Negotiating Europe

Transcription

Negotiating Europe

Introduction
1.
2.
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4.
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7.
8.
Bo Stråth, “Methodological and Substantive Remarks on Myth, Memory
and History in the Construction of a European Community,” German Law
Journal 6, no. 2 (2005): 255–271, here 266–267; Chiara Bottici, “Myths of
Europe: A Philosophical Approach,” Journal of Educational Media, Memory
and Society Special Issue “Myths and Maps of Europe,” 1, no. 2 (2009):
9–33. Vincent Della Sala, “Political Myth, Mythology, and the European
Union,” Journal of Common Market Studies 48, no. 1 (2010): 1–19.
Ernst Haas, The Uniting of Europe: Political, Social, and Economic Forces,
1950–1957 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1958), 20.
I use the term “Community” or EC when referring to the period before the
1992 Maastricht Treaty and the term “EU” for the following period. When
speaking generally, without any specific temporal context, I will use the
term “EU.”
See Bruno De Witte, “Building Europe’s Image and Identity,” in Europe
from a Cultural Perspective, ed. Albert Rijksbaron, W. H. Roobol, and
M. Weisglas (The Hague: URP, 1987), 121–151; Soledad García, (ed.),
European Identity and the Search for Legitimacy (London: Pinter, 1993);
Bo Stråth, “A European Identity. To the Historical Limits of a Concept,”
European Journal of Social Theory 5, no. 4 (2002): 387–401.
See Leon Lindberg and Stuart Scheingold, Europe’s Would be Polity.
Patterns of Change in the European Community (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice
Hall, 1970).
The term “democratic deficit” was first used in 1979 by the British Member
of the EP, David Marquand. See Yves Mény, “De la démocratie en Europe:
Old Concepts and New Challenges,” Journal of Common Market Studies 41
(2003), 1–13.
See Martin Kohli, “The Battlegrounds of European Identity,” European
Societies 2, no. 2 (2000), 113–137.
See Anthony D. Smith, “National Identity and the Idea of European
Unity,” International Affairs 68/1 (1992): 55–76; Johan Galtung, “The
Emerging European Supernationalism,” in Toward a European Nation, ed.
10.1057/9781137369901 - Negotiating Europe, Oriane Calligaro
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Notes
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21.
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Notes
Max Haller and Rudolph Richter (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1994), 212–
225; Gerard Delanty, Inventing Europe. Idea, Identity, Reality (New York,
St. Martin’s Press, 1995); Gerard Delanty, “Europe and the search for identity,” European Journal of Social Theory 5, no. 4 (2002): 385–544.
Cris Shore, Building Europe. The Cultural Politics of European Integration
(London: Routledge, 2000).
For the literature regarding the national example, see Benedict Anderson,
Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism
(London: Verso, 2006 [1983]); Ernst Gellner, Nations and Nationalism
(Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983); Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger
(eds.), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
1983).
Shore, Building Europe, 64.
Cris Shore, “‘In uno plures’ (?) EU Cultural Policy and the Governance
of Europe. Cultural Policy and European Integration in Anthropological
Perspective,” Cultural Analysis 5 (2009): 7–26, here 18.
Tobias Theiler, Political Symbolism and European Integration (Manchester:
Manchester University Press, 2005).
Ibid., 4.
François Foret, Légitimer l’Europe. Pouvoir et symbolique à l’ ère de la gouvernance (Paris: Presses de Sciences Po, 2008), 14.
Foret, Légitimer l’Europe, 14–15.
Theiler, Political Symbolism, 159.
Monica Sassatelli, Becoming Europeans: Cultural Identity and Cultural
Policies (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 9.
The term of “entrepreneurs of Europeanness” is a transposition of the
French concept of “entrepreneurs de mémoire,” which describes any group
or individual that intends to create and obtain the recognition of memorial norms in the public space. See Emmanuel Droit, “Le goulag contre la
Shoah. Mémoires officielles et cultures dans l’Europe élargie,” Vingtième
siècle 94 (2007): 101–120, here 102 and Michel Johann, Gouverner les
mémoires, Les politiques mémorielles en France (Paris: PUF, 2010), 50.
See Laura Cram, “Imagining the Union: A Case of Banal Europeanism,”
in Interlocking Dimensions of European Integration, ed. Helen Wallace
(Basingtoke: Palgrave, 2001), 231–246; Ibid. “Banal Europeanism:
European Union Identity and National Identities in Synergy,” Nations
and Nationalism 15, no. 1 (2009), 101–108; Ibid., “Does the EU Need
a Navel? Banal Europeanism, Appreciated. Europeanism and European
Integration” paper presented at the ECPR Fifth Pan-European Conference,
June 23–26, 2010, Porto, Portugal, available at www.jhubc.it/ecpr-porto/
virtualpaperroom/014.pdf, consulted on October 3, 2011.
See Anthony D. Smith, Nations and Nationalism in a Global Era
(Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), 139, quoted in Laura Cram “Does the
EU Need a Navel? Banal Europeanism, Appreciated. Europeanism and
European Integration” paper presented at the ECPR Fifth Pan-European
190
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
191
Conference, June 23–26, 2010, Porto, Portugal, 13, available at www.
jhubc.it/ecpr-porto/virtualpaperroom/014.pdf
Michael Billig, Banal Nationalism (London: Sage, 1995).
Sassatelli, Becoming Europeans, 197.
See Cram (“Imagining the Union”; “Banal Europeanism: European Union
Identity and National Identities in Synergy,” Nations and Nationalism
15, no. 1 (2009): 101–108) but also Yasemin Soysal, “Locating European
Identity in Education,” in Fabricating Europe: The Formation of an
Education Space, ed. Antonio Novoa and Mark Lawn (Dordrecht: Kluwer
Academic Publishers, 2002), 55–68.
Kiran Klaus Patel, “Integration through Expertise. Transnational Experts
in European Cultural Policies,” in The Cultural Politics of Europe.
European Capitals of Culture and European Union since the 1980s, UACES
Contemporary European Studies, (London: Routledge, 2012), 72–92.
See Gerard Delanty, “Europe and the Idea of ‘Unity in Diversity,’” in
Whither Europe? orders, Boundaries, Frontiers in a Changing World, ed.
Rutger Lindahl (Gothenburg: CERGU, 2003, 25–42.
François Hartog, Régimes d’ historicité. Présentisme et expériences du temps
(Paris: Le Seuil, 2003).
Stråth, “A European Identity,” 390.
For the application of socio-constructivist methods to European integration, I found inspiring ref lections in Thomas Christiansen, Knud Erik
Jørgensen, and Antje Wiener (eds.), The Social Construction of Europe
(London: Sage, 2001).
1
1.
●
The European Commission’s Action in the
Academic and Historical Fields
Jean Monnet, Les États-Unis d’Europe ont commencé (Paris, Robert Laffont,
1955), 46.
Henceforth, the Press and Information Service will be referred to as the
Information Service.
See Robert Pourvoyeur, “La politique de l’information de la Communauté
Européenne,” Revue du Marché Commun 312 (May 1981), 192–204,
here 194.
Jacques-René Rabier affirms that he actively participated in the drafting of the report through discussion with its rapporteur, M. W. J. Schuijt.
Interview with Jacques-René Rabier, Brussels, September 6, 2008.
Jacques-René Rabier, “La naissance d’une politique d’information sur la
Communauté Européenne (1952–1967),” in Naissance et développement
de l’ information européenne, ed. Felice Dassetto and Michel Dumoulin
(Brussels: Peter Lang, 1993), 21–32, here 25 and Interview with JacquesRené Rabier, Brussels, September 6, 2008.
Piers N. Ludlow, “Frustrated Ambitions. The European Commission
and the Formation of a European Identity, 1957–1967,” in Institutions
Notes
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
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Notes
Européennes et Identités Européennes, ed. Marie-Thérèse Bitsch, Wilfried
Loth, and Raymond Poidevin (Brussels: Bruylant, 1998), 307–325.
See below on Monnet’s Institut de la Communauté Européenne pour les
Études Universitaires.
Jacqueline Lastenouse’s personal archive (JLPA): Note concernant le programme de travail et l’utilisation des fonds de l’Institut de la Communauté
Européenne pour les Études Universitaires. April 26, 1958.
See Robert Pourvoyeur, “La politique de l’information de la Communauté
Européenne,” Revue du Marché Commun 312 (1981): 192–204, Rabier,
“La naissance d’une politique,” and Pierre Tilly, “Quelle politique
d’information pour la CECA? L’œuvre des pionniers (1952–1955),”
Historians of Contemporary Europe. Newsletter of the European Community
Liaison Commitee of Historians 10, no. 1–4 (1995): 43–74 and Michel
Dumoulin, “What Information Policy,” in Michel Dumoulin (ed.), The
European Commission, 1958–72: History and Memories, Luxembourg:
OPOCE, 507–531.
Interview with Jacques-René Rabier, Brussels, September 6, 2008.
Ibid., 17.
Henri Rieben, Réconcilier et unir les Européens (Lausanne: Fondation Jean
Monnet pour l’Europe, 1995), 133 and Isabelle Petit, “Dispelling a Myth?
The Fathers of Europe and the Construction of a Euro-Identity,” European
Law Journal 5 (September 2006): 661–679, here 666.
European Community Institute for University Research Association
Charter Section 2, reproduced in Rieben, Réconcilier et unir les Européens,
133.
JLPA: Note concernant le programme de travail et l’utilisation des fonds de
l’Institut de la Communauté Européenne pour les Études Universitaires.
April 26, 1958.
Michel Dumoulin, “What Information Policy,” in The European Commission,
1958–72. History and Memories, ed. Michel Dumoulin (Luxembourg:
Office for Official Publications of the European Communities (OPOCE),
2007), 507–531, here 523.
EP: Débats du Parlement Européen, Séance du November 20, 1959.
Jacqueline Lastenouse, “La Commission Européenne et les études universitaires sur l’intégration européenne,” Temas de integraçao 15–16 (2003),
13–34, 14.
European Parliament (EP): Report drawn up by M. W. J. Schuijt on the
behalf of the Committee on Political Affairs and Institutional Questions,
November 18, 1960, 3.
Jacques-René Rabier, “L’information des Européens et l’intégration de
l’Europe,” leçons données les 17 et 18 février 1965, Enseignement complémentaire 10, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Institut d’Études Européennes, 17.
ECHAB: Service de Presse et d’Information des Communautés
Européennes: Avant-Projet de Programme d’Activité pour 1967, January
31, 1967, 51/1986/575.
192
●
193
21. ECHAB: Service de Presse et d’Information des Communautés
Européennes: Programme d’Activité pour 1965. 2/2909.
22. Rabier, “L’information des Européens,” 15.
23. Alexander Reinfeldt, “Promoting a Knowledge of Europe: The Youth and
European Integration” in European Voices: Actors and Witnesses of European
Integration, proceedings of HEIRS 3rd annual colloquium, 2007, 67.
24. Rabier, “L’information des Européens,” 18.
25. JLPA: Note concernant le programme de travail et l’utilisation des fonds de
l’Institut de la Communauté Européenne pour les Études Universitaires.
April 26, 1958.
26. Lastenouse, “La Commission Européenne,” 27–28.
27. Ibid.
28. Ibid., 14.
29. Interview with Jacqueline Lastenouse, Brussels, September 3, 2008 and
interview with Gérard Nafilyan, Paris, December 18, 2008.
30. The agenda of Noël confirms the existence of this conference. Historical
Archives of the European Union in Florence (HAEU): Fonds Noël,
EN-2130, Agenda 1963, October 5, 1962, “Conférence Sorbonne.”
31. Interview with Gérard Nafilyan, Paris, December 18, 2008.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid. and Interview of Jacqueline Lastenouse by Michel Dumoulin and
Julie Cailleau, Brussels, January 21, 2004. ConsHist.com “Histoire interne
de la Commission européenne 1958/1973,” 7. Seen on http://www.arc.eui.
eu/int/pdf/INT713.pdf, May 4, 2009.
34. HAEU: Fonds Noël, EN-2129, Agenda 1962, Novembre 30, 1962: “Max
Peyrard, association Études Européennes.”
35. The following chapter demonstrates that the creation of new budget line by
the Secretariat-General was often the first step toward a large-scale action
of the Commission in areas for which it had received no competence from
the Treaty; namely education and culture.
36. Walter Hallstein’s role is also mentioned on the website of the AEI: http://
www.aei-ecsa.de, February 25, 2009.
37. Ludlow, “Frustrated ambitions.”
38. Interviews with Gérard Nafilyan and Jacqueline Lastenouse.
39. Paul Collowald quoted in Dumoulin“What information policy,” 529. Paul
Collowad was Director of the Information Service in 1958/1959 and director in the Directorate-General for Information from 1973–1984.
40. Interview with Jacques-René Rabier, Brussels, September 6, 2008.
41. See Interview of Jacqueline Lastenouse by Michel Dumoulin and Julie
Cailleau, Brussels, January 21, 2004. ConsHist.com “Histoire interne de
la Commission européenne 1958/1973.” Seen on http://www.arc.eui.eu/
int/pdf/INT713.pdf, May 4, 2009.
42. EP: Written Question N°868/87 by Mrs Fontaine, Mr Jacques Mallet, Mr
Jean-Pierre Abelin, Roger Partrat Jean- Marie Vanlerenberghe, Mr. Michel
Debatisse to the Commission of the European Communities, July 20, 1987.
Notes
●
Notes
43. Ibid.
44. EP: Motion for resolution tabled by Mr. Munch, Mr. Hahn, Mrs. Peus,
Mr. Ciancaglini, Mr. Mertens, Mr. Monforte Arregui, Mr. Lambrias and
Mr. Poetschki, B 2–85/87, March 18, 1987.
45. See Interview of Jacqueline Lastenouse by Michel Dumoulin and Julie
Cailleau, Brussels, January 21, 2004.
46. Interview with Jacqueline Lastenouse, Brussels, September 3, 2008.
47. JLPA: File “European chairs,” 1980.
48. HAEU: Fonds Noël EN-2054 Letter from Jacqueline Lastenouse to Noël,
“Meeting of the Committee of the Associations of European Studies,
Florence 14/15 November 1988,” October 18, 1988.
49. JLPA: Working document by Jacqueline Lastenouse “Research on European
integration,” December 6, 1988.
50. EP (1987), Answer given by Mr. Ripa di Meana on behalf of the Commission
to the Written Question N°868/87 by Mrs. Fontaine, November 13,
1987.
51. See Tousignant, Nathalie, “L’impact du comité Adonnino (1984–1986):
Rapprocher les Communautés européennes des citoyens,” Études internationales 36, no. 1 (March 2005): 41–59.
52. HAEU: Fonds Noël, Note by Jacqueline Lastenouse, “European University
Foundation,” February 1, 1989.
53. HAEU: Fonds Noël, EN-2054, Note sent to Noël by Jacqueline Lastenouse
“Programme de création de Chaires Européennes 1989–1992,” April 13,
1988.
54. JLPA: Press-release “Jean Monnet Action. An Action of the Commission to
Stimulate the Teaching on European Integration in Universities,” Brussels,
June 29, 1989.
55. See, for example, ECHAB: Action Jean Monnet II 1994–1997, Vade
Mecum 1, 1994–1995, 1.
56. HAEU: Fonds Noël, EN-2054, Note by Noël on the European University
Foundation, December 9, 1988. 2.
57. HAEU: Fonds Noël, EN-2053, Note by Manuel Santarelli to J. Degimbe,
Director-General DG V concerning its communication on “Medium term
perspectives in the Education field.” April 11, 2008.
58. EP: Answer given by Mr. Ripa di Meana on behalf of the Commission to
the Written Question N°868/87 by Mrs. Fontaine, November 13, 1987.
60. Ibid.
61. HAEU: Fonds Noël, EN-2054, Letter sent by Jacqueline Lastenouse
to Noël, “Meeting of the Presidents of European Studies associations,
Florence November 16–17, 1987. Programme. Brussels, October 30, 1987.
1988.
194
●
195
1988.
65. HAEU: Fonds Noël, EN-2054, Note by Jacqueline Lastenouse, “European
University Foundation,” February 1, 1989, 2.
66. HAEU: Fonds Noël, EN-2054, Letter from Jacqueline Lastenouse to Noël,
“Meeting of the Presidents of European Studies Associations,” Florence,
November 14–15, 1988. Agenda of the meeting. Brussels. Undated
document.
67. JLPA: Communication of the Commissioner Dondelinger to the Members
of the Commission: Jean Monnet Programme. Europe in the universities.
Draft version, March 9, 1989, 1.
68. Ibid.
71. ECHAB: Communication of the Commissioner Dondelinger to the
Members of the Commission: Jean Monnet Action. Teaching on European
integration in the universities. SEC(89) 1028/2, June 16, 1989, 2.
1988.
73. See ECJ (1989), Judgment of the Court of May 30, 1989. Commission
of the European Communities v Council of the European Communities.
European Community action scheme for the mobility of university students (Erasmus)—Action for annulment—Legal basis—Vocational training. Case 242/87. Consulted on Eur-lex, 5.5.2009: http://eurlex.europa.
eu/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexplus!prod!CELEXnumdoc&numd
oc=61987J0242&lg=en
74. Treaty on European Union, OJEC n° C 191, July 29, 1992. Consulted
on Eur-lex, May 5, 2009: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/fr/treaties/dat/11992M/
htm/11992M.html#0001000001
75. See Ibid. and Emanuele Torquati, “L’azione Jean Monnet, unicum nelle
iniziative della Commissione Europea per l’Università,” in Sfide del mercato e identità europea, ed. Antonio Varsori (Milan: Franco Angeli, 2006),
111–143, here 115–116.
76. HAEU: Fonds Noël, EN-2054, Letter from Noël to Jacqueline Lastenouse
“Chaire Européenne,” April 18, 1988. HAEU: Fonds Noël, EN-2053,
Letter from Noël to Frans de Koster, July 14, 1989; Letter from Noël to
Ambassador Pietro Calamia, July 3, 1989.
77. HAEU: Fonds Noël, EN-2053, Letter from Noël to Frans de Koster, July
14, 1989.
Notes
●
Notes
78. See Torquati, “L’azione Jean Monnet,” 116.
79. EP: Debates of the EP, 1989–1990 Session, Draft General Budget 1990,
October 24, 1989, OJEC N°3–382.
81. HAEU: Fonds Noël, EN-2054, Note by Noël on the European University
Foundation, December 9, 1988, 2.
82. HAEU: Fonds Noël, EN-2052, Work meeting of the future Council for
the Jean Monnet Action, Brussels, October 10, 1989.
83. JLPA: Description of the role and tasks of the European University Council
for the Jean Monnet Action, Working document for the attention of the
European Commission, Brussels, March 18, 1999.
84. JLPA: Jean Monnet Action II (1994–1997) Vade Mecum 1995–1996.
Brussels, December 1994.
85. JLPA: European University Council for the Jean Monnet Action,
Memorandum for the attention of Mr. Commissioner M. Oreja: “Future
developments of the Jean Monnet Action,” June 30, 1995.
86. JLPA: Confederation of the European Union Rectors’ Conferences,
Evaluation 1990–1997 of the Jean Monnet Project, Final Report, April 30,
1998.
87. JLPA: Note for the attention of M. Chanterie, Jean Monnet Action,
Brussels, November 29, 1999.
88. Ibid.
89. JLPA: European University Council for the Jean Monnet Action,
Memorandum for the attention of Mr. Commissioner M. Oreja: “Future
developments of the Jean Monnet Action,” June 30, 1995.
90. Ibid.
91. ECHAB: ECOTEC, External evaluation report of the Jean Monnet Action,
1999.
92. JLPA: European University Council for the Jean Monnet Action, Document
on the future of the Jean Monnet Action for the attention of the European
Commission, Brussels, November 26, 1999. 4.
93. JLPA: Minutes of the meeting on the future of the Jean Monnet Action of
January 31, 2000, Brussels, February 3, 2000, 1.
94. Ibid.
95. JLPA: Manifesto of the Jean Monnet Professors for the attention of the
Commission attached to a letter sent by Alan Butt Philip to Romano Prodi,
Bath, September 1, 2000, 1.
96. Ibid., 1–2.
97. ECHAB: Communication of the European Commission on the new generation of community education and training programmes after 2006,
Luxembourg, OPOCE, 2004.
98. Torquati, “L’azione Jean Monnet,” 142.
196
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197
99. See on the web site of the European Commission, http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-programme/doc88_en.htm, consulted on May 5, 2009.
100. Consulted on http://ec.europa.eu/education/jean-monnet/doc/success2008_
en.pdf, May 5, 2009.
101. José Manuel Barroso, “L’Europe à la croisée des chemins – Ce que je crois,”
Speech held at the Jean Monnet Conference 2009 “20 Years of Support for
European Integration Studies: From the Jean Monnet Action to the Jean
Monnet Programme,” on September 7, 2009, Brussels, http://ec.europa.eu/
education/jean-monnet/doc1567_en.htm, consulted on October 30, 2009.
102. Ludlow, “Frustrated ambitions.”
103. Interview with Jacques-René Rabier, Brussels, September 6, 2008.
104. ECHAB: ECOTEC, External evaluation report of the Jean Monnet Action,
1999.
105. Antonio Varsori, “From Normative Impetus to Professionalization: Origins
and Operation of Research Networks,” in European Union History Themes
and Debates, ed. Wolfram Kaiser and Antonio Varsori (Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2010), 6–25, here 7.
106. Jean-Marie Palayret and Richard Schreurs, A University for Europe: Prehistory
of the European University Institute in Florence (1948–1976) (Rome: Presidenza
del Consiglio dei ministri, 1996).
107. As quoted in Jean-Marie Palayret, “Des négociations à la création de l’Institut
universitaire européen de Florence,” Paper presented at the Colloquium,
“L’enjeu de la culture dans le champ multilatéral,” Université Lumière Lyon
2 and Institut d’études politiques, May 10–12, 2001, 9.
108. Bulletin from the European Communities 6 (1972), 7.
109. Bulletin from the EC 85 (1962), 6.
110. HAEU: Fonds Walter Lipgens WL-96, 1946–1980, Memorandum addressed
by Peter Ludlow to Walter Lipgens, March 1979.
111. HAEU: Fonds EUI-10, 1974–1981, EC, Legal Service, Note à l’attention de
Monsieur Audland Secrétaire Général Adjoint, “Projet de recherche Histoire
de l’intégration européenne de l’Institut universitaire européen,” December 5,
1979.
112. HAEU: Fonds EUI-10, 1974–1981 Research project “History of European
Co-operation and Integration,” “Etude sur les origines du Marché commun
et de la Communauté Européenne” by P. Fontaine (03/1976).
113. HAEU: Fonds EUI-10, 1974–1981, Letter from Peter Ludlow to Pascal
Fontaine, March 6, 1976.
114. HAEU: Fonds Walter Lipgens, WL-179 March 1977–September 1977,
Lettre d’invitation au colloque “Problèmes méthodologiques et pratiques
d’une histoire de l’intégration européenne depuis la deuxième guerre mondiale” tenu du 29/09 au 01/10/1977 à l’Institut universitaire européen, March
10, 1977.
115. Walter Lipgens, A History of European Integration, 1945–1947: The Formation
of the European Unity Movement (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982). This book
Notes
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
133.
134.
135.
●
Notes
was a translated and expanded version of Lipgens’s work published in 1977
Die Anfänge der europäischen Einigungspolitik, enriched with contributions
by Wilfried Loth and Alan S. Milward. Walter Lipgens (eds.), Documents
on the History of European Integration, vol. I: Continental Plans for European
Union 1939–1945 (Berlin-New York: W. de Gruyter, 1985); Walter Lipgens
and Wilfried Loth (ed.), Documents on the History of European Integration,
vol. II: Plans for European Union in Great Britain and in Exile 1939–1945
(Berlin-New York: W. de Gruyter, 1986); vol. III, The Struggle for European
Union by Political Parties and Pressure Groups in Western European Countries
1945–1950 (Berlin-New York: W. de Gruyter, 1988).
Varsori, “From Normative Impetus to Professionalization,” 12.
Ibid.
Christopher Audland, “The Historical Archives of the European Union:
Their Opening to the Public, Management and Accessibility,” Journal of the
Society of Archivists 8, no. 2 (2007), 177–192.
EP: Report drawn up by Mr Olaf Schwencke “Opening to the Public of the
Records of the European Communities,” Doc A2 192–188, September 28,
1981, 10.
Interview with Jacqueline Lastenouse, Brussels, September 3, 2008.
JLPA: DG X/University Information, Report and Papers (April 1982):
International Conference of Professors of Contemporary History,
Luxembourg, January 28–29, 1982. Study of the Beginnings of European
Integration: The Value of Source Material and Records. 9.
Interview with Jacqueline Lastenouse, Brussels, September 3, 2008.
JLPA:DG X/University Information, Report and Papers (April 1982):
International Conference of Professors of Contemporary History, Ibid.
Opening Speech by Gaston Thorn, 29–43, here 29.
Ibid., 30.
Ibid., 32.
Ibid., 34.
Ibid.
Ibid., 32.
Introductory Paper on the Public Archives, by Walter Lipgens, 49–58, here
50–51.
Ibid. 51.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
François Hartog, Régimes d’ historicité. Présentisme et expériences du temps
(Paris: Seuil, 2003).
198
136.
137.
138.
139.
140.
141.
142.
143.
144.
145.
146.
147.
148.
149.
150.
151.
152.
153.
154.
155.
●
199
Resolution by René Girault for the Creation of Liaison Committee of
Historians, 110.
See below and Antonin Cohen, “Le ‘père de l’Europe’. La construction sociale
d’un récit des origins” Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, 166–167, pp.
14–29.
Interview with Michel Dumoulin, Brussels, September 4, 2009.
Interview with Antoine Marès, via e-mail, April 3, 2010.
Interviews with Michel Dumoulin and Antoine Marès.
HAEU: Fonds Noël, EN-1137, Minutes of the meeting of the Liaison
Committee of Historians, June 16–17, 1987 in Florence.
Varsori, “From Normative Impetus to Professionalization,” 18.
JLPA: Note by Spyros A. Pappas, Director-General DG X for the attention
of Mr. Calleja, Principal Secretary of the Commissioner for Information and
Culture M. Oreja, September 22, 1998.
HAEU: Fonds Noël, EN-1137, Rapport annuel sur les réunions de consultation avec les représentants du groupe de liaison des professeurs d’histoire
contemporaine, June 17, 1988
HAEU: Fonds Noël, EN-1137, Groupe de liaison des professeurs d’histoire
contemporaine auprès de la Commission Européenne: Rapport des
Professeurs A. S. Milward et G. Trausch sur leur mission aux Archives de la
Commission des Communautés Européennes, June 16, 1988.
Dumoulin’s personal archive (MDPA): file “Groupe de Liaison des
Historiens,” Réunion du Groupe de Liaison, mars 19, 1987, 2.
International Conference of Professors of Contemporary History, Ibid., program of the conference, 4.
See Pierre Nora, “Entre Mémoire et Histoire. La problématique des lieux,”
in Les lieux de mémoire, La République, ed. Pierre Nora (Paris: Gallimard,
1984), 23–43; Pierre Nora, “Between Memory and History: les Lieux de
Mémoire,” Representations 26 (1989): 7–25.
Nora, “Between Memory and History,” 13.
Interview with Antoine Marès, via e-mail, April 3, 2010.
Ibid.
On the role played François Fontaine and the Jean Monnet Foundation in
producing a “history of the origins,” see Cohen, “Le ‘père de l’Europe.’”
MDPA: file “Groupe de Liaison des Historiens,” Rapport d’Antoine Marès
sur les archives orales de la construction européennes, mai 9, 1984.
Meeting of the Heads of State of Government, Solemn Declaration on
European Union, Stuttgart June 19, 1983. Bulletin of the EC, No. 6/1983,
24–29.
See Report from the ad hoc committee in a People’s Europe, in Bulletin of the
EC, March 1985, 3, 111–117.
MDPA: file “Groupe de Liaison des Historiens,” Procès-verbal de la 1057ème
session du Conseil des Ministres responsables des affaires culturelles réunis
Notes
156.
157.
158.
159.
160.
161.
162.
163.
164.
165.
166.
167.
168.
169.
170.
171.
172.
173.
●
Notes
au sein du Conseil du 20 décembre 1985, point “Histoire communautaire
vécue,” 8.
HAEU: Fonds Noël, EN-1045, Note by Manuel Santarelli to M. Ripa de
Meana, Commissioner for Information and Culture, “Report on the feasibility of a “Lived history of the Community” as proposed by the Ministers of
Culture on 20 December 1985,” Brussels, December 7, 1987.
MDPA: file “Groupe de Liaison des Historiens,” Procès-verbal de la réunion
du janvier 30, 1986.
ECHAB: DG X/University Information, Minutes of the Conference “The
Re-launching of Europe and the Treaties of Rome,” March 25–28, 1987,
Speech by Raymond Poidevin.
Ibid.
HAEU: Fonds Noël, EN-1045, Liaison Committee of Historians,
“Recommendation for the European Commission on the Project of ‘Lived
History of the Community,’” October 9, 1987.
HAEU: Fonds Noël, EN-1137, Note by René Girault on the future of
the Liaison Committee of Historians and on the research projects, Paris,
December 1, 1987, 2.
Ibid., 3.
Interview with Michel Dumoulin, Brussels, September 4, 2009. Dumoulin
also affirms that Girault’s attitude toward the European Union changed over
time. Although relatively skeptical at the time the Liaison Committee was
created, Girault progressively became more and more convinced of the need
to support European integration.
HAEU: Fonds Noël, EN-1137, Note by René Girault on the future of
the Liaison Committee of Historians and on the research projects, Paris,
December 1, 1987, 3.
Morgane Le Boulay, “Investir l’arène européenne de la recherche. Le “Groupe
de Liaison’ des historiens auprès de la Commission européenne,” Politix 89
(2010): 103–124, here 115.
MDPA: file “Groupe de Liaison des Historiens,” Procès-verbal de la réunion
du juin 16, 1988, Florence.
Ibid.
See Robert Frank, “Introduction,” in Les identités européennes au XXe siècle.
Divergences, convergences et solidarité, ed. Robert Frank (Paris: Hachette,
2004), 7–12, here 8.
Ibid., 1b+
René Girault, Identité et conscience européennes au XXe siècle (Paris: Hachette,
1994).
Frank, “Introduction.” The results of the first phase (2001–2007) were
published in Gérard Bossuat, Éric Bussiere, Robert Frank, Wilfried Loth,
and Antonio Varsori (eds.), L’expérience européenne, 50 ans de construction de
l’Europe, 1957–2007 (Brussels: Bruylant, 2010).
200
●
201
174. Quoted in Le Boulay, “Investir l’arène européenne de la recherche,” 118.
175. Chapter 2 and 3 analyze the process through which these concepts entered
the agenda of the EU institutions.
176. Nicolas Rousselier, “Vers une conscience et une identité européenne,”
Vingtième Siècle 42, no. 1 (1994): 107.
177. Quoted in Ibid.
178. Le Boulay, “Investir l’arène européenne de la recherche,” 118.
179. Maria Grazia Melchionni (ed.), L’ identità europea alla fine del XX secolo
(Rome: Università degli Studi la Sapienza, Biblioteca della “Rivista di studi
politici internazionali,” 2001).
180. Maria Antonietta Macciocchi, La donna con la valigia: viaggio intellettuale di
una donna in Europa (Milan: Mondadori, 1989), 31 and 448.
181. Ibid., 39.
182. Ibid., 31.
183. Ibid., 32.
184. Interview with Frederic Delouche, by telephone, April 21, 2010.
185. Ibid.
187. See Cohen, “Le ‘père de l’Europe,’” 20.
188. Ibid.
189. HAEU: Fonds Noël, EN-2503, File “F. Delouche (1988), Manuel d’Histoire
de l’Europe.” “Le projet Duroselle/Delouche,” DG X, Unité Information
Universitaire, décembre 1, 1985.
190. MDPA: file “Groupe de Liaison des Historiens,” Procès-verbal de la 1057ème
session du Conseil des Ministres responsables des affaires culturelles réunis
au sein du Conseil du décembre 20, 1985, point “Histoire communautaire
vécue,” 8.
191. See Conclusions of the Milan Council, in Bulletin of the EC, June 1985, n°6,
13–16, here 16.
192. MDPA: Conseil des Ministres responsables des affaires culturelles réunis
au sein du Conseil du décembre 20, 1985, point “Histoire communautaire
vécue,” 8.
de l’Europe.” “Le projet Braudel/Macciocchi,” DG X, Unité Information
Universitaire, février 15, 1986.
194. Ibid.
de l’Europe.” Letter from Frederic Delouche to Noël, Manuel d’Histoire de
l’Europe, octobre 11, 1988. All the follwing quotations, ibid.
196. Ibid.
197. Ibid.
de l’Europe.” Réunion du octobre 28–29, 1988 “Une histoire européenne de
l’Europe,” Histoire de l’Europe, étape I. All the following quotations, ibid.
199. Ibid.
Notes
●
Notes
200. Ibid.
201. Ernst Gellner, Culture, Identity and Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1987), 49.
de l’Europe.” Réunion du octobre 28–29, 1988 “Une histoire européenne de
l’Europe,” Histoire de l’Europe, étape I.
203. Jean-Baptiste Duroselle, L’Europe. Histoire de ses peuples (Paris: Perrin, 1990),
409.
204. Cris Shore, Building Europe. The Cultural Politics of European Integration
(London: Routledge, 2000), 57.
de l’Europe,” Réponse du Commissaire Dondelinger à la question écrite QE
599/1990 de M. Papayannakis, avril 24, 1990.
208. Jacques Delors, “The Single European Act and Europe: a Moment of Truth,”
November 21, 1986, EUI, Florence. Taken from the European Navigator:
http://www.ena.lu/jacques_delors_single_act_europe_moment_truth02–7842
209. Ibid.
210. ECHAB: 987th meeting of the European Commission, November 15, 1989,
PV(1989)987 and Presse Release IP/89/871, 16/11/1989, available on: http://
europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.doreference=IP/89/871&format=HT
ML&aged=1&language=EN&guiLanguage=en
212. Ibid. and interview with Jacqueline Lastenouse.
213. HAEU: Noël fund, file EN 2503, File “F. Delouche (1988), Manuel d’Histoire
de l’Europe,” Question écrite n° 599/90 de M. Mihail Papayannakis à la
Commission des Communautés européennes. Publication prochaine d’une
’Histoire européenne de l’Europe.”
de l’Europe,” Letter from Hélène Ahrweiler, President of the University of
Europe, to Jacques Delors, March 21, 1990.
215. HAEU: Noël fund, file EN 2503, File “F. Delouche (1988), Manuel
d’Histoire de l’Europe,” Letter from Georges C. Vlachon, President of the
Academy of Athens, to Jacques Delors, March 23, 1990.
de l’Europe,” Answer of Jacques Delors to Hélène Ahrweiler, April 4, 1990.
217. HAEU: Noël fund, file EN 2503, File “F. Delouche (1988), Manuel
d’Histoire de l’Europe,” Minutes of the meeting of the Ministers of Culture,
SI (90) 395, May 18, 1990, 10.
218. Norman Davis, Europe: A History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996),
43; interview with Frederic Delouche, by telephone, April 21, 2010. Frederic
Delouche reports that his personal archive contains an entire box of polemic
articles published in the Greek newspapers.
202
●
203
de l’Europe,” Réponse du Commissaire Dondelinger à la question écrite QE
599/1990 de M. Papayannakis, avril 24, 1990.
220. See chapter 2.
222. Ibid.
223. Ibid.
224. See for example Shore, Building Europe, 44; Johan Galtung speaks of “a
totally uncritical” book presenting a gender biased and sanitized view of
history: Johan Galtung, “The emerging European supernationalism,” in
Toward a European Nation, ed. Max Haller and Rudolph Richter (Armonk:
M. E. Sharpe, 1994), 212–225, here 224.
225. Tobias Theiler, Political Symbolism and European Integration (Manchester:
Manchester University, Press, 2005), 124.
226. Interview with Jacqueline Lastenouse.
227. JLPA: Note by Mrs Cauchie, DG X/Audiovisual Production Unit, for the
attention of the Liaison Committee of Historians, “Testimonies on the
beginnings of European integration process,” Brussels, November 5, 1996.
228. JLPA: Note by Fabienne Alexandre, DG X/Jean Monnet Unit, “Project of
oral history of the Jean Monnet Chairs in History,” Brussels, July 24, 2000.
229. For example, JLPA: Letter from Jacqueline Lastenouse to Gilbert Trausch,
Brussels, March 12, 1997.
230. JLPA: Note by Jacqueline Lastenouse for the attention of Mrs C. de la Torre,
Secretariat of the Commissioner Oreja, “Information of the projects on the
history of European integration,” Brussels, May 6, 1999.
231. JLPA: Note by Spyros A. Pappas, Director-General DG X for the attention
232. Ibid.
233. Ibid.
234. JLPA: EC, Note by Spyros A. Pappas, Director-General DG X for the attention of Mr. Calleja, Principal Secretary of the Commissioner for Information
and Culture M. Oreja, September 22, 1998.
235. On the resignation of the Santer Commission and its consequences, see
Didier Georgakakis, “Was it really just “poor communication”? Lessons
from the Santer Commission’s resignation” in Politics and the European
Commission. Actors, interdependence, legitimacy, ed. Andy Smith (London:
Routledge, 2004), 119–133.
237. JLPA: Note by Spyros A. Pappas, Director-General DG X for the attention
238. Ibid.
239. Varsori, “From Normative Impetus to Professionalization,” 18.
240. Ibid.
Notes
●
Notes
241. Wilfried Loth quoted in Le Boulay, “Investir l’arène européenne de la recherche,” 123.
242. Ibid., 121, footnote 80.
243. Ibid.
244. José Manuel Barroso, Preface of Dumoulin, “What Information Policy.”
245. See Dumoulin, “What Information Policy.”
246. Varsori, “From Normative Impetus to Professionalization,” 7.
247. Ibid., 24.
248. RICHIE Network website: http//www.europe-richie.org/objectifs-en.htm,
consulted on December 10, 2010.
249. Quoted in Antonio Varsori, “Origins and Operation of Research Networks
in EU History,” paper presented at the conference “Europe’s historians/
The historians of Europe: The Historiography of the European Union,”
Università degli Studi di Padova, Padua, February 8–9, 2008.
250. See Torquati, “L’azione Jean Monnet,” 120.
251. On the mobilization of the past by the EU institutions, see also Oriane
Calligaro and François Foret, “La mémoire européenne en action. Acteurs,
enjeux et modalités de la mobilisation du passé comme ressource politique,”
37, no. 2 (2012), Special issue “De l’étude de l’émergence d’une “mémoire
européenne” à l’analyse de l’européanisation de la “mémoire” comme catégorie d’action” ed. Sarah Gensburger and Marie-Claire Lavabre, 19–43 and
Oriane Calligaro, “Which Memories for the European Union? The Role of
History and Memory in the European Integration Process,” in Memories and
Places of Memory in Europe, Series Cuadernos de Yuste, vol. 6, ed. Eric Bussière
(Brussels: Peter Lang, 2012), 47–64.
252. See Nora, “Entre Mémoire et Histoire. La problématique des lieux”; Nora,
“Between Memory and History”; Hartog, Régimes d’ historicité.
2 Using and Negotiating European Cultural Heritage
1.
2.
3.
4.
See Soledad García, (ed.), European Identity and the Search for Legitimacy
(London: Pinter, 1993); Bo Stråth, “A European Identity. To the Historical
Limits of a Concept,” European Journal of Social Theory 5, no. 4 (2000):
387–401.
(London: Routledge, 2000); Cris Shore, “‘In uno plures’ (?) EU Cultural Policy
and the Governance of Europe. Cultural Policy and European Integration in
Anthropological Perspective,” Cultural Analysis 5 (2006): 7–26.
Gerard Delanty, Inventing Europe. Idea, Identity, Reality (New York: St.
Martin’s Press, 1995), 111; Shore, Building Europe, 51; Shore, “‘In uno
plures’ (?) EU Cultural Policy and the Governance of Europe,” 18.
EP: Resolution presented by Mr Premoli the Liberal and Allied Group on
measures to protect the European cultural heritage, May 13, 1974, Official
Journal of the European Communities (OJEC), C 62, May 30,1974, 5–7.
204
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
●
205
Joseph A. McMahon, Education and Culture in European Community Law
(London: The Athlone Press, 1995), 122; Annabelle Littoz-Monnet, The
European Union and Culture: Between Economic Regulation and Cultural
Policy (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006), 42.
Council of Europe: European Cultural Convention, December 1954. Taken
from http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/018.htm.
Ibid.
Meeting of the Heads of State of Government, The Hague, December
1–2, 1969. Final Communiqué in Bulletin of the European Communities,
1–1970, 12.
Meeting of the Heads of State of Government, Paris, October 19–21, 1972,
Final Communiqué in Bulletin of the European Communities, 10–1972,
15–16.
Robert Grégoire, Vers une Europe de la culture. Du théâtre à l’action communautaire (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2000), 181.
CEC: Mémorandum de la Commission au Conseil des Communautés
Européenne: une action communautaire dans le domaine de la culture (projet présenté par Altiero Spinelli), SEC (72) 4250, OJEC C 230, December
06, 1972, 12–14.
Grégoire, Vers une Europe de la culture, 183. On the role of Altiero Spinelli, see
Francesco Gui, “Società europea, cultura e mass-media. Un memorundum di
Altiero Spinelli, commissario europeo,” Memoria e Ricerca 6(2006), 29–58.
Grégoire, Vers une Europe de la culture, 185
Ibid.
Ibid., 182.
EP: Motion for a Resolution presented by Mr Hougardy the Liberal and
Allied Group on the Safeguarding of the European cultural heritage, May
21, 1973, doc. 73/73.
Grégoire, Vers une Europe de la culture, 206.
Ibid., 207–208.
Ibid.,. 210.
Ibid., 209–210.
See Chapter 1: Jacques-René Rabier wrote with the MEP Schuijt the import
EP Report on Information of November 1960.
Interview with Olaf Schwencke, Paris, August 10, 2010.
EP: Debates of the European Parliament, Sitting of May 13, 1974 “European
Cultural Heritage,” 7.
Ibid., 9.
Ibid., 12.
See David Handley, “Public Opinion and European Integration: The Crisis
of the 1970s,” European Journal of Political Research 4(1981):335–364.
See Kohli (2000), 122.
EP: Debates of the European Parliament, Sitting of May 13, 1974 “European
Notes
●
Notes
29. François Hartog, “Time and Heritage,” Museum International 57(2005):
7–18, here 15.
30. EP: Debates of the European Parliament, Sitting of May 13, 1974 “European
31. Meeting of the Heads of State of Government, Copenhagen, December 9,
1973, Declaration on European Identity, in Bulletin of the EC. December
1973, No. 12, 118.
33. CEC: Commission Communication to the Council on the Community
Action in the Cultural Sector on November 22, 1977. COM (77) 560 final,
December 2, 1977. Bulletin of the EC, Supplement 6/77 and Grégoire, Vers
une Europe de la culture, 211.
34. Ibid., 5.
35. Ibid., 7.
36. Ibid., 19–22.
37. Jean-François Polo, “La naissance d’une direction audiovisuelle à la
Commission: la consécration de l’exception culturelle,” Politique européenne 3, no. 11(2003): 9–30, here 16.
38. Debates of the European Parliament, Session of January 17, 1979, quoted in
Polo, “La naissance d’une direction audiovisuelle à la Commission,” 16.
39. EP: Motion for a resolution presented by Mr Beyer de Ryke on the necessity of an intervention aiming at the protection of the site and monuments
of the Acropolis in Athens, October 1, 1981, Doc 1–557/81.
40. Meeting of the Heads of State of Government, Solemn Declaration on
European Union, Stuttgart June 19, 1983. Bulletin of the EC, No. 6/1983.
24–29.
41. Ibid., 25.
42. Ibid., 28.
43. Littoz-Monnet, The European Union and Culture, 49.
44. See Oriane Calligaro, “Florence European Capital of Culture 1986 and
the Legitimization of an EEC Cultural Policy,” in Kiran Klaus Patel (ed.),
The Cultural Politics of Europe. European Capitals of Culture and European
Union since the 1980s, UACES Contemporary European Studies(London:
Routledge, 2012), 95–113.
45. CEC: Budget général Communautés Européennes 1984, OJCE. Titre
6—Crédits d’interventions dans le domaine social Chapitre 67—Dépenses
dans le secteur culturel et fondation européenne, 135.
46. Littoz-Monnet, The European Union and Culture, 58.
47. Treaty on European Union, Title IX “Culture” Article 128. Taken from the
Eur-Lex database http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/treaties/dat/11992M/htm/
11992M.html#0001000001.
48. Council of the EU: Common position No. 51/96 adopted by the Council on
July 8, 1996 with a view to adopting Decision of the European Parliament
and of the Council establishing a Community action program in the field
206
Notes
●
207
of cultural heritage—the Raphael program (96/C 264/11) OJEC C 264,
September 11, 1996,69.
49. Council of the EU: Decision No. 508/2000/EC of the European
50. CEC: Report from the Commission to the Council, the European
Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the
Committee of the Regions—Report on the Second External Interim
Evaluation of the Culture 2000 Program COM(2006) 666 final—Not
published in the OJEC. Taken from: http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/
l29006.htm#AMENDINGACT.
51. Council of the EU: Common Position (EC) No. 11/2006 of July 18, 2006
adopted by the Council, acting in accordance with the procedure referred
to in Article 251 of the Treaty establishing the European Community,
with a view to adopting a Decision of the European Parliament and of the
Council establishing the Culture Program (2007 to 2013), OJEC, C 238E,
October 3, 2006, 18–30.
53. Monica Sassatelli, “European Cultural Space in the European Cities of
Culture: Europeanization and Cultural Policy,” European Societies Special
Issue “Cultural Spaces in Europe,” 10, no. 2(2008): 225–245, here, 231.
For analyses of this rhetoric, see also Enrique Banus, “Cultural Policy in
the EU and the European Identity,” in Mary Farrell, Stefano Fella, and
Michael Newman (eds.), European Integration in the 21st Century: Unity in
Diversity? (London: Sage, 2002), 158–183 and Gerard Delanty, “Europe
and the Idea of ‘Unity in Diversity’” in Rutger Lindahl (ed.), Whither
Europe? Borders, Boundaries, Frontiers in a Changing World (Gothenburg:
CERGU, 2003), 25–42.
54. Sassatelli, “Europeanization and Cultural Policy,” 231.
55. CoR: Opinion on the proposal for a European Parliament and Council
Decision establishing a Community action program in the field of the
cultural heritage—Raphael CdR 302/95 OJEC C 100, April 2, 1996,19.
56. Ibid.
57. Pierre Nora, “Between Memory and History: les Lieux de Mémoire,”
Representations 26(1989):13.
58. Hartog, “Time and Heritage,” 10.
59. Ibid.
61. Ibid., 8.
62. EP: Report drawn up by Mr Hahn on behalf of the Committee on Youth,
Culture, Education and Sport on the protection of architectural and
archaeological heritage, Doc A 206/82, May 28, 1982, 11.
63. Ibid., 12.
Parliament and of the Council of February 14, 2000 establishing
the Culture 2000 program, OJ EC L 63, March 10, 2000, 89.
●
Notes
64. Ibid., 12–13.
Culture, Education and Sport on the protection of architectural and
archaeological heritage, Doc A 206/82, May 28, 1982, 26.
66. Ibid., 12.
67. Ibid., 12–13.
68. EP: Report drawn up by Mr Laroni on behalf of the Committee on Culture,
Youth, Education and the Media on protecting the architectural heritage
and preserving cultural assets, Doc A3–0036/93, January 29, 1993, 19.
69. EP: Report drawn up by Mr Rubert de Ventos on behalf of the Committee
on Youth, Culture, Education and Sport on the Conservation of the
Community’s architectural and archaeological heritage, Doc A2 192–188,
September 28, 1988, 18.
70. Ibid., 17.
71. EP: Report drawn up by Mr Laroni on behalf of the Committee on Culture,
Youth, Education and the Media on protecting the architectural heritage
and preserving cultural assets, Doc A3–0036/93, January 29, 1993, 17.
72. EP: Answer given by Mr Ojera on behalf on the Commission to the written question No. 3194/98 by Mr Sisó Cruellas to the Commission on
“European Heritage Days,” OJEC C 207, July 21,1999, 36.
73. See Étienne Grosjean, Forty Years of Cultural Cooperation 1954–1994
(Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 1998), 123.
74. Anderson, Imagined Communities.
75. Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication: Discours et communiqués, mars 2007. Taken from: http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/actualites/dossiers-presse/label-europeen/intro.html.
76. Ibid.
77. Ibid.
78. Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication/Ipsos: Enquête sur les
Européens, les patrimoines de l’Europe et le patrimoine européen, Mars
2007. Taken from:http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/actualites/dossierspresse/label-europeen/synthese-ipsos2007.pdf
79. Ibid.
80. It seems that Jack Lang has claimed being at the origin of the quote, see
Sassatelli, “Europeanization and Cultural Policy,” 227. Robert Grégoire
explains that the French Professor Hélène Ahrweiler also claims authorship
of the formula. See Grégoire, Vers une Europe de la culture, 183–184.
81. Shore, “‘In uno plures’ (?) EU Cultural Policy and the Governance of
Europe,” 8.
82. On this political use of heritage, see also Oriane Calligaro and François Foret,
“La mémoire européenne en action. Acteurs, enjeux et modalités de la mobilisation du passé comme ressource politique,” in Politique européenne (2012)
n°37/2, Special issue “De l’étude de l’émergence d’une ‘mémoire européenne’
à l’analyse de l’européanisation de la ‘mémoire’ comme catégorie d’action,”
Sarah Gensburger and Marie-Claire Lavabre (eds.), 19–43.
208
●
209
83. See Philip Schlesinger, “Europeanness. A New Cultural Battlefield?” in
Nationalism, ed. J. Hutchinson and Anthony D. Smith (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1994), 316–325; Delanty, Inventing Europe and “Europe
and the Idea of ‘Unity in Diversity’”; Shore, Building Europe and “‘In uno
plures’ (?) EU Cultural Policy and the Governance of Europe”; Banus,
“Cultural Policy.”
84. Hartog, “Time and Heritage,” 13–14.
85. Nora, “Between Memory and History,” 14.
Culture, Education and Sport on the protection of architectural and archaeological heritage, Doc A 206/82, May 28, 1982, 11.
87. EP: Resolution proposed by Mr Fajardie on behalf of the Socialist Group on
European social heritage, OJEC C 068, March 14, 1983, 114.
88. EP: Debates of the European Parliament, Sitting of 10/02/1983, No. 1–294,
255–256.
89. Ibid., 256.
90. EP: Answer given by Mr Thorn on behalf of the Commission to the written question No. 342/83 by Mr Clinton on the projects funded by the
Commission for the preservation for historic buildings and sites, July 20,
1983, 2.
91. EP: Debates of the European Parliament, Sitting of February 10, 1983, No.
1–294, 257.
92. EP: Resolution proposed by Mr Fajardie on behalf of the Socialist Group
on European social heritage, OJEC C 068, March 14, 1983, 114 and EP:
Debates of the European Parliament, Sitting of February 10, 1983, No.
1–294. EP: Resolution proposed by Mr Arfé on behalf of the Socialist Group
on measures in favor of the minority languages and cultures, OJCE C 068
March 14, 1983,103.
93. Ibid., 256.
94. Ibid.
95. Ibid., 264.
96. Ibid., 260.
97. Ibid., 271.
98. Ibid.
99. Stefan Beck and Leonore Scholze-Irrlitz, “Devices of Difference. Remarks
on Ham, Bread, Lactobazilli, and Populations—or: Homo Europaeus as a
Carrier of Culture and Dispositions,” Lecture Series “The Construction of
the Homo Europaeus,” Centre for Advanced Study/University of Leipzig,
May 3, 2007.
100. Ibid., 11.
101. Project “Silesia, Pearl in the Crown of Bohemia” (November 1, 2005 to October
31, 2006) and project “Cultural Heritage—Identity—Dialogue: Perspectives
for Strategies to Preserve and Develop Cultural Regions at the Example of
the Euroregion Neisse-Nisa-Nysa” (July 1, 2005 to June 30, 2006) in Annual
Projects supported by the program Culture 2000. Taken from: http://ec.europa.
eu/culture/archive/culture2000/project_annuel/projects1_en.html.
Notes
●
Notes
102. Beck and Scholze-Irrlitz, “Devices of Difference,” 4.
103. CoR (1995) Opinion on the proposal for a European Parliament and Council
Decision establishing a Community action program in the field of the cultural heritage—Raphael CdR 302/95 OJEC C 100, April 2, 1996,19.
104. Shore, “‘In uno plures’ (?) EU Cultural Policy and the Governance of
Europe,” 18.
105. Project “Regional Culinary Heritage,” Combining small scale food production and culinary experience, INTERREG IIIC. Taken from: http://
www.interreg3c.net/sixcms/detail.php?id=3186 and European Network of
Regional Culinary Heritage, http://www.culinary-heritage.com/index.asp.
106. Jan Nederveen Pieterse, “Fictions of Europe,” Race and Class 32, no.
3(1991):3–10; Galtung (1994), 224; Delanty, Inventing Europe, 111; Shore,
Building Europe, 51; Shore, “‘In uno plures’ (?) EU Cultural Policy and the
Governance of Europe,” 18.
107. Delanty, Inventing Europe, 111.
108. EP: Resolution on European and international preservation of the sites of
Nazi concentration camps as historical memorials, February 11, 1993, OJEC
C 72, March 15, 1993, 118.
109. EP: Debates of the European Parliament, Sitting of February 11, 1993 “Nazi
Concentration Camps as Historical Memorials,” No. 3/427, 238.
110. Schuman Declaration of May 9, 1950. Taken from http://europa.eu/abc/
symbols/9-may/decl_en.htm
111. Fabrice Larat, “Present-ing the Past: Political Narratives on European
History and the Justification of EU Integration,” German Law Journal 6, no.
2–1(2005): 273–290.
112. EP: Debates of the European Parliament, Sitting of May 15, 1995 “Holocaust
Remembrance Day,” No. 4/464, 214.
113. Jean-Frédéric Schaub, “Les dangers d’une histoire ‘douce’ de l’Europe,”
online journal Études européennes, 3(December 2003). Available at http://
www.etudes-europeennes.eu/images/stories/Archives/3-6_Dangers_histoire_Europe_JF_Schaub.pdf
114. For recent studies on the place of the Holocaust in the EU’s self-representation,
see Waehrens, Anne, “Shared Memories? Politics of Memory and Holocaust
Remembrance in the European Parliament” 1989–2009 DIIS Working Paper,
June 2011; Annabelle Littoz-Monnet, “The EU Politics of Commemoration.
Can Europeans Remember Together?” West European Politics 35, no. 5(2012):
1182–1202; Annabelle Littoz-Monnet, “Explaining Policy Conflict across
Institutional Venues: EU-level Struggles over the Memory of the Holocaust,”
Journal of Common Market Studies, forthcoming.
115. EP: Debates of the European Parliament, Sitting of 15 May 1995, “Holocaust
Remembrance Day,” 213.
116. Ibid., 212.
117. EP: Debates of the European Parliament, Sitting of February 14, 1995, No.
4/464, 18.
210
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
●
211
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
CEC: Call for proposals for projects to preserve the sites of Nazi concentration camps as historical memorials (1999/C 27/09), OJEC, C 27, February 2,
1999, 24–26.
Council of the EU: Decision No. 792/2004/EC of the European Parliament
and of the Council of April 21, 2004 establishing a Community action
program to promote bodies active at European level in the field of culture,
OJEC, L138, April 30, 2004, 40–49.
Council of the EU: Decision No. 1904/2006/EC of the European Parliament
and the Council of 12 December establishing for the period 2007 to 2013
the program “Europe for Citizens” to promote active European citizenship,
OJEC L 378/32, December 27, 2006, 8–9.
Ibid.
Presentation of European Citizenship Program on the DG EAC website:
http://ec.europa.eu/citizenship/action4/index_en.html.
Project “Memoriali del XX secolo—vivere la storia” (October 1, 2000 to
October 31,2001) in Annual Projects supported by the program Culture
2000. Taken from: http://ec.europa.eu/culture/archive/culture2000/project_annuel/projects1_en.html, accessed on May 17, 2008.
Projects, “Les chemins de la mémoire” (October 1, 2001 to September 30,
2002), “Landscapes of War” (June 1, 2006 to May 31,2009) in Multiannual
Projects supported by the program Culture 2000. Taken from: http://
ec.europa.eu/culture/archive/culture2000/pluriannuel/projects2_en.html,
accessed on May 20, 2008.
Project “History Meeting House. The Twentieth-century Europe: The Faces of
Totalitarism” (May 9, 2004 to May 9, 2005) in Annual Projects supported by
the program Culture 2000. Taken from: http://ec.europa.eu/culture/archive/
culture2000/project_annuel/projects1_en.html, accessed on May 17, 2008.
Project “Hear Our Voice” (September 15, 2005 to September 14, 2006)
in Annual Projects supported by the program Culture 2000. Taken from:
http://ec.europa.eu/culture/archive/culture2000/project_annuel/projects1_
en.html, accessed on May 17, 2008.
Project “The Myth of Ritual Murder” (May 1, 2001 to May 1, 2002) in
Annual Projects supported by the program Culture 2000. Taken from:
http://ec.europa.eu/culture/archive/culture2000/project_annuel/projects1_
en.html, accessed on May 17, 2008.
Project “Jewish Culture is Part of European Identity” (May 15, 2005 to April
14, 2006) in Annual Projects supported by the program Culture 2000. Taken
from: http://ec.europa.eu/culture/archive/culture2000/project_annuel/projects1_en.html, accessed on May 17, 2008.
Project “The Romany/Gypsy Presence in the European Music” (May 1, 2004
to April 30, 2007) in Annual Projects supported by the program Culture
Notes
133.
134.
135.
136.
137.
138.
139.
140.
141.
●
Notes
2000. Taken from: http://ec.europa.eu/culture/archive/culture2000/project_annuel/projects1_en.html, accessed on May 17, 2008.
Projects “Rügen: Arbeit an der Zerstörung faschistischer Mythen” (July 1,
2004 to June 30, 2005) and “Prora- Organisation of Leisure in European
Fascism—Indoctrination, Control, War, Preparation” (July 1, 2005 to June
30, 2006) in Annual Projects supported by the program Culture 2000. Taken
Project “Leisure Time in Fascism. The Instrumentalization of Holiday”
(September 1, 2006 to August 31, 2007) in Annual Projects supported by
Project “History After the Fall: The Indeterminacy of the Short Twentieth
Century” (July 1, 2004 to December 31, 2006) in Multiannual Projects supported by the program Culture 2000. Taken from: http://ec.europa.eu/culture/archive/culture2000/pluriannuel/projects2_en.html, accessed on May
20, 2008.
Final Report on the Culture 2000 program “History After the Fall: The
Indeterminacy of the Short Twentieth-century Project,” 3. Taken from the
website of the Open Society Archives: www.osaarchivum.org/updates/2004/
projects/culture2000/Final_Report.pdf, accessed on May 22, 2008.
Ibid., 23–43.
Project “Overcoming Dictatorship—Encounters of Artists, Poets and
Writers” (November 1, 2006 to November 1, 2008) in Multiannual Projects
supported by the program Culture 2000. Taken from: http://ec.europa.eu/
culture/archive/culture2000/pluriannuel/projects2_en.html, accessed on
May 20, 2008.
Ibid.
Project “L’identità d’Europa nei luoghi degli esili” (May 1, 2001 to May 1,
2002) in Annual Projects supported by the program Culture 2000. Taken
Project “Leaving Europe for America—Early Emigrants Letter Stories”
(September 5, 2004 to September 4, 2005) in Annual Projects supported by
3
Designing Europeanness: Euro Banknotes and Coins
1. Eric Helleiner, The Making of National Money: Territorial Currencies in
Historical Perspective (Ithaca: Cornell University Press: 2003). Emily
Gilbert and Eric Helleiner (eds.) Nation-states and Money. Nation-States
and Money: The Past, Present and Future of National Currencies (London
and New York: Routledge, 1999). Eric Helleiner, “One Nation, One
212
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
●
213
Money: Territorial Currencies and the Nation State,” ARENA Working
Paper Series, 17 (1997).
Mabel Berezin, “Great Expectations. Ref lections on Identity and the
European Monetary Union,” in The Year of the Euro, ed. Robert Fishman
and Anthony Messina (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press,
2006), 97–107.
Jacques Santer, “L’état de l’Union.” Débat au Parlement européen,
Strasbourg, Union européenne, October 21, 1998.
Benjamin J. Cohen, The Geography of Money (Ithaca: Cornell University
Press, 1998), 13.
Santer, “L’état de l’Union.”
Romano Prodi, “Three Challenges facing Europe,” Speech at the United
Nations Council on Foreign Relations, January 11, 2002, available on
http://www.europa-eu-un.org/articles/en/article_1022_en.htm, seen on
November 15, 2010.
See the special issue of the journal Finance and Common Good 9 (Winter
2001/2002): Will the €uro Shape Europe? and in particular the articles
“The Euro as a Symbol of European Nationhood,” (4–23) by Emilio
Fontela, a member of different EC high level experts groups, “L’euro
et l’approfondissement de l’identité européenne,” (24–52) by Francis
Woehrling, then counsellor of the Commission’s Direction for Monetary
Affairs, and “L’euro, facteur de rapprochement des peuples européens?”
(69–91) by Benjamin Angel, Head of the “Euro Unit,” DG II.
(London: Routledge, 2000), 92–95.
See for instance Robert Fishman and Anthony Messina (eds.), The Year
of the Euro (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2006); Eric
Helleiner, “One Money, One People: Political Identity and the Euro,”
Working Paper, Trent International Political Economy Centre Working
Papers, 01/6, 2001; Thomas Risse, Daniela Engelmann-Martin, HansJoachim Knope, and Klaus Roscher, “To Euro or Not to Euro? The EMU
and Identity Politics in the European Union,” International Journal of
International Relations 5 (1999), 147–187.
The only exception is Jacques E. C. Hymans, “Money for Mars? The Euro
banknotes and European identity,” in The Year of the Euro, ed. Robert
Fishman and Anthony Messina (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame
Press, 2006), 15–36. However, Hymans limits his analysis to banknotes
and therefore leaves out an essential part of the issue: the selection of
the coins. Two unpublished academic theses deal, in a descriptive way,
with the selection process of banknotes and coins: Fabrice Amedeo, “La
dimension cachée de l’Euro. L’iconographie monétaire, lien entre citoyen
et vecteur symbolique d’identité Européenne?” (unpublished master thesis, Sciences Po Paris, 2003). Alicia P. Barker-Aguilar, “Iconography and
Identity: Constructing the Political Symbolism of the Euro” (unpublished
undergraduate thesis, Princeton University, 2003).
Notes
●
Notes
11. Éric Bussière, “Moves towards an economic and monetary policy,” in
The European Commission, 1958–72: History and Memories, ed. Michel
Dumoulin (Luxembourg: OPOCE, 2007), 391–410.
12. See Otmar Issing, The Birth of the Euro (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2008), 5–9; Éric Bussière, “Régionalisme monétaire et identité
européenne depuis le traité de Rome,” Relations internationales 3, no. 139
(2003): 25-36; Emmanuel Apel, European Monetary Integration, 1958–
2002 (London: Routeldge, 1998), 24–45 and 46–78; Ivo Maes, “Projets
d’intégration monétaire à la Commission européenne au tournant des
années 1970,” in Milieux économiques et intégration européenne au XXe siècle, ed. Eric Bussière, Michel Dumoulin, and Sylvain Schirmann (Brussels:
PIE-Peter Lang, 2006), 35–50.
13. Apel, European Monetary Integration, 46–78
14. These countries were: Austria, France, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands,
Luxembourg, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Ireland, and Finland.
15. Issing, The Birth of the Euro, 9–51; Apel, European Monetary Integration,
100–156.
16. Treaty on European Union, OJEC C 191, July 29, 1992, available on http://
eur-lex.europa.eu/en/treaties/dat/11992M/htm/11992M.html
17. Olivier Feiertag and Michel Margairaz (eds.), Politiques et pratiques des
banques d’ émission en Europe (XVIIe-XXe siècle): le bicentenaire de la Banque
de France dans la perspective de l’ identité monétaire européenne (Paris:
A. Michel, 2003); Thierry Vissol, “The Euro: Outcome and Element of
the European Identity,” YCIAS- European Studies Working Paper, Yale
University, May 2003.
18. Harold James, “Central Banks: Between Internationalization and Domestic
Political Control,” Paper for BIS conference, Bank for International
Settlements, June 2010, Working Paper No. 327.
19. Thierry Vissol’s personal archives (TVPA), The European Common
Coin Technical Meeting, Proceedings of the 1st Round Table Meeting
on “Technical Aspects of the European Common Coin,” Rome, February
25–27, 1991; and Roberto Mori, Un biglietto per l’Europa. La progettazione
della prima serie dibanconote europee (Milano: Bancaria Editrice, 2000),
19–20 and 25–26.
20. See Piet Clement, “Central Bank Networking at the Bank for International
Settlements, 1930s-1960s,” in Economic Networks and European Integration,
ed. Michel Dumoulin (Brussels: Peter Lang, 2004), 445–464; Youssef
Cassis, “La communauté des gouverneurs des banques centrales européennes depuis la fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale,” in Politiques et pratiques des banques d’ émission en Europe (XVIIe-XXe siècle): le bicentenaire
de la Banque de France dans la perspective de l’ identité monétaire européenne, ed. Olivier Feiertag and Michel Margairaz (Paris: A. Michel, 2003),
753–765.
21. James, “Central Banks,” 22–24.
214
●
215
22. Ibid., 24.
23. See below. Interview with Jean-Michel Dinand, by telephone, October 7,
2010, and interview with Thierry Vissol, Rome, November 26, 2010.
24. David R. Cameron, “Transnational Relations and the Development of
European Economic and Monetary Union,” in Bringing Transnational
Relations Back In. Non-state Actors, Domestic Structures and International
Institutions, ed. Thomas Risse-Kappen (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1995), 37–78.
25. Amy Verdun, “The Role of the Delors Committee in Creating EMU: An
Epistemic Community?” Journal of European Public Policy, 6, no. 2 (1999):
308–328, here pp. 312–313.
26. TVPA, Mandate for EU Mint Directors’ Working Group for the technical study of the European single coinage, Letter signed by Nigel Wicks,
Chairman of the Monetary Committee, February 20, 1994. See below for
a more detailed description of this process.
27. Vissol, “The Euro,” 13, interviews with Jean-Michel Dinand and Thierry
Vissol.
28. Token money is money made from tokens of some form, as opposed to
account money. Coins are token money, as are paper notes.
29. Matthias Kaelberer, “The Euro and European Identity: Symbols, Power
and the Politics Of European Monetary Union,” Review of International
Studies 30 (2004): 161–178, here 161.
30. J. Peter Burgess and Bo Stråth, “Money and Political Economy: From the
Werner Plan to the Delors Report and Beyond,” in From the Werner Plan
to the EMU: The Economic-Political Embedding of Labour Markets between
Europe and the Nation in Historical View, ed. Lars Magnusson and Bo
Stråth (Brussels: PIE Lang, 2001), 125–161, here 128–129.
31. Quoted in Helleiner, “One Money,” 2.
32. Georg Simmel, “The Metropolis and the Mental Life” (1903), reproduced
in Classical and Contemporary Sociological Theory: Text and Readings, ed.
Scott A. Appelrouth and Laura Desfor Edles (London: Sage, 2008), 265–
273, here 268.
33. Helleiner, “One Nation, One Money,” 12.
34. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and
Spread of Nationalism (London, Verso, 1983).
35. On this, see Emily Gilbert, “Forging a National Currency: Money, StateBuilding and Nation-Making in Canada,” in Gilbert and Helleiner (1999),
25–46; Emily Gilbert and Eric Helleiner, “Introduction—Nation-States
and Money: Historical Contexts, Interdisciplinary Perspectives,” in
Gilbert and Helleiner (1999), 1–21; and Marcia Pointon, “Money and
Nationalism,” in Imagining Nations, ed. Geoffrey Cubitt (Manchester and
New York: Manchester University Press, 1998), 229–254.
36. Georg Simmel, The Philosophy of Money (London: Routledge, 2004 [1978,
1990]), 178–179.
Notes
●
Notes
37. Ibid., 178.
38. Helleiner, “One Nation, One Money.”
39. Bruno Théret, “Une monnaie sans âme ni culture. L’euro en ses tristes
symboles,” Le Monde diplomatique (December 2001), 4–5, here 4.
40. Amy Verdun and Thomas Christiansen, “The Legitimacy of the Euro:
An Inverted Process?” Current Politics and Economics of Europe 10 (2001):
265–288, here 267.
41. Kaelberer, “The Euro and European Identity,” 162.
42. Ibid., 171.
43. This has hardly changed. The European currencies remained respectful
of these canons when the euro was introduced, with the sole exception
of the Netherlands, which chose abstract designs in 1999. See Jacques
E. C. Hymans, “The Changing Color of Money: European Currency
Iconography and Collective Identity,” European Journal of International
Relations 10, no. 1 (2004): 5–31.
44. Vissol, “The Euro,” 17.
45. In European legal documents acronyms are always translated in the various official languages. This was the case for the European Unit of Account
EUA. From 1979 on, that is, from the first regulation defining the “Ecu,”
it was no longer translated and this word was used as such in all official
languages, with an “s” for the plural form.
46. Carlo Curti Gialdino, I Simboli dell’Unione europea, Bandiera—Inno—
Motto—Moneta—Giornata (Rome: Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello
Stato, 2005), 138–143.
48. Jean Quatremer and Thomas Klau, Ces hommes qui ont fait l’euro. Querelles
et ambitions européennes (Paris: Plon, 1999), 269–273.
49. Curti Gialdino, I Simboli dell’Unione europea, 141. The discussions on
the name of the single European currency provoked substantial debate
throughout Europe. The European newspapers largely reported the debates
at the institutional levels. In 1995, the “Ecu Unit” of the DG II received
dozens of letters from European associations and individual citizens making their own proposals for the name of the currency. I consulted them in
Vissol’s archives. In an article of September 1995, the English magazine
The European explained that “letters poured into [their] offices from over
the globe,” from readers eager to share their own suggestions. See T. Patey,
“Readers Coin Names for New Currency,” The European, 21/September
27, 1995.
50. Vissol, “The Euro,” 18; Curti Gialdino, I Simboli dell’Unione europea,
143.
51. Quatremer and Klau, Ces hommes qui ont fait l’euro, 273; Curti Gialdino,
I Simboli dell’Unione europea, 143.
52. Bruno Fuligni, Le Feu follet de la République: Philibert Besson, député visionnaire et martyr (Paris: Guénégaud, 2000), 154–156.
216
●
217
53. Usually, the side of a coin with the larger scale image is called the
obverse, especially if the image is a single head. The reverse shows the
denomination.
54. Daniela Falcone, Eurogenerazione: una moneta per unire. Una proposta promossa dal Movimento federalista europeo (Rome: Cimer, 2001), 22–24.
55. Ibid.
56. See “Der erste Europa-Taler,” in Die Münze, 6/71, August 1971.
57. Virginia Hewitt, Beauty and the Banknote: Images of Women on Paper Money
(London: British Museum Press, 1994), 12.
58. “Les pièces en Ecus, 1987–1988,” Booklet published by the Royal Mint of
Belgium, 1999, 9.
59. A total of 2.5 million of these coins were put in circulation.
60. “Les pièces en Ecus, 1987–1988,” Booklet published by the Royal Mint of
Belgium, 1999, 9.
61. Claude Feldmann, Jetons d’ écus et d’euros à travers l’Europe (1987–1998)
(Paris: Colla, 1998), 19–23.
62. Olivier Ménard, “La souveraineté monétaire, un mythe face au localisme
monétaire,” Economies et Sociétés Série “Monnaie,” 3/4 (2002), 45–61 and
Jérome Blanc, Les monnaies parallèles. Unité et diversité du fait monétaire
(Paris: L’Harmattan, 2000).
63. Claude Feldmann, Les écus et euros temporaires des villes de France 1991/1998
(Metz: Florange, 1999).
64. Ménard, “La souveraineté monétaire,” 58 and interview with Thierry
Vissol.
65. Feldmann, Les écus et euros temporaires, 29
66. Ibid, 75.
67. Sylvia Bourdon, Le sceau de l’ infamie (Paris: Blanche, 2001), 47–55;
“Le témoignage de Sylvia Bourdon,” in L’Express on line, November 15,
2001:
http://www.lexpress.fr/actualite/economie/le-temoignage-de-sylvia-bourdon_494097.html, and Interview with Sylvia Bourdon, Paris,
December 28, 2010.
68. She received a total of 500,000 francs—circa 76,000 Ecu: 200,000 francs
from the Minister of Foreign Affairs, 150,000 francs from the Minister of
the Budget and 100,000 from the Minister of Culture. Sylvia Bourdon’s
private archives (SBPA): Booklet published by the association “Compétition
Graphique pour l’Ecu,” 1997, 4.
69. Sylvia Bourdon’s archives contain letters received from the various different European central bankers and ministers, who answered letters
she had sent to them in 1991. The letters that I consulted, all received
in 1991, were from the following governors of central banks: Karl-Otto
Pöhl, Jacques Larosière, Carlo Ciampi, Wim Duisenberg, Erik Hoffmeyer,
Alfons Aerplaeste, Mariano Rubio, Demetrios Chalikias, and José Alberto
Tavares Moreira; and from the following ministers: Jean-Claude Junker,
Wim Kok, Pierre Beregovoy, Uffe Ellemann-Jensen, Carlos Solchaga,
Notes
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
●
Notes
Antonio Barroso, Philippe Maystadt, H. van den Broeck, and E. N.
Christodoulou.
SBPA: Letter from Erik Hoffmeyer to Sylvia Bourdon, July 17, 1992 and
letter from Robin Leigh-Pemberton to Sylvia Bourdon, September 1,
1992.
SBPA: Letter from Robin Leigh-Pemberton to Sylvia Bourdon, September 1,
1992.
Interview with Sylvia Bourdon, Paris, December 28, 2010.
SBPA: Vertrag zwischen der Assoziation “La Compétition Graphique pour
l’Ecu”/“The Graphic Ecu Competition” vertreten durch ihre Präsidentin
Frau Sylvia Bourdon einerseits und der Firma Giesecke and Devrient
GmbH, vetreten durch die Geschätsführer Herrn Manfren Beck and
Tillman Otto anderseits, Munich, July 24, 1992.
SBPA: letter from Helmut Schlesinger to Sylvia Bourdon, August 7, 1992.
SPBA: Vereinbarung zwischen der Assoziation “La Compétition Graphique
pour l’Ecu”/“The Graphic Ecu Competition” vertreten durch ihre
Präsidentin Frau Sylvia Bourdon einerseits und der Firma Giesecke and
Devrient GmbH, vetreten durch die Geschätsführer Herrn Manfren Beck
and Tillman Otto anderseits, Munich, September 18, 1992.
In 1992, Thierry Vissol assisted for the DG II at the meetings of the
Committee of Governors in Basel. He recalls very clearly that the “case
Bourdon” was tackled in the second half of 1992, during which the latter’s project and her personality were discussed. It was at the end of this
meeting that the issue was definitely settled: the central banks could by no
means sustain Bourdon’s project. Bourdon was subsequently informed of
this meeting by Vissol himself. (Interviews with Thierry Vissol and Sylvia
Bourdon).
SBPA: Letter from Egon Klepsch to Sylvia Bourdon, April 12, 1992.
SBPA: “Rede des Präsidenten des Europäischen Parlaments, Dr. Egon A.
Klepsch, anlälßich der Präsentation des Ecu-Wettbewerbs, den 4. Mai
1994 in Straßburg.”
SBPA: Letter from Jacques Delors to Sylvia Bourdon, June 20, 1992.
Interview with Thierry Vissol.
Archive and Documentation Centre of the EP (CARDOC): Note du
secrétaire Général du Parlement européen, Enrico Vinci, à l’attention des
Membres du Bureau du Parlement européen: “La Compétition Graphique
pour l’Ecu,” August 1, 1995. PE4 OD PV/BURE BURE-19951009 0150.
For the European Commission, the “Ecu Unit” of the DG II attributed
the subventions. Thierry Vissol himself was in charge of the management
of the subvention (Interview with Thierry Vissol). In 1993, the project
also received a 50,000 Ecu donation from Europay International, the company that owned the Eurocard/Mastercard system (Letter from Mark van
Wauwe, Secretary General of Europay International, to Sylvia Bourdon,
February 12, 1993).
218
●
219
82. SBPA: Booklet published by the association: “Compétition Graphique
pour l’Ecu, Invitation à participation. Concours de graphic-design pour la
conception des billets et pièces libellés en écus,” 1993, 3.
83. Ibid., 2.
84. CARDOC: Speech of Mr. Bouke Beumer President of the Economic and
Monetary Affairs Committee of the European Parliament during the
launching of the Graphic Ecu Competition, April 9, 1993 in Paris. PE4
OD PV/BURE BURE-19951009 0150.
85. SBPA: Letter from Wim Duisenberg to Sylvia Bourdon, November 9, 1993.
86. SBPA: Letter from Jean-Claude Trichet to Sylvia Bourdon, November 8,
1993.
87. SBPA: Letter from Hans Tietmeyer to Sylvia Bourdon, November 22, 1993.
88. SBPA: Booklet published by the association “Compétition Graphique pour
l’Ecu,” 4. It is Icograda, the International Council of Graphic Design
Associations, which organized the selection of the designs by the national
and European juries.
89. SBPA: “Rede des Präsidenten des Europäischen Parlaments, Dr. Egon A.
Klepsch, anlälßich der Präsentation des Ecu-Wettbewerbs, den 4. Mai
1994 in Straßburg.”
90. Interview with Sylvia Bourdon, Paris, December 28, 2010.
91. In most cases, access to the general public was sought through TV magazines, such as the French Télé 7 jours. General magazines such as the Italian
Famiglia Cristiana, the most popular weekly publication in Italy, were also
included, as was Die Welt am Sonntag in Germany, the Irish Times, or The
European in the United Kingdom. SBPA: Booklet “Compétition Graphique
pour l’Ecu” (1997): “Popular EU magazines partners in the Graphic Ecu
Competition public poll,” 6 “and Economical magazines partners in the
referendum for the “Graphic Ecu Competition,” 7. Issues of the magazines
and newspapers in which the competition was presented are conserved in
Sylvia Bourdon’s archives.
92. Respectively in the daily left-wing newspaper Klassekampen, in Gazeta
Bankowa and in the Schweizer Handelszeitung, ibid.
93. SBPA: Booklet “Compétition Graphique pour l’Ecu,” 8.
94. SBPA: “Référundum pour l’Ecu: choisissez le futur billet européen,” in Le
Nouvel Economiste, 3/December 9, 1994.
95. “Folkeafstemning om ECU’en: Du kan vælge designet for de fremtidige
europæiske sedler og mønter,” Se og Hør, April 10, 1995.
96. SBPA: Booklet “Compétition Graphique pour l’Ecu” (1997), 8. The same
figure also appears in the press articles dedicated to the competition. No
document establishing the exact participation for each magazine or newspaper could be found in the archives. The only exception is Die Welt am
Sonntag that declared that 20,000 of its readers participated in the vote.
SBPA: “Euro: Bürger sollen Münzen auswählen,” Die Welt am Sonntag,
January 11, 1997
Notes
●
Notes
97. SBPA: Booklet “Compétition Graphique pour l’Ecu” (1997), 10–11 and
“Sterne und ein Stier: So stellen sich Europas Bürger ihr neues Euro Geld,”
Die Welt am Sonntag, July 21, 1996.
98. SBPA: Gérard, Gachet “Monnaie unique: un test pour la citoyenneté européenne,” Le Figaro, April 12, 1995; Chavelet, Elisabeth “Les plus grands
créateurs vont dessiner la nouvelle monnaie,” Paris Match, January 7, 1993;
Ulderico Munzi, “Sylvia Bourdon lancia, fra molte polemiche, un concorso
internazionale per l’effigie della nuova moneta europea,” Corriere della Sera,
February 10, 1993; Nathalie Dubois, “Elle vole au secours de la monnaie
européenne: Bourdon, la Pasionaria non grata,” Libération, February 5,
1993.
99. SBPA: Nathaniel C. Nash, “Europe can’t decide what to put in its wallet,”
The New York Times, July 11, 1995.
100. Wolfgang Proissl, “Référundum pour l’Ecu,” Le Monde, July, 12/13, 1994.
101. SBPA: Charles Goldsmith, “EU Creeps Ahead on Monetary Union on
Stealth Panel,” The Wall Street Journal, 2/December 3, 1994.
102. Nash, “Europe can’t decide.”
103. SBPA: Booklet “Compétition Graphique pour l’Ecu” (1997), 15–16.
104. SBPA: Letter from Xavier Lanaurdie-Eiffel to Sylvia Bourdon, June 4,
1996.
105. Interview with Sylvia Bourdon, Paris, December 28, 2010.
106. SBPA: Gérard Gachet, “Billets en Euro: le concours oublié,” Le Figaro,
December 18, 1996; Wolfgang Proissl, “Europa zum Anfassen.” Wie
Alternativemtwürfe für den Euro vergessen wurden,” Die Zeit, January 17,
1997; Joaquin Luna, “El euro inutil,” La Vanguardia, December 21, 1996;
Octavi Martì, “Crìticas al euro,” El Pais, December 22, 1996, R. L., “Euro:
dessins et contours à revoir,” Libération, 15/February 17, 1997, Hilary Clarke,
“Bankers take no note of winners,” The European, July 25–31, 1996; Henri
Pagot, “Slagen till slant,” Svenska Dagbladet, December 20,1996.
107. SBPA: Wolfgand Proissl, “Europa zum Anfassen,” op.cit.
108. Mori, Un biglietto per l’Europa, 25–26.
109. Ibid., 27.
110. Ibid., 25 and interviews with Thierry Vissol and Jean-Michel Dinand.
111. Interview with Jean-Michel Dinand and interview with Thierry Vissol.
112. Mori, Un biglietto per l’Europa, 27.
113. Interview with Jean-Michel Dinand.
114. HAEU: Interview of Alexandre Lamfalussy by Michel Dumoulin, February
15, 1999, 11–12, available at http://www.arc.eui.eu/int/bin/CreaInt.
asp?rc=INT621, seen on September 11, 2010.
116. Ibid., 19.
117. Ibid., 47–49.
118. Hymans, “Money for Mars?” 27.
220
●
221
120. Ibid., 41–42.
121. Ibid., 43.
122. Charles Bremner and Philip Webster, “Queen’s Head Banned from Euro
Notes,” The Times, September 23, 1998.
123. In a press release of September 12, 1998, ECB announced that its Governing
Council had decided that there would be no national feature on the euro
banknotes. The ECB considered indeed that such symbols would be inconvenient, confusing, and make forgery easier: http://www.ecb.int/press/pr/
date/1998/html/pr980912_4.en.html, consulted on December 23, 2010.
124. Mori, Un biglietto per l’Europa, 41 and interviews with Thierry Vissol and
Jean-Michel Dinand.
125. Interview with Thierry Vissol.
126. European Central Bank, Press and Information Division (ECBPI): “Interim
Report to the European Monetary Institute’s Working Group on Printing and
Issuing a European banknote on the selection of a theme for the European
banknote series by the Theme Selection Advisory Group,” May 1995, 3.
127. I conducted interviews by telephone with five members of the group.
128. ECBPI: “Interim Report on the selection of a theme” op.cit, Annex 1: List of
the members of the advisory group, 11–12.
130. ECBPI: “Interim Report on the selection of a theme,” 4.
131. Interview with the German expert of the TSAG, by telephone, November 10,
2010.
132. ECBPI: “Interim Report on the selection of a theme,” 4. They based their
evaluation on the results of a recent Eurobarometers which revealed that 86
percent of the Europeans considered the European flag as the most familiar
European symbol.
133. ECBPI: “Interim Report on the selection of a theme,” 4.
134. Ibid., 5.
135. Ibid., 8
136. Ibid.
137. Ibid., 9.
138. Interview with the German expert of the TSAG.
140. ECBPI: “Interim Report on the selection of a theme,” Annex 2, “Themes
titles and contents,” 13–15.
141. Ibid.
142. ECBPI: “Selection of design features: Report of the Feature Selection
Advisory Group to the European Monetary Institute’s Working Group on
Printing and Issuing a European banknote,” October 1995, 6.
143. The seven “ages and styles” are: classical, Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance,
baroque and rococo, Iron and Glass, modern architecture.
144. ECBPI: “Selection of Design Features . . .” op.cit., 9.
145. Ibid. 8.
Notes
●
Notes
146. Interview with the German expert of the TSAG.
147. European Central Bank, How the Euro became Our Money. A Short History of
the Euro Banknotes and Coins, European Central Bank, 2007, 28.
148. ECB, “Euro Banknote Design Exhibition,” 2003. This booklet reproduced
each of the design proposals submitted to the competition.
149. Ibid.
150. Ibid., 78.
151. Ibid., 5.
152. ECB, How the Euro became Our Money, 23.
153. Hymans, “Money for Mars?” 30–31
154. EOS Gallup (1996) “Euro banknotes test—Results and comments—Final
report.” December 6. I obtained a copy of this report from the ECB Press
and Information Division.
155. Ibid., 45.
156. Ibid., 36–37.
157. Ibid., 29–33.
158. Ibid., 29.
159. Ibid., 47.
161. Alexandre Lamfalussy quoted in Hymans, “Money for Mars?” 33.
162. Interview of Alexandre Lamfalussy by Michel Dumoulin, February 15, 1999,
17.
163. Ibid.
164. Jon Schmid, “Etching the Notes of a New European Identity,” International
Herald Tribune, July 3, 2001.
166. Interview of Robert Kalina by Fabrice Amedeo in Amedeo, La dimension
cachée de l’Euro, Annex, VI.
169. Gerard Delanty and Paul R. Jones, “Europe, Post-national Identities and
Architecture,” in Museum Europa: The European Cultural Heritage between
Economics and Politics, ed. J. Peter Burgess (Kristiansand: Norwegian
Academic Press, 2002), 193–206, here 197.
170. Théret, “Une monnaie sans âme ni culture,” 4.
171. Gérard Bossuat, “L’Union économique et monétaire, un défi pour l’identité
européenne,” Conférence à la Maison Franco Japonaise, le Septembre 25,
2009, Working paper—Série C: Conférences, 9.
172. Monica Sassatelli, “Bridges and Doors: Euro-aesthetics and European
Identity,” in Museum Europa: The European Cultural Heritage between
Economics and Politics, ed. Peter J. Burgess (Kristiansand: Norwegian
Academic Press, 2002), 207–229, here 214.
173. Ibid., 218.
174. Hymans, “Money for Mars?”
175. Ibid., 24–25.
222
●
223
176. Ibid., 35.
177. Ibid., 31.
178. Interview of Alexandre Lamfalussy by Michel Dumoulin, February 15,
1999, 17.
179. Hymans, “Money for Mars?” 29.
181. Quoted in Hymans, “Money for Mars?” 29.
182. http://www.new-euro-banknotes.eu/Europa-Series/The-Myth-of-Europa
183. Shore, Building Europe, 113–114.
184. EP, Report drawn up by Mr. Rubert de Ventos on behalf of the Committee
on Youth, Culture, Education, and Sport on the Conservation of the
Community’s architectural and archaeological heritage, Doc. A2 192–188,
September 28, 1988, 15.
185. Hartog (2005), 15.
186. François Hartog, Régimes d’ historicité. Présentisme et expériences du temps
(Paris: Le Seuil, 2003), 131.
187. Théret, “Une monnaie sans âme ni culture,” 4.
188. J. Peter Burgess, “Simmel and the Federalist Vision: Between Cultural and
Economic Value,” in Globalisierung der Öffentlichkeit? ed. Jean-Christophe
Merle (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2005), 619–629, here 625–626.
189. Quoted in Hymans, “Money for Mars?” 23.
190. TVPA: The European Common Coin Technical Meeting, Proceedings
of the 1st Round Table Meeting on “Technical Aspects of the European
Common Coin,” Rome, February 25–27, 1991.
191. TVPA: Ephraim Marquer, “L’Ecu en poche? Reflections sur la méthode de
remplacement des monnaies nationales par des pièces en Ecu,” in Economic
Papers, European Commission, Directorate-General for Financial and
Economic Affairs, N° 97, October 1992.
192. Interview with Thierry Vissol.
193. TVPA: Mandate for EU Mint Director’s Working Group for the technical study of the European single coinage, Letter signed by Nigel Wicks,
Chairman of the Monetary Committee, February 20, 1994.
194. TVPA: Further Mandate for EU Mint Director’s Working Group for the
Technical Study of the European Single Coinage, 4.
195. TVPA: Report of the Working Group of the Mint Directors for the Technical
Study of the European Coinage System, “The Selection of a Theme for the
European Coin Series,” Brussels, May 31, 1995.
196. TVPA: “Mint Director’s Working Group for the Technical Study of the
European Single Coinage—Technical Requirement for the European coin
competition—Report,” November 24, 1995, 11.
197. Ibid.
199. Ibid. The Constitution of Belgium precisely states that coins must bear
the portrait of the Belgian Monarch. Due to the devolution policy
existing in favor of the regions (Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels), any
Notes
200.
201.
202.
203.
204.
205.
206.
207.
208.
209.
210.
211.
212.
213.
214.
215.
●
Notes
discussion bearing on the Constitution’s content would have been extremely
problematic.
Ibid.
Interview with Thierry Vissol.
TVPA: Letter from Nigel Wicks, Secretary of the Monetary Committee
to Nicola Ielpo, President of Mint Directors Permanent Committee,
“Launching of the design competition for coins,” the Working Group for
Technical Study of European Coinage System, April 18, 1995.
ECB, How the Euro became Our Money, 28. There were only 36 entries
because some countries presented only one design set instead of the three
originally demanded.
ECB, How the Euro became Our Money, 28.
Vissol, “The Euro,” 22.
Ibid.
Ibid.
See, for instance, Stephen Daniels, “Mapping National Identities: The
Culture of Cartography,” in Imagining Nations, ed. Geoffrey Cubitt
(Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1998), 112–131;
J. B. Harley, “Deconstructing the Map” in Writing worlds. Discourse, Text
and Metaphor in the Representation of Landscape, ed. Trevor S. Barnes and
James S. Duncan (London: Routledge, 1992), 231–247.
Pauliina Raento, Anna Hämäläinen, Hanna Ikonen, and Nella Mikkonen,
“Striking Stories: A Political Geography of Euro Coinage,” Political Geography
23 (2004): 929–956.
The official documents and the draft designs proposed by the European
Commission were communicated to the Italian MEPs Marco Cappato and
Marco Pannella. Flavien Deltort, who was then Cappato’s assistant, passed
them on to me. See Marco Cappato, Flavien Deltort, and Marco Pannella,
“Quand la Turquie est effacée de l’Europe,” Les Echos 16, no. 1 (2008), 56
and Letter from Benjamin Angel, Head of Unit “Legal and Institutional
Questions of EMU; Practical Aspects of EMU,” to Marco Cappato,
September 11, 2007.
Council, Press Release, 2666th meeting of the Economic and Financial
Affairs Council in Luxembourg on June 7, 2005, available on: http://europa.
eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=PRES/05/124&format=HTML
&aged=1&language=EN&guiLanguage=en, , consulted on September 20,
2010.
Quoted in Bounds, Andrew, “EU states wipe Turkey off euro coin map,”
Financial Times, September 25, 2007.
Nicolas Sarkozy, “A New French Vision for Tomorrow’s Europe,” Speech held
in Brussels on September 8, 2006, 5–7, available on www.robert-schuman.eu/
actualite/bruxelles/discours8sept.pdf, consulted on September 20, 2010.
Amedeo, La dimension cachée de l’Euro, 32–33.
Roberto Bagnoli and Aldo Grasso, “Un euro sotto il segno di Leonardo,”
Corriere della Sera, February 9, 1998.
224
●
225
216. The information on the selection process of the coins can be found on official websites created for the introduction of the euro or on the website of the
national central banks of the respective countries. For Slovenia: http://www.
evro.si/en/slo-and-euro/slovene-euro-coins/; For Slovakia: http://www.nbs.
sk/en/banknotes-and-coins/euro-coins/origins-of-slovak-euro-coins/information-on-the-results-of-the-anonymous-public-tender-for-the-art-designof-the-slovak-sides-o, http://www.nbs.sk/en/banknotes-and-coins/euro-coins/
origins-of-slovak-euro-coins/public-survey-on-the-art-designs-for-the-slovaksides-of-euro-coins; For Estonia: http://www.estonian-euro.com/Competition.
htm; For Malta: http://eurocoinscollectionmalta.freehostia.com/; For Cyprus:
http://www.centralbank.gov.cy/nqcontent.cfm?a_id=2859&lang=en
217. Bagnoli and Grasso, “Un euro sotto il segno di Leonardo.”
218. Available on the ECB official website: http://www.ecb.int/euro/coins/2euro/
html/index.en.html, consulted on September 10, 2010.
A Press and Information official from the ECB confirmed that the description of the designs submitted by the national governments has not undergone any modification since they were put online.
219. See http://www.ecb.int/euro/coins/5cents/html/index.en.html, consulted on
September 10, 2010.
220. See http://www.ecb.int/euro/coins/5cents/html/index.en.html
221. See http://www.ecb.int/euro/coins/2euro/html/index.en.html
222. Ibid.
223. Amedeo, La dimension cachée de l’Euro, Annex, XLIII.
225. Delanty and Jones “Europe, Post-national Identities and Architecture,” 197.
228. “Causa Fürstenstein: Resolution an Österreichische Bundesregierung einstimmig beschlossen, LH Haider, LHStv.” Ambrozy: Republik Slowenien soll
Abstand davon nehmen, Kärntner Fürstenstein auf Zwei-Cent-Münzen zu
prägen, October 25, 2005, official website of the Kärntner Landesregierung,
http://www.ktn.gv.at/144284_DE-?newsid=11129&search144288,
consulted on September 10, 2010.
“Fürstenstein: “Protest nicht ernst zu nehmen’ sagt Rupel,” October 27,
2005, website of the Austrian public radio ORF: http://oesterreich.orf.at/
kaernten/stories/66657/. Most of the information on this affair was found on
this website, consulted on September 10, 2010.
229. See Peter Štih, “Suche nach der Geschichte, oder Wie der karantanische
Fürstenstein das Nationalsymbol der Slowenen geworden ist,” October 30,
2006 in slo.at—Informationsportal der Kärntner Slowenen, http://www.
slo.at/zso/wissenschaft_de_more.php?id=953_0_36_0_M, consulted on
September 10, 2010.
230. “Aussenministerin Plassnik Fürstenstein-Streit ein ‘Sturm im Wasserglas,’”
December 14, 2007, ORF website, http://kaernten.orf.at/stories/242974/,
consulted on September 10, 2010.
Notes
226
●
Notes
Conclusion
1. Jan Ifversen, “Myth in the Writing of European History,” in Nationalizing
the Past. Historians as Nation Builders in Modern Europe, Berger Stefan
and Chris Lorenz (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 453–479, here
461.
2. Marc Abélès, En attente d’Europe (Paris: Hachette, 1996), 56.
3. François Hartog, Régimes d’ historicité. Présentisme et expériences du temps
(Paris: Le Seuil, 2003).
4. Pierre Nora, “Between Memory and History: les Lieux de Mémoire,”
Representations 26 (1989), 11.
5. Yves Déloye, “Socio-histoire,” in Science politique de l’Union européenne,
ed. Céline Belot, Paul Magnette, and Sabine Saurugger (Paris: Economica,
2008), 133–152, here 143.
6. See the selected projects on the website of the Commission’s Executive
Agency Education, Audiovisual and Culture (EACEA): http://eacea.
ec.europa.eu/culture/results_compendia/results_en.php, consulted on
August 3, 2011.
7. The selected projects are also available on the EACEA website: http://eacea.
ec.europa.eu/citizenship/results_compendia/results_en.php, consulted on
August 3, 2011.
8. See for example the activities of the MEPs’ group “Reconciliation of
European Histories” on the blog: http://eureconciliation.wordpress.com/,
consulted on August 3, 2011.
9. The project was approved by the EP Bureau on December 16, 2008. See
the “Conceptual Basis of a House of European History” on http://eureconciliation.wordpress.com/2010/05/20/documents-and-information-regarding-the-house-of-european-history-project/, consulted on August 3, 2011.
10. Quoted in Laura Cram, “Governance ‘to Go’: Domestic Actors, Institutions
and the Boundaries of the Possible,” Journal of Common Market Studies 39,
no. 4 (2001): 595–618, here 596.
11. Quoted in Ibid.
12. Ibid., 597.
13. Eberlein Burkard and Dieter Kerwer, “New Governance in the European
Union: A Theoretical Perspective,” Journal of Common Market Studies 42,
no. 1 (2004): 121–142, here 124.
231. “Das Fürstenstein für Dimitrij Rupel: Symbol der grenzüberschreitenden
Arbeit,” October 27, 2005, ORF website, http://oesterreich.orf.at/kaernten/
stories/66657/, consulted on September 10, 2010.
232. Ibid.
233. For an interesting development on this, see Matthias Kaelberer, “Deutschmark
Nationalism and Europeanized Identity: Exploring Identity Aspects of
Germany’s Adoption of the Euro,” German Politics 14, no. 3 (September
2005), 283–296.
Notes
●
227
14. For a further example, see Oriane Calligaro, “Florence European Capital
of Culture 1986 and the Legitimization of an EEC Cultural Policy” in
The Cultural Politics of Europe. European Capitals of Culture and European
Union since the 1980s, K. K. Patel (ed.), UACES Contemporary European
Studies (London, Routledge, 2012), 95–113.

Negotiating Europe

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