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Mes remerciements vont en premier lieu à ma co-directrice de thèse, le professeur
Marie-Madeleine Martinet, dont l’enthousiasme, le génie et l’audace intellectuelle ont été une
source constante d’inspiration. Ses conseils avisés et son infaillible soutien ont eu un impact
déterminant sur le travail présenté ici. Ses qualités en font un modèle pour toute personne se
destinant au métier d’enseignant-chercheur.
Je tiens également à remercier le professeur Pierre Cotte, qui a co-dirigé cette thèse. Ses
séminaires stimulants, son ouverture d’esprit et son approche originale ont nourri ma réflexion.
La liberté dont j’ai bénéficié m’a offert la possibilité d’explorer des pistes de recherche nouvelles
quitte à parfois m’éloigner du domaine exclusif de la linguistique.
Mes plus vifs remerciements vont également à tous ceux qui ont eu la patience de relire
minutieusement ce travail : J. Leyre, G. Bensoussan, P. Guedj, X. Giudicelli et C. Simonin. Une
reconnaissance chaleureuse à ceux parmi mes parents et amis dont le soutien indéfectible m’a
portée pendant toutes ces années : M. et J.-J. Letalleur, mes grands-parents, D. et J. Letalleur, G.
et G. Rauzy, ma sœur, Audrey ; mes fidèles amis, E. Gelly, N. Maurel, A. Chopping, A.
Labourg, S. Tonneau, A. Lafont et M. Foppolo ; mes anciens collègues de l’Université de Paris
IV, eux aussi devenus des amis : le professeur J. Carré, L. Châtel, F. Baillet, P. Blin-Cordon, B.
Delorme, P. Dubois, X. Giudicelli, E. Grassy et E. Mignot.
Bien sûr ces travaux n’auraient pu voir le jour sans le concours du département d’anglais de
l’Université de Paris – Sorbonne (Paris IV) où j’ai bénéficié pendant trois ans d’une allocation
couplée. Je remercie tous les membres de l’Ecole Doctorale IV de cette université pour leur
dynamisme et leur disponibilité.
Un immense merci à tous mes collègues de l’Université de Paris II – Panthéon - Assas où
j’ai obtenu un poste d’ATER trois années consécutives, leur soutien s’est avéré inestimable ; en
particulier : le professeur C. Resche, le professeur J. Merchant, Y. Mohammedi, A. Brunon-Ernst
et Y.-M. Rogez.
Je remercie Mesdames et Messieurs les membres du jury qui me font l’honneur d’examiner
ces pages.
Q
&
) ) Architecture, sculpture, peinture, musique, poésie, philosophie : l’idéalisme est
un système orienté, en voie vers la fin de l’art et l’avènement du concept. Ainsi il
peut y avoir, dans ce devenir, un moment pictural – précellence du pictural valant
comme modèle pour ses arts sœurs – ou un moment musical, et un passage de
l’un vers l’autre. 1
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Lorsqu'il s'agit de notion, nous sommes dans un domaine qui nous renvoie, d'un
côté à des ramifications (les notions s'organisent les unes par rapport aux autres)
[…] d'un autre côté, il y a foisonnement c'est-à-dire que vous avez tout un
ensemble de propriétés qui s'organisent les unes par rapport aux autres, qui sont
physiques, culturelles, anthropologiques, et qui font qu'en fin de compte un
terme ne renvoie pas à un sens […] mais renvoie à un domaine notionnel,
c'est-à-dire à tout un ensemble de virtualités. Tout le travail métaphorique porte
en grande partie sur cette propriété fondamentale de l'activité de langage, et qui
est plasticité (on a stabilité, c'est pour cela que les mots sont aussi des
étiquettes, mais d'un autre côté on a déformabilité). 5
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[…] une étude sémantique et lexicologique ne peut plus se mener aujourd’hui
sans prise en compte des conditions humaines de l’élaboration de son
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) expression linguistique. En effet, l’appréhension de la signification des mots ne
peut pas, sauf à être amputée d’une dimension essentielle, faire abstraction des
fondements cognitifs, éventuellement expérientiels, et du contexte ethnologique,
socioculturel, institutionnel, etc., de production du sens. Nous partons de
l’hypothèse que la langue, et en l’espèce le système que constituent les mots
d’un lexique, est le reflet des opérations mentales qui ont présidé à sa
construction. 6
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Au-delà, toute la difficulté pour le linguiste réside dans le fait que son outil de
travail et son objet de recherche ne font qu’un. En même temps qu’il étudie le
langage, le linguiste se constitue une métalangue également susceptible de se
prêter à l’analyse linguistique8 Cette métalangue, souvent emblématique d’une
théorie particulière, est très rigoureusement définie par les linguistes qui la
distinguent strictement des énoncés dont ils font l’analyse. Tant et si bien que,
parfois, un terme qui recélait déjà plusieurs significations dans la langue
courante, se voit affublé au sein d’un même domaine de recherche, de toute une
série de nouveaux traits sémantiques. Les rivalités entre écoles de pensée
peuvent alors ajouter à une certaine opacité sémantique au lieu de la dissiper. Il
va sans dire que cela est nuisible à la compréhension de phénomènes que ces
mêmes chercheurs sont pourtant censés démêler : Lorsqu’une science est du
domaine exclusif d’un petit nombre de spécialistes, elle a tendance à développer
des terminologies abondantes et disparates : la nécessité pour chaque école,
sinon pour chaque linguiste, d’affirmer une originalité souvent mineure amène à
proposer de nouveaux termes qui ne se distinguent des anciens ou de ceux des
autres écoles que par leur forme et non par leur contenu. Mais lorsque cette
science commence à échapper aux seuls spécialistes qui tendaient à s’en
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assurer la possession exclusive, il se produit une décantation terminologique qui
n’épargne pas les nomenclatures les plus assurées. 9
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J'appelle focalisation ce que d'autres appellent emphase, ou, moins
techniquement, mise en relief. On définira la focalisation comme l'opération par
laquelle une partie d'un EN est dotée d'une forme telle qu'elle retienne de façon
privilégiée l'attention de S1. L'élément focalisé porte alors le nom de focus. La
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!" ))!#/" ,
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7 #1+" ; ,"$!) 0 )! ,- " # ," -"<)!" ) ! # ,"! " +3$ "#" )*"5 8 +- O%&5
@
,- " $$"$" 0 " 1 $" ," ," < $$"$" G ^ ! ," $"!" , +"" #1"11" "! *?"$3 ;
C’est un homme parlant que nous trouvons dans le monde, un homme parlant à
un autre homme. […] dans le dialogue, la référence à l’expérience objective et la
réaction à la manifestation linguistique s’entremêlent librement et à l’infini. 22
= ! !"!$!) , !#" , 1," ,-"<)!" , !" "" "
" 3! ,- " #"$ " ,- " $," ," $" 1C1" !#" , " +" , " 1+" *,1""" -" 1)0 " ) 1 1* ," "
" " ,"L ,- " $ !" " ,- $"<" )!)!" L ,-#1 " ,"
!#$")5 #" )! " 3!" , ?" )"!$") ))!"11" )" " !#+#=!"
-1) , ?"$!#" ! G " ?" 33!1" )!#"$" " 1C1" "1) 0 -
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22
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L ," -*?" ! 0 " , " ,$ ! -+ ," 1" !"! " ,"+!#
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$11 $5 $/0 " 3 11" ,$ !!#, $*"1" !1"# <
$$") ," ,$ ," )!<1# ," ) ," " " ," )"!)"$" ,$ ,"
1 "1"5 !" " $$") ," ,:11" " ," 1" 3 ,! $,#!"!
$" < ," )!<1# ,-#+"1" ," ) ,-$!+" ," ,$" " ," )"!)"$"5
! $#0 " 3 ,-"<1"! " )/#1=" $+3 0 )"!1"" L -3#
," )"!$") <0 "" 11" 1 ,-! " L :" < ,#)", #!"1" ," " ! !, $ , " ++" 1 , " !"
3!1" ," !")!#" , -"33" 1" " :#10 " !"" -#1"!+"$" ,- "
"! *?"$#5 " )!$)" ,-"! *?"$# ))" " """ 11" "
-3#$/"1" )$ " , !"+!, ," - "1) 1 L $" ," - !"5 "
++" , +# -""$" ,1""" !")!#" )"
)! " !#, $ L ,1" "1)!"" 1 $"" !#, $ )!$=," ,- )!+" "Z ,- " 3 ;
Le temps du discours n’est ni ramené aux divisions du temps chronique ni
enfermé dans une subjectivité solipsiste. Il fonctionne comme un facteur
d’intersubjectivité, ce qui d’unipersonnel qu’il devait être le rend omnipersonnel.
26
$1)! " )" !" 3+ !" "1*" )" )#" ," +" !!#1#,*"1"
$!# L ,$" , ?" 3+# " ,$ " )!" 1 $$"*"5 "
!*!" ,-" ! " 1)$# 3$" " , 3 , $!$=!" $0 " ," $" 1C1"
+"5 !## "" )!#"" " $1)"<# #10 " 0 ,#)" ," "
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1C1" $" $ " " ,33#!#5 "33" $11" " +" )$ ! < !"" $!# L
,$" , -*?" "1*" !#3!$!" L " *!) , " ?"5 "" 1"
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*" ,"1" !" "$!" 0 " $" < 0 !#+" + "5
"" L "<)$"! ! ) ! 0 "" )!) ," )!#+"! $11"
," ! ," ^ !" "/#0 " ! 0 " )! " ! -"<1 ! "
) + 0 " 0 " ," 3!+1" ,-#$# !,!"5 " )" !" )!#"" "
,1" ,##!"#" G $" ,"!=!" - )! ,#3 ,- !" * $" -" $" ,"
1!"! " ," " 1!"! ,$ 1)"1" ,-"<)!1"! $" 0 -"" 5 " #1"11" #0 "5 "<" " )" !" " 3$ !$"1" "!""
, " )! " "$/0 " 3!1"" , " P!" 3 ,P"!$")"! " !"+!, ,
)"$" ! 0 " 3<" " ) " ! ) $$"3 , *" 1 #+"1"
" 3$ " !+" " #!" L !"+!,"!5 ,"L -+ ) ," !"+!,"! 1 ," ! ," 1*"! " ! $" 0 " -33!" )
11#,"1" L $$"$" ," ! ,1" &' , *" 5 "
++" " !#3#!"" 1 ,"1" !" 1:" ,"
&@
$11 $ $" 0 $$ " " )!" $" 0 " !#+5
= ! 1C1" )!! " ," < 1," ," !")!#" " "1*" 33!! 0 "
O%
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)/#1=" ," 1" " 3!1" " ,-"!)!# , " ! " ) +##! ," /#!"
," !")!#"5 " ,33$ # "#" )! $"" !"$/"!$/" ! 3$ ,$ ")!" " 1C1" 0 " $"" 0 -1)0 " " !#3"< )! ! !")!#" , " ,"!# " ,#3 , "!1" " + 0 "
$!!"),! 1)"1" L-33" !"1" 3!1" ,- )!$" )! " ! ? !
)!#" ) 0 " $ 3 ," -$" ," !")!#" )$ ! #$3 !"5
- ! ,- ,+ " "!" " ," < 1," ," !")!#" )"!1"! ,"
,#++"! 0 "0 " ##1" ," !#)" $$"! " )/#1=" ," 3$ ,
- $11" , - !" ," $" ,1"5 -"<1" $!# ," 1," !")!#""
))!"11" ,$ )"!1"! #+"1" ," ! !"+!, " " +"!
) , )/!" " - ,1"# + 0 " " "!,! !#""1" ,1" ""5 " 1C1" ""! ," ! )" !" 1+!# 1 1"
))!" -$!"! ) ,$ ! != *! 0 " !, ! +"1)
OQ
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$/ $ L 1" 0 ""1" ) +##! $$"! " ,"
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!" ,-"<)#!1" "/#0 " ! + "5 )" $"! "!" !" /#)/" M "! 0 )!`" -! ) ! -! , )!#3$" ," !" G $" 0 "
QHOA )!#3$" , 0 "" ,#$!" 7 -: ," !1" *" 0 " $" 0 " )" "!! L
" " ,5 8
!#$"11" )" #0 "! " 3!1" ,0 " $11" " )+!11" "
+!11" ," - - !! ," #! !" """ Q@NO5
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#"$" " 1))*" ! 0 " - !" -$!! , , !#" !" , " 3!1" ,-#"!# L -#$/"" ,- " " / 1"
" " $ *" ," =$" )!= "" #*! G - !"" ," -#$/+" !,!" - !" , ! ," -!" ,
$-" " * 1" " ) " "1" 1:" ,-*"! ,- ! " !#)" 3!1 #" " "!1" 1!"5
Q&
) -1+" " ," $"$" / 1"5 "33" ," )! " $!$=!" #$"!"1"
"!,$)!" ," # ," : ! L -1+" " )" ?1 -*!!" ," $" L
0 "" !"" ," " ! :1*1" ," " ! 3$ " ,- " $## ,#"
"$5 - ) $"! 7 -"<) $,#!*" , ," ,1" #0 "#
O&
, , , 5 8
>!6 ! " +"
,-" ! " $" "!1" " ,33$ # 0 " $" )" )"! ! " ) ,"
-!++!11" "!!" 3!6 ;
Au-delà de ces disciplines de l’image, l’émergence de la visual culture risque de
mettre en cause des partages disciplinaires plus fondamentaux, ne serait-ce que
parce que ses tenants, acquis à l’idée d’un « tournant visuel » (pictorial turn)
dans la culture contemporaine, englobent volontiers l’écrit, le texte et le livre
dans l’ordre du visuel, et prétendent traiter, sous la problématique de la
représentation, de tous les domaines de l’histoire et de la culture. Après la
« dé-définition » post-moderne de l’art, la visual culture n’annonce-t-elle pas la
dé-définition des humanités, de façon parallèle et convergente aux cultural
studies avec lesquelles elle a d’ailleurs partie liée ?33
-" ) 0 " $ ," !"!"! , ,#* 0 ,#)" " $,!" ," $"" # ," 1
" 1)! ,-: 3!" $! " )!" ! L 1#/," 0 " ?- $/
,-,)"!5 !0 " " $/"!$/" ! " )!)" ," !"! ,- )!*=1" , , 1" !" , )*" " "!! ," " " ,#" 0 L ,) ) ! $"
3!" 0 " L )!3 !")"! " 3!=!" ," ,$)" ,- 0 " 0 "
," -"!,$)!# " ,33$" L #$!"! !0 " - -#!"" < $"$" ,
++" ""1C1" $ #" ,- " 1 )$# ," "$" ! ," !"$/"!$/" )!3
" <1C1" $!# $11" ):$/+ 0 " $+ 0 " "$!"
-"/+ 0 "5 " 3"1" ))!T !" -$# ," ++" " $^ ! ," $" 0 $ " -/11" , $" 0 - " " , $" 0 - 35 ")", 1C1"
$/ ," 1"! L " # ," ) !"1" + 0 " ," ,"
" + $ ! $"1)! "$ )!3 ," !#3#!"$" 3!6 " 3
1C1" 0 " "1)! 3 L !" ,1" " 0 " " )/#1="
0 -"" !"$ !" " " ) "<$ "1" + 0 " #$""! 0 " -
-"!!+" ! " !+" " 0 " - " ,"L ," $" 0 " " /#!" + 0 "
,#?L "<" ))!"" ! 0 "5 "! ,"L $-" ,"! " 3!=!"
" ,#)"! " ,#5 ! ," !"$/"!$/" !")" ! -"<)! ," ,1" ,"
! , $" 0 - ,-"$!" $ $-"L,!" " ! 3!=!" G ) ! $" 3 )"! !" < $,!" #!+# ! ," - ," ,$)" , -))!
$!!"), " L ," $!" ,1!" )#,++0 "5 1*!" <
" $"30 " 0 +" " $!$=!" #$"!" ," -"!,$)!# ;
Sur l'interdisciplinarité moderne autour et dans les sciences dures, je voudrais
OQ
! L $" )!) -!$" >!6 ! " ; 7 /#!" " )0 " ," 1+" ; D5 B5 5 2$/" " " # ," ," !" 85
1" AH UQ &%%A H&@S " )!$ "! )5 H@5
O&
33
+- HO5
: QO
préciser ce que je souhaitais dire. Premier niveau, l'université, car elle enseigne,
constitue des corpus de savoirs qu'on nomme disciplines. Dans le travail
d'innovation (de recherche), ces cadres sont régulièrement dépassés et le travail
intéressant opère souvent entre disciplines. Apparaît ainsi la physico-chimie à la
fin du siècle dernier qui, via l'enseignement, se transforme alors en « discipline ».
Ce premier processus d'hybridation disciplinaire est banal, courant, ancien et
sans fin dans le travail intellectuel. En bref, il est l'essence du travail des
sciences. 34
" 0 "0 " $,#! )!#1!" ? 3" " )!" 1#/," " ,#1!$/"
0 " $/ ,-,)"!5 " ,#1!$/" )! , )!"1"! "1) ," ,$)" ) ! !:"! "! " $3 ?1 )"!,!" ," " , -+
,-33"! " ,-#$!"! ,#35 )!= ! ,!"# /!0 " , "!1" " 3
? "! )$# $11" *# " ,1" $$!=" " *!" )!)!"
$11" 3+ !#" $",! ,-"<1"! " 1," ," 3$"1" )!)!" < ," <
)!$) < ,1" <0 " !"" . ,- " )! " 1," + 0 " ,- !" )! "
1," "5 -:" $!#" )"!1"! #$!+" 1 "5 ) 0 " ," 1)"
1#)/!" ," -+" ) !! )" C!" 3!" 33" !"! " $11 " ""$"
$" 0 $, ! ,-" ! )+" L "<1"! " 3$"1" , )!$)"
1#)/!0 "5
)!!# )"$/"! ! $"" )!#", " $#$# , #!" + 0 "5
"" #!#" \ = 0 " - $,=!" " $!$=!" #1"11" "! *?"$3 ," $" ++"! - , !"$T!" 0 " " !"+!, : ? " !`" )!**"1" )!1!, 0 -" )" !"5 " 1C1" "<1"! -))!" 1" ," !")!#" )$ !"5 ,$ !,"" #*" )! "+ "!" ! , "1)
OA
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! !" # " #!" " +" !",! #)" ! " 1" " "<1 $11" !" , $$!" )" " !## #$"!"1"
)! -*!$ ) 0 " " 1 "1" 1+0 " " ? ! #1+0 "5 " 1C1" 1!"! $11" " ?" !#?"$" , 1 "1"
, " " ," 3<# , )/!"5
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," 1 "1" , $$"! " $," " ," " )!$" /#0 " 0 " " )/#1=" $" 5 3! $"" # ," )! -:" ,- #$# , " $"<" 0 ,!,1"" " !")!#"# )$ !"1"5
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OR
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ON
" !$" $+!)/0 " " " 3!+1" ,-#$# $# "!! ," !$"
"$,!" ) 0 - " "! $0 # 0 -3 ,- !"! " ,$ ! /#!0 "5 3
0 "0 " $/#1 ",! -? "! < !")!#" )$ !" $11" !
, )!) , $!"! L 3 $11"!" " " )!+"1"
:/#0 " :1#!0 " ," -!+ 1"5
OR
+ ," $"" # ," ?" 1" !#3=!"! )! "<"1)" L $"! !3$" )0 " J!)" $#1+!)/" E#$)"
,+ "!!#:)" "$5 0 3$" $11" ," + " )"!1" ," 1"!" ? ! ," 3$"1"
$+3 *" )! " !5
ON
" )" !" ))!"" ) ! ) )! )!1" +< " $ !" ) " ! )#!," ," ? !5 -+ ,-^ !" )!3 3+ !" ,- !" 3 *!"5 B- " #+"1"
0
"$" L " ^ !" 3+!)/0 " ;
," $/F!J 0 ," ," Q@HR5
QA
QR
% ) 2 2 : 3 2
2 2 3 2
Le feu et la chaleur fournissent des moyens d’explication dans les domaines les
plus variés parce qu’ils sont pour nous l’occasion de souvenirs impérissables,
d’expériences personnelles simples et décisives. Le feu est ainsi un phénomène
privilégié qui peut tout expliquer. Si tout ce qui change lentement s’explique par
la vie, tout ce qui change vite s’explique par le feu. Le feu est l’ultra-vivant. 38
) * + 5 6 7 * 82 5 9 * ( 1 3!6 " "!1"
38
4 H 5 / 5 " ! *" , ,$!" !,!" G ! " "
I+,B,M 4 ( <==B( <G
QN
!"$/" $" ," 0 !"" "!*" , " ; 5 " L
"! 0 " ,
! " # $ " "!1" " "#
O@
S%
" QHNN #0 " "!* Q@&@ 5
)!"1=!" $$") , "!*" $!!"), L "!1" ," )/:0 " ;
SQ
7 $$"!"! !:"1" " ) 8 5 " "<"1)" 1"# " "
)"!1"" ,-" )!#$"! " " ; 7 3$"! 3$" ,-#"$! 1:" ,- "
S&
"" #"$!0 " 1+#0 " VWX 3$" 1" < 0 " 3$"58
" 3 11" , $/$ ," $" "<"1)" !":# L ,"
$$"! G 0 $!!"), ," <=1" +" )!)# , $" 1C1"
,$!" P +" +##!5 -+ ," " ! *!" , 1 ," " 3+ !#5 "
"1) " "# ,= Q@RN5 ! $"" "!#" ,#3 $" " "
SO
)#!)/!" 1 " ," < "!*" ::1" ; 7 $$"!"! !"1*"! 8 5 L
))!1# #" " $1)#1" 7 3$" < ,-#"$! 8 7 3$" < 1" < 8
) ! " ) $"!"! 0 " " "!*" 7 $$"!"! 8 , $$") ) "5
! * 2 5 !" "1) )#$# , "!1" !"=" ," -:" #!!" ,1"
, "0 " $
3 $$=5 -" M#!!, M""" 0 -1)" " Q@N& ,
# +++ 3 ," ,#+"! " ) ," " , !!" !5 $" !+" " )!+!)/"
SS
7 >$ 8 -$! , $ # ,- )!+!)/" # 7 "!)"$" 8
, "0 " M""" #0 " ; 7 " 0 " ))" ) ! - " )! 1#)/!" )"!)"$" !!" . $-"L,!" $" "$, 1," ," !#+ ," -3!1 0 SA
)!$=," , $/< ,- 7 ) ," " 8 !"!$3 VWX 8 5 - " ! !"$T ,!"$"1" "1)! "! " "!1" 7 )"!)"$" 8 ,1" ," 1 +"
)! " 0 " $-" 3 ," $"! $"" $ "" 0 - $/ " "!1"
;
Pour éviter ce que les termes de vision, de champ, et de point de vue ont de trop
spécifiquement visuel, je reprendrai ici le terme un peu plus abstrait de
focalisation, qui répond d’ailleurs à l’expression de Brooks et Warren : « focus of
narration ». 46
O@
S%
SQ
S&
SO
SS
SA
! " # $ 1" 5 ! ; $!" " *"! &%%Q HR%5
*,5
*,5
*,5
" M!, *"! ," + " >!6" 1" AHS5
M#!!, M"""5 # +++ &%R5
+- &%O5 B" +"5
QH
% ) 2 2 : 3 2
M#!!, M""" +" "<)$"1" -C!" )!# , 1 + !"$!# ) 1" ," " $3!=!" 1#!$ "/ !E " *"! D!!" , $ #*!#" !"" ) ` " Q@SO5 $,=!" $" $/< #10 "
$11" ) ? ,$" < $! ) *!5 "!" , 3 ," "$/$# " "!1"
))!T ) !"$/"!$/# " 3!6 0 " $" ," , "!# ,") +"1) , " ++" $ !5 " , " + " "!1" "1):# " -" ) 3!$#1" 1 " 0 " " "<)!" 0 " M""" ,#$," ,-#$!"!5
!" " ,33#!"" !, $ )!)#" ) ! " 1 , " ,$!"
*+ " " 2 - # $ 0 # $ Q@HN ; 7 VWX
3) &4 3:"! 5 6 $"!" 1 G 5
) 6 3:"! =+" 15 3 4/" )$ !"
SN
Z 3 ; -1+" " ""Z3 " -1+" "Z-" ) ) VWX 8 5 $ -$$")
)/+!)/0 " ))!T " !=1" ) $! )! $ ," $!# " "<$+!)/"
$! ," ,$"! !$"1" " " ! #10 " 0 " )!", "!1" "
" !, " ," $!=!" #:1+0 " "Z #)#1+0 " " "
,1" , ! , "0 " " !"$!"5 1" "1*" $")", 0 -" +
,1" "" , "!1" " )!#+" " $" )!**"1" , 3 , $$=
," -))!" )/+!)/0 " 0 " "" " $11 #1" $#"5 " "!1"
)=,"! " + " 3!" $ "" $""L 1C1" 0 " M"""
!")!$/" "!1" , " 3!6 ! 0 " ? ! " 3!6 " 1
" "! ,#) ! 5 $ ," $" ,"!"! $" "! -,#" ," / 0 )!1"! / $11" / 5
0 " , " ,$!" + " + $-" -$$") )0 " ,$
"" , "!1" 0 3+ !" " " )!"1"!5 , " ,$!" + "
1#!$ 8 ( . + & , ," Q@RQ ! " $11"
)!"1=!" "!#" 1 ;
[…] a point at which rays (as of light, heat, sound) converge or from which they
diverge or appear to diverge; specif.: the point where the geometrical lines or
their prolongations conforming to the rays diverging from or converging toward
another point intersect and give rise to an image after reflection by a mirror of
refraction by a lens or optical system. 48
-" ! " Q@S& ) *$ ," !E " D!!" " 1 $T
)!**"1" !"+ ,-#!C , 3 ," ,33 , )!$#,# )/+!)/0 " ; 7 F"! /" ,"1, 3! 31 /" )/+!)/"! $ , )!$" /1"3 $ *! +/ S@
Q@S& 31 F/$/ F 3F", *: Y,E- 9 31 VWX 8 5 )" " "33" #1" $$"! 0 " ," 1" ) !, " " + )!
46
: ( <=6 I
5 H Q A K: R
4 ! & & TUV 5 H Q K: R
' I ? 5 M
0 ;
0 J S Q .
3 &1 1! : +,BG( ! !& 3 7 7 ( +,BGM
& 3 P &
I 3 # TUV # 0 4!
P
#M(
4 2 ( <=G 0 SN
48
*"! 4 5 R : 1 $5
$7 0 7 $5 ! ; $!" " *"! Q@HN &SN5
5 0 4 A %
( +,6+( **+ 0 Q@
-"<)!" ,"" $$"*" L 5
,""" ,- ) )!" 0 " -))!" )/
"!" , $ ,1" "" -"1)" )!3
," $"" ,- "Z ," ( G ," < "<)!" L " ! +#1#!0 "
)" C!" ) 0 -)0 " "!! ) * 0 " " ," < " " !##
1"1" #5 = ! ,1" "" , 1 ,"1" !" , -$$")
!!+0 " , "!1" 3!6 $" -" ) " ," ) ," 3< ,
!"+!, 1 ," " ,-$!+" ," 5 -+ #!"1" ,- )" ,-*"!
3$" ; 7 VWX )"! 0 " ," 3$ , " ^ !" #!!" $P" )"!
0 " " ; 7 9 \ ))" 0 P " P " ! $1)!" 3$ $" 0 !#), L 0 " ; 0 1+" \ P#$! !" 0 #$! \ !! 0 !$" \
A%
P$ 0 + \ 3$ 0 \ 8
"<1"! " "1) )0 " " +#1#!0 " , 1 " !, )! & " 3!65 )! !"" ! " "!1" +##! ," "
3!65
< * 5 = B- #0 # $," ," 5 "" !"" L 1) ,- ! 1" )0 " 3 ,-*"! " 1+" ) "" ,$ ) *"5 )" #+"1" -+! ," 1" ) !"" 0 -)=!" , -^ 11" K )!=
! *"!# *?" # L )!<1# ?" ,#$," ," 3<"! !" $/" ) $"
"!5 "1) ,-,) " #$"!" L -^ 3 0 " $" ,"!"! )!"" L
AQ
,+ "! $!!"$"1" -*?" " 0 "5 3$ $!!"), )! $#0 "
"1) ,-? "1" , !"+!, L *?" !0 " $" ,"!"! " ! " L " ,$"
," -^ ,$" ," $"" ," -*?" )!#$#,"11" *"!# $" 0 " )!"0 " ? ! "
$5 " )!$" !"" "1) 0 - 3 L -^ ) ! ,"3"! ) ,$"!"! $"
*?" , " 1,!" ,# "3 0 " - )" ,"3"! *?" "
,+ "! ""1" " $ !5 " )!$#,# -$! , , !#" 0 " , "
S@
" 1 "F/5 . % &
& 3 :;<= 4- "F a!E ; /" 2 " 1 3 2,"! ! Q@H& &NN5
B" +"5
A%
M#!!, !,"" M#!!, "* 4 a" "
""$5 ++" #!!"5 "<" +5 " ;
!"" "!!" ,
2! Q@@% AH5 B" +"5
AQ
" 1C1" )/#1=" -*"!" !0 " - )" *! 0 "1" ," )#1*!" L 1=!" G -^ " ) ! "1) #* 5 - )" *! 0 "1" , ? ! L -*$ !# $" 0 " - : ) ` !"" +!# ! !#" " 1C1" " 3"!1 "
) )=!" - $! ! ) ," $!#5 M"/" )!" L $" )!) ,- ))"#" )0 " )/:+0 " ; 7
, "
!#" ! 0 " -^ " ! " , # )!$ =!"1" !#$")3 3<" " !"!" ," 3"C!" " ,#$/ ! " 3, , $" 1 )b "!! )!= ! 3"!1# " :" < " ! )# ! ) L
3 1*!" 3"! ," )", 11" -1+" ," $!< !" ," !"!" ! 3, $!5 8 B/ D3++ M"/"5 . QHHO5 ! ; !," &%%% Q%Q5 " ," < )/#1=" $1)!*"5 " )!"1"! $!!"), L
"1) ,-,) ," -^ L -"# 1" " #1 ,- *?" )!$ "! " 3$ ," ,$" G " ," <=1" L "1) ,-,) ," -^ L 1# 1*" 1# ,- " ,- " )!"5
&%
% ) 2 2 : 3 2
1 "1" : ? "1" )!$" 0 - : $/+"1" ; 7 !" !"+!, ,- *?" L
- !" " 1+" $$"" )!" "" G " !", )
A&
$1)" 0 - " +" 0 "0 " $/" ," - " L - !"5 8
" 3 " "!1" " *3 "!* 0 )! $! $ !"" L
-,#" ,- )!$" $-"L,!" L )/#1=" " $ ! ,-#*!5 -,?"$3 ) )!#$#1" " )!$)" )# ,?"$# #0 "! ,= ! -*?" 1
)!$" ," ; 7 " )!$)" )# ,?"$# $! " " 0 #
AO
#+!#" VWX5 ' 5 8
11" 3$ !"" L )!$" ,:10 "
AS
7 -,?"$3 ,#$! -# $ " !# ," -$ 8
5 -*?" ) !! C!"
,#+# )! " 1 7 3:"! 85 ")", " "!1" ," ," 7 3:"! 8
"1*" !":"! ) L !$" ,- !:"1" " 3" 0 -L $" 0 - $*"5 "
) !! 0 " $" 3c " ," <5
' * + 6 . 2 7 6 . 7
9 * >. ? ,#3 , "!*" P$$1)+" ,P !" +0 " ; 7 3:"! 8 "!1"
AA
0 )!" ? "1" , )) !" 7 3$! 1 8 $-"L,!" 7 3:"! 8 " ,
-"1) " "# " QQ@% 3!1" 7 3 "! 85
" 1 ) !"" 7 3:"! ,1"0 " ,"1" !" ," ," < !"
#" )! )) L >) V3:"! ," ,#X ," L ; 5 VWX
+3" 7 3" /* 85 + " ," !, $" ! ," *" " , $""
AR
," 1#,"$ !, ,#?L " +!"$ ?@A V3" X5 8 " *!"3 /!0 " 1!" 0 -"
" 1 !"" 3:"! ,1"0 " " 1 L - " ,1"0 " )$# L
)!<1# , 3:"! 1 #+"1" 3:"! 3"$" < ," 1,"5 "33" L -! ,
3:"! ,1"0 " " 3:"! 3"$" < $!" " !$" ," $/" ! " ," ! +" !5 " 1C1" 36 $-" ) ," )"!$") + _ " " ," , " !5 " ) +# 0 - 7 " !$" ," 3!1" 9 -" ) !1" " ," !)#"5 -: ,$ ) " ," !))!$/"! " 1 !1#" #+"1" # 7 311" 8 , AN
3!1" " !#), , !"" ) "<$"1" L $"" ," 5 8
A&
AO
AS
AA
+- Q%Q5
"!!" "5 ( 5 ! ; !"" "!!" ," >!$" Q@@R RH5
+- HA5
# $ 1" @@S5 L " "!1" $1)!" " 1 ," ,P"!#" 1 L )" )!= "
! " $" ,#3 !"=" "!"1" ," ! $$!=" *!" ; $"" ,P $"" ,P " $"" ,P &
AR
AN
" "3
5
3!", ! 4 " 2""5 &
' 5 ! ; Y$E"$E Q@O& OAN5
*,5
&Q
! /" !" < /!, " + " ""! Y$/ !0 - $$!" !$" <
," )!$ ! #1+0 " " 1+0 " $/ ,-# ,"! -# #10 " , 1 " ," /1+ " 3!6
G :" 0 -
$$1)+" ,- $/#15 " ;
Par rapport au signe Sy lat. focus, qui désignait le concept Cj foyer, on observe
un « changement de sens » en français, où feu (<focus>) exprime le concept Ck
feu. Voilà le parcours sémasiologique dans l’interprétation des changements
linguistiques (du signifiant de S au concept C) […] tout processus de
changement de sens va de pair, par définition, avec un autre processus qu’il faut
décrire en suivant le parcours onomasiologique (du concept C au signifiant S).
Dans le cas présent, nous observons effectivement, par rapport au concept Ck
feu, un autre type de changement : en latin, feu était exprimé par le signe Sx
ignis, tandis que, plus tard, en français, il est exprimé par le signe Sy feu.
J’appellerai ce côté onomasiologique du même changement sémantique
« changement de désignation ». 58
$1)!", $," 0 " " 1 !"" $$") ," 7 3:"! 8
$-"L,!" 7 " " K - 3 , 3" 8 ! 0 " " 1C1" +" !)# 3!6 !"" L ," 7 3" 85 " $$") ,#+# )! " +" !"# )" )!
$/+# 3$ 3" ,$ # # 3:"! 3" 5
! !" "!" " ," 7 3:"! 8 " ," 7 3" 8 -$! , !))! ,"
$+ ]# ; )!"Z 5 $ " " " 3:"! ,#3 )! $" 0 - $" " 3" 5 1C1" 1 1+1# $" " $" ; " " @ V) X " 3" 5 )!"
"" !"" "<$ "1" L $" 0 " " 3:"! $" $" ; " 3" * V1X "
" 5 2 " 3" ) ! )!)!## ," !:"! )! 1=!" 0 - #1" " $/" ! 0 -
,#++"5 " 3" )" ,$ !":"! )! $+ ]# L " 3:"! " $"! "
$" 0 ? 0 -$ " $" 0 " $ $-" )!" 0 !"" 5 "
3:"! " ,#3 )! $" 0 - $" $" 0 - $" $" *!"1" 1#:10 "1" $" , " " $" $$!"5
" ! 0 3 0 " - 1" 3" " -"33" )!, )! " 3" " )!**"1" ) #!+"! < " !"C )! " ,"!" $ 0 " ,#!"
#:1+0 "1" G ," 1C1" " !)" <0 " -"1) , 1 3" ," " # L ," !, $"!"5
-!+" 3 , 3" ," +!" !" 3!, " 1*!" ) ! $ !" "
1" *$" 1!" " )!#+"! ,-#" "" 0 " ,-1 < +"
C!" " !#$/ 33"! " -#$!"!5 " 3" 7 ,#++"1" ,-#"!+" $!30 " "
A@
," 1=!" $$1)+ $1* " 8 " ,$ ::1" ," " " ," ,-#$ 1" < ," #$ !# ," $3! " ," !#$3!5 2 " 3" 0 *!c" " $ 1"
! )+" " 3" 1 ," -$"," " ," 3 ,!" $" *!"! 1*"
+# +" )!3 "<+ *" " ::1" ," ,"! $ " ," 1! ,"
$",!" " ," ,#5
58
A@
W5 5 0 ! &
! $5!
" "
" *"! Q@@O @Q&5
&&
! 0 & # .:: Q
2 5 ( <==G( +B-7+B*
2 ( ! ! % ) 2 2 : 3 2
" 3" -"!""5 3 ," ,+"!# " ," # 3 " $!$$!!"
" ",! )!#$5
! " ) B , !#$1" )!#$ " " G
,-K 3<# !"" , " K - 3 , 3" ; ) ,#3 !")#!# " !")#!*"
!!, " $/ ,5 " 3" " $ " ))!# ,"" " ," !"1*"1"
) ," $$"! ," "5 - " 3<" 3 "! L ;
Le signe le plus visible de l’avantage à être chez soi dans le groupe, c’est l’âtre ;
ce symbole, le plus ancien de l’humanité est l’indication la plus limpide du fait
que les hommes ne s’en sortent pas sans un élément de gâterie. Le feu entretenu
en commun procure l’expérience de l’existence d’éléments qui apportent une
faveur naturelle et garantissent des avantages tant qu’on les surveille
attentivement. La puissance du feu est bienveillante – pour autant que la garde
des braises ne s’endort pas. Les maniements du feu constituent une activité
située précisément à la frontière entre la magie et le travail. 60
" ) 3<" ," ,33 $!30 " " 3 )!3 " ,-"33 ," $3,"$"5 "
" 0 " - ,"" 3" ,"" 1 " #" )!#+#" , < 3:"! 0 ! !" *!,# ," )#1*!"5
" . $ L -"!#" #:1+0 " " /!0 " ,"
"
-,?"$3 ! " " $ , , [ =$" ; ,
RQ
-"<)$ " 7 ! 3" " " 8 G $1)!", 0 " " " K - !#," " $" K
- #* 3" ) ,-$!+" *" " $/" !" < ) ," 3< ," -b!" " ,"
-C!"5 -$" "!" " -" " 0 " ) #0 ""5 " " )! "<$""$" "
,$ $" K - )" #!+"! & 5
)!]0 "1" " 3:"! " ,$ 7 " " K - 3 , 3" 8 "$ $" 0 "
$" ", " "!1" ," " ; $/" ! 1# !$ !")=!" ! !
, ")$" 1# )! $!" *" c! "$ " 3!, -*$ !# !#) "$!" " "1" ," -C!" #+!# ,-C!" 5
,"L " 3" )"!1" ," ,#1"! " " ,#$/ $!"1" $!" 3,
1 ,$ $11" ,#+# )! ,#3 )! $" ) 1" < #1"!+" ," -*$ !#
) !!, 1 " " ,- !""!!"1"5 " " $!$$! " 1+#0 "
- " " " L C!" " " " L !",!" *" $" 0 - 1"5 " " 1,"
$! " $" 0 " - , 1," ;
[…] si différent qu’il soit d’un moule tactile externe, le modelé optique en
clair-obscur agit encore comme un moule devenu intérieur, où la lumière pénètre
inégalement la masse. Il y a même un intimisme lié à l’optique, qui est justement
ce que les coloristes supportent mal dans le clair-obscur, l’idée d’un « foyer » ou
même d’un « coin de feu », serait-il étendu au monde. 62
60
RQ
. >Q @ 5? ) G $ - , "!" ," "$/"!$/"
B'( / /
/
:=
CD
/
( <==C( GC+7GC<
/
/
3:E;=:=FD4) 1" 5 ! ; ,
"
$"30 " Q@H% Q%QO5 <)!" , " , 0 -"" " "#" [ =$" , !" ," " :" B")" ,"5 %
:=
' CD
( /
$ ! G+H5 ! ; /1) QHNAQHH&5 ! . $ - $ 3:E;=:=FD4 1" [5
&O
" 3" )"!1" ,$ ," $!$$!!" " ," 3<"! " 5 /#1=" " )!" #!" " 3"
" ? ! " !$" ," )+" " !"" ,- " $1* 0 "0 "
*!$/" $$#"5 " " " " , 3 1C1" ," $"" $,"$"$" )$ "" ,"
-"1)!"" 0 -"" : " " ," $$"! / 1" +##!#" L 11" ,#5
" 3:"! # , 3" ,1"0 # " !")=!" "!!"!" $-" ) ," +#+!)/"
/ 1"5
" 3 ) 1" ," -#$/"" ," -,, L $"" ," $"$#
!"! " $/#1 $1)!*"5 " ," $11 # +"" $" 0 1" " 3" " -"!"" " " 3!+"!5 *"! 2 $/"1*", #0 " " 3 0 " )! ) $"!" " 3<" 3!+" " $" 0 :
" "!"" " 3" $!"
#!"1" " 3:"! , +"5 3<# )"!1" 3!+"! ," ! " 1,"
)"!5 3!+" " ,$ $"!" !$3 1 " ," ,33 ,"
-3!15 " *"!+"! 0 -" !" < 1!+" !" ,"L , " $!$$! )!
" 3:"! ," $11 # " " < " !")!#" " ) #+#5 " !
*"$" " ! $3=!" ,-" ! )!3 ,-#!+"!5 " 3!+"! " " *"!+"!
$!" ," < )`" ))# " " ," < " " !* "! ) ! !$"! ;
Derrière le troupeau, ils [les bergers] allaient dans les coins les plus
inaccessibles ou les plus déserts du territoire communal, étaient en contact avec
l’inconnu, l’interdit, les peurs de la communauté locale et se constituaient un
savoir naturaliste qui pouvait bien être un pouvoir de faire le bien comme le mal.
A l’inverse, le maréchal-ferrant est redouté parce que justement il ne quitte jamais
le village. De sa forge, il entend tout, voit tout, sait tout, donne l’impression d’être
partout à la fois. Il manipule le fer et le feu, attributs du diable […]. 63
1" - $/+" ," " ,-#$/"" " 0 " - !" !"+!, "! " $"
! " 3:"! !"1" ) "" " " & ( , -
! A . B
C
-" -!1" B/" Y")"! 0 $3=!" " ,1" $"30 " "!1" RS
" QR%S , !+" # *
5 "33" *" 0 "
-$$") )0 " , "!1" "1*" "#" $"" ," "" !"" $#" L )/#1=" )/:0 " $$!" 7 * !+ ) 3 " ! 1!!! 8 , " )
"$!" " 1#$1" "<$ $" 0 " Y")"! ? "1" # $,"! ;
The Latin word was first used in sense I [In plane geometry: One of the points
from which the distances to any point of a given curve are connected by a linear
relation] by Kepler (Astron. pars Optica iv. 4, written in 1604); his reason for the
62
4 N H /0 &
I+,*+M 63
K: %5 :
@ 3
% 0
?
! 0
( <==<( +<6
% 7.0 > 3 # !3&!
. ( +,,B( <*+ 2
>Q D >Q @ 5? ) G( GC<
RS
B/" Y")"!5 @Q5
&S
I QR%S B/" Y")"!5 ! 8 9 5 2 $/ ; "!+* $//, + Q@O@
% ) 2 2 : 3 2
choice of the name is not stated, but it is conjectured that the optical sense 2,
“burning point of a lens or mirror” (which is easily derived from the lit. Sense)
must have been already in existence; this would account for Kepler’s use, as the
“burning point” or “focus” of its curvature. 65
" $,!" ," " !"$/"!$/" " )0 " Y")"! $/ ,- "! " "!1" 3 ,"
,#+"! " ) +#1#!0 " ," $"!+"$" ," $ !*" ")0 "5 $3=!" "
" ! ) *!" "!1" 0 ? 0 "L !": "<$ "1" ) $!3=!"
," $"!+"$" ," !: 1" < ! " "" " $"! )! $#0 " " ) #! " ) $$!" "$ ," 7 3" 85
!## Y")"! -#!"" < )!*=1" ," !#3!$ 1)/#!0 " 0 3 "
" *"! $#""5 3 0 " " ,#" $"$#" " 3*" 3 ,-*!,
1" < ! " ," )!)+ ," 1=!" $11" $"" 0 !#+" 5
-" 0 " " #* " )!"1=!" ,$ "!" " 7 1+" ,- !" , 1!! V0 X ))!T ? ! $!"1" 0 "" 0 " ,$" "!" " !" " " 1!! 8 " " 7 0 " 3!1" ! -#$! ,- "
RR
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Nos lucis causa, et oculis in Mechanicam intentis ea puncta Focos appelabimus.
Centra dixissemus, quia sunt in axibus sectionum, nisi in Hyperbola et Ellipsi
conici authores aliud punctum centri nomine appelarent. Focus igitur in circulo
unus est A. isque idem qui et centrum : in Ellipsi foci duo sunt B. C. 72
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Et ainsi cela est sans ambiguïté : l’orbite de la planète n’est pas un cercle mais
une [courbe] s’avançant peu à peu vers les deux côtés, et de nouveau
aboutissant vers la largeur du cercle dans le périgée. On nomme Ovale une figure
de parcours de cette espèce.75
1C1" 3!1" ")0 " 0 - # ,#" " +#1#!" )0 " , !?"$!" ," 2! " " 1C1" "!1" & 3 ," ,#+"! " ," < ) !
,"0 " " )=" "1*" 3#$/! " ! $ !" ; ,- " )! " $"!" ,
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[Kepler] showed, first, that the center of the planetary revolutions is not an
abstract geometrical point in the vicinity of the sun but the center of the sun’s
very body, and that the orbits of the planets are not circles but ellipses, the sun
being located in one of their foci (first keplerian law). 77
NS
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75
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Comment appelle-t-on l’Orbite de chaque Planète ? Elle est appelée Cercle,
l’ancien mot Excentrique étant sous-entendu. En effet quoique les orbites soient
Elliptiques, comme ici PERI, qui comme deux centres A, L, que nous appelons
physiquement Foyers, dans l’un A se trouve le Soleil lui-même comme centre du
monde : pourtant encore le point milieu entre les foyers, comme B, est dit par les
écrivains, par un droit particulier, centre de la figure Conique […]. 78
NR
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)!**"1" ) ! $" ! ) !"1" "/#0 " " !"$ ?1 " ,#$ "!" ," Y")"!5 " -")" # "
3!1" *!0 " 1)!3" 0 - $1)! L -1!)/" ; 7 V555X / ! ) +++- ! (
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Pour l’école de Thalès, la terre est au centre. Xénophane dit qu’elle occupe la
première place <puisqu’>elle est enracinée dans l’infini. Le Pythagoricien
Philolaos place au milieu le feu puisqu’il est le foyer de l’univers, à la deuxième
[…]. 79
$ ," !0 " " 1 & ))0 # L -!" !" )!" ," -+"
"$ " 3" "!!"!" 0 $ " " !$" ," $/" ! !#$3!" ) ! -/11"5 "
" "1*" ? "! " 1C1" !`" L -#$/"" ," - "! ""!5 11" " " " ,"
,33 $!30 " " )$# $"!"5 $ ," Y")"! " & !"" L
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," < 3:"! E#)#!" -" ) "<$"1" " " $11" -"", !0 " 1
" $3, " !## "$ ) +#1#!0 " # $"!" ,
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" )/#!0 " ,$ $!$ !" ,- ) ," " *,1""5 -" 0 " " 1
& ) !"$#"! ," $"!#5 3" 11" " " )# $"!" , 3" 5
$" -? " 1=!" !" 0 !!," " )!" #+"1" " ,"
<" ,#3 )! +#1#!" ;
Il n’est pas douteux que comme le Soleil est tout lumineux, ainsi encore il est fait
tout de feu, et à cause de la densité de la matière il est à comparer à une masse
d’or brillant entièrement. Alors de cette lumière du Soleil sort l’apparence non
corporelle, elle descend jusqu’à nous, non matérielle, que nous nommons
lumière ou rayons du Soleil, qui cependant reçoit des quantités et des accidents ;
certes elle coule selon des lignes droites, elle est condensable ou atténuable, et
entièrement taillée au moyen de miroirs et de verres, c’est-à-dire au moyen de la
réflexion et de la réfraction, comme nous apprenons dans les Optiques. D’ailleurs
cette apparence de la lumière Solaire transporte encore la chaleur elle-même et
en raison de sa force plus grande ou plus petite, par laquelle elle tombe sur les
corps clairs, elle les échauffe encore plus ou moins. 81
" ," < 3:"! +#1#!0 " ," -")" )! )) $"!" 0 " , $"!$" 78
79
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" $"!" +#1#!0 " ! , 0 " " )=" +!" G " $" +!b$" L H&
,#$ "!" $$1" , $!$=!" ")0 " " $!$ !" ," -!*" ," 2! 5
" 3:"! " $3, "$ " $"!" $! $-" ! , $"!" ,
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[…] il est étonnant que certains se servent de la similitude du flambeau au milieu
de la lanterne, pour cause de moquerie, alors que la similitude est très
convenable et pas du tout assortie pour désapprouver cette opinion, mais plutôt
propre à dépeindre en premier la force de cet argument. 2. Imagine que la sphère
des fixes soit un miroir concave : il est connu que l’œil placé dans le centre d’un
tel miroir regarde par lui-même de partout, et si la lumière est au centre elle est
réfléchie partout depuis la surface concave à angles droits, les [rayons] réfléchis
se réunissent de nouveau dans le centre ; mais cela ne peut être fait en aucun
autre point de l’espace concave, excepté celui qui est dans le centre. Donc
puisque le Soleil est la source de la lumière, l’œil du monde, le centre lui est dû,
afin que (lui-même Père dans la symbolisation divine) soit contemplé et se
complaise dans cette sienne image et s’illustre lui-même en illuminant, excite en
chauffant. 83
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-*?"$3 0 , -))!" " !#+# ," 36 L *"! " 1+" "" ,-*?" # L
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+ " ) -+" ," $/1) " !#, ) 1 -#", " ,-")$" $"!#"
)! -*?"$3 " 1,!"5 " 1C1" 36 ) 3$" " $ !" ) )!3," !
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$/1) ,#)"," ,$ #!"1" ," $" 0 " - ))"" $11 #1" 5
"" !"C " 1)!$" $)" " )/+!)/" $! $-" -,$ ," + " ! 3$" " 11=!" 0 $ " " )!"1"! $!=!" ,-))!"$" $#+!""
," -*?"$3 " ,"L ," -))!" )/+!)/0 "5 ,$" ) $ !" " ,"
A% 11=!" ) ! *?"$3 ,!, $-"L,!" -*?"$3 " !))!$/ " ) ," / 1"5 , " ! " L
-"!#" ;
Distance du foyer principal d’un système optique centré au plan principal du
système. On dit aussi distance focale. (La distance focale d’une lentille mince est
égale à la distance de la lentille au foyer.) La focale, désignée par la lettre f (par
ex. f=50 mm), est l’une des caractéristiques d’un objectif photographique et
permet de les distinguer : un 50 mm, un 135, un zoom 35-200, etc. 94
-"! , )!$#,# )/+!)/0 " $"!"1" $!* # L !## $ "" ,
"!1" 0 " - !"$!" 11" " 3!6 , -"<)!" 0 ,#+" " ))!" ) ! "0 " 1" ) " 3 10 "1"5
+!,"! L -")! " ) ," )!#$ 0 " ", 3$" ) 0 ,#)",
," )!3," ! ," $/1) 11" ,-? "1" ," - " "1" L -*?"
3$# # )! -*?"$3 1 L -^ ,"!!=!" " " !5 -+ ,- ) ,"
)!#$ 1#$0 " #!"1" 7 *?"$3 8 1 ) 0 "1"5 -* !" !
-,)" " ,)/!+1" -,)" 1 ) )" 5 -^ " -^ 1#$0 " "
!"" " $!* " L )"!$") "" ," -*?"5
9 -" " , $/< ," $" 0 " - *"!" " ,"L , ,"+!# ,-" 0 " -
$$!," L $" 0 " - )"!6 \ 9 -" " , ?" , *?"$3 ,"!!=!" -*?"$3 \
" ,"+!# ," ," *# !" ," !# ," -^ !"=" ," $!=!"
)/:+0 " ! "0 " - ) ,!"$"1" )!" " 0 " !## ,#3" *" ) 0 " " " 1T!5 0 " ,"+!# ," *# "
$!!## ,"+!# ,-" \ $" 0 " - " $$"!" ? ! ! $" 0 " - "
@&
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$3,!" )!3," ! ," $/1) " $/1) ," 5 3 ," ,#"!1"! )!3," ! ," $/1) !" + " ! 3$" 3 #+"1" )!",!" " $1)" ) 1 +!," "! !" , ,)/!+1" , " 3$"1" 1" )!3"1" $" ,"
) )" " )"!1" " ) 1 +!," !#$") ," 1=!" ?- ,#?L 1"# $" )/#1=" !0 " ?-#0 "
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,- ) +#1#!0 " ," $"!+"$" )!3" ! ""# ," -1+" )"!6 "5
" !: 0 " 3$" " $$"!" " ) )!= "1) ,-,)
," 1) ) 1 +5 -^ 0 "" ," $"!"! " $ ! ,- *?"
)$# L ,$" )+# , " ! 3!$#1" $! "! $" 0 - /" ,+ "!
)", " , !#" ,#"5 " !: 1" < 0 #1" ," -*?" $,#!# "
3$" ! " 3, ," !#" +!b$" $! $)*" ," " $!$"! ," "
,",!" )"!1" " !"$$" ) 1 )!#$" ," -*?" "
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-!, " , $"" !"" )! ) )" " -: !"3="5 " " ,
"! *! "! 5 -^ " !1"1" 3$" L -*?" 0 -$! $"!" ," $/1) "5 )!" ," ; 7 " 1)*" ," )"!$"! ," 36 ,#0 "
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:)0 "1" )$# $"!" " 1)!#""5
" )!$" !"0 "! "1) ," $$"! , !"+!, " ," -" ,$ ,"
$$"$" G ,- 0 " -^ -" ?1 * 1" 11*" 1C1" !0 - -+
," $! "! ##1" " )!$ "!5 -^ " ? ! 1# ," 1$!$$," 0 - "
1)*" ," $!`"!5 -" ,$ , 3 ,- "33! " 1)0 " " ,"
" $!) 0 - " " $$! " ," -")! 0 " -^ )" *!"3 $T!" " ,"! " "1" ," 1T!"! *?"5 $" $ -"# ,
?" )!#" " "!!"1" !" <0 " -^ " "$ "!!"1" )!)!" L 3$"1" !+0 "5 "1*! -*?" , !"+!, $-" 1C1" 0 " -
$/"!$/" L 1" < $"!"!5
" "1) ," $$"! $!!"), "1) ,-:" , !"+!,5 " )" , !"! $ ! 11" ) + " $" 0 " - /" ! ; ," 1)" !"$$" L -"<1" ))!3,5 /0 " "1) ,-:" )!#"" "
"<+"$" ,- " ,-*"! 0 " )!)!" " ," $!=!" !*"5
"+!,"! $-" *:"! , !"+!, -")$" " ! ) " 3<"! )$ ""1" ! $" 0 " 1+#" " 3!1" " $ " ! #$ $!"5 9 "0 " $/" !)!", @A
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L ! ! !# ! *#5 -+ #+"1" ," ! -*?" , !))! L "
,$" !" 1 ," " ,"1*$"5 -+ ,-# "! " ,$" ," !
" )!)! " ," ,#1"! " $ !5 ,- !" "!1" -+ ," !"$""! "
$!$#!0 " #$"!" " 33" L -:" )!$ =!" )!)!" L "
"!")!" ,-*"! ;
La fonction perceptive rejoint donc ici la fonction sémiotique […] Cette forme, de
ce qu’elle est acquise, élaborée et transmise par apprentissage, est éminemment
sociale, et donc culturelle. C’est un savoir – une structure cognitive et non plus
seulement perceptive – qui nous garantit l’unité de la feuille pliée en deux,
comme elle nous garantit la différence de la vitrine et du spectacle qui y
transparaît. En synthèse, on voit que la perception est sémiotisante, et que la
notion d’objet n’est pas objective. Elle est au mieux un compromis de lecture du
monde naturel. 96
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)0 " !""1" 1)" $"!+"$" ," !: 1" < " ) +!b$" L !#3!$ " "1) ," 3$ -$$1)+" ,- )!$" ,-:" $+"
"<!C1"1" $1)"<" 0 - " 1)*" ,-+!"!5 ! 0 " -1+" " 3!1" ! !#" " $"!" $)" " " !"1#1!" +!"33" ! " )"!6 , ) $""1"
$ 0 " ," ,#" )!" ,- !" J" ," )"!$")5 !## $"
"!"$ ," ,#" "" $"" "Z 1 #" 3!1" !#"
:"/#0 " ,"" ;
On montre que c’est déjà au niveau physiologique que l’influx circulant le long
des voies nerveuses est retraité, à chaque jonction entre fibres. Ce traitement
consiste à intégrer d’autres données à celles qui proviennent de l’excitation
d’une terminaison nerveuse particulière. Ces nouvelles données peuvent à leur
tour avoir deux sources : elles peuvent provenir soit de l’excitation d’autres
terminaisons, soit d’autres zones de l’organisme percevant. De sorte que le
système retinex [rétine+cortex] fonctionne non pas comme une somme
d’excitations élémentaires et juxtaposées (ou successives), mais comme un tout.
97
3$ )0 " -$$1)+" 110 *"1" ,- 1+1" 3!1"
,c L " $# $+" ""5 " " ) " "1" " !: 1" < 0 "
3$" ! !#" $-" " !"+!, 0 1 #1" " 3$" " "$ -")!
""! , 1# ," $" 0 " " $")*" ," $!* "! L " 1"" !"
))!#/" ," *?"5
-,#" ," $"!+"$" """ !"=" ,- "1) 1#)/!0 " ) 0 " !"
," ))*" " -: $,"" " ))!"$" -" ) ," 1C1" ," $"!+"$" ,
!"+!, 0 "" " #!"5 " "33" ? 0 -! 1 ," )!#$"! 0 " / 1" # #!#$)0 " $!!"1" L "" !10 " L -))!"
)/+!)/0 " 0 ," ! 1" )0 " 1$ !"5 " 3 96
4 97
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-*?" 3<# " $1)! ," 1+" " )! -^ ,! " )! -^ + $/"
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3$ )0 " -)=!" ! !#" " 1 "1" 0 ," -"<#!" !
"! -#!" !5 " $]$," "$ $"!+"$" *$ !" , " )!$ ! "
$!!" ) 0 - " !"# "! -"<#!" !5 "" !?"$!" "!#" #0 " $""
1#)/!0 " ,- " "# , ?" "! -*?" G ! 1C1" 0 " 3$
)0 " ,#$!" ? 0 -L )!#" !"" ," !#$") " ," )# ," -1+"
!1" )! -*?" L 1)!" ! !#"5 -*"$" ," " ,#"
$"30 " $$"! $"" "# )!)!" !"+!, )!# 5 "
!"+!, " L " ) "1) ," 0 " $)$# L $)"! 1# ) C!"
)"!6 " $11" " 3$ # #$!"5 " 3$ !""!#" " 3 < " $!" ;
Les Grecs en général favorisaient l’idée que l’œil voit par extramission, en
projetant quelque chose en dehors, du feu, de la lumière, des rayons visuels ou
du pneuma. Platon évoque, dans le Timée, la belle image de la « synaugeia »,
c’est-à-dire de l’union de deux rayonnements lumineux opposés, l’un provenant
de l’extérieur, l’autre de l’œil même. Les deux forment ensemble un corps
lumineux qui relie l’œil aux objets. 99
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3 ,-" $)"! " 1,!" #$5 " )! 3$"1" 1C1" -^ ", L 7 !#$")# !#"" ," $)3 : +"1) #? !# , -*$ !# "
"" 0 - )" " ,+ "! ," *?" , -*$ !# , " 1*!" L )""
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$, ," *#5 " " 0 C" ,- " "# 1" " L 1" !" ,- Q%&
)"$$" 1# ," *! 0 " -#* " " -" +" 3 0 " 3$ " )"!," ," "33$$" 3 0 " " 1"+" " " /!1" "$
" 1:" , ,)" ) ! " ,#$!:)"!5 3#" $!!"), L $"" J" ,"
"" $^ ! , $/1) " ;
One of the eye’s curious attributes is central vision: visual acuity is best for
objects focused in the center of the visual field and drops off substantially away
from the center. Visual acuity can be divided into three types, defined according
to their angle from the axis of vision: - foveal vision, which encompasses a visual
angle of only about 1-2 degrees; - parafoveal vision, which encompasses a visual
angle of up to 10 degrees; and - peripheral vision, which encompasses a visual
angle beyond 10 degrees. 103
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$ !" < # ,# $3+ ! $!$ !" , +*" $ !" " 36 , "
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-1+" 0 " !"3=" $!" < ," !#" ! 1$ $-"L,!" L -",! K "
Q%%
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!#""1" " ! "!"1" "1*" 1)*" 0 - " )$ ""1" " +# " $ ,-*$ !# ; 7 2 !0 " "
3" "<#!" ! " !"!" ) ! 3!" )$" L " ! " $ )# , 3" #!" ! 0 " ))!"#5 "33" $11" " ! 1*" ! 0 "0 " $/" 0 -" ) "1**" L " 3" #!" ! ,"" !" " -#" -: ) ," $11 # ,"
!" "$ -! "! ) 0 " $" $ " $" ) ," 3" 5 $"" ! ,-: ! $" 0 $" 11"5 "33" )!"$ ," :" < 0 " " ," < 1#+#" . " ) )=!" !0 -"" " 3"!1" "3"!1" L -#!" ! ) $" ,
3" #!" ! 0 " !#), " )" " 1 "1" 0 " )!, " L -#!" ! ," -C!" / 15 8 *,5 " #!" ,"
$"! 0 " $/"J " $6 " "" " "!" 3" #!" ! " 3" "<#!" ! 0 "" " ! "
#!#" , 3 ,- " ! "<#!" !" ,"! " L -" +"1"5 "" $$") ," !))"" -11"5 /#!" )$"" " ? ! )" -" +"1" -" ) ,c L ,#3 ," )"!$") L " # #"
1 L " $11 " "$ !" G *" 0 - " "<$ 1" " "<#!" !" ! ) ! $#0 "$" " "<$
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103
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!= )"
"*" < $ " !5 ! -!$" " +" ," 25>5 /!"! # 7 -^ " 8 H5
/);ZZFFF5$35 1"JZ$ !Z$/!"!Z""Z3$/"!& !$" $ # " QN c &%%R
ON
$" " )/"*" " ) ,"#1" )!#"" " 0 ,"
1 $ " & ," 5 " 1C1" 36 3!# ," !+" !#$")" ! 3
0 " 11" *+# 3 ," ! ""1" *?" ," )$"! 3$" L 5
:)0 "1" *?" )"!6 ,$"1" "! ,$ )$# L " ,$" !""
)"!1" 1" ) " 3$" ," " L / " ! ," :" < $^ ! ," !"
$/1) "5 -1)!$" ," 3!# $11," " ," ," " ," ,#?L #0 #" ;
[Nos] structures sémiotiques constituent […] une projection de nos structures
perceptives, celles-ci étant à leur tour déterminées par nos organes et par leur
exercice (lequel est physiologiquement, mais aussi culturellement, determiné). Il
en va ainsi de l’organisation de l’espace perçu en trois dimensions (que cet
espace soit vu comme droit ou courbe). Nous sommes sujets à la gravité ; de là la
naissance des notions de haut et de bas, et celle d’un axe sémiotique de la
verticalité. Nous nous mettons en mouvement […] de là la naissance d’un rapport
avant-arrière ; entre le sujet et l’objet, et celle d’un axe sémiotique de frontalité.
Nos organes sont symétriques ; de là la naissance du couple gauche-droite, et
d’un axe de la latéralité. 105
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= !
#!"1" ! *?" " $!" " $,!"
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" $"!" )" $ !* !" ," !" $/1) " " -: )!C ,= ! + =!"
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," - ""# "" " ? " $"!" ," -^5 -!,!" " ) 3$
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)!" ," , - !"5
! * *?" )"!6 )"!1" ?" ," -))!#/","! )$ ""1" , $" 0 -"
) )" $$"! ," *?" )! 1!0 " ,##*" ," $""
105
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:" < " * $/" " " )5 " "3 " "! + $/",!" 1 " :" < " ) L -""!5 ! " !=
,33$" ," " !"1!0 "! " -1)!" 0 " " ," < )/ , ," L )" )!= ,"0 "5 !"$/" -
!")$" " 1+" L -",! $" ,33#!"$" ,""" $!" )!" " - " 3 0 " !" " "!$" ! " $" 0 $$"!" !"$$" ," +"5 ! - ," /$/"! , '"!# *, 4 10 " "5 7 " !"$$"
," *?" L !"$$" ," +" 85 Q@@N QA5
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!"+!, , $" 0 " )"!6 3 ," " 1!"! ," " $"!"!5 11" $"
*?" )!"! ! 1!0 " ," !" !"+!, $",! ) ," $$! " ) !
" )! 5 " ) "<#!" ! ?" "! ) ! " )"$" ! ) 3$ 3<
3#" ,- !"5 -" L )!$)" 1)" ," !")!, $ ," !## -"33"
!", *# , ?" !## )"!6 " )! " ?" " !")!, " )! 5
!))""! L $" !" #+"," , )"! ,= 0 !# *!""3 L )!!
, ! , 3" " !# -1*!" )!?"#" ! 1 ! , )!3 ," 15 #+"," " !"#" )! " -$" , % S
;
L’idée lui en fut donnée par sa fille qui, amoureuse d’un jeune homme
en partance pour l’étranger, avait dessiné le contour de l’ombre de son visage,
projetée sur le mur par la lumière d’une lanterne ; son père en fit une figurine en
argile moulée, et une fois séchée, il la mit à durcir au four avec les autres
poteries. 109
)"!$") ," -1*!" " *" $! 1=!" 0 )"!1" #1"!+"$" "
$/+"" !0 " -#$!+" " !"5 -1*!" " ""1C1" 1))*" !"" L
," -*"5 " "1) " $" *"5 " ?" " /11" ! " ) ," -"<"!
#0 " )! )!#"$" " *"$" 11""5 " ?" 0 - !" , " 1:/"
"!" " )!#"$" 0 " 1 " " )!?"$ $+!)/0 " " )" !" ,-1*!" "
" *"$" L "! $ " " #$ ) " , )+" "<!*" , "1)5
""! ," 3<"! " "33" !0 " " $ " " ,)#" #0 L ! !!C"! "
"1) G -"1)!"! ," -*" 3 ,-C!" " 1" !" ," " !" L "
$!!"), L ,#! ,-"! *?"$# " ," )!" ," $$"$" +0 "5 ,3$ ,- " 1*!" , )"!"11" 0 -"" " 11#!"" " #
," 1" " )" , "1)5 "" )" ", -"! *?"$#5
" 3 $,"! " "1) " !", * - * L ,#, *"1" , ?"5
" +"" " !0 " $! $-" -"<)!" +! " " )#" ,- " 1)!"
"33*" ;
L’art n’est pas une simple répétition de la nature et de la vie ; c’est une sorte de
transformation et de transsubstantiation. Cette transsubstantiation est produite
Q%H
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3E: !0 " $" ,"!"!
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$$"$" /* #" L $,#!"! $11" ? " $" 0 " *?"$"1" 3 < #)! "! , *" ," $ $11" 3 < $" 0 "
*?"$"1" ? "5 ," $" "<$"1" $:,!0 " 0 ,- ) ," " )/:+0 " "1*" " !#!#$! "! "
/ ,"!" #1 ,- ) ," " ):$/+0 " " "1" ,-"! -#!+ )!$" 0 " V" MX $"!+"$" )"!)"$" )!#$#1" $T )! /* ,"
"$!" ) 3!" $-"L,!"
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) !"1" $:,!0 "5 -" 0 " -))!"" $"<# ," +" ,!" "! !$1)"#" ) 0 " )"!$"!
" #!*" ,!" $11" $$" " 0 - )! )!,<" 0 -" 0 -))!" #)! "! $11" #!*"1"
,!" " " " +" 0 " !$# $"<"5 8 !F 3E:5 , & '
Q@O&5 ! ; 2 Q@NA ANAH5
109
1. ! c % ( +,,B( G-+
O@
par le pouvoir de la forme esthétique. La forme esthétique n’est pas simplement
donnée ; ce n’est pas un donné de notre monde empirique immédiat. Pour en
prendre conscience, nous devons la produire ; et cette production repose sur un
acte autonome spécifique de l’esprit humain. Nous ne pouvons parler d’une
forme esthétique comme d’une partie ou d’un élément de la nature ; il s’agit d’un
produit d’une activité libre. 110
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)! !" $11" $-" " $ " )" !" " )"$" ! " ,)" ,- $ "
"!"5 , " )"! !"+!, , )"!"5 " !")!#" )$ !" )/+!)/0 " )#!3" 11" ," "" " !"3" 3+# ," $" 0 ,"
! 3# ," -!" L ,# " " 1" ) !##" ! " $*"
11*#" , 1 " 1#1!"5 " ) ,-*"! !" ""
," !")!#" ) 0 " 3$ -" ) L 3!" 1 0 -"" " !##" "
0 " !# " !")!, ! ))! 0 "5 " )"$" ! " ,$ $! ,"
" )$"! , -<" ," 3$ , )"!" ) )!#$#1" , -<" ," 3#
#!"1"
3 ," !"? "! " )!"1=!" 3$5 $! $
)"!)"$" "" 0 -"" ))!T , ! $ !" " $,"" ," ")$" )$ ! < ,
T " )/#1=" " !# ;
Pour que l’image construite au moyen de la projection perspective, ou centrale,
coïncide scientifiquement avec celle de la vision directe, il faut […] que
l’observateur se plie aux conditions dictées par la construction elle-même :
autrement dit qu’il regarde le tableau à partir du même centre visuel que celui
adopté par le peintre, à la même distance, et avec un seul œil absolument
immobile. En dehors de ces conditions, l’image qu’il percevra sera arbitrairement
déformée par rapport à l’image naturelle. 111
" 0 - ! $!!"), L $" 0 " " )"!" /" 0 - " L $" 0 " $" ,"!"! 5 " !# ," 3$ $"" , )"!" " ) 3$ ) ! - !"5 " )
3$ " $" 0 - 3 ! $! $-" $" 0 " " )"!" 3 " !" ," !",!" " ) *"5 " !) )!= 3$ )#!#" " 3"! ! 1#!# )$ !" ," -^ !"
! "< !" " 1$!)+!)/" , !,1"# $! " $$ "! $""
*" " !" ," -1+" )""5 " !) " *" ))!T! " 1#,
+3 $!" 3, ,$5
" 3 )$# L ,$" ,#0 " !!" $")", 0 " " )"$" ! ,$"!"
1 #)! "!" " 3!1" !*"1" 3 " 1+!# " "" ," 1" )5 )!= ! "<)#!1"# -! ," ,#1!$ !$" " 0 10 " ,"
3!1" " 0 - ## )!0 # , $+!)/" -!" )" " "33" ,#? "! " !=+"
," )!?"$ +#1#!0 " ," 1*!" " "1) " ! !$#5 -!" $/ ,"
-11$"! "!" -*?" " 1*!" 3 ," !##"! )!#"$" " "!"
$!#!$" ;
La projection de l’ombre est un processus naturel qui suit des lois géométriques,
110
@ 111
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et c’est précisément pour cette raison qu’on pourra se fier au résultat. Il existe, en
somme, un parcours qui va du modèle à son image sans passer par l’esprit
trompeur ni par la main incertaine du peintre. 112
" !"+!, " ! $11" 3$# " )" " ,#$/"! ," $" , ,+ " 1 "
$ ! G 1" "33! )!$" 0 - $! 3$ ? ! )*" $! "
QQO
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$-" ,$ L -^ ," $1*"! " $ " $" 0 - 3 :#10 "1" $! "
" !## ? ! $ !"5
!" - !#" 0 ++=!" L -^ 0 - " 1" ) ) 3" !""
)*" +!b$" ,#)$"1" !))!$/"1" L )!" ," ,$" " 3<# ,
," 0 3 0 " !0 " - " !))!$/" -^ " 3$" ! , 3 T " "
" "!"" !$" ,-"5
)" !" " ) 3$ " :)0 "1" $" ",! !3$""1" )$# $"!"
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, $/1) " , )"$" ! )! -!" +!b$" L -$ $` !" , $,!"
0 ,#+" " ," )!?"$ )!#+# , :=1" )"!$")3 . " " ," !")!#"5
" $,!" , 3!# -: !" L ! ,"!!=!" " 0 " "!$# ,#$ )" ""1" -")$" " : #! $!!# , -#!" ! 1 $!" $!"
+##!"1" "$ -"<#!" ! 1$/!1"5
$" 0 , "!"1" !" - ! ) 3!$#1" 3 -*?" ,- "
" )!$ =!" ," )! , ?" " $ 1 " #,"$" 3 ,-#$!"! "
)*# ,-1 $+"5 " 0 " -!" !"1!0 # " " 1" " $=" "
-"</*" 3 0 " )"!" " ) " -+!"!5 3 ," ^ !" ) 3$ ) 112
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)+" "11" 1!0 # VWX5 " 3# ,-"!1#,!" )*" "!" " $/1) ,$ " " $/1) ,33#!"$#
)!, ," "33" ," 1" "" L 1" 3 " ,#+!,# $1]" 5 - "<1" ," )!= " * " ," 3"11" ,"
$/"! "$!" /
,"
"! -: ) ," $ ! " L $/! ," )"!+" " $")", 3!1" ) !
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7 VWX ))!T ! 0 " " 3 "# ) ! $!!"! " "33" ,-1*!" ) ! !"1)$"! ,#3 )! $"
,$ $3,!" $" 0 #)!" " $" 0 " #)!# "$!" $!#"! ! )! " )+" ," +" L !3$"5 8 2!"2,""" 2!"5 7 23 , " 13 ," '+!/ L '$E": ; 1" " "1) 1 )"5 8 ( (5
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L’art n’est jamais ici qu’une œuvre d’art particulière, où l’artiste instaure
librement des oppositions et des valeurs dont il joue en toute souveraineté,
n’ayant ni de réponse à attendre, ni de contradiction à éliminer, mais seulement
une vision à exprimer, selon des critères, conscients ou non, dont la composition
entière porte témoignage et devient manifestation. 117
" *" !, # , )"!" ,P1)"! ," $/"5 !3 ,1" "/#0 " ,P " ^ !" " !#, ,P" ! L $"" )"$$ !5 "
QQH
! " " ! 3!))" , " & !!#"
5 11" !")" ! " )!$)" ,- " 3$ $1) " " 0 " -!" )!" L - !*#5
-!" !"" -^ , )"$" ! L K " /"5 $" " ,#1!" 0 - 1!"5 "<" " )" !" " 3$ , $$") !$"1"
"!"" , " )! " "$/0 " 3!1"" , " P!" 3 ,P"!$")"! "
!"+!, , )"$" ! 0 " 3$" " ) " ! ) $$"3 , *" 1
" 3$ " !+" " #!" L !"+!,"!5 ,"L -+
) ," !"+!,"! 1 ," ! G ," 1*"! " ! $" 0 " -33!" )
11#,"1" L $$"$"5
"" L +"! 0 " , " 3!1" ,P! 13" ,- ) ," " " "
"$/0 " 0 P#:" )!1 " !+ ,P,#5 " " $3," * 1" $!
"" " " " " 1C1" 3 " 5 $/)) < $!" ,P 3!1# " ,"
*# 1)#" )! $11 $ !,!" "" !)!"" )!3 )! " ! 3!1"
" )!)!" L $/0 " $!#" ! "1*#10 " , :" ," $/$ 1 ,
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)"$" !5
Une chose est certaine : l’effort d’expression ne peut être différent dans sa
source, qu’il s’agisse de la vie ou de l’art. […] Ce qui diffère, c’est le motif de
l’intention ; le résultat est différent parce que l’effet visé n’est pas le même. Ce
qui est but pour le poète n’est que moyen pour l’homme qui vit et agit. Les
procédés linguistiques de celui-ci ne servent qu’à extérioriser ses impressions,
ses désirs, ses volontés ; une fois l’action accomplie, le but est atteint. Le poète,
QQR
" !" #0 " " $" "!1" - ," )"!" , " )" !" ," "$" ; 7 7 )"!" "
)" 85 3!1 " ," 0 " !"$11,"! ; 11" 1C1" K " )"!" " ) ! " ! !"$$" $" ""
)) " !" ," 3 #*" "!" -!" " $!# " 1C1" "1) 0 -"" "0 $$") ]"
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117
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@ H 3 :? 7 $" 0 P P: ) $ " "" 36 ," )!"! !#" " 1+3 $/0 " $/" ? 0 PL 3$ ,P*?" ,P! \ 8
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lui, aspire à transposer la vie en beauté ; il veut projeter en dehors de lui son
émotion, sans l’intellectualiser ni la généraliser ; voilà pour le dire en passant, ce
qui distingue l’artiste de l’homme de sciences. Le jeu, une des formes primitives
de l’art, fait bien saisir la différence entre l’art et la vie. Le guerrier qui manie ses
armes pour se défendre ou attaquer, vise un résultat entièrement pratique ;
lorsqu’en tant de paix, il se complaît à reproduire les mouvements qu’il exécutait
dans le combat, il s’agit d’un jeu ; ce qui est un moyen devient un but. 120
)" !" ,1" ,+0 " " ! " " ))!"$" !#, " L ) 1)"
"<)!" ; #1 !#$")5 "" !#, $ " +3" " !" 0 " P#$/+" ) $ ! 1 !$/" 0 - " " "! "!" ," < ,, )/:0 "1" )!#"
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1)!#*" , 3 < ," $$"$" " ," !#$") $"" , $!#" ! 0 1#," !
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P" ! " ,33$" ," ,!" 0 , "<$"1" " )"!" "1" ^ !" $/"#"5
9 )"$" ! )" $"1)"! P^ !" L ! !" , 3!1"
0 " )!", P*"! " " $! " "!1" ," "1) ) 0 P " " )!#" "
0 " !" #1 ," -^ !" " )" -"!!1)!"5 ! " ! )" $"1)"! -^ !"
" ,33#!# )!3 L ," =$" ,-"!"5
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!## P*?" "/#0 " " $6 3 ,PC!" 1 " !""35 " ""!
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:" ," P! ," $## ," 7 )!1" 8 ; 7 " 0 " : ## "J + L " )"!$"! P!" )=," $" $!$=!" , *" $ ) ," $## 0 " ))" 7 )!1" 85 " ! < !#$" ! $ ) !" 3!$"
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120
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3
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3 $ ,+ "! "!" + " $ !" #" , " )!#$" )! ," ,"!" $ + " 3,#" !
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! " " ,1!# , 3 1C1" ," $"" 3!$ 5 ,$ " " " L ,#+ ,P " ! 1 " $=" " "!$# , ?" G 3$ ! !#3#!"$" P" " 0 " ) "33$$"5
,33#!"$" 3,1"" "!" " ,+ " !,!" " $" 0 P !" "!" "
*" " " )"$" ! !#," )" C!" " -*"$" $$!=" ,P ," $" ! ,"
-#$/+"5 P*"$" ," P!" 0 " 3 P^ !" $6 " " !##" !" $!c1"
< !"+!, ) P#$!" $!#" ,##0 *!" "! *?"$3 ))!"5 " *" P"
) L " !#)" 3!1 #" " "!1" 1!" . -!" 1!" " )"$" ! !"+!,"5
! " 0 " !")!#" "" " *" $" " !"+!, , )"!" G "
!" ! " )"$" ! 0 $! " -^ !" )!"" $" !"+!, , -$" ," 0 " " !" ;
Le peintre ne dirige les yeux vers nous que dans la mesure où nous nous
trouvons à la place de son motif. Nous autres, spectateurs, nous sommes en sus.
Accueillis sous ce regard, nous sommes chassés par lui, remplacés par ce qui de
tout temps s'est trouvé là avant nous : par le modèle lui-même. Mais inversement,
le regard du peintre adressé hors du tableau au vide qui lui fait face accepte
autant de modèles qu'il lui vient de spectateurs ; en ce lieu précis, mais
indifférent, le regardant et le regardé s'échangent sans cesse. Nul regard n'est
stable, ou plutôt, dans le sillon neutre du regard qui transperce la toile à la
perpendiculaire, le sujet et l'objet, le spectateur et son modèle inversent leur rôle
à l'infini.123
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$ "!$/" !"/ #" )! 3$ "" P: !#, 5 P"<)!" ,P " !+" P L ) ! * 0 " ," P"</*"! " P+ ) ,P #!*" ,+ " 1 ,P 1+ " 11" !$/"!# ) ! 3!$"! " !"+!, " " !#$ $#"5 $" , ) ," " )!1 ! P!"1" #$"!" L " 3!1" ,"
$11 $ !,!" " !#$")" ! " 5 " ) ," " ,## " !#3" "
Q&S
P*?"$" " $" ,P 0 P #$/))" " )!" 11" ," $!#5 3 ,
$!$=!" ,33#!# ," -"!)!# "" "" ! 3!1"" $" " ,
-^ !" )" $ ! , "1) !"C! " )"$ " ) ,"!5 " )" C!"
1" L ," "!)!# )!3 $!,$!" 0 " -"33$$" )$ !" " -"
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)"$ ," )!$ ! " ," !3$" )0 " " -!,!" " !,!" ," ? 0 : ,#)# " ," ,#$/33!"1"
1" " )"!$")3 ," $" 1C1" + < $11" +" , ,$ !5 8 2!5 Q@HS5
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0 C" ," P,# "/#0 " )!1 ! $11 $ " $," 0 !#+"
P! 1 ", " )!0 " " " )#!" " G , $"! $ P!" 0 Q&A
,#" ? ! ,#! ,P3#$/! " !"+!, ," P !" ," 3!))"! " $$"$" "
? " )!3 ," $"$" " P"<)" < $!0 " " ) , !" $11" L
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Le rôle des yeux dans l’expression de la sensibilité, rend beaucoup plus
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apparentes les directions intérieures tout comme les difficultés d’une personne
[…] c’est dans les yeux de l’autre [que] semble se localiser son centre véritable
en tant que personne. 129
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- , #!"1" " $! "! ) ! " !5
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$ !" " 1" " $11" - !"" ! L ! " !"+!, ! 0 "0 " *?" 3 !35
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1"" L 0 "! L ," $ !" " $$ ) $ !" $11" " )" ? ! G " :" <
+!, "! " $!) E:# " !" ," !## 1 " $$"!" ! ,"
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) ", + /" /1 , /" $"!"*! $!"< F/$/ !")*" 3! 1 $+" $"5 /" ) ",
+ / 33 /" " ! /" ) $!,5 8 7 ! !"3+ 8 .
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+1 , >!" , ; 7 - ," !+=1" " ) c! ) !
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0 L ! - 33!" L )!) ,- )"!+" ,#"!1# L " )"!" )! "<"1)" L 1" " $" ," ""
!" 0 " $"" $"! ," " -$!" ) ,!"$"1" 3:"! ," " 3 0 - " ) 1"# L "<1"! " L !"!
$/" ` $! 0 " VWX $" )" #1" $1)!1"!" -"33" 33"$3 )#$30 "5 8 +1 , >!" ,5 (+ ' Q@Q@ &&S5 )" #*! )!=" "!" -*"$" ," 1" ) " ," $$ " " !" " ," -+" , ?" 0 , )"!6 - !" $11" *?" $-"L,!" $11" C!" ,#) ! ," $$"$"
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)"! ,#" 0 - "c 33 0 -"" !"+!,b " ) )#" ,- " $"!" 1=!" "$ ) +!," $" )*" ) ! 0 "
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0 " +##! )"!1" ,-))!#/","! !" "!"1" L ! !" :=1"
)"!$")3 , ""1*" 3$" )!3 " -*"$" ," 1 "<#!" !
11" !0 " - ,! " 0 " $" )!$" ," !#)# ! "" " #$"!" L
$! $ , ?"5 -"$" ) L " )!)!" ," )"#" 0 " ," !""! \
-"$" ) #+"1" 0 " " " " $! \
" 1C1" !,!" ,-,#" " /#!$" ," ! 1!"! 0 " !"
$1)!"1" # " )!3 !"3" ," 1 "1" "!" " *" 0 1" G $" !"1 #!" ! :#10 "1" "!)!## $11" " )! $" <
0 " $"5 -" "" " ) ! $" 0 -*"!" " !"3" ,- "
" "!" *" G - , - !" " ," < )/#1=" * 1"
$!!## ;
[…] le comportement, au sens le plus éminemment pratique du terme, tend à être
vu comme organisé dans des formes copiant l’organisation des développements
internes qui lui correspondent […] La direction, dans l’expérience subjective
comme dans l’expérience objective, peut impliquer une tension […] si mon
attention est attirée par un objet bizarre, tel un serpent, cette direction du moi va
de pair avec un sentiment de tension. Naturellement, une personne qui serait là
présente verra mon visage et mes yeux dirigés vers la place de cet objet ; mais la
tension de mon visage lui donnera aussi une description visuelle de ma tension
interne et cette tension sera rattachée à la place et à cet objet. 132
" ) 3$ )" C!" ) )/:+0 " ," 3#" $$"! ," $" "
)/"*" *?" ) ""1" )"!6 $! ) )!)$" L 3$
"" ,$" " #$!+" ,#0 , !" G $#+!)/" !3$"" ," "
!")!#" $ K $-" -" ," - !" 0 -"<"!$" G ,"L $" )" C!" !")!#" 1"" ," 0 "0 " $/" 0 " - /" ! " 0 " - )!?""
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132
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!"! " " 1C1" )/#1=" ,-"# " ," )!?"$ $1) " , :=1" !#$")" ! ! -"!"1" " ," - , ; 7 $T -"<"1)" ," !:/1 ," + " ,-" 1* - " )!= - !" L *!"3 "!" !
$!) !"5
" !),# ,
)#1" !+" !$ !" "3"! " $/$ ,- " + " ! ," < ! ! ! 0 !"
,#* " " $/#1 1*0 " !$/]0 " )"0 " ,$:0 " "$5 ) 31"! L -!+"
+ 0 "1" "/# " ? 0 -L $"!" 1" " " $/#1 !:/10 " !"1" 1)#5 8 2!$" B "5
( SH
1" 5 5 ! ; M1!, Q@NS QSR5
% ) 2 2 : 3 2
5 ,- !" "!1" 0 - -+" ,- ," " """ ! , !#""1"
*" ! ," -*" " )/#1=" ," 3$ " L $" )!= " 1C1"5 "
) 3$ , $$") ) " " ,$ 1)"1" " " ,- "
$$"! ;
Focaliser : au figuré : concentrer en ou sur un point. Focaliser diverses
aspirations. Ilsfocalisent la lutte contre la crise du logement sur les secteurs les
plus critiques – Emploi pronominal réfl. Se concentrer. Le programme de biologie
repose sur de larges panoramas synthétiques avant de se focaliser sur des
points essentiels. 134
2 ) ! $" 0 !"+!," $11" ) ! $" 0 " " !"+!,# - 1" ) 3$
$" K " +" -C!" $-" " ) ," ; " :" <5 B" !))"" L $" )!) !"1!0 " ," D3++ Yi/"! ; 7 -" , " :" < ," - !" V0 "X "1*" " $"!
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$"!" #!*" " 0 " )"!" 8 5 " 0 " ?" " 1" < " $" 0 !" "
1" < -" $-" -",! ,-K - 1" !"+!," -+ L ,- !#3"<" !" ,"
!" " ," )!"$ $! - , ? ! C!" $)*" ,-"! , " 3"1"
" ! $" , " $")*" ,-C!" )!" G -" #1" ," +$" L
-#+!, ,- #" " )!#," !5 )!#$#1" $" 0 " ?" " 1" < $" 0 !"! " ) !),"1" 1 " "! " :" < , ?" " 0 - !"+!," "
1 ,!"$ ;
More than any other sort of information, our eyes seek out signs of subjects –
that is, things that look at us, even as we look at them. Newborn children respond
to the likeness of two eyes and a mouth in preference to any other type of image.
The earliest object taken for a likeness that archaelogists have discovered is a
pebble, carried to a cave by hominids three million years ago, resembling a head
with two eyes. In this sense, subjects – of which faces are the chief sign and
indication – are the primal, biologically crucial business of visual representation
[…] The markings borne by animals for defence or display likewise seem to
represent subjects – the eyes that stare out from a moth’s wings or a peacock’s
feathers, for instance. 136
F * '
," $!" $" )+" 0 , " #! " 3+ !# , )/#1=" ," 3$ " , )!$" L !# *# ," 3$ ) 3$ !"" L " +"! ,1" 33"$"5
,"L ," *# *?"$" ," "" "" "# ,"L ," !")!, $
! "" ," $" ) ," 3< " ! " !C" $-" $" 0 1-#1" )!$ =!"1"
0 1*"! ) / ) -"5 " ) 3$ )" C!" ) ," "*#
+ _ , ?" G ) ," " 1C1" ," $" 0 " - )"!6 ,#?L "$
$ # $!!" 0 " - - ) !"1!0 # ? 0 "L5
134
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136
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-#),"!1" 3 ,-: )!0 "! " 1 $ " "! !" " ) )" " +"5 11" )0c!" ," -"$" )0c!" , " )#"5 " " ,33#!" ) !
$/$ )!)!" L -/!" + =!" , ?" " L "*# )" " )!, !" 5 " 3 ,- 1" < "! 0 - " ? "1" 1)*" ," " )!#,!"5 " $ ,
" ,"+!# ,-" 1)!" )" $! !+ ! 1C1" 0 " - " -:
", ) $!!"1" L $" 0 " )!, , " 0 " , !/"
))" 5
1)"1" ! 0 " 3$ 1" " -)=!"
1#$0 "1" ! )/+!)/" 0 " - $"1)" !!=!")"#" " 0 - ,"+!# ,-" !*" " 1*# " )! ," $ ! " !+ $!"! +!" $11" , !#3, ," -b1"5 $ " )!"1"! " $11" , !/"
,#3 " ;
Des milliers de photos sont faites de ce champ, et pour ces photos je puis,
certes, éprouver une sorte d’intérêt général, parfois ému, mais dont l’émotion
passe par le relais raisonnable d’une culture morale et politique. Ce que j’éprouve
pour ces photos passe par un affect moyen, presque d’un dressage […] le
studium […] une sorte d’investissement général, empressé, certes, mais sans
acuité particulière. 137
$ 1" " 0 " "!1" ,#$! " ;
Cette fois, ce n’est pas moi qui vais le chercher (comme j’investis de ma
conscience souveraine le champ du studium), c’est lui qui part de la scène,
comme une flèche, et vient me percer. Un mot existe en latin pour désigner cette
blessure, cette piqûre, cette marque faite par un instrument pointu […] Ce second
élément qui vient déranger le studium, je l’appellerai donc punctum ; car
punctum, c’est aussi : piqûre, petit trou, petite tache, petite coupure – et aussi
coup de dés. Le punctum d’une photo, c’est ce hasard qui, en elle, me point (mais
aussi me meurtrit, me poigne). 138
" )" 0 " 3!" " $ , !0 - " )!, 5 -" " " ,- "
)# 7 $" -" ) 1 0 " $/"!$/"! $-" 0 )! ," $=" 8 ,- "
5 " !))!$/" $ ," - ," " )!"1"! , 1 & " & 0 " )!3 $" ,- " , " !5 " $ , 1* ,"
-" " ,$ $#0 "$" " -!+" , )!$" 5 3$ " ) !
,!" ,#$"$/#" " !+"1" )# , ;
Je ne m’intéressais à la Photographie que par « sentiment »; je voulais
l’approfondir, non comme une question (un thème), mais comme une blessure :
je vois, je sens, donc je remarque, je regarde et je pense. 139
" 0 " )"!$" " !"" " -+!#+" $1) "1" ,-#1 0 " ,#?L #$ " " , 11" " )!" 35 )!3 " "" " #10 " ,- ) ," -1+" -"33"$ " "$ " ""
137
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138
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139
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% ) 2 2 : 3 2
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, )/+!)/" , C!" ,$!=" $ " $! $ 1" " $=" " , C!"
,#$"*"5 -" " 1)" 3 ,-C!" L L 11" ," 1!$ " < 0 "
)+ G " T ,- $$ ! ," $!$$" , !/" )!",
-"<"1)" ,- $$/# ! "0 " ## " )+" $$1 ," ," < !"+" " "
QS%
," ," < , )! , " ! " ,##" $!+ " Q@N@ 5 )!#"$" 1!$ " " , )/+!)/" "! ,- ) "33$$" 0 -"" ! " 3!"
,$!=" $11" " )/+!)/" # 1C1" !)! )! -##"1" G $" ,"
-1)!" )"$" ! 0 - ,/=!" L -##"1" " 0 " " )/+!)/" -" 0 - !" )3 "!" " $=" 0 - !")!, " " )"$" ! 0 $"1)"5 !" $ "
?" -"33" ," !)!" 0 " )" )!0 "! $" ! 0 " !"+!, " )" )!"0 " )!
,"!$"5
"" ,#" !"? " !#3"< 3" )! D"! "?1 )!"0 " $0 " ) ` L )!) ," -## ," )/+!)/"5 " ,"!"! 1!" 0 " $" 0 " " !"+!,
" $$"$" !0 " , !")!#" !#," " !## , $" 0 - $!"
C!" " )!"1"! L ,#$ !! G ," /!, )!#1#,# *" "
$$" , " 1)*" ," ,!" 0 " ,- !" - "!" $" ) 0 $]$," "$ -"! , ?" )!#" " "$ $" )# ," $! $
$#0 " "Z ," -" , )/+!)/"5 " ) $!!"), L , 3 ! $! "
) !" "<#+="5 -" * 1" " 3 0 " 1C1" " )/+!)/" - ! )
$)"!5 -" ,#"1" *" , !#3#!" " " "1" )!#" , !")!#" ;
Malgré toute l’ingéniosité du photographe, malgré l’affectation de l’attitude de
son modèle, le spectateur ressent le besoin irrésistible de chercher dans une telle
image la plus petite étincelle de hasard, d’ici et maintenant, grâce à quoi la réalité
a pour ainsi dire brûlé de part en part le caractère d’image – le besoin de trouver
l’endroit invisible où, dans l’apparence de cette minute depuis longtemps
écoulée, niche aujourd’hui encore l’avenir, et si éloquemment que, regardant en
arrière, nous pouvons le découvrir. Car la nature qui parle à l’appareil est autre
que celle qui parle à l’œil ; autre d’abord en ce que, à la place d’un espace
consciemment disposé par l’homme, apparaît un espace tramé d’inconscient. S’il
nous arrive par exemple couramment de percevoir, fut-ce grossièrement, la
démarche des gens, nous ne distinguons plus rien de leur attitude dans la
fraction de seconde où ils allongent le pas. 141
!3 $" 0 " -^ "!" ," $" 0 -/* ""1" " ) +!b$" L -))!"
)/+!)/0 " " !$" ,-"33!5 " 1+" K 3" " ,# 31" !#="
" ! ?" "$ ,-$ # 0 " - #)! " "1" ," 1" ,-0 # ," !"
," "!!" !5 !" ^ " ,= ! )"!6 $11" 1! " < ) 0 - *! 0 "1" $"
0 - " ,"! !1"1" ) C!" $)*" ," ,$"!"! ;
On n’osait pas d’abord, regarder trop longtemps les premières images qu’il
produisait. On avait peur de la précision de ces personnages et l’on croyait que
QS%
141
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R H > 2 ( ++7+G
AQ
ces minuscules figures sur les images pouvaient nous apercevoir, tant l’on était
impressionné par l’insolite précision, l’insolite fidélité des premières images
daguerriennes. 142
- $,=!" ," 0 " " $!" " )", 33"$3 ," $""
," ) $"30 " 0 " -"33" ," " # " !)!" 0 " ,#$ "
)!$)" ,- " " " ,- " 3$ $$! "5
# * & = B 0 -L )!#" 11" )!" ," ! $$") )!$)" ; ," "
$!!" " &
/
,"" !$" ," / 1" " "" ,$ " " ,- 5 #+"1" $,#!# "
" ! $$!=" ) *!" 0 " ) !"C! " 1! 0 -"" #"
3!$#1" #" " 0 - -# ) ? ! 3$" ," " ,$"! ," 36 !$"5 "33" ;
[…] une étude sémantique et lexicologique ne peut plus se mener aujourd’hui
sans prise en compte des conditions humaines de l’élaboration de son
expression linguistique. En effet, l’appréhension de la signification des mots ne
peut pas, sauf à être amputée d’une dimension essentielle, faire abstraction des
fondements cognitifs, éventuellement expérientiels, et du contexte ethnologique,
socioculturel, institutionnel, etc., de production du sens. Nous partons de
l’hypothèse que la langue, et en l’espèce le système que constituent les mots
d’un lexique, est le reflet des opérations mentales qui ont présidé à sa
construction. 143
3 ," !# 1"! " ,33#!"" $$") #0 #" "<1 " $ !#" ,"
- !+" ," 2!"2,""" 2!" #
H &
+ - "" ,"!=!" " -"<)!" ," 7 ) 3$ 8 !0 -"" $11""
)+" ,- $1)"!", 3 )! M** L )!) ," " ," !* " ,"
33$" L 1" ; 7 ," <=1" " +" 3!1" $+" ," !* "
QSS
:1*" ," ) 3$ ," $"$ &Q ? " 8
5 )!#$#1" "" 3 $"
$11"!" L )!) ," $" )+" ," M** ;
Nous sommes enfin sortis de la Galerie pour entrer dans la tribune cette chambre
celebre qui contient l’elite des trésors de la maison de Médicis. On l’a déjà si
souvent decrit que je ne dirai rien de sa forme qui est octogone ni de tous ses
ornemens qui sont propres et d’un fort bon goût. Les Statues qui se présentent
d’abord ne permettent pas à vos yeux de s’egarer, et quand on voit la Venus de
Medicis, on fait peud’attention à la chambre qui la contient… Je mettrai toujours
142
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cette belle pièce parmi le petit nombre des objets qui surpassent les esperances
les plus fortes.145
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," $"$ $11" " 3" $^ ! , 3:"!5 $" $11"!" $/0 " $$")
" )#" " !" " ; ,-*!, " ,#)$"1" "! $"!" !$" ! , 3"
1#)/!0 "5 " ?" " ! " ! " ,"/! L -"<#!" ! " 3" " !")=!"
"<#!" ! "! "0 " " ,!+"5 $" !" -,#" ,- 3" 0 " $ 1" " ,#0 "
) 0 " - " )" #!*"1" $$#,"! " ," $1* 5 " 3 - )!=+"
" 3" )" *!c"! - -" ))!$/" ," !) )!=5 " 3" $ " ,$ )
," !")=!" ? ! "<#!" ! L 15
" )"$" ! " " !))!$/ 3!$/ " " ,"" " ) $-"L,!" ")$" $")*" ," " $"! " 0 ""))" " !"
-^ " " $"!" !")=!" ) 0 - "!, 1C1" !"+!, ,"
,+ "! ; 7 " " 0 " )!#"" ,-*!, " )"!1"" ) L :" < ,"
-#+!"! 85
" 3 $" )!"1"! " 3!$/ T ")$" ) "<#!" ! 1
$"<"3 3:"! $-"L,!" " $"" )=$" $+"5 ")", " 3:"! -"
3:"! 0 " )!$" 0 - $" 3" 5 $^ ! , " !+ ! " ) 3$ ;
" " ! L ! !"" " !"+!, 0 3"1" " )" ! 7 " ,"
2",$ 8 ; 7 0 , " ," 2#,$ 3 )" ,-" L $/1*!" 0 $" 85 #!*" ) 3$ , " ) 3$ 0 " !"" L !" ,- !" !"="
)!$" ," 1" " *:1" ;
Pour la connoître il faut la voir. Je l’ai vue : mais l’imagination la plus fidèle, la
plus vive conservera t’elle l’image que les sens m’en ont donnée. C’est la
sensation la plus voluptueuse que mon œil ait jamais éprouvé… la mollesse de la
chair communiquée au marbre. 146
$" ,"!"! ," $"1) -^ 0 2",$ #)! " )! "
" 7 ) ) " " 0 " 1 ^ ?1 #)! # 85 - "!)!=" $""
)/!" )" $1)!",!" 0 " -^ 0 !"" " )! " )! ," :" < " "
) "1" , -$" ," 5 -^ " ,"" " ) 3$ ," " $! " "
" ,- " " " " !## " " ," " ," 1C1" $-"L,!" ,"
- )"!$")5
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#)! #W 8 V$X $ " " " ,"+!# 1" ," " ""5 "! )
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" " " "! ) L ",!" " !1=" !+"1" #!" ,
! " ) ," -33"$5 "33" $" 0 " $")*" ," 1" )!" ,"
1-#1 ! " )" 3!" -*?" ,- $$ $" -" ) 0 "0 " $/" 0 " - )" 145
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? "1" )!$" ," $"!+"$" 1" " ::1" ," 1" ) ! *?" " )!$ "! " )!3 ," +!"1"5 " ? " ! " ,$!1 "
#"$ " ,- $"<"5 1" ) )" C!" *1" 3$
$" ,
3 ,
3$"1" ," -^ ,)"*" ) ! " !")#!"!
$"*"1" , "!"1" "" )" C!" """ 0 " $ ""
" #+"1" $1)*" "$ /#!" ," -"<!1 )!#$#,"11" #0 #"
1 "" )" C!" )/#1=" /:*!," $1* 1" ) *1" "
)", $$" ,- " "<)#!"$" "!"" "" " L
0 "" ," 3 " -", )5 $ $" " ," $"!+"$" " ,"
$"! ! " $*" 0 )!1" 0 " $"" ," )!#$ " ," $!#5
0 " " 1 & L -!+" ," $" ," " 0 3# ," 7 1
"!1#,!" 8 )! >!$" 2"E "$/!"F 0 " # ,# " $!$=!" #1"11"
):#10 " " " 1" L -"!)!# ," ,"! $ " ! 3!$)/" ;
Pour le locuteur natif dont la langue est plus riche que celle de l’apprenant, ces
mots intermédiaires souvent polysémiques/homonimiques d’ailleurs […] se
QSN
AS
" "
" *"! Q@@O QA%O5
% ) 2 2 : 3 2
présentent à l’esprit avec une foule de traits à la traîne. Les frontières de sens de
ces mots « intermédiaires » sont moins précises, alors que dans le cas d’items
très fréquents ou très peu fréquents, poule, vert, étique, etc., pour la plupart des
mots concrets ou dont le sens primaire est concret, il faut le noter, le sens du mot
(sens primaire en tous cas pour les polysèmes/homonymes que sont vert et
poule) est perçu plus nettement, plus précisément, avec en général un
« marqueur » et un ou deux traits stéréotypiques […]. 148
$ " ," 0 "" " ) 3!#0 "11" L -")! ," +" !0 - "
"!!+" ;
a. feu/âtre b. maison c. symbole famille d. confort e. centre (chaleur) f. chaleur g.
recueille gens h. incendie i. salle théâtre j. idée moralisatrice k. centre (épidémie)
l. lunettes/jumelles m. établissement. 149
!"! " " $!$=!" ):#10 " , 1 & , " "!1" $"!" ) "$/0 " ,"
" " "!1" + ," 5 "" ):#1" ## )!)$" L !#$ )#!
, " ,1" ," + 0 "5 L - " 3 ," 0 3"! ," )/#1=" :
! L $"!+"$" """ $!" L -#1"!+"$" ,- " "# ""
" ,- ""1*" ) +!,5 ,"L $" "1) ,"! $!!")," )!3 L
," )/#1=" + 0 " ))!"11" /##!+="5 " ," )" C!" ) !
36 , " + " )! -/* ," ," $,#!"! " ! *?" ,-# ," 0 " ! $"
QA%
)/#1=" " " <1C1"
5 "!1 $"" )!"1=!" )!" " "<1 ," " + $ !5
+ A ,#?L " -$$ ," $"! -* &5 -+ ," !""! ,"
36 ) ))!3," ! ," " +5 ! 0 " " "
$$") )!#$#,"11" # 1#!#" " !"! " " +5
+ " 1 " != $ !11" # 0 " $" , " ,1" ,"
QAQ
+ 0 " , $" ) " ," + " !,!"5 $"" + " ,#+" " 3!1" ," $$"! ," P" " )!)!" $11" "
QA&
3+ !# G 3!1" "!*" ; 7 3$ ; ): )!$ ! " 8 " 148
% Q $ 5 / J ' ( 1: : ! ! & ( 3 3 ! 1 149
QA%
!
/ 0( +,*,( +G* / TUV !!
' &
b5
!!
' ! & @
:! & ! 5 & ( ! Y ( 0 (
1 0 ( ( !(
! ( & 3
3 P # # : ( +=<
% Q $ 5 2 ( <==
!## ," 0 " $" 0 " - # ," " + 0 " $11" " )" !" " " !")!#" ," -*?" " -*?"
1C1"5
QAQ
!" 1C1" + ,# ) 0 P " $11" "", , " ,1" ," ) *$# $11" " 3 1C1" ," P#0 "!
$ ,#?L " 3!1" ," $) , !"+!, ,"
5
AA
QAO
3!1" 1" ; 7 /" $""! 3 "!" ! $: . $ 3 3$ + 1"/+ 8
5
" " $$") !"$"#" )! " ! , " ,$!" . * QAS
& )!#"" / ,"+!# ," "$/$# 5 " ,#3 )!)#" !"="
," ,1" !# 0 " $" < ," P)0 " ," +#1#!" , /#b!" "$!" ,"
)/+!)/"5 -" $")", " ! +#1#!0 " 0 )!1" ! " " !"
"" " $"" L 0 "" 11" !":# ,= )!"1=!" "!#" ; 7 Q5 )"
+"1"!:; " 3 /" ) 3!1 F/$/ /" ,$" : ) 3 +" $ !" !"
QAA
$"$", *: "! !"5 8 " " " " ! )0 " ; 7 /" ) F/$/
!: 1"" 3"! *"+ !"3"$", ! !"3!$",G /" ) 3!1 F/$/ /" !: ))"! QAR
)!$"", 8 5 " $!$=!" ,:10 " ," 3$ " 1"# ; 7 *!+
QAN
!: 3 +/ /" "$5 3$ ) ! 3$ G 3$ 5 8
-"$/T"1" ," " ! #10 " , " ,$!" !"3=" $" ,"
-/!0 " , "!1"5 "!1" !""1" "$ " ! )/+!)/0 "
#!"1" #" L $"" ," -)0 "; 7 / ) ! ) F/$/ *?"$ 1 *"
", !,"! / /" 1+" )!, $", *: /" " 1: *" $"! , F","3",5
'"$" ! 5 , 3+5 W ", ::1 3 8QAH5 "! "3 " ! $ 0 " #" ,- " +" "!" ,"
1" " " ," !" ; 7 1!: $ $ ; /" ) ! )$" F!, F/$/
QA@
/" , F" $"!+"5 8
+ " "!1" ," " ,$ ? ! )!#" 3!1" !+""
! 0 -" 3!6 ,# & " L $"!# " ! #:1+0 "
QR%
) 0 " " & !"" "$!" ? !,-/ 7 " K - 3 , 3" 8
5 -"!"
" + " "!1" +!,# " 1C1" )"$ )"!, " !+" ,"
QRQ
7 ,1"$ /"!/ 8
5 " "33" $/ ) ! " !#3#!"! 3" , -b!" )", +"!10 " 7 /"!/ 85 11" " 3!#0 " " + "1*"! 0 " "
QA&
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AR
/" <3!, +/ $!: Q@H@ QQ&H5
+- AS@5
+- QQ&N5
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+- QQ&N5
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QR&
,-!+" +"!10 " ," 7 /"!/ 8 $"! " )!)!"5
A point at which rays of light, heat, etc. meet. ModL, fr. L. focus, “hearth” (in VL.
“fire”), which is of uncertain origin. It it perhaps cognate with Armenian bosor,
“red”, boc, “flame”. 163
" L $" !" #!" ," "! 0 " " 1 7 3:"! 8 "<" #+"1" " + "
0 " $"" 3!1" ," " #,"$" "1)! #" 3!6 +3" *" 7 /"!/
/1" 8 " ) )!$ =!"1" ;
Originally, the green-room in French theatres; now usually a large room in a
theatre, concert-hall etc., to which the audience may retire during the intervals of
the performances; the entrance hall of a hotel, restaurant, theatre, etc. 164
" $ ,#?L #0 #" ," $3! " ," !#$3! #" L ," 3:"!
!$" ," $/" ! " ," !"1*"1" " ," $# ,$ )!#"!#" , 3!1" "1)! #" 3!65 " 0 -" ) "<$"1" " $ ) ! 3!1"
,!"$"1" " , 5
) ! $" "!1" )" ,
) L $$"! ," 3$" <
"3 L $$"! ," -" $ !5 " +"1" -)=!" )! $$"! , !"+!, 1#)/!" ," $$"$"5 $$"! , !"+!, " 3
? ! " ) )!#$ 1" ) " #!#$)0 " !"0 =!" "
$"!+"$" )! )) L " !"" ) ,+" ? "1" ," 3<"! -"
) 1" <5
"
" "!1" )=," )! " ! " " ! *=" #!"" ) 0 - [[
QRA
=$" ,#+ ; 7 /" *" 1", )! 3 +" 8 5 $ " !"$ )" " !
+#1#!0 " )0 " 1 #:1+0 " ) 0 " - " )" -"1)C$/"! ,"
)""! 3:"! 1" < $11" 3:"! ," -$5 " " K " $!" " 3$" <
1" < 0 #$!" " $=" ," /#b!" $!!"), L )!" ) #$!#" ," $="5 )" ! #!"1" )!"! ," / " ,-#$!+"5 " ) !
"0 " " !"+!, ," " $$"!"! " 3$"! " $" ! "0 " 1=!"
$"!+"5 $ 1=!" " " "" 3 $1*#"5
3 , " ,$!" -"!#" ;
&
P ! " #+"1" L
“a light for a pipe” D. Haggart, Life (Glossary), 1821 : ca. 1810-60. Possibly ex, or
suggested by, fogus, and fog : smoke... to fog : to smoke ”; plus loin on nous dit
que “fogus” signifie “tobacco or smoke”. 166
" #!" ," +"! 0 " " "!1"
QR&
163
+- RAN5
@ W . 5 3 @0 5 @0 5 / 0 0 D /
6=6 J 3 3 5 &1.
164
QRA
" + " )!3 !))!$/#
$5 2'
@ . % 5 5? ( 3 @ 3
( +,66(
<=
@0 5 ( +,*,( +GB
+- QQ&N5
AN
"
," $" ," 0 , -!+ )) !" , [[ =$" + ,#+ " *$ 3 1#" " , " *!# " 7 3+ 8 ,$ $" 0 " 3 ; 7 3$ 7 +/ 3! ))" 8 5 '++! QH&Q )*: V,"!", 3!1X ! ++"", *: 3+ QRN
, 3+ V /$E 1X8
5 ", )!,<"1" $!!" , ""
! "1)! # 3!1"5 11" " "" 3 !":# L -,#" ,- $!"
"!" " 3 " ""# $!" ) ", 1 $" ,
QRH
-#:1+" 1C1" , "!1"
5 -: ) ," 3" 3 1#"5
)) A 2 5 A 5 2
" ,$!" )#$# " $$!" " +##! 0 " 0 "0 " +" L ,"
)!3 ,P"<)!" ) $0 " "" 0 " )/#1="
,P ," 5
$ $" 0 " P )" !" L P"!#" , " ,$!" ," + 0 " ," B"
* " , )!"1=!" #, ," ," Q@NO ; 7 " )!3 P"<)!" ,"
QR@
7 1" " 3$ 8 ) ! ,#+"! " )!$#,# ,P"1)/"
)! ! $ 8QN%5 ! " "!*" " !":# L -"!#" "<)!"
, "1*" 0 -"" "3 )" $ !" ; 7 $-" 3!" *! " !3!1 "1)/0 "5 )/!" , G "" )" QNQ
*! " "1)/ 0 "<!)" -*?" )! "<"1)" , ) ( ,- 8
" 166
@ ! 5
I
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0 A W 0 ( +,B,( <6=7<6+ I ?3 M( !
M 0 I: M $5 M # 2 Y1 7 & + / 3 I!0 M
I!0
0 & ( +,6*(
<G
QRN
QRH
QR@
!$ !!,+"5 *- - &R%5
" $"" "!)!# )!$ =!"5
7 BP))"" 3$ $" 0 " ,P !" ))"" "1)/" 1 "$/0 "1" 1" " !""35 ,#3! 3$
$11" P)#! )! 0 "" " )!" ,P " ,#" ,P " 3!1" "" 0 P"" !""" ," 36 )!#+#" P" ," Q5
P##1" 3$# )!" ! " 1 ," 3$ 5 3!1" $3#!#" 3$ " 3
" 3+ !" " $!" "$ " $/1)
"! $P"L,!" ,#" ," $" )! !))! L $" $5 8 2!"" M! "!5 7 P"<$13 P"3 " " 3$# 8
&&O5 B" +"5
QN%
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"3 0 " , $" "<"1)" " "!1" P))!T ) " 1 " ,P " )#!)/!"5
AH
% ) 2 2 : 3 2
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" 3 1" ," $"" , " )/!"
La mise en valeur d'une expression, appelée aussi emphase, insistance (certains
transformationnalistes parlent aussi d'expressions mises en focus, ou
focalisées), n'implique pas nécessairement que cette expression représente le
propos. Certes l'emphase mise sur "Pierre" dans "C'est Pierre qui est venu"
s'accompagne très souvent d'une tendance à prendre Pierre pour propos : on
parle de la personne qui est venue, et on annonce que c'est Pierre. Mais une telle
interprétation est plus difficile pour "Pierre, lui, il est venu" : énoncé où une
division en thème et propos serait bien arbitraire. 173
" $" " ! " 1 ! " !+" , "!1+" !3!1"
1#!$"5 " "!1" ," ,$ ## !, , !, + 0 " 3!6"
3!" P*?" ,P " !, $5 P+ ) !"1" " 1)"1" ,P "1)! ,"
+ " 3!6 L " ! /1+ " +< G ,PK !"1**"1" "
!#$"$" ," $"! L "1):"! $" 1 1)!# " 0 "5 P 0 " , "
#$ $," !"" #3 0 L " "<$5 " , ) $"
0 P" " ,0 " " "1" 0 P " " !# , )!$" ,#+# )! 3!1 " " 1C1" ," 0 "" ))!T ::1" ," )!$#,#
,P"1)/"5
P#, ," Q@@A
S , & ' ,P F, $! " B"2!" $/"33"! 1C1" )/!" "!" )!"/="
" !")!" , " 1C1" L 7 1" " " ! ,P " "<)!" ))"#" QNS
"1)/" $" )!" "$!" ,P"<)!" 1" " 3$#" 8 5
L $")", " 1"" ) P!+" !3!1" , "!1"5 " !
0 P"!""1) ," 0 ", $"" ," $ $"!
$$= "" P" ,$ ) "<$ "1" !#"!#" L P#$" !3!1"5
!# 1# )!#3=!" " 3!6 "! ! " )!$" ," 3$ !"!
,P"<)!" , :)" 7 1" " 8 7 )!$#,# ,P"1)/" 8 ) ` 0 " ! " "!1"
0 ,#+" !# ; " 1 ,!"$"1" "1)! # L P+ 0 P 1C1"
"1)! # 5 " ( & ," !$E /! ," "
10 " 2+ "" " 1 " ,#3 ," 36 $!" " )!#$" "
$" "!1" ;
En linguistique, la focalisation est une opération (souvent synonyme d’emphase)
qui met en valeur un constituant de la phrase, ou focus. R. Martin [Pour une
logique du sens. Paris : Presses Universitaires de France, 220] distingue
focalisation contrastive (« Paul, lui, il dort ») et focalisation identificatrice (« C’est
QNQ
QN&
173
QNS
*,5
F, $! 4 J" ,!5 & ' 5 ! ; " Q@N&5
: ( GB6 0 F, $! 4 B"2!"
$/"33"!5
S , & ' 5
! ;
" Q@@A SA&5
A@
Pierre qui est venu »). Cela peut se faire par des moyens phonétiques (insistance)
ou syntaxiques : en particulier la dislocation à gauche (« Paul, il est malade ») ou
droite (« Il est venu, Paul ») ou une extraction par c’est… que (« C’est au peuple
que je m’adresse »). 175
!## " + " 3!6 "1)" ,#!1 " "!1" ," ) `
0 " $" ,P"1)/" $P" *" )!$" 0 PL P!+" " )!# , "!1" +
QNR
," !"1" " "!" $"# ," "!1+" #!" !" 5 P" ,$
P3 "$" ," !3!1" , 1 ," + " +< 0 "
" "!1" " ))! " 3!65
P" ! " 3!6 P)) Z " "" . ,P " )! "
)!$" ,P !" )! !# 7 P##1" 3$# )!" ! " 1 ," 3$ 5 8
QNN . " + )!<1# 1!)/+0 " , "!*" !": )!$" " ," #0 " 1 3 0 " P ," )!3 -1)!" ,-C!" "1):#
) ! P !"5
' A 5 + 0 " ," "<" " 3!6 1 "" P" ) != #"5 "
" *"" ," 1*!" < ,"<5 0 J" ,- !+" ," + 0 " +"
QNH
!#,+# " 3!6 0 " ?- $ # " "!1" -))!T ) :#10 "1"5
- !+" ,-'"! ,1$J"FE " ," "1 ! ' ( -" ) 3 1" ," 3$5 ! " $")", )+"
$$"! " #$# "1)/0 " L )!) ," #$# "$ 7 , 8 ,#3 ;
La quasi-totalité des exemples de ce type examinés [impliquent] une opération
d’anaphorisation. En principe, si l’on reprend une relation prédicative, c’est pour
des raisons très précises dont la principale est la volonté d’insistance sur
l’existence, la réalité de la relation reprise. On parlera à ce propos de la valeur
polémique de l’emphase. L’énoncé ci-dessous illustre cet effet de sens : - You
should have rung up. - I ‘did ring up. There was no reply. 179
" 0 - -+" $ ,-#$# "1)/0 " " 7 , 8 " #1 3 1" ,- 175
QNR
Q 5
A & % 0 2 ( BCB
" C!" " " )!$" 0 " , )!"1=!" $$") -"1)/" " " 3+ !" ," !/#!0 " " " !"$ !" ,$ )
"<$"1" $" 0 " ,#+" 3$ ; 7 Q5 P"1)/" "
" 3+ !" ," !/#!0 " $ L ,"! L
"!1"
"
1)!$" 0 P P ) ,P!,!" L "<+#!"! P"<)!" ,P " ,#"5 &5 " :<" !3!1"" PV"1)/"X ,#+" $$" )!$ "! )!# ! $ ," )/!"5 " +3# 7 "1)/" 8 )" " ! "! !")!#"# 0 "1" "
)/+0 " )!$ =!" 3!)) 1 ," )/!" 1 )! ," $! $ :<0 "5 8 B" *
M$1 2/#" M ") 4 5 QNN
179
R%
'
2!"" M! "!5 7 P"<$13 P"3 " " 3$# 8 &&O5
.
N Q A 2 ( ,+
5 ! ; ! " Q@@S &%S5
% ) 2 2 : 3 2
! $!$#!0 " #+"1" $")*" ," 1"! " )!$" ," 3$ ; )#10 " 0 L ," ,"+!# !*" ", ,#! ," $!3$ ," )! ,"
-#$" ! ," 7 1" ) 85 " ! $!$#!0 " 1" 1C1" " 1=!" QH%
,1" "! *?"$" ," -#$#5 " " " #+$" -#$# "<)!1" ? !
" "" ," !? "1" ,-""" ,-$$!, )$ " ," $1)!#/" "!" ," <
) " ! )"!"5
- !+" ,-,!# B: " !" -Y": ( & ' ! " " :" ," 3$ 0 )!#"" +!, #!C ) ! ) 0 - -+ 11" ,- "<1" ," 3!1" " j !") ! " +"
$#1+!)/0 " " $1* 3$ 1#+ 0 " " 3$
!!+0 " "" 0 " - # ,#" ) / ;
La combinaison de ces trois types de formes verbales [le prétérit simple, le
prétérit en be+ing, le past perfect en be+-ing] permet au narrateur d’adopter trois
grands points de vue par rapport à la matière narrée, compte non tenu des
mélanges possibles de point de vue. Par analogie avec la technique
cinématographique, on peut, sans abus, distinguer les trois grands angles de
vision suivants : 1°) Le plan panoramique large […] 2°) Le plan panoramique
moyen […] 3°) une vision en gros plan, créée par les formes en be+ -ing.
Indépendamment des trois past perfect qu’on vient de mentionner, on trouve
deux prétérits en be+ -ing dont l’effet est de focaliser sur un événement et sur ce
à quoi il est rapporté (respectivement she et strange words) : She was not sitting
in a rocking-chair, but… Strange words were flowering in her throat… Pour
continuer l’analogie cinématographique, ces deux emplois du prétérit en be +-ing
dans un co-texte de narration panoramique produisent un effet de « zoom », en
QNH
-!,!" $/!+0 " ," )! $ " )!$) < !+" 0 " ?- $ # ; 2!"" M! "! M"!+"
M! "! 4 "!!" /"3!5 ! L / : $ # " "!1"
B5 M "1>"$/"!5 & $
,1$J"FE 4 ," "15 !
-Y":5 ( &
- ! ; '$/"" Q@NA $" !" " " ) $" 0 " -))!T ) , -,"< )" C!" )!$" 0 " " ! $ !" $#" -: ) !#"5 G
' ( - / ( Q@H&5
5 M) ; )/!: Q@HQ G '"!
! ; !1, Q@@H G ,!# B: 4 !"
' 5 ! ; / Q@H@ G ,!# B: 4 !" -Y":5 ! &' ( 5 ! ; / Q@@% G B" $!"5 ' - + Q
(
Q@@Q " "!1" -))!T )G " 5 ) *
-))!T ) G B" #1 )!" 4 D3!,
2! Q@@Q G
!!": 4 ,"
)!" 4 D3!,
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Q@@& G
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Q@@N G >!6" */!"! 4 #!$" /"!5 & 5
5
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! ; ,"!! ,
! ; *"! Q@@N G B"/!" Y/35 & 5 ! ; !1, Q@@@ G B" ," "1"5 ! 5 ! ; )/!: &%%O5
)" !"+!""! -*"$" ,-,"< ," 1*!" < !+"5
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RQ
fixant l’attention sur un événement vu en gros plan. […] Du point de vue de la
narrativité, cette focalisation par arrêt sur image permet aussi au narrateur de
pénétrer dans l’intériorité de la conscience de F. Jasmine. 181
-+" $#1+!)/0 " ))0 #" L -:" + 0 " ,- "<" #!!"
)"!1" ," $1*"! " " ! )0 " !!+0 " " 1#+ 0 " , "!1"
5 $ $," " +# "<)$"1" "Z 1)$"1"
0 " 3$ !"" < ," +!"1" ,-"33" )" ," 7 J1 8
$/=!" L )/+!)/" " $" L Y")"! - ," )!"1"! !1" L -C!"
"! ,- #"$)"5 ! " #+"1" ,- 0 !1=" L " ! !!+0 " , "!1" "" 0 -"" ## /#!#" )! M#!!,
M"""5 !,<"1" " 3$"1" )!)!"1" + 0 " ," 3$
-" $ #0 # 0 -,!"$"1" !"! ," $" 1C1" " ! ) ! "" "
++#!#" )! -#$ ," 3!1" " X 0 )"!1" , 7 3< ,"
-" 85 ))!T 13""1" 0 " " 3!=!" )"!1#*" "!" "
,33#!" ! #10 " $" , " "!1" G ,- 0 " $" 1C1" !
- $" )!$ !# " ,$/!" L )!! ,- " !$" 0 " ; QH&
," & " 5 "1*" ! !" 0 " ," !"$ )"1"
#10 " " )*" G ! !0 - -+ ," $,#!"! "
)/#1=" , $"<" ,#) " $,!" !$ ," -#$# $11" $-" " $ $
K -+ ," -:" ,- "<! #!!" ! 2$ "!5 . 8 Q@SR5
,!# B: " !" -Y": )!)" " ,#3 ) )!#$" ," 3$
, " ! ! &' ( !+" )! ) !, Q@@%5 "<$"1" $"" ,#3 ))!T , " $/)!" 0 - $$!" L 1,#
"!" /:)"!/#0 " ;
[…] cette modalité peut se définir comme une sur-assertion (grec huperthésis,
« abondance, dépassement, surpassement). Il existe, selon les langues, divers
181
QH&
. ! A " "!1" ,"
21W /1. 0 &
' 0 ( ,67,*
))!" L 1#+ " -" !"" ) 1 1 ," + " )!1 ,- !"5 $" !"
$"!" " $^ ! " ! #10 " , " : $1)! " ) )!]0 "5 B")/ ",!:" +" -!+" 33"$" , ++" ""$ " , 1#+ " $ " -"<)!" 1" ; 7 "! + " 0 " 1C1"
"1) ," ):$/+ " "$ L $!!" 0 " " ++" 33"$3 )!#$=," ? ! $/"J P"3 " ++" ""$ " !
"$/"/:"5 '
' 5 M"=" !")J+ Q@%H RN5 P" )"
L )"
0 "
P"+"$" !3!1"! " " " " #1 " ,#" " 0 " P,#" " ,#++"! ," ##1" 33"$3 ) !
" #1"! $1)="1"5 " , ++" ) !"1" 33"$3 " 3<"! : ," 0 P +1""! )" L )" )!
,3$ ," )!" "!" G $" "! " ++" $"" +!11$ !""! 7 "1*T# 8 , P !" P" 1""! $"" ) ! $" P#) "! ?15 "" /#!" " +##0 " " ,:10 "5 " )!#",
"<)0 "! P!+" ," +!11!" $P"L,!" ,
++" !+# )! 3< ,P##1" 1!)/" " $ 0 $ "!" " )!#+!11$5 2C1" $" )!#+!11$ " 1",! , " 1" !" ) 1 +!," $ ! ,"
" ," $/$ G $P" L 0 P 3 ,! !))!"! " )/#1=" , ++" 33"$35 2 ) !! )! " $
"!" P1""! L ! < !$" ," +!11!" !0 " )! "<"1)" " )/!" +0 "1" $ #" ,""
$11"
) ! !#3"<" " $! ) # $$"11" P3 "$" ,P " " , " ! ",!:"5
R&
- + ,P " 3!:" ! *"5 8 B")/
' Q U 5 ! ; "$" , !" Q@&Q QNR5
% ) 2 2 : 3 2
moyens de sur-asserter. Le plus fréquent est de forcer sur les modalités
prosodiques avec recours éventuel à un marqueur d’intensification et, bien
entendu, la modalité kinésique appropriée. On obtient ce qu’on appelle
traditionnellement des énoncés emphatiques : I ‘do run everyday [accent
d’intensité sur do ; opposés à l’assertion thétique ‘I run everyday […]. Citons
enfin la focalisation, qui consiste à mettre en relief – syntaxiquement en tête de
l’énoncé – un élément de la phrase, par exemple un syntagme nominal en
fonction d’objet, sur lequel on fait porter un accent d’intensité et qu’on marque
d’une intonation haute : [26] The English he avoided like the plague. (J. Fowles)
183
)" $ $"! 0 " " ," < + " #*" " ,$ "!" " )!$#,#
"1)/0 " !"" )! "<"1)" ," )!," " 3$ )!)!"1" ,"
$11" )/#1=" :<0 " #" ""1" $$1)+# ,- )/#1="
)!,0 "5 - - 7 *,$" 8 " 7 ,#)"1" 8 " 7 !)"1" 8
!))"" $" 0 " #0 ) / L )!) ," -"# "!"" ,
G $! " " -+ *" $ ," 7 "! ) / ) 85 " "!1" ,"
QHS
!#))!T " " L ) " ! !")!"
11" ?" ," 3!1" "
Y ;
La forme en –ing donne une image sécante de l’événement. Plus précisément,
quelque part à l’intérieur de l’événement, on focalise le passage même du non
accompli à l’accompli. C’est du reste le seul instant de passage de l’inaccompli à
l’accompli qui est actualisé : le reste de l’événement est simplement impliqué,
d’où la mise entre parenthèses dans la figure 23. 185 Dans le cas présentement
évoqué, celui où l’événement est achevé, la forme en –ing appliquée au parfait
focalise l’attention sur l’événement en tant qu’il est incident au sujet de l’énoncé.
186
L - ) -1)!" 0 " " "!1" !"" L " !#"" 3< ," -" ! ##"1" +!b$" L -"$,!"1" :<0 " , :+1" 1 : !#3#! $11"
$-" " $ "$ " $#" 1 ) ` L "33" ," +!"1" ,c L #33"1"
1!)/+0 "5 3!1" " Y )"!1" " "33" $$!="1" " "<" )" ,"
3!1" "!*" 0 -"" ," " , " ,#! "1" !" $]$," ) ` $!"
)$ ""1" " )!$ ! $#0 " ," )/!" , ""1*" "! ," -$$1)5
P#$" ! !0 P " $"" 3!1" +! " ##"1" <0 " " !#3=!"
QHN
B" #1 )!" " D3!, +# )!" ," 7 " ,!" , )!$= 8
3 ,"
" $11""! " ," " 1!"! ; 7 -1)"!3"$3 T ,- " " 1)$" K !##
QHH
1!#" " "! ) *?" 1 )!$=5 8
" )!$= " $/"# $-" *"
183
QHS
. ! A 21W 4 1 0 ( G6
! -,"< - SN@5
185
: ( +<6
186
: ( <,6 0 QHN
! &
B" #1 )!" 4 D3!, +#5 '
( S&%5 B" +"5
RO
"", "1)!# , ?" 0 " 1" " ; 7 -##"1" " 0 - "
$," ?" ," -#$# 85 !#$ )! " ! 0 - " ,- +" ," +"! ,1" )/!0 " ," 3!1" " Y 5 "" $!$#!0 " ) !! "! L
-"$!" , 3 0 " " )/#1=" ," 3$ )!" +##!"1" ! ,
QH@
" " ," -$" " !## -" " ,$ ) ? ! )!**"1" , 3 0 - -=!" )!3 "<!C1"1" ,33$" ," $!$$!!" "
,- #$# 1# )! -#*! ,- #10 " " 0 " $" 0 " !#""1"
" ," $" 0 " $"5 ,"!=!" $ ,-,!# B: " !" -Y": $$$ !!"$" ," ," " ,- )! " L 0 " ) 3!=!" "
1$" "!" "1) 1#)/!0 " " 1#+ 0 " G $" )! " #+"1" 0 " +3$ "$/0 " , "!1" " + 0 " -" ) !#""1" *#" "" "
! -C!" $! , + " $11" , " " 1 "1" " 0 " *" 0 "
- " )!" ) :)0 "1" ," !0 " - *!," 0 " ," 3!1"
" Y $" " )*"5
"3 $"" !"1!0 " ," ) / " 1)!$" ) ! 0 " 0 #!"" ;
[24] Go this way. […] La focalisation est faite non sur la direction, mais sur celui
qui l’indique, à savoir le locuteur lui-même ; on pourra gloser : « prenez la
direction que moi, je vous indique. » 190
$ -: ) $"!+"$" "!" 3$ !!+0 " " 3$
1#+ 0 " 1 $"!+"$" "!" 3$ 1#+ 0 " " 3$ " #! , "!1" ; " L !"+!,"! L 3!" " "" ) )!$ =!"1" ! $" 0 -"<)!1" G " $"!+"$" ," !"+!, "!" " $ " !
" -$ !" $$ "5 " ,"!"! "<"1)" 1" ? ! ,1"
Q@Q
)!+10 " , ++" 5 #$# #1 -$! , $"<" " "
Q@&
1C1" "1) 0 " , $"<" G " $" " " ,#+" " -: !#3=!" "
)"!1"$" G )!3 ," 36 13"" $11" $-" " $ $5 ,-" ! -+! ,"
QHH
QH@
"!!" "5 M!11!" + 0 " @@5
"!!" " 3!1 " " !"1!0 " " $!!*!"! $"$ , " $11"!" 0 - 3 ,- #$# , :)" 7 a -" *""
,!E+ 8 ; 7 0 , X " # -,"# , )!$= " 3$#" 1C1" " )!#,$ +3 " )!#$! 5 8 "33"
7 -#$" ! )"!$" $"! :1)`1" !"$! " )!$= )# 7 a ,!E 8 " " 3$" VWX " 36 +##!"
-#$" ! " $")*" ," -#!""! L -$# ," " )!$/"5 9 , " 3 $! #)!#1" !")!#" ,"
)"!" 31=!" " ,
)!$= 0 " $""$ )!$)"5 )!"1=!" " ,"# $0 " " "" " #" /=1" ,"
-#$# ," 36 G " "$, " $! ,#)",11" " 3$# " ,#"!1" ,- G X )"!1" $""
$! $ )!$" 0 " ," < $? + : !$ #"5 8 +- Q%R5 B" +"5
190
Q@Q
. ! A 21W 4 ! &
1 0 ( B<,7BG=
B-"", $ 7 )!+10 " 8 " " ) +##! , "!1" ; 7 $$") 1 )#$3#" )!+10 "
))!T 1 $11"
" ,$)" 0 " $11"
" 1=!" ," $!$#!"!
""1*" != ,"!3# ," ! < ! "
"!?"$ " $"$" ! ,#"!1 1" " )!"!*" " !" ," )"" " "!$ $"!""
"$5 0 , :=1" + 0 "5 7
!+10 " 8 $!$#!" ! ) " ) +##!"1" ," $11 $5 8 !$E /! ," 4 10 " 2+ "" 5 *- 5 SAR5 B" +"5
RS
% ) 2 2 : 3 2
1!"! , " ," < )!" L "! 0 " ," !"+!, " 1)!#"" , "
++" G " !"+!, 0 + " 1 )"!1" $! $ " -!" ,"
-#$# " ,"L , " , " )!" !5
- !+" ," !!": " ," ," =!" !
, ( " 1 -" ) )!#" , -,"<5 )!"! ) ` ," "<)!" 1#)/!0 " ) $0 " " 1 "$/0 "5 -"<)!" "
"1):#" 11" L )!) ," ! $ !" $#" ;
Le procédé, appelé clivage, permet de placer au début de la phrase (après It is/It
was/…) l’élément qui correspond à l’information essentielle. (Il existe évidemment
un équivalent français : « C’est… que/qui/… »). Noter toutefois que la
construction neutre permet elle aussi une mise en relief semblable, par simple
accentuation : Fred gave Susan a scarf for her birthday. Ce dernier procédé, qui
est beaucoup plus utilisé en anglais qu’en français, est parfois le procédé normal.
La construction clivée permet de mettre en relief le sujet, les compléments du
verbe, les compléments circonstanciels, ainsi que les adverbes du type
yesterday, mais non le verbe. 193
$ 1" " !""3 " ,$ )#!#" +!b$" L * ""!"1" :<0 " ) 1)"1" L -! +!b$" L )!,"5 " " 1#" )! # ," 3!" ) ! ,!" ##1" )/!0 " )!" ! ," " # ! " ) #10 "5 ! 0 " !0 - -+ ," 3$ $"" ,#3 " !"! " )" )! ,
" " /#!" G "" 1)0 " 0 " - $,=!" " ++" , ) ," " ," <
" ," -!#5
- !+" ," B" #1 )!" " D3!, +# ' Q@S
( " 1 " 1 " 1"# , -,"<
5
"3 , "$ ! ," $#" )" !" $/" " ;
N’oublions pas enfin que dans les clivées (lit. « propositions cassées en
deux ») IT est une fois encore associé à une présence manifeste de l’énonciateur
qui juge, manipule, souligne, casse et déplace etc. (Rappel : les clivées
présentent le schéma syntaxique très particulier : IT+BE+…+
THAT/WHO/WHICH…) Elles procèdent par mise en relief d’un élément important
en le séparant du reste de l’énoncé. […] IT was her throat that was infected. A
comparer au plus factuel : Her throat was infected. Mais ici, malgré le
réarrangement syntaxique opéré grâce aux efforts concertés de IT, de BE et de
THAT, il est difficile d’assigner à IT un référent. Serions-nous en présence d’un
cas de transition entre le preparatory it et l’unspecififed it de O. Jespersen ? 195
B" #1 )!" " D3!,
Q@&
7
+# " < $/ -"<)!" ," " 11# $"<" + 0 " )! )) L $"<" " $"<" !"" L - "! , ,$ !
$-"L,!" L -" !+" "!* ,- #$#5 8 ,!# B: 4 !" -Y":5 ( &
193
Q@S
195
/
A K 3 ? 4 ' 3
7K! /
A R K0! / 0 &
' &RR5
1 0 ( <B<
" -))!" ) ) , " ! ' 0 ' 5
1 0 ( <<- 0 RA
Q@R
) ` 0 " $"" ," 5 +" " ! ," 1,
0 " *
-#$# , " $ ," "1**" 1) :<0 " " ,0 " )! L 1C1"
Q@N
-"! *?"$# /#!"" L $" ," ++"
5 ! " ! #0 " , $" ! $ !" ," " "1" ) 0 -"" !"C" " 3!1" #33#" )!
!))! L " )!) ) $0 " 1 ' " G -+ ,- " 3!1"
, 0 "" " ##1" "1*" !"1" # " ," !"
)!$ !#5
- !+" ," B" ," "1" ! " )!#" , -,"< " " ,#3 " $" "!1" ;
" "!1"
Lorsqu’un même prédicat s’applique à un second sujet d’énoncé, on exprimera la
similitude par l’intermédiaire de so qui reprend le prédicat. On a alors la structure
so + do + sujet, aussi bien dans un dialogue qu’à l’intérieur d’un même énoncé :
« […] When the Syrians refused to leave, so did the Israelis. » (Time) La reprise
du prédicat étant effectuée à l’aide de so, did figure à la suite et annonce en
quelque sorte l’élément nouveau qui fait ainsi l’objet d’une focalisation ( =
end-focus). 198
B" ," "1" ) ` 0 " ,- "! " "!1" )!#3=!" $"! #0 "
+ " 0 "5 3$ , " 0 " $ !"=" ,- " ) :<0 "
)!#+#" " 3 ,-#$# G $" 0 - ))"" " " 1"1" #" Q@@
)!$)" ," P /#!# )! ,)/ 9 !E
" ! "0 " !"" ,
)!" 0 5
&%%
- !+" ," + 0 " ,"$!)"
0 " >!6" */!"! "
#!$" /"! $$!" L -:" :<0 " " 1 ))!T " ,"< " "
# "$!" " 3 3 ," ,#+"! 3$ 0 " )"!1"" " ! $ !"
$#" ;
Il s’agit de constructions qui, à partir d’une phrase comme : He teaches English
Q@R
7 )!" " $1)" ," 1, ,"L ," -,"3$ ," "" "" 1,# " $! $" ) ! -:" ,
,$ ! 0 )! ,#3 33!" L ," #$ )! "0 "" " $ " ! ,- 1C1" 1 "1" " " $"!"
!" L ,- !" ?" )! " L " ! )!)!" )!"5 VWX $!" $ ," )!*#10 " $11" $"" ," -/##!+###
#$" ," ):)/"5 8 !$E /! ," 4 10 " 2+ "" 5 *- - OHO5
Q@N
7 VWX " ,$ ! -" ) " "1" ")$" K ",! -!, !" ," -"<#!" ! , ,$ ! !" " $ " L
!"! ,#* "$ -#!# ,#)",11" ," " !$" *" ," $ "$5 8 +- &@O5
198
Q@@
7 4 0 ' ( <-
7 ""1 ! )$" /" "F 3!1 3"! )!,+ $"< 3 +" 3!1 F" $ !"+!, 3$ ,"3",
)!,$: 1 " !: , !1: )$", /" ", 3 /" 3!1 $" /" "F 3!1 3" "", *"
", 1!" 3 : / /" +" "5 8
,)/ 9 !E5 , !
5 ,!" ; +1
Q@HA QOR5
&%%
7 "" L :<" -$! , " $,!" ," + 0 " ,"$!)" +<" #1"11" !")!#"#" )!
" +!11!" ,"
5 9 !E " ," #0 )" 0 )!# " " ,#" 0 3 !" ; ,#" ," *"5 8
>!6" */!"! 4 #!$" /"!5 *- - [5
RR
% ) 2 2 : 3 2
sortent un élément, English par exemple, pour le mettre en position privilégiée
dans : It is English that he teaches ou What he teaches is English […] A partir
d’une même phrase de départ, on peut placer à peu près tous les constituants
dans le cadre it is… that […] Ces formes, très figées puisque nous parlons de
« cadres », s’appellent des structures clivées : elles résultent d’une coupure, d’un
clivage de la phrase de base. […] Elles sont donc constituées de deux parties
réparties dans le cadre : l’élément mis dans le cadre après is, que nous appelons
focus, et le reste P’ de la proposition de départ, que nous appelons
« pseudo-relative » ex : It was Jane that Max met in London. 201
$" "<"1)" ))!T ," 36 #,"" -"1)! 3 < ! " , 1!# 0 - #" ) !" 3$5 - : +" 0 " " ! $ !" $#"
7 ," 3!1" != 3+#" ) 0 " VX V)!"X ," 7 $,!" 8 85 -+" "$ )" !" !# " ," -"33" "$,! )!, )! Z G *" 0 " - -1)!"
0 - 3!"" " $#1" ,1"" ," )/!" , ""1*"5 " -" ) L
)!)!"1" )!"! 1#)/!" "" 0 )!1" $ 1 ) ` 3<# )!)!" <
!")!#" )$ !" 0 " " $,!" !" G " 1)!" ," 3<# ) - C!" !))!$/#" ,- [ " 0 - " !"$!" , -!
$#1+!)/0 " 3,# $11" -#$# ! " 1 "1"5 -+ ,$ $ ,- "
1#)/!" E"/#0 " ++#! " *$+" -!!C "5 - ,1"" 1*"
"1*" "! )$" L " 3!1" $` !" 3+#" #$"!"1" *,1""" !,1"""5 $" $ " $!$=!" ,:10 " ," 3$ ,)!T5 `
&%&
" 1 "1" -)=!" L )"!)",$ !" ," -#$#
) ! " 3!1 "! !"1"
$11" " !"+!, !")"$3 ," "!$ " ! " ) ! " "!
" )!" -11*" ) ! -*"!"! L !5
- !+" ," B"/!" Y/3 & ( 0 ," ," &%%S " ) " ! $$ !!"$" , "!1" " != )!#" , -,"< G ," 1C1" "
"!1" ))!T L ) " ! !")!"5
C’est d’ailleurs à ce linguiste [le grand linguiste danois Otto Jespersen, auteur de
la monumentale A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles] que l’on
doit le terme de clivage et de « clivée » (cleft sentence) Le schéma invariant dans
une structure clivée est de forme : IT + BE + [X]+ THAT (WH-/Ø) + [Y] Où l’on
201
&%&
: ( <=<7<=G
B- *" $$"$" , $!$=!" )!,< ," $"" )5 11" -#$# )" C!" "$# )! " 1" ! 1C1"
0 - -" ) $/"# \ -" ) ! *" L $" 0 - " )!, 5 + " 1" !" "$ " 1:" 0 " " )" L 36 , $" "$" )#$" , $1 3+" )!"" -)"$ ,- " 3" " ,- " *!," " )/1" " 7 "$" $!) +# " 3!C" 1 3!1" ," +" ! "0 "" #? !" 8
S , " Q@@O QRAH ,- $ " -# 1#! #+# G )!" L " ! )!) ," 11#1" $-"L,!" ," $"" 7 )!)!## 0 " )=,"
$"!" ")=$" 1" ) ! !"! " ! )!"$ ," " !",!" "1**" )! -))!"$" 1" "! L C!"
," $" 1" L ,, ,- " ")=$" 1" < )!#+#" 1 !", #"5 8 S , " Q@@O QS%@5 "=!" ,:10 " + " " )" C!" 3+#" 3 L -#$! ! " ))"!5 = ! 1" " !"3 " 1 $!" ,"
1" $" 0 " -"1)C$/" ) ,-" ,"! !#""1" -1)!" " ,$ ,-C!" "33$$" )" -: !1)"!5 "!! ,#* ," ," <=1" )!" 0 " )" !" )" ,"! - , 1 "1"5
! !""! < 7 "$" $1 3# 8 " !
!3$" 3$" L 1"!"" ) 0 - " ! )"!1" ," " ,#!*"! L #" " )!#," !5
RN
retrouve le pronom neutre IT, suivi d’une forme finie de BE, puis un élément X
que nous nommerons “élément focalise” ou focus, puis THAT, ou parfois d’une
forme en WH ou de Ø, et de Y qui constitue le reste de la prédication. 203
B"/!" Y/3 " " " L +"! -!+" "<$" , "!1" , 1 1" ,"
+"! 0 " $-" #+"1" B")"!" 0 )!)# ," 3 ,"
,#+"! -##1" 1 " " ! +!b$" < ! $ !" $#"5 : !""
$," 5
! " ! +" " $!$=!" #1"11" ):#10 " , "!1" : $1)!
, $$") 1#+ 0 " ;
Nous prendrons ici focalisation dans un sens semi-technique, celui de « mise en
relief » ; notre propos n’est pas ici de reprendre les distinctions techniques fines
(et variables suivant les écoles !) entre des termes comme focalisation,
« thématisation », « topicalisation », mais de poser quelques repères pertinents
pour l’analyse syntaxique. 204
3 " 1C1" " ! )!#$" 0 " 3$ " + " +" ,-*!, )! )/#1=" )!,0 " ;
Ainsi, on sait que c’est en anglais l’intonation qui est le vecteur privilégié de la
focalisation […] Notons que le français, qui dispose par comparaison à l’anglais
de très peu de ressources accentuelles, a presque toujours recours à des
réagencements syntaxiques pour rendre ces structures focalisées : dislocations,
clivage, etc. 205
"!!" " ,#3 ," " $" "!1" ; 7 " !#3#!"$" " &%R
)"!"$" ,#+" )!$ =!"1" L -" , $#$" ! 8 5 !"! " $
,-" 1 -,#" ,- " ,#0 L $"<" "!!" "
#0 " ," -,#" ,- *"3,# , )!) )! !))! $"<"
,$ !35 " *"3,# !"! " " 0 " -$ !" )!$=," L )!! , $"<"
, "0 " -#$# -$! L -? "1" #10 " !"0 )! " $ " !5 -+
,$ *" $ ," " 3+ !# $"" 35 " " " +#"
,1" "! *?"$" , )/#1=" ," 3$ 0 , $!!"),!" L "
$"!+"$" )!#*" ," ) ," " $"!+"$" #$"!" L )"!$") $$! "
," " , " $"!+"$" #$"!" L 0 " " $ " ! /"
$"! $/"J -$ !"5
$1)# $" )+" )! " !"1!0 " #+"1" 3!1 #" )! "!!" "
$$"! " )/#1=" ," ;
On peut […] faire l’hypothèse que le relatif zéro succède à that en synthétisant
totalement le syntagme issu de la détermination relative et en le défocalisant.
Dans les trois exemples le référent est totalement dévalorisé et l’énonciateur
203
75 W5 '
204
75 W5 / '
205
: &%R
RH
1 0 5!
0 &
' ( <++
"!!" "5 7 #! " !##*! G " $ ," $#" 8 A%5
1!! '
' ( <<B7<<C
% ) 2 2 : 3 2
exprime son impuissance, son désintérêt ou son abattement. All I could do
signifie : « Je n’ai pas trouvé mieux que cela » ; all fait le parcours du référent
pour en révéler surtout les limites et il marque la restriction. Any name you
please signifie l’indifférence de l’énonciateur. That collar I have spoken of est une
évocation découragée. Les relatifs en wh-, that et le relatif zéro représentent trois
degrés de focalisation et on suggérera que l’anglais a un relatif zéro parce qu’il
possède le relatif that. Ce dernier dépassant l’opération qui construit la relative,
le relatif zéro tire les conséquences de ce dépassement. Syntaxiquement les
relatifs zéro du texte sont typiques : ils ne sont pas sujet ; leur antécédent est
court, comme la relative elle-même et celle-ci débute par un simple pronom. Le
fait que le relatif zéro est le degré absolu de la défocalisation explique qu’il ne
remplace pas that quand celui-ci est sujet. 207
, " !"1!0 " 0 )!#$#,# 0 " " )/#1=" ," 3$
) !"""! ,- " ,$ ! ,!" ," -#$# ,$ "! "!1" G " 0 "
)!3 " ), :<0 " "<+" 0 - " 3c $ ," *!,#" "$/b#"5
L $" )!) 1"# " )!$)" ," P ," 5 $")", , !"1!0 " $," 0 - " 3 $"" 3$ "+",!#" )! $! $ ,- " )!) *!,#" !"" )! "<"1)" -))! ,- !"3
J#! )" )! $!" 3!" -"33" ,- " ,#3 *! " ," -#$# , $11"
!#!#$ ! ,!" G $" 0 )! $!" ,"! ) ," ), ,#* 5 -" $" 0 "
"!!" " ))"" 5 "" !"1!0 " )!#"" +!, #!C ) ! 0 " 0 )!#$$ )"5 "33" -+ , " ," < )!" L "! ," !"!
L " "<)! $!#" , )/#1=" ," 3$ " )!" " "!1" , $$") ) !+" ,$ , $$") ""5 ! $" 0 !"=" ,
" !"=" , *"1" , )5 M!b$" L !"1!0 " 3!1 #" )! "!!" "
,#$=" ? "1" ," 3 $ )" +3" $1)!*" , $" $
)!#$ L 0 "!,! )"!$") #10 " $$! "
!1"1" $#" " 3 ,-#$# , 3 1C1" ," $"" ) )!#+#" G $"
!#!#$"1" ,"! )! $1)! ) ," ), ,#* ," -#$# ,
" ,- " 1)!$" $$! " $-" L " )!$)" 1C1" ," $! $ )"!)"$"
" )" !" $! $ , "0 "" " ) )" " !1"1" " ) #+#
,$ +0 "1" " 1 $")*" ," !""! -"5
- ) $ "# ," ,!""! " " "</ " ," $" 0 ## , "
"!1" ," , " !+" 3!6 ," +!11!" +"5 1)"1" -" + ," 1!"! !"! ," 0 "0 " !+" )!1 " ) "1*#10 " ," )!, $ $ "" 0 " ," " )! "<" $"" ," 0 -))!T ) :#10 "1" " 3 ) ? ! -*?" ,- " ,#3 ,"0 "5
"33" " ," < )!" L )!) ," )/#1=" +!11$ < != ,"!
,- " $! $ :<0 " )#$30 " $ ," $#" L " ) :<0 "
)!#+#" " 3 ,-#$# $ , ," L -# ," ,- 1!)/=1" 3!1" "
" ) )! )!," 7 0 " $-" " + - 0 " "
&%H
"$" ! )!#+# ," 3$ 8
5
207
&%H
/1@' 0 ' 0 ( <**7<*,
B"/!" Y/35 :<" +" < $$ ! &QQ5
R@
! " ! $" $,#! )"!1 ," 3!" ! " 3 0 " " "!1" ,"
" + 0 " -# ) * 1" ,$*" ," " !" "1) ,
+ " $ !" 7 $$"!"! -" ! 8 "Z , + " !"" ,- !"
,1" )#$# ,1" ," !!+" ," -)0 " ," )/+!)/" "
," ! " " +##! 11" " $#1+!)/"5 " "33"
!"! # , -:" + 0 " L 0 "" )!$#,# L )" )!= " "
" ! !"$"#" )! " ! ) ! $" "!1"5 !""# " )!"1"! " " ! )0 " "$ -"33" \ , " L , , )!$=5 ," <=1" "1) ) *"!"! 0 " 3< ,$ !" ," -" ) -)#!"! +!b$" L " "" ," !")!#" 0 " , )!$= G " $" )! " *
,- "$,!"1" , " L )!$" ," $"! " L -#1"!+"$" ,- )!"1"! ) " ,$ ,- !!=!") ,-" ! " !"$!#
-"<)!" ," 5 ,-"$,!"1" # #!"1" $!!##" L $""
," " ," $" " ," $" 1 ," "" "!" " ," < , 3 ,
,:11" )!)!" L -#$# " $!$=!" $#0 " , )/#1=" " )! $1)!
1)$"1" ))! 0 " 3$ " 3 ,-#$# !")" " )!" ! $""
$!$#!0 " ," -#$#5 2 " )!$" 1C1" ," 3$ 0 ,"
)!#$#1" " L -#1"!+"$" ,
3 ,#?L ," -"!$" 1 "1"Z"
" ,#" $! $" ," -# ," , )/#1="5 -" ,#++# " "1" ,- "
" $$! " " $11" "<$"!*#" "$ ,- 0 " ,#?L
!"1" #0 #" L )!) , " , ) 3$ 1 "$ $"" ,-$$"
)!,0 " $!$#!# )! !" " ,- $!" 35 "$ -#1"!+"$" ,- 13 $!# " !" ) 3!" " $ , $!$=!" " , ,"
$" 0 # 1 " 11" , 3 0 " 1" " !""3 ", " $!$=!"
)!3 )#10 " ," -#$/+" ,$ !3 $" 0 +3" 0 " " $ " ! "" ," !"$3"!
1"", " 1 3 +!# $$ # )! -$ !"5 ,"
!$!T ) "! 0 " 3$ + 0 " "" 1)0 1#)/!0 "1" !"+!, )!$ "! )# ! -#$# "$ 0 " ," 1, ,c L +"$"1" :<0 " 1!0 # # )!3 ,!"$"1" )!+#" )!
"
$"!+"$" #!" ," !"+!, " $"!+"$" "" "! *?"$"5 0 "
$" )!+"1" , -"<!+ 0 " ! " #$/ , " )!+"1" ," "1)!# , ?" , -#$# - "$ 3!1" " Y 5
#1" ," $"" ,"!# ,-"1) 0 " 3$ ,-C!" )/#1="
)$ " )#!)/#!0 " ," + 0 " $!$#!" " 1" $" ,-#$ G
," 0 " )!"! $11" )$"! , $,!" $ " ,#?L $" ,-"
,$ ," 3$5 -+ ,#?L ," )!#""! " )!$"" ," !#" ) ! !")!#""!
) ! " )! 1 ) ! - !" G - !" , -#!# )"!1" ? "1" ," 1" <
! " $! !" )!)5
: !""! , " ," < +!," )!" 0 " $ ! ,"0 "" -+! ? "1" ,-:"! " )/#1=" 0 " " ,-# 1#!"!5 $"
)!$#, L ,"!"! "<1"5 11" "1*"! 0 " " "!1" ## "1)! # <
+ < -+ " "33" ,-#0 "! -!+" "<$" , "!1" ," G 1 ," ! " "!1" 1#+ 0 " $"!" " + " ,33#!"" " ! 0 "
$#" ? 0 -$ , " !+" 3!6 ," +!11!" +"5
N%
% ) 2 2 : 3 2
& A 2 ? A 9A $$") ) " " "!1" " $11" " 3!6 ::1" ," "Z ," ; 7 $"!" ! e/*",f 3 !+ " ", "$5G $"!" 3
&%@
$: ! ""!+: 8 5 $" )!) 1 /1E: "1" 0 " $P" ," P +" !,!"
, "!*" 0 " P)!" "!1+" + 0 " " ," P +" ) "$/0 "
11" )0 " , 1 ;
Without checking sources, I am pretty sure it is a standard term in traditional
grammar -- pre-structuralist, pre-generative. The term is not used particularly with
a visual connotation, despite its much earlier origins. In general use, to « focus
attention on something » does not imply visual focus. 210
!"1!0 "! 0 " 1 /1E: ,#1" P"! " 0 "" $" "!
P#$" !3!1" 0 "! L P!+" ," P , 1 - 1! $," 0 " " ! "" , "!1" " *" L -!+" ," "1)
1#+ 0 "5
! A 2 ? >4 B
,#?L +# " 3 0 " $11" " + B"/!" Y/3 $-# "
+ " , B")"!" 0 !, -"<)!" "
+ 0 "5 !## $-" #+"1" != )!**"1" 0 !, " "!1" , $" ,1"5 -!+" "1*"! 0 - " + ,- "1) 1#)/!0 " "
!))! "$ )/+!)/"5 $ " )+" " 0 " ;
A cleaving of a sentence by means of it is (often followed by a relative pronoun or
connective) serves to single out some particular element of the sentence and
very often, by directing attention to it and bringing it, as it were, into focus, to
mark a contrast. 211
-+ *" L ,- "1) " " 1#)/!0 " G " !## -+ 1C1" ,- "
$1)! "<)$" "$ " )!$#,# )/+!)/0 "5 0 " $"" $ "
&%@
& Q@H@ QQ&N5 0 " " ! 1#,$" ," 7 3:"! 3"$" < 8 ))!T " ,"!"! " !
. * 0 -" $"" +3$ # ,#?L )!#""5
210
J 5Q 8 3
! 0
0 ! &
& > =B e <==B &8 5 5 # I +,6,M 4 53 5 #( &
211
2 3 5
. %
00 G*= I/ 0 ( ) +,( +,*GM $5 2; 5Q +,6,( I Q 5 ( 3 @0 5 4 0 & 3 Q Q 5 :
(
5
#M Q
0 5 Pf
( +B-7+B*
NQ
!")!" )! ," 1*!" < + " 11" )! D$" /3" ;
An additional way in which contrastiveness may be expressed is with the use of a
so-called cleft sentence, as in “It was Ronald who made the hamburgers”. The
term was used by Jespersen, who noted (1961 : 147-148) : “A cleaving of a
sentence by means of it is (often followed by a relative pronoun or connective)
serves to single out one particular element of the sentence and very often, by
directing attention to it and bringing it, as it were, into focus, to mark contrast. 212
))!T ,= ! $!"1" 0 -" 3!6 " 1 " " ,!"$"1"
"1)! #" L !, +<" 0 -" ""1C1" )!#" ," $1)!
)/+!)/0 " )!)#" )! B")"!"5 -+ ,- 1 , " "! ) !
,#+"! )/#1=" ," + " " " 3!6 " 1 " ,$ "!1"
"<$ "1" +!11$ G ! 0 " $" ," ) " ! $$") ,
" " "1" " +!11$"5 P" ! $"" $$") 0 " ?" 1" )"$/"!
1" " !"" ! $!$=!" )!#3!1"5
+ A + 1 2 !$" $$!# L ," / !, " " + 0 " )! "
&QO
+ " ," -$" ," !+ " 0 -))" L $"" ," /
)/" !# )!"
,"
' 5 " 3 !0 -"" "" ," !",!" $1)" ," ,33#!""
&QS
,#3 0 " " + "
)!)#" ," $"" "" $" 0 " $"
,#3 )!C" ) L $3 0 -"" " $!* " L #$!"! ! 0 "5
" " #,"$" $"" :" )" #+"1" -))0 "! L ," , $,=!" )!3 0 -"" " " )", !)/!0 " , / 5
&QA
!* " /=1" ) " ! )!)!## $")*" ," " !"$ )"!
5 )!"1"! " $,=!" 0 " " /=1" :)0 "1" " ) :<0 " " C"
212
R 5 I 4 3 ( 3 ( :> ( $ ( D # :> $ @ 5 / J S Q .
( +,-6( G-M 2 . %
@0 5 4 (
+B-7+B* 0 &QO
7 $"! "<1 3 ""$" 3!1 /" "F) 3 "!"" /F "!F/"1+ 1?!: 3 ""$" $ F *$ ""1"; "1" , ""1" * F/$/ /" "1" 1,"5
/" ""1" * F/$/ /"
1"/+ ", 1: *" , *" /" * 3 /" "!$" ! /" /"1" , F/ ", * /" * /" $" 3
/" "!$" ! /" !/"1"5 8 #1 2/" 5 # &
& Q@&@5
B"3 $/"E #,5 ! ; 2 Q@NA5
&QS
" $" " !" " ! < ," -$" ,"
!+ " $" < ," B >!* 7 ,"3+ /" /"1" 3 $ ""$"
: 85 ., ' ) UQ &RN&H% $" < ," D$" /3" 7 +" ! 3!1 >F 85
! -
*?"$ )$ ,
"k 7 > $
5
1 #,5 1"!,1 ; "?1 Q@HN &QAQ G 7 M"" !""
3 "F 85 B . 5 /!" #,5 "F a!E ; $,"1$
""$"
"!)"$" , /" !+J /"
"< 85 # "k #,5 Q@NS Q%RQ&H $" < ," 1 5 E 7 /" :)+: 3 3$ )/"1" 85
Q@H% SQNS " "3 $" < ," Y , 1*!"$/ +
" N&
"
5 1*!,+" ; 1*!,+" "!: !" Q@@S5
!" Q@NR &AAR $" < ," >5
, 5 >5
. 9 R
! *. U O
# L . ) # ) % ) 2 2 : 3 2
,-#$# $" 0 3 0 " - )" " $3,!" "$ " ?" +!11$ )! ))
&QR
)!#,$
5 " ,#3 #+"1" $11" !": L )!" ," -#$# )! )) L ' (
0 " $ ," / $!" " "#
L )!) ," 0 "" 3!" $11"!" ) #*! " ))
0 / 0 $"" ,$ !"=" ," )!+10 "5 3 ! "
) ," ! $ !" 3!1" ," )/!" " /=1" !""!! L , $ " !+"
L ," - )! )) L ," - 5 " )!) "! !""1" 3$#
" 3 ,-#$# " " $-"L,!" -##1" 3$# !""!! :)0 "1" L ,
, ##1" ,-3!1 )!+# )! " $#$" ! ##1" 0 )!
$#0 " 1"! -#1 #$"5 " )!$ "! ? 3"! 0 - )!# L -" ," - !" ) "<)!"#1" 0 " " !" $ )/!0 "5
! )/" !# 1!" 0 " " 0 # # 1#!#" $," " )
:#10 "1" !# " ,-K " ' 0 " !" ;
En présentant le thème comme « ce dont on dit quelque chose », on est vite tenté
d'en faire ce qui vient en premier à l'esprit, le point de départ de l'énoncé, au sens
de « ce dont on va parler ». Qu'un glissement s'opère ensuite vers une
spécification positionnelle semble assez naturel : par défaut, on met en tête ce
qui vient le premier à l'esprit, en commençant par poser ce dont on va dire
quelque chose. De même, on peut admettre que, par défaut, ce qui vient le
premier à l'esprit est quelque chose de disponible, « connu ». Et l'on comprend
ainsi que la rencontre entre un point de départ et un élément porteur d'un faible
degré de dynamisme communicatif (CD) se fasse : l'arrangement interprétatif des
éléments de l'énoncé se fait par degré croissant de CD, or le thème est l'élément
porteur du plus petit degré de CD, il est donc le point de départ de l'arrangement
interprétatif. La corrélation entre « ce dont on dit quelque chose » et le caractère
« connu » est celle que l’on s'explique peut-être le mieux : selon un principe
communicationnel assez évident, il n'est pas facile d'introduire un référent
nouveau et de dire en même temps quelque chose à son sujet. [mais] il faut
dissocier ce qui est réalisation la plus fréquente et principe théorique. » 217
"$ " )!**"1" ,c 3 0 " - $$ " " $!$=!" ,:10 " ," -#$#5 " 3+" " )!" 3 ," ,#++"! ," ! !#$ !!" *" 0 " $/0 "
$ -$! , $"<" " $"<" 1 !") ! ," ?" < ,"
!")#!+" $1)"<" , "0 " -$" " " " - " -)!= " $ "
&QH
-$ ," " !""
5
"1*"! 0 " " 10 " ," $!# 0 " +"
," /=1" " 0 " #", L $"" ," &QA
&QR
217
)/" !# L )!) ," -# " ,= ! 0 " -
&Q@
B" !")!", 11!"1" $3$ )!)#" )! )/" !#5
-" ) ,#3", " )! -$" ," !+ "5
5
!3 / $5? 0 &
# 5
'! & ( ) G=( +,,*(
<=7<+ 0 &QH
!"",! ! $" , !=1" )!" ) )!$ =!"1" , )!" #" 7 /=1" 3:"!
,"!=!" #)" "! -*!$ 85
NO
$,=!" $" ,"!"! "!1" , ) ," " ," " !" $$")5 - $1)!", 0 - ) " !#3#!"! L ," )/#1=" !*" " 1C1" ," + " $-" $" 0 "
" ,-"<)"!5 !" $-" ? "1" )!**"1" , 3 ," ):#1"
0 - ) C!" )! ,"! $ ! + 0 " " $" ) ! !":"! L ,"! 3
&&%
," + " $11" " )!#$ ,#?L B"/!" Y/3
5
" $$= "!1+0 " 0 " " 1 ," ," !"$!#
"<$=," 0 "1" " $,!" ," "" "" #$" ," )"#" + 0 "5 - "
$"!" 36 $-" L )!" " 0 - " ,#)" 0 "1" $-"L,!"
0 - " " !#, " ) L " " 3 ," + " 1 1" )!, $
#$" "=!" " $" )!$" 0 - !"" L )/#1=" $ 3 ," -$"
," !")!#" )$ ! #$3 !"5
"$ )/" !# 0 " " "!1" "1* !"$ )"! 1" !"
+ 0 "5 $ 0 !#=" " )" ," 1 1 )$# ," "!1"
0 " P )" $,#!"! $11" !#3#! )/#1=" ," 3$ , 1
$11" : ! ) 1 #!"1" L 3$5
The concept of focus has been discussed in the literature as focus (Chomsky,
1969 ; Jackendoff, 1972 ; Quirk et al., 1972 ; Dik, 1978 ; Ladd, 1980), comment
(Bloomfield, 1933 ; Kraak, 1970 ; Schmerling, 1976), Rheme (Prague School), NEW
(Information) (Halliday, 1967b ; Chafe 1970, 1976), while their counterpart are
called, respectively, presupposition (Chomsky, 1969 ; Jackendoff, 1972 ; Quirk et
al., 1972) or deaccenting (Jackendoff, 1972 ; Ladd, 1980), topic, theme and given
(Halliday, 1967b) or old (information) (Chafe 1970, 1976). 221
" ) ! ::1" 7 $11"!" 8 7 !/=1" 8 7 3!1 "" 8 ,$
," "!1" 0 !"" L ," )/#1=" #10 " ," 1, ,"
! $ ! 3!1"" G ))!T #+"1" $11" " )", ,P " !" ! L ! ,#+#" )! ; 7 )!# )) 8 7 ,"$$"+ 8 7 )$ 8 7 /"1" 8 &&&
"$!" 7 +" 8 7 $" 8 5
! M "/" 3 !"1"! )!"1=!" ))! , "!1" +!11$ ,"
L Q@R@ ," L 0 "" " "!1" " "1):# )! 1 /1E: , !$"
&&O
# ; 7 "") ! $ !"
!3$" ! $ !" , "1$ "!)!" 85
0 -" !## " # !"1" ) 0 " 1 /1E: 1C1" " ,#1"
&Q@
" 5
!$" " "<)$"1" " 1C1" 10 " ," $!# L )!) ," ,$/1" 7 +"Z"F 8 #!"1" $!!##" L
$"" ," 7 )!" ))Z3$ 8 ; 7 3 /" + F/ /" ", /"" "!1 ! /"! ::1 /" / !" )"!/) /"
1 !+: $", F/ /" !" /3" !E , ', ',: , Y 5 !/"! !)!+ /" / F/"
/"! ,$ /" *?"$ !" $": "<1", , $1)!", *"$1" "," / F 3 /"1 1" 0 " /" 1"
/+ , / 1" $" /" ,33"!"$" !" 0 " !+"5 8 " >5 !$"5 7 F!, <1: 3 M""F 3!1 85
" 5 5 " #,5 "F a!E ; $,"1$ !" Q@HQ &&A5 B" +"5
&&%
221
&&O
! B"/!" Y/35 & 4 53 ( %
1 /1E:5 7 "")
!
NS
! $ !"
&QQ5
5 J #( G*=
!3$"
! $ !" ,
"1$ "!)!" 85 +V 5
, !5 ':" ; 2 Q@N& R&QQ@5
")!", 5 /1E: % ) 2 2 : 3 2
" 0 - "1*"! 0 " $" B")"!" 0 - !, " + 0 "5 " , ! M "/" $/ ," $"! 1 /1E: " )!"1"! " $-"
)!**"1" , 3 ," -$!:*" !"""1" 0 " " ,#$ "!" " " /#!" ,"
$" ,"!"! " < ) ,"L ," 3!=!" ," ):5 -#$"
+##!" 3,#" )! 1 /1E: "1)" $ !11" " "!1" ," "
" $$ ,1" )/+!)/0 "5
!## " )!*=1" 0 " " )" +!11!" +##!" " $$"!" )5 -+ " "33" ," ! "! " !=+" ," )!, $ ," )/!" +!11$"1" $!!"$"
" $" " 3 $" !=+" 1" ? ! +!b$" )!$)" +##!" ," !#$ !# 0 )"!1" ," )"! , 3 " ," - "!" )$ " " !*" " !*" # "
)!, ,
?$"5 !## ," $$ !!"$" ," )!" ," 3!1"
-" "<1#" 0 -3 ,-" ,#$""! " $!$=!" "!" ?$"5
P" " "!!+" P #" 0 - $ " ! ," + " 0 " "
+ " ! $$= < ! $ !" ?$"" " < !")!#" 1""
"!"" ; 7 +!11! 3 /" + +" ) !)! *" ,"$!) 3 /" ,"
&&S
)"E"!/"!"!P !$ $1)""$"5 8
! " * ,P " #!" ," !3!1 L
)!! ,P#$# "33"$3 ? +# +!11$ < " + " ) !! !"! "! $" ! $ !"
+##!" , -"33$$# !")"! ! " $!$=!" !#$ !3 ," )/#1="
"+",!#5 - $/1E:"" " +#" "5 - " $/"1"1" ," )"#" $1)!", 0 - 3 L 11" ,# !# ,!" )!*=1" ," "
? ! " 1C1" $" ! "0 " $/)) ,") " ,#* ; " " ,"!#Z #5
" ,"11" ## !# " : !"$ ! L " /:)/=" ; $" ," -## ,$ ,"
- "!# ," $1)#"$"5 ")", 3 ," #!3"! -/:)/=" 3 $""
,)"! " !# 5 ," '+=+" ,#$" $" 3 " "$ / 1 ! - ,"
&&A
)+" ," !+" ! + 0 " +##!"
5 3 *"!"! 0 " ;
La place donnée à la compétence dans la grammaire générative a conduit, au
début, à reléguer au niveau de la performance, sorte de réceptacle, tantôt de
l’inexpliqué, tantôt de l’anecdotique, tout ce qui n’entrait pas dans son cadre :
temps de production, longueur ou complexité des phrases, et en particulier
limites effectives de la récursivité. 226
!"",! P,#" 0 P "<" )!$" +##!3 ," )/!" , &&&
$" )!) ?" !))"" !"1!0 " ," B" * " ; 7 !0 - " $"$" " , ,1" "<$ 3 ,- )" 1*!" ,"
)#$" "" ",$" L ,#"))"! ," "!1+" *," " ,)!" ; #$"# ) ! $/0 " #$" ) !
$/0 " + " ,-33!1"!
$" " !+# " 1" !" 1=" L )!)"! ," " < "!1" 0 " " ,+ " ,"
," $" < ," !" #$" 0 " )! " ! 3!1" " )! " ! $" 5 2 !0 " $"" $"$" $11"$" L
#$/))"! < " )#$" 0 "," L -" !"! )" "<$ " " )!, " ,#$ "!1+0 "
0 -#)!+" ) " 1"$ !" " ) !#"5 8 B" * 2/"" M$1 " M ") 4 5 '
5
! ; ! " Q@@@ 5 " 1C1" 36 )" +"! " 3 0 " " + "
!, " ," $" 31" " 1C1" "!1"5
&&S
&&A
1 /1E:5 .
&
& 5 1*!,+" 25 ; 255 5 !" Q@RA S5 B" +"5
," '+=+"5 ! , 5 ! ; !"" "!!" ," >!$" Q@NR SA5
NA
+ " ,$ " ,!"$ "!" " ?$" " !3$" 3,# ! " $/+"1"5
!"",! -,#" ," $! "" ", " , + " "
1 "1" $!# " " "1)#!"! #$"!" 3<# ," !")!#" ," &&N
+ " )! "<"1)" " $/=1" !*!"$" 0 #:" " ! < $/1E:"5
"" 0 " -#!C ," ! < +##!" !#," , " )"!)"$" 1#$"
0 " )!#$$ )" ) $ ;
Toute séquence linguistique qu’un locuteur-récepteur idéal est capable de
reconnaître comme grammaticale peut être décrite comme engendrée par un
automate d’un certain type. Soit une machine comme la dernière de celles
décrites dans l’article machine – alors une grammaire Gi sur une langue Li est un
ensemble d’instructions permettant à la machine, compte tenu du vocabulaire Vi,
d’inscrire sur son ruban, quand elle se trouve dans un état terminal, une phrase
de la langue. 228
!#$ "3 0 " $" )" )!#""! #!C $,#!*" , " ,1" ,
++" !3$" " ," -3!10 " ) 0 " $" )"!1" ," ,#++"! ,"
$!$#!0 " $11 " L " " + " " L " #$#5 -,#" ,- )!$)" +##!3 " )" 1 "" " $$"!" ) ,!"$"1" :
!"",! $")", )$ ""1" $ ! ," !" "<)# ? "1" ) ! 1"!"
" #,"$" ," ,"!+"$" ,-))!$/" ,-!,!" #)#1+0 "5 " )! " !
1)! ," +"! 0 " " +##!" 1C1" - -" ,#3"," "1*" !
## #, )! -"<)!"# , "!1" " 11" )! $ "" 0 "
$" ,"!"! !"$="5
!"" 1" ! $ ," ! M "/" " 3!))# )!
-*,$" " !$/"" ," <0 "" 3$ " $!!##"5 ""
$ !#=" 0 " ," "1*" ! ## "1):#" )! ) " ! + "
&&@
))!" L ,33#!"" #$"
5 )" 1C1" $"! 0 -"" "1*" ! ##
L ," /#!" " ," "!1+" ,33#!""5 " ))!T! $11" "!1" 3#,#!" ! 0 ! ) < + " 0 !" ! /# 3!"
$!!"),!" L " ! )!)!" ," $/"5 " "!1" )" )!C"! L $3 $!
" + " ! L ! )!C# " " 0 " ! $" " ! )!" ," ):#1" $!$#!0 "5 *" 0 " " " ,"" " + " )!#3!1"
$/$ !"*! L 36 $" 0 " - " , 5 " $!$=!" #1"11"
):#10 " " "<)!"3 , "!1" -: )!C5 ! " ! " $$= ," +!11!"
+##!" ) ! ,!" )!) # $" 1C1" "!1" " 5 226
&&N
: ," '+=+" +" ,-" ! 0 " 7 " " ," + " V"X $11" " !+1" " *" 0 " ? " ,"
3!1 ,- :$/!1" " +" 85 ," '+=+"5 7 1)"!", ," "!!,
228
&&@
85 R ' U N% 5& Q@NA QH5
3 . ' A S3 R . 5? 5 5 5 ( +,,+( C*
! " !",!" $1)" ," !$/"" ," #! !" + 0 " )! ! 3$ ) !! " !#3#!"! L **+!)/"5
NR
"! ' % ) 2 2 : 3 2
," ) ,""! 3 " $11" " 0 " "" -))!"" ) ! $"!5
!## ," )" )!3 C!" !$" ," $3 $-" 0 -"" $"
-/!" ," $ ! ," )"#" + 0 " 0 !"!# " =$"5
" "", " -+ ) $ ," !"$""! " "1) " " )
!" " " )!" ," ) 0 ) C!" #1 L )!) ," 3$ 1
," !##"! 0 "0 " )!*=1" 0 " )!3 #10 " !"$##" )! " 1 1" "
1=!"5 ! $" 3!" " !#3"< $!#" -)! ," /#!" ," !")!#"
)"!1"! ," !",!" !" *?" 1" < ))!#/",*"5
,-"<)"! " 0 " <0 "" /"! !#),!" +!b$" L $""
:" $!#" )!) ," !""! ! " )/#1=" $# ) / +!b$" L -:" ," +!11!" 3!65 -+ $"" 3 ,-#0 "! -:"
!#$"" 0 " ," < + " +< ,": ' ,," " M"33!": Y5
1 3
," $" 1C1" )/#1=" , +!11!" #" . ! &O%
5
A G % ? 2 9 * > 0 ,#?L !""# " $!$=!" )!$" " ," 3$ 0 $*" #!"1"
-*?" 0 , C!" 1 " !""3 " 5 '! $"<" $" )" )!3 ,"! " L
," 1*+ ]# #10 " $11" " 1!" $ $," 5 ")", "
#!" ," "! 0 " 1+!# " $!$=!" !$"1" ,1"" ," -#$# "
#<=1" "! 3$ $11" -,"!*"
& , $" $ )!#$ )" " )!"!
! ," )!" ," )/!" L ,1" !*" " $" ) ? ! ,!"$"1" ,$
)!3 Q 5
[81] You can [only exit from this lane]. i.a. The only thing you can do from this
lane is exit. i.b. This is the only lane from which you can exit. (Thus if the lane is
on a motorway, then you are prohibited from continuing along the motorway,
and/or you are prohibited from exiting from other lanes.) The square brackets
enclose the constituents in which only and also are modifiers, with underlining
marking the head. But it follows from the ambiguities that in order to understand
the meaning contribution of only and also it is not sufficient to identify the
syntactic head that they modify: one must know which element they apply to
semantically. This element is called the focus – hence the term focusing modifier
for this type of modifier. In 81, the focus is exit in the case of interpretation ia. and
this lane (or just this) for interpretation ib. 231
"$ =" 0 " ," $!$#! ," -")$" ," -#$# 0 "
""1C1" #!"1" #" L $"" ," $#1"5 " "" 3 " )" 0 "
, " , $" " , $" ," )!?"$ " ," $*" 1 " $! -#$#
&O%
231
,": ' ,," 4 M"33!": Y5
K 15 )5 $5
A 4 W 2 ( C*6 0 NN
- $" ," ##1" )/!0 " 0 " $*" ,- !" " 1C1" )!$ ! ,- 1 "1" +##!5
! * > . 2 In speech, the focus of a focusing modifier is commonly marked by stress. But
the main stress in a clause certainly does not have to fall at this point. Compare:
48i. They only gave me a sandwich for lunch. 48ii. Only Kim preferred the original
version. In 48i. the main stress is on “sandwich” and this will be interpreted as
the focus of “only”: “they didn’t give me anything except a sandwich for lunch”.
In 48ii for reason of contrast the main stress falls on “original”: “no one except
Kim preferred the original version – everyone else preferred some later version”.
[…] It is a common practice to use the term “focus” for the constituent carrying
the main stress as well as for the constituent that a focusing modifier applies to.
This of course stems from the fact that they coincide in the default case. It will be
clear from what has just been said, however, that they are distinct concepts, and
it is potentially confusing to use the same term for both. We will therefore
distinguish them as scopal focus and informational focus respectively. The latter
denotes the constituent carrying the main stress, and represents the principal
new information in the clause, or intonation group. Scopal focus is the type we
are concerned with in this section. Focusing modifiers are scope-bearing items,
and the scopal focus is the contrastive element in their scope. In 48ii, for
example, the scope of only is the whole clause, since the meaning of the whole
clause is affected by it. That is the restriction to Kim applies to the variable x in
the open proposition “x preferred the original version”. The scope is thus the
whole clause and the scopal focus is Kim. 232
$ $," 1!" 0 " $!!"1" L $" 0 " - -/* ," ," ,!" - "
)" ? ! $"! $$" $!3 " $ ,
,- 0 " -$$"
)!" ! " :*" " "1" G *" 0 " $" L $!=!" " # ;
The only focus-marking device which all of our examples have in common is
prosodic prominence of a given syllable in the sentence. It is also the only device
which occurs by itself, without being complemented by another coding system
(as e.g. in English). It would seem therefore that the role of prosody in focus
marking is in some sense functionally more important than morphosyntactic
marking. This is no doubt a consequence of the iconic relationship between pitch
prominence and the degree of communicative importance assigned to the focal
portion of a proposition. 233
< * 'H : " ," " ,P/ $ !11" #0 #" " + 0 "
) ! !":"! < )/#1=" ," 3$ " ," 1" " !""3 ;
i a. Kim too resigned. i b. Only Kim resigned. ii a. Kim resigned. ii b. Kim resigned.
232
K 233
W / : 5 2 ( <<C
NH
A 4 W 2 ( C*,
% ) 2 2 : 3 2
iii a. Someone besides Kim resigned. iii b. No one except Kim resigned. The
obvious difference between additive too and restrictive only is shown in iii. […]
We saw that with only the main assertion is [iiib] with [iib] being backgrounded.
With too however, it is [iia] that is the main assertion and [iiia] that is
backgrounded. 234
&OA
$ 1#+ " " 0 " "" " "! "<)$"1" ,P " "!1+" )$ !" $11" $"" "!1+" # ) #0 "" 1" < )" L "<)!1"! "
)/#1=" ," 3$ $11" - "<!) ,- 3, $+3 3!1" "
&OR
)*"1" ,$ 0 "0 " $/" 0 -" ,$"! " " )!#$ 5 ,#?L #0 # P,#" ,P ,:11" )!)!" ++" 0 " 13""! , "
#!" "1)!" , " " " ,!"$ )#)!#"3 !5 " 1 "1"
!""1*" L " 3=$/" 0 " P ) !! 1#!"! )! "$" ! + $/",!" -
$,=!" +" ,-#$! !"5 " 1 "1" 7 *$E+! ,Z 3!"+! , 8 ,#$! 1 "1" " )!3," ! )!3 1C1" " $#" " +" 0 1" " ,
3, "! " ," " 0 " ,$ $ )"! )"!)",$ !"1" " )!"1"! "$" !
1"#5 ! $"" $!< 3!1#" )! $" ," < ,!" #$" " )!" " ," !,1"# !=0 " ," !")!#" 0 " - " 3 ," -#$# "+#
" "1" $11" " +" ," + $/" L ,!" 1 $11" : "
!?"$!" 0 -" !))!$/" P" #+"5 - $3=!" :#10 "1" "
#)" ! L -#$# 0 )!", ! -)"$ ,- "!)" 0 , "5
D * 1 . 2
) / #0 # " )/#1=" ," ,$ " ,-"$,!"1" , L * ""!"1" :<0 " 0 "+",!"! #$# ,# L ,- " !1"5
,": ' ,," " M"33!": Y5
1 )!)" $," " #!" ,-"<"1)"
<0 " ))# )", ' L ,!" ;
Preposing: this one she accepted// she accepted this one Postposing: I made
234
&OA
K A 4 W 2 ( C,< 0 7 ""$" F/$/ /" +" $$ ! +!11$: !" $", , . *"$ " /": "$ /" 1+" 3 !"$""! 3 $ /" 3!"+! , F/ /" +" /" *$E+! ,5
"!* 1,"+ :"1
/" V3!"+! ,X , V*$E+! ,X $$ 3" !" !" 1)$ ", !")!"" /" F ,33"!" :)" 3 ""$" . )+ 3! $" $""
$!!"),+ /" $" ""$" 3!1 V X F , )!!: "<,"! /" !+"! 3+ !" $$/+
/" ":" 3! /" )"!)"!! 3 /" $5 8 /1 5 "*"E5 . # &OR
5 "F a!E ; 2 &%%% NQ5
7 D/" "1) 1," ,"3" /" "1$ ,33"!"$" *"F"" Vj 3$ X , V 3$ X : 3!1 F: 1"/+
+/ *" , * F/ "1$ 1"! $ *" 1!E", Vj 3$ X5 !,"! $$ 3! , + $
$11 $ /, *" *" "" /" 1) *: )"E"! 3 $"! "1$ 1"! F/ !")"$ ,$ !"
*$E+! , F/$/ $ , $! ,": *" / +/ 3 " 3 )!) / )"E"! 1" /!", *: /"! /"!"!5 /" 3!
3!1 F $", /" !*" F/ )"E"! *+!: + Vj 3$ X F/" ,, V 3$ X 1: *" +", /"
$E+! ,5 1!" 1"+3 3!1 1+/ *" / Vj 3$ X 1!E /" )"E"!P ,"$!", $!* /" $"!
F/" V 3$ X $ " / $+" !+ )5 / "" /" $!* $ " e$E+! , ),"f F/$/ "!1
"<)!"" /" 3$ / 3"! /" $E+! , / *"" 1,3",5; )!",$*: / +/5 8 ! M "/"5 7 >$ 2,"
, /" $" 8 OHO5
N@
without delay all the changes you wanted// I made all the changes you wanted
without delay. Inversion: On board were two nurses// Two nurses were on board.
Existential: there is a frog in the pool// a frog is in the pool. Extraposition: It is
clear that he’s guilty// That he’s guilty is clear. Left dislocation: that money I gave
her, it must have disappeared// that money I gave her must have disappeared.
Right dislocation: They’re still here, the people from next door// the people from
next door are still here. Cleft: It was you who broke it// You broke it. Passive: The
car was taken by Kim// Kim took the car. In [4i-iii]: (preposing, postposing,
inversion) the non-canonical version can be regarded as less basic than its
default counterpart in that the order is not only less frequent but subject to
pragmatic constraints that do not apply to the default version. In [4iv-ix]: the
non-canonical version is syntactically less basic by virtue of its greater syntactic
complexity: the realignment is accompanied by the addition of one or more
elements, such as there, it, the auxiliary be and the preposition by in 9 and so on.
237
" 3 ," ) " )" $ 0 " ," -")$" ,#$! )! -#$# , ) ," " ,"
,1"#5 " "33" ," !))!$/"1" ," )!<1# ,-#+"1" ,"
,$ " ,-"! )" " )!*=1" ," -!,!" , "0 " !+" " #
)/!0 "5 ) !! L $" )!) " !"! L " $1)! "$ " $! $
&OH
)"!)"$" " )" !"
0 !")" ! +"$"1" 1#$ " < "
$!+5 ) !! !""! ! " "33" ," " "+",!# )! -!,!"
,-))! ," "# " ,- ""1*" ,:10 "5
F * " The focus of a clause (or portion of a clause) is the constituent bearing the
strongest, or ‘nuclear’, stress, as indicated by the small capitals notation. Mary
bought rice yesterday. Here “rice” is the focus. The residue we refer to as the
focus-frame. This can be given in the form of an open proposition containing a
variable in place of the element represented by the focus: Mary bought x. The
phonological prominence given to the focus accords its prominence in the
message: it is presented as the most informative element in the clause, with the
focus-frame backgrounded. The focus typically represents addressee-new
information, and the focus-frame addressee-old information. 239
#0 # 0 " $! $" ," -"$,!"1" ++#!# )! $"!
+"$"1" :<0 "5 "1*" "! ," 0 " " 1" " !""3 -$$1)+"
,- !"! 1 ," ,$!1 ,- " 3!1" $!" 3, 0 $ " "
$,!" ,-#1"!+"$" ," $"" 1C1" 3!1" 3!1" 0 )" ! ))!T!" $11"
" $!!" " $!" <5 ," $,!" " )! " ! $)" , "
! )$ ! <5 $ $," )" $" )!*=1" 0 - 3 ,! ,$ #+"1"
$,#!"!5
237
&OH
239
H%
K A 4 W 2 ( +G667+G6-
! , !=1" )!" " )+" 5
K A 4 W 2 ( +G6,
% ) 2 2 : 3 2
# * ? > Some general tendencies regarding information structure: i. Heavy constituents
tend to occur at or towards the end of the clause ii. The focus typically appears at
or towards the end of the clause. iii. Subjects are the dependents that are the
most likely to be addressee-old. iv. Information that is familiar tends to be placed
before that which is new. v. Information-packaging constructions tend to be
restricted with respect to the range of contexts in which they can felicitously
occur. 240
" 36 :)0 " -##1" 3$# " ! "! !""1" " 3 ,-#$# $! 3$ " " )!)!## ," -#$ ""1C1" " *"!3 +"
, "! -#$" !5 + ##1" !"1" 3$# +!b$"
11" L ," 1,3$ 1!)/:<0 " "! ,#+# )! 7 1!E", 3$ 8
)! )) ,": ' ,," )!" ," 7 1!E", !,"! 8 7 1!E",
&SQ
) 8
5 "!!" " 3!1 " " $" "!1" " "" ,$ ;
De l’expressivité on distinguera la motivation, qui concerne aussi les
constructions canoniques. L’expressivité se pratique et se constate ; la
motivation est un ressort secret de la langue et elle est l’objet d’hypothèses. 242
0 " 0 - -+ ,$ ," )"! " " ; ) !0 , " #$# " ) 1)" ,- ) ," " :0 " ," #$# , :)" "$" " ,"!"!
##1" 0 " 3$# \ !0 3, ) " 3 , #!" #$3
$ """ " " )!#+# ," 3$ \ !0 " )!) )! )) /=1" " !""1" 3$# \ )!"1"! ##1" ," !#)" !#," ,
$"" !"1!0 " ," ,)/ 9 !E ;
It seems natural to place the new information after providing a context of given
information so we can regard focus (identified prosodically) as most neutrally
and normally placed at the end of the information unit since the new information
often needs to be stated more fully than the given one. 243
$ ) 3" !#), #+"1" L ," $!" 3!1"" 11" $" 0 " -
,#+" " + )! 7 ",F"+/ )!$)" 8 ,#?L #0 # )! " !5 !" "
+ ) " 3 ,-#$# $1)!" " ,1" )!,0 " , 3 ," )!#"$" ,- $$" $#!" ! " 1 ,"!=!" )!) ," )/!" $$"
$#!" 1" *" 0 -33* , " $ ,- $$" $!3 )$# " ! , )/!" G $" 0 )!, "33" L 3 !"1!0 *" 0 " ,)/ 9 !E ,#$! " $"
"!1" ;
In reading aloud, the resolutery effect of the final clause is often pointed by
intonation […] rising tones have implications of non-finality, the effect of this
240
K &SQ
A 4 W 2 ( +G-<
,": ' ,,"5 + 242
243
K 5 Y Q 2 ( +G6
/ !
!
5 1*!,+"; 1*!,+" "!: !" Q@HS SAS5
!! : \ 3! #( C=
HQ
pattern is to build up a continuing sense of anticipation, which is at last resolved
by the finality of the falling tone.244
3$ " ,$*" , #!" #$3 " !"1!0 " ," ,)/ 9 !E
" $!!*!#" )! " ; 7 )!"1=!" +3$ ", " " !" G &SA
," <=1" " " G ,"!=!" -", !" 1 " ) ", "5 8
!"",! ! $" ," < $ " #* " $1)! "$ ,- !"
!#+" ," 1" " )" " ," 3< ," -" 11" $"" )!0 #"
" )" !"5 ! " ! -#*"1" ,- )!=" "!" $" 0 "1*" !"""! ,"
- ,1"# " , $#1" )!)!" ++" " 3<# *,1""" ,
, 0 -"" $!$#!" !")!#" )$ !" ) !! 33!! #$!+"
" ! " )/#1="5
3!1 "" " !+"1" ,
" )!, " +##!"1" " 3
,-#$# $" -" ) * 1" :#10 " ;
The first division we make within the category of complement preposing
constructions is between those where the preposed complement is, or contains,
the focus and those where the focus follows. Focus preposing type: A bagel, I
can give you. 246
" $" 0 "0 " $ "<)# $$"! " -$$1)+" ,"
$!""<"1)" 0 "!," $ ," !=+" 3<" G ," $" $!,$ T
)*" $3 0 !=+" ! , )/#1=" ," 3$5
$/ ," !"! 0 " +" ,$5 ! " -+!
) ," 3<"! ," "" !=+" 1 1)"1" ," $,#!"! $" 0 - " )!, !0 - $! " 0 "0 " 0 " "#" $," , -""1*" ) "
," /#!" ," !")!#"5 $")", ," $$ !" $"" )!"1=!"
)!" 0 " , " ," 1 0 " - $" !,""1" L ," ,#$=" ," "1) 1#)/!0 " 9 0 G 0 G 7 1" "
!""3 8 " ,- !" , " " " #! G $")", , 3 , $"<"
, "0 " -$!" )" $,#!"! 0 - !"=" ," :"/#"
$-"L,!" ," -$ ," ) " ! " 1 #1"5 1+!# $!$=!"
,1"" !""1" #) !# -#$# )" C!" !")!#"# " ,$ )"!6 $11"
" "# L 3 1 " " ,#" ,- " #)" ! ," $ " ! 1C1" ,- "
"$ " $!" 1=!"Z*$ !# ))!T !""1" $" ," 3!, "
," $/ , ,$ ,- " ,1" $"5
: * & E 1" " !""3 ,- ##1" ," -#$# )" ,#$ "! ," )!, ,"
-$$" ,- 1 11" " )/#1=" ,-$$" $!3 " + ,"
244
&SA
246
H&
: ( +G=6
"!!" "5 7 #! " !##*! G " $ ," $#" 8 A&5
K A 4 W 2 ( +G-B
% ) 2 2 : 3 2
" " $/< ,- 1 !!" +!"! !"! 110 *"1" -" ! &SN
" " $1)!", )
G $ ,- 1 ," )"!" !##!#" */!!#"
#+"1" ,- " :<" $$ 1#" $ ," $#" "$!" ,- +"" ,- " 110 " 0 $$1)+"! -#$ 3!" " 7 +! :" < 8 $!* " L
!""! " !"+!, ," -"3 ! ,$ ! 3 )!#$ , " 1"+" 3 0 -
$"" " -+"5 3 1" " !""3 !"=" , /!, ," $!$$" ," -" ) 1 " " , $#$" !5
" + " #0 " $" ! $1)"<"5 "!1" ," "
,- " "!1+" )"!$") "" 0 :"/#0 " ; 7 /+/+/+ 8 7 3!"+! ,+ 8
7 "1)/$ 8 7 $!+ 8 7 8 7 "1 8 7 "$: 8 "$5 G 1 "
!"," $")", ) ? ! $1)" ," ):#1" , "<0 " , "0 " ) "
3 ,-#*!"! 1#+ " "$/0 " 0 " ! )"!1"! ," 0 3"! " )/#1="
0 - # ,"5
!"",! ," #!" ," $,#! #0 #" $," 0 " ," &SH
$ !" L "1) 1#+ 0 " " " )!#3!1"
" L
$" ) "<)!"" 0 -"" ! ## #!"1" $1" ," $$=5 ,"L " 3
0 -"" $/" L ," )/#1=" ,-!+ :<0 " #10 " "Z
)!,0 " ? 3" 0 " - " )"$/" ! + " , ""1*" " ,) "
))!$/" +*" $-"L,!" " $,#! -#$# )" L ,$" )! !))! + " 0 $! " *?" ," != )!=5
!" 3 ,! "! $1)" , ,:11" /#!" ,$ !5 "
+ " $,=!" " ," ##1" !3$""1" 3+# ,$ #$"!"1"
,# < 1 /1E: !"",0 " - -,# , $ " ! G )
0 " - )!3 -1)!" 0 - , #!"1" -#$# $11" - " 3c +
&S@
,- " )" !" ,- " !")!#" 3<" 0 - !" ! ," $"1)"!
5 "
c! $11" " +" ,!# D,!$J:E L -/" !" $ "" )" ,33$"1" " C!"
!"1" ;
[…] Ni la linguistique formelle ni même la linguistique informatique n’ont encore
mis au point de modèles capables de prendre en compte le caractère dynamique
de la production des énoncés dans le discours. Nous espérons que les linguistes
ou les informaticiens eux-mêmes pourront trouver des suggestions utiles sur
cette question en s’inspirant de la programmation des processus parallèles en
&SN
7 )!T VWX #+1" ," $1)"! ", 5 P" ! ,
1*!" ," )!$#,# 3$ "1) ,P 1 ",
$1)!"1" ," 1 != 31"! P/:)"!*"5 , P,$ ,
/ ,"+!# )! ,"3$ $!" " 0 " P ,! /" **! 1 " L )$" ,
+!"! , " $," " ,
$"!" !$" ! " + !
1
!"$ ! L
" "<)!"#
/" )+/",", '"5 " )!"1"! $ : ,#?L /:)"!*"
1 *# ," $1)! "<)$" "=" " )!" ," 1)$5 ! , " ," <=1" $ $" 0 P$" $11"
" $1)! "<)$" )! ! " " )!)!## 7 * 8 "
,"+!# ,P"<)!"# )#!" ! "$!" )!
P,"3$ L $"!" !$" ! +##! ,#3*" $11" 7 " ) / ,"+!# )*" , 1 85 8 2!"" M! "!5
7 P"<$13 P"3 " " 3$# 8 &&R5
&SH
" 0 " - ) " ,#++"! - 0 "0 " ! !#$ !!" " 0 " -"1)/" )!,0 " ,$ L
+ $/" L ,!" " " ! $ !" $#"5
HO
informatique. 250
! $"" ! )" ,!" , $/"!$/" ! 0 - " ,#1!$/" B , $! ))!#/"," *?" " $!: " ,#++"! ," " "!$ "$ 1C1"5 ! $"
3!" " 3+"5 $/ ,-# ,"! )/!" " " ," 3!+1" ,-#$# 1" < !#$! $" #$/ , " $"<" ,- "<! #!!"5 ,"L 1C1" !0 -
" !")$" , $"<" #$3 " + " 1+" " "!$ "!*" 0 "
1"! L ," < #$" !5 ! 0 -" !## " $"! )" " 3!"
"!"! ) ," ," < )"!"5 2 " #$# )!$# $!!"1" L " !
#0 " $!) ! !!"1" +!11$ < " !!"1" 35 " ) ,"
)" : #+ ;
Autant le langage écrit se sert de la subordination, autant la langue parlée […]
pratique la juxtaposition. On n'use pas en parlant des liens grammaticaux qui
enserrent la pensée et donnent à la phrase l'allure étriquée d'un syllogisme. 251
"" ))!$/" " #*"5 2 L !" "<)#!1" - )" "+"! "
))!$/" )" ,33#!"" " : $$"$" 0 " - " )" ?1 -*!!" ,"
*?" ,-# ," 0 , " !")!#" 0 " - -" 3 !#=" ) " $/#1
):$/0 " 0 $ " 0 - " " ,#" 1C1"5
) 0 " - )" !, !" " )!""! ," 3$ , + "
) !0 " ) $,#!"! 0 " $"" ,"!=!" !"$="! 0 "0 " $/" , -*"
L )""! 0 -"" " #!+=!" \ " ,$ " ) " " !,1"" !" "
0 ,!,1"" "! *" )!#"" , )/!" ? ! )!" " ,- !"+!, L
) ! 3<"! -"5 ) !! "+"! 0 " " 13"" , )/!" , -#$# , 1)" 3 0 " #$# #1 " 3!$#1" "! *?"$35 -$$1)+" ,$ :#10 "1" ,- !"+!, ) )!#$#1" ," ," < !"+!,
11 15
= ! - ,1"# , -/* ," ,-33 *"! -#$# ,"
$ "! " 3!$ ," $" 0 !"="! ," -")$" "! " !# ,- "
!")!#" #) !#" ," +" ,-#$! !" , $" 0 -"" ," ) *! G $" "!
" $! $ ," -")!5 "" !")!#" "! " 3! ,- 1,"+" 0 " "
+ " ))0 " 1)$"1" L " ! *?" " ! "0 " " " )!$" )
!#""1"5 " 3 0 " - )! $$"$" ," $" )" *" "", 1+"!
&S@
"" ))!$/" $!* " L 3+"! !3$""1" *?" 0 " )! ""$" ,:10 " ,$ L " ,# !"! " )!"5 $" " 1C1" )/#1=" !0 " - ":" )! "<"1)" ,-:"! !" ," 7 ,#$!0 "! 8 $"!" " *!" "
)" !" ; 7 " 3!$" VWX 3 ! ! 1" ,-:"5 -" 0 " - ) ))0 "! < " " ,"
B$E
$E
$/#1 ," !")!#" *# ! 1" " #,"$" ," ! $ !" 3!$"5 )!$#, !" $" L
0 ,!"! " !"0 ,!"! != 3"1" " *" 3 ," ,#"!1"! "$ )!#$ !?"$!" ," $/0 " +"5 " )!*=1" "
0 " $" 3$" L !"* ! )!#$#1" , ,:11" +" " L -^ !" , - $`# ," -""" ," ,#1!$/" ,"
$E d 8 >!"$" ," 2=!"," 5 ,
" 0 " $" !"" L )"! L
- , ) ' 5
! ; ! " &%%O Q%@5 B" +"5
250
. ! R
NQ 1 ! E /1 ( <==B( +6 0 251
HS
5 D 2 ( +-G
# @ /12
0 % ) 2 2 : 3 2
,- !" 1,"+"5 !" +"" " +" 1#,0 " -))!T!" ) ,$#
1 !"# "! " !"+!, ," - !" " !")!#"5
$/ ,-*!,"! 0 " ," 3$ ," < +" ,33#!" ?"
1" ,$ $!" ," )!",!" ," ,$" L ," ) , + " G
1 ))!$/" ))!T! ,-*!, 1 1 " " $! 1 *?" -: )!#""! 1
" ,# $")", 0 " " ,#++"! ," ! $$ # !0 - -*"!" ," !)
)!=5 " )/#1=" !))"" -)) /#!#" " 1/#10 " " "<)#" "
3!10 " "!" " ;
Sur le plan mathématique, cette opposition peut être caractérisée par le concept
de distance d’autocorrélation. Réduit à son essence, il signifie une mesure
statistique de la distance moyenne à laquelle un élément quelconque d’un
message ou d’un objet est influencé par l’existence d’un autre élément du
message situé à cette distance. Dans l’ordre proche, plus l’observateur se
rapproche des éléments du système qu’il observe, mieux les liens d’association
entre ces éléments lui apparaissent ; ce sont les aspects locaux qui l’intéressent,
ce sont eux seuls qui sont clairs et évidents : l’étude microscopique en rendra
compte. Mais, le désordre plus ou moins considérable des éléments peut
dissimuler une structure générale. Dans l’ordre lointain, au contraire, plus
l’observateur se situe loin du phénomène qu’il observe, mieux il en saisit la
structure générale, l’organisation globale. Les formes d’ensemble émergent
comme un plan directeur régissant les atomes de perception et les intégrant dans
une hiérarchie. L’observateur oublie ou néglige les fluctuations locales, même
quand elles sont si considérables qu’elles noient, à courte distance, la fonction
globale. 252
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La ligne ondoyante est le symbole du mouvement et de la vie ; la ligne droite est
le symbole de l’inertie ou de l’immobilité. C’est le serpent qui vit, ou le serpent
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Les organes des sens ont pour fonction de traduire les variations physiques et
chimiques provenant du monde extérieur recueillies par ces capteurs en
impulsions nerveuses, ce qu’on appelle la « transduction sensorielle ». Dans la
rétine, la transduction est une opération photochimique […] Dans l’appareil
olfactif, les molécules odorantes de l’air s’accouplent avec des récepteurs situés
dans la muqueuse du nez. […] Ailleurs, il s’agit de déformations mécaniques des
capteurs : pour l’audition, par exemple […] Quant aux sensations tactiles, elles
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Sur la base de l’unique temps objectif, c’est-à-dire intersubjectif, dans lequel
prennent place les histoires de toutes les personnes qui vivent et ont jamais
vécu, tous les environnements spatiaux qui jouent un rôle dans ces histoires, en
viennent à s’unifier dans un seul ordre d’existence universellement englobant, à
savoir le monde spatio-temporel objectif réel au sens d’ambiance (‘Lebenswelt’)
générale et commune à tous les êtres humains communiquant les uns avec les
autres directement ou indirectement. […] Dans notre terminologie, nous dirons
que le temps objectif est le principe fondamental de ‘relevance’ de la réalité,
puisque l’unité de celle-ci repose sur lui. 305
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L'horloge atomique de césium s'est avérée posséder de telles qualités
d'exactitude, de stabilité à long terme et de reproductibilité qu'elle est utilisée,
depuis 1967, pour déterminer l'unité de temps, qui depuis la plus haute antiquité,
était reliée aux mouvements astronomiques. La seconde est ainsi définie comme
étant « la durée de 9 192 631 770 périodes de la radiation correspondant à la
transition entre les deux niveaux hyper fins de l'état de base de l'atome de
césium 133 ». La stabilité à long terme de l'horloge au césium est actuellement
supérieure à 10-¹³, ce qui signifie que l'horloge avancerait ou retarderait de moins
d'une seconde après 500 siècles de fonctionnement. 307
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M " M 1" ;
L'esprit humain est ainsi fait qu'il a l'expérience du temps, mais n'en a point la
représentation. Il lui faut la demander à des moyens constructifs et descriptifs qui
sont de l'ordre de l'espace. La représentation linéaire du temps qui fuit fait partie
de ces moyens : elle est déjà dans sa simplicité première et on le verra,
fondamentale une certaine spatialisation du temps. 310
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How it the purple flow’r does slight, Scarce touching where it lyes, But gazing
back upon the skies, Shines with a mournful Light; Like its own Tear, Because so
long divided from the Sphear. 317
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Et même quand il se penche sur l’eau du Léman, comme dans la randonnée
vaudoise du quatrième livre des Confessions, ce n’est pas pour s’y regarder,
mais en vue d’une curieuse communion sentimentale : Combien de fois,
m’arrêtant pour pleurer à mon aise, assis sur une grosse pierre, je me suis amusé
à voir tomber mes larmes dans l’eau. Le lac devient aussi le dépositaire de son
chagrin immotivé : c’est un jeu où Jean-Jacques s’apitoie sur lui-même, sans
guetter l’apparition de ses propres traits. 323
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Il désire surtout l’eau berçante, dont le rythme impose à l’esprit une bienheureuse
torpeur, et dont la pulsation fait dériver lentement le canot où il s’est embarqué
seul. Cette eau n’est pas assez étale, pas assez impassible pour lui renvoyer son
image. Elle est miroitement tranquille, mais non pas miroir. Elle est fascinante par
elle-même, par son inépuisable mouvement, et non parce qu’elle permet à
Jacques de s’y mirer. 325
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Dans Tulip Fever, le lecteur regarde les illustrations, lit le texte, puis retourne aux
illustrations pour vérifier la justesse du rapport entre texte et image. L’image est
à proprement parler incorporée dans le corps du texte, elle y est incarnée ce qui
lui donne chair, mouvement, action et temps. C’est dire que s’opère une
transaction, celle de la narration qui négocie la mise en mots de l’image à la fois
visible et visuelle, et constitue ici le portrait d’un tableau, imaginum pictura
comme les appelait Pline. Inscrit sur l’axe du temps, le tableau devient chose
vivante le temps de la lecture, une incarnation, la manifestation du visible comme
l’impression du visage sacré sur le linge de Véronique, une icône superposée à
un tissu qui ondule encore. 326
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Ainsi l’article un apparaît, par son cinétisme, un signe vecteur de
particularisation, vu qu’il figure dans la langue le mouvement essentiel par lequel
l’esprit se porte de l’universel au singulier ; tandis que l’article le, représentatif du
cinétisme opposé, y apparaît un signe vecteur de généralisation, figurant dans la
langue le mouvement, non moins essentiel, par lequel l’esprit se porte du
singulier à l’universel. 329
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L’œil doit son existence à la lumière. A partir d’organes animaux secondaires et
indifférents, la lumière produit pour elle un organe qui devient son semblable, et
ainsi l’œil se forme par la lumière et pour la lumière, afin que la lumière intérieure
vienne répondre à la lumière extérieure. 332
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La première particularité du medium visuel […] est sa puissance : il permet
d’acheminer 107 bits/seconde, soit 7 fois plus que l’oreille. Cette énorme quantité
doit cependant être considérablement simplifiée et réduite avant de parvenir à ce
que l’on appelle la conscience, laquelle n’admet que 8 à 25 bits/seconde 340 .
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la cognition, et non aux processus périphériques d’un système ; percevoir est
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une activité sémiotique, qui repose sur la saisie immédiate de qualités et
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ne se déploie que dans un parcours, dans une activité de thématisation par
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[…] avant les Grandes Découvertes, le monde connu des navigateurs, comme
celui des voyageurs sur terre, était toujours en vue des côtes, et ils identifiaient
leur position d’après des points de repère, tour ou clocher, comme ceux qui
suivaient une route ; la conception de l’espace était liée à des points de repère
concrets […] La navigation en haute mer conduisit à une conception entièrement
nouvelle de l’espace comme cadre abstrait homogène, et comme illimité.
Davenant partant d’une analogie habituelle entre la distance spatiale et la
distance temporelle, choisit pour l’image spatiale celle d’étendue illimitée, ce qui
entraîne aussi dans l’histoire l’idée de mouvement sans bornes. 353
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On peut supposer qu’il y a un monde réel qui est : c’est celui que manifeste la
plaque photographique avec des degrés divers de sensibilité, ou encore le
microscope le plus perfectionné utilisé par le chercheur. L’homme perçoit des
éléments de ce monde sans limites et c’est seulement cette perception qui peut
lui servir de base. L’homme est donc un modalisateur inévitable du monde. La
conséquence de ce caractère individuel de la perception est qu’il existe un
danger de variation infinie […] Malgré cela, si un consensus minimal de
représentation s’institue socialement, c’est qu’il existe un noyau permanent des
choses, un invariant parfois difficilement saisissable. 360
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The whole capacity of the eye, vibrating in all its parts must approach near to the
nature of what causes pain, and consequently must produce an idea of the
sublime […] the eye or the mind (for in this case there is no difference) in great
uniform object does not readily arrive at their bounds; it has no rest, whilst it
contemplates them ; the image is much the same everywhere. So that everything
great by its quantity must necessarily be, one, simple, and entire. 372
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Si la distribution du moi entre conscient et inconscient est bien une topologie,
elle n’a de réalité que dans un fonctionnement vivant, dans sa perpétuelle
reconstruction, comme la dialectique des corps présents-absents n’a de réalité
que dans les recommencements bien connus du jeu. 379
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Dans les cas les moins orthodoxes, la modalité devient simple intervention à
visage découvert de l’énonciateur, qui « apprécie », « déprécie », « montre sa
présence », « exprime un reproche », etc. (ex. modalité appréciative marquée par
the dans She’s just ‘the person we need = the right, the perfect person). 386
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Et si la chaîne enregistre les étapes du dire, les ordres de surface modalité # voix
ou taille # matière, qui débutent par les « subjectifs » et s’achèvent par les
éléments « objectifs », apparaissent motivés par un iconisme très abstrait, aux
termes duquel le commencement de la chaîne est le lieu naturel de l’origine de
l’énoncé (l’énonciateur), alors que son terme, qui sanctionne l’achèvement du
produit, la séparation de son auteur, est le lieu naturel où s’inscrivent les
éléments les plus référentiels et les moins subjectifs. 393
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« Prenez et mangez ! » C’est devant le manger visible et mystérieux, une
invitation parallèle à celle que Iéshoua avait déjà faite devant le manger invisible
et également mystérieux : « Apprenez et comprenez ! » N’oublions jamais que,
dans les actes comme dans les paroles, nous sommes en plein milieu ethnique
de l’Enigme et de la Transsubstantiation. Les preneurs sont à la fois des
appreneurs. La Manducation est aussi Mémorisation. 395
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L 1$ !#+ =!" < 1 $" ," 1!$/" " "!"1" !# ,! "
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;
[…] le sens provient d’une interaction entre les stimuli et les modèles. Ce qui
suppose un mouvement double, qui va du monde au sujet sémiotique et de
celui-ci au monde […] Ce modèle insiste sur le fait que le signe émerge de
l’expérience. Et son originalité est de mettre l’accent sur la corporéité du signe :
notre corps est une structure physique, soumise aux lois qu’étudie la biologie,
mais c’est aussi une structure vécue, qui a une expérience phénoménologique
[…] si le signe émerge de l’expérience, il oriente également l’action. 396
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Le point de départ et les vues panoramiques de Londres à partir de Southwark
faites par les cartographes du XVIIe siècle comme Norden : suite de vues faites
par un observateur tournant sur lui-même, produisant un polygone assimilé à un
arc de cercle. 403
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Un énoncé contenant plus d’une signification n’est pas une pluralité sans unité
mais une totalité cohérente où les significations sont solidaires […] Le linéaire,
cependant, dévoile cette totalité progressivement, ce qui a deux conséquences :
1. La première signification attend toutes les autres ; la deuxième les suivantes ;
la dernière n’attend rien mais est la plus attendue ; 2. Malgré des synthèses
intermédiaires, la cohérence de la totalité se manifeste à la fin. 404
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The most versatile and subtle tool for simulating visibility was the viscous,
varyingly translucent, pressure-registering medium of oil-paint. Within the
window where the world was to be re-formed, a continuous spread of this
sensitive ooze would show itself; what that spread suggested, as much as it
suggested form, were the gestures and exertions of the painter holding the brush.
406
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The distance appears to lie between our own self and its affections […] this
distanced view of things is not, and cannot be our normal outlook. As a rule
experiences constantly turn the same side towards us, namely, that which has
the strongest practical force of appeal. We are not ordinarily aware of those
aspects of things which do not touch us immediately and practically, nor are we
generally conscious of impressions apart from our own self which is impressed.
The sudden view of things from their reverse, usually unnoticed, side, comes
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upon us as a revelation, and such revelations are precisely those of Art. Distance
is a factor in all Art. 413
" !"+!, ,#$# ! " 1," " +"1" , " /! " "1" )*"
, $"!" $!$$" )!$ =!" )!3 " )!#"$" ," - !" )!3 , ,"5 ,F!, +/ -$" L -"<0 1#+" ,-+" " ," )! $ # )!
*! !, $" < "")) ," "1" " *!0 " " 1"! ;
Imagine a fog at sea […] The listless movements of the ship and her warning calls
soon tell upon the nerves of the passengers; and that special, expectant, tacit
anxiety and nervousness, always associated with this experience, make a fog the
dreaded terror of the sea (all the more terrifying because of its very silence and
gentleness) for the expert seafarer no less than for the ignorant lands-man.
Nevertheless, a fog at sea can be a source of intense relish and enjoyment [...] the
experience may acquire, in its uncanny mingling of repose and terror, a flavor of
such concentrated poignancy and delight as to contrast sharply with the blind
and distempered anxiety of its other aspects. 414
3!1" )!" )! -#$# #$! 0 -# ," " + " -: ) $$!="1"
$!" )!5 $" " -#$# " ? ! " 1" L ,$"5 " !#3#!" :
!"?"# , " /!"<" " +" " ,#+" "1*"! )!#""! 1,!" 33# 3!1"" " ,$ " 1,!" " $$!" "$ " < ;
Acte fondateur, le geste déictique […] sanctionne la rupture entre le monde et le
sujet parlant tout en valorisant ce dernier. On peut, en effet, montrer sans toucher
« pour de bon », ce qui fait de l’ostension un signe abstrait, d’autant plus abstrait
même qu’il se réalise, précisément, dans un mouvement physique explicite et
concret qui ne cherche pas son aboutissement dans une sensation tactile […]
L’ostension fait coïncider le mot avec la représentation visuelle de la chose et ne
confond pas le linguistique et l’extralinguistique. 415
/0 " +" " !"5 " " )!" ," -#$# )!#" " )!<1# 3!1""
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) $" , 1 !"+!, " "<#!" ! L ) $" 0 1" $" " 1"
!#=+!" , $"5 ,$" " !#!*#"5 " , " " "", "
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," )"#" " 0 " -#$# -" "=!"1" ,#! # ?" !!# "!1" ," $ !" ?" ,"" " ) ," 3 " " 1" !"! " 11C1" *!*# )! -11"#
413
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-")$" " ! 1 ) ! ,"! 1" !" , "1) / 1 1 $ " L ,
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," < $" ," ++ , 0 "" "" " " ;
Elle est proche de nous, puisqu’on ne voit pas d’espace entre ce bras et une zone
plus basse qui inscrirait une distance. En fait, elle est passée devant le parapet
qui traditionnellement à l’époque séparait la figure peinte du spectateur, comme
dans ces portraits d’origine flamande où le personnage est visible, mais où la
base du tableau est faite d’un petit parapet, situé devant lui et devant lequel il
place éventuellement sa main. Petit trait de génie de Léonard : mettre la Joconde
dans l’espace du spectateur en faisant passer le parapet derrière elle, tandis
qu’en même temps son bras fait barrière bloquant la pénétration. 420
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R & ," QNAO 11" , " )!! ; 7 D/" /"
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1"F/ !"$+ !:+ 1!" 3!1 /" !+/ , )!" " 3 3!1 3! 3$"; F: E-, ) 1
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$11" $"" K $ !*" " 1,3" " $/0 " ) ! # )"!)# "" " )!" 31" )""5 8
2!"2,""" 2!"5 7 " !"+!, , )!!" ; ," !#3"< L ,33!$ 85
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1" !))"" " )!#" +##!0 " ," + 0 "5 " #$# ," , - ,"
" ! 3!1 $" 0 " ! )!#"<" ,") ," "1)5 " !!" ," B$,"
" )!#" # " $" #"$"" , 11"" ,#!,!" )"!)# "5 " ,$ ! ! )" !" " " ! , )"!" 0 "" " "1) ,- " "
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" 35 )" !" " " " ? ! !"+" " ? ! " $! , ,5
" $" ? ! " $`" ; +!b$" ," - )!#" -"!$") ,- ")$"
$$ )$ ""1" -3# , "1) " ," -")$"5
B" $ 2! )!)" " ,#3 !+" ," -$`" , 0 "" "
"$!" " 3 0 " ,-"! *?"$# ;
Devant l’image profane, je reste le voyant non vu d’une image qui se réduit au
rang d’objet (l’objet esthétique reste un objet), constitué, au moins pour partie,
par mon regard. Devant l’icône, si je reste voyant, je m’éprouve vu (je dois
m’éprouver ainsi pour qu’il s’agisse effectivement d’une icône). Ainsi l’image ne
fait plus écran (ou, comme pour l’idole, miroir), puisqu’à travers elle et sous ses
traits un autre regard – invisible comme tous les regards – m’envisage. L’original
n’appartient donc pas à l’objectivité (confisquée ou non par l’image) qu’il
redoublerait. L’original intervient, à travers l’objectivité imagée, comme pur
regard croisant un regard. 423
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S&&
!## "" ## !#""1" )"" )!," " ,#?L )"" $" $! !!" " )"!)" !$# ,- "
!=!" 0 " - 1+" $ "! ,"!!=!" "" !!" " ) ," !" "!" " ) , *" ; 7 B- )"!6 0 " "
):+" ," J " !!=!") "$ $ != #"# " 0 0 " " 1!#$+" < , )!" + $/" #
)!0 "1" )!" " " $=!" ,- " $!" ," $" 0 " #!, ," $ !#" " QA%OQA%S " - ,"
)!*=1" 0 - " )" , $"" $!" " ," ! $11" " $ !1=" ) ?, , "1) 11#1! "<)0 "!
" 1!#$+" , ,-! 0 " ! " , ,-!"JJ " $"5 " 0 1- 3!))# $-" ," ! 0 " $! $ ," J -$$!, )""1" L
" !#3"< $!+!)/0 " " +#+0 " ," #!, ," $ *" 0 " " ):+"
!")!#"# ,"!!=!" "" $-" $" 11#1!" $"" 0 "< 0 " -/ 1# -: $!#" +!b$" ," $" ): $! $" " != *"" " $-" J 5 " $ ! ,-" 0 !"" " $ !1=" ,-! $-" " !!" ," B$,"5 8
" !"5 % OQO&5
423
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" "!! $" 0 - 5 B1 ?" " 3"! -"<)#!"$" ," ?1 ?" " ! $" $!" $" #$!" $" "! #1"! ," " $" $ " ! " ,"L $" 0 -
!"" ," )! ," ,#+!#1" " !"" $11" 15 B" " " ! ?1
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Telle est la configuration en forme de paire de l'ego et de l'alter ego, à la faveur de
leurs similitudes charnelles. Cet « appariement » fait que le sens de l'un renvoie
au sens de l'autre, est transposé ou transféré du premier au second. Je
reconnais, dans la présence charnelle de l'autre, l'analogie de ma propre
réification ou plus exactement : mondanéisation, et j'accorde à autrui le sens
« ego » […] 427
2 " ) ! 1 "!)!# ?" *" 0 " -$`" " 1" !""1*" ) ) 0 -"" , !""1*"! L !" $/"5 " !" , "! C" , !##" ,-! *!$" $" " "$!" L "!)!#"! $" ! $0 "
,- " !")!#" , , ""1C1" ? ! L ,#$/33!"!5 -" $"" $"
!#"!*#! #10 " 0 $3=!" L -^ !" ,"# " $" 0 -"" $$/" " 0 " 1-" ) ,#5 " ,1 # " ,1 " " 0 - " )"!)# "" 0 C"
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Pour mieux comprendre l’attitude de Turner, il faudrait peut-être faire appel à
certains concepts qui n’appartiennent pas à la Renaissance. Ainsi le partage
dans la structure des icônes en « côté secret » (taynaia, en russe) et « côté fort »
(silania). Le côté fort de l’icône est celui qui fait face au spectateur, et la force de
l’image est fonction de ce face-à-face. Mais chez Turner ce face-à-face se trouve
dévolu à un « œil » non humain : le Soleil. Les visages humains eux restent
impuissants et réticents. Ils portent en eux un mystère qui ne peut pas être
montré, mais seulement signifié. C’est le « côté secret » (taynaia) de l’icône, la
partie du visage à jamais détournée. Pour le peintre mystique d’icônes, cette
partie secrète ne doit jamais être vue. Pour l’agnostique Turner, elle n’en vaut pas
la peine. L’un dissimule par déférence, l’autre par indifférence. Turner est
convaincu que les visages qu’il survole du pinceau, ne méritent pas d’être peints.
Il suffit de diriger le regard du spectateur vers la position globale du corps.
Seules les significations corporelles sont « fortes ». 429
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[…] il a mis au point un dispositif qui permet de faire coïncider cette peinture
avec l’édifice représenté […] d’une main on tient la tavoletta en appliquant son
œil contre le trou au revers de la peinture, de l’autre on tient le miroir pour qu’elle
s’y réfléchisse. 431
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[…] si la critique platonicienne fait aux arts le grief de fixer continuellement le
regard intérieur de l’homme sur les images sensibles, c’est-à-dire de lui fermer la
contemplation du monde des Idées, la défense que leur consacre Plotin
condamne les arts à un tragique destin : porter toujours de nouveau le regard
intérieur de l’homme au-delà des images sensibles, c’est-à-dire ouvrir une
perspective sur le monde des Idées, mais en même temps la lui voiler. 432
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La mise en forme, ou sémiotisation, se réalise en fonction de contraintes de la
langue choisie et des pressions culturelles. De cette dualité entre la liberté
(VOULOIR) et la contrainte (DEVOIR) naît la multiplicité des solutions relativement
équivalentes correspondant au phénomène de POLYSÉMIOSE. 437
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There are three branches of perspective; the first deals with the reason of the
apparent diminution of objects as they recede from the eye, and is known as
Perspective of Diminution; the second contains the way in which colours vary as
they recede from the eye; the third and last explains how objects would appear
less distinct in proportion as they are more remote. And the names are as
follows: linear perspective, the perspective of colour, the perspective of
disappearance. 442
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Si les anamorphoses sont considérées de nos jours comme des moyens de faire
surgir des formes extraordinaires, elles étaient à l’inverse conçues comme des
miroirs reformants plutôt que déformants, mettant en valeur, non la création
d’une image bizarre à partir de l’image normale, mais celle d’une image normale à
partir d’une apparence incohérente ; les usages métaphoriques apprennent à
discerner l’ordre sous le désordre apparent. 443
442
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Avant de s’appeler perspective, elle s’appelait commensuratio, c’est-à-dire que la
perspective est la construction de proportions harmonieuses à l’intérieur de la
représentation en fonction de la distance, tout cela étant mesuré par rapport à la
personne qui regarde, le spectateur. Le monde devient donc commensurable à
l’homme […] en même temps que l’on mesure l’espace dans la peinture, on le
mesure dans la cartographie et l’on mesure également le temps, avec l’horloge
mécanique. […] A cette époque-là intervient donc une nouvelle conception de la
mesure de l’espace et du temps. Cette géométrisation de l’espace et du temps
(l’horloge mécanique n’étant rien d’autre qu’un engrenage qui géométrise le
temps et qu’on peut remonter indéfiniment sans qu’elle s’arrête jamais, à la
différence du sablier qui compte le temps qui s’écoule et qui sera fini), c’est là
qu’est je crois l’innovation fondamentale et bouleversante de l’invention de la
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3 5 3 &1
( 3
5!0 & 1 3 & #( -,7*+ / H 5 )" $,#!"! 0 " - ))!", L ! $11" ))!", L )!"! " L )""! G $" 0 )!3 $!* " L -))!
,-,#" )!#$6 " ; 7 $" 0 " " ) #!" , ) ," Y")"! $-" 0 - # )!3"1" $$" ," !")*# 0 " #, $ L *" ," )"!)"$" )" )! , -* 0 - 1 ,#* L +!"! 1C1" L "!
$"" $ !* !" ))!"" ; " 33!1 "<)0 0 " " +" ,!" ? ! )"!6 " $11" ," ,!" #
" )!#$")" ," )"!)"$" )$ !" 1)"!
" $, " VWX5 8 !F
& ' AO5 B" +"5 )"!)"$" -))!", ; 7
3E:5
! !, $ ,-* ,
# QA@Q )!
! B/
'!+ !#" ," )$/" K #" ))0 #" " !=+" ," )"!)"$" ) ! ,1 ," 1" 3 "<)0 "!
$" $" "" "" ) ! " "$" ! #*#/ 85 2!"2,""" 2!"5 7 -")$" , )" !"
"
"
+" < [ " [ =$" ; )"!)"$" ," -")! " ,$" 33"$" 8 RO5
SRS
$" *" -/!" , !"+!, " " )!" 1C1" ) ! ; , )!"1"! "1) " !"+!, " +! , ," <=1" " ! 5 "" $"! , !"+!, $!!"), L " )!" ," $$"$" ," ) " 0 " )"$" !
)3 " *" ) ! 1C1" 1 " 0 -C!" !")*" , " 0 - /" $3#!"! 1," "# 0 -" !"5 " $"1) )" L 1#, , 0 "" " ?" " ,#, *" " " )!", 1C1" ) ! *?"
1,5 " 0 ""1" 3 0 " ,#$ " )" $"! ," !" 7 # ,-b1" 8 !"1" ,
"1" ,"
1#$"5
SRA
" "33" ! ) 0 " " 3!1" + !" ,- :" ,- " 1=!" "1*#10 " ,- "
#)0 "5
QAN
" *"! )! " /!+" 1#$0 " ) , "1) !# 1 , "1) L
!"1"! ) ! $/0 " ,, 5 " !" #0 " " *"! )! )) L -/!+"
1#$0 " ;
[…] l’horloge mécanique n’étant rien d’autre qu’un engrenage qui géométrise le
temps et qu’on peut remonter indéfiniment sans qu’elle s’arrête jamais, à la
différence du sablier qui compte le temps qui s’écoule et qui sera fini. 466
)"!)"$" $11" 1" !" 1#$0 " , "1) ," :1*" ," -"1)!" ,"
-/11" ! " $/" 0 -" !"5 -/11" " 1" < , $" 0 - 1" <
1 " ) ,-K )!#"$" , !," 3+ ! $" 0 - !"" L ! ,$
SRN
-*" " -,"$!)*" 11#,
5 - )" !"1"! ,#31" " !"!
," /!+" 1#$0 " $" +3" 0 - )" $1)"! ,#31" " "!! ) " "1) 0 -#$ " ,#31" ? 0 -L $" 0 " 1C1" 1" !" *"
"", ,-K )!#"$" ," $" $!b" *!! " )+" , )"$" !5 " "
$" 1! 0 -" " 1!+" 1! ," $" 1! ," )!" " ,"
)!$/" ! ) )!)!" 1! " 3 ," $ !" $"!" " )" : ! 0 " " $! " " " " ,*" ! 0 " 1! " "!"$ )#" ," " 1! "
$" " " $" "5 ! $"" ! 1! " 3+ !#" L - ,
SRH
*" ! $" "" )!?"" 1*!"
G $! $-" *" 1! 0 #)!" "
)"$" ! ," 1*," !5 -" 1! 0 -"1)C$/" ," "! )"! L " ! $`#5
-" "" 0 -"1)C$/" ," " ! )!"!5 1! -" 1C1" L *" ,"
#+$ " -"!$ "!" " ," < 1*," !5 "" )# "
$"!" ," -")" " $1)# , " -^ 3 " " ? " ,#$"1"
!#"5 "" ) " !"! " L )#!)/#!" ," -")" ,#?L , )#1*!"5 " *C1" " " =!" "<+ " ," -))!"$" ,- +5
-/11" )" ))!#/","! " 1," " "1) ,- " " " "1"5 " 1," "
$" , " "<"$" 3" $11" " *" , " *"! " $"!" , "
$!b"5 " *" 0 " " !#, $ "!1#,!" , 1," " *" "
"1) ,- !"+!, G :"$,0 " ,- " " " " !# ," 1!5
466
SRN
. ( B6
L $" )!) 0 " " !," )!#"" ," !"3" 1!# "$ " "!$" ," )!" 1" " ,- !" *!" $" 0 "!, ,$!1 "" ," 3+ !" $!" $/1)5 " )/#1=" ," 1!"1" "+",!" " 3!1" ," 3$
)#$ !" " !"+!, " )" " ,#$/"! ," $" , ,$"!" 1 " $ !5 ! L $" )!) ; B" !*E- *- - &QA5
SRH
11" B$," -1!)/" "1*" -"<!!" ,
$,!" "
" )!?"$ /+!)/0 " " )"$!" ; 7 1+"
+0 " )/+!)/" !,1""" -/+!11" ," " ,"# L 1=!" $)" !,1"# ," -*?" "
" $"! ," $" $ 0 " 1)" #) !" 1" "5 -1+" /+!)/0 " ," ,$ ," -*?" " ," -C!" / 1 "
!)!"" )"$!"5 "J )!$/" ," ,- " 1#, " +" , ," " < $!"5 !#" L 36 ,
,#+!,# ," -!$"$" -1+" /+!)/0 " !# " ,- " ,#$1) ," 1=!" *$/"5 )" "3 *"! ,"
/+!11" $/!10 " " ! " *$5 VWX B ! ," "33" ," !1)!" ! ," ,F$/ 3 !"$"
,-1*!" ," 1=!" ," +!" ," !1" -/+!11" ))!T " ! ," !,1"# " L -! ," "
)/+!)/" , [[ =$" $11" " 1+" ! *"5 # L 3 ,- !))" ," !#1" " ,- " ,1"
310 "5 VWX
#" !""1* !,1"" " " 1 "1"5 # ,- " !" ,-0 #" #!+"#5 8 >!"$" ,"
2=!"," 5 *- - AQ5 B" +"5
QAH
% )) 2 2
= ! " )" : ! 0 " ," < 11" , $"1) ," $" *" ;
- " -)!=5 !0 " ?" !"3 )"! " )" ! 1C1" ) ! " !1""! L # ?" " )" < *"! " $!b"5 2C1" !","" " $!b" ' " $"" ," 1" /"!5 -1!)/" )"!, ," "33$$"5 1+" -+ 0 - "
" " 35 $" " "" $" 1#:10 "1" " $! " " 1-!!" ?1
SR@
0 - " " " 35 ! $" 0 " " /)<
5
" 3 " )" !")$# 3 !"1)$"! " )"$" ! ,#$# )! "
SN%
)"$" ! L ?1 #)!# , )!#$#," )! -1#" 0 -)=!" " "1)
G ,- 0 " 1C1" "" " /" ," < )"!" " ) !!" ! -1!)/"
SNQ
1 #1" " ,#$$ " )" ,$ C!" )!+#
5 " $$"$" $$"*" " " < !" , -")$" :$/!0 "1" " , " "1)
,$/!0 "1"5 " ! $$"$" " " /11" , -")$" 1! !", *"
$" "1" , " "1)5 "" *!=$/" " $11" !*" $-" *T1" 3,5 -+! 0 - ) -1!)/" !","" " " , $"
)" 0 " " !)" < ," " " <1C1" 1 L " "" ,#$1)5 )" !" " $!b" $" " ," " ; & #" , !"" 0 "0 "
$",!" $!#" $!#" )! " "1)5 " "1) )" ) -*?" ,"" $!#
) $!" " "+" ,- "1) 11#1! ) " *" "5 " *"
SN&
,"" " "1" !"3" " ,"$!) , )# (& , $! !" -: 5
2 " ,+ " $!b" " 1"+" , )"!" 0 ," SNO
)!)"! #=1" ) !" !))" L -!,!" !1=" L "5
" *" !"$=" )!$)" ," " #!*" " $" )!$)" ," " " !"=" ) ," SNS
SNA
,"$!) ," /
, ,$*"
5 " -" ) 0 "0 " $/" 0 " -
)" ,#$!!" )! " 1 )" !" L ,$" 1 0 "0 " $/" , )" " "1" 3!" -"<)#!"$"5 " 1 " )" !" )" " " "1" $!* "! L
SR@
7 -"<"$" , " "1) )" " $$"! $11" " )!"/=" " "1) ,- " " # *!,# ," ," < $`# )!
,-3" #", " ," ! ; " " "!" ," < *T1"5 8 !" !F": $11"" " $" "!1" $" )+" ," # ,"
*E ; 7 /" $!," !$E *" *: , $11 "" " / ! "<"$" * *!"3 $!$E 3 +/ *"F""
F ""!" 3 ,!E"5 8 ! !" !F":5 7 -^ !" " 1*!" ; L )!) ," # SN%
# ," *E 85 ( 5
UR 1! Q@@R &ON5
! ,- "!"" 2!"2,""" 2!" 1- 3 !"1!0 "! 0 " -1!)/" ," - ## !",#$ "!"
0 - : " !"" ,-#"5 B 0 "L "1)C$/ " )"$" ! ," -" ))!$/"! ) ! !"+!,"! " ," *5 +! -1!)/" " -" $ + =!"5
SNQ
)!) ," -"<)#!"$" ," ,
," ! ""$/ 0 $ - L 3!" $!!"),!" )!3"1"
-1+" ,- " )!" ,-#,3$" " -#,3$" !#"
/))" 1! +" 7 ) ! 0 " " *" " " 1,=" " 3," - ,
- !" ) ! 0 -" !"+!, " )!"1"! !)!" " "$, " )"$" ! , $$ )"! " )!#$ 0 " " " " )"!"
L 3 )" ""! -"<)#!"$"5 3 )!",!" ! ," " "! ) "<$ K -1+" " -*?" " )"!)" "
-33!" !"+!, $11" " " " " 1C1" $/"5 8 /))" 1!5 *- - O&5 B" +"5
SN&
SNO
B-"1)! " -"<)!" !" ,- !+" ," " !" ? *
(& , 5
" 7 " 0 " " 1!" 8 # ,"" ," ""5
QA@
,#$"$/"! $" , ,#) ! ;
Suppose I make a gesture and I think the gesture characteristic for the
impression I get. Suppose I gave the gesture by co-ordinates and I wish to make
it clear to Mr. Lewy. He might have to make an analogous gesture. His muscles,
hands, etc., are differently shaped. So in one sense, he can’t copy and in another
sense he can. What are we to regard as the copy? “It will depend on how such
muscles contract.” But how on earth are you to know? If I make a gesture, and
you are good imitators, these gestures will have to be similar, but different; the
shape of the fingers, etc., is different. The criterion for its being this gesture will
be the clicking of it in you. You say: “Now this.” To say what’s similar is
impossible (to say). Each one makes a gesture immediately and says: « That’s the
one. » If I wish to convey an impression to Mr. Lewy, it might only be made in this
way, that he copies my gesture. Then what about this technique of describing
kinaesthetic sensations? This isn’t co-ordinates; it is something else: imitating
the person. “Wittgenstein, if you make a gesture, all you get are certain
kinaesthetic sensations.” It is not at all clear in what case we do say we have
conveyed them. But it may, e.g., be by what we call ‘imitating’. 476
1" )6 "<$"1" L K " )6 " )!"1"! )"$" ! ," $"" ^ !" " QAOO
?" )" < !"!" $" , )!" D+"" " ,#$$ , )!"1"! )"$" ! $""
3$ " 1" ) ! )!"1=!" " ,"!=!" 35 " ) )$# $"!" ," 1 ^ "
0 , $]$,"! "$ ) )!#$ $/ )! " )"!" " & ," "5 $" "
"<$ " )!, ! ? ! 1C1" "<)#!"$" ? ! ) ! )!"1=!" 3 0 " "
SNS
B-"", $ / " +##! ," 7 !")!#" 85 / " !")!#" " $" " 0 -"" !$","
? ! *?" $! "" " )" " !, !" !"1" -""$"5 )" L $" )!) $"! - !+" ,-"<,!" M"3" ! "
?" ;
/5
! ; M>>11! &%%& QH&&5 -!, $ - " ! !"$"" 0 !" +!," /:)/="
,-"!)!# , "!1" ; " ,#3 !#$"" 7 " )#! ," 1#, "!"" " !"" L 3 8 "!" !#"
" !")!#" ,
!#" G
" ,#3 7 !#" 1"1" )! -! $0 " ; !")!#" " $1*
"!"< "" ,- !" !")!#" 8 G " ,#3 " ," !, !10 " , 0 "" 7 !")!#" 1" *?"$# , $!#" ! 8 G "3 " ,#3 )! $ !" " 0 "" 7 !")!#" " " )!$" 0 " ,"5 "
!"3=" 1=!" 0 " " ++" V" ,$ " !")!#" " !+" , "!1"X ," $T!" " 1," " " 1,"
1C1"5 8 )" ," -,#" ," 1#, , " !))! ," !")!#" !#" L ,1" #0 " ," !")!#" ::1" ," #+ , !#"5
SNA
, !,
11"! !))!" $"$ ; 7 " "$," VWX 0 " !$" >!$$ ," ', , " $/"# "
QASH ; 7 -+ ,- " 3"11" 1!" 3! *"" , ! " 0 - ))" *"" "5 ! ," >!$" 1" ! ," )" !"W
" " + ,"1, *"" " # ? ! L G ,#! ! ) ! $)"! ,-)!= !" G 3 , 0 -""
# 1!" ,") )" ," "1) G $" ! 3 ! ,#"!!"! " $!) ) ! ! ,-)!= " 0 """ # "$!" )*" ," ! "!
,$" ," *" #5 !"! $11" "" ## G /*#" $11" ," " $/"" < *, ,)# "$ !
! ,- +" , *" # 3 )$" L " C" ," 1! G "3 " $" )!)!" # " )"!"! ! *"" 0 -
$)" !" " ," ! " +" 0 )" !" " 0 )" !" "$!"5 8 1! " ,# "1" )" "$!" )!"! " 1+" ," "5 " )!! " 1#1!" ,- " " L !"! " ,"L ," 1!5 8 , !,
. - 476
"
/ 5 ! ; "" " " >!6" Q@@H SN5
/ 0 R 0 : 0 0 . 5 ( 50 K 0 H 2'
QR%
11"!5
H H Q ( +,66( G,
# / 3 % )) 2 2
*" "<"! ;
Ainsi la vérité du leurre du regard spectateur est dans son système ; la mimésis
représentative se signifie (elle acquiert l’apparence d’un sens) par la machine
perspective qui la sous-tend et, avec cette machine, par la géométrie projective
qui s’y réalise et qui assigne (rend nécessaire et significatif) le véritable lieu du
regard. Ce point indivisible serait discernable si le vrai géomètre ne savait que,
dans l’ordre de l’espace, « nous appelons un point indivisible, celui au-delà
duquel nos sens n’aperçoivent plus rien, quoique divisible indéfiniment et par sa
nature. » 477
"<)#!"$" , " ,"$!)*" - $,=!" -$ ," $11" !"
," $!$$" : : )!#,# 1 "" -" ) $11 $*" " 5 11" "
SNH
+" D+"" -+ ,- " "<)#!"$" E"/#0 "
#$ ," -#!" !
!#""1" "<)!1*"5 E"/#" " ,!"$"1" !"#" L ,-#0 *!"
0 " $"" # $"!" , -"!)!# , *" 11"
L )!) ," ) ," "" , " 1 $" ," ?1*" "1*" $!$#
SN@
$11" $" ,"!"! " 1" " #0 *!" ! " !3$" *"
5 ! " L
"! 0 " " $!`" ," -#0 *!" " ,!"$"1" !"# L $" ," 1 "1" ," -^
, !*"5
'*" " #! , ^ !" *?" 0 " -^ )"" L ,"3"! "
," -*" , -* 1" 3<" " $! " )"$" ! 1 "1" " L "
0 " ^ !" " 3 $/"#" " ) !"3#"!5 )" !" "=!" " L
-1+" ," ! 1" ," 1" !" 0 -"" $" ; " #!" ,-"+!"+" L $"!
$/b , - ,-C!" 1*" ," ) ! " ,#)"! *?" L 3!" !"!
SH%
" 1+ L 36 ," 7 )#!$" 8 7 ," ,"!"1" ," ! 8
5 "
" )" ," * ," ,)3 )!#, ,#$$ ," -,"$!)*"5 " 477
SNH
/ %
K
! 4 ( +,,B( <B 0 B" !))"" $ ,#3 "<$" ," E"/#" ; 7 " "!" , 1 "1" ," )!" , $!) !#" )! "
" 1 $ !" "*# )!3," ," 1 $" " )! " "<$ ," -!"" "!"5 8
S , " Q@@O Q&SS5
" 1)! ," +!,"! L -")! 0 " -!"" "!" " " =+" ," -#0 *!" " "33" "" *!" ," !#$")" ! 0 !#+" L
+!# < $/+"1" ," ) ," C" " $!`" " 1 "1" ," :" <5
SN@
" ) ! ,-#$ ," E"/#" 2!$" ! " 3 ,"$!) L )!) ," )# ," "" ; 7 2 11" K 1" !"1" ,-)1* ?" ) 1 )", !
)# 0 #
)"
1 #"# 0 " " )!#$#," 1
,#$ !+"1" -# ," 1C1" 3#$# 0 -L ,"!" #)0 " ," 1 " 1-" ,#" " ,-!*!" 0 " ?-
$! !"$T!" , " )!1"," " !" L *"$ " ," $$/"! ," 2!" VWX J ! )!3, "! 1" :" <
," 1)!" ," 3!T$/" ! ,-#* " 1=!" !:" )!= ," 1 " , 1 ,#! ," " ! "! ) * +"! 0 " 0 , ?" +c " ! ," 1,""" " b$/ ," 3!" )!"! ? 0 -L 1 $" 0 -"" 1" !))" ?" !"
0 " L 3!" !!" 3 " 1*!*" ," F1" L *"! $11" ?- 3 L -/" !" )", ! " )# ) #"# - !"
)", ! " )# ) *5 VWX )!"0 " ," " ?" !"$ $-# "" , 1" "33! ) ! ,#$!!" " "
)!#", # )! )! 1 1#1!" " 1-" ?1 !" , " 0 " " 0 " ?- !""" ?, ! ," <
," #+" , *)=!" ," 2!$ 1- !", " "$ " " !" " ?" $" ? !L L $"" "L
" 0 #" !"#" , -"" L " ! !+ ,-K *! 0 " /!, " 1)#!" "1" 3 !! , #!" ," ? !
*#5 8 2!$" ! 5
. , Q@&N5 ! ; M1!, Q@@% QNOQNS5 B" +"5
QRQ
1 " -1+ " !#!, !3$""1" "
1C1" , "" "1* *""5
SHQ
, $"
"" ," B )!" " ," < $$") ,0 " " 1#$0 " 3 ,"
?" !#$")" ! 1"1*!" $3 ," $" 0 - )"!65 -" 0 )! )!#"$"
," " L $" 0 " ? " ! $="5 " -",! K " " $"1)" " ,#$! " !" 0 ,1 " " $ " " $" ! " 1 "1" " ! " " 3 <5 $"
" " ) ! " )! ;
[…] la perspective est l’instrument d’une mise en ordre de la réalité perçue qui
afflue vers l’œil sous les espèces des images des corps dont l’air est empli et
pour lesquelles l’œil est à la fois « cible et aimant ». 482
SH%
7 VWX " ," )!1" ! ! <" "!$ 0 !")!#"" ," ):+" ,33#!" ! $/0 " 3$" " 0 - 3
!"! ) ! *"! " ,#$! 5 8 2!"2,""" 2!"5 7 " ,-)0 " 1+" ," $$"$" ," , #! !" ," SHQ
"$" +"5 8
7 /)1
!
/ 5 *"!!, #,5
L ` ,
! ; !"" "!!" ," >!$" Q@HO @S5
" ," 1#)/!" ," 7 )"!)"$" 8 V, )!#3$" ," *, R ' QA@AX ) ! ? 3"!
-*$ !# ," )#" , " " , " , ) C!" )"!6 11#,"1" 1 " "1" ," $" < 0 ! *"
)"!)"$" ; 7 "!" E3 "! !" ,!F /" 3+ !" 3 3$" ": 1E" EF" F/ !")!"" G * /""
1 :1 +" "! /,,F , /"+/+ G F/$/ / +/ +! F """1 )$-, , $ ! :" $/ /" /"
? ,$ )"!)"$" F "" // 1 )! , 3" +5 &5 8 " ,$ ! " "33" ,-1*!" " ," 1=!" !
-1)!$" , ) ," " , )"$" ! " " 3 $" 0 ," " L -!5 8 +- HA5 B" +"5
482
: 5
!
&1 5 /!
!
E
F /1] ! $5!
5
0 5 3 &
3 ! !> R > 1 # / /3 2 ( *C 0 !
' 3 '
0 &
3 QR&
1:> &
?
W
!
1] 1!
( +** & 1] 0 ( ( 3
1b ! ( 1 0
( !0 ! ! 1! 1 3
1] 1 1 3 /1 ! ;
1 / /3 0
! 7 !
& 1 1] E 3 0 ( (
1:> I'M & 1 & 1 ?
3! 3 1] I M # : ( *+ J 3 !3&! 5!? 1 ' % )) 2 2
#- :=
( L
e
)
+ * & ? > 3 2
$"" )!" ?- "# " ) )! ," !")!#" *,1""" )#!
" !#, $ 1 ,!0 " ," -")$""1) ," 1!"! $" 0 " -#$#
,1"" $"! , ' , # 5
-#$# $!!"), L " !#, $ "<!C1" ," -")$""1) , " +!," 0 "
" $!$=!" ,:10 " $-"L,!" 0 - " !#, L " ) !" #"5 " 0 " $""
!#, $ !,$" 11" " $1)! "$ $"" )#!#" )! )" !"
0 -"" " ))!1 ) ,1" )" 0 " " ,:11" ,"
-#$# 33 L ++#!"!5 - : , 1 "1" : ," -")$""1) " )" "
C!" !"1"5 " "1) $-" " 1 "1" ," -")$" -")$" " " 1 "1" ,
"1)5
QRO
! " ! -")$""1) "<"!" ?" $]$," 1 " )!" "$
-")$""1) "!" ?" ) 0 " $" ,"!"! " )" *" #,"11" ))!#/","!
SHO
" 1," /! ," 1C1" 5 " 1C1" - ) ,!"$"1" $$= L $$"$" ," - !" $" ")$""1) " "!, L 1 0 " - !" "
!")!#""5
$11 $ )" " !## )! " !"$ )"1" ," ," < $$"$"5 =
! -* # ," -")$""1) " !" ) ` "" !#," , " * "
"! *?"$#5 -")$""1) *?"$3 0 " $!: * " 1)"1"
#1"11" "! *?"$3 ; " $!$=!" * , "1) " ," -")$" !#," , " 3
0 - " !"3 L " !" " 1C1" "1) 0 -L 15 " " " "<)!"
$11 " L " /11" " ) )" ,#1" ! $11 5 $" " "
!")!#" $" L ," ,"+!# ,"! " )! ,-*?"$# $-"L,!"
,-"33$"1" , ?" " 0 -,, )!3 ," *?"$# $"$"5 $!+!)/" !")!#" , "1) )!)#" )! " $/!1=!" "
1#!1" 1)"1" " !")!#" " ) "! *?"$" 0 "5
-#$# !"! " -!!#"!*# )"1)!"" )!)!" L " *?"
, 1," 0 - " 3!1" ," !#+ !# $1)!*" < !")!#" " ) "! *?"$" $11" $"" 0 " - ! " " $!+!)/" " +#1#!"5 ""
!#+ !# -"<)!1" 11" , -!,!" :<0 " "$/T"1" !#+ "! " 3
," 15 !"! " !#+ !# "! *?"$" , " , , ?" ) 1 !3$""1" -#$#5 $" !")!#" ,-)! " $,"" 0 "
- " 3 , #!" + 0 " " ,+ " , 3 < ," $$"$" 0 -" )
$1)# $11" ,-"# ,$!="5 $$"$" " "=!" " $/0 " ," ,#)"1"5 " #$# "1*" #*!# L )!! ," 3!+1" 0 -,?+" " < !" " -"<!: ," " ! !$" #1"!$" -#$" ! ,
3 ," -"$/T"1" ))!"11" )!$"!" ," +" + 0 "5 " " ,
)+" , $ "!" L 3!+1" "<"!" )" C!" :1*# )! )" ;
" 3!=!" !"" / #),"!10 " ; 7 7 )" 8 ,"" 1#)/!"
):$/:0 " , )+" "!" ,", " ,"/! " ))!#/" 1 #"
SHS
, " )! " ?" $#5 8
)" " ,-" ! != $$!="1" -""))" ,"
-[ ' " 0 " " ,#3 /1 "*"E ;
(1) There are at least two apprehensions of the Self: immunologic, or biochemical,
with semiotic overtones semiotic, or social, with biological anchoring (2) The
arena of the immune reaction is contained within the skin; the arena for signal
anxiety is normally between the perimeter of the Hediger’s « bubble » and the
skin of the organism, the former containing the latter. (3) Invasion of (a) is usually
signified by the immune response, of (b) by anxiety, with the latter serving as an
SHO
,# -"<"1)" ," / 1" ; " : 0 " $" 0 " ) !5 -" ! ) ,#$""! " 1" ," !" )!)!" !0 " 3< +" ,-/!J5 ""$ ))!T $ !*" "
! ," $ !* !" ," "!!" 1 " ! ," $ !* !" ," !" ^5 " 1C1" " $$" 0 " $" 0 " !"
$"!" )"!1" ," $$"! $" ," 1 1" "1*" " ," " !))""!5
SHS
25 7 " " )" -1+" 85 #,5 ! ; """! &%%S HN5
QRS
5 2!$
*"J$JE 4 #" $!<
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early warning system for the former. (4) In evolution, (a) is very old, whereas (b) is
relatively recent. There is a corresponding advance from a purely metonymic
nexus to one perceived as causal efficacy. (5) Communicational errors occur in
both processes, and may have devastating effects on the Self. 485
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All attempts to turn an easel painting into an agitational picture have been
fruitless. And this was not because there was no talented artist around, but
because this is essentially inconceivable… A subject of short-term efficacy
cannot be processed by devices calculated to last a long time. A one-day show
cannot be put on for centuries. 493
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[...] cette intuition de la permanence du temps est compromise dans le sens
commun, parce qu’il le thématise ou l’objective, ce qui est justement la plus sûre
manière de l’ignorer. Il y a plus de vérité dans les personnifications mythiques du
temps que dans la notion du temps considéré, à la manière scientifique, comme
une variable de la nature en soi ou, à la manière kantienne, comme une forme
idéalement séparable de sa matière […] Nous ne disons pas que le temps est
pour quelqu’un : ce serait de nouveau l’étaler et l’immobiliser. Nous disons que le
temps est quelqu’un, c’est-à-dire que les dimensions temporelles, en tant qu’elles
se recouvrent perpétuellement, se confirment l’une l’autre, ne font jamais
qu’expliciter ce qui était explicité en chacune, expriment toutes un seul
éclatement ou une seule poussée qui est la subjectivité même […] La subjectivité
n’est pas dans le temps parce qu’elle assume ou vit le temps et se confond avec
la cohésion d’une vie. 496
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Inanimate Objects have often such Positions as resemble those of the human
Body in various Circumstances; these Airs or Gestures of the Body are
Indications of Dispositions in the Mind, so that our very Passions and Affections
as well as other Circumstances obtain a Resemblance to natural inanimate
Objects. Thus a Tempest at Sea is often an Emblem of Wrath; a Plant or Tree
drooping under the Rain, of a Person in Sorrow; a Poppy bending its Stalk, or a
Flower withering when cut by the Plow, resembles the Death of a blooming Hero;
an aged Oak in the Mountains shall represent an old Empire, a Flame seizing a
Wood shall represent a War. In short, every thing in Nature, by our strange
inclination to Resemblance, shall be brought to represent other things, even the
most remote, especially the Passions and Circumstances of human Nature in
which we are more nearly concern’d [...] (Art. 4). 502
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A complicating fact of life is that the bare act of observation entails a residual
juncture that disturbs the system being observed. The essential ingredient, or
nutriment, of mind may well be information, but to acquire information about
anything requires, via a long and complex chain of steps, the transmission of
signs from the object of interest to the observer’s central nervous system. Its
attainment, moreover, takes place in such a manner that this influential action
reacts back upon the object being observed so as to perturb its condition. In
brief, the brain, or mind, which is itself a system of signs, is linked to the putative
world of objects, not simply by perceptual selection, but by such a far-off remove
from physical inputs – sensible stimuli – that we can safely assert that the only
cognizance any animal possess, “through a glass, darkly”, as it were, is that of
signs. 516
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Lorsque je porte les yeux vers un coin sombre ou que je marche dans la brume
du soir, je vois fréquemment devant moi quelque chose d’inconnu qui se détache
sur son environnement comme un objet particulier. Je serais parfaitement
incapable de dire sur le coup de quel objet il s’agit. Ce n’est que par la suite que
je pourrais découvrir sa nature. En réalité, il peut arriver que ces choses ne
soient pas reconnues avant plusieurs minutes. Il suit de là que ma connaissance
de la signification pratique des choses n’a rien à voir avec leur existence en tant
qu’unités visuelles distinctes […] la ségrégation des choses vues est
indépendante du savoir et de la signification. 527
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Mais, quand d’un passé ancien rien ne subsiste, après la mort des êtres, après la
destruction des choses, seules, plus frêles mais plus vivaces, plus immatérielles,
plus persistantes, plus fidèles, l’odeur et la saveur restent encore longtemps,
comme des âmes, à se rappeler, à attendre, à espérer, sur la ruine de tout le
reste, à porter sans fléchir, sur leur gouttelette presque impalpable, l’édifice
immense du souvenir. 542
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ASH
D3++ Yi/"! , " # ," 0 - $$!" L -!+ "!"" " < 1+" #0 0 " 1!" 0 " 7 3<
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," < 3 1 0 , $$"$" ," -? " L $"1) , *" ! 3 $" 0 ? 3" " !" VWX , !, 0 * /=1" ," 3" L "$" $" < 0 " ) $$" ," " ! 3" 3 1 $" < 0 "
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, )$# $ " " /=1" $"! ," )=$" , -!+ " -!$ " ! ," +#1"#5 ! , )"!" ) ! C!" )"!6 "
$11" "" #$"" )!#"$" ,- "! 0 )" -$!"! , 1 0 $$=,"! L 1 " +"5 : ! "
)!= ",
,#$+"5 1!# 0 - " ," 1C1" , " ,1" )" ;
- ,1"# ) ! C!" )"!6 " $11" "" , C!" "<1#" , ) ," " ," 0 "0 - )$# , ," < ,1" "
*,1"" )! 0 "0 - " , " ! ,1" " ," "5 3 ," 1" < ! -")$" 3 !
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Si toutes les terminaisons nerveuses sont excitées de la même manière, la
similitude sera totale. En termes de théorie de l’information, la redondance sera
donc totale également, et l’information par conséquent nulle. C’est ce que
montre, entre autres choses l’expérience classique de Metzger (1930), qui avait
placé ses sujets dans des conditions telles que la lumière réfléchie par une paroi
ait une distribution uniforme sur toute la rétine. L’impression ressentie est dans
ce cas non pas la perception d’une surface, comme on aurait pu s’y attendre,
mais celle d’un brouillard lumineux entourant les sujets de toute part, dans un
espace aux distances indéfinies. 553
2 " 3 )"!$") , ,# 1,3#" " $"<" " L !#1#+"! ; -")$"
," !")!#" $" ," !#$") " ," -"!)!# 1 $" )!)!" ,
?" 0 , 3 ," $"" "<)#!"$" " ,33#!"11"5 " C!" " $" ,+ " ,- !" ,# 0 ? 0 "L !" #$/))# ; " )" $! $3< , "
$ , *" - - ,#?L # ! 1" < " ! ," )!#"$"5 7 "
AAS
,# )!$)" ,- " #$! !" +##!" " ,#$"$/" ! ,-"<)!"5 8
)"!$") , ,# $ " " "33" 3$" ! ,-1) /"!1#" 0 "5
-")! , !##!"! " ,# )"!6 , -""1*" , #1" ) ! 1" < "
,#++"! -!1 !"5 ,#?L 1"# " 3 0 " )"!$") , ,# 0 !"=" " )!"1=!" $" ," 1)" " $ <" ," 3< !
, 0 " " ,#)" " " & ," "5 ")", , -"<)! ," " $"
,#)"1" -$$1)+" !""1" ,- ,#$/"1" , ) ," -" " !"+!, !"$ " 1C1" )" L 36 ," $!" ," -"$!+ 0 "
AAQ
!## -!$ 3+ !"Z3, " !")!#" ,- 1#$1" ):$/0 " "!" 0 " - !"! " L "
" < ," $+5 " )!#" ! " ) ," )"!$") ," $$") 1 , -#*! ,"
1,=" /#!0 " != )/0 #5 " !"! " , +"=" 1"" , 1 "" 0 -"" " )"#" )! M "
M 1"5 " ,"!"! 1+" " !#"!*#! "!" )"#" " - "! )"*" , )" ,!" 0 - " )"!6 " 3, , )"#" *!!" 7 3!1" ,-,#" )!$ =!" " )!$ "! 0 - $" 3 ," $/0 " ,#" ,, #" 1=!" +3$ ,- 1 ," + "5 8 )" "! 0 " M " M 1" - "! )"*"
$11" $" 0 " )"#" ,"! )!+!""1" ," $" ) ! L " -"1)! ; 7 ! $""
!$",$" " 1 !" !" L - "!" , #1" 1 - "! !"! # " , 0 " " 1 " !""!" -" ) $ "1" - "! ," ,#)! ; $-" "! , / VWX5 8 M " M 1"5 7 2 " )!" , ,$ ! 85
' ' H@@%5 B" +"5 )!= ," "!!" , " a"2!" " !"",0 "
"!"1" -"1)! 3 < /#!$" ," ! ; 7 -,"# , /=1" VWX " !"$T , " ,33#!" $/1) K " $")*" ," )!T!" )" L 36 , " 13"" " $"!" ,#)",$" !""1" L "!!" , 4 a"2!" "5 AA&
553
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)!)!" ,#)"1" $]$," "$ "33" ," !)""1" ," "5 " !""1" " !"+!, !"" ! " ,# ) ) ," !:"1"
1 ) ," $"!+"$" , !#" ," " ! , 0 " " -!$ " ) !""1"5
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>!$" " ," $"! 0 " -"!"1" $"< " ,- )/#1=" )"!$") "
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* ""!"1" " !:/1" ,-"<)! " ,-"!)!# ," " -" ! " ," 1C1"
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0 !" $ , *" 5 " " )" !" $11" , )/!" " $" ! <"
:+10 " 1 )!,+10 " ;
Le caractère différentiel des unités sémantiques peut être apprécié aussi bien sur
l’axe paradigmatique que sur l’axe syntagmatique. Le principe interprétatif
d’assimilation générique rend ainsi compte de la modification des images
mentales par le contexte, et d’abord le contexte immédiat : ainsi l’image mentale
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3 +$"5 #!1 -"<)#!"$" "/#0 " " ) ! *?" " + "!5 ) "!"" "" -$!!" , 3!$ ,"
"$," ," "!$") )! ?" )"!$" 0 " 0 - 5 "" " )"!$") )"" " " "" )! " ) / ,"+!# ," )"!3"$ , 1 ## ," " 3#1"5 " # $!" , " "1) ! " +"!
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3 ," " " ," $$" ,- !" " ! G - 3 " )! ," $$") 3! $" )! ! !"
"!" -")! " !" -/!1" -1 " :1*1" $"" 1 " ! " ! !))! ," 36 L
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du poisson dans le canari et le poisson n’est-elle pas la même que dans le
cormoran et le poisson, car l’impression référentielle dépend du contexte. 558
"1*" "! ," 0 " $/0 " 1 #$# 3 " ! "" ! #10 " ,
)!#$#," $11" " $$ !!"$" )!#$#,"" 3 " ! "" " $ ""1*" #10 " 0 "5 >+ !" " 3, "!""" !))! ," ,#"!1
!#$)!0 "5 3+ !" " ,#$/" " "1" ?-" ,"3# " 3, ?" -"!)!=" "
3$ ) )" L " !" 3!1" ! 0 " )!#$#,"" !#=+!" " 3, 0 -""
1,3" " "!$/ ," )!#"$"5
-,"3$ )$ "" $!!"), L ) ," 3< ," -" " ,"
$$ ?"Z*?" ) ! " ?" 0 L )!! ," $" " )!#$ *"!" )"!6 " "!)!="
?1 1"!" -""1*" ?$"5 = ! " ,# $-"L,!" -##1"
)!$ "! # , , #1" $ " & ," "5 /0 " 1
, )/!" " $/0 " 3+ !" " )" !" $,#!# #1" ," $")*" ," $$"!"! $ ! -"5
!" $" :)" ," $3+ ! " ," ! ," -" " 1!)/" ,
!"1" " ," -3!1 3,# ! " "33" ," 3 " ," ""# ;
Dans la vision normale, il existe un angle de vue solide […], dans lequel on
distingue plusieurs zones concentriques. Au centre se situe la zone de « vision
nette ou fovéale », qui possède le maximum de discrimination des formes et des
couleurs. En s’éloignant vers la périphérie, on trouve successivement un
« champ central », puis un « entourage », le reste constituant le « champ
périphérique ». Comme l’œil n’est pas fixe, il peut balayer l’image et déplacer sa
zone de vision nette sur n’importe quel point du champ. Il n’en demeure pas
moins qu’il lui est impossible de voir simultanément toute l’image avec la même
netteté : nous retrouvons ici la dimension temporelle qui contrairement à une
opinion répandue, n’est nullement absente de la communication et des arts
visuels. 559
3 ," 1"!" $" )!$" " 1=!" " /#!$" ," ! " 3!6
& # " )"$/# ! " )/#1=" ,-#0 $# )$ !" ,
" ," )!" G $" " )!"1"! L ! 1!# " $!$=!" :#10 " "
#$"!"1" 1 # ," -))! ," ," < ##1" G " 3 0 " -"# ! AR%
# ? ! 7 " !))! " -V#X ) " !" 8
" 0 -""
!") ! ,#1 ," $ ! ,$!1 1C1" " ,"3$5
"$ -1!)/" ," $" $/+"1" ," !))! !#," , "
558
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," !")!#" ) )"" 1)" *:+" " ,#)$"1" ," -"
, " ," 3< , !"+!, )"!1" ," ! " $/+"1" ," 3!1" ARQ
1#1!)/"5
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1 1 "!# $"" 35 "33" " !+"1" , $!b" )!" ,- $/+"1" , ) ," " $-"L,!" ,- " " "" ,#)$#" -"<)#!"$"
"!" 0 " ?-#)! " 0 , ?" 1" ,#)$" " -1)!" ," ! " ," < ) !
3+ ! " :" < ," )"!+" " $""! ," 1" 3<"! )!" ,- !" )/#1="
," !3!1 $#0 " ;
-1!)/" VWX )!#"" ," < 3$"1" ,$5 " )!"1"! " *# !
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$" " /#!$" ," ! 11" "<1# " )!*=1" ," 1+" 1*+ _ , "0 "" ," )" ! L
! C!" 3, 3!1" + " ! #10 " , !"1" " 1 " ! $$") "" ,
" "1)5 )" L !" ,- ! #0 "! -1+" *" $ " ," ," < )!3 " , "5 " < +" *$ ,"0 " ,"
)!3 )" " - " $,=!" 0 " " ," "!1#,!" ! "!" $" ," < +" -"33$"! ) ! 3!" ))!T!" "5
11" " +" ," 3!1" 0 " -^ ,"3" " !"$/"!$/" " )!!# " ," M "))" !$1*,
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0 -L -/!J " $" 3!$" " !#" ," +" $ 0 " -"!)!# ," +" $0 " ,#)",
," -!" , $,!" 1 ," ,$" )! !))! *" 5 " != )!= ?" ," )" )"!+" ," " ! ,- +" " ," 1C1" , " )" !" ,-!$1*,5 "! )/+!)/" " < "<)# " 3!1"
,#$!" )! -"$,!"1" ,- ," "!" ," < ," /#!" ," 7 3!1" #+" 8 ! 0 "" !"",!5 "!"$" ** , " ^ !" #" <$/+" )$" , ," Q@OS )/+!)/" " ! " ," "F a!E ," 1=!" L 3!"
))!T!" -#!"" ," -")$" "!" "!" " 36," ," * ,+ 0 -"$,!"5 " ?" ," $"" ^ !" " " ,"
! 0 " " 3, " " " )"5 ! 'E -"5 "!"$" **5 ! ; / Q@@A )/+!)/" " 0 " " !")!, "
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$#1+!)/0 " 1 " ! " " )!"1=!" #* $/" "$ " $1) )$ !" " )!1 ,#?L #0 #5 "$ "
$#1 $" -" ) -^ 0 $" " ,#$ )" !3$" 3<" " )" $!!# ," 3#" 1 !3$" *" 0 "
)!$"" " " 3# ," )"" 1+" " 1 != !),"1" +!b$" L :=1" 1"5
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-"5 " "+",!" )!3 1 "1" !#" ?" , 1" ,#)$"! ) ! ,"3"! 3+ !" " 1)!" ," ,:11" !#" $-"L,!" 0 " ?- !#""1" -1)!"
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$" 1)!1) " ," -")$" , !3$" ? 0 "L !#+ =!" "1*" " 3!$"!5
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-,"3$ ," 3!1" ;
Si nous avons l’habitude de percevoir l’objet qui apparaît, si la perception est
claire et nette (en particulier si elle est fournie par les organes de la vue),
l’intervalle peut se réduire dans de notables proportions : il n’en demeure pas
moins que la conscience doit faire une mise au point sur l’objet, - cette mise au
point pouvant être aussi rapide que l’on veut, - et que l’objet est là avant la mise
au point. 564
" ," ! 0 " " )"!$") " "!" ,!"$"1" ! " ,"+!# ,-"
$$!,# L "" "" "# " 0 " $"" ,"!=!" # 3$"1" ,"3*" " " 0 -"" "!"" !))! #0 0 " "$ " 3, , "" "
,#$/5 <1 1" $11" $" 1C1" ! "!"" 3 "
! 36 , $$"$" " )"!6 ""1C1" )"!6 " 1," " ! " "
$65 -+ ,-"1)"! " *!!=!" $11 #1" #!+#" "!" )"!$")
" $$") *! " $$!" 3 ," 1!"! 0 " " 1," "!" ," ? "! !`"
)#!)/#!0 " , $! $ , " ) *!" " $ " " !## " )!
""""5
)) * 2 > " )!$" !3# ," $! $ , " $$") " "Z )"!$") " ARA
," < 3,# ! " 3 $ , ,"+!# ,-" , ?" ? ! $")*" ,"
"! * "! ! " 3!1" " $!!" ," " 3,!" , " )!#+$"
,33 "5 " 3 $ $!#" "1" ," )# ," )!3," ! " ,-#)" !5
9 , " !"+!, $$"$" "1*" -!!C"! ) ! " 3<"! ! *?" "
)!$ "! " "1" ," )# ,"1" !" " "1) $!" , -#)" ! ,
+"5 #10 " )" " ?1 $""!5 "33" ) "<1" *?" ) $" ,"!"! " $")*" ," !"C! " ,1" #10 " $ ," - 7 ," "$/" 8 0 != " ,"" Z ," "$/"Z ) - 5 $" )!) ,
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[…] les images mentales sont les corrélats psychologiques des signifiés
linguistiques, et la référenciation s’opère par appariement entre images mentales
et percepts d’objets […] image est trop restrictif : nous avons affaire plutôt à des
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Un simulacre multimodal n’est pas nécessairement indépendant du langage, qui
peut mettre en jeu plusieurs modes (visuel, auditif, mais aussi – pourquoi pas –
moteur), mais n’est lié à aucun mode particulier […] Il conviendrait toutefois de
distinguer la modalité de présentation du signifiant (visuel ou verbal) et son
traitement (génération ou interprétation) des modalités « imaginaires » associées
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Considérant sans doute leur mariage comme une affaire strictement privée, ils
décidèrent de le faire commémorer dans un tableau les représentant à l’instant de
l’échange de leurs promesses, dans la sainte intimité de la chambre nuptiale – un
tableau qui est à la fois un double portrait et un certificat de mariage. Ainsi
s’explique la curieuse formule de la signature, qui a suscité tant d’inutiles
discussions : « Johannes de Eyck fuit hic » (Jan van Eyck fut ici). Aucune œuvre
d’art n’est signée de cette manière, qui évoque plutôt les regrettables épigraphes
laissées par les pèlerins et les touristes dans les lieux célèbres. Mais ici, l’artiste
a apposé sa signature (enjolivée de fioritures, comme il était alors d’usage pour
les documents officiels) en qualité de témoin plutôt que de peintre. D’ailleurs,
dans le miroir, on l’aperçoit qui entre dans la pièce en compagnie d’un autre
gentilhomme, dans lequel on peut voir le second témoin. 599
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Telle qu’il [Gide] l’imaginait, la mise en abyme aboutissait, nous l’avons vu, à
reproduire fidèlement le sujet même de l’œuvre. Est-ce ainsi que les miroirs
enchâssés de van Eyck, Memling, Matzys et Velasquez s’acquittent de leur
office ? Non seulement ils ne reflètent qu’en partie « l’intérieur de la pièce où se
joue la scène peinte », la duplication qu’ils instaurent, loin d’être irréprochable,
se trouve subvertie par la convexité du miroir ou, en tout cas, par l’interversion
de la gauche et de la droite. En outre, cette réflexion s’avère problématique
puisqu’il est topologiquement nécessaire, pour que les personnages se donnent
réellement à voir, qu’ils se tiennent « en avant » du tableau, la face tournée vers
lui (le client présumé de l’usurier, le couple royal des Ménines, les invités du
Mariage Arnolfini) – ce qui les empêche a priori d’être dédoublés par la
représentation […] Ramenant à l’intérieur de l’œuvre des réalités qui lui sont
(fictivement) extérieures, la réflexion complétive qu’elles assurent fonctionne
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d’abord comme un opérateur d’échanges : aux confins du dedans et du dehors,
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[…] la comparaison qui porte sur l’espace (le télescope) se situe dans une
tradition poétique où elle symbolise le temps de façon proleptique ; de même que
le télescope permet de dépasser les limites de l’espace visible, le prolongement
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,33#!"$" , )!! ," #) < " )"!" " !*# ,#+" "!"1" $"
) ,1" 3 1 ," 1:=!"5 " 3 +#1=!" B :$E
!+ " " )" )"$" ! ," $" ,-" +" G ,- 0 " " )!", ) )""
," " )"$/"!5 -+!" ) 0 - -: !" L ! " $!"*5 * )#,++ " RQO
" ,$)" -" !",!" $1)" )! 1C1"
5
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;
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+" L +3$ *!" 0 ? "1" " ,#!*" ? ! L "5 "33" ,
" )!! ," #) < " )" ," * $ )# ! " ,"! , 3 " L -!!=!")
"1*" ? $/# ! " )+" ," B""5 "" $!#" 1 "1" ,-$$##!
, !"+!, , )!#$)# , -!!=!") L )!! , ) $"! # , ) 1" ," 1 ?" ," ," < #) <5 L -" 0 -!3$" " 1C1" )" - ) -))!"$" ,- " $/1=!" +!16" " $11" ,#, *#" \ "
10 "! " 3"+ , ," !"! " , \
!,<"1" +3$ 0 -"<! ," 1#!# , +" " ,-*!,
3+ !#" " )" !" )! )" !" ""1C1"5 " )" " C!" !"1" ; -"<!$
))!T , " !"3" , 1!! !")!#" ,#?L *" 1 3,=" 0 " " )" +!33
RQ&
$" , )"!+" " !*# 3+ !" L 3 ^ #"$)0 " $11" $" ," -"$!+ ,#?L #0 # ) / $" ," M#" " 1$!$)0 " #+"1" $11" $" ," -"$!+ ; 7 "$/0 " )!)!" L B :$E " ,- "
1 " ""1" "<)!1*" 0 " " 1*!" ," ,# $ , 3!1" " ))!$/" ," -3 G ," 1C1" 0 " " $$ 3#1 !#" $ # , " " 0 # 1#!0 " $"" "$/0 " !#" -/1+### , " " 3!1"
*"5 " 0 " 31" " "!1" ," +!," ! 1" !*" " $")", +!, " 0 " )!, ," -3#1"1" )" G
$" 0 " $,#!*" " "!1" ," +!," ! 1" !*" " $")", )" " 0 " 3!$ ," -31" +!, VWX )" ,!" , :" ," B :$E 0 - :1*" $$") ," ! $ !" ," - "! 0 " ,#++" L #)0 " ,- + ,#* ! " 7 ," < 3 8 VWX -^ ," B :$E 3$" L 3 $11" 1$!$)" " $11" #"$)" . "
" 1 ," )""! 0 " $" ," < ! 1" " C!" "# 0 "0 " $" <"0 J" ) !, :
," !" 0 " " )"$" ! " " $! ," " ,#)$"! "!" ) ,-*"! !*"1" #+# , *" " +!, 1*!" ," ) 0 " != !))!$/#"5 8 !F
3E:5 "
!13 31, Q@AO OO%5 B" +"5 B"
!))"" 0 " 0 " " #"$)" 0 )"!1" ," " )!?""! ,"L ," 1" ," -")$" )"!1" ," 1C1" )!?"$ , " "1) ? ! +!b$" L -1+5
RQO
" 11" ," )!" ," $$"$" )! 1C1" $!!"), L $"! ,
!"+!, 0 " ?-#0 L )!) ,"
1*," !5 $"! $ " )!" ," $$"$" ," ) " 0 " )"$" ! )3 " *" ) !
1C1" 1 " 0 -C!" !")*" ,
" 0 - /" $3#!"! 1," )!! "# 0 -" !"5 " )"
)"!+" ) !) $!" 0 " )"$/" , " ," " !" 1 , 1+"! " 0 -#", " ," "
,-)"5 " 11" !")!#"# $ " "$!" " 3 $" ," $"! , !"+!, "!" K -^ " 7 3 8 ]3 "
" !" " )!= K " ! " ,"" +" " )"!)$$"5
&%N
)" )!"1"! ) " , " )"+" ," 36 !#"5 ! !3$" $ !*"
, 1!! -1+" " 3 ) *!" 1 )!#$"5 " )"!" 1+!# "<!C1"
1 " - ) , -31" )" 3!" )!" " ,- ,-,!"" 0 - )!"1"! )
," 5 : 7 ," < )" )"!+" 3#1" $!# !"
#" L ," ,$" #!*"1" +$0 " "3 " L ," )!3," ! 0 ,#)" !+"1" -"++"1" ," M " M V" 0 X -+" + "1"
RQS
* , #"$)" 8
5 " "" ," 3$" - ,"!!=!" - !"5 L " !"3" ,
, *" ," " *" " !"$ ! " *! ", ," M ) !! *" C!" "
*! )# ! /$/" ," -/11" ) !) , 1C1" *" 5 " ," < RQA , 0 - ) -+! ," ," < #1 1 , )"!" " ,"
)!"1"! )"$" ! 3!1" ,!`" ," *`1" -#$/ +!" , $ )" !=
"" 0 " " ,"5 " ,+ " ) " ! !5 ," ,
)"!+" C ," *" " $/" $!!#" ," *$ ," $#! " 3+ !" " $!"
#=1" ) ," ? ! #=1" !"+!, :1" 1 1 $ " $ " #=1"
3 L !"+!,"! -""! , ,#$! L "3$"! )" ) , )!3," ! !"
, *" L 3!" )" ) ! +"! L K " +" -")! ,"!!=!" "
)"!" " )"$" ! L )"" "0 # " , ?1 $"" 3 "
,+ "! " ,5
" )" !"$+" ," *$ ," $#! " $" , )! "" , *" $""
$!" " 1 !" " 3:"! ," 1=!" 1$!$)0 " ) )"" "# 1" "
)!#"#" )! -^ , )"$" !5 " 3+ !" )" "<!C1" , )$" ," :$E "
" 1T!" 31, $)*" ," !3!1"! " $/ ,- " + " ," )1* " ) =!"
,-!5
$" ",! 1!$ " < !#," " , )"!"$/1" )!#"$"
/:)/#0 " L )"" *" " " K -^ *!")$" $11" " 1*!" - "
,"!!=!" " ##1" " !""3 ) ! 1" < " $"!"! " " 1+"! , - ,- "
1"$,"5 $" " " $" ," ,#3!1 , 3 " ," -$ $-" )!$" 0 "
" 3:"! , " " *" L -^ $$"*" < "5 3 ,$ -1+"! ) RQR
31" 0 " ) 31" )!$ " ," 1=!"5 " " -*! ," "
" ," 1#!#
0 -""
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RQS
RQA
B$0 " !! 5 ) $5 &@5
" /1$ " #" ," 7 )" C!" L 3!1" / 1" 0 " " $/1" )!#"," 3*!0 "!5 8 " "
"
*"! Q@@O Q%@H5 ! 3E: #0 " " 3 0 " M!+ ! )!#", 0 " :$E # $/1" ; 7 B :$E
# "<)"! " $/1" $11" ! ,! " 3!" $!!" \ "" )) " !""1" ,
3 0 -
!* 1T!" -" ," )" !" L -/ " . /=" ,"" " " "*"5 -" ,"1" !" ) 1 0 - ,c
1"!" ) $"! )"!3"$"1" 0 )"!1!" ," !)"! L 3 " 1 " " " 1# " !# *" )! " )!#,#$"" ! " $"1)! " " $$"" !5 !# L ,"! ," "! ," $$3 " ," , " < . " , $" $ - ," ! VWX ) !! $"! +! ," #!#5 8 !F
3E:5 "
!13 31,
Q@AO O&NO&H5 3E: +" ) " " N%H 0 " :$E :#1 - +" , *$ ," )1* 3 ,-$$" "! 1#5 ! " 3 ) C!" )" $/1" ) ! )!#",!" ,#"! -! ," $/+"! " *$ ," )1* " 1=!" \
&%H
% )))
+ A + &4 ) + 0
= > ? 1 > " ," ! 0 " !")!#" )"" , " 1!! $ )!"1"! )
"! -*!$ " )!"1=!" "<!$ ," 1#!# )! 1#!#5 " 3 -*"$" ," $ ! " )" !" " " "33" $" 0 " !))!$/" " ) ,"
-*!$5 )" !" " ? ! )" "" " )" $1)="1" " $ )"! ," $"
0 -"" !")!#""5 -,#" )$ ! " +" , -31" 1)"!3"$ , $ ) ,"
)$" 0 3+ !" -31" , "1) ; - 3!$ ," "$,"5
$ -!" " != , # " !"3" " )! )!35 -" ,$ " "1" L -#$/""
1$!$)0 " , 1!! L -",! K " ) , )$" " ) "J 3 ) !
!")!#""! " ," < +" ," " ,- " C" ,-#)+" 0 " -! ,#!1
)!1 !+ ,-!" ," +#" -/#" ) L "</*"! " )!)!" 1" ; $"" ," ! $11" $"" ," !"+!, G 1" L 1" !" ," 11"" " ) )!$ =!"1" ) ! 1/" !" < 1:)" 0 ," ,)"! ,- " )" ) ! "
,"! $11" " $/" < "" , , ,
1 #" ," M!"+" L ! +"5
2 ) ! ) -"<)!5 1!! , " !"3" +" )!"1"!
1 "1" "! -*! )! !)""1" L -3 )" !""1" L + !" $!" ," " !## )" #$#5 " -1+" 3 " !0 -"" "
+!" L )" )" L "!" " < 15 " $!$=!" !"1" ," RQN
$+!)/" "$ " !*"0 " 1*0 #" $" " 3+ !3
" !))"" -!
RQH
," -" 1 !"5 " " "$ -! 1 !"
, 1!! " 3 ? ! ; 7 1)!
$/)!" ," -/!" ," )" !" " $$ )# )! -" 1 !" )!0 " 0 ,#!" ,"
- +" ," +"! " $!"! " ! +" 1 1 ,-K ,#!" " 1 7 1 !" 8 "
RQR
-",! K " $$!$/# " 1!! $!!"), )" )! ) ," 3 " " 3 " )" ," 5 " ",! "
,-C!" $$" $0 " " $"<" $-" 1!! *1*# $11" " 1!! ," ," , " "!! #!" !"1" "
)"!" 3 ," 1" < ! -")$"5 -" !"3" ) )!$/" ," / 1" , *" 0 -"" " $ !*" ;
7 ,-C!" " $ !# " 3" ," +#1=!" )"!)"$" $ !+" 13"" " !", "*" -""$" ," !" 5
" " " " 3!1 " /#!" #!*"5
!,
"! ," >!$"$ ) #!, , " !" )!#3=!"! L )"!)"$" " $,"" 3$" !"$+" , *"! #*!# 7 $! $ #+1" 85 1!"! )"" 0 "
" !")=!" !/!1# ," -")$") $, 0 , " " ))0 "! ," 3!$" +!" ! " ) " L ,-#,""
*"!!5 )"!)"$" $0 " !1" "" !#, " 3 "$"5 " " ! " !",!" $1)"5 -^
$"!" ," $"!+"$" -" ) " 11" ,- " ):!1," !+," 1 " )`" ,- " )/=!" 1 "5 -" ) ! !))""!
$"" !+" . 0 " " 3,"1" ," ! . 0 " :$E )$# 3$" L !" ^ -^ , 1!!5 )"!)"$"
$ !+" " #!*" +#1#!" ," -#!!#5 8 B$0 " !! 5 )5 $5 O%5 B" +"5
RQN
" 1 "1" "! -*!$ " #0 # )!
, !/" L )!) ," -)/*" +##!# ," !# , "0 " $/0 "
"!" " !")!#"#" )! $!) 3#1 ; 7 VWX >"11" "1*" )!C"! L "!" 3+ !" G 1 " !" ! " *" $ ) ) c!"1" "!" ," L >"11" *!$ ; " 3+ ! "!" !# 3+ !" 3"11" - )"!1" $" *!*!1"
#$"!" ) 0 " !# `" L 3"11" 3+ !" . , 1 -#)!" . ,#3+ !"! ; +"1" $" "
3+ !" ," !# !3!1" " "!" " 3"11" 1 !" + " 1C1" ? "1" !"$ " ! )!"# " ?1*" "
?1*+"5 8
, !/"5 " "<" " -1+"5
! ;
! 2 #" Q@HR NO5 -*#$#,!" ," !# " " 0 "0 " !" )", 1,"!" ," -! ," -" 1 !" 1#,#5
&%@
"!" $-"L,!" " "!" " ," "<" !"$)# , " $,"<5 8
RQ@
" ! #10 " ," 3!1 " +!#" " 3 -#$/ ," $" 1 "1" "!
-*!$ ) !"5 "33" 7 V 3!1 " "X !"",0 " ) 3$ !" , *"
$11" "! ,- +" )! " ; 3 $" 1 )!#"$" ," " !
R&%
$11" #1 ," $=" 8
5 $ + !" !"" ,$ L " )!#"$"
#"$"" 1))*" " 1)" )"#" G ," / "" !* ! +" ,+
," 1=!" 1$!$)0 " , )"!" )" !" $11" )! #)!5
" )!" ,$" 1" )!$#,"! L -:" + 0 " ,"
-#$# " 1 !" +!# , " )!!5
/);ZZ**QH5 *5$5*"Z["h["Z1+"ZRS%A&@&QQ&&%%ShA&&&Q%&QQ&&%%S"J0 "Jh%&Q5?)+
)( A 1 > ? > = > $ )!" " ," -*!$ ) !" ; " +" )$ ! 3 )$" +"
$!) !5
,#! $" #$# " 1 !" ,- ) ," " + 0 "5 -#$# " $" ! "!1" ; ?" "!*" " $ ,"!*" ," " ; 7 /$ 85 $" -+
,- #$# 0 :)0 " 7 , )"$ " ) ##1"!" "$/T"1"
$1)# ,- M! )" 1 " ,- M! )" "!* 0 " )!#"" 3!1"
R&Q
,- " )!) ,#)"," 33!1" 8
5 ," )!$#,"! L -:"
)!)!"1" ," $" "3 ," 3!" 0 "0 " !))"5
A 2
9 A > > A :)0 "1" -#$# !"" L
)!) ;
)!$= L
# $-" L " )!)!" ," "
[La] présentation linguistique du problème de l’opposition fondamentale entre
RQH
B :$E " 3!=!" ' *"! :$E $11"$=!" ," < " ! $!!=!" ," )"!" $11" " 1" !5 !F
3E: $$!" ) " ! $/)!" < 1 !" "<#$ #" )! " ," < 3!=!"5 ! 11" !F 3E:5 " !13
31, Q@AO SQQSOA5
RQ@
" > +5 )5 $5 QO&5
R&%
R&Q
&Q%
/))" 1!5 )5 $5 SO5
!$E 3!,5 !#$ ," :0 " +"5 ! ; )/!: Q@NH QSA5
% )))
&4 ) + 0
faire sous-jacent au transitif actif et être forme réalisée de l’accompli permet de
rendre compte du fait que chaque phrase fondamentale se place en définitive soit
du côté de la tension, c’est-à-dire de faire, soit du côté de l’absence de tension,
du texte réalisé, c’est-à-dire de l’être. 622
R&O
0 " " ))" )!+" #" ""1" ," $!$ 3
!## !"# "!" " < )! " ! )!$) L 1C1" ##"1" !#" "+# ; 7 $"! $-" "!" !" $/" $! !" ," !")!#"
R&S
,-##"1" 8
5 3 ," )!)!" $1)# ," 1!)/:<0 " -#$#
R&A
$!$$! " )!$= " 3#,#! " $1)
5 9 " 0 " " , !#" " ,"+!#
," )!)+ , )!$= , -")$""1) " " 1*!" ," )!$) R&R
!")!#" #$" $ " 3!$#1" " "# #$*"
5 = ! R&N
)!$= + 0 " $!!"), L ##"1" !#" 1+!"
"+# " ) )"1)!"5 " ) ,-$$ !!"$" , 3 " )! L 1C1" ,#"!1# !")#!#
R&H
)! " )!$= 0 -: )!, 5 " ) !))"" " & 1!0 # ,- " $!< #0 #
) / 5 " " " - ,#3" " )!$= " )!$= ,#+" -"!"$ ,"
-")$" " , "1)5 " )!$= " " L ,- "1) " ,- ")$" ! " G
622
R&O
R&S
R&A
: @! ! #( +=,
" 36 +##!" *" "", $" -" ) ? ! " $ ! ," #$# , :)" 7 )" 85
"!!" "5 M!11!" + 0 " QQN5
,#$" , $/$ ," )#!" ! )/!0 " )!#"$" ,- !" $ ," $"" 1C1" )/!"5 M!b$" L $? + " ?" " !"! " , ,#"$" , "!*" " 3!6 -,?"$3 -$$!," " +"!" " " 1*!" "$ " 1
"$5 = ! ,"L ,- " 1)" "!,#)",$" :<0 " ," )#!" ! )/!0 " $! , " #!" 33!" L
" ! $ !" !*!"$"" 0 3#,=!" " " *!, " ##1" ," )/!" ," 1C1" 0 -"" $" -#1"!+"$"
,- " "# ,- " # 0 "5
R&R
B- ,#?L +# 0 " )"!$") # ? ! #10 "5 " )"!$") !#, )"!$") " ,#?L " "!)!#
," !## )"!$") " ,$ ,#?L 7 "#" 85 0 - " )!" " "1" ," $" " 33" ! )""1" L $$"$"5 $"" 1=!" 3!1" 1 ,#?L 3!#" " ++" ,"! " 3!1" , -#$#5 "33" , 1 ")!
$"" 1=!" - ) *" ,-C!" 3!1#" ) 0 -"" " $!$$!" )! 1 $$"$" 0 ? ! -"$`5 3 1C1" 0 " $$"$" ) ! ""$" )!)!" $# ,$ *# " $$"$" ,0 #" "!T" 3" 11" " ,#, *"1"
," )"!# "" " ? ! $$"$" ,-""1C1" " 1C1" "1) 0 " ," *?" $-" L " )!$)" , $+5 1 ")! 1 $$"$" " " " ," -#$# 0 " ?" 1-))!C" L )!, !" "$ " " !13$ $"<"35
$ ""1" -*?" ," $$"$" )!", -")$" ," $$"$" 0 " $" " ," $" 3 " )"!6 $11"
$$"$" "# #$*"5
R&N
#$# " " !"$! $ ," !## )! -")!5 3$ -" ?1 0 - !#1#+"1" *!" ," $"" !##5
3E: " L $" )!) 7 -1)!" 0 " " *" < ," B :$E $3!" L " !"$ ) ` 0 -L "
!")!#" , 1," *" VWX 85 !F 3E:5 " !13 31, Q@AO O&5
R&H
M" "" J" , -# ," 0 - $$!" )"!" >!$ $ 3!1 " " !"1!0 " )"!"" ) ! !" )!) ; 7 VWX
" !))! ," >+ !" "$ " ,#3 3 ; " 3 "W $" 0 " W >+ !" #" ,"" " 1+"
" $`"5 8 M" "" J"5 >!$ $5 +0 " ," " QQ5
&QQ
L $!#" ,- " *$" " ,- " !,#" ,- " + ," " ,- " ,"5 " "
L $!#" ," )!)!" ")$""1) " ," $" ," -#$" ! 0 " )!)"
," $11 0 "! $" !")#!+" $#$" !5
," !")#!+" " ," 3< " " " ))!1" ) ,:11"5 $!!" " !")#!+" " $$=," $11" ) ! 3#$/!
)$ ""1" " $ ! , "1)5 " !")#!+" -=!" $ , !#" ,"
! $$""5 L $" )!) 0 " " :1*" $! $3!1" -" ) ,# #
," $#1"5
! A . 3 > !" $!$=!" !"+" < $!< $!" " +" ," !")#!+" , " $! $-" R&@
" +" ," 0 !" ) $!, < 5 $!< !"#" , 0 !" ,!"$ ",
#+"1" 1 "1" !!"5 " $11" , "
$!< " 11" #0 #" )! )!#"$" ,- $! $3<5 " $! $3<
+" " " ," $! $3< $-"L,!" -",! K - ,"" G $! "
3 $!< )!#" )! " /! $-" " /! 0 " )!# )! $!< $" " !#
, " 1#, # "<$"1" L "!$" , 1!! 0 " , $" ,!"$"1" L + $/" 0 " )!#$=,"5 -,#" ," ! ", " )! 3!1" "
$!<RO% -$ " $ , " !3"! " )+" " !""!"1" " -"!"!5 #1+" " 1#, 0 !" " 1!! ," $/1*!" )"5 " 1#,
,#$!" $"!$" )" " !" " " ," / " * ," * " / 1C1" " J+J+ $! $/$ !")!#"" " )"" $=" L " 7 ," -+"
ROQ
1!"" , ?!, ," "! ? 0 -L +!" ," !# !!"$ 8
," -$ L
# !!"$5 -" ! " $ ! $!#"# , 1!! $3=!" -)"$ ,- " ! "
,"#" 0 " - " "# ," 3!" !"! +!# , /!, ," 3! " " ," -3! "
," $)!$" , "1)5 2 -$!) ," $!< " + !" ,"
-)/*=" 0 #1+" ," )!#"$" " )!3 ," $""1" " L
? +"1"5 $!< " " +" ," -C!" "!"5
R&@
0 " -!+ )+!)/0 " ," " +!1" # 3,#" ! -"!"$ ," ," < <" )!$) < - "" " ,"$ 1 " - !" !, , " $!, ; 7 VWX "
1 !" $!## )! ," " , " ! " "
$ )" !#+ =!"1" L +" ,! ; ) ! $" 3!" " ? ! ," 3, " " " " " : *"
<"
"" !" " " ," )!=" " ," )"!)",$ !"5 " +!1" "! ,$ L 3 !"#"
$#0 "$" "<!C1" ; L ))"! 0 - $" -#" ," 3, )" " ,#, !" " ? ! )!#$ ,-)!= ,!"$
," -<" "" 0 !" " ) ,
" " " +#1#!0 "1" !+#"5 8
*"! >#!"! 2$/" ><
/! M ," 4 "$" Y! 5 '!" ," >!$" !*"5 " 0 "5 M"!+" *: ,!5
! ;
" Q@H%
&RO&RS5 ! " )!$ "! " $/#1 UQHH 7 -!" ," " !1" 8 )5 &RS5
RO%
" 36 #!"" $!< " " 3!1" 0 ++=!" L 3 ! " " 0 ,!+" , 3 ," " 0 !" +"
,! ,$ ," < 36 ," $! !" -")$" ; " ++#! " 1 "1" " " 3+" , :=1" !/!1#
$11" " $!+!)/"5
ROQ
B$0 " !! 5 )5 $5 &A5
&Q&
% )))
&4 ) + 0
!"",! ,$ $ ! $"3 ; " ) )"1)!" $11" "
,-"!"$ -,#" ,-"!"! " ," )+" "3 $"" ," )!#"$" " ," ? +"1"
$-"L,!" ," !"+!, )# " 0 ? +" ," !"+!, 0 1" !" # "5 " !
" ! " $,"#" , !" 1C1" ," #$#5
< A > > -#$" ! $!$$! *!"1" " ) ," -")$" " 3 +3# ) 0 -
!")=!" " 3$ ," )!#"" ; ," L K " " )!?"" ! )
*! ,-$$ !!"$" , )!$= # " " 1+!" ," -")$""1) $!# ,"
3 +" ," )!)!" L " " 0 " ,#3 ) ! $" 0 -#$ "5
B-#1" -/:)/=" 0 " $"" )!?"$ " 1#!" , -#$# $-"L,!"
, $! $ ,- " !#3#!"$" )! " ,!" ,!"# L !"5 B" 1-)!" " $"
," ) ,)#" )! >!6 "! 0 " ! ,1" )!<#+0 " ,"
$! $ , " ;
A l’énonciation conçue comme passage de la pensée au langage et à
l’interprétation conçue comme passage inverse, nous substituons un modèle
commun de constitution et de parcours des formes. Au rapport spéculatif entre
pensée et langage se substitue ainsi le rapport dans l’action linguistique entre le
plan du signifiant et celui du signifié. 632
" " " $! , -$ !"=" ,- $"<" )!)!" L ,-#$ 1 L $"" ," $" 0 )!" " " )!?"" , $" 0 - , ) !
1" < -: $!"!5 " )/#1=" ,-$!+" " ," -,, , "!"1" " !#)=" L -#$/"" ) )"" " ) *!" ," -#$# K $/0 "
"# #$" " )!", " 0 -" !))! "$ " !" $ " " ,
"" #1"5 11" >!6 "! " +" " 7 " )!$ !
Q w #Q
ROO
,#1*+ ]" +3# )! " +3 5 8
3!1 ," )"#" !"=" ," !")#!+" , )"#" ""1C1" !
"!$/"5 "#" " ,!" 3!1" "<!$*" "!"$5 " " " 33# ! 0 "
-#$" ! 0 )!#$" )"#" " -,!" L - !" " )"!6 1" <5 -#$# )"!1" ," 1" !"! ," ? +"! " ," ? +"! $" 0 " #)! "1" ," $"
0 - , " ," $" 0 - +3" )! " ,!"5
632
F K 1 ! O !
! &
8 #( <G< 0 ROO
*,5 &OQ5 B- ,#?L #0 # ," 7 )!3 8 0 " - ! " , /#!" ," 3!1" #10 " ,"
"!!" , "
a"2!" " " , ?" !))"" $ ,#3 ; 7 " )!3 VX ," 1," ," $!$#! ,33#!""" 0 " "
*" 0 -" "! , " 1 "1" ,- " /#15 8 "!!" , 4 a"2!" "5
3!1" #10 " HH5 -"
" "J )!$/" ," $"" ,- 7 33#!"$" 8 )!)#" )! >!6
)"!1" ,-$ "! =1" 33#!" 85 ! >!6
!
"
/#!" ,"
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Nous rappellerons qu’énoncer, c’est construire un espace, orienté et déterminé ;
c’est établir un réseau de valeurs référentielles, bref un système de repérage.
Tout énoncé est repéré par rapport à une situation d’énonciation, qui est définie
par rapport à un sujet énonciateur S0 (ou, pour être exact, un premier sujet
énonciateur), à un temps d’énonciation T0, pour ne considérer que ces deux
repères. 634
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-")$" -*!!" ," -",! K " " 3 ," "! $" ," < ) !"+!, :)0 "1" ; L #0 ,$" ," !"+!,5 " 1 -#$# )"!1"!" L
-#$" ! ,-1+"! " )!$= $! " 1 ," +3 ,"# L C!"
,#)# )" "! -1+!" "! -*!$5
$! )!) -#$" ! " )!?"" , $" 0 - , 1 "
,!"$ ," $" 0 " -,!"" ,$ !5 -+ $ ," 1!"! $11" $""
, *" )!?"$ " )*" $11" "" -!$ " ) ! 3"1" ,"! " L "
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$" 0 #1" -#$#5 -+ L $/0 " 3 ,-"!)!#"! " +" *" 0 " "
)!" )!, " ! - !" 3 ," 1" < " ! 1C1" $! !"1" $"
)/#1=" !"" *" ;
Learning consists of selectively attaching, in the Innewelt, semiotic values to
objects in the Umwelt. In the felicitous phrasing of Young: « Images on the retina
are not eatable [sic] or dangerous ». What the senses can provide is « a tool by
which, aided by memory, the animal can learn the symbolic significance of
events. The record of its past experiences than constitutes a program of
behaviour appropriate for the future. »635
M!b$" < )!" 0 - ,!"" $$ " ! -#$" ! ? +" ,-#$ ,= ! )!" , " !" ," !")#!+" *! ,"# L $"!"! " "
0 -: ,#)"5 " #1 #$" ,#+" 1 1)$"1" "" " "
3 "<)$"1" )"1)!"" , 0 "" " ! " " $ " ! G $" 0 -: , -: , )! !))! L $"" !," #$" ;
Personne, espace et temps sont trois représentations indissociables qui
constituent le fondement de tout acte d’énonciation. La personne du locuteur,
l’ego ou « moi » qui parle, ne se laisse pas concevoir en dehors du lieu d’espace
où elle se tient (hic, « ici »), source des repérages spatiaux, ni en dehors du lieu
de temps où elle parle (nunc, « maintenant »), source des repérages temporels.
On nommera cette relation ternaire obligée la triade énonciative.636
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Les deux plus importants de ces mouvements créateurs de la puissance de la
pensée sont l’accession au général à partir du particulier et, inversement,
l’accession au particulier à partir du général. Ces deux mouvements orientés au
rebours l’un de l’autre, et qui chacun, par une sorte de rotation au sujet de
laquelle il conviendrait de méditer, prennent leur départ à la fin de l’autre,
représentent la mobilité de l’esprit humain entre les limites que sa nature même
lui assigne et qu’il ne saurait franchir effectivement d’aucune manière, à savoir
d’un côté le singulier, et de l’autre l’universel. 652
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The notion of semiotic « self » registers and emphasizes the fact that an animate
is capable of absorbing information from its environment if, and only if, it
possesses the corresponding key, or code. There must exist an internalized
system of signposts to provide a map to the actual configuration of events.
Therefore, « self » can be adequately grasped only with the concepts of
terminology of the doctrine of signs. Another way of formulating this fact is that
while living entities are, in one commonly recognized sense, open systems, their
permeable boundaries permitting certain sorts of energy-matter flow or
information transmissions to penetrate them, they are at the same time closed
systems, in the sense that they make choices and evaluate inputs, that is to say
in their semantic aspect.655
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Sont afférents les traits sémantiques dont l’actualisation résulte d’une instruction
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contextuelle (à la différence des traits inhérents, qui sont hérités par défaut du
type par l’occurrence). Les parcours interprétatifs qui identifient ces instructions
peuvent comprendre toutes sortes d’inférences, qui mettent en jeu des
connaissances de tous ordres (y compris celles qui procèdent d’autres
disciplines que la linguistique). 661
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Many of [the situations and tasks I have considered] involve verbal processes in
the specific sense that imagistic activity is itself initiated by linguistic cues. In a
more general but related sense, the receptive mental work of a reader of literature
or a viewer of visual art, and the productive work of a creative writer, artist, or
scientist involves a continual interplay of two great symbolic systems, one
expressed as imagery and the other as language. They mutually sustain and
support each other, contributing independent informational content and
independent mental skills that permit cooperative attacks on problems that
bombard us throughout our lives. […] Neuropsychological research has shown
that the two symbolic modes are represented to a significant degree in the
anatomically different regions, in the two sides of the brain. Left brain for most
people is the talking brain. Right brain is linguistically silent but it excels in
certain non-linguistic skills such as representing spatial organization. […] visual
imagery organizes our memory information in a synchronous fashion whereas
the linguistic code stores information sequentially. Thus the two memory codes
are advantageous in different tasks or different components of the same task, but
these differences are also quantitatively additive in that they provide two ways of
remembering, two paths to an idea, rather than one. 673
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When the destination receives the encoded message – which, because of entropy
(the measure of disorder in the system), can never be identical with the message
formulated and launched by the source – another transduction, followed by a
series of further transformations, must be effected before this message can be
interpreted. The pivotal reconversion is called decoding. 674
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Dire « il souffre » est représentatif d’une saisie encore différente de la personne.
Il représente la personne dont il est parlé, sans qu’il soit parlé à elle, et sans
qu’elle parle. La personne sous pronom il, est donc positivement troisième, et
négativement première et seconde. […] On constate que seule la 3ème personne
(celle dont il est parlé) est omniprésente, présente partout. Les deux autres
personnes marquent partout au moins une absence. Absence de l’une, en 1ère et
2ème personne ; absence des deux à la fois, 1ère et 2ème, en 3ème personne. 682
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En quoi consiste le jugement de la proposition. On a dit qu’il portait sur la vérité
de la proposition, l’adéquation de la proposition au réel. Mais ce jugement a un
versant spécialisé, pour la tradition linguistique. Cette chose interne se joue entre
les constituants de la proposition. Il y aurait le sujet et le prédicat. L’idée très
ancienne est que le jugement consiste à attribuer le prédicat au sujet. Le sujet est
qualifié / déterminé par le prédicat. Socrate est un homme est une proposition qui
exprime un jugement qui consiste à attribuer « être un homme » à « Socrate ».
Celui qui le dit asserte la vérité de cette proposition. Le jugement est une activité
qui fonde l’assertion : on s’engage à dire que cela est vrai. Mais pour dire cela, il
faut avoir analysé le réel. 685
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L ,!" 1)"1" !" )!#,$" " $ #" " 1 $/"!$/"
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"<"1)" , -"<)!" , )*" " , #$"!" ;
Le possible et le nécessaire […] ne supposent pas la conscience ; avec un sujet
animé il est licite de dire le cas échéant Il peut/doit faire mais il ne le sait pas
(encore). Ces faits traduisent l’extraprédicativité ; le possible et le nécessaire
concernent prioritairement le procès saisi de l’extérieur dans sa globalité et la
seule conscience exigée est celle de l’énonciateur pour qui la modalité est. 686
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La phrase explicite comprend donc deux parties : l’une est le corrélatif du procès
qui constitue la représentation (par exemple la pluie, une guérison) ; nous
l’appellerons, à l’exemple des logiciens, le dictum. L’autre [le modus] contient la
pièce maîtresse de la phrase, celle sans laquelle il n’y a pas de phrase, à savoir
l’expression de la modalité, corrélative à l’opération du sujet pensant . 695
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Au passif le verbe lexical est au participe passé ; il est dominé par be, qui se
conjugue lui-même avec le nouveau sujet. Pourquoi le participe passé ? Il ne
signifie pas que le procès est accompli à un instant repère ; d’ailleurs le passif
peut se combiner au parfait (ex : The door had been opened). L’hypothèse
générale de la réélaboration permet d’envisager, cependant, que la langue,
revenant sur elle-même, prend pour objet et commente ses propres opérations, et
elle suggère que le participe passé passif est l’indice d’un autre accompli : celui
de la conjugaison du verbe lexical avec le sujet spontané d’il y a un instant. Ce
participe serait donc la trace de la conjugaison active dans l’énoncé passif. Il
signifierait que cette conjugaison est maintenant close, qu’elle est dépassée et
appartient au passé de la construction de l’énoncé en cours ; signifiant cette
clôture, il ouvrirait la voie à une conjugaison concernant un autre sujet. On sait
maintenant que la conjugaison d’un verbe avec son sujet valide la totalité de
l’énoncé […] La conjugaison active primitive représentée au passif par le
participe passé lie donc le patient, si bien que le passif pourrait être, comme
annoncé, l’attribution au patient thématisé du procès auquel il a participé. Dans
cette optique l’action est référée et validée par le verbe conjugué figurant sous le
participe, et le verbe be […] n’est pas un verbe dynamique malgré la référence
objective. Dans son emploi de copule be comme have , attribue un complèment
focalisé à un sujet thématisé et il n’est pas passivable. Au passif, de même, il
thématise explicitement le participant qui ne se destinait pas à être sujet, il lui
attribue le verbe lexical au participe autour duquel le procès est déjà noué et
cette attribution préfigure une détermination du sujetThe door was opened # The
door is open. Le passif serait une réélaboration de l’actif, une relation ajoutée à
un premier ensemble de relations, contenant et transcendant celles-ci. 707
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707
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N%H
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La notion intermédiaire qu’il faut ici introduire est celle de perspective : mon
corps est l’origine zéro d’un point de vue, d’une perspective, qui donne une
orientation déterminée au système de mes expériences ; mais la double
appartenance du corps d’autrui à mon système et au sien me permet de
comprendre que le même objet puisse être perçu sous deux perspectives
différentes. 712
+ " " 11" ," )!" ," $$"$" ," $"" $!!"), !=1" " ,"!"! "1) ," -#1 #$" , )" $,#!"! 0 - $]$," "$ 3 ," -#$# G " 11" K -#$# "1"
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-$" #$3 $!# , " 7 ?" 8 " " 7 8 " <1C1" ,#+# "<)$"1"
1)$"1" , !" )!#,$"5 7 ?" 8 " 7 8 0 " 3 !#3#
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" $" / f )" C!" $!# , " $! $3< ,1 #
,"!!=!" " !" , , ) / 0 - $! !"+!, )!=
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) 0 " $=" " )" " )" ? !5 $"!+" 1# :1*" , /! 0 " $/" # " " " "$!" ) ! " )!" """ ," "!1" "
NQO
+##!5 8
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," ," < #1 1 , $" 0 " 1C1" ) ," 3< , !"+!, $
" ," < #) < 0 " "" )! 1 . " " ! $1)$# L "! 0 *"!"
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!/!5
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," $" 0 - $" " #$" )!= ,- "!5 !#3#!"$" " $! " " ,#$/
," -#$" ! 0 -#1" ) ! -$!"! , - !" " ,= ! " ,#, *"5
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$"!" 36 -#+" ," $#$" !5 -#$" ! , 1 " " )$# L
NQS
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" 1)*" +! ,"
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3=$/" , !"+!, G 1 V0 X " 1" " *:1" " " )!+" L -3 8
5
NQQ
712
NQO
,#?L #0 # " *" ," 7 D" /!"" 8 ! )! " SH5
K ] . 1@
5!!0 ( <+B 0 !F 3E:5 " !13 31, Q@AO OR@5
&OH
% )))
&4 ) + 0
," -#$" ! $11" " )"!" )" " ! +!"! " ! #)+!)/" " ? !"!
0 - *" )# " $" ",! ; 7 B/" ," :$E 3 /$ QSOS 85
: A 3 " ," ! 0 " " 3 ," "! )!$= )! " ,!" " " ,#+ $#$" ! ", $"!+"$" ," ! !"+!, $$"3 ! " 3 #$#
" ! ""1" "+#5 )" #*! )!=" "!" $"" /:)/=" " "
!"1!0 " +##!" 3!1 #" )! M " M 1" L )!) , ++" " , "
3 $11"!" #$! , - !+" ,-"2!" " " M"!+"
!3 ;
L’économie du langage est de traduire en dicibilité des mécanismes dont nous
portons en nous, préalablement, la visibilité. » La visibilité dont il est question ici
désigne l’opération mentale fondamentale d’intellection des « contenus » appelés
à être formulés. Quant à la dicibilité, elle désigne la mise en forme phonique de ce
qui a été représenté. De sorte que le « passage du visible au dicible » - ou du
représenté à l’exprimé – constitue un processus psycho-physique dont
l’effectuation comporte quatre étapes : « visibilité (mentale)/ dicibilité (orale ou
scripturale)/ dire effectif/ dit terminal. 716
1 ," -#$# -#$" ! " " L ! " +3# L "! -"+" " ) ! " ," -")$""1) ) ! " ,+ "! )!#$#1" " !"" "
" )!"" G ) 0 - " " -"!"5 " )+" , !")!#"# ! " L -"<)!1#
", ! ," ,$*# $-"L,!" " )#! L !",!" ,$*" $" 0 " -" ) $! ; 7 " 1," " !#" ,#)", ," -#$5 9 0 -
$/" 0 - " " ) " 0 - 3 0 - " " 0 - "!5 " ,$ ! " " !"
NQN
!## 0 " !"$ "5 8
"33" -"<)!1"! 1)0 " " #!" ," $!" 7 ):$/)/:0 " 8
<0 "" -#$" ! , " )"! 3 ,-C!" " 1" !" ," $11 0 "!5 -+
"!" !" $/" ,-)#!"! " !#, $ !,$" ! $" 0 L -!+" "
0 ,!,1"" " "!" ?" " $" 3 ," " !",!" ,1"" " "<"!"
NQH
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5 "" !#, $ )" )! 7 $!# ,- " *?"$# #10 " "
#10 " 8 " )!" #!+=!" L $" 0 -"<)!1"5 " 0 - 1" "1*" #!" ,"
NQS
B" !))"" $ ,"
"!!" " ; 7 11" K -#$" ! $! # + 0 " " " $"" #
,#!1 #)!#" ," "<#!!#" + 0 "1" " !""!#" L !#3#!"$" " " ,#$/" ," 1C1" "" "
$$"!"5 8 "!!" "5 7 #3"< ! #!# 8 RR5 B" +"5
NQA
716
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4 3 4 I4 3 4 7. 3
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B- ,#?L !# $"" ,#" L 3 ," ," <=1" )!" 11" +!b$" L $/#1 ! )! )5 &QO5
&O@
+"! $ " ," 7 *# 85 M " M 1" -/#" ) L "1):"! $"
"!1" 3 ," ,#+"! " $$") " -1+!" - 7 "+# 8 0 )!#$=," " ,!" $"
0 " - " !")!#"" , -")!5
B" )"" 0 " $" :)" ," 7 *# 8 " " !#, ) ," , )!##$3 1
0 - $!!" "" -#", , -#$# " ,"L ," -#$#5 ,$*# " "
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) ! " $#$" !5 +" ,33#!" -1+# "! ,= ! 1" < $"!#
)! $" L 1C1" 0 - ! !", ,$*" " " "! )!?"# ! ""1" " "
,-*"! ,$ , " $" ," "!$ " !5 " 3 -#$# #1 - !
" "33" $,#!# ," < +" ,33#!" ; $`# 3$" " $`# )" ?-" ,!" " "!
,#!1 " 1" !" ," !" "! " #+!# " !", ) L 1C1"
,-C!" " !#3#5 $" " 1C1" 1+# )!= -C!" $!# , $$"$" ,- " $!"! " !" ! " ,-#$ ,#!1
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-#$# " )!" ! ," ) " ! "5 " ,-*!, -"<)!"
,- )!"1"! !"+!, !"+!, "!" !"# "! , +3# L "! ) ! "
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, " " #5 -#$# " $ ! ,-#1 " )+" )/0 " +"
-1+# L -" ," - !" 0 !"$"!" ! )!)!" !"+!, ! -#1"" ! :
$/"!$/ ," 1C1" 36 , +3# L "!5 )!"1=!" )!" #1" :)0 "1"
" /=1" )" -#$# $11" #1 ," -#$" ! " , 0 " $" ,"!"! $!"
+3# 0 " -#$# !")!#""! , " , )!)5 !0 " ,"!=!"
)!" -" " "$" 0 )!#$=," )!)!" "!" +" !=1" !"+!,
! " ) ," " ,#, *"! ; $" ,$# ," -#$" ! 0 -" " $" )!C L
" !")+"! , -#!!# ," )"#" , $#$" ! 0 , " !" ! *!"! "
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N&%
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3$ ) ! " $#$" ! , -" 1" " #" " $$"!" ! "
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," 1C1" ," 1" < $"!"! )!) "
, 1 "1" ,"
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0 -: !))!" " )!$ !"5 )!#$"! 0 "0 " $/" L )!) "
"<!!" 0 "0 " $/" ," ) )" 0 "0 " $/" 0 - $" 0 " ? 0 -L )!#" NQ@
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)!, 1 "1" "!" $! " #!" !"# "! - !" " , *" ,- 1 "1" !#!)"$3 !"! , 0 " -#$" ! !" " ) ! " )! "
3!1" ,-#+!# L $" 0 - )!#*"1" ,0 # , & 5 3
," )!$ ! )" $,#!"! 0 " -""1*" ," $" 0 " ,#+" -#$# " 3$#5
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"! != !""1" ,# ,- " $" " )!$ =!"5 $/0 " 1 #1
"!" , " )!$" ," 3$ " " $")*" ,-C!" )$ ""1"
3$#5 "" 3$ )$ "" )"!1" L -#$" ! ," 1" < " )!?""! )!
*!+ ! $" 0 - , " ," 1" !"! -")$""1) 0 " #)!" "$!" ,"
$" 0 " -,!""5 " 11" , $$ $!!"), L -"!"$ )$ "" ,"
")$""1) !")"$3 ," -#$" ! " , $#$" ! $! " $" ",! "
+3# " )""1" )!+# )! - " )! - !"5 ,$" "! *?"$" "
*"5
N&Q
" " " , " $" ) ! ) " ! !5 !"1=!"1" 3 ," -#$# $11" " )!#$" "!!" " " " " ," $` !" , +3#5
" <=1"1" " ,"!"! 1 -# )! ,#3 ,- $ !" ) + "1" , -")! ," $/$ 5 !=1"1" ,- ) ," " !$"1"
)/0 " " ,"!"! 1 " 1 " $!" "$ " "$" 0 $" 0 $3=!"
" $" != )!$ =!"5 "33" - $,=!" 0 " -#$# !, " ,$"
"! *?"$" $" +3" 0 " $/0 " 1 " L " #$/"" 3#!" !" $/0 " :*"
$ " ,#$1)" ," -")$""1) 0 #)!" " ," < "!$ " !5 -#$# ,
N&&
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Though one unavoidably hears speech as a sequence of discrete phonetic
segments, and, in a language one knows, as a sequence of discrete words, the
segmentation is hardly in evidence in the acoustic signal. Moreover, the aspects
of the acoustic signal that enable us to discriminate one vowel from another and
one consonant from another sound like chirps and whistles, not like speech at all,
when heard in isolation.725
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"! *?"$" "!" -#$" ! " " $#$" ! ;
[…] le commencement de la chaîne est le lieu naturel de l’origine de l’énoncé
(l’énonciateur), alors que son terme, qui sanctionne l’achèvement du produit, la
séparation de son auteur, est le lieu naturel où s’inscrivent les éléments les plus
référentiels et les moins subjectifs. On parle pour référer, la référence est le but –
le terme - du dire – […] 731
" 3 " "!1" ," -#$# " :/=" " ,#):#" " $!#"
:0 "1" , -#$# , 1 "1" ," )!?"$ ," -#$# ! "
$#$" ! " $$"!" L " 1 " " 1#!# !3#!# ,
- !" 0 " " L ," 1 ; " $#$" ! 0 ,#!1 -$!" " " )=!" L
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,:10 "5 )" 1+"! !#!#$"1" +!, " ," ,$" "! *?"$" 3 ! " L 1" !" 0 " -#$# " ,#)"5 "!1" , )!$ ! ; " ) ," $$
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$ , ?" 0 -"<)!1" " -$!"5 !" ! $" ,"!"! " $!# ,
)!"5 - !" )! $11" " ?" " 1C1" !#$")" ! $" ,"!"! " ) !
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731
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! #( 66
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#!" #$3 ;
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Et si la chaîne enregistre les étapes du dire, les ordres de surface modalité # voix
ou taille # matière, qui débutent par les « subjectifs » et s’achèvent par les
éléments « objectifs », apparaissent motivés par un iconisme très abstrait, aux
termes duquel le commencement de la chaîne est le lieu naturel de l’origine de
l’énoncé (l’énonciateur), alors que son terme, qui sanctionne l’achèvement du
produit, la séparation de son auteur, est le lieu naturel où s’inscrivent les
éléments les plus référentiels et les moins subjectifs. 733
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733
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[…] de même que l’on apprend à chasser l’illusion tenace du langage comme
calque symbolique ou reflet direct du monde, de même est-il nécessaire de
prendre conscience que nous ne nous adressons jamais directement à une
personne physique, qui serait le co-énonciateur de chair et de sang,
objectivement placé en face de nous. Car bien que nous ayons le sentiment de
parler à « quelqu’un », nous parlons avant toute chose à l’image mentale que
nous nous faisons de notre interlocuteur, fût-ce notre propre image s’il s’agit
d’un monologue. Cette image de l’autre est une construction qui est susceptible
d’évoluer au cours de l’échange verbal, et c’est elle […] qui conditionne nos
choix lexicaux et grammaticaux. 744
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[…] en syntaxe transformationnelle, l'[emphase] désigne un accent particulier
porté sur un constituant de la phrase. Le signifié « emphase » peut se trouver
représenté uniquement au niveau phonologique (intonation particulière frappant
un mot de la phrase), mais aussi par des constructions syntaxiques. 750
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!#)!5 -#),"!1" *" 0 - ""))" " $!) " ) 1 "*" ) 1 "!#5 " +c " !"$/" " != $#5 !" :=1" "!" -"
) 3!1" ;
[…] la projection de la surface des différentes régions cutanées sur le cortex
n’est pas proportionnelle à leur surface réelle. Les zones corticales
correspondant à la projection des récepteurs sensoriels de la face et de la main
NAN
" " !"" " " $1)=" )" " ! )!)!" $ " $!* " L " ! )!)!" " +"1" 3
,-$$!T!" )"!$") ," $"! ##1"5 " ,"!+"$" " !#)=" L -#$/"" ," $/0 " ,, " 3$ ,
"1)#!1" ," $ !" ," -b+" " , "<"5 " 3 ) " < 1C1" $/"5 " " ," $/$ ) 1 + # -" ) 1 #1 #" $ !# ) 1 "5 " $" 3" $!#" " $/0 " ,,
+! "1" "!" 0 " " )"!)# " 1 "1"5
!3 $" 3"1" )!", "5
!3 " ,"" , $"
!))" +! ," " " 3!1" 0 1*" " " " -"5 - !" 3 -)/" -" " !" " "1*" ) )!#""! " 1,!" #!C5
&AN
occupent une part considérable de la surface du cortex, au détriment de vastes
régions comme le thorax ou la jambe, par exemple, qui sont comparativement
sous-représentées. 758
" :=1" "!" " " "!3$" ,$!1"5 " $"" "!3$" " ,#?L
3$" ) 0 -"" ,#"!1" " )!" " ,"+!# ,-" 0 " - )!" L " "
##1"5 " 3 " $$"!"! ! $"!" )!" , $!) " ! $"! 3 ) )!$ =!"1" +3 ) ! "" " "!, )"!$") ,- !" )/#1="5
" ,#" "!"" :#10 "1" "!)!##" $" 0 " ! $3=!" #10 "5 !0 " " )!$" #10 " " "$"$/# " )" 0 " -
!#) +" L -" "! L $" " " ,#" 0 " 3 "<)#" )!" *"
#0 " L ," -11"# 0 -"" "1*" ,#+"! )! ,#3 $" L 0 - ) $$= " 0 " " " -1+ )"!1" ,-"+"!5 -"+*" 1" ? !
" 1" , "*"5
" $" "1" ,-$$"*# "!"" T " ! #10 " ," "
,#" "*"5 2 -"+*" )!,<"1" *" ," 1C1" *$" ) !
" ,#):"! "!""1"5 " " )" 0 -" )!" " $ ,- ,#3$ "!" )!
!:"1" 1,!"$" 0 " , ) 0 - " -33"!15 " 1" ,"
-"+*" !#," )! $#0 " L -"!" , :=1" "!" , -*"$" ,"
1!0 +" , ,)! ," +" , 3 ,! -"<!!"5 3 ,-"0 "!
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$" 0 )"!1"! L -")! ," 1" < " $!$$!!" +!b$" L !"$ ! *+# "*"5
1 )$ ," +" " ," ++" 0 !"=" " )!" ,- $!+"
" $$!" 0 - -+" , ++" )!# ," ++" ) "$/0 " "
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*! $11" " ++" 1/#10 " !# " ," #$"!" !")!#"
"*" ,- 3"1" *! !"1" # L )"!"5 ,-" !
+# 7 #$"!" *!$ ," 1#!# 85 ! 0 " $"" ,"!=!" )*" " #$"!" 0 - : 1#!#5
")$" #10 " , ) ! C!" "33$$" )!#""! " 1C1"
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$!$#!0 " 0 " $" L 0 " ," $$=
5 $/1)
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33# "$ $" 0 , !" "!"1" " )"!$")*" )! !" :=1"
758
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% 2 ( *=
7 "33"$" "1*"1 ! 1+" !" $$!"": ,"!", 3!1 ! *?"$ V /" "! !"X5 /" 1")/!$
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/" /"!: !" !"",5 2!""! /"!" !" $1)"": *!$ :1* $/ /"
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)!$ ! *" " / !" "!": / 1 "5 8 5 )5 $5 &RS5 B" +"5
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)! ! -#$#5
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-"<1" , ,# " " ,#1* , $!: 1T!" " !##
- " )" "! 0 " L K " $$")" ! - ,#$,#5 " 3+!)/" ? " ," $""
$! "" )!#"" ," "! ,,$0 " #,""5 ")", " )!#"
) *!" , ! $$ ! #+"1" L " !#3"< ) ))!3," 0 <
1,# ," )!#" , !5 "" 0 " -" ) "" ) 0 " NRO
)!*#10 " ," " ," -" ," "1) )#"5 NRQ
L $" )!) 0 " F+/ +"! #* " ,$ "!" 7 $!" !" 8 " 7 $!" $$" 85 " L
)" )!= " 1 " + $"" " :*" $$" #"5 " ! $$" " 1,3#" " 3 0 - $!
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,,",5 8F+/ +"!5 7 !" $$" , !"
!" 85 + +" U ON Q@RQ HH5 0 " "
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,-"<" "*" ," -")!5 " #"$)" " " "<" ," -^ 1 "<)!1" # ," ! $$!="1"
) " " 1$!$)" $"" ," )"!$"! -31" )" $11" - " 3c + ,- ")$" $$"*" L -/11" ,$ ,- ")$" 0 )!#"" " ,1" ," -"!"1" !" 0 " 31"!5
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" ! " " ! 1)" , " )" !" $" ""1C1" ," )" !"
," " #$/ ,-! $1)" ; - ," "<"1)" " ) $#=*!" #
NRS
" ! , " ' M QNAH
5 "
)"!" D1 '+!/ -/# ) L ++#!"! " "!!"1" ," " )"!+" "
#! , " " ," !")!, $ ," *" < $#=*!" < ?" ,$!,
NRA
! +H L (
, QNSO
5 ! " ! " *!"3
)+" 0 " $$!# L -# ," , !))! 0 - ) ,- !"
*?" 0 " ," ,#"! " ! ,#1!" ," " 1! L -!+" ," +##! ,- !=1" !"+!, $-"L,!" ,- " !#+##! )$ "" , ?$"5
36 , " ! -!+" , !" $/" L )!) ," $" ! " !##
"" -"!$/ " " 1,3"5 3!1" 0 " - $3=!" < 3!1" "+",!" ," ""
3!1"5 -! 1#!0 " " )/#1=" " $$" # ;
Il est intéressant de constater qu’un tel dispositif [tableaux dans le tableau]
fonctionne sur un mode comparable à la vision méta du multifenêtrage
informatique qui constelle l’image de petites incrustations parallèles, signes de la
coexistence de plusieurs dimensions spatiales et temporelles. Il y a quelque
chose du réseau de réseaux dans cette juxtaposition d’images qui se répondent
sans se voir, et dont la combinaison dans l’espace du regard, libère une nouvelle
Weltanschauung, une autre perception du monde. 766
"$ " O ," +"!" ," !"! " ! "" ! " " ," " M"!: ;
/);ZZFFF5"5!+5 EZ*!Z !"!Z+"!:5/1
" $/+"1" " " $/< $"< " +#=!" ) ," " " 3 0 1,3" )"!$") 0 " - ," 3!1" ) $""5 "" 1,3$ 3+!" ," )"!$") ,-##1" 0 "1*" 31"! ? 0 -! "+",!" " !#3"<
! " 1,# ," !#$") " " !#3"< ) " "1"
! 1 ! " !#3"< ! 1!)/+"="5 -/:)"!")$"
,:10 " " 1!)/+##0 "5 )!, ," "" 3!1" 0 " ," " <
1," ," )"#" 3 #++"*" !0 " - -#!"" L 3$
$-"L,!" )!$" ) 0 -L $" 0 - " !# " 7 V555X -/:)"!")$" "
""""1" 1*" " " : " "$,!"5 -" " )!$" 0 "<)!1" NRO
2!"B")/ "!5 7 ! " 1,"!# ; ")$" ," !")!#" " !")!#" ," -")$" =$" ," 1=!" 8
H&5
NRS
NRA
o !" #+"1" + "1" $11"#" )! 2!"B")/ "! *,5 RQH&5
7 /" "*!" !1 "+ 2!!+"2," 3 1)!)!": ,"!1" "" /" $"$: 3 /" 3" "5 /" "- "#" /" "!$ )+ 3 B )"! , *: !!"++ , , / +/"! F/$/ )!"," "! /"!
,$" F/ "!+ " !" *$", *: /"
)" 3 M:1"," F/$/ !"3"! $"!: /" "< )!$" 3 /" ")$""
3!"+"! *""/5 "" /" $"$: 3 /" "!$ /"1" *!E" *: *, , "!" $"!$ )!!5 8 ,
,15 )5 $5 QQA5
766
%
7
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&R%
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% )))
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NRN
*$" 8
5 1" "1*" 0 - " ," 1C1" , " ++" )!$" 1*"5
-/:)"!")$" -+ ," !",!" ))*" ," ,#" 3!1""
)!3 / "1" *!" " 1,3 -)"$ ," 3!1" $$!=" 3$"1"
,"3*" )! " !5 " +" $$!" !": L ," ,#" *!" #!"1" / 3 ,-" )!1 ! -15 " /:)"!")$" L $"
!" != " ) ! 0 " 0 )!#$$ )" ) 0 " ;
La navigation repose sur le rapport entre les objets sensibles et leur arrière-plan.
On peut interpréter cette relation à la lumière des théories sur celle du champ et
de la figure, ce qui mène en outre, les contours du fond ayant été théorisés
comme « formes négatives », à rattacher ces rapports visuels à divers degrés
d’affirmation, de question ou de négation. Dans leurs analogies avec les arts, en
étudiant comment la technique module la perception, le support numérique se
caractérise par ses effets de présence absente. 768
" /:)"!")$" )"!1"" ," 1" < ,#$!:)"! " :"! " )!$" )!#, L 1" " !""3 ," )! ," -")$" ,#!1" ,- !" )! " " 1,3 "
!))! ," )!)!#5 $!" ," !")!#" 3!1""
"1*" " )"!1" -"<)!" "*" ,-:" !"1" != *!" "
$" , "!"1" "!$3 0 )"!1" L - " ! ," "! )!)!"
$ " )!)!" $/< , " $ ,- ))! "!$3 - " ! -" )
1)"1" " ) $" 0 - 3 $" $/< 1 )"!$")*"5 "
$,!" ,- " # ," ! 3$ $" )" )!#""! +!, #!C5
)!?" 1+" !"$+" ! " 3!1" !")!#" " !3$" , $T " ,1" !#"" $!" ,- ): )! "<"1)" )" ,#3!1"! "
1+" " -")$" ! "0 " " +!"33" 3 ," !",!" )"!$")*" ," ,#"
3!1"" )!#*"1" #*" G $" 0 ,"! " L ,#3!1#" ,- "
3!1" ? 0 "L :)0 "5 ) !! 3!" ))!T!" ," ,#" ,#1+!)/0 "
$#$10 " !" )! "<"1)" " !")!#" ," !3$" ,- ): "
3$ ," -b+" 1:" ," )) 3!1" ," J" +#+!)/0 " "+#" "
!"$!0 ""! -#!+! ! ," 36 +3$"5 "" )!?"$ !"" "
"+*" ! " 3!1" 0 " " )", 1 !" ,- 3!+1" ," !## +#=!" "1" ," 3$ ""$ "" -1)!" 0 " - $"!" * 1" *?"
" )! L )!)!" ")!5 " ")$" 1T!# " $" )" ,= $" NR@
,""! " $" ,- " ,#1* 1+!"
$11" !0 " " !"+!, :
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," -" !"! L -#!" ! ," " 1!+" ) ! -"<)!"!5
NRN
B" +"5 2!"2,""" 2!"5 7 " 3!1" $1)"<" L P/:)"!")$" 85 2!$
*"J$JE 4 #" $!<
#,5 ) " ! " $"$" / 1"5 ! ; """! &%%S &HO5
768
NR@
: ( <*-
7 " ?" ? " ) " ! !`" " $-" , -#$! ) ` 0 " , 3 ," $" !`" 0 " !")" -"<)#!"$" ,"
-/:)"!")$" ; " 0 " )"!$" " ) ,-""1*" )!", " $$" ""$ "" 1 " J1 " 1" L !
$" 0 " "!! )!1"" ! !#""1" )!#" ,"" )"!+" #!" !5 8 *,5 &@&5 B" +"5
&RQ
" c! " !=+" ," )"!)"$" + "1" #0 #" )! " ! !")" !
" 1C1" )!$)" ," 1+"5 ")", " )" !" 3+ !" -+ ," 1"!" ? !
3 ," " !")!, !" " " !" ," !1)"-^ " !))! ," )!)!
0 -"!""" " 3!1" , ")$" !#"5 " ,#3!1 )!#, L -))!
," -1!)/" !")" #+"1" ! )!$)" )+0 " 1 "!" ,- !"
3 *" 0 " ," " #,"$" " ,#3!1 1)0 " ! ,- ) ,"
"5 "33" ? 0 -$ -+ "$!" ,- " ! $$!=" , ) ," " "
! 0 3#" ," E"/#0 " " 0 1C1" "" " !#, L 1 "1" ,"
-^ , !*" $!!"), ," 1C1" L " )#! )/:0 " "
-$$ !!"$" " "<)#!"$" "/#0 "5
" $,!" ,- " L #" 3!1" ," )+" " L $/+"1" ) !,$ , ) ," " ) 0 " - )! ," ,#" 3!1""
$!!"), L ," $/1) != *! ," $$"5 "" L ," !",!"
)"!$")*" ," ")$" ," ! ," ")$" ,-3!1 0 -"<" $""
3!1" 0 -" 1+ $! " ! )", $$!" " "<!C1"1" ,33 " 1# L
!, !" !"1" 0 " )! ," $/33!" ,$ ,#?L )! ," ,#" !""1"
*!" " < ," 1!# 3" -")#!$" ," " " !"" 1:" )!
/* " )! !#+ "$5 " ," ,#3!1"! -"<#!" ! 3 ," 1,3"! -")$" ," )"#" "" ," !")!#""! $" ")$" *" ," ,"/! ,"3*" "
))!#/",*" $$!="1"5 " ,#3!1 0 " !# " !"3=" ," )#!
!"1" 1)"!$")*"5
!"!"! , " ,# ," " " 1,# )"!1" $"" 1#!
"" ," -")$" ," )"#" )" )! "<"1)" $"! " ")$" ,-3!1
" f K - !"! " ? "1" " ," " ," ;
Les graphiques d’information dits en « œil de poisson » proposés par George
Furnas en 1981, donnèrent lieu à des systèmes d’information dits « Focus +
context », où la partie à laquelle s’attache l’observateur apparaît en gros plan
tandis que le contexte est en arrière-plan ; l’échelle des différentes parties est
ainsi variable selon l’attention portée par l’observateur. Pour les représenter on
peut avoir recours à la géométrie hyperbolique. C’est l’attention du spectateur qui
crée les hyperespaces. 770
" +!)/0 " )"!1"" 1" " !""3 ,- ##1" " ,- ""1*" !=
!$/" ," ,#" 3!1""5 " ##1" " +! !3$""1" ! 0 " "
$"<" $T " !#, $ "!"1" )!)!"" L ,$" 0 #)!" "
##1" $"< " ," -##1" 3$#5 ," " #!#" " " " ^ ,"
) "<!" ,- 1#1!" ," "=!"1" $$!# L -# ," , !"1"
3!10 " ,-")$" ,-3!1 , ," " , "0 " -+ ,"
1"!" " $"!" ,#" ) ! )"!,!" ," " -""1*" 3
, "" " ;
" "" "$/+" ," -3!1 " ," $11 $ )"!1"" ,"
)!1 ! " ,-$$!T!" " )*# 33"!" )! $" :)" ," +!)/0 " " : ?"$
770
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% )))
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,#" 0 " ! " )!#"#" " ,$ ," 1" < ! $11" ))!#/", !" "!"1" "<#!" ! 1 #!" ! ; -")$" ," )"#"5
" !$" " " ,#3!1 1"" , " < $/< "33"$ # " 1#!" ,
" $/+"1" ,-#$! -+!,"1" -)"$ "!$!" ,- " 1+" "
!"""1" ,- " ,#3"1" ,- " 1 " !+"1" ,- "<"5 "
:)" ,-"!"1" 1#!0 " ! " )"!1" ?" ," "! " 3"< ," NNQ
< #!" !" " *!" ," $$"$" " " ! ," " 0 NN&
" 3<" $#0 "1"
! 0 " 1C1" "<)!" $" 0 -" ) 5 " ))!
/:)"!1#, 0 $1*" 1+" "<" 1 " )"!1" $!#
,-"!"1" !3$" $1)"<" ,$ ) $1)" 0 - 1)" +!)/0 " 0 - " $"< $$! " ! " 1"" !" !##+! , ,# 3$#
, -""1*" $!## ;
The map combines space and mental organisation; it implies classification and
the possibility of reordering data, a detail becoming the main focus. Figurative
mapping in hypermedia implies a question-answer relationship between details
and their intellectual environment; it also models the choice between options,
>mapping choices<. It therefore constructs the viewing subject in several roles,
sometimes an external >informant<, sometimes as an >actor-observer< included
in the narrative. 773
"!"1" /:)"!1#, "!$3 " $/< *" 0 !"=" ," " "
# , ?" " 1#!" )! ," +"" " ," -$ ," ' ,"
! 3 ," ,#)$"! " $ !" ! ! -#$!5 " )!$ ! "1)! # )!
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NNS
$" ! !#$")" ! " "!)!# ," " )!)!" $/<
5
! )!#$#,"11" 0 " , + " $" "!"$ ," !`" )!#,
#+"1" L $! $ , " ) 0 " -#$" ! #*! #$# "
+!"33 ! " +3 #1 " +" , $#$" ! " $ ! ," !#$") "
,-"!)!# ," +" 0 " " )!$ ! #1+0 " " 1+0 "
# "$/"C!# G ,-K -#!C ," $" ,# ! )! " !")!#" 1#!0 "5
)" $,#!"! 0 " - 3!10 " !", *" $" )/#1=" $!#5 !",
NNQ
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- ," ! 3,#" ! )!" ,- "!! )" ! ,0 " $$!="1" -"33"$ ,- " #"$5 -)#!
1"#" L " !#)#"! 3 ! " L 1" !" 0 " - " 1" , $" ")$" ! " )!#" 3!$#1" ," 1 ," "$ "!"1" ) $$!" )"!1" ," 1"!" ? ! " "1) ,-*"! " 36 , -" " 3<" " " ,#)$" ,- *?" L !"5 L "$!" " "*" !"" -"+*"5
773
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NNA
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1=" "<!*"1" , " +"`" ," "F+"
! " $!" ,-#)0 "5 "
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,!"1" $!!## 3 ! " L 1" !" 0 " - 3 +"! 3+ !" " "<!
#!!" ,#3" L ,!" ," -#$! " " " , "0 " "" " ! "5
" ,#" 1" " $=" " ) *!" 0 " $"" #0 #"
L )!) , +!)/0 " " ^ ," ) , 1 " ! *!$ -#1" ) ,"
1/#10 " ," $/33!" ," 0 " 1 , )# " ," 3$5 " 0 "
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"
11" " ,!" ," 3 , [ =$" G "! 0 ) ! " "$" ! $"1)!
," "3" - !" ," 3$35 ! $" ")$""1) " L ?1 !# 5 " #+ ) 11" "$ L " !"?""! " *$ , " ,1"
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")$#" ,
$"<" !0 " $1* ," $" ! ##1" !))"" " ! $$") 0 $!$#!"
-"<)#!"$" "/#0 " ,#$! )! '
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" $1)! $11" 7 ) ! !3!" )]#0 " 8
)!"1"! )"$ ," -"<)#!"$" "/#0 " 3,1"" ; -/11" )" 3!" )! $!# !0 " "
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mediation process in the traditional media. They cause a critical awareness not
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consequence, in present-day media, including themselves, which they historicise.
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compte. Les différents battements rythmiques s’organisent selon des variations
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In reading aloud, the resolutery effect of the final clause is often pointed by
intonation […] rising tones have implications of non-finality, the effect of this
pattern is to build up a continuing sense of anticipation, which is at last resolved
by the finality of the falling tone. 792
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[…] il est permis de s’interroger sur l’extension de cette dialectique du vide et du
plein à d’autres systèmes d’expression symbolique. Nous songeons notamment
aux arts graphiques qui accordent un rôle essentiel aux « espaces vides » dans la
composition. Ou encore à la « sauvegarde des blancs » dans l’aquarelle. Nous
n’oublions pas enfin la fonction essentielle des « silences » dans l’écriture et
l’interprétation musicales. 800
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Voie d’accès privilégiée à l’« activité structurante » de l’énonciateur, les
morphèmes grammaticaux doivent être analysés par rapport au système de la
langue et de ses opérations, car ils « ne renvoient pas à l’extralinguistique mais à
des événements intralinguistiques », c’est-à-dire aux « opérations de mise en
discours ».802
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Positive shapes are the solid volumes (eg. buildings and objects), whereas
negative shapes are the empty spaces between them (eg. streets, or patches of
sky). Though our conscious attention focuses on the positive shapes so as to
identify objects, the outlines of the areas between them form ‘negative shapes’
which have strong unconscious emotional appeal. This has been recognised in
the psychology of visual perception, for instance recently by Betty Edwards.803
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Mais le désert – spacieux, évidé, monochrome – constitue sans doute le lieu
visuel le plus approprié pour reconnaître cette absence comme quelque chose
d’infiniment puissant, souverain. Au-delà, il constitue sans doute le lieu
imaginaire le plus approprié pour croire que cette absence se manifestera comme
une personne, avec un nom propre – imprononçable ou sans fin prononcé. 811
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Une source importante d’ambiguïté pour le système visuel vient tout simplement
du fait que le monde en trois dimensions où nous vivons se projette sur la
surface de notre rétine qui n’en a que deux. Différents objets, selon leur distance
et leur orientation, peuvent donc occuper le même espace sur la rétine, d’où une
confusion que notre cerveau cherchera à éclaircir par d’autres indices. Parmi
ceux-ci, notre expérience passée de l’objet en question et celle de notre espèce
encodée dans nos gènes y seraient pour beaucoup.814
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La relation prédicative dérive d’une relation primitive entre deux actants au
niveau notionnel : l’actant qui va devenir le premier argument de la lexis
prédiquée, l’actant qui va devenir le deuxième argument, et la relation qui va
devenir le prédicat. L’ordre de la lexis prédiquée à l’actif est le reflet de la relation
primitive, qui est déjà une relation ordonnée.838
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Le petit personnage (un enfant, comme un « pupille ») qu’on aperçoit dans l’œil
d’autrui (dans la « pupille »), fut l’objet de nombreux commentaires au Moyen Age
[…] on tira des images littéraires des « enfants » qu’on voyait dans les yeux. Ce
furent toutes les expressions telles que « to look babies », to « speculate babies »
[…] D’autres, par exemple Sidney, insistèrent sur le fait que les figures étaient
causées dans les yeux d’une personne par le regard d’une autre ; il écrit dans le
Sonnet XI d’Astrophel and Stella : « thou straight lookt’st babies in her eyes ».845
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845
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Assertion, cohésion, amorce méta-linguistique et transcendantale – la prédication
est tout cela. Mais elle est en même temps scission et négation à l’égard de
l’asserté et de l’identique, si on veut l’observer dans le mouvement de sa création
par le sujet parlant.849
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HA@
7 -))!$/" ," )/!" 0 " - 11" /* ""1" )! " +" + >
" 3!6 ; )"!)"$" 3$"" ," )/!" " ," 2/" " ))!T , " /=" ," !+ " " !" 7 $ "" ," )!) 85 2!""
" 4 M"!+" !35 )5 $5 QON5
HR%
7
/" 3 $ ))!$/ + +" !"+!, )!+1$ /" "$1)+ 3!1"F!E F/ F/$/ "1$ ,
:< 1 *" ,",5 !"+!, "1$ *"!" )!+1$ , :< *"!" "1$5 8 Y ,
1*!"$/5 )5 $5 Q%5
HRQ
&@S
*"! F!"$" !E5 Y": $") + +" , + $ @R5 B" +"5
% )))
&4 ) + 0
*# , )!"1"! "!1" " 3!"5 - !" 3 ," *" $" , 36 ,
" ! )!1=!" "!+" -=!"!5
" ?" " " $# L , $ L ,"3# 0 " - )!#$"! ;
7 /" *?"$ 1"1" , *" /" !"": 31! ""1" F/$/ /"
HRO
)!",$" ,,", 1"/+ "F 8 )! )) L " 1 ", " $!
!#3#! L " )!$ !# 0 /=1" , -+ ? "1" ," )!#$"! !* )!1 ,- !"5
" 1=!" +##!" -##1" 3$# " $" 0 $" "
3!1 "" , " -#$" ! ,)" " , !1 $#$" ! 1" -#$# ;
The focus indicates where the new information lies, and the intonation nucleus
(which in turn signals the focus) occurs on the last appropriate syllable as
determined by the prosodic rule outlined. The new information can be anything
from a syllable to a whole clause. 864
" #!" ," $"! 0 " , ,#3 )!)#" )! ,)/ 9 !E " "
,-$$ !!"$" ," -3!1 "" +##!"1" $# " 3 ,-#$# $]$,"
"$ " )$"1" ," -$$" $#!" $$" ," )/!" 0 "!"
? ! " 3 ,-#$# ; 7 3 ," :+1" ,-#$# " $/+"1" ," 1)!1" " ,!"$ L $ !*" " 1#" ,"$"" G $" ,"!"! $$"
HRA
1#,0 " " " *+!" " -$$" 5 8
" L "! 0 " , " $ ," -$$" $#!" " )!" ) "$!" ,-$$"
$!3 $! $" ,"!"! $!!"), ? "1" L )/#1=" ," 3$ "<)$"
1!0 #5 " , " )/#$" ,#$!" *" -$$" $#!" " "!1" ,"
$!" ;
[…] le noyau se distingue des autres syllabes accentuées par une variation de
hauteur importante (ici une chute). Lorsqu’il y a déplacement du noyau (accent
contrastif), il reste une trace de l’ancien noyau. Quand l’accent contrastif occupe
HR&
" 3 " "33" ) $3,!" /=1" " ?" ; 7
"" < ," ?" #" )! !, ," /=1" !, "
3 "!!" ! )! '. " ," ))! 0 " ?P"1)! " L M 1"5 )!"# #:1+0 " "!" $" ! "!1" " 3!))"5 "
7 ?" 8 $P" $" 0 " 7 ?"# ," 8 5 *?"$ 1 " 7 ))! 8 $" 0 " 7 )# ," 8 5 *) 1 " "
/=1" $" 0 ## 7 )# 8 +!5 /=1 7 ?" )" 8 VWX ! "!1" )!0 "1" #0 " , 1" !" K !"" L
P,#" ," 7 3, 8 ," 7 *" 8 ," 7 *"1" 8 ," 7 *! 8 ," 7 " 8 1 !"" " $/5 & 2 "<)0 "
) !0 " $3, , )!0 " 1#+ 0 "5 8 ,!# B:5 7 /#1 " 3$5 >,"1"
,P " :<" #$" 8 @S5 0 " $" ! !"" L
" !")!#" "!$" ," -#$#
," Z," ) ` 0 -/!J" Z)!=5
HRO
864
HRA
B")"!"5 /" /)/: 3 M!11!5 ,!" ; " 4 F Q@&S QSA5
K 5 Y Q 2 ( +G6G 0 / ' !5 )5 $5 QO5 B" +"5 B" !))"" #+"1" ; 7 11" ) )! ," + " , 1," P+ ))!" +! )" ," + " L=1" ," 3$ 5 85 >$ " 1:" ,P"<)!" ," 3$ L !"! " + "5 2#1!"
," $## ," + 0 " ," !5 1" [5 ! ; """! &%%O H5
&@A
la place de l’ancien accent primaire, il se signale soit par une chute intonative
plus importante, soit par une tenue prolongée de la consonne initiale ou, devant
voyelle, par l’introduction d’un « glottal stop ». 866
" $ ," $"" $]$,"$" $$" $#!" )!#,$ !/=1" . 3!1
"" !""1" 1"# $"! + " L 1"! -$$" ," )/!" L "
!" ," +"1" , )!#,$5 "33" $11" -$$" ," )/!" " $$"!" )!
HRN
,#3 0 - " " " :*" ,$ " "# ,# #" ," #11" " ,
! ) ! 3$ ," +"! " " 1" " )!" " "1" " !""3 " )!#,$
""! ;
[...] all sentences are obligatorily marked for focus. Accent assignment rules,
taking the [+ focus] material as their input, assign accent in a purely mechanical
way. If there are more than one [+ focus] stretches in a tone group, the
assignment rules apply to all these stretches individually, with the last of these
accents so assigned being the nucleus. 868
) ! 1 /1E: $" ,"!"! " +# " ,"!=!" $" )! $$"
3 7 /" $" 8 $! )!#"<" L !", )/!" , ! $ !"
)!3," ; 7 $$!,$" F/ /" ,!, /"!: /" 3$ VX /" )!",$" 3 /"
HR@
,1 )!) 3 /" ,"") ! $ !"5 8
"" /:)/=" " )!$ =!"1"
,+" ,-#!C $! " +##!" )" P"<"$" ,P " +!11!" "!""
) !"1" :+10 " $ #" ," " 0 +0 " L )!! ," !")!#"
1""5 "" 3$ # 0 P 11" $1)#"$" . " 3!6 )!" ) ` ,"
3$ # #" " )!)!" L P/11" P"<)!1"! " " " ," )"!3!1$"
HN%
,P $ " ! ,# " " !## $$ *" ," 3!1" )/#0 " :<0 " "
866
HRN
K 5
/ A % 5 D ! 5! &
1 0 ( +*-
" 0 " $" #11" !"1 " 0 " )! $+#10 " ," ,"! " 5
" $" ,"!"! "<"! L
-#!" ! 1C1" ," 1 ," )"" 7 )$/" ," " 8 , - ! ) $$"$" 1 0 !"$="!" " +3$
!= *!" )" )! 1C1" , ) " ! + "5 ! ,"! " 5 7 " $+=1" ," P+ " !" + " 85
!$ ! #$3 " )!$ ! "!)!#35
! #+"1" " ! < ," "
/#!" " ))$5 * *E! ! #,5
! ; )/!: &%%O QHA&%Q5
/) ! " 3!1 Er ; 7 $# -/:)/=" ,-)! + 1""
0 " " +! )" $0 " , $"! ""1*" ," $" /" !0 "1" $ #" ," 7 1 " 8 !#+
)! " 1!0 " ! *"<$ r #/$ " , 3 ," !$" " !3$" " !$" " )!3," ! " ) # 0 "
$""$ " ,-!,!" " VWX #", $"" /:)/=" )! +" L Y , $" ," l1 " Y- +!)/"
" $ $/ / E " 0 , 1#+!)/" Y5 85 B" +"5 11 $ ," " /) #" 7 / P*+ " "
3!1 Er ; )!*=1" ," 7 " 8 \ 8 )!#"#" " Q% 1 &%%O , -""! 7 + 0 " 8 , $+!= ," M!"*"5 "" ))!$/" !"! < ! < ," M " M 1"5
868
HR@
4 53 ( %
1 /1E:5 7 "") ! $ !"
HN%
5 J #( G*<
!3$" ! $ !" , "1$ "!)!" 8 @%5 B" +"5
7 D" / 1E" 3 ,1" ,$ *"F"" $1)""$" /" )"E"!/"!"!P EF",+" 3 / + +" ,
)"!3!1$" /" $ " 3 + +" $$!"" 5 : ,"! /" ,"J " 3!/ /" )!"$",+ )!+!)/ )"!3!1$" ,!"$ !"3"$ 3 $1)""$" VWX +!11! 3 /" + +" ) !)! *" ,"$!) 3 /" ,"
)"E"!/"!"!P !$ $1)""$"5 8 1 /1E:5 )"$ 3 /" /"!: 3 :< S5 B" +"5
&@R
% )))
&4 ) + 0
#10 " " +##!#" +!b$" LP"<"$" ," $"" " " " 1C1" $1)#"$"
1"" !+"" ; 7 " ++" 1C1" " 1, " 0 3$" ," 36
1" $" 0 " !, -"! " 0 "" "++" " !+" 1" VWX
85HNQ
= ! -$$" $#!" )!#" " + " +##!"1" )$# " " 3
,-#$# "! -"<)!" 1" " 10 " " !3$" ," )/#1=" !=
+##! < , L ! $ !" )!3,"5 +"! " " ,
0 , $
:)0 " $ K 7 )"!3!1$" 8 !"3=" 7 $1)#"$" 8 $-"L,!" "
3$"1" "!! ," + " $!!"),! )" )! )!#,$
HN&
))! " + " 3 ,-#$# 5
! M "/" ) " " !"1" L $1*" " 3 !"1!0 "! L
) " ! !")!" 0 " ) ," -$$" 3 " ! $ !" ," !3$" "
$!!"), ) ? ! L )!" ," )/!" !#""1" 3$#" G )!3 " " L
-"<#!" ! ," )!" 1!0 #" Vj 3$ X ;
It should be carefully noted that [...] we do not define focus on the basis of the
position of the nucleus. Indeed, for all we know, a given [– focus] – [+ focus]
structure may well require the nucleus to fall outside the material marked [+
focus]. It is also important to see that every sentence is marked for focus. 873
"" ,$!,$" 1"! ? ! " )*" ,#0 "!" ! $ !" ," !3$"
" ! $ !" )!3,"5 " !" 0 " , $" $ " P" ) " $$ !!"$"
1)" " 1 $" :*" $$" #" 1 !"" L ,1" 3$# ;
7 ""$" $$" +1"
" )"!" "! 3$ ,15 3$ ,1 $
*" ,"3", " ! 1!" $ " F/" Vj3$ X $ *" +", *: +"
HNS
$$"5 8 -$$" 3 " ,$ *" 1!0 " ! ,$!1 )$ " !":
L " "# , " ,+ " " 0 - " $"" ," ,#+"! L ) 1 +!,"
,$" ,$" !#, " !0 " " ,1" Vj 3$ X $$"!" " " 1 $$" #
,$" ) +!," !0 - $!!"), L ) )/!0 " , " " " :*"
" $$" #" !" ,$" 1<1" !0 " -$$" " "<#!" ! ,1"
Vj3$ X5
Y , 1*!"$/ , -))!$/" -$! , 1 $" 3$" HNA
"3 !""! ) ! -/#!+" +##!" " ," )!) $1)!*" ;
7 /" ""$" $$" "!" /" 3$ 1!E"! 5"5 /" 3!1 ,$! 3 /" 3$ HNR
! $ !" 3 /" ""$"5 8
HNQ
HN&
: ! < 4 a" D"5 )5 $5 A@5
)!" ,-" ! )!3 L )!) ," -$$" $#!" ," 7 ,"+", "!1 ""1" 85 ! *"!1 25 4 5
7 !$"5
!" , + $ !/:/1 85 + U H &S@&OR G $# , ! M "/"5 7 >$ 2," , /" $" 8
ONN5
873
HNS
HNR
: ( G*= 1 ' 3 H 5 5
$2 5 P #
*,5 O@Q5
*,5 QS5
&@N
)" ,)"! ," < ) ," " #+=!"1" ,$ ; )" ,- " )!
$,#!"! -$$" 3 $11" 1!0 " ! )!,0 " L -!+" ," 1" "
!""3 #10 " ," - ," $ )/!0 " ! $,#!"! L -! ,"
! M "/" 0 - -+ ,- ##1" )"!3#!" " 1)"1"
$!!*!"! ,#?LL ?$" " "1" ,#)",5 " "! ! L
! !# )! -$$" 3 $ ,- " 3$ )!,0 " 1)"1"
+# )!,0 "1" ! 0 - # ,#?L ,"3*" )! " ! $ ,- " 3$
:<0 "5
-" !"" ) 1 0 -" + +! )" ," 33" !"$=" $$" 3
0 , 3 , $!" 1#,0 " 0 - "+",!" " ? ! $")*" ,-!"!
-" ! -#1 "!*" " $ ! " " +3# +* 0 -"" !"$=" $! - ]" :
"! !""1" "*"5 " $$" 0 "!" :)0 "1" " 3 ,-#$#
HNN
"1*" " $` !"! " " *"!5
-$$" 3 :)0 " 1" "1*" /1+##"! -""1*" ) ` 0 - " "
$," " $" "Z " 5 +" 3 ,- )!$" ,-33"1" , " ,"
-""! #10 "5 2 ) " " ; ?" $,=!" 0 " -$$" $#!"
$ " $11"!" 1#+ 0 " $11"!" 0 " + " 3"! L )!)
," )!)!" 3$"1" "1)!"5 +"! +!b$" L " 1, ," < 3 ," -#$# 0 :)0 "1" $" " )!#,$ $11" ))!
,:10 " ," ,#"!15 ?" !")!", " ?-#33" $" 0 ## #0 # , )!" )!#$#,""5 -$$" $#!" ) ! 3$ ," +"! )!,0 "1" - 1"
$!" "!" " "$" " " )!#3+ !5 0 " $" 1" $!"
, ) / ) " )+" , "1) $! ! "!" " "$" "
* " ?- L $" )!) "1):# -"<)!" ," , Q 5 B" "
,$" ) :<" " #10 " $! -#$# " $" " 1C1" "1)
" " ! )!1=!" +" ? ! ," $"!" 0 - !#""1" )*"
," " ,#1C"!5 " ) -#$# " )!$" ""$" " ,-C!" 1 *# 0 " #1" " , " L 1C1" )"!$") "!!#" 0 " ," -")$"
"" )"!1" 3< ," !")=!" ,#" 1T!" ," -#$ "1" , "1)5 2
HNH
"" )" " !"!,"! "" " )" " $ $ " !!C"! -"<!*" ,#)"1"5
! " 1C1" ! #!# #0 """ ," -#$# "" " )!$ ! " ,"
1$!"$" ", - "! , $ 5 $" "" !, " $!$=!"
HNA
7 "" 1: F !""!$/ $", 1"F/"!" *"F"" /" 7 3!1 8 , /" 7 3 $ 8 ))!$/" :<;
)!+1$ "<) * 1"1" !",: *" V555X "" /" "!"+ /"!"$ 0 " F/"/"! !
F/ "<" :$$ 3!1 $ *" ,", 3!1 $11 $" 3 $ * F/ "<" !""!$/ +", *",
/" ," 3 /" 1: 3 :< $ 3 !/"! ! ,"!,+ 3 /" F!E+ 3 / 1 + +"; /" " F/$/ 1":
,," /" 7 3!1 8 , /" 7 3 $ 8 ))!$/ 1 $/ ,+!""1" * 3$ * /" 0 " 3 F/ $ "
"<) + $5 8 Y , 1*!"$/5 )5 $5 QQ5
HNN
-"" ," 3 ," -#$# -$$1)+" ,- " $) , " +* 0 " "! ,# 0 -L 3 $-" " $$") ,"
7 !" "!: "33"$ 8 1"# )!
,)/ 9 !E 0 " #0 )!#$#,"11" " 0 " - $" #+"1" " 1 0 "
! 1"" ) !" $! "1)!"" $! 7 " ,$ ! ," 1 0 " - ) ," 3$ !#3#!""" 85 *"" !5 7 "
$ ! 2 $\ +" " " , -"/#0 " 1 $" *!0 " [ =$" 85 0 " /" 7 "! ! 8 [[ U S% Q@@A Q&R5 -+ 1)"1" , ,#)"1" ,!1# $$,"# ,- " "1)!#5
&@H
% )))
&4 ) + 0
#$*" " ,1"" , " , " ! ,!" " 0 " ",! " ? " ,
3 1C1" ," *# 3,1""5 ")", - $,=!" -#$# ,- ) ," " !$"1" 3!1" " " !" " 3 " ,#)"1" ," $" 0 :
!"" $/"# 3 ," -#$# - ! ) " ,-C!"5
HN@
= ! -#$# , )! #!# ," $! $ , "
, " " !")!#" )!1 ,- !"5 3 , 3 ," -$/="1" ," !")!#" " )! "<" $"" , " , " )" !" ,!" " 1 ,
)" ,!" *" $ ) )! " ! $/"1" ," !")!#" 11" #$"5
) $/1E:"" " !#=" #!"" $! "" ))" 0 " ! $ !" ,"
!3$" " $!!"), " " , 0 -))!<1"1" ! $ !" )!3," 0 )!#,# " , "" " " "<)!" )!1 ,- !"5 " 3<" " 3!1"
0 " $!!"), 0 " )$ ""1" " ) ! ,!" ," 36 $+""
HH%
) 0 - "<" 1" 36 ," ,!" ,-"<)!1"! $" 0 "
5 " +##!"
"" )! " * ," $/#1 !*!"$" ," !")!#""! $"" # ,-$$#,"! L
" !$" 0 "5
-#$# -$/=" ,$ ! " $/ " " " ,0 " 1)"1" )! $!" 1,!" -"<!*" )+" "$" 0 !" $!" ) +!,
" 0 - " )" )!#3+ !"! !"1" 0 " )! " 5 -#$# , $" 0 - " , $" 0 -
" " 0 -" ) 5 11" !"" L #10 " " 3 ,-" $$" "! ##1" " )!$ "! " -$$ !!"$" " :*" ) ! $,"$" ,-!"! -" !
" " $" 0 " 0 " -##1" $$" #5
)" $,#!"! 0 " " 1$!"$" !#)"!$ " " )/#1=" L ) )""
HHQ
#$/"" $11" , " ! $ !" 3!$"
5 )!$ !" -#$# " $!# ,"
HNH
B" !))"" L $" )!) " )!=" #* "$ -/:)"!")$" ; 7 V555X -/:)"!")$" " """"1" 1*" " " : "
"$,!"5 -" " )!$" 0 "<)!1" *$"5 8 2!"2,""" 2!"5 7 " 3!1" $1)"<" L P/:)"!")$" 8
&HO5 B" +"5
HN@
7 VWX -,#" 0 - " " +!11!" ) !! 3, " """"1" 7 #!!"! ) 1 ,
#!" 8 !"1" , !")!#""! 7 # 11"# 8 ) 1 $# ,- "33! ," #! $ L !#, !" $" ,-"<)#!"$" L " )"!)"$" "1)!"" #!" *!,#" L ) " 0 " 7 1 8 ", ," ) " ) , $"" /:)/=" L -!* "! " 0 " )!$)" $3 ," -"<"$" 3!1"" 1"" , !#" " !"$! 3!1"
,-#$#5 8 ," !/5 7 #!#W #! 85 ++" " #!#5 "!!" " #,5 " ; !"" "!!"
,
")"! Q@@@ QAQR5
HH%
) $/1E:"" 1)0 " 0 " -#$ !))! "$ " $"<" ; 7 )!"1=!" ,$ # " $"" ,"
-#$ " ," , $ " ! ; " )!" 1)!" ," !"$/"!$/" + 0 " $"1)!" " 0 " - ) "
"<)0 "! " )/#1=" + 0 " "! $1)" ," $$!=" , $ " ! " ," -"!$ $"!""5 8
: ! < 4 a" D"5 )5 $5 A@5
HHQ
>!"$" ," 2=!"," +" ,1" *!0 " ," 3!1" 3!$" ; 7 -))! ," 1+" 3!$" )"!1 "
1"" !" +" ," 3!1" $1)"<"5 VWX " ^ !" 0 " !# " $" "!" +#1#!1" "J )) :# " "
",$" L 1 )$ ,-"!"$ *!0 "5 "3 - ," 3!$" !0 -"" -" ) ", " )! )!?"
"/#0 " 3! " $!!"), 0 -L 1)" )!$" ,-"1*T"1" " ," 1" " *T1" ," 3!1"5 8 >!"$" ," 2=!"," 5
)5 $5 Q%@5
&@@
1$!$" <0 "" )!C" )" " 1 0 33" ) ! L $)"!
- ]" " " !")!, L "!" !#+ "!5 !#)# )"!1" -/1+##
$! !#)# ,- 1C1" 13 )"!1" -#1"!+"$" ,- " 3!1" ) +!," $-" $"
0 " )!, $/#10 "1" , -#$#5 " 1$!"$" $!#" ,"
1$!$" )$ ""1" $)!$"5 " ,"!=!" -" ! " " )!$)" ," $ ,- 5 0 -" )" !" $" !3$" " *"
$ 5 $"! ," < "<"1)" )$ ! < , ," < ^ !" - " ," $/
'!, " - !" ," B/ *"5
" 1*!" < )!! ,-*"/ 1!" C " ," ) !$/" ! G ,
$" )!! " !*" !#" ," )"" )"!!" )!#$" " $/"" !" "
$"#" ," )"!" " ,-!"1" 0 $!#" ," 13 !#$ !!" " :1#!0 " G $"
13 $$"!0 " $"+" " +" ," -=!" "!" ) ! ? ! !1""! L " ," < )" :" < 1*!"5 " 13 ," 3!1" ,$ " 0 "
-^ "!)!=" $11" $ " , 3 ," " ! $3!1 ;
1! )"! /" *"" ", ! !+J" "F"!- )"!$") 3 *?"$5
" $/ "<1)" /F )!! 3 9 "" J*"/ F/$/ /" ! )"!/)
$$ : " +! )+ *: 1! )"! 3$ /" "F"!- "5 V555X /"
1! 0 " J*"/- /! !" +! )", )! , /" )! !" !+J", !+"! )"! !! ,+ /"! 3$"5 3 /"" !+J )"! $$" " /"
HH&
3" !" 3 /" 3$" . /" 3$ ) 3 /" )+5
"!)
DE"!
!
/);ZZFFF5"!)1 " 15!+5 EZFE"!Z$"$ZQO$QR$Z"!Q5)
M"!:
? <) )!"1"! )!! , *" < $ " ! "!#" )"!6
1" < !#)# :1#!0 " ," 1C1" )"" 3!1" !#)# 0 ," " L
-#1"!+"$" ," 3!1" )#!" !" )!3 /1/#0 " $11" -!" )"!" " $ 1"! !"1" $/"!$/# L )!, !" ," 13 3!$ -/" !"5
!" "<"1)" " $" ," "$/0 " )$ !" ," B/ *" 0 -/* ," ," )$ "! " " ," )"" $/" ," *$ ;
La texture à vives touches brisées où intervient souvent le couteau à palette
affirme cette unité passionnée d’expression. Déjà s’annonce ici, ajoutés à
quelques larges rehauts, ce que nous devons connaître désormais comme la
« neige de Constable ». « Constable’s snow », terme de dérision comme on en
connaît dans l’histoire de la peinture, ce sont ces pointes, ces mouchetages
blancs par lesquels Constable, jusque dans les zones d’ombre, attestait
l’omniprésence de la lumière. 883
- !" 3 -+ ," )"" $/" ," ! +" 3 L )"" )"!$")*" L ,$"
HH&
B" +"5
*"! 5
!")!, $)!= ;
5 )5 $5 @Q@S5 " $11"!" -))0 " L !" )!! ,-J*"/ 0 " $" 0 " ?"
/" !1,
!!5 B- $")", $/ ," !")!, !"
/"
"$
!! ," $/ '!, 3 ,"
1!"! 0 " $"" "$/0 " # 1)!#"" " )" !" 1 " 1 , -! , $ 1"5 ! " ! $11" ,#?L #0 # $/ '!, L )!) ," -#$# $11" 3!1" )"!)"$" 1" "1* #!" ," !")!, !" - "
," " ^ !"5
883
O%%
7 & % ' / 0 0 5 !
5 ! 4 ?3 Q
( +,-<( +-*
% )))
&4 ) + 0
,- 0 " " ! !#3#!" )$ ! < "1*" +3 ; + " !#" ,- )"
$/" +1*, , )!# " ! +" ,- " 1 $ " 3" ! ," $0 "$ "$5 1
$")", $)!$" ,-"5
-" $)#" )! -31" !#$ !!" " )$ " " )!" ! " $"#
$11" -#$# $! # ," 1 $ " ," " ," )"5
: $,"1: 3 ! ,!" /);ZZFFF5F+5/ Z!Z$Z$*Z")+5?)+
!")!, $ $," ,- " " ," B/ *" ,+ " "
0 "0 " )"" $/" ," ! +" 3 * , $"! !C" )! " ," *!0 " / ,"
-/* , )" )"!+" 0 -: " ,"* "$5 0 " 1:!," ," )""
$/" ," *$ 7 "+" ," *" 85
"" < )/#1=" ," $" "5 !3 :*" $$" #"
$!!"), 1 " ) +3 , +! )" ," -#$# " + " 1"# L ,#3! " $" "!1" -$$" )!,0 " ; 7 D" $ : / /" )!,$
!" V555X 1!E /" 7 ) 8 3 /" ""$" F/"!" /"!" /" +!"" $$"!
HHS
3 3!1 / F/$/ /" /"!"! F , *" " E": 3"! F/ *"+ ,5 8
2 3 *" +!,"! L -")! 0 " " 1 " !" +3$" 0 " ," -""1*"
#10 " , "0 " -$! G , -* 0 " 0 " " 1 $$" # $"
! ? ! ) ! "33" ,-!"! 1#:10 "1" -" ! " 3 +3# , ""1*"5 )" #+"1" $,#!"! 0 " $" " 0 " )!, " 3
,-#$# $3=!" " ,1" ) +!," ,"!"! ##1" $! , 1" !" K
$" $ " ))! ," ,#"!1 L , ) +!, " , ) *" "!
!""1" )"!6 $11" ) )"5 $$" )"!1" ," !##0 *!"! -#$#
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