welcomed.27
C
onclusion: In conclusion, my understanding of the mission of the Church is zeroedin on God’s plan for the unity of his people and the whole of humanity. I think
that the unity of believers through baptism in the name of the Trinity and the
idea of communion are fundamental. In this paper, I have reflected on the practical and
ecumenical journey of Christians with regards to Christ’s will for all the believers. I was
mindful of the fact that for building Christian unity, it is much more convenient to build
it on commonalities than on dissimilarities since Christians have a common patrimony.
However, to engage into the true search for Christian unity, Christians should take the
risk of freedom. That freedom is not freedom from commitment, from obligation or
responsibility, since freedom is not emptiness. That freedom is freedom for something,
loyalty to something. It is fullness and a commitment because the freedom God gives
us is a new commitment, a worthy cause, a personal relationship that fills Christians
up and makes them ready for life in the Promise Land, that of peace, unity, reconciliation. But, the commitment to unity, peace and reconciliation is not something to be
left in the hands of the leadership (ecumenism from above) but something that takes
fully into account the fact that Christian families are the most privilege targeted entities
for its achievement since the future and the achievement of ecumenism depend on the
grace of God and on how the Christian generation (children) to come will be able to
appreciate, understand and work with others in peace and unity. Here, I advocated
for an ecumenism from below: teaching to and practicing with children the Christian
values for unity. If Christian parents encourage a respectful attitude in their children,
talk about the truth of the Christian moral values, instill them in their children, and
model the behavior they would like to see by treating others well, undoubtedly they
will form in their children the ecumenical conscience, that is an act of judgment about
26
27
Cf. Novo Millennio Ineunte, no42ff.
Cf. John Paul II, Encyclical Letter on the Divine Mercy, Dives in Misericordia, no 12.
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the Christian morality of an action that pertains to ecumenism and which a Christian is
considering doing. It is in this sense that the truth that sets us free will be known (Jn
8:32) and the civilization of love will become more than a dream. All in all, let us say
that the church exists by ecumenism as fire exists by burning. Church unity is not an
optional extra or another doctrine of the Church, or an AOB on the parish or presbytery
agenda, or a responsibility that can be delegated to a chosen caste of Christians; it is
integral to MOAB that is the Ministry Of All Believers. Ecumenism is not an ecclesial
idea, it is a divine command.
Bibliography
Aurobindo, Ghose. The Life Divine. Wisconsin: Lotus Press, 1990.
Buscaglia, Leo F. Personhood: The Art of Being Fully Human. U.S.A, Ventura: Ballantine Books,
1982).
Daniélou, Jean. Loraison problème politique. Paris: Fayard, 1965.
D’Souza, Joseph, Rogers Benedict, Beals Timothy J. On the Side of the Angels: Justice, Human
Rights, and Kingdom Mission. New York: Biblica, 2007.
Gita, Bellin. Amazing Grace Series: The Flourishing Mind: Forgiveness. South Africa:
Surge Publishing, 2010.
Book-
Gregory A. Boyd and Edward K. Boyd, Letters from a Skeptic: a Skeptic Wrestles with His Father’s
Questions about Christianity. New York, David C. Cook, 1994.
Grisez, Germain. The Way of the Lord Jesus: Christian Moral Principles. Vol. I. Chicago Franciscan
Herald Press, 1983.
Neyland, Shon. Devotions from the Desert: Encountering God. New York: Author House, 2010.
Pope John Paul II, Encyclical Letter on the Divine Mercy, Dives in Misericordia, (30/11/1980).
Pope John Paul II, Encyclical on Commitment to Ecumenism, Ut Unum Sint, (25/05/1995).
Pope John Paul II, Encyclical on the Fundamental Questions of the Church’s Moral Teaching,
Veritatis Splendor, (6 August 1993).
Pope John Paul II, Encyclical The Redeemer of Man, Redemptor Hominis, (03/04/1979).
Pope John Paul II, Apostolic Letter Novo Millenio Ineunte, at the close of the great Jubilee of the
year 2000, (06/01/2001).
Pope John Paul II, Post-Synodal Apostolic Exhortation, Ecclesia in Europa (28/ June/2003).
Second Vatican Council Documents, edited by Austin Flannery, New Delhi: St Pauls, 1975.
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Peace Studies
and International
Relations
Genuine Politics as a Pathway to True Peace in Africa
By Choobe Maambo, SJ*
A
bstract: “Peace I bequeath to you, my own peace I give you, a peace which the
world cannot give, this is my gift to you” (Jn 14:17). Peace is indeed a gift given
to humankind by Christ. But observing what is happening in Africa, one wonders
and asks questions! But what is wrong with Africa? Was the gift of peace bequeathed by
Christ not intended for Africa? Africa is not exempted from this gift. No human race or
culture is exempted from this gift. But how come Africa is experiencing war, conflict,
violence and other ills? Perhaps, turning to genuine politics would serve as a remedy to
most of the uproars experienced in Africa. It is therefore, the argument of this author
that if Africa is to enjoy the gift of peace, politics – authentic politics – politics worthy of
the name politics must serve as a pathway to true peace.
I
ntroduction: One of the causes of the uproars among most African countries is political
instability. Due to political instability, some African countries have known no peace
since they became politically independent from colonial rule. Therefore, the reign of
peace on the continent has been the cry for most African countries. During the fight
for an independent Africa from the late 1950s, it was the dream of every African that
after independence, Africa would sun bask in the glory and joys of peace. But now,
what was a dream of redemption has turned out to be a nightmare for many African
countries. Political instability has overshadowed this dream of peace.
In what could be termed as an “electoral year” in Africa, one would sigh and exclaim,
“at last”, Africa is going to enjoy the long awaited peace and stability! Such perceived
relief and hope emanates from the belief that genuine politics is a pathway to true peace
and harmony. Genuine politics that we are referring to enables societies to elect their
political leaders constitutionally. This genuine politics is characterized by the uprooting
of injustices, promotion of freedom, defense of human rights/dignity and the creation
of a livable environment for citizens. This is the type of politics that does not instill fear
*
Choobe is a Zambian Jesuit, currently studying theology at the Jesuit School of Theology, Hekima
College, Nairobi-Kenya.
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Choobe Maambo, SJ
in the populace. This is politics that is geared towards achieving the common purpose;
the common good for all the political players. Going by the conception of politics as
public affairs, authentic politics entails serving the interests of the individual, community and the state at large. This does not only mean serving the interests of the current
generation, but also the interests of those to come after we are gone.
The intent of this paper is to argue that genuine politics must serve as a pathway to
true peace especially in Africa. Our main claim is that, if Africa is to enjoy true peace,
authentic politics – politics worthy of the name politics must serve as a measuring rod
of true peace. Our argument is based on the observation that politics in Africa has been
used to achieve other ends contrary to what they are intended to achieve. In order to
achieve our end in this analysis, our point of departure would be describing what politics
is. Within this description, we shall give a brief outline of the current trends of politics
in Africa. This would bring us to another stage where we will describe the concept
of peace and show how genuine politics would be a pathway to true peace in Africa.
Politics
a. What is politics?
In his Politics, Aristotle described a person as “a political animal.” The only animal
endowed with speech and therefore able to associate with other human beings to build
communities and erect the state – the highest form of community, the community of
free people.1 By this, Aristotle meant that it is only in a political community that human
beings can live their lives successfully and realize their dreams. Aristotle’s assertion has
lived to stand the waves of time. It is on this assertion that most contemporary understanding of human nature, political community and politics has been built upon. In her
doctrinal teaching, the Roman Catholic Church has affirmed that individuals, families
and the various groups which form a civil community are aware of their inability to
achieve a true human life by their own unaided effort. Therefore, they see the need to
live in a wider community where each one will make specific contribution to an even
broader implementation of the common good. For this reason, they set up various
forms of political communities.2 What the Church does in this assertion is to affirm the
nature and sole purpose of a political community which is the common good; that is,
its full justification and meaning and the source of its specific and basic right to exist.3
In other words, the human person and his common good is the sole foundation and
only purpose of the existence of political life.4 The political community finds its origin
in the nature and being of the human person. Hence, the political community can only
be defined in reference to the human person.
Richard N. Rwiza advances the understanding of a political community when he
argues that “a political community is basically an association of individuals who have
1
Aristotle’s Politics and Poetics, Trans: Benjamin Jowett & Thomas Twining (New York: The Viking Press,
1967), ix.
2
3
4
Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, Compendium of the Social Doctine of the Church (Nairobi: Paulines
Publications Africa, 2004), n° 384; See also, Catechism of the Catholic Church Nairobi: Paulines Publication Africa,
1994), n 1881.
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a common understanding (…). Members of a political community have a common understanding about what issues are open to political resolution and what practices are
subject to political control.”5 In his Spheres of Justice, Michael Walzer pointed out that
“the political community is probably the closest we can come to a world of common
meaning.”6
This basic understanding of a political community leads us to a broader conception
of politics. Politics has a variety of everyday usage. We hear expressions such as; politics
of theology, politics of abortion and the like. But politics as used in political science
has been viewed in different conceptions. Michael J. Sodaro puts across a definition
which encompasses a number of different conceptions of politics. “Politics,” according
to Sodaro “is the process by which communities pursue collective goals and deal with
their conflicts authoritatively by means of government.”7 When referring to politics as a
process, Sodaro means the continual sequence of events and interaction among various
players, such as individuals, organizations, and government. The notion of process also
implies that these political interactions generally take place within a structure of rules,
procedures, and institutions rather than haphazardly.8
As mentioned before, Sodaro’s description encompasses a number of conceptions
of politics. The first conception in Sodaro’s description is politics as public affairs. This
is a broader and wider conception of politics which goes beyond the understanding of
politics as government affairs. This understanding entails that politics is not a private
matter. Rather, politics is open to members of a community and is an activity which
expresses the wills, desires and interests of individuals in ordering of their public affairs.9
This kind of politics promotes public and deliberative participation of all members. The
aim of this public and deliberative participation in politics is to arrive at a common
mind10 which leads to common action. It is this kind of politics that Alasdair MacIntyre
describes as practice: the practice that is indispensable in each human life. It is in the
spectrum of politics as practice that common goods – goods that are constitutive of,
and partially define, individual’s good – can be realized. In MacIntyre’s view, politics
as practice is itself a teleologically ordered practice. It is that which is concerned with
proper ordering of all other practices within a community.11 Henceforth, conceived as
a practice itself, “politics involves creating and sustaining communities in which people
can practice cooperative reasoning about common goals so that other practices can be
rationally related to one another.”12
In substantiating the dimension of politics as public affairs, Pope John XXIII in his
encyclical letter Peace on Earth, argues that human beings’ personal dignity involves
the right to take an active part in public life, and to make contribution to the common
Richard N. Rwiza, Ethics of Human Rights: The African Contribution (Nairobi: CUEA Press, 2010), 55.
Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality (New York: Basic Books, Inc.,
1983), 28.
7
Michael J. Sodaro, “Major Topics of Comparative Politics,” in Comparative Politics: A Global Introduction, ed Michael J. Sodaro, (Boston: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001), 30.
8
Sodaro, “Major Topics of Comparative Politics,” 30.
9
Dictionary of Political Science, ed. Joseph Dunner (New York: Philosophical Books, 1964), 418.
10
Kelvin Knight, The MacIntyre Reader (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1998), 248.
11
Mark C. Murphy, Alasdair MacIntyre: Contemporary Philosophy in Focus (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2003), 162 – 63.
12
Knight, The MacIntyre Reader, 24.
5
6
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Choobe Maambo, SJ
welfare of fellow citizens.13 In addition to this, the Fathers of the Second Vatican Council
stated that it is fully consonant with human nature that there should be politico-juridical
structures providing all citizens without distinction with ever improving and effective
opportunities to play an active role in the establishment of the juridical foundation of
the political community, in the administration of public affairs, in determining the aims
and the terms of reference of public bodies and election of political leaders.14 In her
Human Condition, Hannah Arendt affirms this conception that politics is the most important form of human activity for it involves interaction among free and equal citizens.
It gives meaning to life and affirms the uniqueness of each individual.15
These prescriptions bring out clearly that politics in some sense is a drama that every
member of a community has a role to play. In this case, no one is a spectator. Rather,
all are actors and actresses. Furthermore, no one is regarded as being outside politics.
Every sane person has something to contribute politically, in the life of the community.
It is important that even those who are physically or mentally disable have someone to
speak on their behalf, from their perspective, of the things that affect them. From our
view, there is no one who has nothing to say regarding how common goods must be
ordered within a political community.
The second conception of politics that we find in Sodaro is politics as consensus
and compromise. It has been observed that conflict is the driving factor of politics. In
some cases, these conflicts are manageable and can be dealt with peacefully through
negotiation, bargaining and compromise.16 This conception of politics could also refer
to methods in which decisions are made. To this extent, it can be argued that politics
is a tool for conflict management that is; by negotiation, conciliation and compromise.
This entails that there is a great deal of consensus on what community’s goal must be
among the various political actors. But it should be noted that despite of a wide range
of consensus, conflicts still arise on how to go about in achieving these goals. Hence,
politics becomes a way of managing these conflicts. Some thinkers have taken a step
further by arguing that politics arises from disagreements and conflicting interests.17
This would therefore, mean that politics is a social activity that attempts to resolve the
tension between conflicting interests.
The last and most interesting conception of politics in Sodaro’s description is politics
as the art of government. This conception refers to the manner in which States pursue
their goals and deal with conflicts. States are able to deal with conflicts by means of a
government. Governments have authority to the extent that they make and enact laws.
In effect, they have the final say in political arenas and do not allow citizens to take the
law into their own hands. This as well, demonstrates the powers invested in a government in political life of a community. In the words of Sodaro, “it is government that
makes authoritative decisions on the community’s goals, whatever those goals may be.
And it is to the government that people turn for authoritative decisions in dealing with
Peace on Earth. The Encyclical Letter of Pope John XXIII (London: Catholic Trust Society, 1963), no.
Gaudium et Spes. no, 75.
Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition, Second Edition, (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998),
13
26.
14
15
22.
Alan R. Ball and Guy B. Peters, Modern Politics and Government, Sixth Edition (New York: Palgrave,
2000), 30.
16
17
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their conflicts.”18 This conception of politics is a dangerous one. It claims that politics is
government affair. This would mean that politics is what the State or government does.
It would further mean that those who are not in direct political authority are outside
politics. Institutions like family, school, business, and community would be considered
to be outside politics.
Sodaro’s definition does not, however, capture other conceptions of politics. We
can also look at politics from another angle. From experience, in the African traditional
setting, genuine politics is simply a matter of serving the community. This conception
of politics stands at the heart of understanding what really politics is. From the start of
this paper, we have argued that the human person is the foundation and purpose of
political community. The political community finds its authentic meaning in its reference to the person.19 If the political community originates and finds meaning in human
nature, then it is imperative that politics become at the service of the human person. In
serving the human person, the first and paramount task of politics is to work towards
the recognition and respect of human dignity through the defense and promotion of
fundamental and inalienable human rights. Through genuine politics, a political community ought to pursue the common good when it seeks to create a conducive human
environment that accord citizens the opportunity of truly exercising their human rights
and fulfilling completely their corresponding duties.20 To attain the good of a community,
politics ought to develop authentic structures that promote and defend human rights.
In this understanding, genuine politics must seek to integrate all aspects of human life.
Politics must act towards the mobilization of diverse material and human resources for
the benefit of the whole society. It should act as a unifying factor in a society against
internal and external antagonistic forces. Finally, politics must generate norms, values,
ideals and vision for the development of the society.
From the above understanding, politics is not an opportunity for money-making as
is commonly perceived. Politics becomes the art of how well people organize themselves in a given community in pursuit of a collective goal. Therefore, those in political
authority have to operate as though they were servants and pointers to the common
good. The basis of grasping this conception of politics is found in the words of the Fathers of the Second Vatican Council when they argued that, “an authority is needed to
guide the energies of all towards the common good.”21 In other words, our argument is
that political authority is inevitable. Political authority is an instrument of coordination,
ordering and direction by means of which the individuals and other intermediate bodies must journey towards an order in which relationships, institutions and procedures
are put at the service of integral human growth.22 To this, those in political authority
should have at heart first of all the interest of those they lead. They should be at the
service of the resources of the people. They should be accountable to the people that
they serve. They must see to it that all are served equally without favoritism, and with
dignity and honor. Politics therefore, should be a tool for enhancing and facilitating the
lives of the people in a given political community. It should stand as transformative to
the operations of a community.
21
22
18
19
20
Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, no, 384 and 385.
Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, no, 388 – 89.
Gaudium et Spes. no 74.
Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, no, 394.
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Choobe Maambo, SJ
b. Current trends of politics in African
The above described conception of politics is rarely experienced in many African
countries. Since the independence of most African countries, there has been a trend
of conflicts, wars, corruption, violence, leadership succession problems, just to name
a few. When these African countries attained political independence, it was believed
that Africa would learn to govern herself in harmony and peace. But this has become
a nightmare. Current trends of politics in African are indefensible, incoherent both in
theory and practice. The kind of politics that we see in Africa hardly affords public
and deliberative participation: where independent individuals would take part freely.
It is a kind of politics that does not involve all members in coming up with political
decisions. It does not promote the atmosphere where all members of a community
are able to come through a shared rational deliberation to a common mind. On
another level, politics in Africa has been dominated by same people. These are the
same people who have made politics their active occupation to fatten their pockets
leaving the majority of people suffering. The largely passive populace are only to
be mobilized when it comes to do what we shall term “dirty jobs”; such as voting
and rioting. In the following paragraphs we wish to enumerate some elements that
characterize politics in Africa.
i. Leadership succession problem
Since the late 1980s towards the early 1990s, some African countries have managed
well the problem of leadership succession. Despite this effort by some countries, there
are other countries that are still faced with this problem. In his speech at the International Workshop of the Ghana International Management and Leadership Development
Research Institute in Accra, Dr. Baffour Agyeman-Duah argued that “the new or emerging
democracies in Africa are faced with the challenge of leadership succession.”23 He pointed
out that orderly political succession through the ballot box and peaceful alternation of
power are the hallmarks of effective democratization. Democracy and good government
requires that leaders are freely and popularly elected and not imposed. In his agreement
to the problem, he pointed out that stability, predictability and continuity in leadership
are important ingredients of good governance and are assured by a well-planned and
managed succession strategy. To manage democracy and good governance in Africa,
there is the need for strategic thinking on succession management from the political,
corporate, traditional and social perspectives.24
Contrary to Dr. Baffour’s assertion, the state of politics in Africa is about leaders
clinging to power. These are the leaders who want to stay in power ‘till death do them
apart’. This situation is captured well by Daniel Kaufmann when he argues that:
History has shown that even those who rose to power with good intentions soon became
corrupt. They took advantage of their position to enrich themselves and their family and
friends. Then in order to protect their wealth and power, they silenced those who threatened
their authority. As one injustice led to another, and as their friends became fewer, they grew
23
Baffour Agyeman-Duah, The International Workshop of the Ghana International Management & Leadership
Development Research Institute, Accra, on the 14th April 2003. Under “setting” http://www.cddghana.org/documents/
MANAGING%20LEADERSHIP%20SUCCESSION%20IN%20AFRICAN%20POLITICS.pdf (accessed October
21, 2011).
24
Dr. Baffour Agyeman-Duah .
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increasingly paranoid and oppressive. They desperately cling to power in fear that if they lost
control then they might also lose their fortunes, their freedom, and possibly even their lives.25
Some examples can be highlighted to show leadership succession problems in
Africa. In Zimbabwe, President Robert Mugabe’s desire to stay in power is a fundamental manifestation of the persistence and intractable problem of leadership succession. President Mugabe has been in power for 28 years not allowing any rival to his
reign. In Uganda, President Yoweri Museveni before the 2006 elections had abolished
the presidential term limits. This was a manipulation of the constitution in order to
remain in power indefinitely. In Libya, Colonel Maumar Gaddafi was killed while
refusing to give up power. Our memories are still fresh of what happened to Ivory
Coast’s Laurent Gbagbo until he was captured and arrested. In Togo, President Faure
Essozimna Gnassingbe, who won a controversial presidential election was installed
as president with the support of the army, immediately after the death of his father.
In Cameroon, President Paul Biya has been in power since 6th November, 1982, and
he is seeking another term.
Few years ago, the constitution of Namibia was amended to allow a third term for
the former president Samuel Nujoma. In similar cases, in Malawi, Zambia and Nigeria,
similar attempts were made to change the constitutions in order to allow Bakili Muluzi,
Fredrick Chiluba and Olusegun Obasanjo respectively to extend their terms of office.
One can go on enumerating examples of leadership succession problems in Africa.
But these few examples manifest that succession has become a sore in African politics.
ii. Corruption
If we do not hear about leadership succession problem in Africa, the next evil we
hear about is corruption. Corruption is rife in most African countries. This is a very big
problem that has seen the deterioration of African politics. The Zambian opposition
leader Hakainde Hichilema described corruption in Africa as a cancer that need to be
fought vigorously and that any fight against corruption ought to be comprehensive.26
Most leaders elected into power are unable to account for the resources of their countries. One example is the case of the former president of the Republic of Zambia, Dr.
Fredrick Chiluba (RIP). President Chiluba spent most of his life after his presidency in
and out of court on account of corruption charges. This is just a tiny fish out of many
other bigger fishes in the ocean. Hence, what do we say about the current political
trend in Africa? From what has been described and from experience, we can argue that
politics in Africa is politics of the “stomach”. Some individuals have taken politics as a
money-making endeavor. As if this was not enough, those who have the opportunity
to get into political offices engage in nepotism, offering jobs and other privileges to
families, tribe’s men and women and friends. It is sad to mention that most of the State
companies in some African countries are run by individuals from the same tribe or
region. This is the reality of politics in African.
25
Quoted in The Reporter, Why do leaders cling to power. by Tesfaye Habisso. http://www.starafrica.com/
en/news/orange-african-social-venture-prize/detail-news/view/the-problematic-of-leadership-succession-171878.
html
26
Hakainde Hichilema is the president of one of the opposition parties in Zambia. This speech can be found
on the online newspaper called Lusaka Times at http://www.lusakatimes.com.
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Choobe Maambo, SJ
ii.Conflicts/Wars/Violence
It has been discovered that most conflicts, wars and violence experienced in some
African countries, are as a result of leadership succession problem. Experience has
demonstrated to us that most of these ills come immediately after elections. Take for
example the case of Kenya. After the election of 2007, Kenya suffered what could be
termed the worst violence the country has ever experienced since independence. About
1,300 people were left dead, while about 633,000 people were displaced from their
homes, and millions of worth of property destroyed. This was after President Mwai
Kibaki was declared winner of the election and sworn in as president of Kenya. This
was unaccepted by the opposition leader Raila Odinga who was popularly claimed to
have won the elections.
The other case of post election violence is the case of Nigeria. After the April, 2011
election, the supporters of the main opposition candidate, Muhammadu Buhari, a northern Muslim from the Congress for Progress Change, went on the rampage when their
candidate lost the elections against the incumbent Goodluck Johathan. It is estimated
that more than 800 hundred people were left dead and about 65,000 displaced. In the
case of the Democratic Republic of Congo, it is estimated that over 5 million people
have died since 1998. Many communities have been torn apart as people turn on each
other, law and order is being neglected. Child soldier has characterizes the day, girls
and women being raped. Other examples of countries with prevalent violence, civil war
and conflict include; Ivory Coast, Libya, Sudan, South Sudan, Ethiopia, Sierra Leone,
Eritrea and Somalia.
The concept of peace
The concept of peace can be understood from different perspectives. One of the
perspectives is the biblical point of view. In biblical revelation, peace is a basic attribute
of God. When the angle of the Lord appeared to Gideon at Ophrah of Abiezer, he revealed to Gideon that the Lord is peace. In response to this revelation, Gideon built the
altar of the Lord there and called it “Yahweh is peace” (Judges 6:24). This is the peace
that we experience at the heart of every relationship between God and his people. In
the first Chronicles, we understand that peace and violence cannot live together. Hence,
God, the God of peace does not mingle where there is violence (Chronicles 28:8-9).
Throughout this revelation, peace represents the fullness and fulfillment of life. This is
seen as portrayed in prophet Malachi: “my covenant was with him a covenant of life
and peace …” (Mal 2:5). This brings out another understanding of peace; peace as the
immeasurable gifts that God offers to humanity and it entails obedience to the divine
plan. It fulfils Christ’s words that “blessed are the peacemakers for they shall be called
children of God” (Mt 5:9). In his farewell discourse, Jesus Christ said to his disciples,
“peace I give to you, my own peace I give you, a peace which the world cannot give,
this is my gift to you” (Jn 14:27). Put on this pedestal, peace becomes the goal of every
human life.
In affirming peace as a gift of God, the late, Pope John Paul II, in his message of
World Day of Peace in 1982, pointed out that peace comes from God as its foundation, it is a gift of God. Therefore, when we are talking about peace, we should bear
in mind that:
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Peace is not so much a superficial balance between diverging material interests - a balance
pertaining to the order of quantity of things. Rather it is, in its inmost reality, something that
belongs to the essentially human order, the order of human subjects; it is thus of a rational and
moral nature, the fruit of truth and virtue. It springs from the dynamism of free wills guided by
reason towards the common good that is to be attained in truth, justice and love. This rational
and moral order is based on a decision by the consciences of human beings seeking harmony
in their mutual relationships, with respect to justice for everybody, and therefore with respect
to the fundamental human rights inherent in every person. One cannot see how this moral
order could ignore God, the first source of being, the essential truth and the supreme good.27
In a similar vein, in their pastoral letter on War and Peace, the American Bishops
argue that “for men and women of faith, peace will imply a right relationship with
God, which entails forgiveness, reconciliation, and union.”28 This is the peace that
Henri Nouwen believes to be a divine gift, a gift that we receive in prayer.29
Going by the traditional understanding, peace is not merely lack of violence, war
and conflict. Rather, it goes beyond the physical phenomenon. The Fathers of the Second Vatican Council highlight this point when they argued that:
peace is more than the absence of war: it cannot be reduced to the maintenance of a balance
of power between opposing forces nor does it arise out of despotic dominion, but it is appropriately called the effect of righteousness (Is 32:17). It is the fruit of that right ordering of
things with which the divine founder has invested human society and which must be actualized by people thirsting after an ever more perfect reign of justice.30
In the last part of the above description of peace, it comes out clearly that peace
is also a creative work of justice. Peace demands that we uproot all the injustices in a
given community. It means that in all our social situations, we need to plant peace with
the seeds of Justice, “unconditional and effective respect for each one’s imprescriptible
and inalienable rights is the necessary condition in order that peace may reign in a
society.”31 In this case, peace becomes the fruit of love and justice in that it seeks to
respect all aspects of the human person. Peace becomes threatened when the human
person is not guaranteed what is due to him/her as a human person, when the dignity
is not respected and when civil life is not directed toward the common good.32 Through
love and justice which are the agents of peace, we need to defend and promote human
rights, which is essential to the maintenance and building up of a peaceful society and
the holistic development of the human person. It has been observed in some circumstances that there can be no true peace if there is no justice and love.
Pope Paul VI relates development to peace. He stresses that development is a new
name for peace.33 What leads to war and hostilities in the world is the presence of injustices, disparities of opportunities, suppression of human rights and denial of freedom.
These are effects of underdevelopment. And once there is underdevelopment, masses
tend to revolt. Apparently, to avoid wars and hostilities, there is need for development.
27
This is contained in the message of the Holy Father Pope John Paul II in his message for the celebration
of world day of peace on 1st January, 1982.
28
National Conference of Catholic Bishops. A Pastoral Letter on War and Peace. The Challenge of Peace:
God’s promise and our Response, (May 3, 1983), no., 27.
29
Henri Nouwen, The Road to Peace, ed., John Dear. (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1998), 9.
30
Gaudium et Spes. no. 78.
31
World Day of Peace Message, 1982. no. 9.
32
Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, no, 394.
33
On the Development of People. The Encyclical Letter of Pope Paul VI, no 76.
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Choobe Maambo, SJ
Furthermore, for this peace which human beings throughout the ages have so longed
for and sought after—to be achieved there is need to diligently observe the divinely
established order.34
A road to peace
We can now affirm strongly that one of the paths to true peace in Africa is political
stability. The peace described above does not exist in most of the African countries.
For this peace to reign on the continent, it has to begin in the heart of every political
actor and actress. It was St. Francis who many years ago gave the same spiritual advice
that “while you are proclaiming peace with your lips,” he said, “be careful to have even
more peace in your heart.”35 The world can never be the dwelling place of peace until
peace finds a home in the hearts of each and every person, until every person preserves
in her/himself the order ordained by God.36 Therefore, the genesis of peace in Africa
should be in the hearts of everyone who participates in political life of a community
especially those in political authority. Those in political authority have the privilege,
power and opportunity of being movers and initiators of avenues of peace. Nouwen
argued that all our efforts for peace must spring from our inner contemplative life, from
our relationship with God.37
The lack of peace on the African continent which is as a result of political instability has seen the robbing off of Africa’s dignity. This comes from the observation that
most of the political systems on the continent rarely provide structures that defend and
promote human dignity and human rights. Therefore, we are emphasizing that there
can be no true peace on the continent as long as there is political repression or denial
of human rights. There can be no true peace unless every individual is free to participate in political life of a community. There can be no true peace as long as millions
of Africans starve or go homeless, or are victimized by economic systems that deny
them the right to ownership and the fruit of their labors, or that grind them into ever
deepening poverty. There can be no true peace for those who live under the constant
threat of conflicts, war, selfishness and corruption.
There can be no better means of establishing political life on a truly human basis
other than developing an inward sense of peace which is brought about by justice, love
and freedom. This inward sense of peace will enable one to serve better the common
good. While the work of peace should be everyone’s business, the paramount task of
peace building falls directly and principally under political leaders’ jurisdiction. In that
case, the chief setting for the building up of peace is always the nation as a politically
organized society. Since the purpose for which a political society is formed is the establishment of justice, the advancement of the common good and participation by all,
that society will enjoy peace only to the extent that these three demands are respected.
Peace can develop only where the elementary requirements of justice are safeguarded.38
Those who are in privileged positions in taking up this task are those in political authority.
Peace on Earth, no, 1.
Nouwen, The Road to Peace, xxix.
Peace on Earth, no. 26.
37
Nouwen, The Road to Peace, xxxi –ii.
38
World Day of Peace Message, 1982. No., 9.
34
35
36
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C
onclusion: St. Paul’s use of ‘peace’ that serves as a greeting at the beginning of
his letters and also as a closing statement, mean more than just the cessation
of or absence of war, violence, but a condition of harmony, of wholeness, of
abundance and standing well with God and others. Peace is God’s global gift to
humanity and also a particular gift of an individual to another. As agents of transformative justice and reconciliation, Christians, view Christ’s life as the centre of
everything, a graced center that gives us new life, which comes to us from Christ.
Peace is not to be understood as a quantity, but as a quality. Violence is only ceased
by the resurrection of Christ from the dead, and similarly, a cessation of all that is
contrary to life-giving is the only surest way of peace and prosperity in Africa. The
quest for prosperity, the transformation which Paul speaks of is incomplete unless
it is actualized in a true imitation of Christ driven by the quest for the ‘common
good’. This is an ongoing process that will find fulfillment in Christ, when God and
humankind meet in the sovereignty of grace and universal love.
Africa needs this peace. Peace is possible. One of the pathways to peace in Africa
is genuine politics. This has been the preoccupation of this study. Our call henceforth,
to all political players is to be heralds of peace. Everyone is called to take part in this
enterprise of peace. For all the political actors and actresses, it is our duty and obligation to labor for the reign of peace on our continent.
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Solution Focused Education: A New Model of Educating for
Peace and Development in Africa
By Matanzonga Mambyanga Ebuma, SJ
A
bstract: Today, Africa is experiencing many challenges: from civil wars to genocide,
from economic meltdown to questionable political leadership. I believe that the appropriate step to take is a critical assessment of the situation. In this article, I am
advocating an educational system which favors actions much beyond than just theories.
This kind of education should expose students or learners to charismatic figures who
have distinguished themselves and are able to inspire young generations through their
values, ideals and moral standards. In addition and in order to heal the continent from
the challenges mentioned above, we need an educational system which emphasizes peace
building strategies. To achieve this, we should borrow from our own cultures and traditions. Thus, we need an educational system which empowers students to act, a “solution
focused education” which builds on “student centered approach” and allows students
to express themselves: their thinking as well as their feeling.
I
ntroduction: Imagination is everything, it creates science and knowledge. It fosters
curiosity and calls for creativity and perfection. These qualities bring the search for
Magis,1 doing better in life and in society. Today’s labour market is very demanding
in terms of competitivity and calls for the capacity to innovate. This is a logical consequence of the very forceful capitalism and liberal economy that the world is facing today.
The search for magis, especially in the area of education calls us to go beyond just
what is given and received in the classroom. We have also to contemplate and strategize
about the before and after class. We have to cultivate a new culture of education which
takes into account today’s problems and challenges, our questions and frustrations, our
feelings and thinking. In the same line, and being aware of the globalized aspect of
today’s world, we have to be conscious of the power of the media that shapes a new
way of being, behaving and acting in a society where good manners, attractiveness and
visibility are the center for a successful life.
This spirit of competitiveness reaches its summit in the hiring procedure or interview,
whereby in more or less than sixty minutes, the credentials of individuals are evaluated
and a decision to hire or not made. If in a short time, some features of a human being
can be observed and measured, the interview becomes a culture and way of proceeding
where concluded impression, good appearance, strategies and attractiveness –physical,
intellectual, spiritual, relational, etc– are secrets for success, features that are not learned
in many education systems in Africa.
We are calling for an education system where people can live together, without
any exclusion: black and white, Asians and different ethnic groups, different political
Cf. Ignatius of Loyola and Jesuit spirituality
*
Matanzonga is a Jesuit from DR Congo. He lectures at the Jesuit School of Theology, Hekima College,
Nairobi-Kenya.
1
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Matanzonga Mambyanga Ebuma, SJ
views, different ideologies, and different religions and beliefs. We have to compromise
in order to give the best of ourselves, to better our cities, our villages, our countries,
and our “mother” Africa. We have to build on the positive rather than turning to the
easiest thing to do, focusing on negativity. Let us promote people’s talents, help people
in making their dreams come true, so that they may become who they aspire to be:
dancers, singers, theologians, philosophers, psychologists, politicians, lawyers, etc. In
addition, we have to cultivate intellectual humility and recognize that I do not know
everything: “I may manage some room to learn from others even from those who have
gotten the chance to be educated like us and received formal degrees.”
We call for an education that applies what is learned to particular and concrete
areas of life: the economy, the social, and the political: a “solution focused education.”2
Robert Kennedy3 said that the future is not a gift, but an achievement. We have to work
hard for success, to plan the future and to prevent any distraction.
To elaborate the theory on solution focused education, we will (1) discuss the principles for an education for leadership in Africa; (2) assess today’s concrete challenges
in Africa; (3) discuss the concrete challenges that African education system faces today;
(4) look at three main figures who may inspire an education system in Africa through
their lives and achievements; (5) deal with the question of building peace in the African context; (6) address the core of the solution focused education which is based on
student-centered approach.
Leadership education
Assessing the current situation
It is important to find strategies to better integrate the richness of our cultures and
our traditions in educational programs at all levels of the learning process: family, informal, nursery, primary, secondary, university, etc. We are called to promote an education
that goes beyond the tribe, clan, province, ethnic group, nation, but an education that
encourages openness to other cultures and other peoples’ universal values.
We believe that our destiny is tied --we have to work together, to succeed as a
community and to fall as a group. It is through dialogue and dialectic that science is
born, that learning is enhanced: dialectic between knowledge and ignorance, dialectic
between master and slave, dialectic between husband and wife, dialectic between a
child and a parent, dialectic and dialogue between cultures and languages, ideologies,
principles, etc. Every dialogue and any dialectic lead to knowledge and science.
In general, we must identify and clarify educational priorities. What do we want
in five, ten years compared to our current challenges? What is most urgent? We must
learn to define educational goals, that is, long, medium, and short terms. Do we want
more doctors or engineers more than economists or political scientists, sociologists or
more philosophers, more psychologists or all at once?
Therefore, how do we plan the implementation of such a dream? What financial and
human capital do we put in place to achieve such ambitious projects? For focused planning,
2
3
Cf. Steve de Shazer, Clues: Investigating Solutions in Brief Therapy (New York: Norton, 1991).
US senator and brother of US president Jon Fitzgerald Kennedy.
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Solution Focused Education: A New Model of Educating for Peace and Development in Africa
one can, for example, evaluate how encrypted the real needs of our people are compared
to the priorities of education. We call for an education for excellence with clear objectives,
evaluate it periodically to constantly give new life; an education that promotes intellectual curiosity, African values and at the same time open to the values of globalization.
African Education and Culture
According to the principle of Africanization of education as we stated above, we
must promote and preserve our local languages or dialects that are our source of pride
and of cultural and national wealth. Also, we must promote education in truth, removed
from any political or ideological coloration, to teach children and young generations
the truth about the history of our villages, towns, cities, provinces and countries first
before teaching about other continents. It would also be necessary to extract from the
educational sector the remaining of the post- independence monopartism which was
characterized by unilateralism and ideological exclusivism.
We believe that knowledge of African sources implies the debate on the sensitive
issue of witchcraft. We ask to include this aspect in the national education goals and
explain the merits that would lift a veil of darkness and myth that have always prevailed
in our African imaginary, built subconscious that weighs heavily on some of us. To
achieve this, we may, for example, invite initiated people or “witches” during the sessions of the course, those who are involved in one way or another in the practice of
this reality for more explanation and demonstrations among the younger generations
and outsiders. How do we use the acquired wisdom of parents and grandparents in
the process of formal education?
Education and Guidance
To achieve a quality education, we must insist on the quality of prospective students, assess objectively their previous training, suggest strategies for the upgrading of
some and evaluate their motivations to select this or that field of study. In addition to
the educational objectives set by each school and the academic institutions, we must
also take into account the values and personal qualities. What are the studies that make
sense to my life, my people, and my nation? Basically, engaging in studies from what
we feel, what we want, associating personal passion, talent and potential personal and
immediate needs of the society to which one belongs.
In selecting students, recruiters must take into account a wide variety of criteria, not
just the final grade awarded on the level of a course of study. They must, for example,
consider the qualities like love of sport, sense of humor, the pastoral dimension of the
person, etc. This is mainly to assess other forms of intelligence: emotional intelligence,
practical intelligence (pragmatism). While education should be holistic, that is to say,
forming the whole person, recruitment must also take into account the holistic aspect
of candidates.
Education and Excellence
For a real success in the field of education, the tasks should be distributed and
shared. In the foreground, the parents must be empowered. They must do their duty,
following the children before and after school, helping with homework, limiting access
to television and the Internet, ensuring that children cultivate qualities of effort and reject
the easy gain. Local communities must also be involved. When children are between
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school and home, the community must establish reliable structures to promote another
form of education, with supervised activities, such as colonies of vacations, trips or
conferences-debates etc.
The community will strive to follow the children collectively, not to mention the
personal aspects of every individual. This attention to each student is qualified cura
personalis.4 Here, the student is monitored personally by the teacher who tries to find
interests, motivations, but also history and the difficulties that might face the student.
In the same way, audiences of 900-1000 students we see at the Universities of Kinshasa
and Lubumbashi, DRC, do not help much in the provision of holistic education and
reconciliation between students and teachers. What strategies are workable? Hiring
more assistants to track individual students may be an attempt to answer the question
of “cura personalis.”
Training of teachers should also be a priority in the pursuit of educational excellence. The continuous assessment as well as faculty to encourage students to do better
and to do more. Encouraging research and publications for both students and teachers
are a factor to motivate through the granting of “prize of excellence” for the best. This
culture of excellence could also be extended to other aspects of the education system
such as sport, the engagement in community service, etc. In the same line, education
for excellence should also encourage the spirit of research and publication both from
the professors and from students and establish a culture of discussion where change
and sharing are valued.
Education and Contextualization
We believe that education in Africa should be oriented towards the management
of crises, disasters, etc. How do we manage a crisis? In Africa, we live continually in
crisis: war, death, earthquakes, epidemics and endemic diseases specific to the black
continent, etc. We must promote an education system that takes account of African
realities, its history and current needs. In Africa, we have countries emerging from war
like the DR Congo where thousands of men and women have left their homes and
ordinary day-to-day living. Thousands of others are affected by all sorts of injuries due
to several types of violence. They have been affected physically or mentally or both. It
is therefore necessary to develop an inclusive education where everyone, including the
physically and mentally wounded feel involved in national productivity and development.
Thus, we must think of an education that promotes careers, excellence and creativity; an education system that enhances the role of museums and archeology, to know
where we came from and where we are going. In the same line, it is good to promote
the education of helpless people in our societies: people with disabilities, street children,
persons living with HIV and AIDS, etc.
Education, ethical and spiritual values
The act of learning calls for an integral liberation. People aspire to minimum liberties
and rights among them human rights, self determination, self realization, freedom of
choice and life, freedom of thinking, freedom of worship, right to be respected because
we are created in the image and likeness of God, right to education.
4
Used often by Ignatius of Loyola and means personalized way in dealing with others.
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There should be principles agreed upon by all to protect the rights of the teachers
as well as the rights of students following basic human rights and principles of natural
law. Teachers for example should promote the spirit of justice, fidelity, confidentiality,
an avoidance of dual relationships. Let us handle transference and counter transference
with professionalism and respect of the parties involved in the process.
We believe that involving more churches and charitable organizations in support of
the educational sector is beneficial. They have proven their competence and goodwill.
In addition, religious, moral and spiritual education promote tolerance; education for
love (the ability to give what one is and has), pluralism, respect for diversity.
We advocate for a system of education that defends human life -- the sacredness of
life, human dignity that integrates in its system the values of forgiveness/reconciliation,
a system that values universality through the process of globalization and the proper
use of the medias.
Education and the e-culture
This movement of excellence and magis should appear also on the level of the media
and globalized world. Among things to be encouraged, we could have class through
skype, submitting and correcting papers electronically, discussion through messenger
or Skype, using other electronic means, etc. An education system which is constantly
adapted in the changing world and technology with the use of mass medias such as
internet, Google, twitters.
Assessing today’s concrete situations in Africa
Tragedy in Africa: African challenges
In Africa today, we have numerous challenges that must capture the attention of
those in the learning area in order to provide solutions to concrete situations of our
people and nations. Following are some of the ones that we think are the most important right now.
The Rwandan5 genocide in 1994 where 1,000 000 lives were pitilessly destroyed
because of hatred and lack of tolerance. A thirst and call for tolerance after the Congolese civil war and invasion which made the highest rate of death of any armed conflicts
since the Second world war , with 5,000 000 deaths.6 A call for peace, after the Darfur
genocide (Sudan) where hundreds of thousands were massacred for political and ideological reasons. A call for justice and reparation after the post-electoral conflicts in many
countries (Kenya, Ivory Coast and Madagascar). A call for togetherness, democracy and
equality, the end of dictatorship and the reign of arbitrariness in many African countries.
Millions are dying from malaria, typhoid, HIV/AIDS, alcoholism, smoking;7 a call to
better our healthcare system, physical as well as psychological.
5
Béatrice Rangira et Chantal Kalisa, Dix ans Après : Réflexions sur le Génocide Rwandais (Paris : L’Harmattan, 2005), 8.
6
Human Rights Ministry, The War of Aggression against The Democratic Republic of Congo: Three Years
of Massacres and Genocide “in Camera,” 7.
7
James Cantelon, When God Stood Up: A Christian Response to Aids in Africa (Ontario: John Wiley &Sons
Canada, 2007), 3.
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Examining the past of education in Africa
Joseph Ki-Zerbo speaks of “rights claims and right times”8 that the education process
is supposed to foster. This is the time for leadership, of identifying our own problems,
our specific challenges and tackle them with a competent spirit of planning. We have to
own our education system, “shifting from a strategy of containment to a roll back positive in their determination to narrow the elbow room vouch safe by the princes of the
place.”9 We have to go from containment to true achievement, “anticipate the move,10”
prevent and manage it. We have to promote intellectual and academic education for
leadership. Statistics are very alarming for the African continent regarding research for
example. In Africa, we have 52 research scholars per million inhabitants compared to
the industrialized countries that have 2,954.11
Ki-Zerbo argues that among scholars,12 we have also to recognize and promote
artists, writers, journalists, communicators, those who contribute for the welfare of the
African continent and promote the “intellectual world within unnaturally narrow boundaries by leaving out, for example, the leading thinkers among religious groups, or their
counterparts in so-called traditional society, the griots, artists, healers, etc.”13 We have to
study problems from our background, study and systematize, and contextualize them in
our particular situations, ideas and insights that we can be inspired by other continents.
From the recent history of the African intellectual movement, Joseph Ki-Zerbo summarizes 3 periods: crystallization, fragmentation, and dissipation. First, crystallization:
with the rise of military regimes in most states, intellectuals were stopped or obliged to
be in the service of the government, where they were invited by the military in charge
to help in consolidating their power and mutilating the opposition, destroying any
hope for democracy, in a context where soldiers “used the logic of force” rather than
the “force of logic”
Second: fragmentation. Among the casualties of lack of freedom and democracy,
social sciences and humanities suffered from suppression. In the French speaking countries, the department of sociology and psychology were abolished after 1968. In many
university campuses repressive measures were intensified. Worse, in 1980, a new factor
came into process: the structural adjustment programme of the International Monetary
Fund (IMF) and the World Bank with a drastic program for many countries in Africa.
One of the consequences of this decision was the reduction of education budgets if not
their freezing. Therefore intellectuals dropped from “higher pursuit” to the “lower but
more lucrative interests […] and teaching material became scarcer and scarcer leading
the intellectual to the “position of soldiers without munitions.”14 Third: dissipation. This
stage describes Intellectuals who feel persecuted in their own countries and reduced to
the state of beggars. They travelled to other continents where they felt secure, provided
protection and freedom of thinking, expression and research.
8
Joseph Ki-Zerbo, The Need for Creative Organizational Approaches in Academic Freedom in Africa, edited
by Mamadou Diouf & Mahmood Mamdani. Codesria Book series, 1994.
9
Ki-Zerbo, The Need for Creative Organizational Approaches, 26.
10
11
12
13
14
Ki-Zerbo, The Need for Creative Organizational Approaches, 30-31.
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Accepting life crises
Life is not only success. It also comes also with failure and disappointment. Knowing that is a plus for facing the situation. When doubts, hesitations, confusions, crises
are used not in a pessimistic way but in a positive one recognizing our limitations,
designing priorities of our education system so that the past will not be repeated again
tomorrow, or after tomorrow.
Psychologists15 define four types of crises: developmental, environmental, existential,
and psychiatric. First, developmental crises are caused by events that are considered
normal aspects of human growth and development, including marriage, having a child,
graduating from college, changing careers, aging, etc. Second, environmental crises occurred either by natural or human events and affect the majority of people in a specific
environment: Hurricanes, famine, flood, oil spill, pandemic flu, economic depression,
and war.
Third, existential crises are triggered by personal realizations around purpose and
meaning. Other existential themes that create cognitive dissonance: anxiety or inner
conflict (realization that a person’s life is less significant than he or she had hoped).
Situational crises caused by a precipitating event often unexpected, shocking, random, or
beyond the control of the individual: rape, car accident, death. Fourth, psychiatric crises
are situations that are affected by mental health or substance abuse concerns and are
noticed during psychotic break, manic episode, drug or alcohol relapse or overdose, etc.
Education: from the inside
Teachers’ status and consideration
Leadership in education calls us for the best conditions and consideration of teachers’ status and occupation.16 Among those points to be studied and reevaluated are: the
level of remuneration, the general working conditions the qualifications and experience
necessary for the performance of the role, the importance attached to it measured by
the amount of money the state spends on it.
Education: Opportunity for all
We have to support an education system which goes beyond ethnic groups, regions,
races, gender, physical or mental disability, etc. When we use the word minority, we
mean geographical, ideological or psychological minorities of our people. This includes
Gender, Ethnic groups, Political ideology, Religious beliefs –Christians, Mungiki, physically and psychological challenged people, etc.
Also, the issue of women is important. They are the majority of the population in
the world. In the African context, they are the”sanctuary” of our families; they sustain
entire families, and give hope to their children and their husbands. They change lives.
This is also the main role of education, changing people’s lives from an average to a
better one; this is also the idea of magis.
15
James, R.K., & Gililand, B.E. Crisis intervention strategies,5th ed. (Belmont CA: wadsworth/Thomson
Learning, 2005).
16
Ansu Datta, Education and Society: Sociology of African Education (London: The Macmillan Press Limited,
1984), 115-116.
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Educated, African women may enforce more the idea of change, change for others
but also change for themselves. They will know their rights and they will raise their
children not in ignorance but in knowledge and become powerful advocates of education. They are our mothers, our sisters, our cousins, our nieces, our daughters, our
friends, etc. Their leadership is powerful yet unique and different, powerful yet loving
and assuring.
Taking into account individualities’ uniqueness – cura personalis
In the spirit of cura personalis, the teachers should not only be aware of the uniqueness of each student, but also stimulate, facilitate creativity, and bring the class “from
an average class to a winning and successful class.”17 Furthermore, teachers have to
demonstrate a careful attention and affection for learners who need special attention
by adapting educational practices to their needs.18
The mission of the entire society is to identify “exceptional students” who have
tremendous potential yet who can’t just stand the normal way of learning, they need
something special for their conditions, because they have too much to offer and we
cannot afford not to listen to them and profit from their talents and skills in the building of Africa. In addition, we have to promote counseling and guidance services which
will tackle issues like school dropout, problems of academic pressure, emotional disturbance, etc.
For a better result, we have to encourage rigor and motivation, helping to model
a critical theory of knowing, passion and understanding. A system of education which
frees, liberates the human person versus any ideology of intimidation, of violence, of
denigration, of the complex of superiority and inferiority, and really continues to carry
“the dream of liberation in education.”
In the line of liberation, we have to take in account “the ethics of transforming
consciousness”19 where the focus should be on the right to challenge inequality and
domination and promote an opening dialogue which is an invitation not manipulation,
“a creative rigor which is a mixture of democratic and directed method of teaching.”20
The entire community should be involved in the process of reforming for better
systems of education, including students themselves, parents, the civil society, teachers
and also policy makers, politicians. It is a call for justice for the young generations, for
their future as well as the future of African nations, to fund appropriately and adequately
the ministries and departments of education in order to empower millions of men and
women to take their destiny in their own hands and the future of countries, promoting
education, liberty and creativity and to be on the side of those warring against education (Barack Obama).
Goals of education
Africa is a different society from the western and eastern world; Africa is moving
towards a different direction and has different goals. Education defines also its own
17
Henry Clay Lindgren, Educational Psychology in the Classroom, 3rd ed. (New York: John Wiley & sons.
Inc., 1967), 494.
18
Henry Clay Lindgren, Educational Psychology in the Classroom, 503.
19
Paulo Freire & Ira Shor, A Pedagogy for Liberation: Dialogues on Transforming Education (London:
Macmillan, 1987), 171.
20
Paulo Freire & Ira Shor, A Pedagogy for Liberation, 174.
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goals which have the particularity for working for the promotion of human being. Those
goals are utilitarian, social, cultural, and personal.21
First, we have the utilitarian. Here the focus is both on states and individuals. The
state or government is looking for manpower for national development and the eradication of ignorance and the effort to decrease illiteracy. For individuals, to promote the
ability to read and write to know their basic rights and practice democracy and tolerance in their day to day lives. Then we have the social goal where the importance is
on socialization; where students learn how to fit in school life, to fit at home, to fit in
the community and in society at large and to know and understand the place of law
and order. Third, we have the cultural goals. This aspect of education promotes social
sciences and people uniqueness like languages, history, drama, creative arts, architecture, Music, fashion, etc.
Finally, we have personal goals: an education or a learning process that touches
effectively on the individual potential to attain self actualization, to give the best of
himself, the best of herself in the process of the betterment of societies. This is a call
and a fight against mediocrity, stagnation and pessimism.
Inspiring figures
Preamble
We call for an educational system which goes beyond the classroom, an education
which associates inspiring people in the process of learning, and empowers the young
generation of our people to do great things. Among those people, we have political
figures shaping policies; religious figures working for hope, life’s meaning and spiritual wellbeing; entertaining leaders bringing laughter, good mood and great sense of
humor among the learning society; humanitarians bringing humanity, zeal, generosity,
selflessness to the most unfortunate of our society: the poor, the sick, the uneducated,
the oppressed, etc.
Socrates22
He is considered as one of the main figures of education in the world and one of
the most commanding single figures of antiquity. He was declared guilty of rejecting
the gods, bringing in strange deities, and corrupting the youth. Arrested in 400 BC, he
was forced to kill himself. He displayed courage, incorruptibility, serenity, reforming
spirit and style. He is also known as the first great teacher to be adequately recorded
in history. He developed a method of teaching –survived for more than two thousand
years and still in use.
Ignatius of Loyola
Ignatius of Loyola is the co-founder of the Society of Jesus, known also as Jesuits. He
21
George S. Eshiwani, Education in Kenya since Independence (Nairobi: East African educational Publishers
limited, 1993), 23.
22
Cf. Luella Cole, A History of Education: Socrates to Montessori (New York: Rinehad & Company Publishers, 1959).
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authored the famous Spiritual Exercises23 which revolutionized the way of praying since
the middle ages and became a legacy for the Catholic Church to date. He also called for
cura personalis where everyone is taken as an individual with needs, as well as with
challenges.24 He proposed a vade mecum for a new way of educating which is basically
a combination of scholasticism and humanism: ratio-studiorum. This document focused
on the training of Jesuit teachers for a positive influence to the next generations where
the method of instruction was basically oral and the emphasis was on “spoken word.”25
Ignatius of Loyola insisted specially of the spoken word which is so important in
African culture and tradition where much has to do with oral tradition. In his Ratio
Studiorum, he developed particularly three ways of education based on the exercise
of words. They are prelectio, concertatio and disputatio.
For Ignatius of Loyola, prelectio is comparable to modern lecture where the teacher
reads all the passage and builds the day’s lesson, while concertatio is a general discussion
where all members were encouraged to participate and similar to modern recitation and
disputatio which is a heritage of scholasticism and consists of daily public disputation
where students were present, a kind of private discussion.
Gandhi, the Mahatma
He has a strong tie to Africa and lived and practised law in South Africa. He is an
inspiration for many people throughout the world and personal example to great leaders like Martin Luther King Junior, Obama, and Mandela. He taught and lived on the
principle of non violence to attain peace, reconciliation and freedom. He was killed
when Indians and the entire world needed his leadership for more tolerance, acceptance and much respect of human kind. He will remain a source of inspiration for those
who believe in peaceful change in the world.
Munzihirwa Mwene Ngabo
Munzihirwa Mwene Ngabo was a Congolese Jesuit and bishop. Charismatic leader,
man of principles and many virtues, man of courage and peace, man of initiative and
intelligence, defender of the poor and minorities. He was killed on the eve of the civil
war in the Democratic Republic of Congo, while defending reconciliation between
populations of the western Congo and refugees from Rwanda.
Education and peace building
Education and awareness of violence
We believe in an education system which will tackle the main threats of our time
and our society including terrorism, imperialism, abuses, unfairness, domination, manipulation, corruption, dictatorship, exploitation, violence for violence, tyranny and
enable people to know the process of claiming their rights; an education system that
enables people to face existential realities with balance and awareness: meaning of life,
suffering, death, isolation, freedom, etc.
23
Cf. Ignace de Loyola, Les Exercices Spirituels, trad. du texte Autographe par Edouard Gueydan S.J. en
collaboration (Paris: Desclée de Brouwer Bellarmin, 1985).
24
Luella Cole, A History of Education, 313.
25
Luella Cole, A History of Education, 321.
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In dialogue with one another, we have to foster the spirit of respect, tolerance; a
“healing dialogue”26 which is not seeking for the other’s conversion yet for sharing and
understanding. We are called to create attitudes of respect and equality as criteria for
any constructive dialogue.
The education that is committed to form a new generation of learners, who are involved in the definition and the shaping of their future and their destiny, have to be given
a say in their own process of education. Also, a human way of teaching that includes
respect, good relationship between the staff and students where the atmosphere of help
reigns rather than that of punishment, encouraging hard working teachers and students.
We have to build on what works, one that has worked so efficiently in the past,
using the African uniqueness of palaver and resolution of conflicts. We have to build
strategies more for preventing than reacting and use what exists and what was successful
and efficient for our people in our different cultures. Gacaca in Rwanda worked after
the 1994 genocide and helped to promote justice and foster reconciliation and peace
among the Rwandese. National conferences in the African French speaking countries
created a new atmosphere of democracy, political pluralism. National forums all over
Africa tackled diverse questions from Aids to politics, from trade inside African regions
to sport tournaments. It is also important to encourage the African union and regional
organizations to do more about peace keeping, protection of the weak, the poor, etc.
That is why we agree that committees for peace, truth and reconciliation in South
Africa and in DR Congo helped in the rebirth and reshaping of these countries, specifically building on trust, consensus, etc. We deem that crisis management should first
be handled on a local than regional, national, or continental level before asking for
international assistance.
In order to have peace and stability, we think that alternation and complementarity
must prevail over egoism and pure “ideologisation” of the political sphere. We need
alternative where an orderly and democratic change of government is obtained in
peace and transparency, favored by the principle of democracy where everyone has a
vote and accountability where everybody should be held accountable for the parcel of
authority that he has received.
Political speeches and rallies should be towards reconciliation, unity, respect, peace,
hard work. Songs, dances, music, arts, plays, and movies should also materialize the
spirit of reconciliation and hard work and their authors held accountable in the case
of exaggeration.
We have to form more on civility, respect of others, and respect of the common
good. We have to build strong institutions, as Obama put it in his Accra speech: “Africa
needs strong institutions not strong men,” rather than do constantly the cult of personality, because we know that a human being can also be weak and can’t impress all time
This is a call for alternative, opportunity for others and sense of belonging to a country
of all. Another question which is very crucial regarding leadership in Africa is: do we
elevate them on the rank of divinity?
A call for a “student centered” education
The solution focused education works against afro-pessimism and afro-misery, the
26
Cf. Benezet Bujo, Foundations of an African Ethic: Beyond the universal claims of Western Morality (New
York: The Cross publishing Company, 2001), 85.
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assumption that we cannot and we will never focus on the strengths and talents of all
Africans through an organized education for redemption and development. It is against
the early proclamation of African death, as Ntima Nkanza27 said in his book, paraphrasing the prophet Isaiah: “Non, je ne mourrai pas, je vivrai.”28
Solution focused education wants to involve everyone in the process of building or
rebuilding Africa, educated and uneducated, poor and rich, Black, White, Asian, men
and women, disabled and non-disabled, Christians, Muslims, Mungiki, etc. All of us
we can provide ideas and those ideas can make a difference in our lives. We believe
that in the line of solution focused education, the strengths of an enterprise is more on
people’s talents.
Basically, we want to say that individuals are necessary but not indispensable, especially when their terms come to an end. Yet those in office have to give the best of
themselves while in office. The criticism of their actions and policies will be done by
others, their legacy will be objectively evaluated and when the time comes, by history.
In the same lines, we agree with Barack Obama29 in his speech at Accra to Africans that:
“Africa does not need strong men, but strong institutions.”
A student centered education favors an atmosphere of learning where: “it could
build a climate of trust in which curiosity, the natural desire to learn, could be nourished
and enhanced.”30 In this context, hard work is rewarded and mutual respect prevails
between students and faculty, where school becomes a kind of family whereby the
good and success of all is the main goal and “competition is replaced by cooperation,
respect for others, and mutual helpfulness.”31
A place where there is a close and constructive relationship between the faculty and
students where dialogue matters “in a participatory mode of decision-making about all
aspects of learning.” School is a place where not only can students expect appreciation
and recognition from teachers, but seize the opportunity to appreciate themselves and
develop self-confidence and self-esteem.32
An education where teachers play the role of inspirational figures and students
are excited both emotionally and intellectually and become lifelong learners, “to build
flexible institutions where students are the core”33 of the learning process and “put the
person at the heart of the whole enterprise.”34
Carl Rogers35 lays down twelve qualities for the person of tomorrow that we think
goes with the graduate of tomorrow after his/her education. Among them, there are
especially five that capture our attention. They are openness to new experiences and
realities, desire for authenticity, desire for wholeness, process persons and caring people.
Openness to new experiences and realities means facing up to new challenges,
to new cultures, new friends, etc. The desire for authenticity focuses on keeping my
background, celebrating my uniqueness, my story, my values, my personality, etc. The
desire for wholeness affirms that a human being is not a compartmented person but a
Ntima Nkanza is a philosopher and theologian from the Democratic Republic of Congo.
“No I will not die, I will live.” Pslams 118.17
Barack Obama is the current president of US and the first African American to hold the office.
30
Carl Rogers, A way of Being (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1980), 203.
31
Rogers, A way of Being, 203.
32
Rogers, A way of Being, 235-258.
33
34
35
Rogers, A way of Being, 350-352.
27
28
29
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unified being. It is a call for building a holistic dimension of a human being: physical,
intellectual, spiritual, psychological, social, etc. The process person encourages learners
to be able to do an objective assessment of one, in order to grow and give the best of
yourself in society, sense of magis and self actualization. A body of people committed
to do continually the assessment daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, etc. And the caring attitude emphasizes our obligation-vocation to care for ourselves and to care for others, to
encourage, compliment, to empower others, to care for the needy of our society, those
who do not have the essentials for an acceptable life and to care for nature.
Solution focused education works more on prevention rather than healing. The healing is on target but prevention is the primary target that can present a type of education
system where there is a constant evaluation: education and evaluation for excellence
and a reality in which present, past and future are intermingled.36 We have to promote
an education that not only resolves but an education that prevents conflicts, saving and
enriching African values, preserving the free world and democracy, denouncing and
fighting against dictatorship, political and ideological unilateralism, injustice, inequality,
lack of respect, etc.
C
onclusion: We believe that Africa has the human potential and strategies to improve
its educational system and current switch to the “education for leadership,” which
forms on the creativity, sense of work well done, with the opportunity, daring and
universality. Africa should be modeled on the Indians and Chinese who walk and combine and incorporate imported technology and indigenous cultural and traditional values.
In just one decade and half, China has transformed itself from a dormant, introspective giant into a dynamic powerhouse of major potential significance to the world’s
economy. This success was thought, planned and implemented with discipline and
courage, especially using a frit of a strategy which was initiated in 1978 and promotes
economic liberalization. This strategy was implemented well and efficiently in the
agriculture sector, especially. Therefore, China fought the level of literacy, turned to
engineering to become today in technology and creativity, one of the world largest
economies competing with the US. China had a challenge: feeding the population of
between 1.2 to 1.4 billion people and developed surviving solutions to face the challenge by working on its economy, agricultural sector, and technology. Africa should
get inspiration from the Chinese model that works.
Africa also needs to develop a philosophy of education for resolution of and management of conflict as a priority. Today, Africa is facing tough moments of wars, diseases,
and unending violence. She needs real solutions to real problems that confront it. We
must consider excellence in education that promotes those solutions that do not stop
only to be a critical early support for Africa by Africans.
The granting of scholarships to encourage and support the best: the provinces or
cities grant university scholarships for the specialty of those who are distinguished by
their creativity and inventiveness. We are calling for universities that generate their own
resources by partnering with self reliable partners, both domestic and foreign, and not
only rely on the goodwill of politicians or powerful people. Furthermore, Africa has to
push for growth in agriculture, veterinary and technology to face hunger in Africa, nursing
and medicine also in order to deal with tropical diseases (malaria, typhoid), AIDS, etc.
36
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Finally, we suggest that free education be made a priority. With a good education
for all, African countries would save a lot by investing men and women who will maintain the sense of democracy and pluralism with people and promote human rights and
equality. Given the chance and opportunity for all to access education, it is not till six
or eight years of primary school which will enable them to read, write and think for
themselves. It would be a real support for democracy; when people know their rights
and duties to preserve and defend the common good, the values of political pluralism,
difference, tolerance, etc.
Every society, every generation has its own problems and challenges and should
find its own solutions “to develop an approach that is focused on constructing the new,
not repairing the old; that is designing a society in which problems will be less frequent,
rather than putting poultices on those who have been crippled by social factors.”37
Are we subscribing to the “future-oriented preventive approach” or want to be
identified with the “past-oriented remedial function.”38 We need to subscribe in the
line of satisfaction, a combination of self satisfaction and the satisfaction of others in
the area of the labor market. We have to diagnose and remedy what is wrong, to have
the courage to make the move of change in our academic and education institutions in
order to empower more people and transform our societies, etc.
We believe that writing centers, audio tapes and other tools of spoken expression
can help for a better education knowing that African culture is for the most part, even
though changing, based on oral tradition. In order to perform well in school or academic
life, to refresh the spirit, body exercises and a particular way of being are necessary,
including sport, relaxation, knowing what to eat and when to eat. How we view the
body but also the disease and consequence of bad diet, sense of humor, etc, physical
exercises, number of hours of sleep, etc. We have to promote and watch out on our
health, physical as well as mental.
Bibliography
Bujo, Bénézet. Foundations of an African Ethics: Beyond the Universal Claims of Western Morality,
New York, The Cross publishing Company, 2001.
Caplan, G. Principles of preventive psychiatry. New York, Basic Books, 1964.
Cole, Luella. A History of Education: Socrates to Montessori, New York, Rinehad & Co. Publishers,
1959.
de Shazer, Steve. Clues: Investigating Solutions in Brief Therapy, New York, Norton, 1991.
Eshiwani, George S. Education in Kenya since Independence, Nairobi, East African educational
Publishers limited, 1993.
Freire, Paulo & Shor, Ira. A pedagogy for Liberation: Dialogues on Transforming Education,
London, Macmillan, 1987.
Greenstone, J.L., & Leviton, S.C. (2002). Elements of Crisis Intervention: Crises and How to Respond
to them (2nd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole
Lindgren, Henry Clay. Educational Psychology in the Classroom, 3rd edition, New York, 1967.
Rangira, Béatrice & Kalisa, Chantal. Dix ans après : Réflexions sur le Génocide Rwandais, Paris,
L’Harmattan, 2005.
Rogers, Carl. A way of being, Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1980.
37
38
Carl Rogers, A way of being (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1980), 240.
Rogers, A Way of Being, 240.
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The Catholic Tradition and Jürgen Moltmann
By Fidèle Ingiyimbere, SJ*
A
bstract: Human Rights have become a benchmark in international arena, since
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights on December 10, 1948. However, the
declaration itself was a climax of a long process, originating in the Enlightenment
movement. What was the Christian attitude towards this development of Human Rights?
This paper explores this question from an ecumenical perspective, comparing Catholic
understanding of human rights and the view of the theologian Jürgen Moltmann. The
paper then follows a threefold framework. The first point presents a progressive Catholic
attitude towards human rights, starting from the reaction of Pope Gregory XVI, to the
full endorsement of Pope John XXIII, through a half openness of Popes such Leo XIII
and Pius XI. The second point exposes Moltmann’s position, and the third makes a
comparison between these two positions in order to highlight the common ground and
their complementarity.
I
ntroduction: According to Douglas I. Elwood,1 the recent history of human rights is
at least made of three generations. The first generation encompasses the freedomoriented rights which are embodied in the articles 2-21 of the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights (UDHR). Their keyword is “liberty and they were promoted by the
English, American and French Revolutions. They are called negative rights because they
are “rights from.” The second generation concerns the rights contained in the articles
22-27. They are need-based rights and that is why they are also named positive rights
because they are “rights to”. The key-word here is “equality” and they are the fruit of
the social revolution. The third generation is the result of the decline of nation-state
and are rights to self-determination and self-development as contained in the articles
28-29, mostly developed from the Third World. Today, however, “with the globalization
of the economy and communications and the emergence of developing post-colonial
states, new rights have been added to the human rights corpus. These include rights
to healthy environment, to sustainable development, to culture, to immigration and to
political asylum.”2 We have here a fourth generation and it is not impossible that we
may have a fifth, since all this long history shows that human rights are an ongoing
process. Now, did the Catholic Church and different Christian communities react to this
historical development of human rights?
The aim of this paper is to see the ecumenical attitude towards these rights, taking
Catholic tradition and Moltmann as examples.3 Do they favor them? If yes, have they
1
7-10.
Douglas J. Elwood, Human Rights: A Christian Perspective (Quenzon City: New Day Publishers, 1990),
Micheline Ishay, The History of Human Rights: From Ancient Times to the Globalization Era (Berkeley,
Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 2004), 13.
3
The reason why I chose Moltmann is that he has elaborated a theology of human rights and has been a
2
*Fidèle is a Burundian Jesuit. He is a student at Jesuit School of Theology, Boston, MA, USA
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Fidèle Ingiyimbere, SJ
always done so? Along this historical perspective, the paper will develop three main
points. The first section will examine the Catholic view of human rights from a historical
perspective. The second one will focus on Moltmann’s position, while the third point
will be a comparative study between the two visions, in order to see if there can be an
ecumenical understanding of human rights.
From Reaction to Recognition: Catholic Church and Human Rights
As an idea that developed from the European Enlightenment, the Catholic Church
did not receive human rights with open arms. However, as time went on, she came to
recognize the importance of human rights and endorsed them fully and even promoted
them. In the foregoing discussion, I will follow these three historical attitudes of the
Catholic Church: reaction, “half”-openness, and full endorsement.
Time of reaction
The time of reaction occurred during the Enlightenment. We have seen that the
period produced what is called today first generation of human rights, i.e., civil-political
rights, which are freedom-oriented. Therefore, the Catholic reaction against the human
rights movement of that time was against basic rights based on freedom, especially
freedom of conscience, expression and consequently of religion.
One of the clearest examples of the Church’s attitude comes from Pope Gregory XVI
with his encyclical Mirari Vos on liberalism and religious indifferentism. The Pope speaks
of various threats of his time: “depravity exults; science is impudent; liberty, dissolute.
[…] Hence sound doctrine is perverted and errors of all kinds spread boldly. The laws
of the sacred, the rights, institutions, and discipline –none are safe from the audacity
of those speaking evil...Those speaking evil” are the Enlightenment philosophers who
affect everything in such a way that “the restraints of religion are thrown off, by which
alone kingdoms stand.” 4 They “desire vehemently to separate the Church from the state,
and to break the mutual concord between temporal authority and the priesthood.”5
Consequently, there is no hope of “happier times for religion and government.”6 Having
identified his enemies, Pope Gregory declares a state of war against them. “Therefore,
united in spirit, let us promote our common cause […]; let our vigilance be one and
our effort united against the common enemies.”7
It is in this context of tension and defense that he condemns “liberty of conscience”
and denounces “freedom to publish” as fruits of the indifferentism. In his own words,
“this shameful font of indifferentism gives rise to that absurd and erroneous proposition which claims that liberty of conscience must be maintained for everyone. It
leading scholar in the field from ecumenical perspective. See for example, Miller, Allen O (ed.), Christian Declaration on Human Rights: Theological Studies of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches (Grand Rapids: William B.
Eerdmans Pubushing Company, 1977).
4
Pope Gregory XVI, Mirari Vos, August 15, 1832. http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Greg16/g16mirar.htm
(Accessed, November 13, 2009), #5. (Whenever we are citing encyclicals and other official documents of the Church,
we will use the numbers referring to the paragraphs).
5
Pope Gregory XVI, Mirari Vos, #20.
6
7
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spreads ruin in sacred and civil affairs, though some repeat over and over again with
the greatest impudence that some advantage accrues to religion from it.”8 For the Pope,
“when all restraints are removed by which men are kept on the narrow path of truth,
their nature, which is already inclined to evil, propels them to ruin.” And “experience
shows, even from earlier times, that cities renowned for wealth, dominion, and glory
perished as a result of this single evil, namely immoderate freedom of opinion, license
of free speech, and desire for novelty.”9 In other words, in Gregory XVI’s view, liberty
of conscience, freedom of speech and opinion constitute a political threat; they are “a
pestilence more deadly to the state than any other.”10 The champions of liberty are to
be vigorously condemned because they “are bringing servitude to the people under
the slogan of liberty;”11 “they preach liberty of every sort; they stir up disturbances in
sacred and civil affairs, and pluck authority to pieces.”12
From this flows the opposition to the right to publish, “that harmful and never sufficiently denounced freedom to publish any writings […], which some dare to demand
and promote with so great a clamor.”13 The Pope is against the freedom of publication
because some books are against religion and the truth, and he recalls that “the Church
has always taken action to destroy the plague of bad books.”14
The same opposition against “license of ideas and speeches” and “freedom of
conscience which should be thoroughly condemned” would come out two years later,
while condemning the errors of Lammenais, in the Encyclical letter, Singulari nos.15 The
encyclical also regrets “the fact that, where the ravings of human reason extend, there
is somebody who studied new things and strives to know more than necessary, against
the advice of the apostle. There you will find someone who is overconfident in seeking
the truth outside the Catholic Church, in which it can be found without even a light
tarnish of error.”16 Not only is the Pope against the idea of freedom of conscience and
freedom of speech, but also against any novelty, with the conception that “the Church
is called, and is indeed, a pillar and foundation of truth.”17
In reacting against the idea of freedom whatsoever, Gregory XVI was condemning
the whole range of the first generation of rights, and this also was the position of Pius
IX. In his encyclical letter Quanta Cura, (December 8, 1964), he joined his Predecessors who “constantly resisted the nefarious enterprises of wicked men who, like raging
waves of the sea foaming out their own confusion, and promising liberty whereas they
are the slaves of corruption, have striven by their deceptive opinions and most pernicious writings to raze the foundations of the Catholic religion and of civil society.”18
Those who claim “liberty of conscience and worship [as] each man’s personal right,
which ought to be legally proclaimed and asserted in every rightly constituted society;
11
12
13
14
15
Pope Gregory XVI, Singulari Nos, June 25, 1834. http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Greg16/g16singu.
htm (Accessed November 13, 2009), #3.
16
Pope Gregory XVI, Singulari Nos, #8.
17
Pope Gregory XVI, Singulari Nos, #8
18
Pope Pius IX, Quanta Cura, December 8, 1864. http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Pius09/p9quanta.htm
(Accessed November 13, 2009), #1.
8
9
10
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and that a right resides in the citizens to an absolute liberty, which should be restrained
by no authority whether ecclesiastical or civil, whereby they may be able openly and
publicly to manifest and declare any of their ideas whatever, either by word of mouth,
by the press, or in any other way,” forget that “they are preaching ‘liberty of perdition’.”19
To this, one adds his Syllabus of Errors, which condemns “the whole family of ‘liberal’
doctrines –rationalism, indifferentism, socialism, communism, naturalism, freemasonry,
separation of church and state, liberty of press, liberty of religion.”20
On view of all this, though there may be reason to these papal positions, we can
only conclude with Carol J. Vanderburg that “with Gregory XVI and Pius IX, the official
position of the Catholic Church was that it was adamantly and overtly opposed to all
liberal notions, including human rights and democracy.”21 Some years later, it would
change with the coming of Leo XIII to Peter’s See.
Half-openness
Leo XIII opens a new era with regards to the official position of the Church towards
human rights with his renowned encyclical letter on capital and labor, Rerum Novarum.22
Certainly, the context had changed from all points of view: socially, economically, politically and ecclesiastically. The industrialization of Europe had ushered in new social
conditions for workers and liberal capitalism was struggling with socialism for adherents.
The Pope was aware of the situation. Therefore, “some opportune remedy [had to] be
found quickly for the misery and wretchedness pressing so unjustly on the majority
of the working class: for the ancient workingmen’s guilds were abolished in the last
century, and no other protective organization took place.”23
Drawing from natural and divine law, Leo XIII defends the right to private property
in order to solve the dilemma of the wretched conditions of workers, rejecting by the
same token socialist solutions. For him, “the first and most fundamental principle […]
if one would undertake to alleviate the condition of masses, must be the inviolability
of private property.”24 The solution to workers’ poor conditions then, has to come from
the cooperation of different actors: rulers of states, employers of labor, the wealthy
and the working classes themselves.25 Calling upon the concepts of the social teaching tradition of the Church, --private property, common good, subsidiarity, distributive
and social justice, the option for the poor-- the Pope advocates for workers’ rights and
defines their duties and those of their employers. If one of the duties of the worker is
“fully and faithfully to perform the work, which has been freely and equitably agreed
upon” one duty for an owner is “not to look upon their work people as their bondsmen,
Pope Pius IX, Quanta Cura, #3.
Drew Christiansen, S.J., “Commentary on Pacemi in Terris” in Kenneth R. Himes, O.F.M. (ed.), Modern
Catholic Social Teaching: Commentaries and Interpretations, (Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2005),
235.
21
Carol J. Vanderburg, The Christian Messages: The Contribution of Pius XII to the Catholic Church’s
Endorsement of Human Rights and Democracy. A Dissertation presented to the Faculty of Theology of the Graduate
School of Liberal Arts of Duquesne University (April, 2002), 44.
22
Pope Leo XIII, Rerum Novarum, May 15, 1891. http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/leo_xiii/encyclicals/
documents/hf_l-ssxiii_enc_15051891_rerum-novorum_en.html (accessed November 13, 2009).
23
Pope Leo XIII, Rerum Novarum; #3.
24
Pope Leo XIII, Rerum Novarum, #15.
25
19
20
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but to respect in every man his dignity as a person ennobled by Christian character.”26
Then he enumerates a range of rights for the workers: right to equal treatment before
the law;27 right to be helped and protected by the government;28 right to care for his
soul;29 right to leisure;30 right to reasonable time of work, rights of children and women
regarding the work31 and especially right to fair wage32 and association.33 Concerning
the wage, he notes that “the preservation of life is the bounden duty of one and all,
and to be wanting therein is a crime. It necessarily follows that each one has a natural
right to procure what is required in order to live, and the poor can procure that in no
other way than by what they can earn through their work.”34
In spite of the change of the official position of the Catholic Church with Leo XIII,
one has to recognize, however, that he only addressed the second generation of rights,
i.e. the need-based rights. He did not substantially change the Church’s position regarding freedom-oriented rights. For Vanderburg, “not only was Leo opposed to civil
liberties, but he also did not endorse political rights. He was opposed to Catholics being
involved in the political process.”35
His immediate successors, Pius X and Benedict XV, would also oppose Catholic
political involvement. According to the same author, “at the end of the papacy of Benedict XV and prior to the pontificate of Pius XI, the Catholic Church continued to be
opposed to democracy and had made little headway in the area of civil liberties. Her
one significant contribution to human rights was the publication of Leo XIII’s Rerum
Novarum, which had endorsed the economic and social rights of working class.”36
With Pius XI’s Quadragesimo Anno on the reconstruction of the social order, 37 we
have a confirmation of Leo XIII’s breakthrough. As a document celebrating the fortieth
anniversary of Rerum Novarum, Quadragismo Anno does not go further as far as human
rights are concerned. It updates the economic and social rights to the post-World-War I
context. Nevertheless, Pius XI insists very much on social justice38 and on human dignity.39
“In sum, it can be concluded that from the pontificates of Leo XIII to Pius XI, the
Catholic Church spoke out strongly, prophetically, and sometimes even radically in
favor of socio-economic rights […]. However, during this same period, little progress
was made in the realm of civic and political rights.”40
Vanderburg credits Pius XII through his Christmas messages with engaging the Church
on the path of recognizing both civic-political and social-economic rights, based on the
notion of “human person.” According to her, “it is in the sphere of civic and political
28
Pope Leo XIII, Rerum Novarum, #36, 37.
29
30
31
32
Pope Leo XIII, Rerum Novarum, #43-7.
33
Pope Leo XIII, Rerum Novarum, #48-54.
34
35
Carol J. Vanderburg, The Christian Messages, 94.
36
Carol J. Vanderburg, The Christian Messages, 101-02.
37
Pope Pius XI, Quadragesimo Anno, May 15, 1931. http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/encyclicals/
documents/hf_p-xi_enc_19310515_quadragesimo-anno_en.html (accessed November 13, 2009).
38
Pope Pius XI, Quadragesimo Anno, #57, 58, 71, 74, etc.
39
Pope Pius XI, Quadragesimo Anno, #83, 101, 136, etc.
40
Carol J. Vanderburg, The Christian Messages, 130.
26
27
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rights that Pius XII made the most progress in the promotion of human rights in the
social doctrine of the Catholic Church.”41 Drew Christiansen, S.J., however, notes that
“after the completion of the Universal Declaration [of human rights], Pius failed to offer
his encouragement, apparently because of the lack of firm foundational underpinnings
for the asserted rights.”42 In other words, even with Pius XII, the Catholic Church did
not completely embrace the full range of human rights. It will not do so until Pope John
XXIII and Vatican Council II.
Full endorsement of Human rights
With John XXIII’s encyclical Pacem in Terris,43 the Catholic Church fully endorses
all generations of human rights. It goes even further to show that all rights are correlated. Therefore, rights go with duties, and there is no division between civic-political
and social-economic rights. These rights and duties become the basis for any social
organization. For John XXIII, “any well-regulated and productive association of men
in society demands the acceptance of one fundamental principle: that each individual
man is truly a person. His is a nature that is endowed with intelligence and free will.
As such he has rights and duties, which together flow as a direct consequence from his
nature. These rights and duties are universal and inviolable, and therefore altogether
inalienable.”44 The rights derive from the recognition of the human nature of man as
person with intelligence and free will. As such, the human person possesses a dignity
which is inalienable. That is why the rights and duties inscribed to man as a person
themselves are universal, inviolable, and altogether inalienable.
In affirming the individual rights, the Pope joins the long development of the civicpolitical rights, challenging the socialist-communist vision; which privileges social-economic rights at the expense of the individual dimension of human rights. Nevertheless,
for the Pope and Catholic tradition, the human person is not an isolated person; she is
also social. The Pope states:
Men are by nature social, and consequently they have the right to meet together and to form
associations with their fellows. They have the right to confer on such associations the type
of organization which they consider best calculated to achieve their objectives. They have
also the right to exercise their own initiative and act on their own responsibility within these
associations for the attainment of the desired results.45
This will be John XXIII’s first major contribution to the liberal understanding of human rights. Rights are neither only individual nor only social. Both are sides of one and
same coin, because both derive from human nature as a person and a social person.
Not only are rights connected but also they go together, and because of that, they are
correlated to duties. Again the Pope observes:
Since men are social by nature, they must live together and consult each other’s interests.
That men should recognize and perform their respective rights and duties is imperative to a
well ordered society. But the result will be that each individual will make his whole-hearted
contribution to the creation of a civic order in which rights and duties are ever more diligently
Carol J. Vanderburg, Carol J. Vanderburg, The Christian Messages, 196.
Drew Christiansen, S.J., “Commentary on Pacemi in Terris,” 236.
43
Pope John XXIII, Pacem in Terris, April 11, 1963. http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_xxiii/encyclicals/documents/hf_j-xxiii_enc_11041963_pacem_en.html (Accessed November 13, 2009).
44
Pope John XXIII, Pacem in Terris, #7.
45
41
42
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and more effectively observed. For example, it is useless to admit that a man has a right to
the necessities of life, unless we also do all in our power to supply him with means sufficient
for his livelihood.46
The fulfillment of individual rights contributes to the social order, but, at the same
time, the entitlement to a right goes with a duty. “Every basic human right draws its
authoritative force from the natural law, which confers it and attaches to it its respective
duty. Hence, to claim one’s rights and ignore one’s duties, or only half fulfill them, is
like building a house with one hand and tearing it down with the other.”47 “Thus, for
example, the right to live involves the duty to preserve one’s life; the right to a decent
standard of living, the duty to live in a becoming fashion; the right to be free to seek
out the truth, the duty to devote oneself to an ever deeper and wider search for it.”48
In sum, for John XXIII, rights go with duties and are rooted in human nature with its
personal and social dimensions. The freedom-oriented rights go hand in hand with the
need-based and, therefore, the state has the duty to protect rights, while the individuals have duty to contribute to the civil order. As David Hollenbach, SJ, remarks, “both
bread and freedom” are necessary for the dignity of human person.49
For Pope John XXIII, this understanding of human rights sets moral and political
parameters for legitimate states and proposes a paradigm for international politics,
establishing the third generation of human rights. He states: “any government which
refused to recognize human rights or acted in violation of them, would not only fail in
its duty; its decrees would be wholly lacking in binding force.”50 Besides, “States have
the right to existence, to self development, and to the means necessary to achieve this.
They have the right to play the leading part in the process of their own development,
and the right to their good name and due honors. Consequently, States are likewise in
duty bound to safeguard all such rights effectively, and to avoid any action that could
violate them.”51
This new vision of human rights will be taken up by Vatican II in its pastoral constitution Gaudium et Spes. The Fathers note:
There is a growing awareness of the exalted dignity proper to the human person, since he
stands above all things, and his rights and duties are universal and inviolable. Therefore, there
must be made available to all men everything necessary for leading a life truly human, such
as food, clothing, and shelter; the right to choose a state of life freely and to found a family,
the right to education, to employment, to a good reputation, to respect, to appropriate information, to activity in accord with the upright norm of one’s own conscience, to protection of
privacy and rightful freedom, even in religious matters.52
This religious freedom would even have a particular Declaration, where “The council
further declares that the right to religious freedom has its foundation in the very dignity
of the human person as this dignity is known through the revealed word of God and
Pope John XXIII, Pacem in Terris, #31-2.
49
David Hollenbach, S.J., “Both Bread and Freedom: The interconnection of Economic and Political Rights
in Recent Catholic Thought” in Boston Theological Annual Series, Vol. 1. Cambridge, 31.
50
51
52
Vatican Council II, Gaudium et Spes, 1965. http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_cons_19651207_gaudium-et-spes_en.html (Accessed November 13, 2009), #26.
46
47
48
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by reason itself. This right of the human person to religious freedom is to be recognized
in the constitutional law whereby society is governed and thus it is to become a civil
right;” it “has its foundation not in the subjective disposition of the person, but in his
very nature.”53 (2).
Since then, the Catholic Church has never failed to promote human rights and one
can say that today the official position is for human rights as John XXIII’s and Vatican
II’s teachings show.
Jürgen Moltmann and Human Rights
Before talking about Moltmann’s understanding of human rights, it is important to
present his life, since his own experience had an impact on his theology from which
stems his theory of human rights.
The man54
Jürgen Moltmann was born at Hamburg in Germany on April 8, 1926, into a liberal
and secularized family. Thus, he did not have any contact with Christianity until 1944
when he was enlisted at age eighteen in the German Army to fight in World War II.
Until then, he had had contact with German idealism and as he was going to war, he
took with him Goethe’s poems and Nietzsche’s Zarathustra. As German soldier, he was
assigned to the front lines and he served for six months before surrendering to the first
British soldier he came across in the woods of the Belgian forest. Until the end of the
war, he was a prisoner, moving from camp to camp, first in Belgium then to Scotland
and finally to England.
In Belgium, Moltmann and his fellow prisoners were exposed to photographs of
what was happening in concentration camps like Auschwitz and elsewhere. He was
afflicted by such a great remorse that he often felt it would have been better for him to
die along with many of his comrades than having to live to face what their nation had
done. He made the first contact with Christianity by meeting a Christian group in the
camp and an American chaplain gave him a copy of The New Testament with Psalms.
By reading them, he felt attracted to Christianity.
After Belgium, he went to Scotland where, with other German prisoners, he worked
on the areas damaged by the bombings. He was touched by the hospitality of Scottish
people to the prisoners. In 1946, he was transferred again to a British prison (Norton
Camp). There, he made his first steps in theology, by meeting many theology students
and by reading Reinhold Niebuhr’s book, Nature and Destiny of Man. This book impressed Moltmann and his experience in camps as a prisoner-of-war helped him grasp
how suffering and hope reinforce each other.
After the war, he went back to his home town and country to find them completely
destroyed. From that experience, he launched himself in theology looking for a theology that would reach “the survivors of [his] generation.” He went then to the University
53
Vatican Council II, Dignitatis Humanae, 1965, http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651207_dignitatis-humanae_en.html (accessed November 13, 2009), #2.
54
These biographical notes are from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Moltmann and http://
people.bu.edu/wwildman/WeirdWildWeb/courses/mwt/dictionary/mwt_themes_855_moltmann.htm
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of Gottingen where Karl Barth was teaching and worked on his doctorate under the
supervision of Otto Weber. He obtained his degree in 1952, and from that year to 1957,
he was the pastor of the Evangelical Church of Bremen-Wasserhorst. After that, he taught
for four years at an academy in Wuppertal operated by the Confessing Church. In 1963,
he joined the theological faculty of Bonn University, where he stayed for four years. In
1967, Moltmann was appointed Professor of Systematic Theology at the University of
Tübingen where he remained until his retirement in 1994.
Moltmann elaborated his theology from different sources and diverse influences.
He knew the dialectical theology of Karl Barth, but he criticized its lack of a historical
dimension. He studied Bonhoeffer and cites an English theologian, Geoffrey Anketell
Studdert Kennedy. Nevertheless, the theology of hope gives a hint at the Principle Hope
of Ernst Bloch. And it seems that “The whole theme of the Theology of Hope was worked
out in counterpoint to the theology of Wolfhart Pannenberg.”55 These few examples
illustrate how diverse were his sources and influences, perhaps a reason why his theology is difficult to grasp in one concept. According to Hyung-Kon Kim, Moltmann’s
theology has received many labels, but “one theme runs throughout all of his writings:
hope for the future based on the cross and resurrection of Jesus Christ, that is, hope
for the coming Kingdom of God.”56 Hope is the same theme that animates Moltmann’s
understanding of human rights.
Rights beyond Human rights
Moltmann acknowledges that the ideas of human rights “are not exclusively Christian
or European, although it was during the era of ‘Enlightenment’ that the formulations of
human rights made their way into North American and European constitutions.”57 This
statement means that although the concept of human rights is present in many cultures,
their current conception owes a lot to Christianity and was formed in European history.
Hence, they are historically and temporally marked. Moltmann notes that “only in the
sixteenth century do human rights emerge as instruments in the political struggle for
the legal security of the individual against the coercion of the state. Their development
is not yet finished.”58 In this sense, not only are human rights historically marked, but
also they are still evolving; they are in process. For this reason, in his view, rights are
not limited to human rights. “By fundamental human rights, says Moltmann, we mean
those rights and duties which belong essentially to what it means to be truly human
because without their being fully acknowledged and exercised human beings cannot
fulfill their original destiny of having been created in the image of God.”59 Put otherwise,
fundamental human rights are those inherent to humans as human beings and without
which they would deviate from their destiny as beings created in the image of God.
Wikipedia, §11.
Hyung-Kon Kim, Jürgen Moltmann, 1999. http://people.bu.edu/wwildman/WeirdWildWeb/courses/
mwt/dictionary/mwt_themes_855_moltmann.htm (accessed November 13, 2010), §1.
57
Jürgen Moltmann, “Human Rights, the Rights of Humanity and the Rights of Nature” in Hans Küng and
Jürgen Moltmann (Eds.), The Ethics of World Religions and Human Rights (London: SCM Press; Philadelphia: Trinity
Press International, 1990), 120.
58
Jürgen Moltmann, “The Original Study Paper: A Theological Basis of Human Rights and of the Liberation
of Human Beings” in Allen O. Miller (Ed.), Christian Declaration on Human Rights: Theological Studies of the World
Alliance of Reformed Churches (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1977), 27.
59
Jürgen Moltmann, On Human Dignity: Political Theology and Ethics. Translated and with an introduction
by Douglas Meeks (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984), 23.
55
56
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Moltmann’s understanding of human rights is based on a theological anthropology.
Whatever rights human beings possess or can claim, they are derived from their being
created in the image of God. This is not only what they are actually; it is also what they
are called to be. This theological foundation offers him the opportunity to criticize the
conceptualization of human rights based on “human dignity.” Moltmann recognizes that
all rights are bound together, and that “the roots of these human rights and the bond
linking them is what Article I calls ‘human dignity’. Human rights exist in the plural, but
there is only a single human dignity. Human dignity is one and indivisible.”60 And human dignity is “the quality of being human, however various religions and philosophies
may define this. [Thus], because human dignity is one and indivisible, human rights are
a single whole too, and cannot be added to, or subtracted from, at will.”61
Nevertheless, Moltmann finds human dignity too limited as basis for understanding
human rights. It is too anthropocentric, living out other components of God’s creation that are very important for human beings to be human. “Human dignity cannot
be fulfilled through human rights at the cost of nature and other living things, but
only in harmony with them and for their benefit.” Consequently, “unless human rights
come to be integrated into the fundamental rights of nature, these rights cannot claim
universality.”62 As a result, human dignity is not to be conceived as something peculiar
to the human person only, because “human dignity is not something that separates
human beings from all other living things.”63 Rather, human dignity “is merely a special example of the dignity of all the living –the dignity of all creatures, to put it in
Christian terms.”64
This epistemological shift of human dignity affects the understanding of human
rights and their relationship. By extending it to all living creatures, all rights become
fundamental and more linked together than ever. Thus, Moltmann distinguishes four
ranges of rights which are interdependent: human rights, humanity rights, ecological
rights and the right of the earth. The content of human rights are the individual (civicpolitical) and social (economic) rights, while humanity’s rights are the rights to protection
against mass annihilation and right to succession of generation. According to him, “1.
no individual human rights without social rights. 2. No human rights without humanity’s
right to protection from mass annihilation and genetic change, and the right to survive
in the succession of the generations. 3. No economic rights without ecological duties
towards the rights of natures, and 4. No human rights without the rights of the earth.”65
Moltmann develops these four classes of rights in an interconnected way.
Concerning the first category of rights (individual and social rights), Moltmann
grounds them in his theological anthropology. “Human beings –all human beings,
every human being – enjoy their dignity because they are made in the image of God.”66
In contrary to other myths where only the king is the image of God, by this notion of
“made in the image of God”, “all men and women are kings or queens, and […] no one
62
63
64
65
66
60
61
Jürgen Moltmann, “Human Rights…;”122.
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must dominate anyone else.”67 According to Moltmann, individual and social rights are
interrelated and are to be understood on this basis:
Although individual and social rights have different intellectual roots and have still never
been gathered together in a single document, individual and social rights belong logically
together, and whenever they are implemented, they involve one another. Human sociality
has in principle the same dignity as human personhood. The person is not there ‘before’ the
community, nor is the community ‘before’ the person. Persons and communities necessitate
and condition one another mutually, and complement one another, in the same way as human individuation and socialization. Consequently no preference can in principle be given
to individual rather than to social rights, although this is always what is assumed in Western
world. The rights of persons can be realized only in a just society, and a just society can be
realized only on the basis of personal rights. The freedom of persons can be developed only
in a free society, and a free society grows up only out of the freedom of persons.68
Now, regarding the rights of humanity, they derive from the fact that the individual
and social rights define a human being as a person in society, and not as part of the
whole humanity, “although the concept ‘human being’ logically includes the concept
of ‘humanity’.”69 Yet, “humanity’s very existence is under deadly threat through the
‘crimes against humanity’ which are possible at any time through the unleashing of
wars with atomic, biological and chemical weapons.”70 This is certainly an observation
of someone who lived the awful experience of World War II, with the aftermath of the
Jewish extermination and the launch of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
He experienced how humanity was under threat. Therefore:
It is now time for us to formulate and recognize publicly humanity’s right to existence and
survival, for this is something which human beings can deny. There are even specific situations in which the rights of humanity have unconditional priority over the particular rights
of certain classes, races and religion, and when all special interests, however justifiable they
may be, have to be subordinated to humanity’s right to exist.71
From the right of humanity to exist flows another right, which is the right to protection
against genetic manipulation. For Moltmann, “the genetic self-destruction of humanity
is a new and increasing danger, which stands side by side with the continuing nuclear
threat.”72 It follows that “if human dignity forbids us to infringe anyone’s ‘quality as
determining subject’ or to destroy it permanently, this applies not merely to individuals
but also to the coming generations and the human race as a whole.”73
Another corollary of humanity’s right is that humanity is not only this generation but
also the generations to come. If humanity is to survive, then future generations have to
be granted the right to live. “In our present situation we have to pay particular attention
to the rights of children and the right to live of coming generations, because children
re the weakest links in the generation chain, while coming generations have as yet no
voice at all and are therefore the first victims of the collective egoism of generations
69
70
71
72
73
67
68
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today.”74 In brief, human rights depend and are subordinated to the rights of humanity,
since the latter condition the former.
Moltmann also calls our attention to the economic injustice which infringes human
dignity. “A worldwide economic situation which allows millions to die of hunger is
unworthy of humanity and is in Christian terms an infringement of God’s glory, which
is to be found in human beings, as his image.”75 A solution that harmonizes economic
rights and ecological duties in justice for all has to be found. “This means that ecological
justice between human civilization and nature must match economic justice between
the people in a society, between human societies, and between the generations of the
human race.”76 Nature has to be cared for, not because it serves human beings, but because of its own dignity as created by God. Moltmann calls for “the protection of nature
with its plant and animal species, the protection of the condition of life on earth, and
the protection of earth’s equilibrium [which] must be assigned a status in modern state
constitutions and international agreements which corresponds to the status assigned to
human dignity.”77
The apology for nature shows that individual and social rights as well as humanity’s and economic rights have to take into account the ecological duties and the rights
of nature.
The fourth range of rights concerns the rights of the earth and the dignity of its
living communities. Here, Moltmann advocates for the rights of animals. He challenges
again the anthropocentrism which objectifies everything external to human person. He
asks, “are animals really only ‘things’ in relation to the human persons who can possess
and use them? Are they not living beings, capable of feeling pain, and human beings’
fellow creatures?”78 According to him, “the dignity of creation is the source of natural
rights of other livings and the earth.”79 To sum up, Moltmann’s view on human rights is
based on biblical anthropology and it goes beyond human rights to embrace all other
rights founded on the dignity drawn from God’s creation. With such an understanding,
this paper will now examine if his position shares any ground with the Catholic position on Human rights.
III. Human rights in ecumenical perspective
In order to sketch an ecumenical understanding of human rights, it is important
first to single out the respective core for defining and endorsing human rights of the
two positions.
Catholic distinctiveness about human rights
The Catholic Church founds her understanding of human rights on her understanding
of the human being, who is by nature a human person, that is, he or she is intelligent
and has free will. Furthermore, the human person is naturally social. From the Catholic
74
75
76
77
78
79
Jürgen Moltmann, “Human Rights…;”129-30.
Jürgen Moltmann, “Human Rights…;”131-32.
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perspective, this twofold understanding should never be separated and it is from it that
a human person has an inalienable and inviolable human dignity. Put in other words,
the Catholic understanding of human rights is based on natural law. In his encyclical
Pacem in Terris, John XXIII, after his predecessors, asserts that “every basic human
right draws its authoritative force from the natural law, which confers it and attaches
to it its respective duty.”80
Of course, human nature gets its sacredness from the fact that a human being is
created in the image of God, whose signs are intelligence and free will. As Elwood summarizes it, “Catholic theories of human rights ordinarily stress three main ideas about
the basis of human rights: (1) human rights are rooted in the nature of human beings
as created as persons; (2) persons are created in the image of God, and (3) being in the
image of God, every human being has a dignity of worth –a ‘non-instrumental’ valuewhich is the basis of human rights.”81 That is to say, in the Catholic tradition, human
rights lay on human dignity which is from the result of the creation of human beings
as persons and as image of God. That is how natural law becomes the foundation of
human rights in the Catholic tradition, because it has God as its author.
The consequences of human rights theory based on human nature as personal and
social, is that both individual and social rights are important, and all rights go with duties.
As David Hollenbach puts it, “Catholic rights theory is far removed from individualism
or liberalism philosophy. The theory presented in the encyclicals is personalist, not individualist, and it recognizes that persons are essentially social and institution building
beings. Because of this fact, the personal rights, which belong to every human being
in an unmediated way, create duties which bind other persons, society and state.”82
Personhood and sociality are indispensable and inseparable tenets that define human
beings, and from them the Catholic tradition derives human rights and their correlative
duties. Many scholars agree that the main contribution of the Catholic tradition to the
narrative of human rights is its constant affirmation of the social nature of human being
and the interconnectedness of both individual and social rights.
Moltmann and the dignity of the whole creation
Contrary to the Catholic tradition, Moltmann’s theory of human rights is biblically
based. If human beings can claim rights, it is because and only because they are created in the image of God. And this dignity from creation is not a privilege for human
beings only, but rather, it extends to the whole of creation. “Human dignity,” he says,
“is not something that separates human beings from all other living things. It is merely
a special example of the dignity of all living – dignity of all God’s creatures, to put it in
Christian terms,”83 for human rights imply and depend on the humanity’s rights, ecological duties and the rights of the earth.
In opposition to the Catholic tradition, whose theory sees free will and intelligence
as signs of God’s image in the human person, human dignity is not based on natural law.
Commenting on Moltmann, M. Douglas Meeks states that “human dignity is grounded
Jürgen Moltmann, “Human Rights…;” 98-9.
David Hollenbach, S.J., Claims in Conflicts: Retrieving and Renewing the Catholic Human Rights Traditions (New York, Ramsey, Toronto: Paulist Press, 1979), 97.
83
Jürgen Moltmann, “Human Rights…;” 122.
80
81
82
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in God’s creativity, that is, God’s power to call everything that is out of the power of
the nihil.”84 This leads us to an important point regarding Moltmann’s theological foundation of human rights. God’s image in a human being as a person is not manifested
by free will and intelligence. Rather, “in the ‘image of God’ concept, the divine claim
upon human beings is expressed,” and from it flow human rights, which “mirror God’s
claim upon persons, because in all their relationships in life –human beings with each
other and creatures with the creation- they are destined to reflect the image of God.”85
This theological foundation is not discovered by natural reason, but rather revealed
through “the strength of biblical witnesses,” which shows how “God’s dealing with
people in history.”86
Thus, the basis for human rights claim in Moltmann’s view is God’s claim of all
creation. The same concept is the thread that unites the four ranges of rights –human
rights, humanity’s rights, ecological duties and nature’s rights and the rights of the
earth. “The human rights to freedom, to community, to dominion, and to the future are
inseparable constituents of God’s claim upon human beings and the whole creation.”87
Thus, Moltmann states:
The image of God is human beings in all their relationships in life,” because “human beings
in the fullness of their lives and in all life’s relationships –economic, social, political and
personal- are destined to live ‘before the face of God,’ to respond to the Word of God, and
responsibly to carry out their task in the world implied in their being created in the image
of God. They are persons before God and as such capable of acting on God’s behalf and
responsible to him.88
God’s claim on human beings confers on them the responsibility to reflect God’s
image through their acting. “Human rights are only effective insofar as people are truly
human and act humanly. Their inhumanity becomes manifest in the violations and
abuse of human rights.”89 In other words, from Moltmann’s perspective, human rights
are not inalienable by themselves, but rather, only when carried out responsibly before
God and toward the whole of creation. In addition, “the image of God is human Beings
together with others,” because “only in human fellowship with other people is the human person truly an image of God (Gen. 1:28).”90 Besides, “being created in the image
of God is the basis of the right of human beings to rule over the earth and their right to
community with the non-human creation.”91 Finally, “being created in the image of God
is the basis of the Right of human beings to their future and their responsibility for those
who come after them.”92
Briefly, for the “theologian of hope,” “being created in the image of God” is the
foundation of all rights and it binds together all the ranges of rights simply “because
human beings as individuals, in community, and in humanity are meant to reflect the
image of God.”93
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
84
85
M Douglas Meeks in Jürgen Moltmann, On Human Dignity, xi.
Jürgen Moltmann, On Human Dignity, 22.
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Search for common ground
Now that we have explored both stands on human rights and seen their theoretical foundations, is there any ecumenical ground for human rights? What can be their
relationship?
Although both traditions recognize the connectedness of all rights, the first point
to highlight is from a methodological point of view. Catholic tradition emphasizes the
natural law or, in the words of Robert Traer, “its distinction from Protestant affirmation of
human rights is that it is presented philosophically rather than in biblical or theological
categories,”94 while Moltmann, faithful to his Reformation tradition, develops a human
rights theory based on the Bible, especially the “being created in the image of God
concept.” Taken separately, both ways have advantages and limitations.
For instance, commenting on John XXIII’s encyclical, Hollenbach notes that it “is
precisely the encyclical’s confidence that freedom and intelligence are images of the
divine in human beings that enables Pacem in Terris to address its discussion of rights
not only to Christians but to all persons of good will.”95 Therefore, the Catholic discourse
on human rights is able to reach a broader audience by using these categories of freedom and intelligence as signs of God’s image in the human being. The same author
mentions the Protestant critics about this conception of “image of God” which “fails to
recognize the depth of human brokenness, sin and the need for redemption.”96 Quoting
Kasper, Donald J. Dietrich also points out the lack of Christological foundation for the
Catholic theory of human rights. He says:
According to Cardinal Kasper, the Christological foundation of human rights is superior to the
natural law foundation from an ecumenical standpoint since it can help theologically at least
mobilize all Christians in the political enterprise. When human rights are given a Christological foundation, they can then also be based on the central idea of Christianity and not on the
least common, abstract denominator, i.e., human nature.97
Following this Dietrich’s view, the natural law basis of human rights serves the
ecumenical purpose, while the Christological foundation would be a common ground
for an ecumenical understanding of human rights.
Another point would be the difficulty to found other rights, if human rights discourse is only centered on human dignity. By taking human dignity as a metaphor of
the dignity bestowed on the whole creation, Moltmann is able to develop a holistic
theory of human rights, which conditions human rights by the rights of the whole creation. But, now, questions arise as to how to make this discourse accessible to those
who are not Christians. How could one translate the four ranges of human rights into
a discourse accessible to all humankind (Christians and non-Christians, believers and
non-believers)? Is not natural law language to address such issues? Or, is the natural law
still able to convey a human rights discourse in post-modern world which challenges
any established truth? Those are some questions which call for keeping alive the quest
for an ecumenical ground.
94
Robert Traer, Faith in Human Rights: Support in Religious Traditions for a Global Struggle (Washington
D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1991), 40.
95
David Hollenbach, S.J., Claims in Conflicts, 110.
96
David Hollenbach, S.J., Claims in Conflicts, 110.
97
Donald J Drietrich, 2007 Human Rights and Catholic Tradition (New Brunswick and London: Transasction
Publishers, 2007), 197.
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C
onclusion: The aim of this essay was to examine whether there can be an ecumenical understanding of human rights between the Catholic tradition and Jürgen
Moltmann. The two first sections tried to expose the two visions, while the third
attempted to find common ecumenical ground between them. In the end, it looks like
both methodologies complete each other from ecumenical point of view. On one hand,
the Catholic tradition emphasizes the natural law in its discourse on human rights, but
is not against biblical and Christological foundations for human rights. Elwood remarks:
Although the Catholic theological perspective stresses the imago Dei as the fundamental
basis of human rights, the sovereignty of God (God’s right to human beings) and the grace
of God (his justification of the sinner) are everywhere assumed in the doctrines of creation
and redemption. It is God who creates us as social beings in his own likeness, endows us
with rights, charges us with responsibilities, and elevates us to a still higher dignity through
his incarnation in Christ.98
On the other hand, since human rights are universal property, there is a need of
translating the ecumenical understanding into a reason-based language to address
everybody. In this sense, both traditions can enrich each other in founding biblically
and Christologically the discourse on human rights. But, at the same time, by using
reason, they would speak to the whole of humanity about human rights in holistic and
profound way, since human rights are for everyone “without distinction of any kind,
such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social
origin, property, birth or other status” (Article 2 of UDHR).
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Moltmann, Jürgen. “The Original Study Paper: A Theological Basis of Human Rights and of the
Liberation of Human Beings” in Allen O. Miller (ed.), Christian Declaration on Human Rights:
Theological Studies of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches, (Grand Rapids: William B.
Eerdmans Pubushing Company, 1977).
_________. On Human Dignity: Political Theology and Ethics. Translated and with an introduction
by M. Douglas Meeks. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984).
_________. “Human Rights, the Rights of Humanity and the Rights of Nature” in Hans Küng and
Jürgen Moltmann (eds.), The Ethics of World Religions and Human Rights, (London: SCM
Press; Philadelphia: Trinity Press International, 1990).
Jürgen Moltmann on http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Moltmann (accessed November 15, 2009).
Pius IX, Pope. Quanta Cura, 1864. http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Pius09/p9quanta.htm
(Accessed November 13, 2009).
_______. The Syllabus of Errors,1867. http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Pius09/p9syll.htm (Accessed November 13, 2009).
Pius XI, Pope. Quadragesimo Anno, 1931.
http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_19310515_
quadragesimo-anno_en.html (Accessed November 13, 2009).
Swidler, Leonard. “Human Rights: A historical Overview” in Hans Küng and Jürgen Moltmann
(eds.), The Ethics of World Religions and Human Rights, (London: SCM Press; Philadelphia:
Trinity Press International, 1990).
Traer, Robert. Faith in Human Rights: Support in Religious Traditions for a Global Struggle, (Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1991).
Vanderburg, Carol J. The Christian Messages: The Contribution of Pius XII to the Catholic Church’s
Endorsement of Human Rights and Democracy. A Dissertation presented to the Faculty of
Theology of the Graduate School of Liberal Arts of Duquesne University, April, 2002.
Vatican Council II. Dignitatis Humanae, 1965.
http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_
decl_19651207_dignitatis-humanae_en.html (Accessed November 13, 2009).
__________. Gaudium et Spes, 1965.
http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_
cons_19651207_gaudium-et-spes_en.html (Accessed November 13, 2009).
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Reflections and
Experiences
Interview Fictive du Pape Jean Paul III, de passage à Hekima College, Nairobi, le 21
Septembre 2020.
By Christian Ndoki Ndimba, SJ*
A
bstract: This is a fictive interview of Pope John Paul III, the successor of Benedict XVI,
and a Pope very committed in politics. To explain his vision of the role of Christian
faith in the political life, he recalls the speech given by his predecessor, Benedict
XVI, in September 2011, before the Federal German Parliament, the Bundestag. In a
very simple and familiar way, he reflects on the mission of political leaders: to serve the
justice and the law. But how to recognize what is just? What are the foundations of the
law? Is it still relevant to consider nature as one of them?
Hekima Review (HKR) : Merci, Saint Père, d’avoir accepté de nous accorder cette
interview malgré votre agenda si chargé.
Jean-Paul III (JPIII) : Tout le plaisir est pour moi. C’est une grande joie pour moi de
me confier à une Revue que je suis depuis de longues années. J’ai moi-même, en tant
qu’étudiant, publié quelques articles dans votre revue.
HKR : Saint Père, à peine élu, vous avez pris l’option forte de vous engager sans ambiguïté et de prendre des positions politiques assez audacieuses. C’est plutôt extraordinaire pour un pape.
JPIII : Extraordinaire ? Il ne me semble pas. Non, je demeure en continuité avec mes
illustres prédécesseurs. Tenez, à titre d’exemple, le Bienheureux Pape Jean Paul le Grand
a été, comme vous le savez, un des grands artisans de la chute du mur de Berlin et de
la fin de la Guerre Froide. Il s’est engagé. Il a tiré la sonnette d’alarme et pris position
de manière claire. Cela a duré des années, mais finalement, ses appels ont été entendus et ses prises de position ont été suivies. Son engagement a fini par porter du fruit.
HKR : Devrais-je entendre que l’Eglise peut faire de la politique ?
JPIII : Le tout dépend de ce que vous comprenez par « faire de la politique ». L’Eglise
ne peut pas fermer les yeux et ignorer la façon dont se gère la chose publique. La poli*Christian hails from DR Congo. He is currently studying at the Jesuit School of Theology, Hekima
College-Nairobi.
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tique « gère » la vie de milliers de femmes et d’hommes, chrétiens ou pas. Pour l’Eglise,
pour le Christ, la vie de toutes ces personnes est sacrée. Et il est du devoir de chaque
chrétien de veiller à ce que la vie et la dignité des femmes et hommes, créés à l’image
de Dieu, soient respectés.
HKR : Vous dites « tirer la sonnette d’alarme », « veiller »… Est-ce à dire que l’Eglise a
un rôle de sentinelle par rapport à la politique.
JPIII : Entre autres, oui. Je vais vous rappeler un événement qui s’est passé en Allemagne, il y a exactement neuf ans. Mon illustre prédécesseur, le Pape Benoît XVI était
alors en visite dans sa patrie, l’Allemagne. Invité à parler devant le Parlement Fédéral,
le Bundestag, il a prononcé un discours percutant sur les Fondements du Droits. C’était
osé pour un pape, dans le contexte de l’Allemagne, de l’Europe de l’époque, que de
prétendre parler des Fondements du Droit à des femmes et des hommes dont la politique est le métier.
HKR : Pourriez-vous, nous rappeler la teneur de ce discours, s’il vous plaît.
JPIII : Volontiers. Avec le sérieux et la profondeur qui l’ont toujours caractérisé, en
même temps qu’une pointe d’humour, le Pape Benoît XVI a commencé son propos par
un passage des Ecritures : 1 Rois 3 : 5-10, en insistant particulièrement sur le verset 9.
C’est l’histoire du jeune roi Salomon à qui le Seigneur permet de faire une requête. La
demande du jeune roi est aussi claire que surprenante : « Donne à ton serviteur un cœur
docile pour gouverner ton peuple, pour discerner entre le bien et le mal.» (1 R 3:9). Un
« cœur docile », c’est la traduction que je préfère. En effet, le texte hébreu parle de lebh
shomeah, « un cœur qui écoute ». Dans la perspective du Shema Israël, « écouter » revient
à « obéir », être « docile ». Le Pape insistait sur cette phrase, la présentant comme l’idéal
de la femme et de l’homme politique : « écouter » et « obéir ». Ecouter quoi ? Obéir à
quoi ? Ecouter le Droit. Obéir au Juste. Le critère ultime de la femme et l’homme politique ne devrait pas être le succès, ni le profit matériel, mais le Droit, la Justice. Une
des références préférées de Benoît XVI étant saint Augustin, il n’a pas hésité à l’appeler
à la rescousse, citant un extrait de La Cité de Dieu : « Ôte le droit, et alors, qu’est-ce qui
distingue l’Etat d’une grosse bande de brigands ? » (St Augustin, La Cité de Dieu, IV, 4,1).
Il est allé même plus loin, touchant la fibre profonde de l’Allemagne, remuant une vieille
plaie en rappelant la situation de son pays sous le régime nazi : «L’Etat était devenu
une bande de brigands très bien organisée, qui pouvait menacer le monde entier et le
pousser au bord du précipice.» L’on pourrait en dire autant aujourd’hui de certains de
nos Etats Africains. Ils sont devenus une « bande de brigands ». Ils ne menacent peutêtre pas le monde entier, mais ils menacent terriblement la vie et la dignité des femmes
et des hommes, images de Dieu. Et l’Eglise a la mission sacrée de leur rappeler leur
mission première : « Ecouter le Droit et lui obéir. »
HKR : Mais comment reconnaître ce qui est « Droit » ? N’est-il pas déterminé par la
majorité ?
JPIII : Benoît XVI a aussi abordé cette question dans le même discours. En fait, c’est
même la question centrale de son propos. Comment reconnaître ce qui est « droit » ?
Comment savoir ce qui est juste ? La loi de la majorité suffit-elle? Pour certaines questions, oui. Mais en face de points touchant la dignité humaine, la voix de la majorité
peut devenir la voix de l’injustice.
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Christian Ndoki Ndimba, SJ
HKR : Le principe de la majorité est quand même le cœur de la démocratie. S’il est
remis en question, je ne sais plus où nous allons…
JPIII : Il n’est pas remis en question. J’insiste simplement sur le fait qu’il n’est pas absolu…
ou pour reprendre un terme que beaucoup apprécieraient : il n’est pas « infaillible ». Le
juste ne peut pas être déterminé uniquement par le fait que la majorité y adhère. Vous
dites que vous ne savez plus où nous allons, eh bien, « Quand tu ne sais plus où tu
vas, dit le sage, regarde d’où tu viens. » Interrogeons l’Histoire. Que nous dit l’Histoire?
Ici encore, je prends appui sur ce qu’avait alors déclaré le Pape Benoît XVI. L’Histoire
nous apprend que bien souvent, le Droit, le Juste, a été déterminé en référence à un
système religieux, à une divinité. Mais tel n’a jamais été le cas du Christianisme. Contrairement à la plupart des grandes religions, il n’a jamais imposé à l’Etat, à la société.
HKR : C’est vrai. Mais sur quoi fonde-t-il le Droit alors ?
JPIII : Sur l’harmonie entre la raison objective et subjective.
HKR : Pourriez-vous le dire plus simplement, saint Père ?
JPIII : Volontiers. Les vraies sources du Droit sont à trouver dans la nature et la raison.
Je m’explique. Il n’y a aucune honte à reconnaître que la culture juridique de l’humanité
doit beaucoup à la culture juridique occidentale. Vous savez sans doute que cette dernière
est née du contact entre le droit naturel social développé par les philosophes stoïciens
et le droit romain. Cette rencontre s’était effectuée avant la naissance du Christianisme,
mais les théologiens chrétiens ont en saisi l’essence et ont refusé de militer pour un
droit religieux à la tête de l’Etat. Au contraire, ils ont reconnu comme source juridique
valable pour tous la raison et la nature.
HKR : Nous sommes bien loin des Ecritures, là…
JPIII : Point du tout. Lisez donc l’Epitre aux Romains. Saint Paul s’inscrit dans la même
logique. Lisons ensemble : «Quand des païens privés de la Loi accomplissent naturellement les prescriptions de la Loi, ils se tiennent à eux-mêmes lieu de Loi; ils montrent la
réalité de cette loi inscrite en leur cœur, à preuve le témoignage de leur conscience.» (Rm
2:14). Benoît XVI voyait ici deux concepts fondamentaux : la nature et la conscience. Et
cette conscience correspond au « cœur docile » dont je parlais au début de cet entretien.
Le « cœur qui entend et qui obéit » est la raison ouverte au langage de l’être.
HKR : Saint Père, vous me donnez l’impression de vous appuyer sur l’idée controversée
de « droit naturel »…
JPIII : Controversée…Il est vrai l’on a presque honte d’évoquer l’idée de « droit naturel »
aujourd’hui. Aussi bien ici en Afrique qu’ailleurs dans le monde. Mon prédécesseur a
expliqué la cause de cette situation. Elle est due essentiellement à la thèse selon laquelle
entre l’être et le devoir être il y aurait un abîme insurmontable. En résumé, pour les
tenants de cette thèse, très répandue à ce jour, du fait d’être ne pourrait pas découler
un devoir, parce qu’il s’agirait de deux domaines absolument différents. En d’autres
termes, de la nature, rien ne peut être saisi comme indication éthique.
HRK : Et sur quoi serait basée cette conception ?
JPIII : Sur la conception positiviste, purement fonctionnelle, de ce qu’est la nature.
Hans Kelsen, juriste austro-américain du XX siècle et un des pionniers du « positivisme
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juridique » décrivait la nature comme «un agrégat de données objectives, jointes les
unes aux autres comme causes et effets», alors aucune indication qui soit en quelque
manière de caractère éthique ne peut réellement en découler. [Cf. W. Waldstein, Ins
Herz geschrieben. Das Naturrecht als Fundament einer menschlichen Gesellschaft
(Augsburg 2010) 11ss; 15-21.] Pour ce courant, ce qui n’est pas vérifiable ou falsifiable
ne rentre pas dans le domaine de la raison au sens strict. C’est pourquoi l’ethos et la
religion doivent être assignés au domaine du subjectif et tombent hors du domaine de
la raison au sens strict du mot. Quand la domination exclusive de la raison positiviste
est en vigueur – et cela est en grande partie le cas dans notre conscience publique – les
sources classiques de connaissance de l’ethos et du droit sont mises hors-jeu. C’est une
situation dramatique sur laquelle il nous faut tous réfléchir.
HRK : Vous voulez dire que vous n’écartez pas la vision positiviste du monde, mais
qu’elle ne suffit pas à elle seule. Est-ce bien cela ?
JPIII : Tout à fait. Là où la raison positiviste s’estime comme la seule culture suffisante, reléguant toutes les autres réalités culturelles à l’état de sous-culture – et c’est
malheureusement ce à quoi nous assistons encore aujourd’hui - elle réduit l’humain
et menace l’humanité. Benoît XVI avait trouvé une belle image pour exprimer cela. Il
considère que la raison positiviste, qui se présente de façon exclusiviste et n’est pas
en mesure de percevoir quelque chose au-delà de ce qui est fonctionnel, ressemble à
des édifices de béton armé sans fenêtres, où nous nous donnons le climat et la lumière
tout seuls et nous ne voulons plus recevoir ces deux choses du vaste monde de Dieu.
HKR : C’est effectivement une image belle et parlante. Elle mérite d’être méditée pour
livrer toute sa richesse. Mais en parlant d’ « édifice », de « maison », oikos, je ne peux
m’empêcher d’établir un lien avec les questions d’écologie.
JPIII : Effectivement, il y a un lien fort. L’appel de l’écologie doit être entendu comme le
cri d’un monde qui aspire à l’air frais. Ce cri ne doit pas être ignoré sous prétexte qu’on
y perçoit trop d’irrationalité. C’est un rappel qu’il y a quelque chose qui cloche dans
notre relation avec la nature. Aujourd’hui, les gens se mobilisent, et le discours semble
adopté. C’est très bien. Presque tout le monde est d’accord sur la nécessité d’écouter
le langage de la nature et d’y répondre avec promptitude et cohérence. Cependant, un
point souligné en son temps par le Pape Benoit XVI demeure encore en souffrance :
l’écologie de l’humain. L’humain aussi possède une nature. Et celle-ci ne peut être
manipulée à souhait. Elle doit être respectée. L’humain, disait mon prédécesseur, ne se
crée pas lui-même. Certes, il est esprit et volonté, mais il est aussi nature. Reconnaître
cela est la voie vers la réalisation de la véritable liberté humaine.
HKR : L’écologie de l’humain. Voilà un concept intéressant et qui devrait être davantage exploré. Mais revenons-en aux concepts de nature et raison comme fondements
du Droit…
JPIII : Les deux éléments sont liés. Kelsen avait posé comme principe que les normes ne
peuvent pas découler de la nature, vu que celle-ci est purement mécanique. Les normes,
le Droit ne peut découler que d’une raison, d’une volonté. Il restait un pas à franchir.
Kelsen a hésité à le faire… Réfléchissons. Le droit ne peut découler que d’une volonté
et d’une raison, affirme Kelsen. Si l’on affirme qu’il y a une volonté dans la nature, une
raison, en fait, la Raison par excellence, la Raison Créatrice, alors de la nature peut
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Christian Ndoki Ndimba, SJ
découler un droit. Et l’apparent fossé entre « être » et « devoir être » est comblé. La seule
condition, c’est de reconnaître dans la nature autre chose qu’une simple mécanique :
une personnalité, une Raison. Et c’est bien ce que dit à demi-mot l’appel de l’écologie.
HKR : Je commence à saisir la logique…
JPIII : Allons un peu plus loin. L’idée des « Droits de l’Homme », l’idée d’ « égalité de
tous les hommes devant la loi », l’idée de dignité humaine, l’idée de responsabilité des
hommes sur la nature, etc. toutes ces idées ont germé lentement, au fil des siècles sur
la base de la foi en Dieu, Créateur. C’est le même Dieu qui aujourd’hui encore parle à
la conscience profonde de chacun. Voilà ce que doit entendre et ce à quoi doit obéir
la femme et l’homme politique. Voilà l’essence du « cœur docile» indispensable à quiconque prend part à la gestion de la chose publique.
HKR : N’est-ce pas là un idéal un peu trop élevé pour nos femmes et hommes politiques africains ?
JPIII : Il ne me semble pas. C’est là l’essence même de leur mission. Et l’essence ne peut
voler au ras du sol. Elle est à chercher dans les hauteurs ou dans les profondeurs. Et
l’avenir de l’Afrique se trouve dans cette quête, par chacun de ses filles et fils, des hauteurs et des profondeurs. Le superficiel doit être relégué au passé.
HKR : Merci beaucoup, saint Père.
JPIII : C’est moi qui vous remercie.
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By Raphaël Bazebizonza, SJ*
A
bstract: This reflection is not a scientific exercise, but a personal account of the experience of war in my homeland (Congo-Brazzaville) and consequently, the
questions and appeals that could have generated such barbarism. The serious
crisis which affected Congo gave rise to equally serious violation of human rights, and
massive loss of lives. For this reason, the promotion of any initiatives that may lead to
peace and justice is important. The Church, far from wanting to replace the state, can
through its many institutions in the areas of education and health care, provide comfort
and care for souls. And this aid is often more necessary than material support especially
when it comes to heal so many wounds of body and soul. It is a principle of Christian
faith, anchored in the natural law, that the human being should be protected, precisely
in situations of weakness; the human person always takes priority over other aims. I
ntroduction: This reflection is not a scientific exercise. It is a personal account of
the experience of war in my homeland (Congo-Brazzaville), the questions and
appeals that could generate such barbarism in the heart of a Christian or simply
of every right-minded person. The frightful tragedy which sowed destruction and death
happened in a given context. The temptation of the reader would be to say: how
does this affect me? Violence in all its forms is present everywhere and in every
heart. And the Congolese experience or that of other nations which have experienced
war shows the forms of unprecedented violence that can lead to contempt for men
and women and the violation of their rights. The starting point of my testimony is the
restatement of the facts, which are not an absolute truth, but a subjective memory
of what happened. The ensuing analysis will focus on the consequences of this war
and the possible way forward.
The facts
Following an ill-fated attempt at democratization, Congo-Brazzaville1 endured four
rounds of brutal militia fighting in 1993, 1997, 1998-99, and 2002.2 Three main militias,
loosely affiliated with each of Congo’s broad ethno-regional groupings, directly killed
at least 12,000 persons, cumulatively displaced 860,000, systematically looted civilians,
and raped hundreds, if not thousands, of women.3 In 1998, up to 35% of Congo’s 2.5
1
Congo-Brazzaville is a small nation bordering on the Democratic Republic of Congo (Congo-Kinshasa,
or ex-Zaire).
2
Cf. Remy Bazenguissa-Ganga, “The Spread of Political Violence in Congo-Brazzaville,” African Affairs,
98 (1999), 37-54. Cf. Patrice Yengo, “Un recours endémique a la violence,” Afrique Contemporaine, (1998), 33-37.
3
See AUTHOR (2001, 397); SIPRI Yearbook, (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, Stockholm,
2000), 25; and United Nations, UN Plan: Republic of Congo, 2001-2002 (United Nations Brazzaville office, 2001-02),
1. The latter estimates 50,000 overall deaths due to violence, disease and malnutrition.
*Raphaël is a Jesuit from Congo. He is currently a student at the Jesuit School of Theology, Hekima
College, Nairobi-Kenya.
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Raphaël Bazebizonza, SJ
million people were internally displaced due to the fighting.
The first round of Civil War (1993) opposed Pascal Lissouba and Bernard Kolelas.
Denis Sassou Nguesso’s defection created a parliamentary crisis for Lissouba, who dissolved the parliament in 1992 and called new legislative elections for May 1993. In that
poll’s first round Lissouba’s party earned 62 seats, while Kolelas’ and Sassou’s followers
jointly earned 49.4 Claiming fraud, Kolelas called for a boycott of the second round and
civil disobedience, triggering the first round of civil war pitting Lissouba’s militias against
those of Kolelas. The fighting remained within the borders of the capital city, Brazzaville, causing some 2,000 deaths.5 The army, still led at this point by Sassou-appointed
northerners, remained largely uninvolved.
The second round (1997) opposed Sassou and Angolans versus Lissouba and Kolelas. In January 1997, Sassou returned to Congo after two years of self-imposed exile
in France, declaring his intent to run in upcoming presidential elections. Spurred by
a subsequent attempt by Lissouba-controlled forces to disarm Sassou’s Cobras in their
Brazzaville stronghold, violence erupted again in May 1997, this time opposing the
Cobras against pro-Lissouba soldiers and Cocoyes. By June, Brazzaville was split into
three militia zones. At first, the fighting was an exclusively Cocoye-Cobra affair, but
Kolelas’ Ninjas joined in on Lissouba’s side by September.
The Cobras were initially outgunned, but their fortunes changed dramatically in
October 1997 when a contingent of heavily-armed, battle-hardened Angolan troops intervened on their behalf, securing Brazzaville and the southern coastal city of Pointe-Noire
for Sassou. Lissouba and Kolelas fled into exile, and Sassou assumed the presidency for
a three-year “transitional period,” promising he would hold national elections in 2001.
Southern political and military elites fled Brazzaville with their Ninja and Cocoye militias,
returning, for the most part, to their families’ villages in the Pool and Nibolek regions.
The third round occurred in 1998-99. And it opposed Sassou and Angolans versus
the southern militias. For the first time, much of the fighting took place in the southern
countryside, far from Brazzaville.6 The fighting spread back to Brazzaville towards the
end of 1998, when a Ninja force raided the city’s outer suburbs. Elsewhere, small, semiindependent groups of Cocoyes and Ninjas launched hit-and-run raids on government
forces in Nibolek and Pool region towns. Larger Ninja and Cocoye bands of up to 100
men were led by former military officers, but many of the smaller groups, often no more
than a dozen or more, were led by urban youths who had risen to prominence during
Brazzaville’s 1993 and 1997 street battles.
The fighting peaked in December 1998, but skirmishes continued throughout the
south until mid-1999. In many Pool and Nibolek regions, villagers fled to the forests
for months on end, living in dire conditions. Sassou’s ground troops could not reach
many rural areas, but Angolan helicopter gun-ships often did, with devastating effect.
The rebellion unexpectedly and abruptly collapsed towards the end of 1999, however,
as southern leaders signaled their desire to end the fight. In a marked departure from
the fate of most civil wars during the 1990s, Sassou’s representatives successfully ended
4
In 1993, Lissouba’s party was termed the “Mouvance Présidentielle,” including UPADS and five smaller
factions.
5
AUTHOR (2001, 397).
6
Remy Bazenguissa-Ganga, “The Spread of Political Violence in Congo-Brazzaville,” African Affairs, 98
(1999), 37-54.
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the conflict by signing cease-fire agreements with most Ninja and Cocoye commanders,
providing amnesty to all (except for Lissouba and Kolelas), and guaranteeing soldiers
and civil servants their former jobs.7 In February 2000, Sassou declared the war was
over. The peace accord was struck.
Violence flared up again in March 2002, when a group of Ninja militiamen (known
as Tsilulus) under the leadership of “Pasteur Ntoumi” and based in Vinza in the Pool
region, attacked local government forces. The fighting followed Sassou’s election to a
five-year presidential term that same month, and spread to Brazzaville in April, displacing
15,000 people before conditions normalized several weeks later.8 Low-intensity clashes
continued thereafter throughout the Pool.
Ntoumi was a signatory to the 1999 peace agreements, yet refused to surrender
with his 500 fighters, saying guarantees for the latter’s integration into military or civil
life were insufficient, and had been living with them in the bush since then. A religious
leader and former director (or patient, depending on sources) of an insane asylum in
Brazzaville, Ntoumi did not fight in 1993 and 1997, and had not been politically active
before 1998. Although he is currently the main actor in Congo not to participate in the
patrimonial accommodation, this last round of violence seemed related to shortcomings, or perceived shortcomings, in the implementation of the 1999 peace accords,
rather than to new grievances. Ntoumi was rumored to be demanding an appointment
as army general before surrendering.9 He is also said to want his Ninjas to benefit from
the “ex-combatants” program, which is awaiting a new wave of funding. Moreover,
the recent violence also occurred on a much smaller scale than earlier instances and
involved none of the better known southern political and military elites.
The consequences of the war
The biggest loss for me was the death (19 November 1999) of my father under
the violence of Ninja militiamen ninjas who had kidnapped him. He suffered violence of varying kinds (multiple and repeated beatings, cutting his tendon, breaking
several of his teeth). He extended the list of men and women, victims of political
violence in Congo.
Apart from the violence on people, the Church incurred heavy material losses
(recurrent looting of vehicles, churches, seminaries, rectories, and sisters’ convents).
These atrocious crimes and attacks were the work of the three main militias and even
of the Public Force. Militia men were generally young. These youths were recruited
by Sassou, Lissouba or Kolelas loyalists at different times during 1993 to 1997. At first,
the politico-military elites used these young men to wage their factional struggles,
chiefly in Brazzaville.
It’s not just the Church which suffered from the barbarism of militiamen. People
also have had to endure a negation of their humanity: extortion and threats, looting,
7
Accord de cessation des hostilités en République du Congo, Pointe-Noire, 16 Novembre 1999 ; and ; and
Accord de cessez-le-feu et de cessation des hostilités, Brazzaville, 29 décembre 1999. Peter Wallensteen and Margareta,
“Armed Conflict, 1989-99,” Journal of Peace Research, 37/5 (2000), 635-649, notes that few 1990s’ wars ended with
peace deals.
8
Observatoire de la Démocratie en Afrique [democraf.com], 16 avril 2002.
9
Jean-René Kule, « Le Pasteur Ntoumi exige le grade de général d’armée, » Congo Portal News (congoportal.com), 21 March 2002.
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robberies, demolition of houses, rape of young girls and women, abductions and
disappearances and even slaughtering. Populations suffered as much at the hands of
their own ethnic militias as from government reprisals. All three Brazzaville-based militias recruited rural youth, and each of the three main political parties organized along
regionally-defined ethno-parties.10
Unfortunately, until now, impunity has prevailed and these murderers continue
to taunt their victims. For decades, there has never been a trial, not even the slightest public disapproval, and no compensation for the losses that people and the
Church suffered.
The bitter observation
A peace agreement was signed in 1999. Some efforts were made to bring unity to
the whole of Congo, from North to South and East to West. But at the same time it is
true that the “rod of his oppressor” is not yet broken, the boots of warriors continue to
tramp and the “garment rolled in blood” (Is 9:4f) still remains. Democracy is still in a
fog stuffed with the dishonesty of corrupt government leaders who, in connivance with
domestic or foreign private interests, divert national resources for their own profit. More
often than not, their pompous and lofty words have proven to be nothing but grandiose
lies, a parody of their solemn obligation to serve the common good.
There is a sharp contrast between Congo’s immense resources and the misery of its
populations. Generally speaking, the great majority of people live in a state of want for
basic goods and services. The situation becomes even more scandalous if consideration is given to the wealth amassed in the hands of a privileged few. These elements
suggest that Congo’s patrimonial peace remains fragile. “Peace is often confused with
a kind of unanimity or tranquility imposed by force and keeping power in the hands
of a single group to the detriment of the people. In such situations, citizens are unable
to take part in public life and popular opinion cannot make a difference. As a result,
people tend to withdraw and become disinterested”11.
Quid agendum?
Today’s situation in Congo cannot fail to touch consciences. The misery of people
shows more clearly the abjectness of dictatorship, and how it needs to be fully atoned if
it is to be overcome. The misery of people presents faces that, in their severity, awaken
in the viewers an instinctive “turning away” in horror and stimulates them to consider
the abyss of evil that can be hidden in the human soul. At the same time, calling to the
fore such aberration revives in every right-minded person the duty to do what he or
she can in order to lay low the power of ideologies.
What some describe as undue interference of the Church in the political debate
in Africa has become necessary in some cases. In fact, experience shows that when
politics is left to itself, it often becomes an instrument of dehumanization. With10
See Bazenguissa, “The Spread of Political Violence,” for rural militia recruitment. The expression “ethnoparties” is from Yengo, 42.
11
Second Special Assembly for Africa, Lineamenta “The Church in Africa in service to reconciliation, justice
and peace” (June 27, 2006).
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out pouring into ideology, the Church has the duty to proclaim Christ’s message
of freedom. She is in her right when working to awaken consciences which have
become numb as a result of fear and fatality in response to the confiscation of human dignity. “Christ, to be sure, gave His Church no proper mission in the political,
economic or social order. The purpose which He set before her is a religious one. But
out of this religious mission itself come a function, a light and an energy which can
serve to structure and consolidate the human community according to the divine law.”12
The Word of God itself unambiguously denounces injustices and promotes solidarity
and equality13. The Synod of bishops on the Word of God recalled that a commitment
to justice and to changing our world is an essential element of evangelization. In the
words of Pope Paul VI, Christians must “reach and as it were overturn with the force of
the Gospel the standards of judgment, the interests, the thought-patterns, the sources
of inspiration and life-styles of humanity that are in contrast with the word of God and
with his plan for salvation”14.
“Settings” for this commitment
The second Special Assembly for Africa of Synod of bishops felt an urgent need for
the Church to recommit herself wholeheartedly to the work of reconciliation, justice and
peace throughout the continent. The recent events in Ivory-Cost, Tunisia, Libya, as well
as in Egypt; have given an urgent character to that theme. In some African countries,
persistent social tensions impede progress and give rise to political disturbances and
armed conflicts. Tribalism, border disputes and attempts at expansion lead to armed
struggles which take a heavy toll in human life and deplete financial resources15. The
horror of fratricidal wars has left in the hearts of many (in Congo) great rancor. Furthermore, in proclaiming the coming of the Kingdom of God in Jesus Christ, a commitment
to reconciliation, justice and peace appears to be where this Kingdom of Love is to be
realised: “...the Kingdom of God... means righteousness and peace and joy brought by
the Holy Spirit” (Rm 14:17ff).
Reconciliation
To make the Church the home and the school of reconciliation: that is the great
challenge. But what does this mean in practice? In South Africa, for example, “a dual
connotation of the term can be found: on the one hand, the term tends to simply mean
an agreement, a consensus or the resolution of a problem or dispute; on the other hand,
12
Cf. Second Vatican Ecumenical Council, Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World Gaudium
et Spes, 42. And Pius XII, Address to the International Union of Institutes of Archeology, History and History of Art,
March 9, 1956: AAS 48 (1965), p. 212: “Its divine Founder, Jesus Christ, has not given it any mandate or fixed any
end of the cultural order. The goal which Christ assigns to it is strictly religious… The Church must lead men to God,
in order that they may be given over to him without reserve… The Church can never lose sight of the strictly religious,
supernatural goal. The meaning of all its activities, down to the last canon of its Code, can only cooperate directly or
indirectly in this goal.”
13
Benedict XVI, Post-Synodal Apostolic Exhortation Verbum Domini, 100-101.
14
Paul VI, Apostolic Exhortation Evangelii Nuntiandi (8 December 1975), 18.
15
and peace” (June 27, 2006)
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it refers to the elimination of animosity or an end to violence”16. The term, however, does
not necessarily include the reestablishment of peace in hearts. What is important is to
reestablish a normal relationship, resume communication and go beyond the dispute.
From this vantage point, reconciliation has a pragmatic character; it is a language of
learning to live with others, in pluralistic society, and to manage conflicts peacefully.
Small Christian Communities, which every week gather Christians together as God’s
family, are also the most natural antidote to animosity. It is the privileged place where
reconciliation is ceaselessly proclaimed and nurtured, a reconciliation that goes beyond
resentment to forgive.
Forgiveness refers more to the work within a person to regain peace and to heal the
wound. In each case, it is a matter of memory. In forgiveness the possibility is offered
for a real purification of memory and solid peace. “Nothing can improve the world if
evil is not overcome. Evil can be overcome only by forgiveness”17. “To forgive does
not mean to forget […], if memory is the law of history, forgiveness is the power of
God, the power of Christ that works in the vicissitudes of man”18. Therefore, to accept
to follow the path of reconciliation does not mean to renounce honoring the collective memory of innocent victims. But such recollection does not necessarily oblige us
to constantly stir up rancor. Forgiveness brings a new idea of justice: not the one that
is limited to punishing the guilty, as men do, but a different, divine justice that seeks
goodness and creates it through forgiveness that transforms the sinner, converts and
saves him or her. This justice which seems almost paradoxical, could be summed up
like this: obviously it is not possible to treat the innocent as guilty, this would be unjust; it would be necessary instead to treat the guilty as innocent, putting into practice
a “superior” form of justice, offering them a possibility of salvation because, if evildoers accept God’s pardon and confess their sin, letting themselves be saved, they will
no longer continue to do wicked deeds, they too will become righteous and will no
longer deserve punishment.
In fact, through the witness of a life of service, the acceptance of diversity, the
Christians are the sign and instrument of forgiveness and reconciliation. The commitment
to reconciliation, justice and peace is intrinsic to the Christian vocation. As a matter of
fact, Christians ought to be in some way the living memory of the conviction that every
Christian does not have “a stable, definitive city” on earth (cf. Heb 13:14), or better, that
he does not belong to any tribe, race or people on earth.
Justice
The Church should be involved in justice. Such involvement is not only a right but
also a duty. According to the social doctrine of the Church justice refers to the idea of
creating a society or institution that is based on the principles of equality and solidarity, that understands and values human rights, and that recognizes the dignity of every
human being. Frustration is also at the origin of social upheaval: inequality in access
to education, a lack of rightful participation in economic or political power, a lack of
identity and consideration by society and the thirst for human warmth, love and fel16
17
L’Osservatore Romano, English Edition, 18 May, p.7.
18
Cf. Insegnamenti di Giovanni Paolo II, XVII/2 [1994], p. 250.
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lowship. The Justice and Peace Episcopal Commissions “should be the watchful eye
of the local Church within society for all the burning issues which affect it, particularly
those related to social justice, equality, human rights, promotion of the common good,
democratic coexistence, reconciliation and development”19.
Peace
Without ceasing to treat the objective causes of conflicts and general dissatisfaction, it seems necessary to discover the subjective and psychological sources of war:
the traditional conflicts between tribes, the absence of great causes to bring people
together, projecting personal dissatisfaction and resentment on others and distrust taken
to an extreme.
The Church’s fifteen-hundred-year-old teaching on peace as “tranquillitas ordinis –
the tranquility of order”20, which was brought to a new level of development by Pacem
in Terris, has a deep relevance for the leaders of nations as well as for individuals.
That there is serious disorder in world affairs is obvious. Thus the question to be faced
remains: What kind of order can replace this disorder? And since the world, amid its
disorder, continues nevertheless to be “ordered” and organized in various ways – economic, cultural, even political – there arises another equally urgent question: On what
principles are these new forms of world order unfolding?
John XXIII identified the essential conditions for peace in four precise requirements
of the human spirit: truth, justice, love and freedom21. Truth will build peace if every
individual sincerely acknowledges not only his rights, but also his own duties towards
others. Justice will build peace if in practice everyone respects the rights of others and
actually fulfils his duties towards them. Love will build peace if people feel the needs
of others as their own and share what they have with others, especially the values of
mind and spirit which they possess. Freedom will build peace and make it thrive if,
in the choice of the means to that end, people act according to reason and assume
responsibility for their own actions22.
Yet, peace is not essentially about structures but about people. Certain structures
and mechanisms of peace – juridical, political, economic – are of course necessary and
do exist, but they have been derived from nothing other than the accumulated wisdom
and experience of innumerable gestures of peace made by men and women throughout
history who have kept hope and have not given in to discouragement. Gestures of peace
spring from the lives of people who foster peace first of all in their own hearts. They are
the work of the heart and of reason in those who are peacemakers (cf. Mt 5:9). Gestures
of peace are possible when people appreciate fully the community dimension of their lives,
so that they grasp the meaning and consequences of events in their own communities
and in the world. Gestures of peace create a tradition and a culture of peace23. Religion
has a vital role in fostering gestures of peace and in consolidating conditions for peace.
19
20
Saint Augustin, De Civitate Dei, 19, 13.
21
John XXIII, Pacem in Terris, 35.
22
John XXIII, Pacem in Terris, 35.
23
John Paul II, Message for the celebration of the world day of peace, 1 January 2003.
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C
onclusion: “For Zion’s sake I will not keep silent, and for Jerusalem’s sake I will
not keep quiet, and the nations will see your righteousness, and all kings your
glory; and you will be called by a new name, which the mouth of the Lord will
designate. You will also be a crown of beauty in the hand of the Lord, And a royal
diadem in the hand of your God, until her righteousness goes forth like brightness, And
her salvation like a torch that is burning.” (Is 62:1-3)
When the most basic human rights are violated, to raise one’s voice to challenge
the consciences becomes an imperative duty. If “the joys and the hopes, the grief and
the anxieties of the men/women of this age, especially those who are poor or in any
way afflicted, […] are the joys and hopes, the grief and anxieties of the followers of
Christ”24, then the Church cannot keep silent when the innocent are maltreated, condemned and killed; when justice is trampled underfoot by weakness, cowardice and
fear of the diktat of the ruling mindset.
For the Church, “to evangelize is to develop man in all the dimensions of his vocation as a child of God”25. This bond is made concrete in committed actions on behalf of
human promotion, such as: education, development projects, defense of human rights,
and the commitment to bring about democracy and legally constituted States. Separating
human promotion from the love that bears it, is to deny the intense unity of the human
commitment where the profound Christian identity is revealed in fact.
Gaudium et Spes, 1.
Symposium of Episcopal Conferences of Africa and Madagascar – S.E.C.A.M., Proceedings of the Seventh
Plenary Assembly, Kinshasa 1984; The Voice of S.E.C.A.M., Accra, 1987, p. 133.
24
25
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Book Reviews
Laurenti Magesa,
African Religion in the Dialogue Debate: From Intolerance to Coexistence.
Berlin: LIT VERLAG GmbH and Co., 2010; 203 pages.
ISBN 978-3-643-90017-3
By Chrispen Matsilele, SJ*
R
ev. Dr. Laurenti Magesa is one of the leading African Theologians of our time.
He has, for many years, dedicated his life to advance a theology pertinent to
Africa and to Africans in general. He has published widely in this area. Rev. Dr.
Magesa is a Catholic priest whose vast experience in pastoral challenges surrounding
our people informs his writings. Currently, Rev. Dr. Magesa is a Senior Lecturer in African Theology at the Maryknoll Institute of African Studies and Hekima Jesuit School
of Theology, Catholic University of Eastern Africa, Nairobi, Kenya. Thus, from him we
receive yet another new intellectually and pastorally engaging book: African Religion
in the Dialogue Debate: From Intolerance to Coexistence.
In African Religion in the Dialogue Debate: From Tolerance to Coexistence”, Rev.
Dr. Magesa sets out to posit ground and reasons for dialogue between African Religion,
Christianity and Islam. The Central argument of the book can be summarized as follows:
there are no mate-narratives that are universally acceptable as defining the experiences of
all humanity. Christianity, Islam and African Religion are particular narratives. Therefore,
when African Religion, Christianity and Islam as particular narratives meet in interfaith
dialogue they should meet as equal narratives. For Magesa, this realization should be the
beginning of a fruitful interreligious dialogue. Thus, Magesa’s radical stand embodies in
itself serious nuances of pluralism and a call for acceptance of unique cultural diversity.
In the prologue of his innovative book, Magesa deals with the crucial concepts as the
basis of a meaningful interreligious dialogue. These concepts include identity, dialogue,
and the reality of African Religion. He perceives African Religion as an existential reality
for an African and therefore shapes an African’s identity and his/her self-understanding.
Thus for Magesa, a sense of one’s own identity is crucial for interreligious dialogue.
Chapter one gives a critical evaluation of the attitudes that characterized Christianity and Islam in their relation to African Religion. Rev. Dr Magesa critiques Christianity
and Islam’s prejudices that defined African Religion as inferior. For him, a meaningful dialogue happens only if such attitudes are corrected. In fact, Christianity should
ask for forgiveness for centuries’ demonization of African Religion. Magesa holds that
tolerance, open mindedness and a phenomenological understanding are the right at*Chrispen hails from Zimbabwe. He is a Jesuit currently studying at the Jesuit School of Theology,
Hekima College, Nairobi, Kenya.
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Book Review
titudes for dialogue. Without this, he perceives dialogue between African Religion and
Christianity as a stillbirth.
Turning to the theme: “Is Coexistence of African Religion and Christianity Possible”
in chapter 4, Magesa is not blind to the difficulties that are inherent in the interfaith
dialogue. For instance, he notes that Christianity and Islam by nature are proselytizing
religions. They claim superior Revelation and are messianic grounded. Christianity advances the Kingdom of God with Jesus Christ as the concrete manifestation of God’s
Revelation [71]. Conversely, African Religion longs for ancestral existence or life with
the ancestors. There is no concept of a human messiah in African Religion. It is this
conflicting orientation that forms the crux of the difficulty in this interreligious dialogue.
However, having noted the crux of the difficulty, Magesa’s question; “Is coexistence of
African Religion, Christianity and Islam possible?” remains a big challenge.
Rev. Dr. Magesa notes that the reality of the Divine or God should not be the point
of disputation since it is fundamental to these three religions. Since belief in God is fundamental and common to all, then Christianity, Islam and African Religion can co-exist,
argues Magesa [88]. For him, African Religion operates on the basis of what empowers
in practical existence, hence values the centrality of the vital force in all human spheres.
It is easy for African Religion to accept Christianity since Christianity celebrates life and
the vital force [God]. Despite the fact that God is a point of congruency in these religions, for the exclusivists dialogue is impossible. This denial characterized Christianity’s
centuries of denial of the existence of African Religion. Despite this denial, African Religion is still alive in the consciousness and is practiced by many Africans today. If this
is the case, it follows that denial by itself does not define the reality of African Religion
into non-existence. Thus, aware of the continual existence of African Religion in the
consciousness of the Africans converted to Christianity, Vatican II encouraged interfaith
dialogue in a manner that makes the Christian Church an African Church rather than
Church in Africa. Here, according to Magesa, contextualization of the gospel, theology
and the Church is essential.
Another central question that Magesa poses in chapter 4 of his book is: “Is Christianity able to accept the coexistence of African Religion?” Magesa suggests that such an
acceptance can be possible if we focus our attention on the work of the Holy Spirit.
Here, it will be important to note that the Holy Spirit is completely unbounded and
cannot be restricted. This is a call to the realization that the Divine Spirit that animates
Christianity is the same as that, which animates African Religion [84-86]. This makes
these two religions, not only different but also uniquely equal. If this is the case then
African Religion is a religion in its own right. Thus, for dialogue to start the acceptance
of the right of African Religion to exist is crucial. Since African Religion exists, Magesa
argues that African Religion is engaged in an interfaith dialogue debate.
In Chapter 5 Rev Dr. Magesa holds that African Religion is involved in the dialogical
debate. The question for Magesa is not whether African Religion is involved in interfaith
dialogue, but how to conduct that dialogue [90]. One of the ways in which African
Religion is involved in this interreligious dialogue is through the vehicle of language.
Language for Magesa is not mere words, but the worldviews behind the words. The
second way involves engaging what Magesa calls the spokespersons of African Religion
[99]. And the third way includes looking at the modes of African Religion in the contemporary African society. Here, Magesa enumerates three modes of African Religion namely;
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Book Review
reactionary or radicalized, modified and Integrated forms. For Magesa, reactionary and
modified modes of African Religion are difficult to be engaged in the dialogical debate
because of their orientation. The third mode is that of the Integrated one which takes
the form of African Initiated Christianity and this is opened to dialogue [103]. According
to Magesa, interreligious dialogue should touch areas of doctrine, worship, ethics, and
institutional structures for it to be inclusive and exhaustive.
In chapter seven, Magesa analyses African Religion in terms of what he terms, “African Religion in Scholarship”. Here, Magesa puts the historical scholarship in African
theology in the context of its contribution to the debate on interfaith dialogue. For instance, he asserts that the essentialist approach to African theological scholarship brought
about issues of inculturation. Liberation approach challenges any understanding and
dialogue with African Religion to produce practical results. Magesa’s book takes into
consideration issues of gender theology by including a reflection on African feminist’s
contribution to the interreligious debate. He also raises pastoral problems concerning
polygamy and witchcraft. Chapter eight deals with the contributions of African Religion
to religion today. Magesa thinks that African religion can contribute immensely in the
area of reconciliation, decentralization of institutions, flexibility and tolerance attitudes.
He argues that African Religion’s concept of reconciliation aims at harmonizing relationships among the living, and between the living and the living dead.
The epilogue recaptures the main theme of the book namely that this book is meant
to ground and give reasons for dialogue particularly between Christianity and African
Religion. It emphasizes that the best attitude for a fruitful dialogue is the change of attitude from mistrust to trust.
I find this book striking and daring in breaking new grounds in the study of African
Theology. You cannot read this book and remain unengaged in the debates it presents.
At face glance one gets the impression that Magesa advocates for cultural relativism.
However, upon a closer reading of this book, one realizes that this book proposes
inventive practical ideas that strive to liberate revelation from the captivity of religion
thereby making interfaith dialogue possible. At first, I thought it was one of the books
by an African theologian lamenting about the past. This perception was proved wrong
when Magesa took me through and at the end suggested a solution to how interreligious dialogue can be done. Thus, this book breaks through into a new level of African
theological thinking and is a must read.
203
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Book Review
Norman Tanner,
New Short History of the Catholic Church,
London/New York, Burns & Oates, 2011; 250 pages.
ISBN: HB 978-0-8601-2455-9
By Etienne Mborong, SJ*
H
aving celebrated two millennia of existence, Christianity has gone through five
important moments: the Pentecost, the Early Middle Ages, Central and late Middles ages, Early Modern Catholicism and nineteenth-twentieth centuries. These
crucial moments of Christianity, constitute the five chapters of Norman Tanner’s New
Short History of the Catholic Church, the most fascinating story of any institution in
world history. Through the life, prayer, study, and struggles of Christians, tradition, history and consequentially, doctrines, permit us to understand the fullness of truth and
of God’s Revelation in Christ.
The birthplace of the church is the Pentecost. Through the Acts of the Apostles,
Christianity started with the mighty impulse of the Holy Spirit and persecutions that led
to its dispersion beyond Jerusalem to Rome through Peter and Paul in its very first Century. Through these persecutions, the development of the church institution was limited
but its unification under the papacy, the role of Bishops and priests, the foundation of
the Code of the Canon Law on the scriptures and Apostolic traditions, became clearer
in the second and third centuries. 312 AD sees the conversion of Emperor Constantine
and thus, Christianity becomes the favoured religion in the whole empire. The councils
of Nicea and Constantinople did not only bring about new freedom in Christianity but
also encouraged the emergence of new communities and revealed greater interest in
theology in the fourth century.
The Early Middle Ages (400-1054) knew expansion but also contraction due to
conversions to Islam and other causes. The barbarian tribes which invaded the Roman
Empire were gradually converted to Christianity. This energises the church of the fourth
century with new creativity in Spain, Britain, Ireland Bulgaria and Nubia in Africa.
Five important ecumenical councils also happened in this period which clarified and
developed important Christian doctrines. Nicea I and Constantinople I were concerned
with the Trinitarian questions while Ephesus (431), Chalcedon (451), Constantinople II
(553), Constantinople III (680) were Christological. The church experienced institutional
developments and became a popular religion in the late tenth century though a split
was ripening between Rome and Constantinople.
The extraordinarily rich and creative period in the history of Christianity is the late
Middle Ages. The uniqueness of this book is in the importance given to this period,
bracketed by two important schisms with the Orthodox Church in 1054 and with the
Protestant Reformation. The expansion of Christianity in the west revealed the fact that
at the heart of the church and its history is the people of God. Knowledge, sacraments,
tithes, abstention from work on Sundays and Feast-days, fasting, optional devotions to
*Etienne is a Cameroonian Jesuit and a student at Hekima College, Nairobi, Kenya.
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Book Review
the Eucharist, pilgrimages and other popular religious acts were basic religious obligations that gained grounds during this period. In addition, sport and sex were considered
as recreation and relaxation in a balanced Christian living. The papacy served as the
authority to confront powerful secular rulers and also experienced schism with Pope
Clement V settling in Avignon in 1309. The moral failures of some of the popes of the
Renaissance and their worldly lifestyle could explain the success of the Reformation and
also moved Christianity from a negative spirituality of the cross to a positive vision of
Christianity. The development of religious orders went hand in hand with intellectual
development through theology, Canon Law, the birth of universities and other works
of literature. The twelfth and thirteenth centuries spiced this period with a rich visual
culture: art, architecture and music. The western Christendom courageously faced many
challenges from within such as Catharism and the Waldensians seeking purity, John
Wyclif with his insistence on reason, Jan Hus and others. Despite the inquisitions, they
indirectly influenced the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation.
Faithful to the focus of his book, (Catholic Church) and opening the church to other
perspectives of her history, Tanner makes another creative move by insisting on the
inner dynamism of the church between 1500 and 1800 instead of the common topic of
Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Nevertheless, 1517 marks the turning point with
the nailing of his ninety-five theses on the church door. The popes of this period were
involved in theological controversies with firmness, supported the Christian crusades
and faced controversies from Catholic countries. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) has
remained very significant in the history of the Catholic Church. Its doctrinal and reforming decrees provided remarkable comprehensive guidance for a long time and at many
levels: theological, sacramental, vocational, devotional, and practical. The creation of
new religious orders such as the Society of Jesus added to the missionary works of this
period as a response to Reformation. Christianity spread to America, Africa and Asia.
In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the number of Catholics has increased to
1,166 million or 17.4% of the world’s population. This can be explained by the increasing
world population and the spread of Catholicism beyond Europe. Despite the expansion,
this has been a stormy time for the Catholic Church. This period is also marked by a
decline in persecutions and wars among Christians and by a greater contact with nonChristian religions. The church remains challenged by the development of the mass media
and sexual abuse of minors which are pushing the church into the danger of becoming
too public and thus forgetting the wonder and depth of the Christian message. Despite
these remarkable experiences of Christianity, its institutional aspect has always gone
together with its spiritual dimension. Nevertheless, humbler than before yet still vigorous, the Catholic Church today faces these challenges with both optimism and caution.
If one has been running away from history books because of their large volumes,
this is one short reader-friendly history of Christianity with focus on the Catholic Church
one would like to read.
205
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Book Review
Karl J. Becker, Ilaria Morali (eds),
Catholic Engagement with World Religions. A Comprehensive Study,
Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2010; 607 pages
ISBN 978-1-57075-828-7
By Ferenc Patsch, SJ
T
hose of the Christian faith are convinced that Jesus Christ brought a revelation for
humankind. Now, is that the only revelation? Or are other religions also a means to
salvation? Do non-Christian religious founders and their scriptures have a revelatory
status equal to that of Jesus Christ and his Gospel? If this may be the case, should the
adherents of other religions still be the objects of missionary endeavor? Are they not
already being redeemed by God through their religions? Is the Church still relevant? And,
if yes, what is her duty in the contemporary context which is increasingly characterized
by intercultural encounters and by impacts of religious pluralism? These and similar
questions may arise constantly while doing theology in our postmodern (globalized
and post-colonial) “global village”. If you feel engaged in such theological challenges
and, at the same time, want to take the explicit position of the Catholic Church into
serious consideration, you cannot miss consulting the newly published Orbis book
“Faith Meets Faith Series.”
The volume, which contains over 600 pages, nearly 100 of which are endnotes,
is destined to be standard in theological circles, indeed. The book is a result of three
years of hard work and close coordination between twenty-five world-known scholars.
Two eminent international experts, Karl J. Becker, S.J., and Professor Ilaria Morali, both
professors at the Jesuit-run Gregorian University in Rome, who initiated the project.
Among the authors are such prominent personalities as Cardinal Avery Dulles, SJ; Father
Peter Henrici, SJ, auxiliary bishop emeritus of Chur; Father Louis F. Ladaria, SJ, Secretary
of the Congregation of the Doctrine of the Faith; and Archbishop Michael Fitzgerald,
former President of the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue, and, to emphasize
some African links, is Cesare Baldi, a distinguished Professor from the Catholic University of Abidjan, Ivory Coast, and Maurice Borrmans and, again, Bishop Fitzgerald, both
members of the congregation of the Missionaries of Africa.
The authors address the book to three distinct groups of readers. First, to Catholics
who are already well versed in faith but who are, however, not familiar with what is
being said today about the theology of religions; secondly, to Catholics who live in
countries in which there is a substantial majority of non-Christians with whom they have
daily contact; and thirdly, to followers of “other” religious traditions who would like to
know more about what Catholics – in this day of increased and more intense contacts
among the world religions – think theologically about these other religions.
The content of this heavy volume seeks to answer one summary question. How has
Roman Catholicism as represented by magisterial teaching engaged the world’s religions
theologically and practically, and what is the consequence of that engagement for us
today? To answer this question, the volume has four parts to it. Part I studies the history of the Roman Catholic teaching on the relationship between Christianity and other
*
Ferenc is a Hungarian Jesuit. He is a visiting lecturer at Hekima College.
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Book Review
religious traditions; Part II examines their theological framing; Part III addresses Christianity and other religions since Vatican II; and finally, in Part IV, after Bishop Michael
Fitzgerald’s theological reflection on the foundations of interreligious dialogue today,
we find an accurate and trustworthy confrontation with five concrete world religions –
Judaism, Confucianism, Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam. Albeit, the objectum formale,
that is, the chosen perspective or “point of view” of the research is explicitly the Catholic
faith – “We write as Catholics guided by our Church’s authoritative teaching” (151) –
the authors of this final part, however, present the non-Christian religions as they see
themselves in relation to Christianity (unfortunately, Buddhism is erroneously missing
from the list which enumerates the religions on the back of the book!).
How then can we evaluate this impressively ambitious and demanding volume?
My approach is two-fold. First of all, I note that such a counter-cultural, but balanced,
undertaking has been a long time needed in the turbulent world of the literature on
theology of religions. A common trend in this area today is a tendency to write books
which move as far away as possible from denominational (“sectarian”) divisions within
Christianity. Some authors, even Catholics, are thus generally reluctant to emphasize
their dogmatic positions and denominational engagement. The editors and all the contributors of this book, however, try to move as far as possible in the opposite direction,
openly confessing their Catholic biases. Their main argument for this is plausible – they
presume, rightly, that there are many adherents of different religions who never want to
dialogue with a Christian, who, in order to engage them, puts aside his or her deepest
convictions (cf. xxxii). Each theology must be rooted in a religious tradition of some
sort; no one can claim neutral “objectivity”. The first step in interreligious dialogue,
therefore, is for each participant “to describe the place from which he [or she] listens
and speaks” (179). Hence, the great achievement of the authors of this book is that,
notwithstanding their interpretative principles, they do not represent a parochial or “sectarian” (or more technically, an exclusivistic) position. Rather the opposite is true: Their
determined position is unapologetically clear, transparent, and reveals a refreshingly
Christ-centered (inclusivistic) option regarding the issue at stake. It is not an “old-school
theology” either. It is rather a cautious attempt to keep clear the (necessary) presuppositions maintaining, at the same time, fairness and generosity toward non-Christian
religions, and these are characteristics which make this book a good candidate for being
the main text in courses taught in Catholic theological schools on missiology, theology
of religions or world religions.
My second point is a critical one. As it happens often, the main assets or advantages
of a book, in this case, describing the theological framework within which Catholics
can officially reflect on religions) represents its main limitations as well. Meant to be a
standard summary and a major achievement in the professional literature of the area, we
cannot expect from the same book that it provides us with the latest, most courageous
and ground-breaking theological thoughts on the issue at stake. Its moderate and less
empathetic approach serves rather to define the present theological status quo rather
than to extend the boundaries of this latest, and perhaps most crucial, global challenge
of the new theological “ecumenism” with world religions.
In summary, I wholeheartedly agree with William R. Burrows, the current General
Editor of the renowned series and author of the Foreword, saying that the present
volume is “one of the most important books published in the Orbis Faith Meets Faith
Series … [which] will help [Catholics, just as] Christians in other ecclesial communities
and the followers of entirely other religious ways understand better Catholic doctrine
on religious pluralism and theology of religions.” (xxvii) Tolle, lege!
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Book Review
Albert De Jong
Father Michael Witte of Kabaa High School, Missionary and Educationalist:
A study in Mission Strategy,
Nairobi: Paulines Publications Africa, 2011; 245pp.
ISBN 9966-08-584-x
By Gilbert Fungai Banda, SJ.*
Q
uite often the early missionaries are vilified for cooperating with the colonial
regimes in the exploitation of the continent – no wonder the frequent use of the
expression that the colonialists came with the bible in one hand and the gun in
the other. However, Albert de Jong, a Church historian of great reputation and a priest
in the congregation of the Holy Ghost Fathers unveils to us the missionary strategies of
Fr Michael Witte in a way that prompts us to question the longstanding negative claims
on the work of the missionaries. Contrary to the negative claims on missionaries, De
Jong views Witte’s strategy as that which fostered a sense of human dignity and confidence among the Africans.
The author unveils the life of Fr Witte (1895-1961) as the watershed point on how
the Catholic Church came to be established in Kenya and Tanzania. To a much greater
extent, the life of Fr Witte illustrates the embryonic stages of tertiary education in Kenya.
This development, as the author expresses, was largely due to Witte’s capacity to see
beyond his times, administrative skills and capacity to mobilize and put to valuable
use the meager resources at his disposal. According to De Jong, it is because of these
reasons that the focus on the activities of Fr Witte cannot be viewed as a biography as
such, but as a study in Mission Strategy.
This book is divided into eight chapters. It focuses on missionary involvement in education because by then education was seen as the key to evangelization. The first chapter
introduces to us the background of the state of educational development as pursued by
the Holy Ghost Fathers before 1925. This in fact places the reader into the context which
Witte emerged. A context in which he created a mark that earned him the recognition as
the pioneer of education in East Africa. The interconnection of the chapters enables us to
go deeper with appreciation into the missionary strategies employed by Witte.
In the first and second chapters, the author also gives us a picture which shows
that relations between the colonialists and the missionaries were not always compatible.
He does this with the simple aim of inviting the reader into an unbiased assessment.
In this, he shows that though the government and the missionary societies – the main
stakeholders in education to the colonies had differing motives, they came to work
cooperatively in the course of time. To another extent, the Holy Ghost Fathers, the
congregation to which Fr Witte belonged, cooperated with the government, but with
suspicion towards the government’s interference in their schools. In this regard, the
government, which to some extent was sympathetic towards the Church of England
and suspicious of the Catholics, was seen as a stumbling block in the promotion of a
Catholic oriented education.
*
Gilbert is a Zimbabwean Jesuit, currently studying at Hekima College.
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Book Review
Kabaa is a result of the Holy Ghost Fathers’ failed attempt to establish a vibrant
mission in Ukambani. With hindsight, De Jong shows from chapter three to chapter five
that an almost desperate, but strategic move was to be transformed into a success by Fr
Witte’s innovativeness when he came to revive of the mission in 1924. In fact, it is the
1924 ordinance on education which came as a blessing in disguise in the sense that Witte
was able to use this as an opportunity and justification for Catholic Church education to
remain relevant. De Jong posits Witte as a visionary who could see opportunities within a
crisis. Indeed, the transformations that Witte brought as De Jong shows enabled Catholic
education to compete with that of the Protestants and the government by meeting the
demands of time. This, according to De Jong, enabled the Catholics to become eligible
for jobs in the colonial regime. Furthermore, Witte believed that the relevance of the
Catholic Church rested on going beyond the impartation of moral values to the fostering
of human dignity and a sense of pride among the Africans. This ultimately meant that
education was supposed to empower them with technical and academic skills. According
to Witte, De Jong says, education was a means to evangelization and development. Against
all odds, Fr Witte succeeded in establishing an almost failed Kabaa venture. However,
the following are reasons that De Jong consistently singles out in his book as causes for
Witte’s success: his administrative persona, foresight, patient persistence and ability to
transcend petty jealousy from his confreres and drawbacks from his superiors. According to De Jong, these reasons enabled Witte to see beyond his time by becoming the
first to support and put into operation a Catholic educational system that was academic.
From chapter four up to chapter eight, the author illustrates how the Witte’s involvement in Catholic education was an instrument by which the Church found recognition and
popularity in East Africa. Though De Jong admits the difficulty of distilling a clearly defined
missionary strategy vision, his analysis of various sources including Witte’s personal letters
shows how Witte himself was tremendously gifted. According to De Jong, though Witte
had no formal qualifications, he learnt on the job. With innate talents, De Jong argues, he
became a hands-on educationalist. De Jong seems to indicate that this gave Witte much
flexibility and creativity. With such creativity, De Jong argues on page 219 that Witte did
not copy existing European schools, but uniquely adapted his schools to the situation he
was in. As a result, he was a step ahead of his highly qualified contemporaries.
There are two merits in this book. The first one is that the author is able to look
into the life of a particular missionary not as biography, but as a technique of going into
the specifics of missionary strategy. Secondly, the author is able to notice that in the
light of the 2007 – 2008 post election violence in Kenya, the Church’s role in education
still remains indispensable. This in fact points towards a dire need for revival of the
missionary strategy in schools today. The above claim is supported by the Archbishop
of Nairobi, John Cardinal Njue’s plea on page 222 in which he calls upon the Church
to reevaluate its role in the provision of quality education and holistic formation in
schools. An interesting point to note is that the author discovers that though Witte was
so successful, he was unable to surpass his achievements at Kabaa mainly because after
his long stint at Kabaa, he never got the opportunity to stay in one place for a long
time to reap the fruits of his progress. This indeed gives a sober picture that inasmuch
as we may want to hero-worship Father Michael Witte C.S.Sp, he also constantly lived
with drawbacks and frustrations which are indeed part of the whole gamut of human
existence. Nonetheless, this does not in any way disqualify him from the title: “Pioneer
of higher Catholic Education.”
209
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Book Review
Terry W. Mwaniki, Peter M. Mbuchi, Marl Leleruk and Fred Mwei
Peace Building and Conflict Management:
Joint Case Study of North Rift Region of Kenya
Nairobi: Paulines Publications Africa, 2007, 74 pages.
ISBN 9966-08-257-3
By Milly Milinganyo Ibanda*
T
his book was written by four authors, and I will be referring to them as Terry
Mwaniki et al. They give us the geographical location of the region of north rift
in Kenya in the first chapter, where seven districts were taken into consideration:
Turkan, West Pokot, Trans-Nzoia, Uasin Gishu, Marakwet, Baringo, and Samburu. The
book is divided into four chapters with executive summary and acknowledgements.
The authors have focused their study on home-grown solutions to conflict in the Region, especially practical applications of the Strategic Plan of Administration Police
2007 – 2009. (26).
The authors targeted the Provincial Administration and Police because they are
charged with the responsibility of ensuring peace and security within particular jurisdiction. In their work on the field, they manage to interview the District Commissioners
(D.Cs), the District Officers (D.Os), the District Administration Police Commissioners,
the Officers Commanding Police Division (OCPDs), the Officer Commanding Station
(OCS), in order to outline the government’s position on the conflict. Also the NGOs
were interviewed.
The second part of this book lays emphasis on the major players in the conflict.
Here the authors talk about four ethnic groups. These groups are considered as primary
actors in the conflict within the region. The four ethnic groups are: the Samburu, the
Pokot, the Marakwet, and the Turkana. However, Mwaniki et al showed that the fact
that the region is bordering with Ethiopia, makes it vulnerable to internal and external
invasion. According to them, this has been highly aggravated by poor communication
between the state agencies and the locals. It was noted that there is no adequate police
posts in the region (32). The authors reject the pasture factor, because for instance, in
Turkana there is no pasture. The pasture becomes available only at the border region.
Conflict over resources in Kenya constitutes the third chapter of this book. They trace
this conflict from the colonial era, the colonial administration and the settlers. Mwaniki et
al stress that this war to gurad resources in Kenya began after World War I, based partly
on the experiences of African soldiers in the war, and partly on land shortage and other
social grievances (33). They move on suggesting that the North Rift has a rapid advance
in the commoditization of the rangeland significantly weakening the economic power
of majorities, while strengthening that of minority. The study further notes the North
Rift districts are among the ten poorest districts in Kenya in all development indices.
School enrolment rates are far below the national average and majority of the people
in the region depend on relief food and are malnourished. Mortality rate is high and
*
Milly is a first year student in Peace studies at Hekima college. She hails from DR Congo.
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Book Review
so are poverty levels. Water and sanitary services are inaccessible to the majority of the
pastoralists. Rights of the displaced people have been grossly violated. The survey found
out that there is a strong correlation between displacements and increased rape cases,
physical assaults, prostitution, child labour and growing number of children living in the
streets. Most of the displaced are disenfranchised and disempowered by the conflicts
making them unable to participate in politics effectively (37). Mwaniki et al do not just
give a negative image of North Rift Region, but they have hope. They suggested that to
prevent conflict and violence, it is absolutely necessary that peace begins to take root
as value rooted within the heart of every person in the North Rift Region of Kenya and
the entire country. In this way, it can spread to families and to different associations and
organizations within the society until the whole of the political community is involved
(40). In a climate permeated with harmony and respect for justice, an authentic culture
of peace can grow and can even pervade the entire nation. Mwaniki et al recommend
the state and all other actors in the region should therefore be in a position to work
together to resolve conflicts and promote peace, re-establishing relationships of mutual
trust with and among the local residents that discourage recourse to conflict (41). As I
said earlier, Mwaniki et al embraces the hope idea I have for every conflict. The authors
agree that there is a reason to hope for peace that by meeting and negotiating, all those
involved in the conflicts may come to discover better the bonds that unite them together,
deriving from the human nature which they have in common: and that they may also
come to discover that one of the most profound requirements of their common nature
is not fear and violence which should reign but PEACE AND LOVE (41).
Data presentation and analysis is the fourth and last chapter of this book. Despite the
North Rift Region of Kenya being patriarchal in nature, in their findings, they discovered
that women play a key role. Mwaniki et al say that women, in most nomadic communities have been known to contribute to violence. In almost all of these communities
women have developed ways of recognizing and rewarding their kin who perpetuate
conflicts, e.g. cattle rustling. For example, in Turkana, before a warrior goes to raid his
neighbours either for livestock or as a form of retribution, the mother would be the first
to bless him. Girls also sing songs praising young men who have led successful cattle
raids against the enemy or emoit (45). Any peace building initiative must be built on the
premise of women participation. Otherwise, there will be cracks that will only give rise
to more violence. The authors argue that future peace building efforts must appreciate
and see women as the non-negotiable entry point for sustainable peace.
Mwaniki et al conclude the book with some good recommendations for a really
sustainable peace in the North Rift Region of Kenya. Following are the recommendations: Increased state investment in socio-economic development and security of the
region; Utilising traditional conflict resolution and justice mechanisms; Retrieval of illicit
arms (disarmament) and increased presence of security personnel; Eradication of cattle rustling; Promotion and facilitation of inter-community dialogue; The role of peace
education in schools and at other public forum; Resettlement of displaced families;
Community based conflict early warning; Capacity of administration police to respond
to survey recommendations touching on its mandate; and, Development of a 3-year
peace building and conflict management strategy for the North Rift region.
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Book Review
Ignatius Anoonekwa Tambudzai, SJ and Chikere Crescent Ugwuanyi, Sj (Eds),
The Priestly Ministry in Africa: Reflections by Seminarians and Priests
Nairobi: Paulines Publications Africa, 2011; 127 pages.
ISBN 9966-08-590-4
By Norbert Litoing, SJ*
W
e live in a fast changing world and no one knows what tomorrow will be made
up of. In such circumstances rediscovering one’s identity stands as a categorical
imperative. We either do it or vanish in the flow of change. The book Priestly
Ministry in Africa: Reflections by Priests and Seminarians is a venture to recapture the
essence of the priestly identity in today’s Africa. It is an effort to redefine this identity in
relation to contemporary challenges. It is a question of knowing where we stand as the
winds of change blow with ever increasing strength.
This book is the fruit of the work of the members of Hekima Writers Forum. This
forum started in 2009 at the initiative of Father Laurenti Magesa with the aim of helping
the members of the group to develop their writing skills. Its debuts coincided with the
launching of the Year for Priests by Pope Benedict XVI to mark the 150th Anniversary of
the dies natalis of Saint John Mary Vianney, curé of Ars and patron saint of priests worldwide. Placed under the theme “Faithfullness of Christ, Faithfullness of the Priest,” this year
was “meant to deepen the commitment of all priests to interior renewal for the sake of a
stronger and more incisive witness to the Gospel in today’s world.” It was an invitation
to explore “the core issues of the life and mission of priests in modern times.” The
members of Hekima Writers Forum seized this opportunity to reflect on what they were
preparing to embrace. This book is the fruit of this venture.
In the collection of reflections you will find in this opus, they express their hopes,
their dreams, and their joys as priests or as persons looking forward to becoming priests.
But they also express their fears and anxieties, their concerns as they consider some of
the challenges awaiting them in today’s world. The issues tackled vary widely, making
the volume look more like a mosaic. But, like in every mosaic, the different components
serve a single purpose, a single intention. The different pieces are there to serve the larger
picture. In our mosaic, the intention, the larger picture, the common concern of all the
essays, is this: coming to a renewed appreciation of “priestly identity, [a renewed appreciation] of the theology of the Catholic priesthood, and of the extraordinary meaning of
the vocation and mission of priests within the Church and in society.”
From the levitical priesthood to the priesthood of the New Testament times; from the
formation of diocesan priests in contemporary Africa to the relevance of the evangelical
counsels; from the role of priests in politics to the relevance of worker-priests for the
African continent; from the care of priests to the consideration of catholic priesthood
in relation to the dignity of women in the Church, etc, the different pieces of our mosaic offer the reader the opportunity to ponder on a wide range of issues pertaining to
ministerial priesthood. They do this in an easy-to-read language, devoid of many of the
technicalities of theological lingua franca. As such, the book is an invaluable resource
not only for the professional Christians that we are as theologians or students of theol*Norbert hails from Cameroon. He is a Jesuit studying at Hekima College.
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Book Review
ogy, but also for Christ’s people. The enthusiasm that characterizes the youthfulness of
the seminarians (Chikere Ugwuanyi, SJ, Boniface Mbewe, Augustine Tazisong, Francis
Muhangi, Ignatius Tambudzai, SJ, Emmanuel Lenge, SJ, Mathew Bomki, SJ, John Zamcho,
SJ, Bernard Musondoli, A.A., Martins Okoh, SJ) is echoed but balanced by the wisdom
of Fathers Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, SJ, Gabriel Mmassi, SJ and Laurenti Magesa.
Boniface Mbewe argues that the socio-political, religious and economic tensions on
the African continent plunge the priest into a crisis of identity. He suggests ways in which
this crisis can be addressed. Augustine Tazisong invites us to a rediscovery of saint John
Mary Vianney and makes some suggestions for priestly formation based on the supposed
or real inability of the one who was to become the cure d’Ars to meet the academic requirements of his days. Francis Muhangi and Ignatius Tambudzai invite us to a rediscovery
of the scriptural foundations of ministerial priesthood. Fr Laurenti Magesa suggests a shift
in the self-understanding of priests from the idea of an office to that of service. Chikere
Ugwuanyi argues for proper psychological, material and social care for priests, particularly
when they can no longer take part in active ministry due to health or age. Emmanuel Lenge
interprets the evangelical counsels as an invitation to look beyond the self and believe that
something higher than one’s natural aspirations is worth living for. He shows how when
lived fully, the vows can help give meaning to some of the challenges the continent has to
face. Mathew Bomki argues for a deep involvement of African priests in the political arena.
But their role is not that of partisan politicians. It has to be prophetic. Only so can they
play their own part in the edification of society. He finds reasons for this commitment in
Jesus’ own example. John the Baptist Zamcho suggests the model of worker-priest rampant
in post-World War II France as something which can be adopted in today’s Africa so that
priesthood can meaningfully contribute to integral development on the continent. Bernard
Musondoli suggests the incorporation of the idea of priesthood in traditional Africa in the
understanding of Catholic priesthood. Amidst other things, this entails sharing the life of
the people and helping them handle the major crises and transitions in life. Martins Okoh
argues for a fairer treatment of women by the Church through its priests. Their attitude
towards them should be one of deep respect and devotion. The preface by Father Orobator
and the postscript by Father Mmassi help put the discussions into perspective.
One could regret the deafening silence on the issues of sexual abuse of minors by the
clergy that rocked the Church at the very heart of the year for priests. Also, the perspective taken is essentially theological. This is understandable considering that those writing
are theologians and theology students. But a more interdisciplinary approach would
have helped to deepen the understanding of some of the issues treated. Notwithstanding
these regrets, the merit of the venture lies in the fact of having offered a platform for an
intellectually honest and theologically sound debate on the practice of ministerial priesthood in Africa today.
Let me finish by quoting the words of Pope Benedict XVI in his letter to Seminarians:
“Many people nowadays [also] think that the Catholic priesthood is not a “job” for the
future, but one that belongs more to the past. You, dear friends, have decided to enter
the seminary and to prepare for priestly ministry in the Catholic Church in spite of such
opinions and objections. You have done a good thing. Because people will always have
need of God, even in an age marked by technical mastery of the world and globalization:
they will always need the God who has revealed himself in Jesus Christ, the God who
gathers us together in the universal Church in order to learn with him and through him
life’s true meaning and in order to uphold and apply the standards of true humanity.”
To answer this need of our contemporaries requires a renewed appreciation of the
call to ministerial priesthood. This is what this book tries to do. May it be a source of
inspiration for all who desire to rediscover the beauty of this vocation.
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Poems
Pleurs et joie d’une religieuse africaine By Bienvenu Matanzonga, SJ*
Ils étaient tous deux là
Là à la portée de mes mains et à la lumière de mes yeux
Ils avaient construits leurs demeures dans mon cœur et dans mon esprit
Les voilà disparus le temps d’un matin et à la différence des heures
Incapable de les voir, de les contempler, de les caresser
Je garde néanmoins de beaux souvenirs à coté d’une maman
Modèle de foi, de persévérance et de pugnacité
Autour d’un frère, symbole d’une vie donnée pour les autres
A cause de ces réminiscences poignantes et grâce à ma foi en Dieu
Je peux proclamer tout haut que les morts ne sont pas morts
Venez chanter et célébrer avec moi que les morts ne sont pas morts…
Aujourd’hui, je dois choisir entre un passé connu et douloureux
Et un futur prometteur quoiqu’ incertain
Je sais que Maman était porteuse de la vie, de la Vraie vie
Et j’ai choisi de me consacrer à la Vie, à la Vraie Vie Je sais également que je n’ai pas expérimenté les joies de la maternité
Mais je comprends que Dieu a mis sur mon chemin
Une multitude d’enfants connus et inconnus
Pour lesquels je décide à chaque instant de témoigner de l’affection
A cause de la vie qui va au delà de la chair que je transmets chaque jour
Je me souviendrai toujours de la vie de Maman et de mon frère
Avec larmes bien sûr mais aussi avec une joie indescriptible
Confessant que les morts ne sont pas morts, ils vivent autrement…
En ce temps pascal
Où je célèbre avec l’Eglise et mon peuple meurtri du Congo
La résurrection du Christ
L’apothéose de la foi chrétienne
Avec le Ressuscité, la souffrance et la mort changent de contenu
Elles deviennent une réalité transitoire vers une vie
De béatitude, d’amour, de compassion et d’empathie
La souffrance et la mort ne sont plus une fatalité
*
Fr Bienvenu is a lecturer at the Jesuit School of Theology, Hekima College. He hails from DR Congo.
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Poems
Mais un chemin vers une autre vie
Dont celle-ci n’est que prélude et copie imparfaite
Oui, je contemple cette autre Vie avec ma mère Femme de caractère, extraordinaire et sainte
Avec mon frère
Homme de devoir, de famille et de travail bien fait Oui, je crois me réunir un jour avec eux
Et avec les autres membres de famille
Qui m’ont précédé avec leur entrée précoce
Aux noces de l’Agneau Immolé
Ensemble nous crierons, nous chanterons et dirons Que les morts ne sont pas morts, ils vivent autrement…
En partance vers la rencontre d’avec son Maître et Créateur
Maman a demandé le soutien de la Maman Céleste
Signe de la confiance totale à la Mère de Dieu
Celle qui est montée au Ciel avec son corps glorifié
Celle qui a vaincu la mort avec son Fils
Par sa fidélité à Dieu et à son œuvre du salut
En se confiant à elle, Maman a choisi la vie, une vie meilleure
Une vie qui dure au delà du temps et de l’espace
A l’instar de Marie, Maman a offert à Dieu
La disparition de son fils, mon frère
Elle a offert aussi mes autres frères et sœurs
Mon père, mes cousins, neveux et nièces
Toutes ces personnes que je porte chaque jour
Dans ma prière et dans ma vie
Je sais que mon cœur est blessé et transpercé aujourd’hui mais je sais aussi
De la manière la plus forte que les morts ne sont pas mort Laissez-moi jubiler et glorifier le Seigneur
Car Il sait quand Il donne et quand Il reprend Oui, les morts ne sont pas morts, ils vivent autrement…
215
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Poems
The End of the Kadogos
By Evaristus Ekwueme, SJ*
I am the armchair that blocks the pathway.
I am the Lord that sits on his ears
I am the mountain that floats on magma
I am the continental plate that never drifts
I am the ocean that drowns other sky
I am the rock that cracks cannels.
I am the dry meat that fills the mouth
I am the hungry ghost that’s never content.
I am he that rules and never ruled.
When change knocks on my door, I shiver like fever.
When change wakes me up, I flee like Mobutu
When change makes me sick, I stall like Ya’radua
When change traps in a bunker, I freeze like Gbagbo
When change protests in streets, I give in like Mubarak
When change takes me to court, I pass away like Chiluba
When change starves in my house, I blame the west like Bob
When change fights against me, I hide like Gadhafi
When change takes me to the Hague, I babble like Taylor
When change presents me with mortality, I send my friends before me
Why should I die first, I am a kadogo! Hahahahaha!
I am an invisible who lies naked from Meskel Square to Eagles’ Square.
I am a sage who suffers amnesia from Cape to Cairo
I am a trademark of malaria more popular than coca cola from Mogadishu
to Mauritania
I am a shadow of my own shadow from Gambia to Algeria
I am he that everyone wants to be like
I am he that swears only by myself, and gods like me.
History will honor me for my smartness
History will praise me for my success
History will study my insanity as survival strategies
History will teach my ways and not my end
History will remember that I was, I am, I will
History will contrast me with Idi Amin, Last King of Uganda.
Do not compare me with Nkrumah, father of freedom
Do not compare me with Mandela, global icon of peace & justice
*Evaristus is a student at the Jesuit School of Theology, Hekima College, Nairobi, Kenya. He hails
from Nigeria.
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Poems
Do not compare me with Chiekh Anta Diop, image of intellectualism &
Africanism
Do not compare me with Menelek II, symbol of kingship & autonomy
Do not compare me with NgoziOkonji, example of professionalism & honesty
Do not compare me with Desmund Tutu, epitome of religiousness & justice
Do not compare me with virtues, integrity and dignity
In my riches, I lack wealth
In my power, I lack wisdom
In my disarmament, I am like a beast without teeth and claws
In my death, drag me on your streets as in Tripoli.
Those who follow my way, will have my end as their merit
I should neither repent nor be forgiven nor forgotten; I am a deity
Repentance makes me weak, forgiveness makes me human
Should I be human? No! No! No!
I should neither be shamed, nor be ashamed
I am a kadogo and this is my end, the end of insane beasts.
No Longer Afraid
By Gilbert Fungai Banda, SJ*
Afraid of love, I am no longer
Or loving either
For love does not threaten
It does not offend
It does not endanger
Neither does it insult
Nor molest
Love does not restrict
Or stir trouble
It does not scandalize
Or disturb
Giving conditions, it does not
Dilemmas, it has no time to create
The best, it wills
It affirms
And edifies
Gilbert hails from Zimbabwe. He is a student at the Jesuit School of Theology, Hekima College, Nairobi,
Kenya.
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Poems
It clarifies
And invigorates
It always calms
And emboldens
It enlivens
And purifies
It does awaken
And confirm
Love is constantly reassuring
With love, liberation is a necessity.
Peaceful, love is
Love is gentle
Love is safe
Love is joy
Love is compassionate
Love is empathetic
Love is kind
Love is generous
Love is freedom to be
Love is Just
Love is encouragement
Love is attractive
Love is powerful
Love is a sure way to God
Love is God and God is love.
Truly, love never decays.
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Poems
L’Amour
Mosha Jackson, sj*
L’amour n’est pas une chose qu’on mérite
Il n’est pas une chose dont on est digne de recevoir
Il n’est pas un certificat qu’on mérite après quelques efforts
Il est un cadeau gratuitement donné
L’amour se donne gratuitement
Il ne regarde pas à qui il se donne
Il n’est pas réservé pour les bons
Il n’est pas réservé non plus pour les méchants
L’amour est comme la pluie qui tombe
Il est comme les yeux purs qui regardent
Il est comme les lits dans nos chambres
Il est comme une assiette
Il est comme une toilette
Il est comme le soleil
L’amour nous amène à la liberté
Il nous pousse à aimer véritablement
Il nous dit qu’aimer c’est partager
Il nous dit qu’aimer c’est donner
Il nous dit qu’aimer c’est oublier
L’amour nous dit qu’aimer c’est pardonner
Il nous dit qu’aimer c’est recevoir
Il nous dit qu’aimer c’est ignorer
Il nous dit qu’aimer c’est englober
Il nous dit qu’aimer c’est perdre le calcul
Amour ! On peut parler de toi sans t’épuiser
Amour ! Tu es admiré sans fin
Amour, enseignes nous à aimer
Amour, attires nous à toi
Amour ramène nous à toi
O Dieu, ramène nous à toi. AMEN
*
Jackson is a Tanzanian Jesuit who passed on to the Lord in May 2009 at the tender age of 26. During
his brief stay among us, he showed great love to the poor he encountered. This poem, written by
him three years before his death is published here posthumously to honour his memory and keep his
generous spirit alive among us. Rest in Peace, Baba!
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this PDF file - Hekima University College Journals

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