03. Sustainability Dilemmas. Part 2
Transcription
03. Sustainability Dilemmas. Part 2
Du dilemme à l’autorégulation, Ferrucio Ferrigni Du dilemme à l’autorégulation. analyseR Les tissus urbains comme résultat des conflits privé/publique, pour définir des normes de “autorégulation” FERRUCCIO FERRIGNI1 Resumé: A l’exeption des centres historiques “patrimoine” dans la gestion des tissus urbains antiques on est confronté très souvent à un dilemme: les sauvegarder (risquant de les cristalliser) ou en permettre l’évolution (risquant de les détruire). En effet la genèse des “tissus urbains” – c’est à dire de l’ensemble des pleins, les édifices, et des vides, rues, cours, jardins, terrains vagues est le résultat d’un conflit millénaire entre particuliers et communauté pour l’exploitation d’une ressource finie, le sol. La morphologie des pleins/vides dépend de comment ce conflit a été réglé au fil des siècles. Analyser les tissus urbains sous l’angle visuel du conflit privé/public peut offrir, donc, des informations intéressantes sur l’histoire de la ville. En outre, comme les plans d’urbanisme règlent ce conflit mais ne l’annulent pas, cette analyse permet de mettre au point des normes qui orientent vers des objectifs d’utilité publique la recherche de profit qui anime toujours l’action des particuliers. Bref, de produire l’“autorégulation” du système. Ce texte analyse la morphologie des différents tissus urbains comme résultats du conflit privé/publique pour l’exploitation de l’espace, propose une grille très simple basée sur des paramètres qui permettent de les classer et suggère des normes d’urbanisme qui permettent pas seulement de régler le conflit, mais aussi d’orienter les particulier à céder “gratuitement” les espaces publiques prévus dans le plan d’urbanisme. Introduction D ’habitude on considère l’aspect “régulier” des tissus urbains une acquisition récente, produit des plans d’urbanisme, alors que la forme irrégulière de la ville antique serait le résultat d’un processus plus 1 Coordonnateur des programmes du Centre Universitaire Européen pour les Biens Culturels, de Ravello, Italie. ARKEOS 38-39 | 223 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management “spontané”. En réalité même les tissus irréguliers des centres anciens répondent à des règles, tout en apparaissant “spontanés”. Connaitre ces règles – et, surtout, savoir les reconnaître en dessous de la casualité appa rente de rues et ruelles – n’aide pas seulement à comprendre la genèse des différents quartiers de la ville, il donne aussi un outil qui permet de goûter d’un élément constituant du “patrimoine mineur”, autant précieux que peu mentionné par les guides touristiques. En outre, connaitre l’origine et les “règles” des différents tissus peut aider à mettre au point des normes qui permettent d’adapter le bâti ancien aux exigences de la vie actuelle sans en détruire la valeur documentaire. Et en contournant le dilemme sauvegarde/évolution. Les manuels de planification urbaine sont riches en classement des centres historiques: en enroulement, en fuseau, linéaires, planifiés, etc. (Fig. 1). Il s’agit d’une systématisation basée sur la structure de la ville, mais qui ne donne aucune information sur la relation entre la structure et l’époque à laquelle elle remonte. Fig. 1. Les structures urbaines Il y a une différence abyssale entre la structure urbaine de Aversa (Italie) e celle du centre historique de Pékin, tous les deux centres étant médiévaux (Fig. 2/a,b). Alors que Pékin ne diffère pas trop de Tell-el-Almarna la ville où logeaient les ouvriers égyptiens travaillants dans la construction des pyramides, bâti 2400 ans avant (Fig. 2/c). Pourquoi une telle analogie de forme entre villes remontantes à des époques très 224 | ARKEOS 38-39 Du dilemme à l’autorégulation, Ferrucio Ferrigni différentes et, au contraire, une telle diversité entre villes qui se sont développées à la même époque? Pour répondre à cette question l’analyse des structures urbaines ne suffit pas, il faut utiliser une approche différente. (a) (b) Fig. 2. Les structures urbai nes ne dépendent pas de l’époque. Aversa (a) et Pekin (b) remontent toutes kes deux au XII, mais elles différent largement, alors que Tell-el-Almarna (c) ressemble beaucoup a Pekin, tout en étant fondé 2400 ans avant (c) D’abord une lapalissade, pourtant nécessaire pour le suivi du discours: le territoire est un ensemble fini de ressources. Quel ait été l’origine de l’établissement – un acte de fondation, l’agrégation de plusieurs familles au croisement de deux axes routier, la localisation en proximité d’un abri naturel de colons venus d’outre-mer – toute communauté engagée dans la fondation ou dans le développement d’une ville a dû aborder la question primordiale de comment répartir le territoire pour satisfaire les besoins élémentaires: des parcelles pour les maisons, des rues pour les dégager et pour se déplacer, des espaces pour les fonctions d’intérêt commun ou identitaires (forum, place du marché), une frontière physique entre l’intérieur et l’extérieur (aussi bien pour défense que pour percevoir la gabelle). ARKEOS 38-39 | 225 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management La morphologie des centres anciens est donc définie par deux éléments: –la structure urbaine, c’est-à-dire la forme du réseau des rues (convergentes vers un point focal, en enroulement, en fuseau etc.) et la position relative des éléments forts (palais du pouvoir, cathédrale, place, marché, rue principale) –le tissu urbain, c’est-à-dire l’ensemble des pleins et des vides. D’habitude la structure urbaine dépend aussi bien de l’orographie du site que des décisions des groups forts (le seigneur, l’église, les marchants), alors que le tissu dépend d’un conflit: entre les particuliers, qui ont tendance à occuper le maximum d’espace possible, et la communauté, qui défend son espace, la rue. Plus précisément de comment ce conflit a été réglé: par des règles communautaires, par un pouvoir central, fort ou faible, par un plan etc. Cette acception du tissu urbain permet aussi bien de le lire de manière assez différente des classements usuels que de formuler des normes de “intervention dans le bâti” qui, plus que régler le conflit, l’utilisent, en orientant vers des objectifs d’intérêt communautaire la recherche de profit qui guide les comportements des particuliers. En effet dans les plans d’urbanisme l’intérêt de la communauté est assuré par la destination à utilisation publique de certaines parcelles; dans les codes de droit civil sont définies les procédures pour transférer au publique, par l’expropriation, la propriété des parcelles. L’institut de la “expropriation pour utilité publique” est très récent (il est mentionné de manière explicite dans la constitution française du 1791), mais presque dans tous les états elle est le seul outil juridique qu’on peut utiliser pour faire prévaloir l’intérêt de la communauté sur les intérêts des particuliers. Il s’agit d’une procédure qui dépasse le conflit, mais ne l’élimine pas (preuve en est les longues et turbineuses phases de définitions des plans d’urbanisme). Par contre, sur la base d’une analyse critique des tissus urbains générés par les conflits anciens, on pourrait en sortir des règles qui contournent le conflit. Par exemple en “canalisant” la recherche de profit qui anime les particuliers vers des objectifs d’intérêt communautaire. En transformant l’origine du conflit, la recherche de profit, en ressource supplémentaire à exploiter pour atteindre des buts d’intérêt général. 226 | ARKEOS 38-39 Du dilemme à l’autorégulation, Ferrucio Ferrigni Le conflit privé/publique et la morphologie des tissus urbains La “Histoire” que nous connaissons est construite, en général, à travers les documents d’archive, les monuments etc. Les faits qui la nourrissent, ainsi que les motivations qui les ont produits, ne sont que ceux enregistrés par les chroniqueurs, presque toujours payés par les puissants. Les groups marginaux, ou juste faibles, n’avaient pas des chroniqueurs, ni construisaient des monuments. Ils entrent dans l’“Histoire” juste s’ils perturbent les groups dominants. Pourtant le territoire – aussi bien cultivé que bâti en prévalence est le résultat des transformations conduites par les couches sociales subordonnées. Il peut être analysé, donc, pour intégrer les sources utilisées pour la “Histoire”, parfois pour la corriger. L’éco-histoire2 est la discipline qui, grâce à l’analyse des transformations opérées par la multitude d’acteurs qui ont utilisé les territoires, permet d’avoir des informations plus complètes sur les événements dont il est le résultat. Par ailleurs, une lecture “éco-historique” des tissus urbains donne des informations assez différentes de celles qu’on peut tirer d’une lecture morphologique traditionnelle. Par exemple, un hôtel particulier ou la route principale qui traversait la ville étaient certainement des éléments forts de la structure urbaine. Mais si aujourd’hui l’hôtel est restructuré pour en faire des studios, il perd son caractère identitaire. Si un périphérique dévie les fluxes de véhicules de l’ancienne route, la hiérarchie des axes routiers en est bouleversée. Les deux interventions changent la distribution spatiale et les rapports entre les éléments forts. La structure urbaine résulte altérée, même si la morphologie de la ville ne change pas. Au contraire, si dans un tissu ancien on démolie et on reconstruit un édifice en respectant le même alignement sur la rue, le rapport pleins/vides n’est pas altéré. Le tissu urbain maintient son caractère originaire, même si les édifices dont il est constitué ont changés. 2 Le terme a été introduit aux années ’70 du XX siècle par Piero Pierotti, professeur de Histoire de l’urbanisme dans l’Université de Pise (Italie). La éco-histoire privilège les sources materielles (organisation du territorie, tissus urbains, ouvrages etc) plutôt que les sources écrites, sur lesquelles est basé la historiographie traditionnelle. ARKEOS 38-39 | 227 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management Fig. 3. Les rues du noyau mèdiéval de Como (Italie) garde la trame de la ville romaine, mais leur largeur n’est plus régulière, résultat des régles communautaires sur les alignements, moins contraignante que le plan originaire. La structura urbaine, si elle n’est pas définie a priori par un projet – ville de fondation, transformations conduites sous le contrôle d’un seul décideur – est influencée très lourdement par la conformation du site d’implantation. Par contre le tissu urbain – lorsqu’il n’est pas le résultat d’un plan établi préalablement et réalisé de façon unitaire est une conséquence directe du rapport de force entre le pouvoir publique et les particuliers qui opèrent la transformation du territoire. En effet lorsque le pouvoir publique est faible il arrive que le respect de l’espace publique non représentatif c’est ò dire l’espace qui sert au transit et à accéder aux maisons (les rues) est assuré juste par les coutumes communautaires. La rue est ce qui reste de l’édification des parcelles qui la côtoient. Il en résulte un tissu qu’on reconnait aisément par des caractéristiques typiques. Les propriétaires avancent les édifices tant qu’ils peuvent, la frontière privé/ /publique coïncide avec la façade de l’édifice, la rue est l’espace résiduel. Le respect de l’espace destiné au publique dépendant des règles que la communauté s’est données, pas trop contraignantes, sa largeur est irrégulière. 228 | ARKEOS 38-39 Du dilemme à l’autorégulation, Ferrucio Ferrigni Ce tissu est typique des centres historiques médiévaux. Nous pouvons le définir un tissu communautaire. Selon que la frontière se déroule sur les quatre côtés de l’ilot (comme il arrive dans le centre-ville) ou juste sur un coté (il est le cas des bâtis qui côtoient les routes d’accès à la ville), on peut avoir un tissu communautaire compact ou en courtine (Fig. 4/a). Si le pouvoir publique devient plus fort, il affecte à la rue un espace défini, avant que les édifices soient réalisés. Les édifices sont bâtis encore au bord de l’espace publique mais, le pouvoir le faisant respecter, sa largeur reste régulière. C’est un tissu que, très souvent, on repère au long d’axes routier XVII-XVIII, d’habitude résultat d’une intervention planifié. Etant le produit d’un pouvoir central fort, nous pouvons le définir comme un tissu étatique, s’alignant les édifices au long de la rue, la typologie est en courtine. Fig. 4. Le quartier de Santa Lucia, à Naples, montre avec évidance les différences morphologique entre le tissu communau taire (en haut) et le tissu étatique (en bas). Largeur des rues, taille des édifices et dimensions des espaces intérieurs (cours/puits de lumière) sont les caractéres qui font la difference. Ensuite la croissance de la ville produit une augmentation de la circulation des carrosses, les rues doivent être beaucoup plus larges que celles de la ville médiévale. Pourtant la profondeur des édifices ne peut pas être augmentée en proportion, quitte à avoir des pièces obscures. Les rues doivent être plus larges que la profondeur maximale des édifices. Deux tiers du sol devraient être affectés aux rues, un gaspillage d’espace insupportable. Pour le réduire on élabore une nouvelle typologie d’édifices: plutôt qu’avoir deux cellules par étage collées dos à dos et donnant toutes les deux sur rue, les édifices ont une façade sur la rue et l’autre sur la cour intérieure (Fig. 4 en bas). Celle-ci est largement plus grande que les puits de lumière des édifices médiévaux (Fig. 4 en haut), plus ARKEOS 38-39 | 229 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management que suffisante à assurer air et lumière aux pièces, mais moins large que les rues. L’économie de sol est considérable. L’innovation typologique est accompagnée par une parallèle évolution du système de décideurs qui produit le tissu. Les édifices ne sont pas bâtis les uns après les autre par les propriétaires des parcelles, ils sont réalisés par des promoteurs, qui achètent des larges portions de sol, les lotissent en ilot, les construisent (ou les revendent à des constructeurs). Chaque ilot contient un grand nombre d’appartements, achetés par les bourgeois qui de plus en plus viennent habiter la ville. Par ailleurs, le pouvoir central est devenu beaucoup plus fort, il ne contrôle seulement la position des édifices par rapport à la rue, il examine et approuve le “plan de lotissement” préparé par l’entrepreneur, qui comprend aussi les règles de construction (nombre d’étages, modules des façades etc.). Il en résulte un nouveau tissu qu’on retrouve avec peu de variations dans presque toutes les villes européennes qui est caractérisé par des éléments récurrents. Les rues ont une largeur constante (sont réalisées avant les édifices); ont une maille régulière, modulée exactement sur la dimension des édifices à réaliser; ceux-ci sont au bord des rues sur les quatre cotés et ont des cours intérieures large autant que la hauteur. S’agissant d’un tissu résultant d’un plan d’urbanisme, même si à l’initiative privée, nous pouvons l’appeler un tissu proto-urbanistique. Enfin, dans la deuxième moitié du XX siècle, le pouvoir publique pas seulement impose le respect des espaces qui lui appartiennent (ou qui vont lui appartenir), il règle aussi l’utilisation de la propriété privée. La largeur des rues est régulière, mais les édifices ne peuvent plus être bâti à fil de rue, ils sont obligé de reculer. En plus, ils doivent respecter une distance minimale entre eux. Il en résulte le tissu actuel, produit des plans d’urbanisme rédigés par le pouvoir publique, qui gouvernent toute transformation du territoire. Nous pouvons l’appeler un tissu urbanistique. Une lecture différente La lecture des tissus urbains sur la base de la position relative des édifices par rapport à la rue (au bord/en recul) et de la largeur de l’espace publique (régulière/irrégulière) offre un outil autant simple que performant pour reconstruire la dynamique qui a engendré le bâti historique, 230 | ARKEOS 38-39 Du dilemme à l’autorégulation, Ferrucio Ferrigni même si nous ne disposons pas de sources d’archive. Il s’agit, au fond, d’un exercice d‘analyse éco-historique du territoire bâti. En vérité il peut apparaitre un outil plutôt rudimentaire, mais il offre des informations plus immédiates que celles qu’on peut avoir en utilisant la lecture morphologique traditionnelle. Un exemple peut aider à mieux comprendre la différence entre les deux méthodes de lecture. (a) (b) Fig 5. Le plan de Philadelphie (a) ne différe pas trop du plan de centre gréco-romain de Naples (b) trame quadrillé, un-deux axes majeurs dans un reseau regulier d’ilots rectangulaires. Mais le détail du centre de Naples (c) montre que si le plan grec est assez respecté, la largeur des rues est très irrégulière, à l’ecception du grand axe à gauche, signe d’un pouvoir central redevenu fort. (c) ARKEOS 38-39 | 231 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management En adoptant le classement traditionnel par modèles et lecture morphologique on ne repère pas de différence entre les tissus de Philadelphie (Fig. 5/a) et le tissu du centre gréco-romain de Naples (Fig. 5/b). Tous le deux sont le résultat évident d’un plan d’urbanisme. Au-delà des différentes dimensions des ilots, nous ne tirons aucune information supplémentaire. Par contre, si on utilise les indicateurs sus définis, on peut lire deux histoires totalement différentes. La trame urbaine régulière nous informe qu’à Naples le pouvoir publique était assez fort pour établir un plan d’urbanisme et de le faire respecter (le plan de la ville grecque). En suite le pouvoir s’affaiblie. Dans la phase médiévale de la ville, les rues gardent le tracé du plan grec, mais les édifices ne respectent pas l’alignement originaire. La largeur de l’espace publique devient très irrégulière (Fig. 5/c). En suite le pouvoir publique semble avoir regagné sa force. On a réalisé la grande rue à gauche, clairement résultat d’une intervention planifiée et bien contrôlée dans sa réalisation. Même à Philadelphie la trame des rue est géométrique et les édifices arrivent jusqu’au bord des rues mais, au contraire que dans le centre gréco-romaine de Naples, la largeur de cettes-ci est très régulière. Preuve d’un contrôle publique fort et efficace. La différente utilité des deux lectures est évidente. La lecture morphologique des deux plans nous donne peu d’informations, voire des informations détournant si on n’a pas des donnés sur l’origine du plan et sur l’histoire de sa réalisation. La lecture conflit>morphologie nous permet de reconstruire, à partir d’une analyse banale de la régularité des rues et de la position des édifices par rapport à la rue, l’évolution de la ville et du pouvoir qui l’a gérée. Certes, est une lecture précise mais, peut-être, un peu simple. Elle ne peut pas substituer les sources d’archive ou les informations tirées des publications spécialisées. Mais elle permet de classer les tissus de maniéré univoque et, surtout, d’en tirer des indications qui permettent de mettre au point des normes qui transforment le conflit privé/publique en ressource supplémentaire pour réaliser les transformations d’intérêt publique. C’est-à-dire les prévisions des plans les plus difficiles à réaliser, notamment à l’intérieur des bâtis anciens. 232 | ARKEOS 38-39 Du dilemme à l’autorégulation, Ferrucio Ferrigni Un classement sans ambigüité En appliquant le critère de lecture sus illustré, on peut classer les tissus urbains comme il suit: – Tissu communautaire, produit d’une société dans laquelle la tutelle des espaces publiques est assurée par des règles que la communauté s’est donnée par elle-même. La frontière privé/publique coïncide avec la façade; les rues ont une largeur irrégulière; les édifices peuvent être en contact avec les rues sur quatre cotés (communautaire compact) ou sur un seul côté (communautaire en courtine). – Tissu étatique, produit par une société dans laquelle les espaces publiques sont définies et sauvegardés par un pouvoir central. La frontière privé/publique coïncide avec la façade; les édifices sont en contact directe avec la rue, d’habitude sur un seul côté; les rues ont une largeur régulière. – Tissu proto-urbanistique, produit par une société dans laquelle les espaces publiques sont définis par un plan, produit ou approuvé par une institution publique, sauvegardés aussi bien par l’institution publique que par les promoteurs qui les réalisent. La frontière privé/publique coïncide avec la façade; les édifices sont en contact directe avec les rues, comme dans le tissu étatique, mais sur quatre cotés; les rues ont une trame modulaire et une largeur régulière. – Tissu urbanistique, produit par des plans d’urbanismes publics, qui établissent les règles d’utilisation des espaces, aussi bien publique que privés. La frontière privé / publique est en recul par rapport à la rue; la largeur des rues est régulière. – Le tableau de Fig. 6 synthétise le classement des divers tissus par rapport aux deux paramètres découlant du conflit, position de la façade (au bord/en recul) et largeur des rues (régulière/irrégulière). Il est intéressant de noter que, pour chaque typologie de tissu, la grille n’identifie qu’une, et une seule, combinaison des paramètres. Elle permet donc de les classer sans ambigüité. ARKEOS 38-39 | 233 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management Fig. 6. Caracteres Morphologiques des Tissus Urbains et Leur Origine Probable CARACTERES MORPHOLOGIQUES LARGEUR DE L’ESPACE PUBLIQUE (rue) FRONTIERE PRIVE / / PUBLIQUE ET FAÇADE ORIGINE PROBABLE coÏncidents (édifices en bord de rue) su 4 cotés su 1 coté non coÏncidentS (édifices en recul)) irregUlIEre regUlIEre COMMUNAUTAIRE compact COMMUNAUTAIRE a en courtine ETATIQUE PROTOURBANISTIQUE URBANISTIQUE NON TISSU (campagne) Une contre-épreuve de son efficacité est donnée par la dernière ligne du tableau, qu’identifie un tissu “non tissu”. la campagne, où la frontière privé/publique coïncide avec le bord de la route, les édifices sont en recul et la largeur des espace publiques est irrégulière. Dépasser le dilemme: les normes de “autorégulation” Dans la formation d’un urbaniste il y a un dogme: le plan d’urbanisme privilège les intérêts généraux, il ignore les intérêts particuliers. Dans la réalité ç’est juste avec ces derniers que l’urbaniste est confronté. Pourtant, si la lecture conflit>morphologie ne veut rester pas seulement une analyse intrigante, elle doit devenir la base pour des normes qui n’ignorent pas le conflit mais l’utilisent comme ressource potentielle pour canaliser 234 | ARKEOS 38-39 Du dilemme à l’autorégulation, Ferrucio Ferrigni la recherche de profit des particulier vers des buts d’intérêt général. Le conflit privé/publique existe dans toutes les zones disciplinées par le plan, mais il est majeur dans les tissus urbains anciens. Dans ce bâti les parcelles vides sont peu nombreuses, donc encore plus précieuses. Les utiliser pour la communauté devient aussi bien difficile que injuste: la rareté des terrains encore utilisables en augmente la valeur, pas toujours reconnue par les indemnisations découlant du processus d’expropriation. Mais le sol est une ressource finie, en affectant une parcelle à l’utilisation privé ou à un espace publique le plan opère une distribution de plus/minus values. Il n’est pas surprenant, donc, que l’élaboration d’un plan d’urbanisme soit accompagnée de conflits et pressions (d’habitude soigneusement cachés). Par ailleurs, dans la rédaction de certains plans d’urbanisme italiens3, on a noté qu’il était beaucoup moins conflictuel localiser les grands équipements (une école, un hôpital) que les petits (un parking, un terrain de jeu). L’analyse des intérêts de tous les acteurs (propriétaires, promoteurs, administrateurs) a mis en évidence les causes très saines de la différente intensité des conflits suscités par les deux catégories de destination publique. D’abord la perception de l’écart entre l’intérêt des particuliers et de la communauté: une école ou un hôpital apportent à la communauté des bénéfices non comparables aux sacrifices demandé aux propriétaires concernés, alors que les bénéfices que la communauté tire d’un terrain de jeux est de la même “taille” du sacrifice demandé au propriétaire. En suite les raisons objectives: un grand équipement répond à des exigences de localisation (connexion, surface etc.) difficiles à contester, alors qu’il est ardu motiver pourquoi un parking doit être localisé sur un coté de la rue plutôt qu’en face. La réluctance des propriétaires à accepter la destination publique de ses parcelles a donc des raisons presque physiologiques. Aux difficultés de localisation des petites destinations publiques dans la rédaction du plan s’ajoute la difficulté de les réaliser. Une école est un ouvrage sur lequel certainement l’Administration s’est engagée, alors que rarement un terrain de jeux a fait l’objet d’une promesse électorale. Pour contourner ces difficultés systémiques, avant d’aborder la rédaction des “plans autorégulateurs” on a établi, avec la participation de tous 3 On se refère à de “plans autorégulateurs” redigés par l’auteur pour une trentaine de communes de Campanie, une région du sud d’Italie, à partir des années ’90. ARKEOS 38-39 | 235 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management les acteurs locaux, le critère de localisation des Destinations Publiques Mineures (DPM): “aires de parking, terrains de jeux et destinations publiques similaires sont à localiser d’après les règles de bonne organisation du voisinage, mais ils ne doivent pas réduire la valeur des propriétés concernées” La traduction technique de ce critère a conduit à: –une règle de réalisation du plan qui donne trois options au propriétaires d’une parcelle intéressée par une DPM: a) attendre que l’Administration exproprie la partie à destination publique, en payant l’indemnisation prévue par les lois; dans ce cas la surface sur laquelle on applique le Coefficient d’Utilisation du Sol (CUS) est la surface nette (surface cadastrale moins la surface à destination publique); b)céder gratuitement à l’Administration une aire de surface et caractéristiques fonctionnelles équivalentes à celles de l’aire à destination public prévue dans le plan; dans ce cas on applique le CUS à toute la surface cadastrale de la parcelle; c) céder gratuitement à l’Administration l’aire à destination publi que, dans la quantité et dans la forme prévues dans le plan; dans ce cas on applique le CUS à une surface virtuelle (SV), somme de la surface cadastrale de la parcelle et de la surface à destination publique; –un dessin de sol dans lequel les DPM sont localisées là où est demandé par l’organisation globale du quartier, mais elles sont positionnées dans la parcelle où, vraisemblablement, elles conviennent le plus au propriétaire. La Fig. 7 montre un exemple d’application de la règle. Sur une parcelle ayant une extension cadastrale de 1.000 mq le plan localise une partie d’une rue et un parking, pour un total de 200 mq. En cas d’exercice de l’option a), la surface sur laquelle on va appliquer le CUS sera de 1,000 – 200 = 800 mq. Si le propriétaire exerce l’option c), de cession gratuite de rue et parking tels qu’ils sont prévu dans le plan, il pourra appliquer le CUS à une surface virtuelle de 1,000 + 200 = 1.200 mq. Enfin, s’il a la nécessité de réserver différemment le parking (option b), il pourra appliquer le CUS à la surface cadastrale totale, c’est à dire 1.000 236 | ARKEOS 38-39 Du dilemme à l’autorégulation, Ferrucio Ferrigni mq. L’exemple montre bien comment le profit du propriétaire monte en proportion de l’utilité qu’en tire la communauté. La surface sur laquelle il ira appliquer le CUS – c’est-à-dire la surface de plancher qu’il pourra réaliser – passe de 800 mq s’il oblige la communauté à l’indemniser; monte à 1.000 mq s’il cède le parking gratuitement, mais avec des carac téristiques différentes que celle prévues dans le plan; atteint les 1.200 mq s’il décide de réaliser le plan tel qu’il a été dessiné. Fig. 7. La surface sur laquelle on applique le CUS augmente à fur et à mesure que le proprietaire réalise ce que la communauté a établi. Le but de la règle est évident: transformer une pénalisation, l’expropriation, en un prix, l’augmentation de la surface réalisable, autant plus haut que la satisfaction de la communauté (voir réalisé le plan tel qu’il a été adopté). A noter que l’option intermédiaire b) a été introduite pour faire face à des exigences du propriétaire non prévisibles à l’époque de rédaction du plan. Encore à noter que dans les deux options b) et c) l’acquisition des DPM est réellement gratuite pour l’Administration, mais elle est rémunérée au propriétaire. En effet la valeur de la surface de la DPM est récupérée par le propriétaire au prix du marché, à travers le montant que lui payent les acheteurs de la surface supplémentaire qu’il a pu réaliser grâce à la cession “gratuite”. ARKEOS 38-39 | 237 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management Autant évident est le but du dessin de sol: si on veut que le propriétaire réalise le plan tel qu’il est, il faut que la position de la DPM dans la parcelle soit la plus convenable pour lui. Ce dernier aspect de la “autorégulations” introduit une révolution copernicienne dans la planification urbaine: s’il veut que le plan atteigne les intérêts généraux qu’il envisage, l’urbaniste, formé à ignorer les intérêts particuliers, doit localiser les grands équipements de manière d’atteindre l’équilibre globale du système, mais dessiner les détails en prenant en compte juste ces intérêts. Conclusions L’analyse des tissus urbains comme résultat des conflits privé/publique et les normes de autorégulations qui permettent de les contourner libèrent urbanistes et décideurs politiques du dilemme sauvegarde/évolution des bâtis historiques et, plus en général, des problèmes d’affectation publique des terrains résiduels existant à l’intérieur de la ville. Une innovation de la technique de planification urbaine qui a changé le rôle et l’approche de tous les acteurs impliqués. Dans la phase de rédaction du plan, les administrateurs ont pu décider la localisation des DPMs sans la préoccupation de perdre du consensus Les propriétaires ont renversé l’approche à la localisation des DPMs sur leur propriété, en passant du rejet au souhait. Les urbanistes ont été obligés de changer d’approche. De professionnels qui devaient ignorer les intérêts particuliers (ou faire semblant de) à experts qui les utilise pour viser l’intérêt général. Qui analyse les conflits qui ont généré la morphologie du bâti ancien pour en tirer les règles qui permettent de contourner le dilemme sauvegarde / évolution. Dans la phase d’actuation, l’Administration économise l’indemnisation qu’aurait dû payer pour l’expropriation des aires à DPM; le propriétaire peut modifier tout simplement le dessin de sol en déplaçant la DPM à l’intérieur de sa parcelle, là où il lui convient le plus, sans pour autant déséquilibrer les prescriptions du plan. 238 | ARKEOS 38-39 Brief reflection on the role of jurisprudent’s professors on the sustainability of human life on Earth, Eduardo Vera-Cruz Pinto Brief reflection on the role of jurisprudent’s professors on the sustainability of human life on Earth Eduardo Vera-Cruz Pinto1 T he idea that we briefly present is the necessity of a Universal Law education as a sustainable solution for the juridical defense of human beings on Earth and the responsibility of jurisprudent teachers to accomplish it. An education in rupture with the ways of creation and application of Law and university methods of juridical teaching. A Law for the digital era: Universal and personal, that allows for a sustainable return to nature and to solidary connection between people2. It’s always an inspiration and an example, Trêncio’s quote. Homo suum: nihil humani a me alenum puto3, for all the jurisprudents that study and teach law as a mean for the universal Justice. Therefore, a universal Law, not only trans-national, that doesn’t identify itself with the “international Law” of States that integrate the UN Security Council (lex mundi), and that doesn’t bend to the demands of an unfair and a-juridical globalization, standard appliance of an imperium orbis terrae. A universal law that corresponds to one ordo iuris whose rules integrate the ontic dimension of a unique reality (universitas), overcoming iura propria of many States. Exceeding the illusion of a societas iuridica perfecta and having rejected the possibility of a princeps gubernator orbis terrarum, we have invested in a process of juridical inclusion through a Ius Commune Humanitatis4 1 Faculdade de Direito da Universidade de Lisboa. Instituto de Direito Brasileiro. 2 See, for example, AA. VV. Fraternidade e Sustentabilidade no Direito (Fraternity and Sustentability in Law), org. Clarissa Chagas Sanches Monassa et alli, Curitiba, Instituto da Memória, 2015. 3 Terêncio, Heautontimoroumenos, v. 77. 4 After the conclusion of my Doctorate thesis investigation “História do Direito Comum da Humanidade. Ius Commune Humanitatis ou Lex Mundi” (History of Humanity’s Common Law, Ius Commune Humanitatis ou Lex Mundi,), Vol.I, tomos I and II, AAFDL, Lisbon, respec- ARKEOS 38-39 | 239 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management thas has, as a central element of the humanitas integration, the amicitia (friendship) between people and the responsibility between generations. The creation/adaptation of a group of juridical rules to a limited situa tion: in the relationship between people; in the experience of a Human being inhabiting the Earth; sharing resources between people for a life with dignity – this has become a categorical imperative for the juridical way of the digital era. Concerning the predatory and unconcerned behavior of people and institutions in a world political environment of economic dependence of the crushing majority of humanity facing the richest and polluted countries; and to the shown incapacity of politics and managers to amend or invert that human catastrophe route, the duty to interfere is given to jurisprudent teachers. The background of that intervention is focused on the University relies on the possibility of a juridical understanding of this phenomenon to a: new human-environmental theme that is plural and diverse based on interdisciplinarity; the didactic innovation in the university education of Law overcoming the traditional boundaries; on a pedagogy that put into practice the stated values, recreating learning methods with the help of new technology; in a sensibilization to justice for the Law, where creation and application of rules has its origin in an occurring case. For the possibility of such education in the University, we need a public political option for an integral ecological education in basic educa tion, in the families, in churches and also of the teachers, intellectuals and artists’ diligence; an ecological education made through citizenship and a political participation that invests on the transformation of thinking and behaviors inverting the current apocalyptic reality. To get out of the tunnel/spiral where we are, of repression and violence, as an answer to barbarism and to the injustice and to create the conditions for its prevention. To harmonize the family and social ties and to eliminate the causes of resentment, of prejudice and complexes to the sharing, integration and inclusion policies of the excluded – since tively, 2003 and 2014 we did many approches, in investigation projects, to subjects connected to the pedagogy for an integral juridical ecology of a human being on the universal field. We propose, on the idea of sustainability and concerning the future of the human being on Earth, the creation of a subject of Universal Law register on the curricula of Law university courses with cientific autonomy, didatic, pedagogic and with a jurisprudencial foundation. 240 | ARKEOS 38-39 Brief reflection on the role of jurisprudent’s professors on the sustainability of human life on Earth, Eduardo Vera-Cruz Pinto childhood, in a persistent and supported way. To respect the life of all creatures knowing how to create hierarchies and the notion of limit; to reveal and to spread the inspiring examples; and to teach good relationship practices. In an adverse ambience, some Law teachers that pay attention to the World and to the people, have been answering with studies, investigations, congresses and many contributions for overcoming of obstacles created by certain legislators and some magistrates towards an effective defense of the human gender and to life on Earth. That competent contribute, opportune and well intentioned hasn’t been enough to invert the process of human and ecological degradation. Little improvements – after herculean efforts with few or none impact on the field – are presented by the polluters/financers of some of those juridical-environmental investigation projects and international scientific meetings as great environmental victories. They are not. In the doctorate field, the Law teachers that are worried on making theory, on classifying, on discussing and conceptualizing, have been rendering more dense the normative contained and have been allowing for a suitable application for the courts, but they have not been able to clarify and to make consensual and understandable the juridical discourse about the subject. The solidarity or fraternity rights with community vocation and collective titularity have not been solved, as a reflection that have a globalized vision of the juridical that holds, without remission, the most unprotected and info-excluded human being at a localism of misery and dependence. It’s recent rawlsian inspiration (people’s rights), without novel ty or dogmatic creativity, denoted – in the ideological origin – the bad conscience of a society that, preaching Justice, keeps privilege over the majority of invisible humans that live on the edge. The multi-nationals that dominate the worlds of juridical edition, of the university Law education and the juridical careers, putted into charge to distribute the ideas and the authors, to create schools and disciples and to grind up the scientific investigation with this thematic closed. It has been established the politically correct and what is acceptable as universitary and scientific. The political power had settled down to this, with few expenses; adapted it’s speech to this new dogmas; it chose it’s official authors; ARKEOS 38-39 | 241 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management selected the gurus of the possible environmental thinking – and has achieved to maintain all the same. The taxes pay the debt interests of the State to bankers and to nourish the financial system; the public services and the rather common are given, by the States in debt, to privates to satisfy the profits that motivates it. The human and environmental degradation grows with speeches of convenient criticism that, through the appearance of free contradictory and democratic, guarantee the survival of the predatory system. The political-legal blockade, defrayed by the courts of strict legality, inside the States to the constitutional rules that obligate the government and the enterprises to modify procedures at a labor, familiar, environmental and fiscal level. etc.; the international and systemic boycott to the direct and immediate application of the norms of the Declarations of Human, the People and Family Rights, and of the treaties that look into answering to the degradation of human beings and to the destruction of nature – constitute an immense and dangerous discredit of the international institutions and the principal power leader. The scandals of political corruption, titular of international organizations and managers, and the irresponsible and luxurious life of a world aristocracy that lives of easy investments through the bribery and profits obtained with frauds and crimes, increases the conscience of inequality and injustices between human beings, promoted by a financial and politi cal system that had come since the II World War and already without any sense to nowadays (ONU’s; FMI’s; OMC’s, etc. Security Council). The utilization by the governments of words and ideas consensually accepted – as liberty and democracy – repeated in speeches of propaganda conveyed by the media with an unique source (diffusion agency) to prepare the people to accept the imposition of civil wars to pacific and united people; murders by the lynch of inconvenient leaders; programmed genocides by forced dislocation of people (refugees); patrimonial and environmental catastrophes, to give opportunity to new business creating bigger inequalities. The programmed weakening of international institutions that don’t accept to follow the orders of certain governments or to serve national interests by the refusal of financing and for its unbelieved communication; and the instability of the primal raw material prices (Developing States) and of the public services given to the population (Social State) 242 | ARKEOS 38-39 Brief reflection on the role of jurisprudent’s professors on the sustainability of human life on Earth, Eduardo Vera-Cruz Pinto – invoking the working of the market through the rating agencies – and obligating to political subjugation of people affected by the inevitable contracted debt taxes, it is no longer acceptable and places the principal world economies in contradiction with the values proclaimed and that legitimate it politically. The actual education of Law – that can only innovate in the border of the juridical as long as it doesn’t become a threat to the monopolist legalist system of State and the casino economy in vigor – explains the reality existent from the laws that maintain it, legitimating the status quo in vigor. The legitimate narrative, focused on the principal of legality, is averse to the critic spirit and to the created liberty. The pulverization of the juridical through the technique specialization5 community about the society; and the victory of power to the auctoritas on the access to justice. An autotomized right for many departments and disciplines increa singly removed to one another in their specificities and removed from the juridical-cultural nucleus; with cosmopolitan specialists of each one of them with few juridical culture and few experience and maturity on “Law things”, gifted with an excellent legal technique but without the comprehension of the contexts and the solution effects – it encourages the conservatives of this heritage of human and ecological destruction; and is the best guarantee that everything will continue like this for a long period of time for the best of a minority. The non-critical and rushed imposition of the standard model of Bologna to the public system of European Higher education by bureaucrats of community institutions and by unprepared national members of governments, some of them providing service to the university education multinationals, allowed the European States governments a brutal disinvestment in the public education without any competitive gain or educational integration. The private universities thank the public universities – controlled by the governments through the administrative and financial way weak5 We can’t treat here the impact of Heidegger’s thesis about the technologic society on the ideas of Hans Jonas about the human and natural effects of the technification accelerated of our societies. Let’s point out only the way how the omnipresence of the technique had created an limited self-sufficiency that affects the human being and the natural. The increased individua tion/subjectivation conducts to the loneliness and rejection of the risks of human relationships (avoiding the other) resorting to a neutral friend and to the pet humanized, passive and docile. There is not a compromise, neither participation, neither citizenship neither very common. ARKEOS 38-39 | 243 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management ened in its autonomy – form students to the employment policies of the governments and the need of company boards. With this university Law education there will be no critical mass capable of creating a Law that has the conditions to overtake the challenges given to humanity. The doctrinaire and manual panorama of the Law presents authorial vitality and market. But it is a short term thing and represents a bad result to the sustainability of a Law that is capable – that we wait and that we are desperate for – to answer to nowadays unhuman and desertification situation. The decadent constitutionalism is reinvented by these causes, by resisting to an open notion of fundamental rights; the civil law, incapable of recovering of the abandonment of the roman identity principal, look for, without success, a solution in the personal rights of the third generation: the environmental law invests in impossible ruptures facing its state-administrative nature. Each one of other subjects presents some details allowing this thematic to fit in its classis contents. The result is clear to everyone: we are not, as jurisprudents teachers, succeeding in making politics/leaders to adopt the most adequate solutions that were offered in the texts; the principal instrument of a right world-wide government – the law and the treaties – does not express the juridical rules. We can’t wait for changes that are outside of our possibility (on the Politic universe). It’s our duty to change it. With all respect for whom continues (through the juridical matters that are in vigor) and sees the way, it looks that a good solution is to construct, through the Law education, a universal law that includes all departments and juridical subjects in its personalist jurisprudential essence (without falling in the encyclopedic scope), that has as interest the guardi anship and integrity on nature and in harmony with other ways of life. A different education in Law Schools, with the dignity to be designated as Universities (that pass through, inside the class didactics, from knowledge to sapience and from this to life affairs and its fair solution for the law). An education with a new method: from the case to the rule and from the rule to the solution/sentence; from argument exception’s group to the applicable rule, for the creation of new rules; from the sentence, given in concrete, to the understanding and acceptance of the community that receives it; from the auctor of the sentence to the auctoritas of the professor that teaches it. 244 | ARKEOS 38-39 Brief reflection on the role of jurisprudent’s professors on the sustainability of human life on Earth, Eduardo Vera-Cruz Pinto To win the generalization processes and legal abstraction; the processual autocracies, that benefit who break the rules, without defense guaranties; the common sense words, without juridical contents, and the useful concepts; the propagation of institutional proposals and normative – it would be already a big step. Then, we need to incorporate without adopting the many explanations about the causes and effects of wild in-humanization and desertification of our actual society (super modern – Georges Blandier; from the risk – Ulrich Beck; from the technique - Hans Jonas; liquid – Zygmunt Bauman; from the fraternity – António Baggio). For long, the jurisprudents that take interest in the integral defense of a person, ask for public politics, human investment, scientific and didactic creativity, adequate pedagogy, methodologic innovation and digital application to defense, for the Right of the human being. They do it in a dispersed and casual way. It is necessary to do it, with urgency, that’s what we think, for the proposal of a universal right. That is because of its universal capacity of its rules and the potentiality of Justice of the respective contents. If the attention to a personalist integral ecology subject, that gives the priority to justice and to friendship/fraternity, passes through extra-juridical events as the letter of Pope Francis Laudatio Si; or for ambiental catastrophes that reaches USA’s population – so may they be valued on the speeches about the matter to open the doors of Law to this urgent need to defend the human beings on Earth. The professors’ jurisprudents have to be compromised on the creation of a right to the future that passes through the investment in rules of universal precaution/prevention which juridicity relies on the possibility of an open justice with its application to the cases that generate conflict between people, between groups, institutions, maintaining or rearranging peace. That universal possibility of future relies on many principles and juridical categories harmonized on the idea of sustainability6. 6 This is not the place to separate concepts, institutes, categories principals, values, quali ties and ideas in Law. That separation is essential for the clarity of expressed ideas and the possibility of regulation, normation and application of what was proposed by the jurisprudent teachers. We avoid to talk about “sustainable development” in virtue of the actual juridical critique - which we cannot develop here - of the progressist/developments thesis. ARKEOS 38-39 | 245 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management Therefore – starting from the statement that, normally, the university Law education contributes for the aggravation of human and ambient degradation – I propose, as initial attempt of jurisprudentia to invert the process of natural and human devastation, the university education of a universal law as a sustainable solution for the human being on this planet. It’s not enough, in Law, to think differently; it is necessary to do differently and, for that purpose, we need to teach differently in a sustainable way. 246 | ARKEOS 38-39 Part 2 Thinking across disciplines Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management 248 | ARKEOS 38-39 Essay on notion about landscape’s preservation, Sofiane Si-Ammour Essay on notion about landscape’s preservation SOFIANE SI-AMMOUR Abstract: The landscape is an integrated part of our lives; man has always used it as a territorial benchmark and a source of food and comfort. The landscape management tends to keep natural and cultural landscape sustainable by protec ting it under law, promoting it through conservation, restoration and mediation. Culture heritage does not basically mean cultures, because they evolve in a natural context of a culture heritage which had been exposed to different changes. It is a part a natural heritage who kept ecosystems, historical records and biodiversity facing their own sustainability. Keywords: Landscape; Culture heritage; sustainability; preservation. Introduction T he landscape notion risen in France with different definitions (Gardens, natural parks, painting art…), and evolved in England with the urban mapping according the relation between man and space. Then, it becomes a multidisciplinary science which combines other scientific disciplines to enlarge our knowledge. The first aim goal was to promote the building planning according healthy norms and giving each landscape sites valorization, protection, making park cities, and other territorial planning, which gives free access to the public with planned spaces (Historical gardens), all of this respecting the directives of landscape preservation and conservation. The landscape actors are (scientists, planners, architects, artists, gardeners…), giving formal and functional coherence to different project types of planning territories, with the ability to be evaluated by the authorities, in order to keep this closed to the sustainable development. One of the best examples is the garden planning in the palaces and castles, a transformation to a vulgarization of nature and to an engineering masterpiece. The planning of historical gardens is an interesting perspective, ARKEOS 38-39 | 249 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management cause it allows to the public to enjoy visiting sites (managed, renovated, entertained and under law protection) (Donadieu, 2007). The conservation is important to preserve natural and historical sites or cultural knowledge to the future generations which will be responsible to impose new challenges for all sectors of society (politicians, businessmen, educators, media…). So, Geoconservation must also be considered to determine which geosites should be a subject of protection from the nature conservation and land use and to be representative of a natural heritage also. The role of conservation, protection and restoration doesn’t stop here, we also have to matter about the valorization and the mediation, by organizing circuits of visits, publications, scientific seminars, museum expositions, education sessions, and plane the landscapes with commo dities which doesn’t deteriorate the landscape on itself and preserving the view on the landscape (Strohmayer, 2014). In fact, managing a landscape needs a geopolitical stability to go beyond the academia and intervene through practical applications, many archaeological researches, artifacts and sites were deteriorated or destroyed cause of political or social instability; by wars, terrorism, or just by bad conservation managements (See Image 1. Image 2). Image 1. Archaeological park of San Augustin in Comobia. Source: (Photo: HARIZA Aljandro Manuel, 2012). 250 | ARKEOS 38-39 Essay on notion about landscape’s preservation, Sofiane Si-Ammour Image 2. Archaeological megalith site of Sigus in Algeria. Source: (http://www. panoramio.com/photo/95536788). Archaeology provides understanding on the relation between resources and needs, techniques and energy, knowledge and territory. And it offers to contemporary society a vision of the past landscape (Oosterbeek, 2010). Landscapes are constantly changing due to factors like climate, geological activities, urbanism…, and we see that some living entities (vegetal, animals, insects, humans) have to manage themselves to survive to hard supporting conditions such as an extreme environment, by adaption or migration where others are sentenced to extinction. So, how societies faced the global changes when other collapses, as the Polynesians who settled an Island and created a society based on agricultural chiefdoms, transported and erected giant stone heads, and made their own end by non managing the resources. In other case, the landscape change was close to the human evolution by transforming a forest to a savannah in east Africa. ARKEOS 38-39 | 251 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management Landscape Management Human participate greatly to the landscape changing, and this begun even before that the agriculture emerges (Neolithic) with applying new activities to domesticate plants, using deforestations and hill planning for domestic animals, building villages until that the urban civilization arrive modifying absolutely the initial form of the ancient landscape (orlove). According to ethnological and archaeological records, we can say that past societies managed their space according to their activities and their way of living (Hunters, gatherers, cultivators, sedentary, nomads). As an example we take the Khoisan camps, it shows that small and rudimentary structures are built on a hierarchical order, age classes and ritual activities and due to resources procurement, which interpret social organizations accentuated by symbols translating their believes. The relation between men and space depends on how men see their space, for a hunter-gatherer an empty space doesn’t exist cause of its high degree of mobility, he just appropriate and symbolize the landscape by marks put directly on the landscape features; as a message for himself and for the ethic membership. Paleolithic sites distribution shows that the sites were not just chosen for dietary needs and are connected to a symbolic mode and seasonal movements. The humans knew their landscape very well and respected the availability of substances resources, and that’s what helped the human kind to survive over all those ages. The human gender is sensitive to its environment, and all the adap tations that occurred through time due to the climate changes could be seen through cultural changes and modifications, as a way of a new adaptation to a changing environment, like the arrival of domestication when men begun managing their landscape according their activity (farming), built new architectural structures… The myths, also plays a major role on social distribution and on landscape management. Sacred places for rituals or burials are defined. So, men changed their close ecosystem according to their needs, but this doesn’t change the global environment. But it has left indications which archaeologists know as a cultural past remain (tangible or not tangible), of a past occupation, with social connection with other human groups (or not), who could be from the same social group. 252 | ARKEOS 38-39 Essay on notion about landscape’s preservation, Sofiane Si-Ammour Man has always chosen shelter places to get protected from some natural phenomena, as to get protected from wind or dust and predators, he sometimes uses what the natural landscape offers to him (Rock shelters, caves…), or just chose to built enough strong structures which gives adequate protection from those inconvenient, according to their needs and their daily activities. But it has to response to the universal laws of protection (Wind deviation and breaks) which are well known in prehistory, from the middle Paleolithic. Many prehistoric sites shows how space was modified for plants and animals domestication (Isernia, Venosa), where other spaces were reserved for the sacred and rituals during religious ceremonies initiations, mythical development and funerary acts. Anthropology has clearly demonstrated that funerary ceremonies does not systematically means burial, it consists also on cremation, exposure to birds of prey, methodological dismemberments and return to water or air, and every kind of ceremony needs a special structure made from what nature, space, environment and landscape offers (Ex. Dolmens), depending of the believes of each cultural human groups. Somehow, some nomads have just to reserve a located area for the dead burials. Finally, all of this means that trying to know How and Why humans had changed their landscape, we need first to know their own way of social organization, their activities, the reached resources, and their religious or cultural believes… and so on (Otte, 2011). Valorization of landscapes The last process of preservation and conservation is the valorization of the conserved subject and its mediation to the public and for the future generations. But how can we give valorization to a landscape? We have to evaluate the importance of the landscape and the potential dangers, and then make visit circuits, education session, scientific expedition and researches, opening nearly specialized center or information kiosks. But with some reliefs, it becomes so hard to organize such of these activities, so for that we have to modify the landscape view again, by putting adequate structures for our need (See Image 3.) (Just as in prehistory but in a new totally different context), many infrastructures ARKEOS 38-39 | 253 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management could be built according to the respect of the nature and of the contest of each site, and what it can contain in particular (Geological sites, archaeological sites, Landscape view, historical parks). Because some people are deeply in need of this, the US national parks recorded 270 million visitors per year (Pena dos Reid & al, 2009). This natural or culture heritage does not promote itself by itself, it needs infrastructures organi zations and good planning management. Image 3. Pão de Açúcar at Rio de Janeiro (Brazil). Source: (Pena dos Reid & al, 2009). The valorization comes after the primal studies of a site and its restoration, conservation, and areas planning. Then, it has to be cons tantly preserved and entertained. Giving a value to a site is in a way to promote on the presentation of all the potential (Cultural, historical, natural) of a site by managing it, in order to give free circuit access for the interested public to that potential, creating all good and secured access structures with the respect of the conservation and preservation norms, avoiding its own deterioration which could occur by humans or due to natural phenomena. 254 | ARKEOS 38-39 Essay on notion about landscape’s preservation, Sofiane Si-Ammour Protecting every kind of sites does not only mean to preserve it, It also means to be protected under law. For example, inscribing a site to the UNESCO historical and natural site list; is one of the steps to follow if we want to preserve a heritage. Many administrative organizations have this goal in mind, when other acts directly into the site others secures the site legally, with charts and law articles (La charte de Florence 1981). After the valorization, the mediation took place and acts primordially on the transmission of information related to the site, by organizing events like: Summer schools, seminars and scientific communications, touches with local populations, Museum expositions, guided in situ visits, and personal implication in practical workshops, documentaries, scientific expeditions…all of these helps a lot a novice person to understand the importance of this heritage, and sensitize to population about the needs to preserve this heritage as long as it is possible, cause it is a part of our history (Oosterbeek, 2010). Conclusion To conclude, we have done a quick flight over the notion of Landscape and the convergences related to it. There is not only one landscape but curiously there can be as landscapes as our perception can create or imagine, it can be a simple artistic canvas or a plane view. It depends on what we consider as a landscape, and on what we see as a landscape. Human kind has from the early ages used this notion without considering it as a notion, but as a living space where they have to express and to adapt themselves, facing the environment, climate, reliefs… to survive by counting on the knowledge of the landscape, what it has to offer or what it has to take off from theme. The importance of a culture heritage is not only based on cultures cause cultures evolve in a natural context, in an area which is exposed to different facts and conditions causing changes through time. So as is the cultural heritage important for us; the natural heritage is also needed to keep the biodiversity and ecosystems and historical records sustainable. ARKEOS 38-39 | 255 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management Acknowledgments Thanks to Mr Oosterbeek and all the actors of the IPT museum during the APHELIA seminar, and all the participants of the IP 2015. References DONADIEU. P, (2007) – Le paysage, les paysagistes et le développement durable: quelles perspectives ?, Économie rurale [En ligne], 297-298 | janvier-avril 2007, mis en ligne le 01 mars 2009, consulté le 11 octobre 2012. URL: http://economierurale.revues.org/1923. HENRIQUES M.H et al, (2011) – Geoconcervation as an emerging geoscience. Geoheritage 3: 117-128. 2011. Orlove.B, (2005) – Human adaptation to climate change: A new review of three historical cases sand some general perspectives. Environmental science & policy 8 (2005) 589-600. OOSTERBEEK.L, (2010) – Is there a role for the humanities in face of the global warming and social crisis? In: Changing Nature – Changing Sciences?, organised by ICSS and CIPSH in Nagoya, Japan, the 13-14 December 2010. OOSTERBEEK.L, (2010) – Maçao: Changing the gestures of the eyes to invent new landscapes. In: Cultural heritage and local development: Local communities through heritage awareness and global understanding.Copyright 2010 © Centro Universitario Europeo per i Beni Culturali Territori della Cultura è una testata iscritta al Tribunale della Stampa di Roma. Registrazione n. 344 del 05/08/2010. OTTE.M, (2011) – The management of space during the Paleolithic. Quaternary Interna tional 1-18, 2011. PENA DOS REIS.R, HENRIQUES.M.H, (2009) – Approaching an integrated qualification and evaluation system for Geological heritage. Geoheritage, Springer-Verlag 2009. STROHMAYER.U, (2014) – Social spatiality: some rudimentary thoughts on the epistemology of Benno Werlen. Geographica Helvetica, 69, 139-143, 2014. 256 | ARKEOS 38-39 Gestion et aménagement des territoires par les populations traditionnelles en Amazonie Brésilienne, Gabriela Maria Ribeiro Guterres, Marie Sigrist Gestion et aménagement des territoires par les populations traditionnelles en Amazonie Brésilienne GABRIELA MARIA RIBEIRO GUTERRES, MARIE SIGRIST Abstract: In the issue of the research about sustainable utilization of natural resources in brazilian Amazon, we aim to know better the participation of traditional populations within this framework ideally protagonists of sustainable development, they should be involved in landscape management. Three notions are brought forward into this theme: the notion of landscape into the context of territorial demarcation and territorial management; the second notion is about traditional populations into the context of traditional knowledge and the notion of biodiversity into the context of natural resources supply. Mots-clés: Populations traditionnelles, territoires, savoirs locaux, ressources naturelles, Amazonie. Introduction P our aborder la question de l’aménagement et de la gestion des territoires par les populations traditionnelles, il est essentiel de donner un cadre au concept même de populations traditionnelles. L’anthropologue brésilienne Manuela Carneiro da Cunha, dans Cultura com Aspas (2009), donne sa vision dans le débat politique brésilien sur le statut des populations traditionnelles. Ainsi, elle défend que les populations traditionnelles sont des groupes qui ont conquis, ou luttent pour conquérir, une identité publique environnementaliste qui inclut certaines caractéristiques: l’usage de techniques environnementales de bas impact, des formes équitables d’organisation sociale, la présence ou l’alliance d’institutions légitimes dans l’application des lois, la présence de leaders locaux et enfin des traits culturels qui sont constamment réaffirmés et réélaborés. Toutes ces caractéristiques sont intimement liées à la question de l’identité culturelle, de l’identité sociale et de l’identité territoriale. CeARKEOS 38-39 | 257 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management pendant, il existe des pressions environnementales et politiques qui pèsent sur les populations traditionnelles et leurs territoires. Elles mettent en péril la pérennité des ressources naturelles et les valeurs culturelles ou identitaires de ces populations. Leurs modes de gestion sont alors questionnés, et c’est le plus souvent dans la lutte que les communautés traditionnelles revendiquent leur reconnaissance et leurs droits. Il s’agit dans cet essai de s’interroger sur l’implication des populations traditionnelles dans la durabilité des paysages. En d’autres termes, quelle est la place des populations locales dans la gestion des territoires? Au-delà de la notion des savoirs locaux liés aux populations traditionnelles, il s’agira d’évoquer les problématiques liées aux territoires de ces populations, tout en corrélant ces notions à la question de la biodiversité et de la durabilité des ressources. Méthodologie Nous avons réalisé notre argumentation à partir d’une revue de litté rature basée sur trois points: – Multiplicité des groupes compris dans l’expression «populations traditionnelles» et leurs interactions avec le milieu. – Reconnaissance et démarcation des territoires des populations traditionnelles. – Mobilisation des savoirs locaux dans la durabilité de la biodiversité et l’alimentation des populations 1. Nature, sociétés traditionnelles et territoires 1.1. Nature-culture, les différents paradigmes sur les représentations de la nature Depuis longtemps, l’anthropologie s’intéresse aux différentes représentations de l’environnement par les sociétés. Descola (2005) propose quatre ontologies construites sur les relations de différences ou similitudes entre intériorités et physicalités, que l’on peut assimiler respectivement à l’âme et au corps. Par ces relations, les populations conçoivent leur 258 | ARKEOS 38-39 Gestion et aménagement des territoires par les populations traditionnelles en Amazonie Brésilienne, Gabriela Maria Ribeiro Guterres, Marie Sigrist rapport à la nature. Deux ontologies nous intéressent particulièrement pour expliquer les diverses conceptions sur la nature, entre le modèle Occidental et le modèle Amérindien. Tout d’abord, Descola (2005) définit l’ontologie du naturalisme, attribuée à l’Occident, selon laquelle humains et non-humains ont les mêmes physicalités puisqu’ils sont tous composés par les mêmes éléments physiques, chimiques et biologiques. Cependant, dans cette même ontologie, l’âme n’est attribuée qu’aux humains, différenciant humains et non-humains sur le plan de l’intériorité. A l’opposé, les Amérindiens d’Amazonie s’inscrivent dans l’ontologie de l’animisme basée sur une ressemblance d´intériorités, c’est-à-dire qu’humains et non humains sont porteurs d’une âme. Cependant, humains et non-humains sont ici différenciés par leur corps physique. Dans les sociétés occidentales, la gestion et l’aménagement du territoire reflètent l’opposition entre nature et culture, propre au naturalisme. Cette dichotomie ne reflète-t-elle pas l’idée que l’Homme serait nuisible à la nature ? Les soucis environnementaux contemporains, tels que l’exploitation intensive des ressources, le réchauffement climatique, la pollution, et bien d’autres encore, tendent à positionner l’Homme comme l’ennemi de la nature. Comment ce positionnement Occidental peut-il inclure les populations traditionnelles dans les programmes de gestion des territoires, alors que ces populations ne séparent pas la nature de la culture? Ces programmes de gestion aboutissent parfois à l’exclusion des peuples tradi tionnels des aires de préservation. 1.2. Diversité des groupes sociaux sur les territoires Amazoniens Au Brésil, de nombreuses communautés cherchent à affirmer leurs identités. Le processus d’identification est double : les identités sont à la fois définies par des acteurs extérieurs (scientifiques, organisations gouvernementales ou non gouvernementales, etc.) et par les communautés elles-mêmes. Ainsi, de nouvelles identités naissent et de nouveaux groupes sociaux revendiquent leur existence. Parmi toutes ces communautés, certaines ont plus de visibilité, soit par leurs pratiques extractivistes (collecte de produits forestiers non ligneux à des fins commerciales), soit par leurs origines ethniques. ARKEOS 38-39 | 259 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management Ainsi, les Amérindiens entretenant peu de contact avec des populations régionales disposent de leurs propres structures sociales, peu influencées par la culture occidentale. Ils pratiquent le commerce de manière sporadique. Les connaissances spécifiques à ces groupes ont des origines mythiques et sociales qui structurent le groupe en tant que tel (Lima & Pozzobon, 2005). Les Amérindiens dépendant de productions marchandes sont quant à eux des peuples dont le territoire ne permet pas la subsistance du groupe pour des diverses raisons (démographie, proximité des villes, taille du territoire, etc.). Par conséquent, le groupe se tourne vers la production de biens pour sa propre consommation et vers la vente d’excédents. La réalité de ces populations se heurte au manque de ressources, lié par exemple aux extinctions locales de certaines espèces animales chassées. Par ailleurs, l’intégration de ces groupes à la société de consommation a pour conséquence l’érosion partielle de leurs savoirs traditionnels. Certains individus vont par exemple chercher à travailler dans les villes, laissant de côté les activités traditionnelles du groupe. D’autre part, certaines connaissances sont restreintes aux membres les plus âgées et risquent de disparaître avec eux (Lima & Pozzobon, 2005). D’autres groupes sont désignés par des noms génériques, comme Ribeirinhos, Seringueiros, Quilombolas. Les Ribeirinhos sont les habitants de régions rurales aux marges des rivières amazoniennes, parfois issues des vagues de migration d’autres régions du pays. Ces communautés exercent des activités saisonnières dépendant de la pluviométrie et du niveau d’eau des rivières. Ces activités sont la pêche, l’agriculture et l’extractivisme, à différentes échelles. La finalité de ces activités s’oriente vers la consommation du foyer ou vers la vente (Cañete & Cañete, 2010). Les Seringueiros, qui vivent principalement de l’extraction et de la production du caoutchouc, sont imprégnées de vastes connaissances sur leurs espaces naturels. De ces connaissances dépendent des représentations de l’environnement qui dépassent les enjeux productivistes du travail d’extraction du caoutchouc (Marchese, 2005). Quant aux Quilombolas, il s’agit des descendants des anciens esclaves qui ont fui les fermes et se sont réfugiés dans la forêt pour y vivre, en attendant l’abolition de l’esclavage. Souvent caractérisés par l’isolement et la quasi autarcie ou autonomie, leurs modes de vie sont de tradition orale et leurs coutumes sont perpétuées dans le temps (Schmitt, Turatti & De Carvalho 2002). Ces trois 260 | ARKEOS 38-39 Gestion et aménagement des territoires par les populations traditionnelles en Amazonie Brésilienne, Gabriela Maria Ribeiro Guterres, Marie Sigrist derniers groupes sont des exemples de la multiplicité des peuples installés dans la région Amazonienne, au fil des différents événements historiques qui ont marqué le Brésil. Leurs modes de vie et leurs activités sont la combinaison de traits culturels ibériques, de connaissances indiennes et de l’adaptation au milieu amazonien. Ces combinaisons subsistent dans divers domaines: l’alimentation, la culture de plantes, les méthodes de pêche et de chasse et les outils employés dans les chaînes techniques. Ces mélanges de référence culturelles – transmis localement de façon informelle et orale – sont aussi marqués par la présence d’éléments de la cosmologie amérindienne, notamment dans les croyances et les mythes (Arruda, 1999; Lima & Pozzobon, 2005). La typologie dressée ci-dessus n’est pas exhaustive puisque plusieurs autres communautés existent et tentent de faire reconnaître leur identité: les caboclos, les sertanejos, les quebradeiras de babaçu, etc. Énumérer toutes ces catégories s’avère complexe car elles sont poreuses: un même individu peut se définir comme appartenant à deux catégories à la fois. Par exemple, durant l’âge d’or du caoutchouc (fin XIXe, début XXe siècle), certains seringueiros ont fondé des familles avec des Amérindiens Kunta nawa. Leurs descendants s’inscrivent dans un processus de construction identitaire, propre à ce mélange de cultures (Pantoja, 2013). D’autre part, des groupes appelés communément «nouveaux Amérindiens» ou caboclos sont d’apparence physique et culturelle très proche des populations régionales (occidentales) mais se revendiquent tout de même Amérindiens car issus d’un métissage Amérindien-populations d’origine ibérique (Le Tourneau, 2006). L’apprentissage de l’environnement passe par la culture, particulièrement, pour les populations traditionnelles. Les relations que les êtres humains entretiennent avec leur milieu et ses composants sont indispensables à la survie. Dans certaines situations, elles contribuent au maintien des pratiques religieuses et sociales (Descola 2005). Pourtant, les sciences appliquées des gestionnaires formés sur des bases naturalistes – avec des connaissances cadrées dans la méthode scientifique et des objectifs précis – peinent à faire écho aux connaissances traditionnelles transversales, qui recherchent des objectifs distincts (Berkes, 2004). L’aboutissement des projets conservationnistes passe par la considération des connaissances traditionnelles afin de concevoir le milieu et comprendre les représentations des populations, les divisions territoriales et les conflits. ARKEOS 38-39 | 261 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management 1.3. La notion de territoire La multiplicité des peuples d’Amazonie est liée à plusieurs événements dans l’histoire du Brésil. C’est avec l’exploitation caoutchoutière que les grandes vagues d’immigration en Amazonie ont eu lieu dés le XIXe siècle. Lors de la seconde guerre mondiale, avec les accords de Washington en 1941, le Brésil s’engage à fournir du caoutchouc pour l’industrie des États-Unis. Le gouvernement brésilien recrute alors des ouvriers pour les envoyer dans les exploitations caoutchoutières d’Amazonie (Secreto, 2007). Au siècle suivant, dans les années 70, les politiques agraires visent le progrès et le développement hégémonique dans l’ensemble du pays. La région de l’Amazonie, considérée comme la plus en marge du développement, connaît ainsi des vagues d’immigration de populations venant du Sud, du Sud-Est et du Nordeste. De nombreux exploitants agricoles et travailleurs s’installent dans la région Amazonienne, parallèlement à la construction d’infrastructures conséquentes. Les infrastructures les plus révélatrices de cet engouement au développement furent les routes BR 364 et BR 230 pour l’acheminement de la main d’œuvre et des capitaux en Amazonie (Almeida, 2004; Teisenrec, 2009). Ainsi, de multiples populations sont présentes sur le territoire Amazonien. Il en découle une appropriation de territoires par des groupes sociaux différents. Par conséquent le territoire Amazonien est fragmenté et l’ensemble des populations sur ce territoire aussi. Ainsi, il existe une vaste mosaïque de peuples qui tissent chacun des relations avec leur environnement. Ces relations ont des bases diverses sur le plan matériel et métaphysique (Lima & Pozzobon, 2005). Cela signifie que des représentations et des utilisations différentes des territoires Amazoniens subsistent et varient selon les groupes sociaux. La territorialité est l’effort d’un groupe social pour occuper, contrôler, utiliser et s’identifier à une parcelle de son environnement biophysique, qui est le territoire (Little, 2002). La cosmographie d’un groupe, composante de l’identité culturelle, permet au groupe de s’établir et de maintenir son territoire. Elle inclut les savoirs du groupe, qui sont environnementaux, idéologiques et identitaires, ainsi que ses faits culturels passés et présents sur le territoire. L’identité culturelle est corrélée au territoire d’un groupe social par les liens sociaux, symboliques et rituels que ce groupe tisse avec son territoire. Selon Little (2002), plus l’occupation d’un peuple sur un 262 | ARKEOS 38-39 Gestion et aménagement des territoires par les populations traditionnelles en Amazonie Brésilienne, Gabriela Maria Ribeiro Guterres, Marie Sigrist territoire est ancienne, plus ses revendications à appartenir à ce territoire sont solides. Par ce lien identité-territoire, il en ressort une très grande diversité territoriale dans ce pays, qui se traduit par l’existence de terres protégées, configurées selon la Constitution de 1988. Une grande complexité des modes de gestion des territoires positionne les acteurs (populations traditionnelles, Gouvernement, firmes d’exploitation, ONG...) face à des enjeux de taille: la conservation de la biodiversité face au développement économique non durable, la superposition de territoires sous des juridictions différentes, etc. Les difficultés quant à l’aménagement des territoires protégés des populations traditionnelles sont donc nombreuses. Pourtant, depuis les années 90 les études archéologiques ont établi que les sociétés amérindiennes ont participé à l’entretien de la biodiversité et à la constitution du paysage amazonien dès l’époque précolombienne (Stahl, 1996; Heckenberger et al, 2007; Heckenberger & Neves, 2009). 2. Confrontations entre échelle locale et échelle étatique autour de la protection de la biodiversité. L’histoire du Brésil est indissociable de la malléabilité de ses frontières internes. Chaque expansion de territoire a produit des conflits mais aussi des nouvelles vagues de migration intérieures. Ces conflits peuvent affecter certaines communautés ou résulter en la constitution de nouveaux groupes sociaux, notamment, ceux liés aux territoires. Souvent, les zones entourant les territoires réservés aux populations traditionnelles sont peuplées ou exploitées. Des luttes peuvent alors émerger par la demande d’augmentation des territoires protégés pour les populations traditionnelles se heurtant à l’occupation des territoires par les grandes entreprises ou l’Etat (Le Tourneau, 2006). Les seringueiros, représentés par leur leader Chico Mendes, ont ainsi construit un nouvel espace politique et sont passés de l’ombre à la lumière. Ils obtiennent en 1989 la reconnaissance de la part de l’État fédéral et la création de la première réserve extractiviste (Alto Juruá) en 1989 (Almeida, 2004). On assiste alors à une transformation du droit coutumier en une réalité légale. La gestion de ces territoires passe alors de l’État à celle de l’União, (collectif des seringueiros) à l’échelle locale. Ce ARKEOS 38-39 | 263 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management système de gestion s’étend à d’autres communautés extractivistes revendiquant leurs droits: castanheiros (récolteurs de noix), quebradeiras de babaçu (récolteurs de coco), ribeirinhos... Actuellement, on dénombre 22 RESEX (Réserves Extractivistes) au Brésil (Aguiar et al., 2014). La gestion des territoires par les communautés traditionnelles est difficile à instaurer car elle doit faire face à l’un des principes de l’État Nation: la volonté d’un État déterminé à s’approprier un territoire homogène avec un peuple homogène. Dans la pratique cela est peu concevable car il n’existe pas un seul peuple homogène mais plusieurs groupes sociaux aux identités différentes. Selon Little (2002), cela explique pourquoi l’État Nation aurait autant de difficulté à reconnaître toutes ces populations traditionnelles. Les territoires sur lesquels vivent les populations traditionnelles représentent un défi à l’État Nation. Le principal paradoxe réside dans le concept de territoire public. Ce dernier appartient en théorie à tout citoyen et logiquement tout le monde peut l’exploiter comme il veut, mais en réalité c’est l’État Nation qui décide de la finalité de ce territoire public. Or les peuples traditionnels sont éloignés de cette conception de territoire public. Par conséquent, certains groupes sociaux luttent perpétuellement contre les actions de l’État, orientées au profit d’autres groupes sur un même territoire (Little, 2002). Les conflits liés à la territorialité ne se limitent pas au paradigme de l’État Nation. Ils ont plusieurs formes. Tout d’abord, ils touchent à l’identité culturelle et en amont à l’ethnogenèse. Des caractéristiques syncrétiques peuvent aussi y être attachées suite aux brassages d’individus aux origines différentes (comme nous l’avons vu dans la partie 1.2). Ainsi, de nombreuses communautés revendiquent la création de territoires protégés, tout comme leurs ascendants Amérindiens qui ont obtenu avec ces territoires des droits et des subventions. Cela amène des conflits, des négociations, des débats qui tentent de positionner les cadres de l’identité d’un groupe. Les conflits sont aussi liés à la superposition des territoires. En effet, les trente dernières années, le Brésil a connu un grand mouvement envi ronnementaliste qui a modifié en profondeur la dynamique territoriale. Ceci s’est déroulé surtout en Amazonie, face aux pressions produites par les grandes infrastructures et les installations d’exploitation. Avec le concept de wilderness, le mouvement préservationniste a été un facteur déterminant dans la création de territoires de préservation de la biodiversité. La wilderness reflète la nature sauvage : cette nature qui existerait 264 | ARKEOS 38-39 Gestion et aménagement des territoires par les populations traditionnelles en Amazonie Brésilienne, Gabriela Maria Ribeiro Guterres, Marie Sigrist à l’origine du monde. Les préservationnistes ont incité à la création des espaces de préservation de la nature en excluant toute activité et présence humaine. Au Brésil, les revendications des populations traditionnelles se sont heurtées aux revendications préservationnistes dés les années 70. Ceci s’est traduit par la superposition de zones de protection de l’environnement excluant l’activité humaine, à des territoires de populations traditionnelles. Ainsi des conflits de juridictions peuvent subsister au-delà des conflits d’activités (Little, 2002). Les politiques de développement du pays à la fin des années 60/70 entraînent d’autres formes de luttes qui font l’objet d’une importante médiatisation. La volonté du gouvernement de redynamiser les régions les plus en marge de la croissance, orientent ces installations vers le bassin Amazonien, en partie. Les peuples traditionnels qui vivaient alors sur ces territoires ont dû élaborer de nouvelles stratégies pour défendre leurs terres. L’objectif commun de ces groupes sociaux revêt toujours la même forme: faire admettre au gouvernement fédéral l’existence de nouvelles formes territoriales (Aguiar et al, 2014). Cela a incité l’État à créer des catégories foncières mais il est compliqué d’ajuster ces catégories aux réa lités des territoires. Les mouvements sociaux les plus importants, dans les années 70/80 avec l’appui des ONG, la fin de la dictature militaire et la création d’institutions civiles, ont permis à certaines communautés traditionnelles de revendiquer leurs identités et donc leur territoire. Selon une étude de Zhouri et Laschefsk (apud Aguiar et al. 2014), les conflits environnementaux sont liés à la superposition de revendications de plusieurs segments sociaux porteurs d’identités culturelles différentes. Les groupes ont des modes de productions de leurs territoires qui sont si différents que les formes d’appropriation de la nature sont aussi variées. La difficulté à accepter cette diversité de formes par les différents groupes aboutit à l’existence de conflits. Certaines régions connaissent l’apparition de relations entre populations traditionnelles (qui manquent souvent de revenus) et exploitants agricoles. Mais celles-ci sont souvent illégales : vente de ressources naturelles, location des terres, salariat dans les exploitations agricoles. Cela est dû au manque de main d’œuvre que rencontrent les exploitants et aux transformations socioculturelles récentes de certains groupes amérindiens qui souhaitent obtenir un revenu, bien que ce dernier soit très faible. Le Tourneau (2006) explique que ces relations, tissées par les exploitants, gagnent de l’amplitude avec les ARKEOS 38-39 | 265 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management trop longs processus de démarcation des terres indigènes qui retardent l’existence de mesures légales. Ainsi la gestion des territoires par les populations traditionnelles est source de contestations, de pressions, de conflits, d’actes de malveillance. Par exemple, d’après le site de la FUNAI Rio Branco, institut chargé des protections des droits des Amérindiens au Brésil, des vols de cartes de délimitations des territoires amérindiens ont eu lieu en Octobre 2014 pour retarder les démarches de démarcation. De plus, toutes ces limites mettent en doute les futures créations de territoires de grandes tailles pour les populations traditionnelles et conduisent à une gestion très complexe et sous tension. 3. Gestion des territoires par les populations traditionnelles: le compromis reconnaissance-développement durable 3.1. Les questions autour de la gestion des ressources La gestion des territoires par les populations traditionnelles est basée sur un régime de propriété collective et sur la cosmographie. Ces deux caractéristiques varient d’une société à l’autre: les formes d’appropriation sont articulées en fonction des usages et de l’usufruit collectif (Little, 2002). Par exemple, pour les quilombolas, le contrôle sur la terre est réa lisé par la collectivité mais les limites d’exploitation des terres varient selon la filiation des individus (parenté). Quant aux valeurs culturelles collectives, elles sont fondées sur la solidarité issue des affrontements contre les acteurs externes, qui ont eu lieu au cours de l’histoire. Chez les Amérindiens, selon les groupes encore une fois, les collectes, la chasse et la pêche sont réalisées collectivement sur un territoire, surtout quand la finalité est une fête communautaire. Ainsi l’appropriation des ressources naturelles est collective chez de nombreuses sociétés traditionnelles. La plupart des territoires occupés par les populations traditionnelles sont pourvus de nombreuses ressources naturelles. Les profits, qui résultent de l’exploitation par les multinationales ou le gouvernement, sont mal répartis sur les territoires où vivent ces populations, surtout en ce qui concerne les ressources minières. Le Tourneau (2006) évoque que, selon la Constitution brésilienne, les Amérindiens disposent de l’usufruit des 266 | ARKEOS 38-39 Gestion et aménagement des territoires par les populations traditionnelles en Amazonie Brésilienne, Gabriela Maria Ribeiro Guterres, Marie Sigrist ressources du sol mais pas du sous-sol qui est détenu par l’État Nation. Depuis les années 80, des inquiétudes surgissent quant à la durabilité des ressources face à la croissance démographique des Amérindiens sur leurs territoires (allant jusqu’à 4% de croissance démographique par an) et à l’accès à la société de consommation par les populations traditionnelles. Pour les caboclos, seringueiros, ribeirinhos et autres populations traditionnelles extractivistes, l’accès à la société de consommation n’est pas nouveau. Mais ce phénomène existe récemment pour les Amérindiens qui ont accès aux avantages de la société de consommation mais aussi à ses inconvénients, en particulier les produits polluants (gazole, insecticide…) (Le Tourneau, 2006). D’autre part, des changements socioculturels apparaissent dans ces sociétés, notamment la sédentarisation qui contraint les populations toujours plus nombreuses à exploiter un même territoire potentiel. La question de la durabilité des ressources est à mesurer régionalement avec les populations environnantes et un travail de sensibilisation est réalisé par les ONG autour de ces questions. Par ailleurs, aucun règlement de terres amérindiennes ne mentionne les activités que les Amérindiens peuvent ou non pratiquer: «Les peuples amérindiens ont une grande latitude sur le type d’évolution qu’ils souhaitent, notamment en ce qui concerne la conversion des espaces forestiers en champs ou en pâturages» (Le Tourneau, 2006). 3.2. De la reconnaissance identitaire à la co-gestion des territoires protégés Avec l’implication très forte des ONG et du mouvement socio-environnementaliste, les populations traditionnelles interviennent dans les processus de gestion et d’aménagement de leurs territoires. La dimension environnementale des territoires sociaux s’exprime alors au travers de la durabilité écologique par la présence de ces peuples. Certaines communautés vont profiter de cette position de conservationnistes de l’environnement que les pays de la Convention de la diversité biologique (CDB 1992) leur attribuent. Par ce moyen, ils peuvent faire valoir leurs droits de gestion et d’aménagement des territoires, et bénéficier de la reconnaissance identitaire tant revendiquée. Il s’agit d’un compromis construit par l’engagement à protéger la biodiversité contre l’affirmation d’une identité collective. La garantie du territoire pour ces populations est le résultat de ARKEOS 38-39 | 267 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management ce compromis. Les alliances autour de la conservation de l’environnement sont une stratégie pour ces peuples (Carneiro da Cunha, 2009). Les populations traditionnelles ont des connaissances sur leur environnement qui s’inscrivent dans leurs savoirs locaux. Les sciences humaines s’intéressent aux liens entre sociétés, environnement et économie. Elles permettent d’avoir une meilleure compréhension de l’aménagement du territoire et du développement durable en faisant le lien avec les autres sciences pour reconsidérer la discontinuité entre culture et économie. Par ailleurs, elles suscitent des questionnements autour de la biodiversité (Oosterbeck, 2011). Les ethnosciences , qui ont pour objectif l’étude des catégories, de la linguistique, des représentations et des classifications de l’environnement par les groupes sociaux, aident ainsi à comprendre les savoirs locaux et contribuent à leur donner une place dans l’aménagement durable du territoire (Nakashima & Roué, 2002). Comme ces groupes sociaux utilisent leurs savoirs sur l’environnement avec des outils limités (peu de technologies), ils arrivent à extraire de l’environnement ce dont ils ont besoin en général sans épuiser le milieu. Leur permanence est donc favorable au maintien de la biodiversité. La persistance des modes de vie traditionnels est corrélée avec la conservation des écosystèmes locaux et la sauvegarde de la biodiversité. Dans ces aires représentées comme wilderness dans la pensée Occidentale, les savoirs locaux participent à la transformation de la nature pour créer les paysages culturels (Nakashima e Roué, 2002). Ainsi toute exclusion de ces individus de tels territoires (préservationnisme) et toute exploitation abusive de ces espaces sont devenues des sources de conflits majeurs ingérables pour le gouvernement Brésilien et les États fédéraux. D’autres tactiques sont employées pour donner voix aux populations traditionnelles. L’implantation des infrastructures nuisibles aux écosystèmes est devenue le symbole de l’empiétement sur les espaces protégés. Ce jeu de symboliques, agrémenté d’une médiatisation internationale, est un des moyens les plus utilisés par les populations traditionnelles pour toucher les acteurs environnementalistes et les allier à leurs causes. Les systèmes satellites du XXe siècle sont utilisés par le gouvernement brésilien pour surveiller et protéger les territoires des populations traditionnelles depuis le ciel. Vu du sol, ces territoires sont plus difficiles à gérer. Ainsi les populations traditionnelles et l’État commencent à mettre en place des formes de co-gestion pour combiner la vision du ciel et du sol (Aguiar et al. 2014). 268 | ARKEOS 38-39 Gestion et aménagement des territoires par les populations traditionnelles en Amazonie Brésilienne, Gabriela Maria Ribeiro Guterres, Marie Sigrist Une meilleure gestion des territoires par les populations traditionnelles passe, au niveau national, par la reconnaissance du droit coutumier que ces peuples maintiennent, surtout quant à leur régime de propriété collective. Conclusion Corrélée à la notion de savoirs locaux, l’UNESCO a instauré la régle mentation sur le patrimoine immatériel, qui s’échelonne sur plusieurs niveaux de reconnaissance, dans les politiques des États Nations. Les enjeux de la reconnaissance des savoirs traditionnels, ainsi que la participation des communautés dans la co-gestion des ressources biologiques en Amazonie, ouvrent le champ des questionnements quant aux définitions territoriales, identitaires, ainsi qu’à la gestion durable des ressources biologiques. Malgré les arguments efficaces évoqués dans l’article 8j de la Convenstion sur le diversité biologique – relatif à la conservation des savoirs locaux et à la responsabilité des populations traditionnelles dans la durabilité de la diversité biologique – la formulation «sous réserve des dispositions de sa législation nationale», au début de l’article, laisse le libre cours aux pays signataires de la Convention de reconnaître ou non ces communautés. Références Aguiar W., Aguiar A., Aguiar D., Aguiar J., Silveira L. & Pimenta W, (2014) Conflitos ambientais: lutas e resistências dos povos tradicionais no espaço brasileiro. Brasileiro, 2014, P.T.N.E. GT 09: (Des) Igualdades e ambiente : conflitos socioambientais. Nota de congresso. Almeida, M. W. B, (2004) Direitos à floresta e ambientalismo: seringueiros e suas lutas. Revista Brasileira de Ciências Sociais. ISSN 0102-6909. vol. 19, nº 55 (2004), p. 33-53. Arruda, R, (1999) “Populações tradicionais” e a proteção dos recursos naturais em unidades de conservação. Ambiente & sociedade, ISSN 1414-753X, nº 5 (1999), p. 79-92. Berkes, F, (2004) Rethinking Community-Based Conservation. Conservation Biology, ISSN 1523-1739, vol. 18, nº3 (2004), p. 621–630. Cañete, T. M. R; Cañete,V. R, (2010) Populações tradicionais amazônicas: revisando conceitos [Em linha] . 5°Encontro nacional da AMPPAS (2010), [consultado em Março de 2015]. Disponível na internet www.anppas.org.br/encontro5/cd/artigos/GT10-291009-20100904055930.pdf Carneiro da Cunha, M, (2009) Cultura com aspas. Ensaios. São Paulo: Cosac Naify (2009). ISBN 97885-7503-861-1. ARKEOS 38-39 | 269 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management Cronon, W, (2009), Le problème de la wilderness, ou le retour vers une mauvaise nature. Ecologie & politique , ISSN 1166-3030, nº38 (2009), p. 173-199. Descola, P, 2005) Par-delà nature et culture. Paris: Gallimard (2005). ISBN. Garcia, M.C.M, (2008) Povos da amazônia: juruna - makuna – krahô [Em linha]. Revista Eletrônica do Curso de Geografia do Campus Jataí [consultado em Março de 2015]. ISSN 1679-9860, nº 11 (2008). Disponível na internet http://www.jatai.ufg.br/geografia Heckenberger, M.; Neves E.G, (2009) Amazonian Archaeology. Annual Review of Anthropology, ISSN 0084-6570, nº 38 (2009), p. 251-66. Heckenberger, M.J.; Russell J.C.; Toney J.R.; Schmidt M.J, (2007) The legacy of cultural landscapes in the Brazilian Amazon: implications for biodiversity. Philosophical. Transactions. Of the Royal Society B, ISSN 0962-8436, nº 362 (2007), p. 197-208. Le Tourneau, F.M, (2006) Enjeux et conflits autour des territoires amérindien en Amazonie brésilienne. Problèmes d’Amérique Latine, ISSN 0765-1333, nº 60 (2006), p. 71-94. Lima, D.; Pozzobon, J, (2006) Amazônia socioambiental. Sustentabilidade ecológica e diversidade social. Estudos Avançados, ISSN 0103-4014, vol. 19 nº 54 (2005). Little, P. E, (2002) Territórios sociais e povos tradicionais no Brasil: por uma antropologia da territorialidade, Nº 322 (2002), Departamento de Antropologia, Universidade de Brasília. Nakashima, D.; Roué, M, (2002) Indigenous knowledge, Peoples and Sustainable Practice. Social and economic dimensions of global environnemental change, ISBN 0-471-97796-9, vol. 5 (2002), p. 314-324. Oosterbeek, L, (2011) Is there a role for the humanities in face of the global warming and social crisis. Changing Nature – Changing Sciences?, ICSS & CIPSH, Nagoya, Japão, 13-14 December 2010. Nota de evento. Pantoja, M.C, (2013) À propos de quelques dilemmes politiques, intellectuels et existentiels: le récit d’une anthropologue spécialiste de l’Amazonie. Brésil(s), ISBN 978-2-7351-1630-0, vol 4 (2013), p. 35-56. Pardini, P, (2012) Natureza e cultura na paisagem amazônica: uma experiência fotográfica com ressonâncias na cosmologia ameríndia e na ecologia histórica. Boletim do Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi. ISSN 1981-8122, vol. 7, nº 2 (2012), p. 589-603. Schmitt, A.; Turatti, M.C.M.; De Carvalho M.C.P, (2002) A atualização do conceito de quilombo: identidade e território nas definições teóricas. Ambiente & Sociedade, ISSN 1809-4422, nº 10 (2002). Secreto, M.V, (2007)A ocupação dos “espaços vazios” no governo Vargas: do “Discurso do rio Amazonas” à saga dos soldados da borracha. Revista Estudos Historicos, ISSN 0103-2186, vol. 2, nº 40 (2007). Stahl, P. W, (2007) Holocene Biodiversity: An Archaeological Perspective from the Americas. Annual Review of Anthropology, ISSN 0084-6570, vol. 25 (1996), p. 105-126. Teisenrec, P, (2009) Les Resexs: un instrument au service des politiques de développement durable en Amazonie brésilienne. Revista Pós Ciências Sociais, ISSN 2236-9473, vol. 6, nº 12 (2009). Teixeira, A, (2006) Seringueiros, da luta pela terra à proteção da floresta tropical,Seringueiros: da luta pela terra à proteção da floresta tropical: um estudo sobre o processo de transnacionalização do movimento. PUC-Rio, Instituto de Relações Internacionais (2006). 270 | ARKEOS 38-39 Significance of landscape for a better understanding of present and past societies, Celine Kerfant Significance of landscape for a better understanding of present and past societies CELINE KERFANT Résumé: Le paysage est une notion à la croisée de différents concepts qui ne sont pas aisés à rassembler. Victor Paz, archéobotaniste voit l’archéologie comme une échelle permettant de relier les sociétés passées aux actuelles. Améliorer nos connaissances sur comment ces sociétés passées ont évolué dans un paysage similaire à l’actuel comporte de précieuses informations participant à renforcer les identités individuelles et collectives. Les textes fondateurs comme la Convention Européenne du Paysage (Florence, 2000) et la Convention Européenne sur la Préservation du Patrimoine Archéologique (La Vallette, 1992) sont des bases essentielles du développement durable (Patrimoine et Paysage). A rcheology is componed by different kind of disciplines as biology, physics, ethnology, anthropology…. Each disciplines set out a singular light on human and environment relationship. How archeolo gy can help better understanding problems linked to our environment management? Some specific examples from theorician like Victor Paz, archeobotanist, observes archeology as a relevant actor not only for a better understanding of past remains but also because it can provides informations about the various aspects of a culture. The link between archeology and landscape is not new, European conventions describe it and manage to use it for strengthening european communities relations. Interdisciplinarity offers a fresh look upon our behaviors, our resource management and allows us to better understand our past. Could it be enough to anticipate what will happen? ARKEOS 38-39 | 271 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management Fig. 1. Location of sites (Ochoa, 2014) 1. Victor Paz: Material culture could be understand through an unique and evolutive landscape How landscape helps to reconstruct site environment? Ille and Pasim bahan sites give a perfect example full of possibilities. Both sites are located in north Palawan (Philippines) in a karstic valley system. The project leads by Victor Paz aims to understand people-landscape interac tion across time (Paz et al, 2009). Ille site gots a good stratigraphy and allows resarchers to establish chronology of the valley from 9000 BC to nowadays. Landscape is rythmed by nine limestone towers, some of them are visible from the sea. Those which have been used by men are not the 272 | ARKEOS 38-39 Significance of landscape for a better understanding of present and past societies, Celine Kerfant biggest but the one which present human features. Landscape helps to reveal collective unconscious with specific patterns, for example immaterial phenomenas like wind could be perceived in karstic caves and be interpreted as human breath. Ille east cave entrance looks like a human mouth. Indeed the entrances are still called «mouth». Pictures show how entrance of the mouth is lighty and how the middle of the cave is obviously dark, it is easy to imagine the perception of two distinct worlds this landscape features are great expressions of ancient cosmogenies, persisting through times but are no more articulated to its one symbolic. Identifying persistence in collective unconscious gives us the ability to better study past senses. Patterns recognition have to be linked to archeological assemblages with a time scale. Ethnology associated with actual cosmology is linked to landscape. Here we found all concepts elaborated by European Convention on Landscape (Florence, 2000) dealing with a visual experiment, Fig. 2. Inside and outside view from east mouth (Ille cave), ©Andrea Dominique Cosalan ARKEOS 38-39 | 273 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management Therefore it is also the meaning of the first article: “Landscape” means an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors.» 1.2. Victor Paz methodology Victor Paz recommends to observe general patterns which came out archeological assemblages, so it became possible to link it to a specific culture or/and landscape. Landscape data helps to better draw a picture of disappeared culture connected with it environment. Several material cultures could be differentiated thanks to stratigraphy and fossil markers. Markers could be landscape components as well as archeological artefacts (Fig. 3). More than that landscape presents a continuity, by use people develop a sense of ownership which is better transmitted than symbolic means. Fig. 3. Presence of artifacts and features through times at Dewil valley (Paz, 2009) Continuity of landscape and sense of ownership 274 | ARKEOS 38-39 Significance of landscape for a better understanding of present and past societies, Celine Kerfant Victor Paz’s work on Dewil Valley in Palawan is focusing on understanding archeological remains located on a scale-time given by stratigra phy (Fig. 3). Using time depth scale as a table of symbolic behaviors allows to draw a successive picture from past culture until today, it also provides its differences. This kind of studies could be broaden to other sites of geographical area, Victor Paz furnishes examples of megaliths presents in Kadazan’s culture in Bornéo and also in Batanes islands, it is a direct image of spiritual matters connected to social behaviors, signs of Austronesian expansion. 1.3. Archeobotanic evidences Archeobotany aims to understand interaction between human and plants through time, of course this kind of studies are highly connected with landscape perception and use. An interesting example is given by the use of Canarium sp, this specie has been found in the oldest grave of Ille site (around 9000 BC). This tree provides food and raw material but is also used for its ability to produce a perfumed smoke when it burned. Finding its macro remains inside one of the oldest grave of the area is highly interesting regarding symbolic behaviors and use of vegetal. Plant management strategies are old and complex showing how the rich use of landscape components was. 2. Contributions of European Council and Civil Societies: 2.1. Cultural routes and Civilscape examples European Council with Cultural routes experiences leads to similar concerns close to the one expressed by Apheleia project. For instance they put landscape concept at the center of their considerations on sustainability. Simultaneously European Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage (La Vallette, 1992) sets out in its first article dealing with its proper meaning the importance of landscape: «the ARKEOS 38-39 | 275 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management preservation and study of which help to retrace the history of mankind and its relation with the natural environment». This text is deeply linked with European Convention on Landscape (Florence, 2000) and works on a tight collaboration of European countries acting to the protection of material and immaterial Heritage. This legal framework underlines the absolute need to implement a cooperative and strong network, examples coming from civil society strength this idea. Furthermore these conventions are open to Extra-European countries underlining the universal framework of such problematic. The legal framework and the cooperation initiated by several countries give best examples of good practices already started, IN particular by civil society (key player of dilemmas as they are directly linked to landscape) and coordinate by different public or non-public stakeholders, from the city to the county and from the state to the European agency. Regar ding to the different steps represented by this continuous and progressive circles is mandatory in order to not lose the link between the smallest common determinator (a community) and a wider networking (cooperarive dimension between communities of several countries): The Civilscape example is interesting because it works on a better representation of population wills, first key players and witnesses of landscape. Their aims are expressed so: «Landscape is integrative. It functions as a platform to get people together to consider the future of the places they want to live in. Democracy is participative. It means involving people and including them as part of the decision making process». Their collaborative experiences about good practices written in the European Convention on Landscape are fair and excellent feedback with real life. Transmission of knowledge helps to streamline the negative effects that a certain type of tourism produces in connecting humanely habitants to tourists. The example of Cultural Routes is deeply interesting because it defines the act of walking as a movement, a physical experiment that links the walker to the landscape and also to the habitants who are parts of it. This double experiment offers an intracultural dialogue (to reposition itself) and an intercultural one (to exchange with the others). So landscape associated to its Heritage value becomes a communication tool easy to implement, meaningful and representative of cultural diversity. 276 | ARKEOS 38-39 Significance of landscape for a better understanding of present and past societies, Celine Kerfant 2.2. Apheleia inputs Apheleia sees cultural diversity as a «new paradigm of implement», this choice permits to put in the center the importance of human evolution linked to environment center rib. These two concepts are intimacy linked; archeology is the science which is dedicated to shed new light about our origins. The mediator purpose of this science is supported by museums (presentation of collections) or animated by visits on sites providing access to general public to this complex set of information. Going further the archeobotanist Victor Paz gives a new scientific and spiritual dimension to landscape, including it in uniformitarist comparison between past remains and actual ethnological patterns. This theory acts as a «feedback» going further to only understanding past and present links, it records and put values on living testimonies of evolutive and particular cultures. 3. Discussion One of main aim of archeology is to better understand our past behaviors, our evolution; How this information coming from a remote past can help us to understand our upcoming evolution? Understanding what we were, what made us becoming what we are can help to better design this «unpredictable evolution». Is better understanding what we are today could be a communication medium toward current energy policies? The human resources problems necessary to human survival, water in the first instance, are becoming core issues and more than that are explosive problems (L.Oosterbeek). Can we hope that a network build with historical, landscape and humanist perspectives can lead us to better plan our futures economical developments? And allow us to draw new strategies to frame this so fast development and too many times with devastating consequences. Human adaptations to different climate change are keys to understanding on which we can certainly get some useful information about several degrees in our societies. This topic developed by Luiz Oosterbeek is rooted with the great role played and still plays by landscape in human evolution. Archeological environment studies expressed the same though; ARKEOS 38-39 | 277 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management archaeology aims to reconstruct several environments in which humans evolved. Most of the time information given by such kind of studies are amazing towards hominins abilities to adapt to contrasted environments. Their behaviors are making the link with resource uses. In fact hominins know how to adapt in creating technologies that archeology is only able to reconstruct a part. Dilemmas created this last century with such a fast and unpredicable evolution have certainly affected global climate of our planet even if it is not the only factor involved. Resource management expressed an anthropic reality, as it is underlined by Luis Oosterbeek the disponibility of potable water goes on an explosive issue. 4. Conclusion Archeological knowledge have to be echoed in our actual societies. Past cultures were able to tackle dangerous glacial events with elaborated solutions. Of course it is much more a postulate backed up with indirect evidences but it still indicates that there is logic carried by disappeared cultures. The sum of good practices carried by civile societies everywhere in the world is for that reason deeply important. Its furnished basis for cooperating topics, a laboratory of ideas and proposals to exchange and it expressed also populations speaking. The sensitive fairness carried by the civile societies is a basis balancing the framework given by public organisms and justifying the evaluation of the first component: population. Works carried by archeology offers a solid step of potentialities, research give us great informations about past collective identities. 278 | ARKEOS 38-39 Significance of landscape for a better understanding of present and past societies, Celine Kerfant Bibliography OOSTERBEEK, Luiz, SCHEUNEMANN, Inguelore, et SANTOS, Luís, (2013) Water resources and human behaviour: an integrated landscape management perspective. Cadernos do LEPAARQ, 2013, vol. 10, nº 20. OCHOA Janine, PAZ Victor, LEWIS Helen, CARLOS Jane, ROBLES Emil, AMANO Noel, FERRERAS Maria Rebecca, LARA Myra, VALLEJO Benjamin Jr, VELARDE Gretchen, VILLALUZ Sarah Agatha, RONQUILLO Wilfredo and SOLHEIM Wilhelm II, (2014) The archaeology and palaeobiological record of Pasimbahan-Magsanib Site, northern Palawan, Philippines. Philippine Science Letters, 2014, 7 (1): 22-36. PAZ, Victor, (2012) Accessing past cosmologies through material culture and the landscape in the Philippines. In: Archaeology of spiritualities. Springer New York, 2012. p. 133-161. Electronic resources: Civilscape: http://www.civilscape.eu/civilscape/content/en/articles/index-teaser.php European Convention on Landscape: http://www.civilscape.eu/civilscape/content/en/elc/elc-00.html?jid=1o2o0 European Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage: http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/143.ht ARKEOS 38-39 | 279 Concepts of Sustainability in the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development “Our Common Future”, Julia Jorge, Hannah Hofmann, Theres Kämmerer, Jens Moggert, Elisa Theka Concepts of Sustainability in the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development “Our Common Future” JULIA JORGE, HANNAH HOFMANN, THERES KÄMMERER, JENS MOGGERT, ELISA THEKA Abstract: “Sustainability” is a favoured buzzword in modern discourses of combining social with ecological issues. Important questions circuit around the ecological, the economic and the social aspects of the concept. the aim of this essay is To reveal the understands of these aspects within the brundland report. The mean content will concentrate on an analysis of the authors of the reports term of sustainability, based on the method of qualitative content analysis. However, in a historical perspective the notion of sustainability is also pointed out in different contexts, where differing interpretations of the relationship between human and nature can be found. That includes different approaches how space is perceived. In action-based concepts, space appears not as a material object according to Werlen, but is constructed around the meanings and interpretations that stakeholders refer to. This raises the question how to decode the mentioned three different understandings of sustainability and to reveal the meanings that stand behind the arguments of the report and the preconceptions to the notion of space and forms of world-binding. So there is to ask how the different dimensions are corresponding to each other in this respect. Keywords: Brundtland Report, action-centred research perspective, global under standing, dimension Introduction T he terms sustainability and sustainable development can nowadays be seen as favoured buzz-words which are located within a high contested terrain. However, it is to criticize that these terms more and more get fuzzy and experience a state of meaninglessness. The reason could be its highly normative character. Even if the normativity of the term is important because sustainability is about how we want to arrange human living on earth without endangering our basis of existence, what ARKEOS 38-39 | 281 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management can only be worked out in democratic discussion and public negotiations, that vagueness diminishes the credibility of the term and makes it hard to operationalise it into concrete action. The realization of sustainability is determined by the view and understanding, that people have on that term. In the theoretical debate we notice a shift from focusing environmental issues to a valorisation of the acting of people, what also means a former more technological and natural science based approach to a more holistic view. Indeed sustainability can be seen as a complex concept, where diffe rent spheres are interacting. But the consideration of other dimension at the side to environment as core issue is not that simple in real life. Trade-offs have to be made and in the interrelationship different dilemmas occur. In this sense these understandings and the interdependence between the different dimensions of sustainability have to be revealed. This essay is dealing with the different meanings of the term sustaina bility. To that, it is important to provide a theoretical background at first. The historical development and the different concepts of the term will be explained. A more detailed analysis of the term is advisable, by distinguishing between the ecological, economic and social dimension. In this way it is possible to embed the various meanings in a larger context and establish connections between the different dimensions. That is the reason, why this work includes three main parts of the analysis and a following part for reflections. A suitable foundation to present the diffe rent meanings in detail is offered by the Brundtland Report which was published in 1987. This report will be analysed in view of selected text sections that are dealing with ecological, economic and social sustainability. An appropriate method to realize this procedure provides the qualitative content analysis, which supplies support to assess the different meanings and interpretation possibilities of sustainability. 1. Different Theories of Sustainability 1.1. Historical Development of the Term This chapter focuses on the historical development of the term sustaina ble development as well as sustainability and differing interpretations of the relationship between human beings and nature. It can be presumed the 282 | ARKEOS 38-39 Concepts of Sustainability in the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development “Our Common Future”, Julia Jorge, Hannah Hofmann, Theres Kämmerer, Jens Moggert, Elisa Theka concept of sustainability is not something new. In the past, the awareness of the importance of nature existed in different contexts (Grober, 2013: 2). First of all, in the age of the Enlightenment, the ideas of Baruch de Spinoza mattered. The student of Descartes criticizes his concept of humankind as the ultimate sovereign and possessor over the nature and postulates that human beings are also part of nature (Grober, 2013: 17 f.). The term sustainability in today’s use was first formed in the beginning of the 18th century by Hans Carl von Carlowitz, a German mining administrator. He created the term nachhaltend in his book Sylvicultura Oeconomica (1713) in the context of deforestation in Saxony because of rising agricultural activities and growing industrialization. An increasing demand of wood for mining and smelting works led to an overuse of the forests. Thus he claimed people should live from the interest and not from the capital itself; more precisely said: only the amount of wood that could regrow should be used (Grunwald & Kopfmüller, 2012: 17 f.). The maxims of action for sustainable development, which were published by Carlowitz, can be ascribed to a local perspective of the problem, because of their specific local solution approaches and in the sense that the resource wood was used within a regional boundary. Therefore it is a matter of a particular term of sustainability that is not necessarily transregional adaptable. This concept therefore implied a view of space as a container. However, the sustainable yield forestry was adapted and advanced by European scientists in the next decades. Examples are given in the economic sciences with John Stuart Mills’ stationary economy and John Hicks definition of income (Grunwald & Kopfmüller, 2012: 19 f.). Also, Thomas Robert Malthus called attention to the so-called population trap. With this, he wanted to explain that the population would at one point outgrow the means to feed itself. This can be seen as the first systema tic treatise about the limits of growth (Grunwald & Kopfmüller, 2006: 15). But the technological progress was able to absorb this development insofar, as the main focus remained on the environmental perspective so that “for more than 200 years, the principle of sustainability was essentially bounded on the forestry and fishery as well as capital allowance” (Grunwald & Kopfmüller, 2012: 17 f., o. t.). A curious interpretation of nature is inherent in these classical understandings of sustainability. Nature can only be understood with regard to its physical or biological properties (Werlen, 2010: 292). The mechanic-reductionist tradition originally ARKEOS 38-39 | 283 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management comes from Newton, who construed space as a container that influences all actions of humankind. Friedrich Ratzel assumed and enhanced this view in his anthropogeography and overloaded it with naturalistic connotations (Werlen, 2010: 285). According to Ratzel, space becomes the selective entity. In current research on social geographic ecology – as it is going to pointed out in the following chapter of the action-centred approach of Werlen – humankind, and this is one significant difference, stands in the centre of investigations as part of nature. The daily expiring and direc tional actions of stakeholders are extremely important for the research. They create specific appreciations of meanings, and, from this point of view, space becomes merely a regulative concept. And a linkage to constructivist definitions of landscapes is made by Kühne (1985: 41): “What causes [the] natural conditions to become elements of the landscape is not simply the presence of people, but rather their mode of living, their practical and esthetical horizons, and the substance of their fulfilment. […]The link, by means of which the human being living in nature realizes the landscape, is the building, the structure. Nature, architecture, the human being – these are the constituent of elements of the landscape. Their harmonization as a landscape is not yet provided merely by their existence.” (cited in Weingarten, 2015: 158). 1.2. Development of the Sustainability Term in a Global Context In the 1960’s and 1970’s the exploitation of nature was more central in the public discourse, due to the negative consequences of the techni cal progress. A solution for this problem had to be found (Grunwald & Kopfmüller, 2012: 20). Several debates and suggestions resulted from that discussion. The report The Limits of Growth of the Club of Rome stressed that exploitation of resources and assumed that the environmental pollution will end up in an ecological collapse (Grunwald & Kopfmüller, 2012: 21). Although the report has its weaknesses, it is responsible for the recognition that social and economic components are strictly bound to the finite nature of resources. Reports like Global 2000 followed du ring the following years. The increasing environmental pollution was the reason of the first UN Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE) in 1972 that took place in Stockholm. The United Nations developed 284 | ARKEOS 38-39 Concepts of Sustainability in the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development “Our Common Future”, Julia Jorge, Hannah Hofmann, Theres Kämmerer, Jens Moggert, Elisa Theka an environment programme. This Stockholm-Conference was the starting point of international political debates about the connection between development and environment issues and the keyword ecodevelopment was particularly formative (Grunwald & Kopfmüller, 2012: 21 f., o. t.). The 1970s were additionally characterized by essential social and economic problems of the developing countries, e.g. “economic underdevelopment, public debt, poverty, lacking medical supply, hunger […]” (Grunwald & Kopfmüller, 2012: 22 f., o. t.). Consequently, numerous conferences and activities took place on a global scale. Especially worth mentioning is the north-south-commission, which resulted in the Brandt-Report (1980), the Palme-Report (1983) and the World Conservation Strategy (1980) from the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (Grunwald & Kopfmüller, 2012: 23, o. t.). The last paper includes the first use of the term sustainable development in an international scientific and political context (Grunwald & Kopfmüller, 2012: 21, o. t.). 1.3. Creation Context and Impact of the Brundtlandt Report As result of the discussion of the north-south division and global environmental problems the UN-Commission for Environment and Development started 1983 its work and completed it in 1987 with the Brundtland Report. In the Foreword from the Brundtland Report, Gro Harlem Brundtland (Head of the Commission and a former Prime Minister of Norway) describes the aim of the report to span a global perspective and to include not only environmental issues but to get an interdisciplinary and integrated approach “to global concerns and our common future [with the need for] people with wide experience, and from all political fields, […] from all areas of vital decision making that influence economic and social progress, nationally and internationally” (UNGA, 1987: Our Common Future, Chairman’s Foreword)1. Accordingly the personnel composition was characterized by a diversified commission including also a “clear majority of members from developing countries, to reflect world realities” (UNGA, 1987: Our Common Future, Chairman’s 1 To reference on the official document of the United Nations from 1987 the authors chose the following citation style: (Chapt. x, Sect. y). For the Foreword and the Chapter “Our Common Future, From One Earth to One World” the chapters are mentioned in their full name. ARKEOS 38-39 | 285 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management Foreword). Thus the “Brundtland”-Commission understands itself as integrative council. With the Brundtland Report the terms sustainability and sustainable development first gained political authority and widespread recognition (Jacobs, 1999: 21). Also it brought forth the most cited definition until today of the sustainability term: “Humanity has the ability to make development sustainable to ensure that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 2, Sect. 1). In that sense the report represents a predominantly anthropogenic position and focuses the term on meeting the needs of humans with regard to the prospective generations (Hauff & Kleine, 2009: 7). Also the huge sale of the report combined with the support of non-governmental environment organizations, established the concept of sustainable development and sustainability into the wider public domain (Jacobs, 1999: 21), even if the definition is from some authors criticized as being “a better slogan than [...] a basis of theory” (Adams, 2009: 5). Further the Brundtland-Report laid the groundwork for the convening so called Earth Summit, the UN Conference on Environment and Development of 1992 in Rio de Janeiro. During this meeting a lot of important contracts were signed, for example the Agenda 21. Also considering a broader period of time the far-reaching development of the term sustainability is recognisable. The term was exclusively trapped in the forestry as a specialist term for 250 years, where it applies a code of behaviour. Not until the end of the 20th century the term reached a geopolitical rank. For this reason the term developed to a role model for the world community that is still relevant today (Grober, 2013: o.S.). With this background the aim of this essay is to investigate the understandings of the authors about the given definition of sustainable development in its various facets (ecologically, economically and socially). 1.4. An Action-Centred View on the Idea of Sustainability The research perspective of the action-centred social geography (Werlen, 2008: 275-321) will be contrasted with the remarks on the different dimensions of sustainability in the “Brundtland” – Report. In this viewpoint, 286 | ARKEOS 38-39 Concepts of Sustainability in the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development “Our Common Future”, Julia Jorge, Hannah Hofmann, Theres Kämmerer, Jens Moggert, Elisa Theka in contrast to concepts of geographical determinism, where humans and their acting was explained by the influence of the surrounding natural environment, the space and its environmental objects are no longer at the centre of attention. The perspective focuses on human actions that are responsible for changes of the physical material environment and thus the constitutive elements of space. Therefore the everyday on-going activities of human beings are the investigative objects of research. But no actions are done without the sociocultural background, subjective knowledge and the physical conditions, which influence them. The spatial is viewed as the dimension of acting, not inverse (Werlen, 2008: 279, o. t.). Thus, the protagonists of differing actions get into focus. This angle opens up opportunities to analyse globalised living conditions in current late modern life forms (Werlen, 2008: 281 f., o. t.). The transfer of this perspective on the qualitative content analysis can be made by a view on the formation setting of the Brundtland Report. It is particularly relevant to take a look at the viewpoints that stand behind the report and the appropriations and interpretations of spatial conditions that are important. 2. Different Concepts of the Sustainability Term Renn et al. state, that there is no dominant unity about the understanding of sustainability. Also the definition in the Brundtland Report stays relatively general. In that sense many concepts are based on the different areas of human living worlds. These are in the most cases “environmental”, “economical” and “social structures of society”. In the beginning of the debate, the consideration of ecological environment was paramount. In later discussions the perspective was extended to other spheres of life, which were considered as relevant (Renn et al., 2007: 27). The following subsections three different concepts of sustainability in their essential features shall be presented. There are various more concepts in which the interdependence between the different dimensions are stated and as well various forms of representations, but the analysis concentrates on the following ideas of the term. ARKEOS 38-39 | 287 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management 2.1. Precedence of the Ecological Dimension The one-pillar-model is build on the premise, that covering of needs from nowadays and future generations would only be possible, if nature was preserved as fundament of life and economy. In that way the ecological dimension takes priority over the economic and social dimension (Grunwald & Kopfmüller, 2006: 41; Pufé 2014: 104). Economic and social questions are therefore causes and consequences of environmental problems. Thus environmental measures should be realized as “econo mic and socially acceptable” as possible (Grunwald & Kopfmüller, 2006: 41; Pufé 2014: 104). Agents of this opinion can mainly be found in environmental institutions. However, environmental issues can no more play the leading role, because there are other issues, which endanger the sustainable development. Further, critics on the one-pillar-model point out, that all relevant groups of society have to be included to act in mutual agreement and to be aware of environmental problems to obtain a sustainable development. Insofar the one-pillar-model is criticised in a fundamental way so that the UNCED came to the understanding of a three-pillar-concept while the 1992 Rio-Conferences as it is as well quoted in the Agenda 21 document (UNCED, 1992). 2.2. Sustainability as an Integrative Approach The concept of the three columns of sustainability (“three-bottomline”) was developed after the Brundtland Report and is not explicitly mentioned in there. Nevertheless, as also stated in earlier chapters, the understanding of an interdependent world – where not only the ecological sphere but also the social and the economic spheres play a crucial role for a sustainable development – can be found in the Brundtland Report. The success of the three-pillar-model is based on the integrative approach that is postulated with it. In this manner aim of sustainable development politics should be developing an even balance between the three subgoals of ecological, economic and social sustainability. On the one hand this is reasonable because environmental measures are no more seen as additive politics which only diminish the environmental impact but do not change processes. On the other hand that raises problems since their equality in 288 | ARKEOS 38-39 Concepts of Sustainability in the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development “Our Common Future”, Julia Jorge, Hannah Hofmann, Theres Kämmerer, Jens Moggert, Elisa Theka terms of inspection criteria decomposes the integrative concept again in its spare parts (Petschow, 1998: 24). In that way a policy of sustainability means an adaptation strategy of the social and economic system to the ecological restrictions In addition to that, the following has to be taken into account: the economic and ecolocical dimension are stable in a limi ted way and excessive demands of the economic and social dimension can question the ecological sustainability (Petschow, 1998: 31). Sustaina bility in this sense is not only meant as a conservation strategy but as ability to adaptation of the economic and social dimension on changing environmental conditions, which are in part caused by the two systems in their use of environment (Petschow, 1998: 26). According to the Enquete Commission to the protection of human and environment of the 13nd German Bundestag the three-pillar-model shows in a good way, that a dominance of the ecological dimension is not to justify but according to the Enquete Commission there are some ecological durability criteria, which cannot be negotiated. This is not to understand in an ecological reasoning but in a merely rational cost-benefit-analysis which is based on the assumption that the aim of society is not to place itself in a less favorable position. In the opinion of the Enquete Commission a policy of sustainability that does not consider these hart facts as given moves beyond rational considerations (Petschow, 1998: 29, o. t.). Later the three-pillar-concept was extended, also other dimensions were defined and in that way the cultural, the political and the institutional dimension play a role. The authors of this essay want to take – with respect to the concept of the Apheleia project in Mação – first of all the issue culture in consideration. 2.3. Culture as a Frame of the other Three Dimensions In a later debate, there is to find a call to integrate the idea of culture in the concept of sustainability. There can be found different modes of integration of cultural aspects in the sustainability understanding. Either it is included as a component of the social dimension or it is drawn as the fourth dimension of sustainability. The integration of culture in the sustainability concept as key dimension can be seen as the most radical involvement. Culture is mostly defined in a broader anthropological sense ARKEOS 38-39 | 289 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management and refers to the term culture as all forms of human life together, the imprints through social structures, traditions, education, representation and mediation processes through language, media and, indeed, art in a narrow understanding of culture. This definition takes into account the social produced understandings of and relationships with nature and therefore lays emphasis on the dependence of social change on culturally sound and collectively shared beliefs and values, which are crucial to achieve sustainable development (Kurt & Wagner, 2002: 14, o. t.). Thus the cultural dimension allows to understand local circumstances and differences between regions and how people attribute sense to their environment and the physical material environment. However, Parodi (2015: 170) criticizes in a latest article: “Possibly due to a significant degree to the heterogeneity of the issues, no synthesis or independent cultural dimension of sustainability has so far succeeded in being broadly established. It has not […] attained a depth and breadth in the international sustainability debate comparable, for example, to that of the ecological or economic dimensions.” The idea of the Integrated Cultural Landscape Development attributes a quite important role to cultural aspect and deems culture as a key variable that has got a cross-cutting effect on all the other factors (Batista, 2012: 241). This expands the concept of the triple bottom line with a new variable (culture) that can be seen as transversal through the other dimensions and interrelates them (Batista, 2012: 243). He gives the example of economy which can also be understood as an outcome of cultural since it relies on key variables like history or interactions between groups of given regions. In his point of view the Integrated Cultural Landscape Management is with this enlargement of the term of sustainability the successor or the idea of sustainable development (Batista, 2012: 245). Therefore, questions must be answered. Questions that represent in which the perspectives of sustainability concepts in the Brundtland Report are formulated and consequently which approaches in terms of the action in regard to a theoretical perspective can be found in the Report. Other questions ask, whether they are adequately presented or not as well as how the three dimensions are interpreted to be interrelated. 290 | ARKEOS 38-39 Concepts of Sustainability in the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development “Our Common Future”, Julia Jorge, Hannah Hofmann, Theres Kämmerer, Jens Moggert, Elisa Theka 3. Method: The qualitative content Analysis The qualitative content analysis by Philipp Mayring is a method that deconstruct texts and verbal material in a systematically way. It is useful particularly in terms of revealing latent meaning structures (Mayring, 2008: 9) and can be seen as a counterpart of quantitative methods, which try to explain phenomena mostly in counting and analysing frequencies (Mayring, 2008: 9). There are innumerable definitions of the qualitative content analysis but one should be mentioned here. Ritsert defines it as “an instrument of investigation for the analysis of ‘societally’, finally of ‘ideological content’ of texts” (Ritsert, 1972: 9 in Mayring, 2008: 11). In this process the available material will be edited stepwise, while organizing it in different units and classify them into a stringent system of categories (Mayring, 1999: 91). To filter out certain aspects of the material or to assess the material based on certain criteria, the basic form structuring is used. Concisely text passages have to be classified in a clearly way. Therefore it is important to define the system of categories in a precise way (Mayring, 1999: 94f.). According to this, the selection of the text passages from the Brundtland Report has to be sufficiently reflected. Because of the fact that the term “ecological sustainability” is not explicitly mentioned in the report, it is necessary to find text passages on the basis of predefined features. With regard to the analysis text segments were selected, which relate clearly to the topic of either the ecological or the economical or the social dimension. The categories were formed in an inductive way: each selection criteria is predefined. During processing the material these criteria must be revised and adapted (Mayring, 1999: 93). 4. Results of the Analysis 4.1. The Ecological Dimension in the Brundtland Report 4.1.1. Understanding of Ecological Sustainability in the Brundtland Report Referring to an ecological sustainable development the Brundtland Report offers the following statement: ARKEOS 38-39 | 291 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management “Sustainable global development requires that those who are more affluent adopt life-styles within the planet’s ecological means – in their use of energy, for example. Further, rapidly growing populations can increase the pressure on resources and slow any rise in living standards; thus sustainable development can only be pursued if population size and growth are in harmony with the changing productive potential of the ecosystem.” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 2, Sect. 29) This citation illustrates the main understandings of ecological sustaina bility in the report. First, there is a need of a spare handling of resources and energy. In a world characterised by fast growing populations it is necessary to consider the time measures of nature: The regeneration time of resources have to be taken into account. The understanding of nature within the Brundtland Report implies the existence of several ecosystems. Following the precautionary principle a burden of those ecosystems should be avoided. For example this includes reduction of pollutant inputs, emissions and waste. The “potential of the ecosystem”, which is named above, also results of the biodiversity: “The diversity of species is necessary for the normal functioning of ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole. The genetic material in wild species contributes billions of dollars yearly to the world economy. […] But utility aside, there are also moral, ethical, cultural, aesthetic, and purely scientific reasons for conserving wild beings.” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 1, Sect. 53). According to that an ecologically understanding of sustainable development implies also the protection of species respectively gene diver sity. The following information refers to the specific consideration of the ecological sustainability concept in the Brundtland Report by means of the qualitative content analysis according to Mayring. 4.1.2. Attributions of meaning to Ecological Sustainability in the Brundtland Report Even though one searches in vain for the explicit formulation of ecological sustainability in the Brundtland Report, this concept appears in various contexts and meanings. As the result of the inductive approach, five categories can be figured out. The first outcome of the selected material is 292 | ARKEOS 38-39 Concepts of Sustainability in the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development “Our Common Future”, Julia Jorge, Hannah Hofmann, Theres Kämmerer, Jens Moggert, Elisa Theka Ecological sustainability as preservation and management of ecosystems So it is said for example: “Sustainable development requires that the adverse impacts on the quality of air, water, and other natural elements are minimized so as to sustain the ecosystem’s overall integrity” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 2, Sect. 14). This citation illustrates the necessity of ecosystem preservation, which essentially includes the managing of so called “life processes [...] by nature” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 6, Sect. 4). The analysed attribution of meanings reminds of the already described definition of sustainable development by Hans Carl von Carlowitz. In the early eighteenth century he postulated as well a suitable dealing with ecosystems (Grober, 2010: 21). It is conspicuous that the term ecosystem has, according to the definition of the Brundtland Report, the following implications: It is a completed system regulated through natural proces ses, which affects the inside living species. The need for preservation of biological diversity is explained in the following way: “More widespread climatic changes are likely to emerge within the foreseeable future as the accumulation of ‘greenhouse gases’ in the atmosphere leads to global warming [...]. Such a change will produce considerable stress for all ecosystems, making it particularly important that natural diversity be maintained as a means of adaptation.” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 6, Sect. 21) This section emphasises a deterministic manner of nature, or to be more exact, the deterministic functioning of ecosystems shown in the analysed parts of the Brundtland Report. Voigt (2011: 61) named this approach “reductionist holism”. The problem, which can be combined with this view of ecosystems, refers to the inaugurated conception of space or the spatial perspective. If space and in this case an ecosystem is seen like a “supra-individual entity” (Voigt, 2011: 61) or as a whole, reductionist explanation patterns are a logical consequence. In the Brundtland Report this becomes obvious in the connection between human acting and ecosystems. For example the establishment of nature reserves is one of the actions recommended for a sustainable ecological development: “The total expanse of protected areas needs to be at least tripled if it is to constitute a representative sample of Earth’s ecosystems” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 6, Sect. 72). In this citation, space is seen as a delimited unit with the label conservation area. Here one is faced with the following dilemma: People ARKEOS 38-39 | 293 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management can choose a certain place and add boundaries around it to protect the inside living species. But these boundaries are not natural given, they are man-made. If one decides to protect such an area, one looses the chance to preserve the excluded areas. This is an example for the dilemma of decision-making. In addition the presented proposal seems vague insofar as there is no description of what the label conservation includes: Which activities imply the establishing of protected areas and how are human actions affected by it? And all in all: how do conservation areas support a sustainable development? Furthermore, it is striking, that the management of ecosystems appears in the Brundtland Report often in relation to political institutions and decisions: “The Earth’s endowment of species and natural ecosystems will soon be seen as assets to be conserved and managed for the benefit of all humanity. This will necessarily add the challenge of species conservation to the international political agenda” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 6, Sect. 50). Parts like this are the foundation for the second formulated category: Ecological sustainability as political regimentation In connection to this it is useful to examine the scale in which action strategies are proposed: “The most urgent [policy measures] are those required to increase and extend the recent steady gains in energy efficiency and to shift the energy mix more towards renewables” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 6, Sect. 40). Here, a general measure to contain resource scarcity on a global level is shown. Furthermore there are several politi cal suggestions on a national dimension: “A useful tool in promoting this approach [to protect gene reservoirs] is the preparation of National Conservation strategies [...], which bring the processes of conservation and development together.” Both presented scales are often found in the analysed material. To a lesser extent suggestions are given which as well include the individual level: “Governments should enact national laws and public policies that encourage individual, community, or corporate responsibility for the protection of gene reservoirs” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 6, Sect. 10). But in this citation it is not concretised, in which way an individual responsibility can be reached. Additionally, it is noticeable that strategies of ecological sustainability measures are often linked to economic interests. So the third category which can be formulated is: 294 | ARKEOS 38-39 Concepts of Sustainability in the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development “Our Common Future”, Julia Jorge, Hannah Hofmann, Theres Kämmerer, Jens Moggert, Elisa Theka Ecological and economic sustainability as interwoven Spangenberg (2015: 50) ascertains, that the economic dimension of sustainable development is, in contrast to the social and ecological one, not an integral part of the main definition in the Brundtland Report. Thus, one might assume that the economic dimension is subordinated to the ecological and social sustainability concepts. To discuss this thesis, which is obviously in opposition to the formulated category, more text examples should be focused. Citations like “environmental stresses and patterns of economic development are linked one to another” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 1, Sect. 42) and “economy is not just about the production of wealth, and ecology is not just about the protection of nature; they are both equally relevant” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 1, Sect. 42) illustrate the connection and equivalence of the ecological and economic dimension shown in the report. To put these statements in perspective, it should be added that also different interpretation possibilities of the relation between both dimensions can be found. For instance Spangenberg (2015: 50) describes economic growth pointedly not as a “goal for its own sake, but rather as a means for achieving the key aim of satisfying needs while recognizing the ecological limits established and shaped by society”. A suitable part of the Brundtland Report, which encourages this view, is the following: “Third World governments can stem the destruction of tropical forests [...] while achieving economic goals. They can conserve valuable species and habitat while reducing their economic and fiscal burdens. Reforming forest revenue systems and concession terms could raise billions of dollars.” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 6, Sect. 42) Here, the economic dimension is a part of acting ecologically sustainable. A third attribution of meaning refers to the necessity of economic strategies in the concept of sustainably ecological development. For example it is stated: “A major thrust in actions to conserve genetic diversity must therefore be directed at making it more economically attractive [...]. Deve loping countries must be ensured an equitable share of the economic profit from the use of genes for commercial purposes.” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 6, Sect. 51) Summarised it means, acting ecologically sustainable needs to generate economic benefits – only then a public agreement for those strategies is given. At this point the concept of an ecologically sustainable development is linked to rational thinking and an extrinsic motivation. ARKEOS 38-39 | 295 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management In contrast to this interpretation is the fourth definition: Ecological sustainability as an intergenerational concept Grober (2010: 21) identifies generational equity as a central argument of each definition of sustainability. But in which sense and way does it appear in the Brundtland Report? First of all it is a main part of the much cited main definition: “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 2, Sect. 1). It seems naturally not just to focus only our common, but also the others future. Intergenerational sustainability often appears in the connection to nature and ecological variability: “The loss of plant and animal species can greatly limit the options of future generations” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 2, Sect. 13) – or, more general: “However, the case for the conservation of nature should not rest only with development goals. It is part of our moral obligation to other living beings and future generations” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 2, Sect. 13). The second citation investigates the qualitative difference between this categorization and the one which is analysed before. It is named explicitly that ecological sustainability is not just acting to reach economic benefits, it is also a given objective and necessary attitude. Here is presented an intrinsic motivation to operate in an ecologically sustainable way. The calling on the individual’s morality reaches his peak in the following part: “There is still time to save species and their ecosystems. It is an indispensable prerequisite for sustainable development. Our failure to do so will not be forgiven by future generations” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 6, Sect. 73). This attribution of meaning is closely related to an opinion, in which nature is seen as an aesthetic and useful entity. For example, the preservation of Antarctica is motivated by following reasons: “The challenge is to ensure that Antarctica is managed in the interests of all humankind, in a manner that conserves its unique environment, [and] preserves its value for scientific research” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 10, Sect. 83). In this category ecological sustainability is understood as the protection of something inimitable or precious and the concept got a moral attitude. The last formed category, which describes a facet of the ecological sustainability in the Brundtland Report, is not a representative but still one worth mentioning. It is not representative in so far as the analysed 296 | ARKEOS 38-39 Concepts of Sustainability in the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development “Our Common Future”, Julia Jorge, Hannah Hofmann, Theres Kämmerer, Jens Moggert, Elisa Theka material offers, in contrast to the other categories, just one suitable exam ple. It is about Ecological sustainability as an understanding of attributions of meanings and social connections The presented text section refers to the dilemma of wood as an endless resource and to aspects which have to be concerned while handling this pro blem: “But in most rural areas, simply growing more trees does not necessarily solve the problem. In some districts where there are many trees, fuelwood is not available to those who need it. The trees may be owned by only a few people. Or tradition may dictate that women play no role in the cash economy and cannot buy or sell wood. The communities concerned will have to work out local solutions to these problems. But such local issues mean that governments and aid and development organizations that want to help the fuelwood situation in developing countries will have to work harder to understand the role fuelwood plays in rural areas, and the social relations governing its production and use.“ (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 7, Sect. 72). Here a perspective is examined in which cultural and social aspects are included. To reach ecological sustainability, it is necessary to understand how humans act to construct their living environments. With this example a constructivist and action centred geographic approach, which is established by Werlen (2008), can be explained. It is not the space which determines the included elements. If it had been like that, in districts with many trees the fuelwood would have been available for everyone. But it is not true. Through human acting and the attribution of meanings like a symbolic charge of material things, people construct their spatial relations (Werlen, 2004: 153,155). 4.2. The Economic Dimension in the Brundtland Report The Brundtland Report and especially the economic dimension includes the message of overcoming poverty in the developing countries. Furthermore, the material should wealth of the industrial countries are brought into harmony with the nature. The society should not live beyond their means, because this leads to negative consequences in later generations. Regarding the economy you can say that is only sustainable ARKEOS 38-39 | 297 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management if it can be operated continuously. Possible implementation variants are technical innovations, which are also described in the Brundtland Report. The following informations show the results of the inductive approach referring to the economic sustainability concept in the Brundtland Report. Economic Sustainability regarding Finance For a stable and bearing development are external financial flows necessary. Foreign investments are necessary to grant a stable development in the developing countries. Therefore, one can conclude for this category, that without enough foreign investments a stable development is not possible. As discussed before, many economical concepts and mea sures are based on a rational approach. In the Brundtland Report you find demands based on a rational level because of their pure economic aspects. Examples for these demands are the questions about the quantity and quality of financial means. Besides the rational perspectives, other perspectives, for example moral ones, are also taken into account. Thus, the Brundtland Report states that the financial support for developing countries is not sufficient. These countries still need help in establishing their own and independent economy (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 3, Sect. 6). The demands and concepts, which aim at the economic independence of the developing countries, prove that not only global but also national and local activities are considered. The demand of linking the different action levels can be seen in the global understanding approach by Benno Werlen. Because of the “New realities” such a connection is inevitable. Economic Sustainability regarding Commodity Trading The distribution of goods and services plays an important role in economics. The commodity trading in connection with sustainable develo pments is the main subject of that category. The Brundtland Report shows that if the developing countries bring their demand for export growth in line with their demand for keeping the resources it is necessary to provide the requirements that these countries have access to the markets for non-traditional exports of the industrialized countries (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 3, Sect. 51). The global commodity trading dominates the world economy. Due to the sustainable development it is important to search, if national and local recommendations can be found. One claim in the Brundtland Report describes that every country needs a leading 298 | ARKEOS 38-39 Concepts of Sustainability in the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development “Our Common Future”, Julia Jorge, Hannah Hofmann, Theres Kämmerer, Jens Moggert, Elisa Theka authority that evaluates the conservation of a fair environment basis for the economic growth (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 3, Sect. 56). Economic Sustainability regarding Industry With the growing population the needs for goods and services are also rising. A good and effective industrial basis is needed to fulfil these needs. Therefore, an effective industry basis is necessary for all nations (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 8, Sect. 38). Furthermore, it is necessary to strengthen the measures regarding prevention, reduction and control of contamination (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 8, Sect. 47). The following sentence includes all important aspects concerning industrial development: “In general, industries and industrial operations should be encouraged that are more efficient in terms of resource use, that generate less pollution and waste, that are based on the impacts on human health and the environment“ (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 8 , Sect. 26). These demands do not mention in which global level they are supposed to be effective. As they are described in general one could draw the conclusion that it is supposed to be on the global level. Though, a national approach is mentioned in the same chapter. It is stated that an effective industrial basis has to be established for all nations and then the global and natio nal action levels will be connected. The demand for taking environmental questions and conservation of resources into account should be part of the governmental decision processes besides the aspect of supporting effective and environmentally-friendly industries (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 8, Sect. 47). This demand of the Brundtland Report can theoretically be justified with the “problems of scale” by Werlen. Global programs have to be downscaled on the national and regional level. Political actions and their aims have to be endorsed nationally and therefore as well its economic activities. 4.3. The Social Dimension in the Brundtland Report 4.3.1. The Social Dimension of Sustainability First of all it has to be concretised what the social dimension of sustainability includes. Today, the core issue in sustainable development debate is characterised by the normative base of justice for nowadays ARKEOS 38-39 | 299 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management and future generations. Pufé cites Amartya Sen, the Nobel prize winner in economic sciences, with the words: “My thesis is, that the elimination of serious lack of freedom is a basic precondition for the development” (Pufé, 2014: 104). Therefore, in different papers the core problems in the social dimension are population growth, world nutrition, global health and disparities in development. According to Grunwald & Kopfmüller, sustainability implies the fair distribution of basic social goods and their advancement of and the transmission for further generations (Grunwald & Kopfmüller, 2006: 49). This includes on the one hand “individual goods”, such as life in itself, health, basic supply of food, clothing, housing and elementary political rights (Grunwald & Kopfmüller, 2006: 49 o. t.), which have enabling character and empower individuals to lead and create a secure, decent and self-determined life by acting in a productive manner. On the other hand, these basic goods also contain social resources, like tolerance, solidarity, capacity for integration etc. which warrant a lasting societal cohesion. In this sense, the main objective in the social dimension is to maintain the social peace (Grunwald & Kopfmüller, 2006: 49 o.t.). That means an “acceptable solution of distribution problems between regions, social strata, genders and age groups” as also “solving the problem of cultural integration, belongings and identities” (Fischer-Kowalski et al., 1995 in Grunwald & Kopfmüller, 2006: 49). In a Canadian point of view the term of social sustainability and the implication of social equity and the maintenance of community traditions is stressed along with economic viability and ecological health (Jacobs, 1999: 284; footnote). Further, Jacobs quotes Barbier (1987) that social sustainability is “the ability to maintain desired social values, traditions, institutions, cultures or other social characteristics” (Jacobs, 1999: 284; footnote). Therefore sustainable development is not only about adaption but also about conservation. For the analysis it is to ask, what preconceptions and tenors stand behind the notion of social in the Brundtland Report. The buzzwords that circulate around the focused aspects are to reveal. Furthermore, there is to explore the notion of justice in inter- and intragenerational perspective as a main constituent of the social dimension. Therefore it is to ask if the social dimension stands on an equal level with the other two dimensions, the economic and the ecological one, or if there is a weighting in favor of one dimension obvious? Beyond this, the question 300 | ARKEOS 38-39 Concepts of Sustainability in the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development “Our Common Future”, Julia Jorge, Hannah Hofmann, Theres Kämmerer, Jens Moggert, Elisa Theka is if culture already plays a (crucial) role in the understanding of the Brundtland Report. 4.3.2. Understanding of Social Sustainability in the Brundtland Report The definition of sustainable development in the Report became famous in the review of the paper: “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two key concepts: the concept of ‘needs’, in particular the essential needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs.” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 2, Sect. 1). And especially with regard to the social dimension of sustainability it is stated: “Even the narrow notion of physical sustainability implies a concern for social equity between generations, a concern that must logically be extended to equity within each generation.” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 2, Sect. 3). The following keywords are most important within this given definition: “needs”, “limitations”, “social equity” and “generations”. The authors attach importance to equity between (inter) and within (intra) the present and future generations. With the consideration of future generations, the Brundtland Commission implements the factor of time in the report. When concentrating on the next generations, the important question is: What needs will they be confronted with? The difficulty in this respect is that future generations have no voice today and it is difficult to represent needs that are not yet started. The call for justice and the reference to adequate conditions of living as a fundamental right can be seen as a highly ethical claim (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 2, Sect. 55; Chapt. 12, Sect. 81). The authors argument that the wealth of today’s industrialized nations was made possible only to the expense of future generations and by the acceptance of poverty in Third World countries (UNGA, 1987: From one earth to one world, Sect. 25). Thus justice in the sense of the Brundtland Report is above all characterized through the idea of distributive justice (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 1, Sect. 1). Therefore ARKEOS 38-39 | 301 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management there is a need to create justice in taking into account and assuming responsibility for the today’s actions that harm the common basis of existence. That means on the one hand the conservation of resources and on the other hand the search for substitutes respectively adaption to changing environment circumstances (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 2, Sect. 12, 13, 55). In this intergenerational sense the importance is to preserve the options of good living conditions (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 2, Sect. 12, 13, 55) and for the intragenerational point of view distributive justice is stated highly relevant to avoid conflicts (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 11, Sect. 6, 11). The involving of future generations and vulnerable groups can be seen as a tendency to a more integrative approach to the issue. The wording “environment’s ability” is to criticize with a strictly action-based research perspective, because neither the “environment” nor “the state of technology” or rather “social organization” influences the “needs” of humankind. Instead, the sum of every single human-induced action affects the environment and the “needs” depend on each individual need of individuals and generations. Humankind should be able to “satis fy their aspirations of a better life” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 2, Sect. 4). The most important strategic imperatives are the reduction of inequa lity (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 2, Sect. 39) and to facilitate equal opportunity (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 2, Sect. 41). The first one largely concentrates on the developing countries and opportunities to reduce poverty. The second one implicates increased money spent on education and a strong interconnection of the economic and the social dimension of sustainability. Furthermore, there has to be a new perspective in the research of technologies. Normally, the production of new and innovative goods and technologies in companies is directly connected with gaining economic success. This typical practice in today’s meritocracy should be rethought: “Technologies are needed that produce ‘social goods’, such as improved air quality or increased product life, or that resolve problems normally outside the cost calculus of individual enterprises, such as the external costs of pollution or waste disposal” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 2, Sect. 67). The critical question is whether CEOs of big and international operating companies are attentive to these critical challenges posed by global change. Therefore environmental elements such as air become a social factor and social values are inscribed in nature. That means for example everyday air pollution of the coal industry causes not only the living worlds of 302 | ARKEOS 38-39 Concepts of Sustainability in the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development “Our Common Future”, Julia Jorge, Hannah Hofmann, Theres Kämmerer, Jens Moggert, Elisa Theka people in the close surroundings but also in more distant areas e. g. the smallest island states. Focusing on the new sustainability-conception it is revealed a lack of the social dimension. This lack becomes apparent when the human-induced environmental stress may lead to “growing outflow from rural areas” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 11, Sect. 9) towards big cities and urban areas. One might suggest that the bulk of the affected population is characterized by a low income level. Consequently they do not have the financial resources to acquire adequate living conditions in their new homes, but end up in growing slums, favelas and underdeve loped suburbs. They do not have a real chance to increase their living conditions, which is often coupled with low educational backgrounds and standards. Besides, the poor population class does usually not determine the described environmental stress and pollution but is directly influenced by the impacts of the environmental issues. Short-term improvements often stand in conflict with a durable development (f. e. UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 5, Sect. 47). The Brundtland Report provides one of the first calls for international commitments: “The global commons cannot be managed from any national centre: The nation state is insufficient to deal with threats to shared ecosystems. Threats to environmental security can only be dealt with by joint management and multilateral procedures and mechanisms” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 11, Sect. 38). At this point a comparison can be made with the transdisciplinary and internationally networked research in Mação. It is necessary to work together in a team of specialized researchers from different countries. That means there is also a need here for multilateral interchange. Finally, the demand for acting “in concert to remove the growing environmental sources of conflict” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 11, Sect. 48) on the road to sustainable development under a global scale can be rated positively. 4.3.3. The Relationship between the Social and the Other Dimensions Precedence of the ecological dimension The Brundtland Commission explicated an understanding of sustaina bility that places the priority on the ecological dimension: “Sustainable development requires the promotion of values that encourage consumption standards that are within the bounds of the ecological possible and to ARKEOS 38-39 | 303 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management which all can reasonably aspire” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 2, Sect. 5). It is also mentioned there that “needs are socially and culturally determined” (UNGA, 1987:Chapt. 2, Sect. 5). These get an increasing importance when political restrictions undercut the basic rights of people. One demonstrative example is the “inhuman policy of apartheid” in South Africa that was still omnipresent at the date of publication of the Brundtland Report (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 11, Sect. 10). The authors criticize at this point the omission of “elementary political rights” as one of the mentioned “individual goods” (Chapt. 2.1). In other words: The social dimension of sustainability does not have a real chance to take affects because of inhuman political standards. The authors also focus on a broader scale of consequences of human actions which go beyond “the boundaries of individual ownership and political jurisdiction” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 2, Sect. 17). The next category that can be formed from this segment is the prio rity of self-interest instead of conscious acting (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 2, Sect. 20). However, the first step is done towards a close reflection about the outcome of everyone’s actions and how they influence others. The economical dimension causes the social dimension The Report describes one more dilemma of sustainable development which has drastic social implications. The more the population grows, the more difficult the governmental management of “education, health care, and food security for people, much less their abilities to raise living standards” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 4, Sect. 2). In this matter, the main problem is the uncontrolled population growth in poor and low-income countries. The intensification of agriculture can face the dilemma between production of food and population growth in certain limits (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 4, Sect. 9). The category of analysis that the social dimension is a caused of the economical one is confirmed in this respect, when economic development reduces fertility rates “through its indirect impact on social and cultural factors” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 4, Sect. 13). As stated in the report, another example is that economic crises may lead to the elimination of social achievements (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 9, Sect. 14). 304 | ARKEOS 38-39 Concepts of Sustainability in the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development “Our Common Future”, Julia Jorge, Hannah Hofmann, Theres Kämmerer, Jens Moggert, Elisa Theka The economical and the social dimensions as interwoven There is also stated one of the main objectives of sustainable development: “welfare and safety” (these are simultaneously “individual goods”), because the authors assumed that “increases well-being and security lessens peoples’ desires to have more children than they and national ecosystems can support” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 4, Sect. 14). But reasons for this assumption are not explicitly stated. One important demand for political regulation is seen in equal economical to social investment (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 4, Sect. 34). Concerning the problem of uncontrolled population growth the role of women in different societies should also be considered. Increasing prospects for female employment and education do have an impact on the fertility rate, which will fall (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 4, Sect. 36). The aim is therefore to empower women in making their own decisions about family planning and to get independent from the need of children as retirement provision (UNGA, 1987: Our Common Future, From One Earth to One World, Sect. 43). The authors develop an interconnected understanding of the social with the economical dimension of sustainability in this respect. These dimensions do not have strong selectivities in this point of view. In light of the time of release (1987) in the Brundtland Report is obtained an important advancement in the area of education with the required connection of comprehensive knowledge from “the social and natural sciences and the humanities, thus providing insights on the interaction between natural and human resources, between development and environment” (UNGA, 1987: Our Common Future, From One Earth to One World, Sect. 67). Culture as a frame of the other three dimensions The high importance of cultural conditions within aspects of social sustainability became visible at the examination of indigenous groups. They live under traditional conditions and “in close harmony with the natural environment” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 4, Sect. 71). Sustainable measures shall take into account the traditional life-styles of these groups (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 4, Sect. 76). And they have to get the “decisive voice in the decisions about resource use in their area” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 4, Sect. 75). At that point it becomes clear, why “needs [of people] are socially and culturally determined” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 2, Sect. 5). ARKEOS 38-39 | 305 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management There is an accurate example given of how humankind provokes “environmental stress”: the “bad land use in Ethiopia in combination with yearly increasing population rates causes deep soil erosion and hunger” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 11, Sect. 7). At this point, the first step is done towards action-based solutions of problems caused by human beings. 5. Reflections and Theoretical Implications The qualitative content analysis by Mayring has examined that the Brundtland Report is based on a traditional scientific approach. The concentration on the distinction between the developing and the developed countries and as well the differentiation between the spheres land, oceans and atmosphere is construed by a deterministic point of view and with the assumptions of the sphere-model by Ratzel, which classifies the geospheres, hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere and anthroposphere amongst others. This perspective of research does not fit in all its points with an action-centered approach. The social dimension of sustainability has to stand in the centre of interest with this prospect, not the ecological or the economic one. In this theory are only existing contemporaries surroundings and not environments. And the human being is as well one part of the sourroundings as well. Furthermore the term social has to be redefined. Social issues are in an action-based point of view understood as questions of the whole society, not as aspect concerned only indigenous groups or the role of women in different societies (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 4, Sect. 71; Chapt. 4, Sect. 36). The authors of the Brundtland Report mention two different strate gies for national and international environmental policy to face the problems. The first one concentrates on environmental effects. Nature is standing in the centre of politics at this point of view. In contrast, the second one focuses on “the policies that are the sources of those effects” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 12, Sect. 11). This strategy implicates an interest in everyday’s actions of local politicians, which should lead to a deeper understanding of the political process. However, it is only a requirement to pass the change in the document, the ubiquitous practice was the first one from the 1950s to the end of the 1980s (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 12, Sect. 12). But: “Today, the sources of these effects must be tackled” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt., Sect. 14). 306 | ARKEOS 38-39 Concepts of Sustainability in the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development “Our Common Future”, Julia Jorge, Hannah Hofmann, Theres Kämmerer, Jens Moggert, Elisa Theka The implications of the accretive globalization are described by “New Imperatives for International Cooperation” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 12, Sect. 18). As a consequence of this process the demand for international networked sustainable development practices is represented in the Brundtland Report. By comparison with current guiding ideas of the IYGU (2015: n.p.), e.g. “Local actions alter global processes”, the formulation goes already approximately 26 years earlier in the right direction: “In some areas, […] especially among developing countries, new regional and subregional arrangements will be needed to deal with transboundary environmental resource issues” (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 12, Sect. 29). Environmental resource issues require new forms of collaboration; state borders are no more an adequate demarcation criterion. But global and national strategies cannot be affective, if there is no public awareness for the need of it. The results of the analysed materials have examined that there are few examples given, in which the individual level plays a role (e.g. referring to ecological sustainability as political regimentation). On the one hand the strength of the formulated development strategies in the Brundtland Report lies in its indetermination – so there is a wide range for interpretations and implementation opportunities given. On the other hand, the strategies have to be specified on a lower scale. Some regional cooperations across national boundaries are stated, e.g. the Canada/USA Interna-tional Joint Commission and Commissions for the Rhine River, the Danube River, and the Baltic Sea (UNGA, 1987: Chapt. 12, Sect. 30). The most important one in the European context was found not until five years after the release of the end of the Brundtland Commission with the European Union. In comparison with the described sustainability-concepts (Chapt. 2), the paper does not have a standard point of view on a concrete concept. Each chapter and section has an own angle of view and is underlain by a specific conception. As already stated in an earlier section, Adams (2001: 5) declares the definition of sustainable development in the Report as “a better slogan than it is a basis for theory”. Also he criticizes the often not visible “clear and consistent meaning” of the terms sustainability and sustainable development (Adams, 2001: 5). In contrast, Ekardt (2015: 65) defines sustainable development with a transdisciplinary understanding: “I view sustainable development not only as the establishment of a permanent, globally practicable and future-capable mode of life and economics, ARKEOS 38-39 | 307 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management but rather as a complex array of problems, involving a wide range of social-scientific and humanistic disciplines – law, political science, sociology, economics, theology, psychology, philosophy, etc.” The authors of this essay identified that social aspects of sustainability are in the Brundtland Report often strongly interwoven with economical ones. Besides, there is determined a priority of the ecological dimension in many text passages. Conclusion With regard to the development of different meanings of the term sustainability, one can join the explanations of Adams (2009: 20), who established the following phrases: “There is no simple single meaning of ‚sustainable development‘: a wide range of different meanings are attached to the term. Far from making the phrase useless, it is precisely because of its ability to host divergent ideas that sustainable development has proved so useful, and has become so dominant”. For this reason it was necessary first to clarify the history of the term sustainable development and its different concepts before analysing the attributions of meaning in the Brundtland Report. The Report itself offered a suitable foundation for this work because of several reasons. On the one hand it represents an important document that intensified the debate about sustainability in evidence. On the other hand it contains different attributions of meaning for the concept of ecological sustaina bility. Because of the fact, that there are not any explicit or precise recommendations for action, the Brundtland Report offers a wide scope for interpretation an does not constrain the “wide range of meanings”. It can be said that the Brundtland Report often assigns sustainable concepts in a more rational way of understanding. This can be attributed to the historical development of the economic behaviour patterns. As in further development of the model of the Homo oeconomicus, which includes a gradual decline of the rationality, also the Brundtland Report offers new perspectives. The economic dependence and further enhancements of the developing countries are depicted from a more moral point of view. The global understanding by Werlen implies the necessity of measures and actions on all levels in regard to the sustainable development because 308 | ARKEOS 38-39 Concepts of Sustainability in the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development “Our Common Future”, Julia Jorge, Hannah Hofmann, Theres Kämmerer, Jens Moggert, Elisa Theka of this new globalized world. Connections on the global, national and local level have to be established. Local conditions need to be fulfilled to achieve a global sustainability. According to the ecological dimension it is important to mention, that it was possible to define five different categories, which represent various facets of ecological sustainability concepts. In some cases the vagueness is not effective, particularly because of the risk to use reductionist explanation patterns. Argumentations that can be assigned to the last category should occur more often. There one can constitute a constructivist perspective that satisfies the characteristics of the social construction of space. Furthermore it is important to focus not only large scales but also the individual. Sustainable research and action in an adequate way only can take place though the consideration of global extents as a result of local and everyday actions (Werlen, 2012). The link to the social dimension at this point of the conclusion is obvious. Regarding the social dimension it could be revealed, that the understanding of this dimension in the Brundtland Report states the idea of justice and equity as a main principle. In the course of this, justice can first of all be seen as a distributive justice between and within generations which is mainly motivated through ethical considerations. The aim is to maintain the options for further generations and to avoid conflicts within today’s societies. The taking into account of vulnerable groups and unborn successors provides the opportunity to a more integrative point of view. The integrative moment can also be seen in the demonstration of broad and complex interrelationships between the different dimensions. All in all, to confront the analysed perspective of the Brundtland Commission with an action-centred view from the social geography, the Report contains some sensible approaches. Although this integrative approach became apparent, many statements can be criticized because the main challenges are presented as e.g. environmental problems and not as man-made and action effected disasters by humankind. At some cases, the authors of the Report do not take the necessary semantically change from nature to the individual and especially his or her actions in their thought pattern. Therefore, the problem of sustainability as a term that stays relative vague, can perhaps be interpreted also as advantage. 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(2004) The Making of Globalized Everyday Geographies. In. Space Odysseys. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2004, p. 153-167. WERLEN, B. (2008) Sozialgeographie.: Eine Einführung. UTB Geographie, Sozialwissenschaften 1911. Bern: Haupt, 2008. Werlen, B. (2010) Gesellschaftliche Räumlichkeit 2. Konstruktion geographischer Wirklichkeiten. Stuttgart: Steiner, 2010, p. 285-301. WERLEN, B. (2012) True Global Understanding and Pertinent Sustainability Policies. In. A New Paradigm of Sustainability. Rio de Janeiro: IBIO, 2012, p. 163-172. ARKEOS 38-39 | 311 Visual anthropology concept of territory revaluation, Filippo Scianò Visual anthropology concept of territory revaluation FILIPPO SCIANÒ Abstract: To reassess the territory is undoubtedly needed a revolution, meant not in the sense of a total change but in the sense of a revolution of an idea in which visitors may approach that particular “place”. In this paper will be discussed how anthropology, and specifically the visual anthropology, can bind to the urban geography and various context, such as archaeological, sacred, monumental and symbolic context, that can be significant for different populations, including the indigenous one. This project would be comparable to a anche “symbiont” able to latch on to existing and functional already. Each realization rests on the exploitation of the nowadays technology linked to a new way of enjoying the culture, enhancing the existing and new contexts with innovative methods and materials useful first of all to reiterate the concept of sustainability. Key-words: Anthropology, Archaeology, Geography, Landscape, Sustainability. I. Introduction W hen people visit cultural landscapes, the majority of the information about them is lost because most of the time they don’t have time or just the opportunity to have access to those information. Starting from this dilemma and integrating anthropology, archaeology and social sciences together with technology, the access to those information can be reached by anyone in any kind of cultural landscape like archaeological parks, bio parks, urban parks and many others. So, how can we create a network of knowledge to implement the experience in a cultural heritage? With visual anthropology, in fact it provides the research, the contextualization and the diffusion of images. Visual anthropology is not only the consideration of the use of images in anthropological research, but also the analysis of the uses of images in different cultural contexts. ARKEOS 38-39 | 313 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management It is assumed that for anthropological research can be used not only the pictures that the anthropologist himself produces and stores but also those pictures that are produced and used in various territorial, social and cultural contexts. The study of the city as a built-up area and as a place of high concentrations of people, activities and relationships has been the subject of study and research of both geographers and town planners, and recently of regional geographers and spatial economists, who have transferred methods and models developed in the regional geography with the contribution provided in the sixties by Isard. (Isard, W. 1960) In this urban context stands out the idea of visual anthropology which aim is to reach a “theory of visual”, which analyzes and decodes the visible forms that cultures assume when they try to shape the environment, places, objects and buildings. In this context of territorial organization visual anthropology can be considered as the engine that will make the process of digitization of the project possible. My idea is related to the revaluation of archaeological park or urban space with the purpose to create a multimedia space (via QR codes and references to web information). It would also be comparable to a project “symbiont” able to latch on to existing and already functional projects and equipment in order to increase the value. In my opinion a concrete example and mainly necessary in Italy could be the field of museum display both meant as a museum in sensu stricto of the term and in relation to a variety of archaeological contexts that require a total revaluation and visibility in order to continue to exist and grow. II. Material and methods Necessary treatment for cultural landscape is divided in a few points, prior to undertaking work on a landscape, a treatment plan or similar document should be developed. The four primary treatments are: –Preservation. –Rehabilitation. 314 | ARKEOS 38-39 Visual anthropology concept of territory revaluation, Filippo Scianò –Restoration. –Reconstruction. The project it situated at intermediate level between rehabilitation and restoration. At this level we are talking about cultural landscape as a cultural heri tage. It «is a common heredity which can be used today and transmitted to future generation making possible that the knowledge of the past can enrich collective cognitive and critics faculties, improving opportunities for a better quality of life». (Quagliolo M., 2015) For the realization of the project the first thing to do would be to replace all materials that have a strong impact on the environment, both ecologically and aesthetic, with recycled materials and in line with the landscape that surrounds it, in order to create an architectural homogeneity in compliance with the rest. The main materials used are: – pietra (stone): a natural material of mineral origin, for flooring, according to requirements may be rough, splitted or polished; –cocciopesto: a particular type of pottery, a mortar composed of hydraulic binders, selected aggregates of different grain sizes like marble dust, silica sand, terracotta and pozzuolana. – vetro cellulare (crystal-glass), a light volatile insulating, which is produced from pure glass, quartz sand and recycled glass with the addition of carbon. Brought to high temperatures there is a process of fusion, and subsequent expansion, without any kind of use of binders; it is a recyclable material. It is impermeable to water and water vapour, incombustible, not attacked by pests and rodents, compression-resistant, non-deformable, non-toxic material. It is perfect to use it as an alternative to wood and iron, the use of vetro cellulare would also reduce the visual degradation in case of rusts (metals) and mold (wood). (Allen G., et al, 2011. 22,31,34) Another point of interest would be the energetic supply, which has to be evaluated according to the context of belonging, such as the exploitation of solar energy rather than the use of wind or water energy. ARKEOS 38-39 | 315 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management In addition, integrated management mechanism requires therefore: (I) to build abroaden identity and instruments that allow local communities to be involved in the development choices, (II) to go beyond their boundaries, and (III) to verify the efficacy, efficiency and satisfaction of visitors (citizens + tourists). The success of a cultural system of territorial type, depends on a large set of conditions, and in particular the ability to coordinate natural and cultural resources (tangible and intangible assets), facilities and infrastructure, the demand/supply ratio and any problems that the territory must address and resolve. (Amendola A. et al., 2005, 27, edited) The central point for the development and success of this project of revaluation is the “Quick Response Code” (QR Code) technology, that is the trademark for a type of matrix barcode (or two-dimensional barcode) first designed for the automotive industry in Japan. A barcode is a machine-readable optical label that contains information about the item to which it is attached. A QR code uses four standardized encoding modes (numeric, alphanumeric, byte / binary, and kanji) to efficiently store data; extensions may also be used. (Denso-Wave, 2011.) So what does this technology means in this context? This module allows the implementation of a trip in four dimensions. This is set up as a “path” both in space through a hike or a walk, and in time with the possibility to direct access to a computerized network that would increase the learning experience and at the same time would not create in the visitor a sense of estrangement from the place it is located. I called this model Future Mirror to Past, (F.M.T.P.), an experience like a “time machine” but without a closed room or space. With the smartphone, every visitor can be know information about the park (trees, plants, animals, material of construction etc) only with a code scanning. Moreover, in an online databank accessible through login, it can be possible to see the changing of the landscape from the past to the present and additional information about anthropological and archaeological data can improve the experience. III. Discussion Cultural landscapes are at the interface between nature and culture, tangible and intangible heritage, and biological and cultural diversity; 316 | ARKEOS 38-39 Visual anthropology concept of territory revaluation, Filippo Scianò they represent a tightly woven net of relationships that are the essence of culture and people’s identity. The category of associative cultural landscapes has contributed subs tantially to the recognition of intangible values and to the heritage of local communities and indigenous people. These landscapes are places with associative cultural values, some considered as sacred sites, which may be physical entities or mental images that are embedded with people’s spirituality, cultural tradition and practice. Sustainability means using natural and cultural resources so that their capacity to meet human needs into the future is not diminished. By the way the idea of sustainability, specifically of the urban sustainability was showed by Dely K. in Brussels on March 2009: “The concept of urban sustainability must be framed in environmental, social, cultural and economic dimensions; it faces the need to reconcile conflicting actors and antagonistic stakehol ders. Holistic approaches to territorial cohesion are needed. Promoting sustainability in cities must be seen as a ‘quality step’ balancing good land use, territorial planning, development policy, design and life style. This implies more effective involvement of citizens in decision making and new modes of governance to inform and involve all citizens. In turn, improved governance of resources in the urban environment should be seamless with improved social equity. Socio-economic sciences and humanities provides a bridge between natural science and its equitable application to the real concerns of people” (Dely K, 2009, 25.) The concept evolved in relation to perceived threats to natural resources. Those involved in cultural heritage management have transferred relevant concepts to the survival of cultural resources, the fabric of monu ments, sites and landscapes. What constitutes sustainability in the maintenance of heritage cultural landscapes? «Decisions have to be made about which elements of the cultural landscape are (i) to be conserved at all costs, (ii) subject to limited change provided that the overall character and significance of the resource is maintained, and (iii) suitable for exchange in return for other benefits» (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2009, 28.) The project is based not only on the idea of a long term positive feedback on the territorial revaluation but also on a revolution of the landscape perception. The combination of different cultural activities in an area emerges perfectly within the system of sustainability and development; this comARKEOS 38-39 | 317 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management bination can be assumed as the base in order to ensure its success. When the territory is part of the cultural landscape or archaeological heritage, the preservation is required. The preservation is essential before any action of revaluation or even social enjoyment. The idea is to have a limited or minimal impact not only by avoiding building redundant installations, but also to contextualize and enhance the natural and cultural assets peculiar to that environment. It would be avoided non-native species of plants and animals reintroducing native species. It would be also taken into account the possibility of organizing paths that are in synch with customs and practices of a specific culture so to revaluate the traditional aspect of the city. The preferential location in which would be better to realize the project, as mentioned above, would be an “urban or archaeological” park. This concept can be described as an open space museum without architectural barriers, but it can also be linked to museums, archaeolo gical parks and areas of artistic interest that may be part of the project because of its multidisciplinary and multi-purpose nature. In line with this opinion: «Archaeological research offers to contemporary society, hence, an integrated insight into past landscapes and their human dynamics, contributing to disseminate awareness of adaptation mechanisms and of the need to value all levels of information.» (Ooster beek L., 2011, 102.) The focus of the project is centred on landscape interpretation, that is the requirement for the people to discover new type of attractive, in this sense especially: landscape interpretation is the process of providing the visitor with tools to experience the landscape as it existed during its period of significance, or as it evolved to its present state. These tools may vary idely, from a focus on existing features to the addition of interpretive elements. These could include exhibits, self-guided brochures, or a new representation of a lost feature. The nature of the cultural landscape, especially its level of signifi cance, integrity, and the type of visitation anticipated may frame the interpretive approach. Landscape interpretation may be closely linked to the integrity and condition of the landscape, and therefore, its ability to convey the historic character and character defining features of the past. If a landscape has high integrity, the interpretive approach may be to 318 | ARKEOS 38-39 Visual anthropology concept of territory revaluation, Filippo Scianò direct visitors to surviving historic features without introducing obtrusive interpretive devices such as free-standing signs. For landscapes with a diminished integrity, where limited or no fabric remains, the interpretive emphasis may be on using extant features and visual aids (e.g. markers, photographs, etc.) to help visitors visualize the resource as it existed in the past. The primary goal of these situations is to educate the visitor about the landscape’s historic themes, associations and lost character-defining features or broader historical, social and physical landscape contexts. IV. Conclusions «Understanding humans as a link involving society (humans organisations), environment (humans context) and economics (human behaviour) enables to understand humanities as a set of expertise for integrated landscape management for sustainable development». (Oosterbeek L., 2011, 102.) For this reason this concept may be used to improve any place without a large material waste and expenditure of energy; in a digital time all the people, with their technology can be implement the sharing of culture, visual culture, archaeological culture, anthropological culture and any type of culture. While this can be challenging, progressive improvements may be secured through innovative and experimental approaches, involving techniques of adaptive management. In particular, innovative measures – for example those that brand and market the place and its traditions, through retailed products and in the tourism sector – can both help develop a more sustainable economy, and also support landscape protection. Successful cultural landscape management can “illustrate sustainable local and regional development” and serve as “models of sustainable development–drawing on traditional practices of sustainable use of resources”. (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2009, 36.) Through this approach, cultural landscape management has meaning in people’s lives, becomes more relevant to a larger constituency and contributes to a sustainable future. In conclusion, progressive improvements may be secured through innovative and experimental approaches, involving techniques of adaptive ARKEOS 38-39 | 319 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management management. In particular, innovative measures can both help developing a more sustainable economy, and also support landscape protection. In my opinion a concrete example and mainly necessary in some realities could be the field of museum display both meant as a museum in sensu stricto of the term and in relation to a variety of archaeological contexts that require a total revaluation and visibility in order to continue to exist and grow. References Allen G., Moro M.,Burro. L., (2001), Repertorio dei materiali per la bioedilizia, Maggioli Editore. Amendola A., Papaccio A., [Online] Driving local developmen via cultural networking in Cultural heritage and management local development, Local Communities through heritage awareness and global understanding, p. 27. Dely K, (2009), Sustainable cities: From an oxymoron to a target in: People, the economy and our planet Sustainable developmentinsights from socio-economic sciences and humanities. Benson, J., and M. Roe, (2000). Landscape and Sustainability, Spon Press, London and New York, examines a range of mechanisms including legal provisions. Denso-Wave, (2011), QR Code features. Isard, W. (1960). Methods of Regional Analysis; an Introduction to Regional Science, Cambridge: Published jointly by the Technology Press of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Wiley, New York. Lockwood, Michael, Graeme L. Worboys, and Ashish Kothari (eds.), (2006), Managing Protected Areas: A Global Guide, Earthscan Publications Ltd, London. Mauro Masi, (2001), Capitolato speciale d’appalto per opere in Bioedilizia, DEI edizioni Tipografia del Genio Civile Roma. Nora Mitchell, Mechtild Rössler, Pierre-Marie Tricaud, (2009), World Heritage Cultural Landscapes: A Handbook for Conservation and Management, UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Oosterbeek L., (2011), Is there a role for the humanities in face of a global warming and social crisis? Oosterbeek L, (2012), Looking at global disruption in three steps, plus one to overcome it, in Territori della cultura rivista on-line. Quagliolo M., (2015), Cultural Heritage as a global driver: why, how, which quality? Herity and the Quality Management of cultural heritage, in Apleleia Intense Program, Maçao. 320 | ARKEOS 38-39 Réflexion sur les apports de l’architecture contemporaine dans une perspective de soutenabilité communautaire, Indio de Azevedo Vignes Réflexion sur les apports de l’architecture contemporaine dans une perspective de soutenabilité communautaire INDIO DE AZEVEDO VIGNES Retrait: Nous mènerons une étude pour analyser le repositionnement nécessaire d’une architecture contemporaine, trop souvent déconnectée des populations locales (sans liaison avec le paysage bâti), vers par une architecture en lien avec les identités culturelles d’une communauté, où les peuples ont le pouvoir de choisir les matériaux, les techniques et les objectifs. Quels enjeux ce replacement de l’architecture comme manifestation culturelle (au même niveau que la danse, la cuisine etc.) met-il en évidence? Cette archi tecture devient-elle grâce à ce repositionnement, plus écologique et/ou plus «durable»? L’implication des communautés entraîne-t-elle un choix conscientisé des matériaux, des techniques et de l’esthétique architecturale? D’autre part, cette architecture devient-elle plus variée et plus riche lorsque chaque communauté fait des choix pour son bâti? Cette gestion de l’architecture par les communautés, peut-elle apporter une dimension plus écologique aux techniques constructives? Une valeur ajoutée sociale pour valoriser les cultures locales? Et enfin un vecteur d’intégration du bâti dans les paysages? Mots Clés: Architecture, Vernaculaire, Culture, Communauté, bâtir. 1. INTRODUCTION L ’Être humain exploite, depuis toujours, l’environnement autours de lui-même. Parfois pour faire simples récoltes des produits, parfois pour gérer les sources naturelles afin de lui donne de confort en profitant d’une situation sédentaire qui a été choisi depuis million d’années. Cette relation est plutôt une relation de symbioses entre l’homme et la nature que de parasitisme. Parfois la nature profite aussi de la gestion rational d’être humain pour se maintenir. On trouve plusieurs situations ARKEOS 38-39 | 321 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management où l’homme a été influencé la manutention des espèces qui sont de leurs intéresse. Pour l’architecture ça passé quelque chose tout à fait pareille. L’Être Humain a commencé à exploiter les places disponibles déjà pour la nature pour se faire protéger et après bâtir leurs places devient une besoin. Au début l’architecture devient vernaculaire où les matériaux sont trouvés sur la place qui a été choisi pour la communauté s’installer. Une sortie d’équilibre entre les ressources alimentaires, du bâtir et des besoins climatiques influençait les choix pour chaque place. Et, l’assemblage de tout ça a développé qu’on appelle «culture». 1.1. L’architecture L’Être humain, au début, trouvait des matériaux bruts pour conçus leurs places. Pierre et bois sont des éléments les plus numéraux sur les superficies. On peut trouver les exemplaires comme les dolmens et les obélisques. Après la paille et la terre crue sont ajoutés à l’architecture. Encore en façon d’exploitation de la nature l’être humain choisissait les matériaux qu’il pourrait trouver sur la place choisie. Si la pierre est le matériau plus abondant sur place elle devient la caractéristique de l’architecture locale. Si est la paille le matériau le plus numéraux celuilà sera trouvé sur les bâtis de cette région. Et comme ça, on trouve plusieurs matériaux qui donnent leurs caractéristiques à la technique du bâtir (végétaux, glaçon, cuir, sable, etc.). L’évolution des processus du transporte, de l’économie et des échange sur le monde a possibilité aussi l’échange de matériaux et techniques du bâtir. Le commerce a amené la pierre plus loin, a envoyé les bois à l’ultra-mer. De plus en plus l’être-humain exploite les matériaux ailleurs pour le servir comme des matériaux constructifs. La science a fait améliorer les techniques d’exploitation et aussi le développement des nouveaux matériels. Avec un commerce de plus en plus puissant l’être humain avance aussi de plus en plus sur l’exploitation pour le marché du bâtir. Les caractéristiques architecturaux, que d’autre fois, font partie d’une culture locale et que devient d’une communauté sont maintenant perdues. L’homogénéisation des techniques et des matériaux sont issue 322 | ARKEOS 38-39 Réflexion sur les apports de l’architecture contemporaine dans une perspective de soutenabilité communautaire, Indio de Azevedo Vignes d’une révolution commerciale et scientifique qui est sur toute la surface de la planète. L’architecture qui est produise aux pays industrialisés est consumée aux pays ailleurs, en tuant parfois, les cultures locales du bâtir, du choisir et d’exprimer d’une communauté. 1.2. La Culture du Bâtir Les cultures dans plusieurs coordonnées sur le monde se sont composées pour des éléments qui deviennent de la manifestation humaine en groupe. Ces manifestations sont aussi influencées pour l’environnement où la culture se développe. L’environnement provoque au l’être humain des réactions pour survivre et stimule la créativité humain pour réussir a cette objective. La culture d’une communauté est le conjoint des manifestations de ces intégrants. Les manifestations peuvent être des origines physiologiques comme la production de nourriture, la production de protection, le choix pour rester dans un endroit. Sont des manifestations pour les besoin basique pour survivre à l’environnement. Mais les manifestations peuvent aussi être expresse par d’autres origines comme expliquait Maslow (besoins d’appartenance et d’amour; besoins d’estime; besoin d’accomplissement de soi). Le bâtir est aussi importante que la dance, l’agriculture, la cousine, la musique dans une communauté. Le bâtir réponde l’enjeu de la sécurité pour une culture où se trouve la protection des diversités de la nature. 1.3. L’architecture Comme Manifestation Culturel Être sédentaire a fait que l’être humain avait choisi les meilleur coor donnes pour bâtir par rapporte la localisation des ressources matériaux, et par rapporte aux fontes de vie (nourriture et l’eau). L’être humain choisissait les bons matériaux pour bâtir par rapporte aux enjeux de la technique d’utilisation des matériaux, par les enjeux de dispositions de cette matériau sur place et pour les enjeux de la carac téristique de ces matériaux (thermique, résistance, etc.) ARKEOS 38-39 | 323 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management Par conséquence de tout ça devient la forme du bâtir de chaque culture. Cette conjoint des choix (les coordonnées pour bâtir, les matériaux et le formes) faites que les processus du bâtir soit différents par chaque communauté et leurs expressions culturelles. Au contraire des autres expressions culturelles, le bâtir impacte plus l’espace et le temps, et de plus en plus a gagné une place d’évidence sur les communautés occidentales. Le bâtir devient expressions mythiques des cultures aussi comme des utiles pour soutenir le choix de les communautés d’être sédentaire (infrastructure). Les plusieurs mouvementes de la science sur l’histoire humaine ont aussi influencé le bâtir. La Renaissance aussi comme la Révolution Indus triel apportent les nouvelles techniques et matériaux. Les matériaux ont besoin des laboratoires pour être produites ont aussi besoin de chaînes productives spécifiques pour les transformer et un marché pour permettre les gagnés économiques. Les techniques du bâtir sont, de plus en plus, complexes et sont seulement permis à des classes d’être humain certifiés. L’architecture gagne complexité et elle bascule d’une expression sociale e culturale pour une science loin de permettre la participation communautaire. Cette contexte contemporaine de l’architecture, où la communauté ne participe plus, donne une grande complexité au bâtir qui mène aussi des conséquences comme les coûts de matériaux. Ces coûts sont de types économiques et environnementaux. 2. QUAND L’ARCHITECTURE DEVIENT CULTUREL/DURABLE? Les origines des matériaux pour le bâtir sont aujourd’hui dans une chaîne mondialisée où on laisse le coût environnemental à chaque étage productive. Par exemple on peut décortiquer la chaîne d’acier qui sert aux structures dans l’architecture contemporaine pour comprendre ces analyses. L’acier au monde aujourd’hui est exploiter comme de fer dans le territoire du tiers monde (l’Amérique du sud et l’Afrique), spécifiquement au Brésil le fer vient des sursols de l’Amazonie, pour le transformer en acier il faut ajouter du carbone qui vient du processus de bruler les bois de la forêt. 324 | ARKEOS 38-39 Réflexion sur les apports de l’architecture contemporaine dans une perspective de soutenabilité communautaire, Indio de Azevedo Vignes Après être exploiter l’acier est vendu à Chine pour le transformer en plaques et structure pour l’industrie du bâtir par tout le monde. La Chine aujourd’hui reçoit l’industrie lourd et polluent. Avec cet exemple d’acier on peut voir comme notre choix pour les matériaux laisse conséquence écologique pour la chaîne mondialisée. Notre bâtir légère en accord avec les lois écologique apport des problèmes depuis les origines des matériaux. Des autres matériaux peuvent aussi souffrir les mêmes analyses et on va trouver que depuis la teinture jusqu’à structure de chaque constructions il y a de problèmes écologique ailleurs au monde. Notre choix pour habiter de plus en plus des régions hostiles amené aussi de souci par rapporte aux technique et aux matériaux. Normalement la réponse pour ces soucis est gaspiller plus d’argent pour matériaux de haute-technologie. Au contraire de cette cycle économique contemporaine du bâtir où nôtres choix nous amènent à gaspiller plus des ressource naturels, la proposition est faire comprendre le processus évolutif du bâtir par chaque région du monde. Faisant connaissance au processus constructive de notre passé; les choix, les «pourquoi» et le technique on pourra trouver de réponse pour l’avenir dans l’architecture plus écologique. 2.1. L’exemple de la «Tour au Vent» Consulter les techniques anciennes pour le bâtir et les adapter aux nouveaux matériaux, si nécessaire, pourrait nos donner les chemins pour une architecture qui respect les ressource de matériaux et simplifié la technique. ARKEOS 38-39 | 325 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management Figure 1. Tours au Vent à Yazd en Iran Source: http://www.albert-videt.eu/photographie/carnet-de-route/iran_10-2006/badgir_tour-duvent_yazd_03.php Un grand exemple de ce processus est la «Tours au vent» qui a été utilisé en Abu Dabi dans l’Institute Masdar. Cette «Tour au vent» aussi appelée de «Badgir» est une adaptation de bâtisseurs iraniens depuis des siècles pour faire refroidir les maisons sur le désertes. Cette technologie utilise le vent plus élevé pour faire pression et changer l’air dans les maisons. Figure 2. La Tours au Vent de Masdar Source: Vidéo: Masdar une Cité Verte au Pays de l’or noire. 326 | ARKEOS 38-39 Réflexion sur les apports de l’architecture contemporaine dans une perspective de soutenabilité communautaire, Indio de Azevedo Vignes Le bureau d’architecture de «Foster and Partners» a utilisé la même technologie millénaire pour aider à conçu la ville plus vert au monde: Masdar. Pour faire refroidir tout une partie de la ville les architectes ont créé la plus grande «Tour au Vent». L’assemblage de techniques anciennes avec les nouvelles techniques et nouveau matériaux. Comme la «Tour au Vent» a exemplifiée on peut utiliser cette réflexion à plusieurs exemples des bâtir au monde. Et aussi déloqué les origines pour le biome, par exemple la «tour au vent» pourrait être utilisée en autres régions désertifiée au monde (Afrique, l’Amérique du Sud, L’Asie). 3. QU’EST-CE QUE ON PEUT APPRENDRE AVEC CETTE FAÇON DE BATIR? Plusieurs réflexions deviennent de ce point de vue: A)La perception de que notre histoire du bâtir est encore vivant et que on peut trouver des solutions pour l’avenir en notre passé; B)Les technique du passé utilisait plus des matériaux locale et moins industrialisés; C)La relations entre la communauté et la culture du bâtir donnait plus de richesse créative aux processus; et D)L’adaptation des techniques anciennes pour autre régions au monde avec les nouveaux matériaux. Cette adaptation peut-elle être plus écologique? BIBLIOGRAPHIE ARBID, George. (2014) ARCHITECTURE FROM THE ARAB WORLD 1914 – 2014 (a Selection). 14. Mostra Insternazionale di Architettura – La biennale di Venezia, 2014. CARTIER, Jacques. (2001) L’ARCHITECTURE, LES SCIENCES ET LA CULTURE DE L’HITOIRE AU XIXe SIÈCLE. L’Université de Saint-Étienne, 2001. EM REVISTA, TRABALHO ESCRAVO NO BRASIL. Observatório Social, Revue Edition nº 6 – mai 2004. CORREIA, M., DIPASQUALE, L., MECCA S. (2014) VERSUS: HERITAGE FOR TOMOR ROW, Vernacular Knowledge for sustainable Architecture. Firenze University Press, Firenze, 2014. ARKEOS 38-39 | 327 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management OLIVER, P. (1998) ENCYCLOPEDIA OF VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE OF THE WORLD. University Press Cambridg, Unitec Kingdom, 1998. OLIVER, P. (2006) BUILT TO MEET NEEDS: Cultural issues in vernacular architecture. Elsevier, Oxford, 2006. 328 | ARKEOS 38-39 Restoring the Repertoire of the rural heritage of BUCIUM, Romania, Iulia Melania Dumitru Restoring the Repertoire of the rural heritage of BUCIUM, Romania IULIA MELANIA DUMITRU B etween July 19 and August 4, 2015, the French-Roumanian Association of Heritage – Rper – organizes the fifth edition of “Summer University for restoration of monuments and sites” under the patronage of the Romanian Academy in Bucium, Romania. Initiated in 2011 on the back of increased preoccupation crisis on cultural heritage, reflected by the absence of strict legislation on the protection of the rural heritage and the grant funds restorations, the project continued aims to educate the Romanian society to the importance of preserving the existing rural heritage and encourage initiatives related to the identification, inventory, in-situ rehabilitation and promotion of this heritage. The project’s concept was inspired by the European rural heritage restoration model in situ as the economic engine of territorial development of the ICOMOS statement on safeguarding the spirit of the place – Quebec City, October 4, 2008, but also the objectives of the association Heritage Foundation and can become a scalable model in every municipality of the country. Bucium commune is in the center-west of Alba County – the land of Mots – and consists in 30 villages scattered over the hills, along the river. Attested from 1585, the town has traces of habitation from the Bronze Age. Part of the cultural landscape of the Land of Mots, held as a secret story, reveals the richness of its cultural values, mirror of the victories and vicissitudes of the inhabitants. The origin of the name The bucium (also called trâmbită , or tulnic) is a type of alphorn used by the inhabitants of the mountains in Romania. With a Dacian origin, it was used in the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia as a signaling device in military conflicts. ARKEOS 38-39 | 329 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management The word is derived from Latin “bucinum”, which originally means “curved horn”, an instrument used by the Romans, also characteristic for the Romanian folk music. A central objective of concern and research of the Summer University is the Old School of Bucium, a building built between 1884 and 1900 by an unknown Italian architect, who has held numerous important functions over time. Now, thanks to the collaboration between the City Council and Rper Bucium (the association that organizes the summer university), the school has a climacteric temporary protection, feasibility study and technical expertise, in seeking funds for rehabilitation in restoration techniques and reconceptualization of its spaces. Its transformation into a Centre of Archaeological Studies, Architecture and mountain farming is recommended, with school workshops traditional crafts and related accommodation spaces. The Summer University of Bucium, Romania offers participants, the majority of students and graduates in architecture but also sociologists, political scientists and anthropologists, as future players Heritage Policy, an interdisciplinary program of postgraduate preparation, in the context of perception and processing of non-classified Romanian rural heritage, which is in a gap of 68 years compared to the West of the Europe. The program of the Summer University 2013 includes practical activities for the completion of the inventory objects of local architecture, secular and sacred: photographic study, analyzes of morphological and structural features, GPS tracking, bearings, completion fact sheets inventory (FAI-M) for the selected objects, some of which – primarily those value memorial – subject to classification proposals as a historical monument. Meanwhile, on the site of rehabilitation of the House Colda, participants learn the processes and restoration procedures and reconceptualization in situ of a traditional house. The learning activities are supported by specialists and university staff at conferences, debates and conferences that take place daily throughout the university. As part of the summer of 2012, the architectural study was also extended to the study of the cultural landscape, a work of inventory of built heritage integrated in its natural setting. As part of the 2013 edition, a case study will be performed on built heritage whose owner is unknown or uncertain and is therefore neglected and subjected 330 | ARKEOS 38-39 Restoring the Repertoire of the rural heritage of BUCIUM, Romania, Iulia Melania Dumitru to degradation. The study could be the basis for the adoption of legislative measures concerning tax incentives can stimulate the clarification of succession. Documents synthesized during the summer 2011 have been the publi cation of Book I – Rural Heritage Directory Bucium, Ist Edition (ISBN 978-973-0-13019-5). Documents synthesized during the Summer 2012 are subject Workbook II Rural Heritage Directory Bucium, Second Edition, which will be launched in Bucium on the occasion of the official opening of the Summer University 2013 are the basis for the development of classification folders as historical monuments of six votive cross and road, a large memorial and symbolic value. Documents synthesized during the Summer School 2013 will be Workbook III Rural Heritage Directory Bucium, Third Edition. On the occasion of the official opening of Sunday, July 21, 2013, at 16h, which will be held at City Hall in the town of Bucium, the concept of the Summer Bucium going to be presented and will be launched Booklet Rural Heritage Repertory II Bucium Second edition, the second edition of the most elegant house open to residents and a drawing competition for children. The guests of honor are the representatives of the project partners and local and county administration and the inhabitants of the municipality. At the closing of the festival Saturday, August 3, 2013 at 16h, certificates attest to, and price of the second edition of the most elegant house will be delivered, and the conclusions of the first three editions of the Summer University Bucium will be presented. The festivities will end with a traditional show Bucium and picnic. The Summer University treats the unclassified rural heritage of Bucium, Alba countie, cultural heritage of villages that has suffered several mutilations. Traditional houses from unprotected areas, except those stored in museums or remarkable resettlement projects, were often used as fire wood, as raw material for the floor for restorations in the Occidental Europe or have collapsed in ruin. The reason for these irreversible losses lies in the lack of respect to cultural heritage, situation reflected in the gaps of the legislation in the field of protection of cultural heritage, in the uncertainty of the legal ARKEOS 38-39 | 331 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management status of properties and in the absence of fiscal and financial incentive programs for preservation of rural heritage. The UDV (Summer University) of Bucium, Romania, proposes solutions to save unprotected rural heritage, still existing in situ, especially the ones with memorial value and also, rethinking its life, inspired by what it’s practiced and perfectly working in France, the long mission of “Fondation du Patrimoine” (France) in order to develop cultural, social and economic, the local communities and territories. Preparing future policy actors heritage, after the European model initiation, for the students and young professionals, architects, planners and sociologists - in the identlfiarii, repertorierii and scientific inventory of rural heritage values and in their rehabilitation processes in situ awareness of local people and local administrations on the cultural heritage value of the benefits and the importance of saving objects in order to rehabilitate rural heritage in situ, of the categorization as a monument to their introduction and development programs durabiIa editing program results in a series of notebooks Rural Heritage Repertory Bucium, which include synthesis and related documentation filing proposals achieve a repeatable model and adaptable in any township or village in Romania. In the Bucium area there are evidences of archaeological sites, gold mining, the continuous practice of craft during the Daco era, the Daco-Romanian era, the medieval, modern and contemporary times of the villages. The region has a huge archaeological, ethnological and anthropological potential. We can distinguish the following types of heritage: – Tangible and intangible cultural heritage –Rural Heritage – Historical and Natural Heritage – Knowledge and know-how for traditional crafts – Oral Traditions Objectives for the architectural heritage conservation policy: – the concern on cultural heritage, reflected by the absence of strict legislation on the protection of the rural heritage 332 | ARKEOS 38-39 Restoring the Repertoire of the rural heritage of BUCIUM, Romania, Iulia Melania Dumitru –educate the Romanian society to the importance of preserving the existing rural heritage and encourage initiatives related to the identification, inventory, in-situ rehabilitation and promotion of this heritage – identification and sustainable development of rural heritage objects photographic inventory, reporting associated with their position in the plane and village mapping – completion of the inventory objects of local architecture, secu lar and sacred The importance of a policy to safeguard the heritage Bucium, Romania – Promoting model Bucium, restoration and re-conceptualization ‘in situ’ national – Revitalization of traditional crafts and facilitation of cultural and sports activities in the mountainous landscape in the light of the common European model of sustainable development – Minimize the perception gap and the life of cultural heritage in European countries in western and eastern – Save the tangible and intangible heritage – Ad hoc studies of popular architecture to the urgency of indexing and scientific inventory for the in situ rehabilitation and preparation of file folders, to publicize and put under protection the valuable and Fragile Rural Heritage that developed over time, in unexpected hypostases. – Try to convince the most important ethnographic museums in the country to bring their expertise in situ ARKEOS 38-39 | 333 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management Drawing: Iulia Dumitru 180° perspective in Bucium, Romania 334 | ARKEOS 38-39 Restoring the Repertoire of the rural heritage of BUCIUM, Romania, Iulia Melania Dumitru Traditional Romanian interior. Fabric crochets, art crafts, handmade carpets and tablecloth 180º panorama with Bucium landscape ARKEOS 38-39 | 335 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management 336 | ARKEOS 38-39 Restoring the Repertoire of the rural heritage of BUCIUM, Romania, Iulia Melania Dumitru ARKEOS 38-39 | 337 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management 338 | ARKEOS 38-39 Restoring the Repertoire of the rural heritage of BUCIUM, Romania, Iulia Melania Dumitru ARKEOS 38-39 | 339 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management NOTE: All drawings and pictures are part of a personal collection of data of the Author of the presentation, Iulia Melania Dumitru 340 | ARKEOS 38-39 PUBLIC CITY SPACE – ZNOJMO TOWN – RIVER EMBANKMENT OF DYJE, Monika Marková PUBLIC CITY SPACE – ZNOJMO TOWN – RIVER EMBANKMENT OF DYJE MONIKA MARKOVÁ Key words: riverbank; The Podyjí National Park; valley; problems of the river localities; town and greenery; historical context; traffic; public space Introduction I live in Znojmo which is very nice town but with a lot of land or urbanism problems and I wanted to find some idea for these places. Before I started do this work I was thinking about places which are ignored or overlooked in Znojmo town. Yes, town has a lot of places which are interesting and need “new face”. There are brownfiels but problems of these localities were designed many times. And I wanted to find some new way, try restoring and improving public space in connecting by the river. I chose locality which connect two important buildings – Znojmo castle and Louka monastery. There is needed to improve connection this locality to town centre. Situation Znojmo town is situated in the south of Moravia in the Czech Republic. It belongs to popular tourist destination because there are a lot of historical sights and has strategic position in the way from Prague to Wien. Znojmo town was declared an urban conservation. There is always a lot of cultural events and many tourists know it for their wine making tradition. It is surrounded by the nature with wonderful paths through the valleys – Granice valley and valley around Dyje River – to the direct connections. These paths are used often. But their quality is reduced during time because nobody cares about them. There is not exploiting ARKEOS 38-39 | 341 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management the potential of them, expanding activities for tourist and inhabitants of the town. The situation of Znojmo town nearby the Dyje River had indisputable advantages – drinking water supply or a protection against enemies in earlier times. The river underlines the beauties of the town. The views on the silhouette of town are the most impressive from the riverbanks or river. But the second view on this situation is not so positive. The river requires to build bridges in the town. It was need only on the main paths when whole town is on one riverbank – bridge over The Salt Trail in the Cow hill was under Znojmo castle; the next one was to Vienna in the south of Znojmo and the third was situated nearby Louka monastery to the vineyards around Cow hill. When was introduced railway also, was built new imposant bridge over Dyje valley a then over Leska valley. The strategic position is not as satisfactory in this period as it was – The city bypass builds a lot of years. The railway from Vienna is finished in Znojmo does not continue to Prag or Brno. A lot of tourist or businessmen visit Prag, Brno, Czech Krumlov but Znojmo town is overlooked. Even though Znojmo is nice town nearby Austrian border there is high unemployment. Many people how live in Znojmo go to work to Brno every day. But it is very nice town has a lot of spaces for business or for visitors. Ilustration 1. Znojmo situation 342 | ARKEOS 38-39 PUBLIC CITY SPACE – ZNOJMO TOWN – RIVER EMBANKMENT OF DYJE, Monika Marková Short history of Znojmo Space of the town was inhabited in prehistoric times. Hillfort has controlled a large space in the south Moravia and part of Lower Austria since 8th to 10th century. Hillfort was rebuttaled by Hungarians and then Przemyslid castle was built. The first mention of Znojmo is in false document since 1048. The most important Znojmo Przemyslid is Konrád II Ota. He controled all Moravian space and then became Prince of Bohemia and founded Premonstratian Louka Monastery. This monastery is situated in the south from town centre. In 1222 to 1226 Znojmo was elevated to the royal town by Przemyslid I. Otakarem. It was the first town in the South Moravian. It has strong walls around the town and some walls are there until nowadays. Napoleon´s army hit Znojmo town in the first time in 1805 (before Slavkov wars) and the second time in 1809 during this war the Znojmo castle lost his significance. Promising boom was finished by the first world war. Znojmo became centre of separatist region of German Southern Moravia during disintegration of Austro-Hungary. Znojmo was occupied by Czechoslovak troops. Number of Czech Germans dropped. Munich Agreement had connected Znojmo to Hitler’s Third Reich in 1938. Town was damaged by air raids at the end second world war. The Old Town Hall and the train Station were directly hit by bombardment. German army had left Znojmo. The Czech population was moved to Znojmo. It was the biggest ethnic change in history from 13rd century. History of riverbank of Dyje Dyje river turns sharply to the left under Cekanovice bridge and there are meadows on both sides. This part of river was lined with wide paths. Right path was wider and neater, was leading to the Water mill and Hydroelectric power station. Because this path was near to the town was more civilized. Once upon a time on the left riverbank stood skittle-alley and then there was built lightweight fortifications. In front of town was inn – the ARKEOS 38-39 | 343 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management next important orientation point, later Rabstejn hotel nearby rock formation looking like a giant head. Unfortunately, the Znojmo dam was built and a lot of these buildings were flooded – for example the popular swimming-pool on the river. It was situated between Rabstejn hotel and Brewery stream which is under Znojmo castle. This swimming-pool was used for 100 years but had to be flooded because the town needed drinking water – was built dam. Someone think it was very nice place for recreation and the flood was so drastic. People were waiting to see the new swimming-pool after 50 years which is nearby Louka monastery. Ilustration 2. View at Znojmo town Ilustration 3. Znojmo castle and dam Urban city concept Spatial arrangement of the town Historical town centre is consisted of compact houses with the histori cal essence – gothic, rennaisance, baroque, and historicst. This essence is similar on the houses in Dyje river locality too. The riverbank is consisted of individual housing, compact or loose. Znojmo town is well-known for dominants which are towering over the town and influence riverbank. The functional areas of the river have function of housing and greenery. In terms of more detailed research locality there are situated areas of transport infrastructure, public spaces technical equipment. The potential of the current problematic locations can used for new using. For example area of the old hospital has significant potential. 344 | ARKEOS 38-39 PUBLIC CITY SPACE – ZNOJMO TOWN – RIVER EMBANKMENT OF DYJE, Monika Marková Traffic The location is situated nearby main traffic road (link between Vienna and Prague) and is crossed by railway (link between Znojmo with Vienna). Only part of the riverbank has a traffic connection. The first part – the path behind the railway is accessible only for transport service, pedestrians and cyclists. The second part (where you can go by car) solves the typical problem for historical town – parking and width roads (which is in the some places narrow as one car – One-way traffic without pavements). The parking place is situated on the riverbank nearby the bridge but you can park along the pavements. Tourist train is crossed part of the riverbank, the historical center up to the Louka monastery. The technical infrastructure I prepared the analysis of electricity supply for reasons of thought of design public lighting along the riverbank. In this time is the part of area behing railway without electricity, spatial plan envisages placing the cable wiring. Gas supply is made as supplementary analysis for an opportunity to put new design houses in this area. Ilustration 4. View at Dyje river valley Analysis and problems of the place My analyzes shows the most problematic places which make barrier. This barrier is in most cases unnecessary. Mostly it restricts access for pedestrians or cyclists. ARKEOS 38-39 | 345 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management The problem of whole locality and the south part of Znojmo is poor accessibility to town centre. Quiet pedestrian and bicycle traffic is restricted because there is a lot of crossroads (with or without traffic lights) and intensive traffic. The new designed town ring would relieve it but numbers of the cars will be big also. These barriers could cancel and enable walking. A new a attractive paths follow up on themselves could be designed. The next problem is parking. Today it is sufficient, in the event the number of visitors to the location will grow, the number of parking places can grow also. Studied area is a lot of unused areas or wrong used areas. This place offers controversial but functional resolutions for parts of these areas. These resolutions can bring some new view, connect and open up whole locality to create variable space with new function. There are two houses in poor condition on the Kozeluzska street. They need restoration and new use because spoil the impression in loca lity. In this time they are uninhabited for sale. The wrong used areas are barriers for pedestrians or cyclists and nonfunctional place in the locality with potential for another used. Some places can be used for another using and expand the services offered. Studied area tenders a lot of activities allowing variegation of the day for the inhabitants or visitors of Znojmo. The centre of free time activities is perfect for ball games and hall sports. The bicycle paths go trought whole riverbank and continued to the most beautiful places in Znojmo. There are situated restaurants or refreshments. For lovers sights and history the very nice view of Znojmo is from riverbank. The imposant technical sight - Rail Bridge is spanned river. The Louka monastery with representative spaces and Znovín wine shop is very interesting and a lot of people know this wine which was delivered to the Prague castle. 346 | ARKEOS 38-39 PUBLIC CITY SPACE – ZNOJMO TOWN – RIVER EMBANKMENT OF DYJE, Monika Marková Ilustration 5. Louka monastery Greenery in the town Znojmo is the town in greenery and the riverbank is overgrown by greenery literally. Public greenery is on the land of the town of Znojmo. It is on the slopes in relatively unkempt condition. The same situation is on the riverbank behind railway in the direction to the Louka monastery. In the former hospital area, free time centre and surrounding Louka monastery is grown solitaire greenery or greenery in areals predominantly. Private greenery is in the gardens, there are a lot. The advantage is caring a garden by owner and this area can be nicer. Surrounding Louka monastery had beautiful ornamental gardens but in this time there are the unkempt park where is needed revitalization. Explanation of the relevance for landscape management ARKEOS 38-39 | 347 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management Ilustration 6. Greenery and rail bridge ILUSTRATION 7. Unkempt greenery The Podyji National Park is nearby the Znojmo town and makes very nice locality for people, animals and plants. It is the smallest park in the Czech republic which goes on Austria. The river makes so nice meanders in deep valley and flows through Znojmo town. The surrounding greenery of the river is overgrown. It is nice scenery which is continue to the town and this circle have to be preserved. The relevance for landscape management is in beauty of the town, greenery with a lot of charming spots, quantity of animal species etc. I love these places. This appearance have to be maintain, I think. We need it for next generations, clean air and our relaxations. The greenery is beautiful simple means which we have to care about it. Ilustration 8. Znojmo town in greenery 348 | ARKEOS 38-39 PUBLIC CITY SPACE – ZNOJMO TOWN – RIVER EMBANKMENT OF DYJE, Monika Marková Considerations and plans I found these points of my thought and analyse. The intended plans can be applied during time and the locality can get unified look. It could be imaginary connection between Znojmo castle and Louka monastery and riverbank could designed for the pedestrians or cyclists preferentially. Point if new plans: – removing barriers – design of new paths – ensuring safety for pedestrians and cyclists – new footbridge – design and layout of parking spaces with greenery – restoration / demolition houses in poor quality – revitalization of the park - surrounding Louka monastery – placement of wine stall – design of placement for marinas for small boats – new landscaping Conclusion At the first sight I could say, riverbank is functional and does not need any other interventions. Despite the fact the it is stood. Few people want to go down to the river valley. The lively stretch is finished there where is railway and is continued nearby Louka monastery. What a pity! Everyone visit historical centre town. But so nice greenery has not every city and it is the added value. We can use it for its next development. A lot of people can come to Znojmo. The people, who live there yet, need nice places for their life, inspiration and relaxation. I mean we can change it. ARKEOS 38-39 | 349 INTEGRATED CULTURAL LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT, A LOCAL SUSTAINABILITY OUTLOOK, Rossana Merizalde INTEGRATED CULTURAL LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT, A LOCAL SUSTAINABILITY OUTLOOK ROSSANA MERIZALDE Abstract: Conflicts and questions arise from the paradox of Sustainable Development, conservation and Cultural Landscapes management, moreover if there are communities involved. Approaches to integrated cultural landscape management are currently garnering new interest as scientists, policymakers, and local stakeholders recognize the need to increase the multi-functionality of these landscapes for sustainability, conservation, policy making and management effectiveness. But there is a gap to fill in terms of direction when it comes to reach the ILM objectives and place them in different realities. By defining key concepts while recognizing the diversity of perspectives and realities in Cultural Landscapes and with a case study example, we hope to ground ILM in a common foundation. So we could get as a result an improved communication, innovation and ultimately successful landscape management throughout each national and regional reality. Modern approaches such as “Conservation and sustainable development projects” (CSD Projects) are development strategies for project management inside conserved areas or in land management areas, normally not adapted to communities reality and their activities inside the protected area limit. (Rockfelter, 2006). Based on the approach of “vivir bien” (Bolivia and Ecuador), as well as strategic orientations used by some international institutions such as the IUCN and the ICOMOS, as well as the capability approach, the effective management, best practices and political engagement- governance this research gives as a result guidelines and general strategies that can be used for a cultural landscape management project. Keywords: Strategies, «vivir bien», capability approach, protected areas, communities, culture, paradox, development, capability approach, the effective management, best practices and political engagement. GLOBAL CHALLENGES T he continued growth of human populations and of per capita consumption has resulted in unsustainable exploitation of Earth’s biological diversity, exacerbated by climate change, ocean acidification, ARKEOS 38-39 | 351 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management and other anthropogenic environmental impacts. “Despite some conservation successes (especially at local scales) and increasing public, as well as the government interest in living sustainably, biodiversity continues to decline” (Wildlife Conservation, 2010). “Because of the distance that had developed between humans and nature, the modernity paradigm led to the over-exploitation of nature, in other words, to devastation of the source of life.”(Mercier, 2011.) But Cultural Landscapes are not only about nature conservation, but also conserving the anthropic activity that have had a unique value, depending on the site could be arquitecture, geological, spiritual, and being part of the associative or evolutive landscape – according to UNESCO´s classification. Cultural Landscape management present paradigms, as well as best practices, and policies guidelines. These have shifted over in time and have been variably successful. “In recent decades, is important to have a Land management, but also open to traditional approaches to define the main stake holders in management project, sustainability, natural resources management. The importance of Integrated Cultural Landscape Management has been growing day by day, as they face with risks and dilemmas of global change, as well as the problem caused by profit and loss and sustainability. Local conservation initiatives and interests in CL management, and the need to address the opportunity costs of conservation among the communities living within is by far one of the most important objectives when management projects are visualized. Integration of local people into conservation has been a major feature of conservation policy over the past twenty years but is not without controversy. Since 1992, the term “Integrated Conservation Management projects and Development Projects” (ICDPs), they were mainstreamed (Brandon and Wells, 1992), promising to: • Help to defuse the major threats to biodiversity, • Create better opportunities for “poverty alleviation” and mitigate effects of conservation on human welfare and • Allow people to gain access to basic services. (Chrintenson, 2004) “… On the ground, ICDPs were generally paternalistic, lacking in expertise and one-sided: driven by the agenda of the conservationists with little indigenous input” (Chapin, 2004). Now, ICLM claims to have stakeholders, capable of not only take decisions based on now a days reality, but also based in the culture and the intangible heritage that surrounds the sites. By having the primary 352 | ARKEOS 38-39 INTEGRATED CULTURAL LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT, A LOCAL SUSTAINABILITY OUTLOOK, Rossana Merizalde stakeholders as people who know the area as well as the culture of the site, we are giving trust and knowledge at the same time in order to start with the capacity building program, which could be leaded by a multidisciplinary team which is part of the secondary group of stakeholders. Capacity development is a locally driven process of learning by lea ders, coalitions and other agents of change that brings about changes in sociopolitical, policy-related, and organizational factors to enhance local ownership for and the effectiveness and efficiency of efforts to achieve development goals. (Houtard, 2011) This framework can be used in various circumstances and at different levels: from designing a national strategy for capacity development (protected areas and cultures), to expost evaluation of programs or program components. In order for the project to continue, there should be an exhaustive analysis involving all the main factors that interact with the culture and with the environment. Processes involved in the management Process, such as: Assessment, Planning, Implementation and Monitoring, Adaptive Management, as well as Sustaining Management, focusing on management and governance capacity, funding, strate gies and capacity building are a basic framework for ICLM. Even though there are guidelines to reach a successful ICLM, there are some gaps in reaching long terms goals. Filling gaps in our knowledge and building on success, through scaling up and further investment in conservation strategies, are critical if we are to gain some breathing space for ecosystems and cultures, but will not suffice to achieve its maintenance short-term. Defining any approach as a unique formula for conservation is uncer tain and ambiguous for a standard intervention approach or sequence of actions producing a ‘guaranteed’ result. However, there are some bases that can be taken into account when it turns to the intervention between people living within areas that need to be protected. ARKEOS 38-39 | 353 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management Therefore, to succeed in projects, is important to fill these field needs: Source: Merizalde, 2015 BASES OF THE CONCEPT “VIVIR BIEN” AND “CAPABILITY APPROACH”AND ITS ROLE IN ICLM Nowadays, there is a need of finding concepts and approaches that can lead us to solve environmental and social paradigms when it turns to conservation and development. However, the concept of development is generally referred to an economic system and material well-being. “This concept as a part of a system, may be detrimental to the development of other parts, giving rise to conflicting objectives (trade-offs) and conflicts. Consequen tly, measuring development is not accurate for societies that don´t mean to reach this economic goal but a living goal…” (Bellu, 2011), “…it is clear that instrumental fixes or economic compensation to balance the negative effects of current development strategies, are many times inadequate, and the classical development idea needs to be change...” (Gudynas, 2012) A key source is our roots located in the experiences, wisdom, knowledge, and practices that indigenous people all over the world have preserved. A concept that is getting known worldwide, based in a number of principles that were and are present among communities in South America, codified in the constitutions of Ecuador and the Plurinational State of Bolivia, is 354 | ARKEOS 38-39 INTEGRATED CULTURAL LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT, A LOCAL SUSTAINABILITY OUTLOOK, Rossana Merizalde been taken as an example and base in approaches including the classical idea of quality of life, but with the specific idea that well-being is only possible within a community. “Vivir Bien” is a Spanish term that refers to the way of life of indigenous peoples in South America. The Aymara people call it sumaqamaña, the Quechua, sumakkawsay, the Peruvian Amazon, Kametsa Asaiki and the Guaraní, ñandereko. It can also be translated as “living well,” “good life,” “knowing how to live,” “inclusive life,” “sweet life,” among others. (Solon, 2014). Depending on the history, location and culture of each community, the practice of this concept can change. However, there are “…common elements that have been identified and developed into a new perception now. To enlighten the future, we need to learn from things from the past that remain relevant in the present..”(Solon, 2014) The term “Living-well” is a harmonious balance between material and spiritual components, which is only possible in the specific context of a community, which is social but also ecological. Means adopting forms of consumption, behavior and conduct that are not degrading to nature. It requires an ethical and spiritual relationship with life. “Living Well” “… proposes the complete fulfillment of life and collective happiness…” (Gudynas, 2012) There are several case studies in which the concept of “vivir bien” is a key in the projects framework, projects of sustainability, natural resources management, biodiversity conservation and land use management have more and more basis on this approach. This would include the ICLM, as it involves conservation, land use management, culture enhancement, etc. Synergy between “Sustainainable Developement” and “Living-well” in ICLM? Sustainable development involves the “simultaneous pursuit of econo mic prosperity, environmental quality and social equity” (World and Earth Council, 2005) and the meeting of “ the needs of the present generation, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (UN, 1987) The globalization process has set our reaction and way of thinking. The key concept of the economic system is equally to ARKEOS 38-39 | 355 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management growth; without economic growth, capital cannot expand and make more profit. And capital that does not have a return is not capital, the effect of globalization in protected areas has been bringing unsolved paradox, between the ideas of conservation and resistance to external effects. “National Parks and other forms of protected area (“fortress conservation”) were the standard approach for conserving biodiversity worldwide” (CIFOR, 2007) However, in developing countries the benefits of conservation through preservation accrue mainly to the national and global economy, while the costs are often borne by local communities. Hence, “integrating conservation and development has become a popular means of reducing the “trade-offs” felt by communities in terms of loss of access to resources” (CIFOR, 2007), making communities to apply new ways of adaptation to global changes is either accurate, nor fair with the ancient sustainable activities they have been practicing. Therefore, is necessary the existence of a platform where critical views of development are shared. All positions consider alternatives not as an instrumental fixing of current strategies, but as a replacement of the very idea of development for those who have an alternative way of living and managing natural resources. This platform also should be proposed in a literal sense, providing the system to apply habits they have been using since many decades ago, moving towards alternatives to development. The concept of “Living-well” rejects growth as the mean of development, since it could be assumed that there are wide overlaps with the ideas of the ‘degrowth’ movement, thus is not a synonym of “living-better”.” For “Living Well” the goal is harmony whereas for “Living Better” it is growth. “One vision recognizes that our planet has physical limits and wants to live in equilibrium within these limits. The other wants to find ways to expand beyond the limits. (Heinberg, 2014). In the Andean communities of South America the evolution over time is not linear but circular; therefore the concept of progress is relative. Even though it may seem that the two concepts pose contradiction, the “living well” concept propose also alternatives of local strategies designed by communities on their own, depending on their own best interest and needs. Moreover, “…it helps creating an equilibrium between anthropogenic survival activities and biodiversity, the ancestral knowledge they apply to natural resources management, and the way they respect the “mother´s earth rights”…” (Revolt, 2014) 356 | ARKEOS 38-39 INTEGRATED CULTURAL LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT, A LOCAL SUSTAINABILITY OUTLOOK, Rossana Merizalde ICLM would involve a close relation with the “vivir bien” approach and at the same time helping to conservation. As shown in the scheme below: Source: Merizalde, 2015 STRATEGIC ORIENTATIONS (Based on the analysis of IUCN and ICOMOS Cultural Landscapes reviews The strategic orientations of some international institutions which are aware of the importance of taking care of some world sites around the world, which means the heritage in general, not only meaning the sites which belong to the “world sites” of UNESCO. This guidelines presented bring some important objectives of protected areas, enclosing terms such as protection, valorization, education and information diffusion. Taking the actual reality of a Cultural Landscape and the conservation, it is important to open up the vision of the main objective of CL – Why did this concept was born?- and adapt it to the transversal process of evolution and difference of interest between the parts and actors involved. The interest of finding places of EUV is growing day by day, with the main goal of taking care of this places in order for them to survive the global changes and the anthropic intervention. Protection and valorization of natural and cultural heritage (always involving people – living or not living cultures), is a critic point when the planning and management programs are done. “Maintenance of biodiversity, the preservation and valorization of natural resources as well as landscapes..” (FPNR, 2013) can contribute to the territory planning in order to define the intervention area. ARKEOS 38-39 | 357 Sustainability Dilemmas Transdisciplinary contributions to Integrated Cultural Landscape Management Monitoring is another important practice; it involves regular checking of the ecosystems, biodiversity and culture living within it. The data collected from ongoing monitoring programs can help inform management plans and improve the sustainability of activities in productive landscapes. Regarding nowadays world´s reality it´s impossible to not be touched by globalization, that´s why is “important to take in mind alternative practices and strategies that can represent a way of reaching a better life in terms of human basic needs and ecosystem and biodiversity resilience.” (Gudynas, 2013) Therefore in order to have a successful ICLM, is important to take into account le points already stated but also is important to progress though cycles in the project terms, depending on natural and anthropic pressures and responses. Is important also to bring protection and understanding of traditional CL, they are a key in maintaining sustainability, in terms of time, in this type of projects ( long-term) is important to state day to day actions, this goal is strictly related with monitoring and adapting management. CONCLUTIONS AND RECOMENDATIONS There has to be a change of paradigms, to permit a symbiosis between human beings and nature, access of all to goods and services, and the participation of every individual and every collective group in the social and political organizing processes, each having their own cultural and ethical expression Long-term conservation success depends on developing a network of committed individuals and institutions that are strong enough and effective enough to address the threats to our natural world. These strategies could be used as a base of any serious attempt to find long-term solutions to conservation and ICLM gaps, when it turns to living cultures and CL. Outside intervention may provide a shortterm fix, but this will only be sustainable if t is linked to locally-driven action. The most effective and long-term solutions to safeguard species and habitats lie in local hands. This guidelines help with the Successful management is inclusive and transparent – Governance is shaped through dialogue and agreement among 358 | ARKEOS 38-39 INTEGRATED CULTURAL LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT, A LOCAL SUSTAINABILITY OUTLOOK, Rossana Merizalde stakeholders, promotion of simple and management strategies, as well as identification and addressing of diverse stakeholder interests. People associated with the cultural landscape are the primary stakeholders. The value of the cultural landscape is based on the interaction between people and their environment; and the focus of management is on this relationship. It´s construction and applications in the fundamental elements of the collective life of humanity on the planet processes: not just academic exercises, but something to be worked out in society, where thinking has an essential place, but so does practical experience, particularly with the regard to environmental and conservation struggles, it´s imperative to transform nowadays vision about “what we want to be done” and “what nature and we, as humans need to be done”, “…this transformation provides an opportunity to combine the best of ancestral and modern wisdom, with knowledge and technology working in step with nature´s processes…” (Suarez, 2009). Realizing that different cultures do exist, but a process of co-existence is needed, the application of intercultura lism in all its dimensions, as well as redirecting the production of life´s necessities, prioritizing “use value” over “exchange value”. Whenever outside ICLM interventions are carried out, it is essential to let communities themselves to realize, how important is to create a way to register, diffuse and transmit their own identity and practices, inserting them in regional or national management programs, in which each community would have a political backup that can protect (i.e. “Estatuto Autonómico indígena Originario Campesino Uru-Chipaya” in Bolivia). Bibliography Acosta, A. / Martinez, E. (2009). El Buen Vivir – Una vía para el desarrollo, AbyaYala, Quito Albo X. (2010). Suma Qamaña, Convivir Bien. ¿Cómo medirlo? Diálogos, Year 1, No. 0 pp. 54-64. Bikaba, D. (2010). “Biodiversity conservation and Sustainable development”. Youth and United Nations Global Alliance. Bellu, L. (2011). “Development and Development Paradgms”. FAO. REssources for Policy Making. Chrintenson, P. (2004). Closing the skills gap – development. Harvard business review. Chapin, A. (2004). “Integrated conservation and development projects”. 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