Maraschino Cherry: A Laboratory-Lecture Unit

Transcription

Food Science Education Research
Maraschino Cherry:
A Laboratory-Lecture Unit
Ronald E. Wrolstad
Introduction
ABSTRACT: Oregon State Univ. has offered FST
102 “Maraschino Cherry” as a 1-credit
orientation course since 1994. The maraschino
cherry serves as a vehicle from which faculty
give their disciplinary perspective, for example,
the chemistry of the maraschino cherry,
processing unit operations, microbiology and
food safety, food law, sensory analysis, product
development, and so on. This laboratory-lecture
unit was developed to provide reference
background information, including instructions
for making maraschino cherries. The unit
explains the functions of SO2, CaCl2, acidulants
(citric or HCl), and sodium chlorite in cherry
brine formulations, as well as the critical role of
pH in cherry brine formulation and processing of
maraschino cherries. How to estimate ◦ Brix of
sugar syrups by the Pearson square method is
described. The unit gives students an
understanding of the regulatory distinctions
between certified colorants and colorants
exempt from certification; artificial, natural, and
with other natural flavors (WONF) flavorings; and
additives and ingredients. A brief historical
perspective of maraschino cherries is given.
Study questions and suggested student projects
are included.
Dr. E. H. Wiegand, who founded Oregon State Univ.’s Food Science and
Technology Dept. in 1919, is frequently given credit for inventing the
maraschino cherry. More accurately, he developed the brining process for
preserving cherries, which made production of high quality maraschino
cherries possible. Actually, it was entrepreneurs in the Eastern United States
who developed the formulations using artificial colorants and natural and
artificial flavors to give the maraschino cherry its characteristic color and flavor.
Their inspiration was brandied cherries from the Mediterranean region (France
and Italy) that had been colored and flavored with a liqueur made from the
Black Marasca cherries grown in Bosnia; this delicacy is often eaten with ice
cream. The maraschino cherry, which we associate with ice-cream sundaes and
the Manhattan and Old Fashioned cocktails, is quite different in color, flavor,
and texture from the European original.
Materials and Methods
Preparation of sulfite primary bleaching brine
Ingredients (use food grade): Sodium metabisulfite (2.1%), Citric acid (0.2%),
Calcium chloride (1%)
Procedure:
1. Dissolve 21 g sodium metabisulfite and 2 g citric acid in 1 L of water. After
sodium metabisulfite and citric acid are in solution, add calcium chloride
(10 g; Bullis and Wiegand 1931; Payne and others 1969). (Dissolving 2 level
tablespoons of sodium metabisulfite and 1 level teaspoon to 0.5 gallon of
water can make a brine solution with this same approximate composition;
subsequently 2 level tablespoons of calcium chloride is added; Filz and
Henney 1951.) Use plastic, glass, or stoneware containers.
2. Place fresh sweet cherries in brine solution and keep submerged for at
least 3 wk. Cover containers with lids or plastic film.
Note: Brine should be prepared in a well-ventilated room. Asthmatics
sensitive to SO 2 should not consider making this brine solution.
Preparation of chlorite secondary bleaching brine
Ingredients: Sodium chlorite (food grade) and glacial acetic acid.
Procedure:
MS 20080654 Submitted 8/28/2008, Accepted 10/26/2008. Author Wrolstad is with Dept. of Food
Science and Technology, Wiegand Hall, Oregon State Univ., Corvallis, OR 97331-6602, U.S.A.
Direct inquiries to author Wrolstad (E-mail: [email protected]).
20
Journal of Food Science Education—Vol. 8, 2009
C
2008 Institute of Food Technologists®
Maraschino cherry . . .
1. Prepare 0.75% solution (w/v) of sodium chlorite. Adjust pH
to 5 using glacial acetic acid (approximately 0.22 mL/L;
Beavers and others 1970a; Waters and Woodroof 1986).
Caution: Prepare solution in hood or well-ventilated space.
Wear eye protection and neoprene gloves.
2. Leach pitted, primary bleached cherries with running water
until SO 2 content of cherries is less than 200 ppm. The
leaching process takes 1 to 2 d. Boiling for 10 min, draining,
and repeating the process 2 subsequent times will
accelerate the process.
3. Drain water from leached cherries and add 2 volumes of
sodium chlorite brine solution. Use plastic containers and
cover container with plastic film. Bleaching of brown
discolorations will take from 5 to 10 d.
4. Leach secondary bleached cherries in running water for
1 to 2 d to remove residual sodium chlorite. Return cherries
to primary bleach solution where they can remain until
processing is convenient.
Maraschino cherry processing
Maraschino cherries can be produced by following either the
hot or cold process outlined in Figure 1. Fresh sweet cherries
must be used for brining; hence, this project is limited by the
availability of fresh fruit. Alternatively, you may be able to
purchase brined cherries from commercial companies. Two
potential sources are: Oregon Cherry Growers Inc., Salem,
Oreg., U.S.A. and Gray & Co., Forest Grove, Oreg., U.S.A.
Discussion
Brine formulation
Solutions of sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) at levels of 0.5% or higher
are effective inhibitors of most yeasts, molds, and bacteria. On a
commercial scale, a brine can be prepared (Waters and
Woodroof 1986) by adding 14 lb of sodium bisulfite (NaHSO 3 )
to 100 gal of water with stirring, followed by 5 fl oz of
hydrochloric acid and 7 lb of anhydrous calcium chloride
(CaCl 2 ). The pH is adjusted to 3.2 to 3.4 with additional HCl.
This brine will contain about 1% SO 2 and 0.85% CaCl 2 . A
home recipe for brine preparation (Filz and Henney 1951)
directs that 2 level tablespoons of sodium metabisulfite and
1 level teaspoon of citric acid be dissolved in 0.5 gal of water;
subsequently, 2 level tablespoons of calcium chloride is added.
The bleaching solution should have approximately the following
BRINED CHERRIES
Figure 1—Flow diagram of unit operations
for processing maraschino cherries.
Sorting
Pitting
Washing and draining
Addition of 15 oBrix syrup
(0.1% potassium sorbate, 0.1% sodium benzoate, 0.25% citric acid)
Adjustment of pH (3.60)
HOT PROCESS
COLD PROCESS
_________________________________________________________________
Raise temperature to 50oC
Graduate additon of HFCS up to
40° Brix (rate 4° Brix/12 hr)
Gradual addition of HFCS up to
40°Brix (rate 1° Brix/24 hr)
_______________________________________________________________
Addition of coloring (150 ppm FD&C Red 40)
Addition of almond flavor (0.2% v/v)
Equilibration (few days)
Bottling
Pasteurization (5oC, 20 min)
labeling
MARASCHINO CHERRIES
Available on-line through ift.org
Vol. 8, 2009—Journal of Food Science Education
21
JFSE: Journal of Food Science Education
composition by weight: NaHSO 3 (2.1%), citric acid (0.2%), and
CaCl 2 (1%). The transformations between free SO 2 , sulfurous
−2
acid (H 2 SO 3 ), bisulfite (HSO−
3 ), and sulfite (SO3 ) are
pH-dependent, the relative proportions being shown in Figure 2
(Payne and others 1969).
above reaction). The divalent cation forms salt linkages between
the galacturonic units of 2 adjacent pectin molecules (Figure 3).
The pK A for the galacturonic acid to galacturonate
transformation is 3.6; the brine solution needs to be of this
approximate pH since the galacturonate form is necessary for
the salt-bridging reaction. This cross-linking of cell-wall
polysaccharides results in a firmer fruit texture that is not only
SO2 ↑ + H2 O ↔ H2 SO3 ↔ Ca(HSO3 )2 ↔ CASO3 + H2 O
more acceptable from a sensory standpoint but also facilitates
The pH of the brine solution is very critical. The preservative mechanical pitting. This feature of Wiegand’s original brine
action against bacteria, yeasts, and molds is attributed to
formulation (Bullis and Wiegand 1931) was a major quality
sulfurous acid; un-ionized SO 2 is believed to penetrate
improvement over cherries that had been preserved by exposure
microbial cell walls and inactivate essential cellular enzymes
to sulfurous acid solutions without inclusion of a firming
(Payne and others 1969; Davidson and Juneja 1990). At a low
agent.
pH, for example, 1, SO 2 would be the major species present,
Both dark- and light-colored sweet cherry cultivars are used
and a much lower concentration of metabisulfite could be used for brining. Anthocyanin pigments are responsible for the red
in the brine formulation. This is not practical, however, since the blush on the surface of the Royal Anne variety of sweet cherries
free SO 2 would be lost to the atmosphere. At the recommended while the same pigments, but in much higher concentrations,
pH of 3.5, cherries can be preserved in the brine for months
impart the deep burgundy color of the flesh and skin of the Bing
since HSO−
variety. Both cultivars will be bleached through the reaction of
3 provides sufficient free SO 2 through chemical
equilibria to prevent microbial growth and HSO−
bisulfite with anthocyanins (Figure 4). The brined cherries are
3 will not be
depleted to any significant extent for a long time. Calcium plays yellow in color since the yellow carotenoids are not affected by
a very important role in the brine formulation by giving the
bisulfite. It should be emphasized that the primary function of
cherry a firmer texture. If the pH is greater than 4, calcium will
bisulfite is to prevent microbial growth, and that bleaching of
precipitate from solution as CaSO 3 and not be available (refer to the cherry is a secondary role. SO 2 also inhibits unwanted
−2
Figure 2—Effect of pH on the proportions of H2SO3, HSO−1
3 , and SO3 in aqueous solution.
22
enzyme reactions such as polyphenoloxidase-catalyzed
oxidation of phenolics. Because of this, colorants need to be
added during processing to restore color. With the advent of
mechanical harvesting of cherries in the 1960s, the number of
cherries with defects from bruising increased substantially.
Cellular damage permits the enzyme polyphenoloxidase to
come in contact with fruit phenolics-forming quinones, which
subsequently polymerize to form brown pigments (Figure 5).
This pigmentation is not bleached by bisulfite. A secondary
bleaching process utilizing sodium chlorite was developed by
Oregon State Univ. researchers that bleaches the brown
discoloration along with the carotenoids to produce a snowy
white cherry (Beavers and others 1970a; Waters and Woodroof
1986). Today both primary and secondary bleached cherries are
available for maraschino cherry processing.
Unit operations for processing maraschino cherries
Removal of brine, pitting, sorting, leaching. The cherries are
drained to separate the fruit from the brine solution. This is also
an appropriate stage for sorting cherries of different sizes,
Figure 3—Schematic for cross-linking of
pectin molecules with Ca++ .
Figure 4—Reaction of anthocyanin
pigments with HSO−
3 to form a colorless
sulfonic acid addition product.
23
Figure 5—Polyphenoloxidase catalyzed reaction of phenolics to form quinones and melanoidin pigments.
permits measurement of the amount of SO 2 ). Starch is included
in the standard iodine solution since amylose and free iodine
form a blue-colored complex. When the excess free iodine is
reduced to HI, there will be no free iodine to complex with
starch and the solution will be colorless. This is the titration
endpoint.
H2 SO3 + I2 + H2 O → H2 SO4 + 2HI
Syrup formulation and sugar equilibration. Sugar concentration
of cherry juice, brines, and syrups are conveniently measured
by refractometry since the refractive index of aqueous sugar
solutions varies linearly. Portable hand-held refractometers
calibrated in percent soluble solids or ◦ Brix (these are
interchangeable terms) are used in the orchard as well as the
processing plant for measuring sugar content. A few drops of
juice squeezed from the cherry are placed on the refractometer,
and the ◦ Brix read directly. ◦ Brix is defined as the percent sugar
by weight; for example, 10 g of sugar dissolved in 90 g of water
will give a 10 ◦ Brix solution. The natural fruit sugars are located
in the vacuole. Sweet cherries have relatively high sugar
Figure 6—Diagram illustrating Pearson square method for
content, the FDA standard for single strength sweet cherry juice
determining proportions of ingredients to obtain desired
◦
being 20 ◦ Brix (Anon 1993). The range that naturally occurs is
Brix syrup.
considerable, and even higher values will occur in the field.
When harvesting fruit for brining, full-sized but slightly under
ripe cherries are preferred since they will have a firmer texture
blemishes, and those with stems from those without. The pits
than fully ripe to overripe fruit. The optimum ◦ Brix of cherries
are removed mechanically. William H. Decker invented the
for brining is from 12 to 15◦ compared to 18 to 22◦ for fresh
mechanical cherry pitter in 1902 when he was working for the
market or canning. If a heavy rainstorm occurs when cherries
Dunkley company in Kalamazoo, Mich., U.S.A. Dunkley Intl.
are fully ripe, water will diffuse into the cells and rupture will
Inc. is still a leading producer of cherry pitters, their equipment occur from high turgor pressure. This causes splitting of the
having a capacity in the order of 1 ton of cherries per hour.
cherries, which can be a severe economic loss to the farmer.
Efforts are made to reuse as much of the brine as possible to
Maraschino cherries commonly have a ◦ Brix of 40◦ . The
minimize the amount sent to the sewage treatment plant
drained, brined cherries cannot be immediately introduced to
(Beavers and others 1970b). Disposal of spent cherry brine is a
40 ◦ Brix syrup or shriveling will occur as water rapidly diffuses
major environmental and economic issue facing today’s brined from the fruit to the syrup. Therefore, the drained cherries are
cherry industry. The cherries are subsequently washed with cold introduced to dilute sugar syrup, for example, 15 ◦ Brix and
water to further remove residual brine. SO 2 levels need to be
sufficient time, for example, 12 h, is allowed for equilibration.
reduced from levels in the order of 2000 to < 200 ppm since
The sugar concentration is increased in 3 to 4 ◦ Brix increments
high levels will impart an objectionable flavor. This process will to gradually introduce sugar without tissue damage. Since the
also leach sugars, organic acids, bleached anthocyanin
SO 2 levels have been markedly reduced, preservatives such as
pigments, and other water-soluble compounds from the fruit.
potassium sorbate and sodium benzoate are included in the
This contributes to the biological oxygen demand (BOD) of the syrup to prevent microbial growth (Davidson and Juneja 1990).
brine and the problems of waste disposal. High temperature
An initial syrup formulation will typically contain corn syrup
(boiling) will accelerate SO 2 diffusion and removal. Accurate
diluted to 15 ◦ Brix, 0.1% potassium sorbate, 0.1% sodium
measurement of SO 2 in brine, cherries, and syrups is necessary benzoate, and 0.25% citric acid. The pH during processing and
for quality control. Iodine titration is an effective method for
final bottling is targeted for approximately 3.6 to 3.8. Citric acid
measuring SO 2 (Payne and others 1969; AOAC 1995). In this
has several functions
r It provides flavor, the ◦ Brix:acid ratio giving a good numerical
procedure, the solution to be measured is acidified to shift
equilibria to H 2 SO 3 (refer to previously mentioned reaction).
index for the sweetness to sourness taste quality. This index is
Sulfurous acid is subsequently oxidized with standard iodine
calculated by dividing the ◦ Brix by the titratable acidity.
r The effectiveness of sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate
solution to SO−2
4 (refer to reaction mentioned subsequently
showing oxidation of HSO−1
as antimicrobial agents is dependent on pH (Payne and others
3 by I 2 ; the stoichiometric reaction
24
1969; Davidson and Juneja 1990). Un-dissociated benzoic
acid is the form with antimicrobial activity, optimum activity
occurring in the pH range of 2.5 to 4. Sodium benzoate is
most active against yeast and bacteria and least effective
against molds. Sorbic acid and its sodium and potassium salts
are particularly effective in preventing mold growth, the
activity increasing with decreasing pH.
r It is critical that the pH of the final product is 4.5 or less so
that pasteurization can be used to ensure microbial safety.
Low-acid foods (having a pH above 4.5) must be thermal
processed in retorts to destroy Clostridium botulinum spores.
If these spores are not inactivated, the organism will form a
deadly toxin. The more severe heat treatment from retorting
would have a negative impact on the texture of the
fruit.
Syrup equilibration can be accelerated by using elevated
temperatures, for example, 50 ◦ C. Diffusion occurs at a faster
rate at the higher temperature, shortening processing time; the
higher temperature also helps to prevent microbial growth.
Dilution of sugar syrups to give the desired ◦ Brix must be done
accurately. The Pearson square method is very useful for
determining what proportion of ingredients to use to obtain the
desired ◦ Brix.
Example (Figure 6). A 75 ◦ Brix corn syrup solution is to be
diluted with water to 15 ◦ Brix. To solve this problem by the
Pearson square method, place the desired ◦ Brix (15◦ ) in the
center of the square and the ◦ Brix of the most concentrated
sample (75◦ ) in the upper left hand corner. The ◦ Brix of the
lower sugar content solution (water = 0◦ ) is placed in the lower
left hand corner. Subtract these figures from the center figure,
placing the result in the diagonal position.
Answer. Fifteen parts (by weight) of 75 ◦ Brix corn syrup
diluted with 60 parts water (by weight) will give a 15 ◦ Brix
corn-syrup solution.
Coloring and flavoring. There is no standard of identity for
maraschino cherries. Therefore the processor has flexibility in
selecting what sweeteners, acidulants, colorants, and flavoring
agents are used. The ingredients must be on the generally
recognized as safe (GRAS) list and approved by FDA for food
use. It will take 5 to 7 d for the sugar concentration to reaches
40 ◦ Brix with the hot process and approximately 4 wk with
cold. The cherries are dyed during the latter stages of the
infusion process. Approximately 4 d are required for the
colorant to diffuse from the syrup to the cherry and uniformly
color the cherries. A typical maraschino cherry formulation will
have a concentration of FD & C Red nr 40 in the order of 100 to
150 ppm. Artificial colorants and their regulatory status are an
interesting case study in both food law and the evolution of the
scientific discipline of food toxicology (Newsome 1990; Jones
1992). Their use in maraschino cherries has particularly been
fraught with controversy. FD & C Red nr 4 (Ponceau SX) was first
approved for use in 1929 and it became the most popular
colorant for maraschino cherries because of its brilliant hue and
stability. In 1965, FDA withdrew permission for its general use
because of evidence that dogs fed on high levels of FD & C Red
nr 4 had adrenal gland and urinary bladder damage. While FD
& C Red nr 2 (Amaranth) had been on the FDA approved list of
colorants since passage of the Food and Drug Act of 1906;
maraschino cherry manufacturers found it unacceptable for
their application because of its purplish hue and lesser stability
to SO 2 and light. Maraschino cherry manufacturers need a
colorant that is resistant to bleaching by SO 2 and stable to light
since their customers want a product packed in glass that will
have a long shelf life at ambient temperatures. Processors felt
they had no acceptable alternative to FD & C Red nr 4 and FDA
approved their petition for restricted use of Red nr 4 in
maraschino cherries, which was not to exceed a concentration
of 150 ppm. The logic was that consumers would receive very
Figure 7—Structures of those gorgeous
reds, FD & C Red nr 4 (Ponceau SX;
approved 1929, delisted 1976); FD & C
Red nr 2 (Amaranth; approved 1907,
delisted 1976); FD & C Red nr 3
(Erythrosine; approved, 1907); FD & C
Red nr 40 (Allura Red; approved, 1971);
Carmine (Cochineal extract); and
pelargonidin-3-sophoroside-5-glucoside
acylated with malonic and p-coumaric
acids (source, red radish).
25
little exposure with this limited usage. When FD & C Red nr 40
(Allura Red) became available in 1971, it was found to be an
effective colorant for maraschino cherries, and permission for
use of FD & C Red nr 4 was subsequently withdrawn. Perhaps
because of that special dispensation in regards to use of FD & C
Red nr 4 for 7 y, the maraschino cherry is sometimes indicted for
being a purveyor of harmful additives.
The structure of FD & C Red nr 40 is shown in Figure 7. A key
structural feature is the presence of 2 sulfonic acid substituents
in the sodium salt form. The sodium salt imparts water solubility
to the molecule. This is necessary from the standpoint of
functionality, since water solubility is necessary to give an
aqueous solution with high clarity. This property is also
important from a toxicological standpoint since its metabolic
breakdown products are water soluble and readily excreted in
the urine, minimizing risk of exposure. While the European
Union did not permit use of FD & C Red nr 40 until January
1995, FD & C Red nr 2 (Amaranth), which has 3 sulfonic acid
substituents (Figure 7), was permitted. FDA banned the use of
FD & C Red nr 2 in 1976. Russian studies in 1970 reported
Amaranth to be carcinogenic and embryo toxic to rodents
(Andrianove 1970); FDA withdrew permission for use of
FD & C Red nr 2 in 1976 stating that their studies failed to
clearly demonstrate safety. FDA’s action remains controversial
since subsequent studies (Clode and others 1987) have failed to
support the Russian results. Canada as well as the European
Union permits the use of FD & C Red nr 2 today. Regulations
concerning permitted colorants vary from country to country
and from time to time; exporters must be certain that colorants
and their level of use are in compliance with their designated
export market. FD & C Red nr 3 (erythrosine) is a di-sodium salt
of carboxylic acid and phenol substituents (Figure 7). It is water
soluble, but less than FD & C Red nr 4, 40, or 2. This limited
water solubility is advantageous for brined cherries that are
colored for use in canned fruit cocktail. FD & C Red nr 4 would
diffuse from the colored cherries into the syrup and other fruit
pieces, for example, peaches, pears. The “nonbleeding”
property of FD & C Red nr 3 makes it the colorant of choice for
canned fruit cocktail. FD & C Red nr 40 and 3 are classified by
the FDA as certified colorants. This class of approved colorants
is synthetic, and U.S. regulations require that samples from each
manufactured batch of colorant be sent to FDA for analysis. This
certification process ensures that the colorants are free from
harmful impurities, and so on. Carmine (Figure 7), the major
pigment of cochineal extract, is sparingly soluble in water and
an alternative to FD & C Red nr 3 for use in cherries for canned
fruit cocktail. Cochineal falls in the FDA classification of
colorants exempt from certification. Most of the colorants in this
class are natural, but not all. For example, β-carotene is
chemically synthesized but included in this class of colorants.
The colorant cochineal is manufactured by water extraction of
the female cochineal insect, Dactylopus coccus costa, which
lives on various species of cactus, principally Nopalea
cochenillifera. Mexico and Peru are major producers of this
colorant. While cochineal is an approved natural colorant, it
cannot be used in Kosher designated products. Presently there is
no suitable natural alternative to FD & C Red nr 40 for
maraschino cherries. We have recently demonstrated that radish
anthocyanin extract imparts a hue very close to that of FD & C
Red nr 40 with acceptable stability for at least 6 mo (Giusti and
Wrolstad 1996a, 1996b). The structure of the major pigments in
radish is pelargonidin-3-sophoroside-5-glucoside with malonic
acid and p-coumaric or ferulic acids as acylating substituents
(Figure 7). Acylation with cinnamic acids is the key structural
feature that imparts improved stability to the molecule.
26
Flavoring is added after the sugar concentration of the cherries
reach 40 ◦ Brix. Most of the flavor volatiles originally present in
the cherries are lost during the brining and leaching operations,
leaving a product characterized principally by the sharp taste of
residual SO 2 . Benzaldehyde is a naturally occurring compound
that contributes significantly to the flavor of both sweet (Prunus
avium) and sour cherries (Prunus cerasus) (Reineccius 1994).
Since almonds (Prunus amygdalus) are an even richer source of
benzaldehyde, almond extract was a logical choice for flavoring
maraschino cherries. The distinctive strong, aromatic quality of
benzaldehyde is associated with the flavor of maraschino
cherries. Artificial flavorings for maraschino cherries will have
benzaldehyde as a principal ingredient. If the processor prefers
to use natural flavorings, almond and/or cherry extracts will be
commonly used. With other natural flavors (WONF) flavorings
are often used for maraschino cherries. With this regulatory
classification, 50% or more of the flavoring material must be
derived from the named flavoring, for example, cherry; the
remainder can come from other natural sources, for example,
almonds, peaches, and so on (Sinki and Schlegel 1990).
Bottling pasteurization and labeling. The finished maraschino
cherries are placed in glass jars along with the syrup medium,
and after sealing the jars will be pasteurized. Heating at 85 ◦ C
for 20 min will be sufficient to ensure microbial stability.
Maraschino cherries may remain on the bartender’s shelf or in
the home pantry for extended periods of time after opening. For
this reason, the use of the preservatives sodium benzoate and
potassium sorbate are necessary. The osmotic effects of the
40 ◦ Brix sugar syrup helps in preventing microbial growth, as
does the low level of residual SO 2 . Glazed cherries, which are,
used in fruitcakes and other bakery applications, differ from
maraschino cherries principally by having higher sugar content,
for example, 74 ◦ Brix. The reduced water activity at this sugar
concentration will prevent microbial growth without the
auxiliary use of preservatives.
The label must contain a listing of all ingredients, and they
are to be given in decreasing order by weight. Thus, it is readily
apparent which are major and minor ingredients, but the actual
quantity does not need to be declared. Food additives are
defined as substances that are added to foods during
production, processing, packaging, and/or storage that are not
basic foodstuffs or major ingredients (Branen 1990). There must
be a valid reason for using a food additive such as improvement
of nutritional and sensory (color, flavor, texture) quality and
extension of shelf life (preservatives, antioxidants). Additives can
be either natural or synthetic, the critical difference between
classification as additive or ingredient being the amount that is
used. Thus, for maraschino cherries, ingredients include
cherries, water, sugar, and corn sweeteners while colorants,
flavorings, and preservatives are additives. Acidulants such as
citric acid would also be considered to be additives. It is not
customary to make the distinction between additives and
ingredients in label declarations. Food additives are subject to
the Delaney Clause passed by Congress in 1958, which
mandates that no substance shall be added to food that has
been demonstrated to cause cancer in man or laboratory
animals. Basic foodstuffs are not subject to this regulation;
hence, a barbecued steak is not subject to this law even though
it may contain trace amounts of benzopyrene, which is a known
carcinogen. The statement “may contain pits” usually appears
on the label. Mechanical cherry pitters are not 100% effective,
and while this statement is not required by law, the warning
offers some protection from litigation to processors whose
customer may suffer a broken tooth as a result of biting on an
unsuspected pit. The Nutrition Education Labeling Act of 1990
Appendix
requires that nutritional information also be listed on the label
in terms of serving size. The accepted serving size for
Study questions
maraschino cherries is 1 cherry; this is logical since most
True–False: If any part of a question is false, please correct so
beverage and dessert applications would call for 1 cherry per
serving. Nutritional information is presented as percent of daily that the statement is true.
1. FDA’s classification of certified food colorants is defined
value (DV) based on a 2000 calorie per day diet. One cherry
as “colorants that have been approved by FDA for use in
(5 g) will provide 0 g of fat and protein; the sugars in 1
foods.”
maraschino cherry will make a caloric contribution of
2. Certified food colorants are synthetic.
approximately 10 calories, 0.5% of DV. The quantity of dietary
3. For all certified colorants, samples from each
fiber, vitamins, and minerals in 1 maraschino cherry will be
manufactured batch must be sent to FDA for analysis.
insignificant. Maraschino cherries are not intended to be a
4. The corn syrup used in making maraschino cherries is
significant contributor to our nutritional well-being. Their role is
classified as a food additive.
to make food more appealing, and by doing so, stimulate food
5. The major purpose for using sodium metabisulfite in
consumption. Hospital dieticians are aware of this and will
cherry brine is to bleach the anthocyanin pigments.
often place a maraschino cherry on a grapefruit or fruit salad to
6. All colorants classified as exempt from certification are
make the patient’s meal more attractive and special.
natural.
7. Cherries used in manufacture of maraschino cherries are
Acknowledgments
not natural, being synthesized from cellulose and other
The suggestions and information provided by Carl Payne of
chemicals.
Oregon Cherry Growers Inc. in reviewing this chapter is much
Answers to True and False
appreciated, as is the help of Robert W. Durst, M. Monica
1. F: There are colorants exempt from certification that are
Giusti, and Ling Wen in preparing the figures.
also approved for use in foods.
2. T
3. T
References
4. F: Corn syrup is an ingredient.
Andrianove MM. 1970. Carcinogenic properties of the red food dyes,
5. F: The major purpose is to prevent microbial growth.
amaranth, ponceau SX and ponceau 4R. Vop Pitan 29(5):61–5.
6. F: Some of the carotenoids in this classification are
Anon. 1993. Food labeling: declaration of ingredients. Fed Regis 21CFR Parts
manufactured by chemical synthesis.
101 and 102. 58(3):2925–6.
AOAC. 1995. AOAC official method 892.02 sulfurous acid (free) in meats. In:
7. F: Real cherries preserved by brining are used.
Cunniff P, editor. Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC Intl. 16th ed. Vol. II.
Short Answer Questions:
Arlington, VA: AOAC Intl. Chapter 47, 34 p.
1. What are the functions of the following substances that
Beavers DV, Payne CH, Milleville HP. 1970a. Procedure for secondary
bleaching brined cherries with sodium chlorite. Agric Exp Sta Bull Nr 632.
are used in processing maraschino cherries?
Corvallis, Oreg: Oregon State Univ. p 1–7.
a. citric acid
Beavers DV, Payne CH, Soderquist MR, Hildrum KI, Cain RF. 1970b.
b. sodium benzoate
Reclaiming used cherry brines. Agric Exp Sta Technical Bull Nr 111.
c. potassium sorbate
Corvallis, Oreg: Oregon State Univ. p 1–19.
Branen AL. 1990. Introduction to food additives. In: Branen AL, Davidson PM,
d. sulfur dioxide
Salimen S, editors. Food additives. New York: M. Dekker Inc. Chapter 1,
e. calcium chloride
p 1–8.
2. What pigments are responsible for the yellow color of
Bullis DE, Wiegand EH. 1931. Bleaching and dyeing Royal Ann cherries for
cherries that have been bleached with sodium
maraschino or fruit salad use. Agric Exp Sta Bull Nr 275. Corvallis, Oreg:
Oregon State Agricultural College. p 1–29.
metabisulfite?
Clode SA, Hooson J, Grant D, Butler WH. 1987. Long-term toxicity study of
3. What color are cherries that have been subjected to the
amaranth in rats using animals exposed in utero. Food Chem Toxicol
sodium chlorite based secondary bleaching process?
25(12):937–46.
4. What pigments are responsible for the burgundy color of
Davidson PM, Juneja VK. 1990. Antimicrobial Agents, Ch. 4. In: Branen AL,
Davidson PM, Salimen S, editors. Food Additives. New York: M. Dekker Inc.
fresh Bing sweet cherries?
p 83–137.
5.
What
would be the ◦ Brix of the resulting solution if 30
Filz WF, Henney EN. 1951. Home preparation of maraschino cherries. Agr Exp
pounds
of 70 ◦ Brix corn syrup were combined with 40
Sta Bull Nr 497. Corvallis, Oreg: Oregon State College. p 1–11.
Giusti MM, Wrolstad RE. 1996a. Characterization of radish anthocyanins. J
pounds of water?
Food Sci 61(2):322–6.
6. FDA classifies FD&C Red nr 40 as a certified color
Giusti MM, Wrolstad RE. 1996b. Radish anthocyanin extract as a natural red
additive while cochineal extract (carmine) is an approved
colorant for maraschino cherries. J Food Sci 61(4):688–94.
color additive exempt from certification. Explain the
Jones JM. 1992. Food colors and flavors. Food safety. St. Paul, Minn.: Eagen
Press. Chapter 11, p 259–99.
distinction in this FDA classification system.
Newsome RL. 1990. Natural and synthetic coloring agents. In: Branen AL,
7. Why are the combination of sodium benzoate and
Davidson PM, Salimen S, editors. Food additives. New York: M. Dekker Inc.
potassium sorbate preservatives used in maraschino cherry
Chapter 9, p 327–45.
manufacturer, rather than single usage exclusively one or
Payne CH, Beavers DV, Cain RF. 1969. The chemical and preservative
properties of sulfur dioxide solution for brining fruit. Agr Exp Sta Bull Nr 629.
the other?
Corvallis, Oreg.: Oregon State Univ. p 1–9.
8.
What
chemical compound is the principal flavor note in
Reineccius G. 1994. Natural flavoring materials. In: Reineccius G, editor.
both artificial and natural flavorings used for maraschino
Source book of flavors. 2nd ed. New York: Chapman & Hall. Chapter 7,
cherries?
p 176–34.
Sinki G, Schlegel WAF. 1990. Flavoring agents. In: Branen AL, Davidson PM,
9. What structural feature imparts stability to radish
Salimen S, editors. Food additives. New York: M. Dekker Inc. Chapter 6,
anthocyanin pigments?
p 195–258.
10. What structural feature accounts for the solubility
Waters GG, Woodroof JG. 1986. Brining cherries and other fruits. In:
Woodroof JG, Luh BS, editors. Commercial fruit processing. 2nd ed.
properties of FD&C Red nr 40?
Westport, Conn.: Avi Publishing Co. Inc. Chapter 9, p 407–24.
11. The ingredient listing for a commercial sample of
maraschino cherries is as follows: cherries, water, corn
27
syrup, sugar, citric acid, natural and artificial flavors,
sodium benzoate, potassium sorbate, FD&C Red nr 40,
sulfur dioxide. Which are basic ingredients and which
would be classified as additives?
Answers to short answer questions:
1. citric acid: acidulant, pH control—effectiveness of
preservatives, processing parameters, flavorant
sodium benzoate: preservative effective against yeasts and
bacteria
potassium sorbate: preservative effective against molds
sulfur dioxide: preservative (also bleaches anthocyanin
pigments)
calcium chloride: firming agent (Ca++ cross-links pectin)
2. carotenoids
3. white
4. anthocyanins
5. 30◦
6. certified colorants: class of colorants requiring that
sample from each manufactured batch be sent
to FDA for analysis colorants exempt from certification:
FDA colorants approved for food use not requiring
certification
7. the combination is most effective since benzoates are
most effective against yeasts and bacteria and sorbates are
most effective against molds
8. benzaldehyde
9. acylation with cinnamic acids
10. sodium salt of sulfonic acid
11. ingredients: cherries, water, corn syrup, sugar
additives: citric acid, natural and artificial flavors, sodium
28
benzoate, potassium sorbate, FD&C Red nr 40, sulfur
dioxide
Suggested student projects
1. Produce a gallon of maraschino cherries. If you are going
to start with fresh sweet cherries and prepare your own
brine solution, you will be restricted to the availability of
fresh fruit. Alternatively, you may be able to purchase
brined cherries from commercial companies. Two
potential sources are listed in Materials and
Methods:
2. Starting with the Food and Drug Act of 1906, outline the
progression of USA food laws and regulations with respect
to the colorants permitted for use in maraschino cherries.
3. Develop a flow-sheet of unit processing operations for
manufacture of canned fruit cocktail; include a
description of the process for making the cherries used as
an ingredient.
4. Through library research, see if you can determine who
deserves credit for inventing the Manhattan, Old
Fashioned, and Shirley Temple cocktails; also, when did
this occur? Did prohibition have any impact on the
development of the maraschino cherry?
5. Review the safety and toxicological data for FD & C Red
nr 2 and FD & C Red nr 40. Outline the regulatory
decisions of the USA, Canada, the European Union, and
Japan with regards to permitted use of these colorants.
6. Outline the roles of SO 2 in manufacturing a maraschino
cherry and review the safety and regulatory status of this
food additive.

Maraschino Cherry: A Laboratory-Lecture Unit

Transcription

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