Paul Ekman - Professor Nefer

Paul Ekman
had begun to study in 1954.[7] Ekman eventually went on
to receive his Ph.D. in clinical psychology at Adelphi University in 1958, after a one-year internship at the Langley
Porter Neuropsychiatric Institute.[7][8]
Paul Ekman (born February 15, 1934) is an American
psychologist who is a pioneer in the study of emotions
and their relation to facial expressions. He has created
an “atlas of emotions” with more than ten thousand facial expressions, and has gained a reputation as “the best
human lie detector in the world”.
1.3 Military service
He was ranked 59th out of the 100 most cited psychologists of the twentieth century.[1] Ekman conducted seminal research on the specific biological correlates of specific emotions, demonstrating the universality and discreteness of emotions in a Darwinian approach.[2][3]
1
1.1
Ekman was drafted into the U.S. Army in 1958 to serve 2
years as soon as his internship at Langley Porter was finished. [7] He served as first lieutenant-chief psychologist,
at Fort Dix, New Jersey, where he did research on army
stockades and psychological changes during infantry basic training.[7][9][10][11]
Biography
Also, during this time, he spent four months working
with Leonard Krasner, at the Palo Alto Veterans Administration Hospital, working on a grant focused on the operant conditioning of verbal behavior in psychiatric patients. Ekman also met anthropologist Gregory Bateson
for the first time because Bateson was on staff at Palo
Alto. Five years later, Gregory Bateson gave Paul Ekman motion picture films taken in Bali in the mid-1930s
to help Ekman with cross-cultural studies of expression
and gesture.[7]
Childhood
Paul Ekman was born to Jewish parents in 1934
in Washington, D.C., and grew up in New Jersey,
Washington, Oregon, and California. His father was a
pediatrician and his mother was an attorney. His sister, Joyce Steingart, is a psychoanalytic psychologist who
practices in New York.[4]
Ekman originally wanted to be a psychotherapist, but
when he was 14, his mother developed a severe mental
illness and it had tragic consequences, so he decided to 1.4 Career
spend his life helping people like his mother.[5]
From 1960 to 1963, Ekman worked as a postdoctoral
student. He submitted his first research grant through
1.2 Education
San Francisco State College with himself as the principal investigator (PI) at the young age of 25.[12] He reAt the age of 15, without graduating from high school, ceived this grant from the National Institute of Mental
Paul Ekman enrolled at the University of Chicago where Health (NIMH) in 1963 to study nonverbal behaviour.
he completed three years of undergraduate study. During This award would be continuously renewed for the next
his time in Chicago he was fascinated by group therapy 40 years and would pay his salary until he was offered a
sessions and understanding group dynamics. Notably, his professorship at the University of California, San Franclassmates at Chicago included writer Susan Sontag, film cisco (UCSF) in 1972.
director Mike Nichols, and actress Elaine May.[6]
Encouraged by his college friend and teacher Silvan S.
He then studied one year at New York University (NYU),
earning his BA in 1954.[3] The subject of his first research
project, under the direction of his NYU professor, Margaret Tresselt, was group therapy.[7]
Tomkins, Ekman wrote his famous book, “Telling Lies,”
and published it in 1985. He retired in 2004 as professor of psychology in the Department of Psychiatry at the
University of California, San Francisco (UCSF). From
Next, Ekman was accepted into the Adelphi University 1960 to 2004 he also worked at the Langley Porter Psygraduate program for clinical psychology.[7] While work- chiatric Institute on a limited basis consulting on various
ing for his Master’s degree, Ekman was awarded a pre- clinical cases.
doctoral research fellowship from the National Institute After retiring from the University of California, San
of Mental Health (NIMH) in 1955.[7] His Master’s thesis Francisco, Paul Ekman founded the Paul Ekman Group
was focused on facial expression and body movement he (PEG) and Paul Ekman International.[13] The Paul Ek1
2
2 RESEARCH WORK
man Group, “develops and offers online emotional skillsbuilding programs such as the Micro Expression Training Tool, offers workshops, supports researchers in our
field, and builds online community around these topics.”
They do not take individual cases.[14] Also, the PEG offers a micro expression and subtle expression training tool
for sale on their website.[15] However, it may be possible to learn to spot micro expressions by quickly flipping
through photos of facial expressions. The Paul Ekman
Group is currently working on an online interactive tool
called “Mapping your Anger Profile” to allow couples to
analyze their emotional profile. An emotional profile will
examine how quickly one is angered, in addition to how
the person experiences emotions such as anger, fear, disgust and anguish.[16] They are also developing a tool titled, “Responding Effectively to Emotional Expressions
(RE3).”[13]
Ekman then focused on developing techniques for measuring nonverbal communication. He found that facial
muscular movements that created facial expressions could
be reliably identified through empirical research. He
also found that human beings are capable of making
over 10,000 facial expressions; only 3,000 relevant to
emotion.[25] Psychologist Silvan Tomkins convinced Ekman to extend his studies of nonverbal communication
from body movement to the face, helping him design his
classic cross-cultural emotion recognition studies.[26] Interestingly enough, Tomkins also supervised Carroll Izard
at the same time, fostering a similar interest in emotion
through cross-cultural research.
1.5
2.2 Emotions as universal categories
Media
In 2001, Ekman collaborated with John Cleese for the
Charles Darwin theorized that emotions were biologically
BBC documentary series The Human Face.[17]
determined and universal to human culture in The ExHis work is heavily referenced in the TV series Lie to
pression of the Emotions in Man and Animals published
[18]
Me.
Dr. Lightman is based on Paul Ekman, and Ekin 1872. However, the more popularized belief during
man served as a scientific adviser for the series; he read
the 1950s was that facial expressions and their meanings
and edited the scripts and sent video clip-notes of facial
were culturally determined through behavioural learning
expressions for the actors to imitate. While Ekman has
processes. This was the belief of some anthropologists
written 15 books, the series Lie to Me has more effectively
including Margaret Mead who had travelled to different
[18]
brought Ekman’s research into people’s homes. Lie to
countries examining how cultures communicated using
[19]
Me has aired in more than 60 countries.
nonverbal behaviour.
1.6
Influence
He was named one of the top Time 100 most influential
people in the May 11, 2009 edition of Time magazine.[20]
He is currently on the Editorial Board of Greater Good
magazine, published by the Greater Good Science Center
of the University of California, Berkeley. His contributions include the interpretation of scientific research into
the roots of compassion, altruism, and peaceful human
relationships.[21]
2
2.1
Research work
Measuring nonverbal communication
Ekman’s interest in nonverbal communication led to
his first publication in 1957, describing how difficult it
was to develop ways of empirically measuring nonverbal
behaviour.[22] He chose the Langley Porter Neuropsychiatric Institute, the psychiatry department of the University of California Medical School, for his clinical internship partly because Jurgen Ruesch and Weldon Kees had
recently published a book called Nonverbal Communication (1956).[7][23][24]
Through a series of studies, Ekman found a high agreement across members of diverse Western and Eastern literate cultures on selecting emotional labels that fit facial
expressions. Expressions he found to be universal included those indicating anger, disgust, fear, happiness,
sadness, and surprise. Findings on contempt are less
clear, though there is at least some preliminary evidence that this emotion and its expression are universally recognized.[27] Working with his long-time friend
Wallace V. Friesen, Ekman demonstrated that the findings extended to preliterate Fore tribesmen in Papua
New Guinea, whose members could not have learned the
meaning of expressions from exposure to media depictions of emotion.[28] Ekman and Friesen then demonstrated that certain emotions were exhibited with very
specific display rules, culture-specific prescriptions about
who can show which emotions to whom and when. These
display rules could explain how cultural differences may
conceal the universal effect of expression.[29]
In the 1990s, Ekman proposed an expanded list of basic
emotions, including a range of positive and negative emotions that are not all encoded in facial muscles.[30] The
newly included emotions are: Amusement, Contempt,
Contentment, Embarrassment, Excitement, Guilt, Pride
in achievement, Relief, Satisfaction, Sensory pleasure,
and Shame.[30]
3
2.3
Psychometric tests for studying emo- These naturals are also known as “Truth Wizards”, or
wizards of deception detection from demeanor.[36]
tion
Ekman’s famous test of emotion recognition was the Pictures of Facial Affect (POFA) stimulus set published in
1976. Consisting of 110 black and white images of Caucasian actors portraying the six universal emotions plus
neutral expressions, the POFA has been used to study
emotion recognition rates in normal and psychiatric populations around the world. Ekman used these stimuli in
his original cross-cultural research. Many researchers
favor the POFA because these photographs have been
rated by large normative groups in different cultures.
In response to critics, however, Ekman eventually released a more culturally diverse set of stimuli called the
Japanese and Caucasian Facial Expressions of Emotion
(JACFEE).[31]
By 1978, Ekman and Friesen had finalized and developed
the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) to taxonomize
every human facial expression. FACS is an anatomically
based system for describing all observable facial movement for every emotion. Each observable component of
facial movement is called an action unit or AU and all facial expressions can be decomposed into their constituent
core AUs.[32] An update of this tool came in the early
2000s when it was renamed F.A.C.E. (Facial Expression,
Awareness, Compassion, Emotions) and redeveloped as
a tool to learn about identifying and recognizing facial
expressions in the human face.
Other tools have been developed, including the MicroExpressions Training Tool (METT), which can help individuals identify more subtle emotional expressions that occur when people try to suppress their emotions. Application of this tool includes helping people with Asperger’s
or autism recognize emotional expressions in their everyday interactions. The Subtle Expression Training Tool
(SETT) teaches recognition of very small, micro signs of
emotion. These are very tiny expressions, sometimes registering in only part of the face, or when the expression is
shown across the entire face, but is very small. Subtle expressions occur for many reasons, for example, the emotion experienced may be very slight or the emotion may
be just beginning. METT and SETT have been shown to
increase accuracy in evaluating truthfulness.
2.4
Detecting deception
Ekman has contributed to the study of social aspects of
lying, why we lie,[33] and why we are often unconcerned
with detecting lies.[34] In a research project along with
Maureen O'Sullivan, called the Wizards Project (previously named the Diogenes Project), Ekman reported on
facial "microexpressions" which could be used to assist
in lie detection. After testing a total of 20,000 people[35]
from all walks of life, he found only 50 people who had
the ability to spot deception without any formal training.
Ekman is also working with Computer Vision researcher
Dimitris Metaxas on designing a visual lie-detector.[37]
His research on deception inspired the television series,
Lie to Me, in which he served as a consultant; this was
an excellent opportunity for Ekman to spread his work
on microexpressions, while not directly accredited for his
work, his work did eventually become part of pop culture to some extent as a result of the show. In one issue of Greater Good Magazine Ekman and his daughter
Eve were interviewed on parent-child trust. The main
topic of the interview focuses on the benefits of trusting your children, how to encourage trustworthy behavior, and what it takes to build trust between parents and
children. On February 27, 2009, he was a guest presenter at the Science of a Meaningful Life seminar “Building
Compassion, Creating Well-being”, along with University
of California, Berkeley and Greater Good Science Center
Executive Director Dacher Keltner. Together they covered strategies for building resilience, reducing stress, and
strengthening relationships with colleagues, clients, family, and friends.
In his profession, he also uses oral signs of lying. When
interviewed about the Monica Lewinsky scandal, he mentioned that he could detect that former President Bill Clinton was lying because he used distancing language.[38]
3 Contributions to our understanding of emotion
In his 1993 seminal paper in the psychology journal
American Psychologist, Ekman describes nine direct
contributions that his research on facial expression has
made to our understanding of emotion.[39] Highlights include:
• Consideration of both nature and nurture: Emotion is now viewed as a physiological phenomenon
influenced by our cultural and learning experiences.
• Emotion-specific physiology: Ekman led the way
by trying to find discrete psychophysiological differences across emotions. A number of researchers
continue to search for emotion-specific autonomic
and central nervous system activations. With the advent of neuroimaging techniques, a topic of intense
interest revolves around how specific emotions relate to physiological activations in certain brain areas. Ekman laid the groundwork for the future field
of affective neuroscience.
• An examination of events that precede emotions:
Ekman’s finding that voluntarily making one of the
universal facial expressions can generate the physiology and some of the subjective experience of emo-
4
6 SEE ALSO
tion provided some difficulty for some of the earlier universal.[44] Ekman argued that there has been no quantheoretical conceptualizations of experiencing emo- titative data to support the claim that emotions are culture
tions.
specific. In his 1993 discussion of the topic, Ekman states
that there is no instance in which 70% or more of one cul• Considering emotions as families: Ekman & tural group select one of the six universal emotions while
Friesen (1978) found not one expression for each another culture group labels the same expression as anemotion, but a variety of related but visually dif- other universal emotion.[45]
ferent expressions. For example, the authors reported 60 variations of the anger expression which
share core configurational properties and distinguish 5 Publications
themselves clearly from the families of fearful expressions, disgust expressions, and so on. Variations
• Emotional Awareness: Overcoming the Obstacles
within a family likely reflect the intensity of the emoto Psychological Balance and Compassion (Times
tion, how the emotion is controlled, whether it is
Books, 2008) ISBN 0-8050-8712-5
simulated or spontaneous, and the specifics of the
event that provoked the emotion.
• Unmasking the Face ISBN 1-883536-36-7
4
Criticisms
Most credibility-assessment researchers agree that people are unable to visually detect lies.[40] The application of part of Ekman’s work to airport security via
the Transportation Security Administration's “Screening Passengers by Observation Techniques” (SPOT) program has been criticized for not having been put through
controlled scientific tests.[40] A 2007 report on SPOT
stated that “simply put, people (including professional liecatchers with extensive experience of assessing veracity)
would achieve similar hit rates if they flipped a coin”.[41]
Since controlled scientific tests typically involve people
playing the part of terrorists, Ekman says those people are
unlikely to have the same emotions as actual terrorists.[40]
The methodology used by Ekman and O'Sullivan in their
recent work on Truth wizards has also received criticism
on the basis of validation.[42]
Other criticisms of Ekman’s work are based on experimental and naturalistic studies by several other emotion
psychologists that did not find evidence in support of Ekman’s proposed taxonomy of discrete emotions and discrete facial expression.[43]
Ekman received hostility from some anthropologists at
meetings of the American Psychological Association and
the American Anthropological Association from 1967 to
1969. He recounted that, as he was reporting his findings
on universality of expression, one anthropologist tried to
stop him from finishing by shouting that his ideas were
fascist. He compares this to another incident when he
was accused of being racist by an activist for claiming
that Black expressions are not different from White expressions. In 1975, Margaret Mead, an anthropologist,
wrote against Ekman for doing “improper anthropology”,
and for disagreeing with Ray Birdwhistell's claim opposing universality. Ekman wrote that, while many people
agreed with Birdwhistell then, most came to accept his
own findings over the next decade.[12] However, some anthropologists continued to suggest that emotions are not
• Emotions Revealed: Recognizing Faces and Feelings to Improve Communication and Emotional Life
(Times Books, 2003) ISBN 0-8050-7516-X
• Telling Lies: Clues to Deceit in the Marketplace, Politics, and Marriage (W. W. Norton & Company,
1985) ISBN 0-393-32188-6
• What the Face Reveals (with Rosenberg, E. L., Oxford University Press, 1998) ISBN 0-19-510446-3
• The Nature of Emotion: Fundamental Questions
(with R. Davidson, Oxford University Press, 1994)
ISBN 0-19-508944-8
• Darwin and Facial Expression: A Century of Research in Review ISBN 0-12-236750-2
• Facial Action Coding System/Investigator’s ISBN
99936-26-61-9
• Why Kids Lie: How Parents Can Encourage Truthfulness (Penguin, 1991) ISBN 0-14-014322-X
• Handbook of Methods in Nonverbal Behavior Research ISBN 0-521-28072-9
• Face of Man ISBN 0-8240-7130-1
• Emotion in the Human Face ISBN 0-08-016643-1
• Handbook of Cognition and Emotion (Sussex, UK
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 1999)
6 See also
• Animal communication
• Body language
• Emotions and Culture
• Emotion classification
• Facial Action Coding System
5
• Microexpression
• Nonverbal communication
• Origin of language
• Origin of speech
• Lie to Me (TV series)
• Wizards Project
7
References
[1] Haggbloom, S. J. et al. (2002). The 100 Most Eminent
Psychologists of the 20th Century. Review of General
Psychology. Vol. 6, No. 2, 139–15. Haggbloom and
his team combined 3 quantitative variables: citations in
professional journals, citations in textbooks, and nominations in a survey given to members of the Association for
Psychological Science, with 3 qualitative variables (converted to quantitative scores): National Academy of Science (NAS) membership, American Psychological Association (APA) President and/or recipient of the APA Distinguished Scientific Contributions Award, and surname
used as an eponym. Then the list was rank ordered. Ekman was #59. (A list of the first 25 names, in order,
can be found under “Historically important writers” at
Template:Psychology.)
[2] Freitas-Magalhães, A. (2012). Facial expression of emotion. In V. S. Ramachandran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of
Human Behavior (Vol. 2, pp.173-183). Oxford: Elsevier/Academic Press. ISBN 978-008-088-575-9.
[3] “Paul Ekman”. American Psychologist 47 (4): 470–471.
April 1992. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.47.4.470.
[4] "'Paul Ekman”. American Psychologist 47 (4): 470–471.
April 1992. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.47.4.470.
[5] http://myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/login?url=http:
//search.proquest.com.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/
docview/229138171?accountid=14771/
[6] “Conversation with Paul Ekman, p. 1 of 5”. Globetrotter.berkeley.edu. 2004-03-11. Retrieved 2014-03-03.
[7] Ekman, P., A life’s pursuit. In The Semiotic Web '86: An
International Yearkbook, Sebeok, T. A.; Umiker-Seboek,
J., Eds. Berlin, Mouton De Gruyter, 1987; pp 3-45.
[8] Eissner, B. Paul Ekman PH.D. '58, '08: East Meets
http://profiles.adelphi.edu/profile/paul-ekman/
West.
http://www.adelphi.edu/adelphi-magazine/
Adelphi-Magazine-Fall-2008.pdf.
[9] American Psychologist (April 1992),"Paul Ekman” 47
(4), pg. 470-471
[10] Ekman, P.; Cohen, L.; Moos, R.; Raine, W.; Schlesinger,
M.; Stone, G., Divergent Reactions to the Threat of War.
Science 1963, 88-94.
[11] Ekman, P.; Friesen, W. V.; Lutzker, D. R., Psychological Reactions to Infantry Basic Training.
Medicine, U. o.
C. S. o., Ed.
http:
//www.paulekman.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/
Psychological-Reactions-To-Infantry-Basic-Training.
pdf
[12] Ekman, P., A life’s pursuit. In The Semiotic Web '86: An
International Yearkbook, Sebeok, T. A.; Umiker-Seboek,
J., Eds. Berlin, Mouton De Gruyter, 1987; pp 3-45
[13] “About Paul Ekman Group LLC | Paul Ekman Group,
LLC”. Paulekman.com. Retrieved 2014-03-03.
[14] “The Ekman Group and The Lightman Group | Paul Ekman Group, LLC”. Paulekman.com. Retrieved 2014-0303.
[15] “Training | Paul Ekman Group, LLC”. Paulekman.com.
Retrieved 2014-03-03.
[16] ">> 2013 » Thursday, December 12”. The Evolution of
Psychotherapy. 2013-12-12. Retrieved 2014-03-03.
[17] “Lifeboat Foundation Bios: Dr.
Paul Ekman”.
Lifeboat.com. 2002-09-16. Retrieved 2014-03-03.
[18] The (Real!) Science Behind Fox’s Lie to Me Popular Mechanics [Online], 2009.
[19] "'Lie to Me' | Paul Ekman Group, LLC”. Paulekman.com.
2009-01-21. Retrieved 2014-03-03.
[20] The 2009 TIME 100: Paul Ekman, Scientists & Thinkers.
Time. April 30, 2009.
[21] Freitas-Magalhães, A. (2009). The Ekman Code or in
Praise of the Science of the Human Face. In A. FreitasMagalhães (Ed.), Emotional Expression: The Brain and
The Face (Vol. 1, pp. ix-xvii). Porto: University Fernando Pessoa Press. ISBN 978-989-643-034-4.
[22] Ekman, Paul (1957). “A methodological discussion of
nonverbal behavior.”. Journal of Psychology 43: 141–
149. doi:10.1080/00223980.1957.9713059.
[23] Nonverbal Communication: Notes on the Visual Perception of Human Relations - Jurgen Ruesch, Weldon Kees Google Boeken. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2014-0303.
[24] Ruesch, J.; Kees, W., Nonverbal Communication: Notes
on the Visual Perception of Human Relations. University
of California Press, 1956: Berkeley, 1956; p 205.
[25] “Watch Lie To Me: Expressions: Introduction online |
Free”. Hulu. Retrieved 2014-03-03.
[26] “FACS Investigators Guide - Acknowledgements”. Retrieved 2 September 2009.
[27] Matsumoto, David (1992) “More evidence for the universality of a contempt expression”. Motivation and Emotion.
Springer Netherlands. Volume 16, Number 4 / December, 1992
[28] Ekman, P.; Friesen, W.V. (1971). “Constants across
cultures in the face and emotion.” (PDF). Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology 17: 124–129.
doi:10.1037/h0030377. PMID 5542557.
6
8
[29] Ekman, Paul (1989). “The argument and evidence about
universals in facial expressions of emotion”. In H. Wagner & A Manstead. Handbook of social psychophysiology.
Chichester, England: Wiley. pp. 143–164.
[30] Ekman, Paul (1999), “Basic Emotions”, in Dalgleish, T;
Power, M, Handbook of Cognition and Emotion (PDF),
Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons
[31] Ekman, P.; Matsumoto, D. “Japanese and Caucasian facial expressions of emotion and neutral faces.”.
[32] Ekman, Paul. “FACS vs. F.A.C.E.”.
[33] Book: Why Kids Lie: How Parents Can Encourage Truthfulness
[34] Ekman, P., 1996: Why don't we catch liars
[35] Camilleri, J., “Truth Wizard knows when you've been lying”, Chicago Sun-Times, January 21, 2009
[36] “NPR: The Face Never Lies”.
[37] “Meet the New Interrogators: Lockheed Martin” by
Pratap Chatterjee, CorpWatch report, November 4th,
2005.
[38] “The lie detective: San Francisco psychologist has made
a science of reading facial expressions” by Julian Guthrie,
San Francisco Chronicle, Monday, September 16, 2002.
[39] Ekman, Paul (1993). “Facial Expression and Emotion”.
American Psychologist 48 (4): 384–392.
doi:10.1037/0003-066X.48.4.384. PMID 8512154.
[40] Sharon Weinberger. “Airport security: Intent to deceive?
: Nature News”. Nature.com. Retrieved 2014-03-03.
[41] Hontz, C. R., Hartwig, M., Kleinman, S. M. & Meissner,
C. A. Credibility Assessment at Portals, Portals Committee Report (2009).
[42] Bond, Charles F & Uysal, Ahmet. (2007). On lie detection “wizards”. Law and human behavior, 31.
[43] Russel and Fernandez-Dols (1997). The Psychology of
Facial Expression . Cambridge University Press.
[44] Lutz, C.; White, G.M. (1986). “The anthropology of
emotions.”. Annual Review of Anthropology 15: 405–
436. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.15.1.405.
[45] Ekman, Paul (1993). “Facial Expression and Emotion”.
American Psychologist 48 (4): 376–379.
8
External links
• Interview
• Official site
• Complete bibliography
• A biography from Lifeboat Foundation site
EXTERNAL LINKS
• Video of Freitas-Magalhaes´s 2008 Ceremony of
Doctorate Honoris Causa to Paul Ekman, “The Ekman Code or the Eulogy to the Human Face”
• The Naked Face, Gladwell.com
• Interview (History Channel transcript)
• Interview (Financial Times)
• Greater Good Magazine: Interview between Ekman
and daughter Eve on parent-child trust
• Recording of a conversation with Daniel Goleman
• Detecting Deception, American Psychological Association
• PaulEkmanGroup Facebook
• PaulEkmanGroup Twitter
7
9
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
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