INTERCONEXIUNEA PARADIGMELOR DIDACTICE ŞI

Universitatea Liberă Internaţională din Moldova
Facultatea Limbi Străine şi Ştiinţe ale Comunicării
Institutul de Cercetări Filologice şi Interculturale
INTERCONEXIUNEA PARADIGMELOR
DIDACTICE ŞI METODOLOGICE
ÎN PREDAREA LIMBILOR STRĂINE
Materialele Seminarului metodologic
cu participare internaţională
din 25 ianuarie 2011
Chişinău, 2011
Director publicaţie: Ludmila HOMETKOVSKI, dr. conf. univ. ad-interim
Coordonator: Elena PRUS, dr. hab. prof. univ.
Redactor-şef: Inga STOIANOVA, dr. conf. univ.
Redacţie: Ana MIHALACHE, dr. conf. univ.
Zinaida RADU, dr. conf. univ.
Zinovia ZUBCU, dr. conf. univ.
Margarita DAVER, dr. hab. conf. univ.
Machetare: Andrei BOLFOSU, lector, master
Volumul a fost recomandat spre publicare de Senatul ULIM
/ proces verbal nr. 6 din 25 mai 2011/
"Interconexiunea paradigmelor didactice şi metodologice în predarea
limbilor străine", seminar metodologic (2011 ; Chişinău). Interconexiunea
paradigmelor didactice şi metodologice în predarea limbilor străine :
Materialele Seminarului metodologic cu participare intern. din 25 ian. 2011
/ dir. publ.: Ludmila Hometkovski ; coord.: Elena Prus ; red.-şef: Inga
Stoianova. – Ch. : ULIM, 2011. – 302 p. Antetit.: Univ. Liberă Intern. din
Moldova, Fac. Lb. Străine şi Ştiinţe ale Comunic., Inst. de Cercetări
Filologice şi Interculturale. – Bibliogr. la sfârşitul art. – 100 ex.
ISBN 978-9975-101-76-9.37.016:811'243(082)
I-58
©ULIM, 2011
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CUPRINS
Natalia Azmanova, ULIM, R. Moldova. Introducing the New
Technologies into the Studying Process..............................................
Natalia Bejenuţă, ULIM, R. Moldova. Ilustrarea aspectelor
metodologice fundamentale vizînd organizarea activităţii de predare
a deprinderilor de scriere.....................................................................
Е. Н. Беляева, Украинская Медицинская Стоматологическая
Академия, г. Полтава, Украина. Функционирование терминов
«компетенция» и «компетентность» в современном научном
дискурсе...............................................................................................
Andrei Bolfosu, ULIM, R. Moldova. Enseigner le Français aux
anglophones..........................................................................................
Zinaida Cameneva, ULIM, R. Moldova. The Role of Translation in
the Contrastive Studies…………………………………………………
Eleonora Cheibaş, ULIM, R. Moldova. Unele metode interactive
de lucru.................................................................................................
Alexei Chirdeachin, ULIM, R. Moldova. Consideraţiuni cu privire
la prognozarea didactică în cadrul predării limbilor străine..............
Valentin Cijacovschi, ULIM, Vladimir Procopciuc, TUM, R.
Moldova. Engineering linguistics........................................................
Valentina Ciumacenco, ULIM, R. Moldova. Utilizarea
terminologiei politice de origine engleză în limba română actuală
Ina Colenciuc, ULIM, R. Moldova. Teaching and Developing
Vocabulary............................................................................................
Ольга Димо, УЛИМ, Р. Молдова. Мир животных в идиомах
делового английского..........................................................................
Tatiana Griţac, ULIM, R. Moldova. Teaching a Foreign Language
in a Polycultural World........................................................................
Inga Guscova, ULIM, R. Moldova. Humanistic Approach to
Language Teaching..............................................................................
Natalia Hanbecova, MSU, Zinaida Cameneva, ULIM, Nadejda
Eşanu, MSU, R. Moldova. The Conceptualization of the National
World Picture by Means of Internet.....................................................
Ludmila Hometkovski, ULIM, R. Moldova. Utilitatea produselor
terminografice informatizate în procesul de predare-învăţare la
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34
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51
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facultăţile de limbi străine (Cazul ITeC).............................................
В. Г. Костенко, И. Н. Сологор, И. В. Знаменская, Украинская
Медицинская Стоматологическая Академия, г. Полтава,
Украина.
ESP: Способы формирования иноязычной
коммуникативной компетенции у студентов-медиков.................
Ю. Г. Кривотуров, УЛИМ, Р. Молдова. Некоторые
композиционно-содержательные
особенности
урока
иностранного языка (нейропсихолингвистический аспект)……...
Б. И. Лабинская, Национальный университет им. Ю.
Федковича, Черновцы, Украина. Грамматико–переводной
метод обучения иностранных языков в Западной Украине (1867
– 1890 гг.)……………………………………………………………………
Raluca Lăpădat, Drobeta Turnu Severin, Roumanie. Le rôle du
documentaliste dans la politique documentaire de l’école..................
Raluca Lăpădat, Drobeta Turnu Severin, Roumanie. Quand la
gastronomie entre dans la classe de FLE ............................................
Viorica Lifari, MSU, R. Moldova. Emotions and Their Expression
in Dyadic Communication....................................................................
Aliona Lisnic, ULIM, R. Moldau. Hörverstehen. Lerntechniken im
Fremdsprachenuntferricht. Prűfungen.................................................
Ion Manoli, ULIM, R.Moldova. La ponctuation de la langue
française : Histoire. Tradition. Modernisme. La place et l’importance de
la ponctuation française dans le processus de l’enseignement à la
Faculté des Langues Etrangères et Science de la Communication,
ULIM.....................................................................................................
Tamara Matei, Ludmila Pricepa, MSU, R. Moldova. Enhancing
Fluency through Communicative Activities..........................................
Fabian Mayr, Austria. On Sociolinguistics and Transculturality.
Neoliberal Profit Maximisation or Developing through another?.......
Dumitru Melenciuc, MSU, R. Moldova. Semantic Evolution of
Lexemes in Cognate Languages...........................................................
Ana Mihalachi, ULIM, R.Moldova. Testarea – o metodă eficientă
de certificare a competenţelor comunicative........................................
I. S. Muradkhanian, Yuriy Fedkovych Chernivtsi National
University, Ukraine. Language Class and Creative Games.............
Rodica Neculce, Diana Starodub, ULIM, R.Moldova. Ways of
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Making Upper-Level University English Classes More Interactive.....
Alexander D. Oguy, Die Nationale Universität „ Yurii Fedkovici”
aus Czernowitz, Ukraine. Kontrastive Lexicologie: Das Neue
Lehrbuch...............................................................................................
Olga Pascari, ULIM, R.Moldova. Difficulties Involved in Teaching
Idioms to EFL Students…………………………………………………….
Rodica Rivenco, ULIM, R. Moldova. Creativitatea în pedagogie....
Rodica Rivenco, ULIM, R.Moldova. Procedures of Teaching the
Etymology of Computer Science Terminology.....................................
Ghenadie Râbacov, ULIM, R.Moldova. Paradigmele educaţionale
vazute prin prisma NTIC .....................................................................
Александра Русу, УЛИМ, Р. Молдова. Использование
компьютерных технологий при обучении лексике на уроках
иностранного языка...........................................................................
Светлана Сaракуца, УЛИМ, Р. Молдова. Профессиональноориентированноe обучениe иноязычной письменной речи
студентов неязыкового факультета…………………………………
Diana Starodub, Rodica Neculce, ULIM, R. Moldova. Rolul
creativităţii în procesul de predare/învăţare a limbilor străine...........
Inga Stoyanova, ULIM, R. Moldova. Warmers at the Lesson of
English...................................................................................................
Lilia Strugari, Zinaida Radu, ULIM, R. Moldova. Audiovizualul în
predarea limbii străine..........................................................................
С. К. Сулак, Комратский Госуниверситет, Р. Молдова. К
вопросу о постановке произношения в процессе преподавания
иностранных языков в учебных заведениях АТО Гагаузия………..
Gabriela Şaganean, Daniela Pascaru, USM, R. Moldova.
Creativitatea în procesul de instruire...................................................
Victor Untilă, ULIM, R. Moldova. Le proverbe – du luinguistique
vers l’hermeneutique ou comment s’y prendre.....................................
Ana Vulpe, ULIM, R. Moldova „Avatarurile” ortografiei limbii
române...................................................................................................
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INTRODUCING THE NEW TECHNOLOGIES INTO THE
STUDYING PROCESS
Natalia AZMANOVA,
Senior Lecturer, MA,
ULIM, R.Moldova
“Educational technology, when used appropriately,
helps the teacher and the students to create a caring,
creative community of learners.”
Joan Riedl
Computers have changed the way we work, be it any profession.
Therefore, it is only but natural the role of computers in education to which
it has been given a lot of prominence during the recent years. Computers
play a vital role in every field. They aid industrial processes; they find
applications in medicine; they are the heart of the software industry; and
they play a vital role in education. The uses of computers in education are
manifold.
Modern computer and communication technology is becoming
commonplace in a growing number of schools and institutions. But we can
say, that the presence of hi-tech does not mean that it is being used wisely,
however. One of the properties of most technologies is that they are as
capable of keeping paradigms of the past as they are of setting the stage for
the future.
Proven pedagogical models, such as Gardner's theory of multiple
intelligences, provide educators with concrete strategies for addressing the
needs of every learner. It is important to recognize that, just as students may
have their own dominant modalities of expression and learning, teachers do
as well. This is where technology can play an increasingly valuable role.
This does not mean, however, that any program filled with rich
media elements is automatically valuable. Our task in education is to
engage, not entertain, the learner. Our new tools provide the capability to do
this, but the art of software development still requires careful thought about
both the pedagogy and curriculum.
Modern technological tools let us work with information in ways that
honor the unique learning modalities of each student. The educator's role in
this new era is to help our students find the knowledge in the information, to
help them find the wisdom in this knowledge, and, most importantly, to
help them find the life in living.
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The computer technology has a deep impact on education. Computer
education forms a part of the school and university curricula, as it is
important for every individual today, to have the basic knowledge of
computers. The advantages of computers in education include an efficient
storage and rendition of information, quick information processing and very
importantly the saving of paper.
Computer teaching plays a key role in the modern systems of
education. Students find it easier to refer to the Internet than searching for
information in fat reference books. The process of learning has gone beyond
learning from prescribed textbooks. Today, aspirers can satiate their thirst
for knowledge by means of the Internet. It is easier to store information on
computers than maintaining hand-written notes. Online education has
revolutionized the education industry. The computer technology has made
the dream of distance learning, a reality. Education is no more limited to
classrooms. It has reached far and wide thanks to the computer technology.
Physically distant locations have come close to each other only due to
computer networking.
Computers facilitate an efficient storage and effective presentation of
information. Presentation software like PowerPoint and animation software
like Flash and others can be of great help to the teachers while delivering
information. Computers can turn out being a brilliant aid in teaching.
Computers facilitate an audio-visual representation of information, thus
making the process of learning interactive and interesting. Computer-aided
teaching adds a fun element to education. Internet can play an important
role in education. As it is an enormous information base, it can be harnessed
for the retrieval of information on a wide variety of subjects. The Internet
can be used to refer to information on various subjects to be taught to the
students.
Today, the Internet and the World Wide Web are formidable forces
in business and education. It is estimated that 80% of the population all over
the world uses the Internet. Outside of North America the numbers decrease
dramatically, to 9% in the UK and Germany, 3% in France, to absolutely
privileged use elsewhere. Those are very small numbers anyway, if we
consider the potential of the Web for making knowledge and information
available to people. Thus, diminished resources, lack of educators, and
safety in the universities are higher priority issues worldwide than figuring
out how to make the Internet and the Web new vehicles for improved
learning. More than six years after our ambitious demonstration, those kinds
of technologies are not even yet vehicles for access to educational
resources.
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Moreover, computers facilitate an electronic format for storage of
information. Homework and test assignments submitted as soft copies save
paper. Electronically erasable memory devices can be used repeatedly. They
offer a robust storage of data and reliable data retrieval. The computer
technology thus eases the process of learning. The importance of computers
is evident today and having the perfect know-how of computers can only
propel one’s career in the right direction. Today, computers are a part of
almost every industry. They are no more limited to the software industry.
They are widely used in networking, information access, data storage and
the processing of information. So why not introduce computers early in
education? Introducing computers early in education lays the foundation of
most of the major competitive careers. Computers play a significant role in
one’s personal and professional life.
And as a conclusion, we can say that with new educational
technologies, students can be positive and creative. By focusing on
university climate and culture, research confirms that it is possible to
promote positive student learning environments and productive teacher
working conditions. When implementing new technologies - if students are
involved with ongoing planning and implementation of both policies and
programs - universities also provide a powerful context for youth to become
engaged in meaningful and relevant decision-making.
And if it is interesting, while introducing New Technologies to
Students, so the following list of tips is designed to help you most
successfully bring valuable new technologies into your classes:
1. Prepare Students in Advance: Whenever possible, inform students as
soon as you can about the introduction of new technologies. Put details
on your syllabus and distribute instructional materials to students prior
to the first class when the technology is being used.
2. Give Clear, Detailed Written Instructions: Your students need a
resource to refer to outside of class, and this can be an essential tool for
streamlining the integration of new technologies into your classroom.
To achieve this, your written instructions should include step-by-step
guidance and should be organized in an extremely clear and concise
manner.
3. Be Patient: While some students will quickly catch on to the
innovations you introduce, others may struggle to handle both
coursework and learning new technology. Keep these students engaged
by maintaining a positive attitude and remaining patient with them as
you help them learn the technology. Whenever possible, work directly
with these students to understand the specific challenges they are
having.
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4.
Be Available: With the added wrinkles brought on by the introduction
of new technologies, make sure to be available to your students to help
resolve problems. If you have virtual "office hours" or times when you
will always be available to students, list those times on your syllabus or
in other communications to students.
5. Do Self-Evaluations: After every class where you are either
introducing a new technology for the first time or when you are using a
recently introduced technology heavily, you should do a thorough selfevaluation. This is a great opportunity to make sure that you are
explaining concepts clearly, effectively dealing with students'
questions, and teaching in a proper way.
6. Ask a Co-Worker for Advice: You don't have to go it alone when
moving forward with new technologies. Many of your colleagues have
valuable experience introducing new technologies into their online
classrooms. Ask them for their input and if possible, do a
demonstration of your technology for them to get any advice they have
for using it with students.
7. Walk in their Shoes: After you have prepared all of your instructional
materials, put yourself in the position of a student and try to learn the
technology as if you have never been exposed to it before. You should
always practice using your own materials to ensure that they are
concise and easy to follow.
8. Do Trial Runs: Ask friends or family members to role play as a
student so that you can test out your teaching strategy with someone
who has no familiarity with the new technology. By doing this a week
or more in advance of introducing a technology to students, you will be
able to predict a number of potential problems that you will face in the
online classroom.
9. Timing is Critical: If you aren't introducing a new technology at the
beginning of a course, make sure that it is carefully placed in your
syllabus. For example, don't introduce a new technology during the
class immediately preceding a significant assignment. Your students
will already have a major item looming in their minds and likely will
not be able to devote the focus and attention that you need from them to
successfully incorporate your technology.
10. Start Small: Rome wasn't built in a day, and new technologies won't
thrive in your classroom after one day either. Teach your students the
new technologies in baby steps – start with the basics and gradually
bring them up to speed on nuances and advanced capabilities.
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References
1. Berg, Zane L. and Mauri P. Collins, eds. Computer Mediated
Communication and the Online Classroom. Cresskill, New Jersey:
Hampton Press, 1996.
2. Boyer, Ernest. Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the
Professoriate. Princeton, N.J.: Carnegie Foundation for the
Advancement of Teaching, 1990.
3. British Columbia, Ministry of Education. The Kindergarten to Grade
Twelve Education Plan. Victoria: Ministry of Education, B.C.,
1993.
4. Cuban, Larry. "Managing Dilemmas While Building Professional
Communities," in Educational Researcher, January-February 1992.
5. Dede, Chris. "The Evolution of Distance Education: Emerging
Technologies and Distributed Learning," in The American Journal
of Distance Education, 1996, vol.10 no.2.
6. Fisher, Charles, David C. Dwyer, and Keith Yocam, eds. Education
and Technology: Reflections on Computing in Classrooms. San
Francisco: Jossey Bass, 1996.
7. Franklin, Ursula. The Real World of Technology. Concord, Ontario:
Anansi Press, 1990.
8. Harasim, Linda, Starr Roxanne Hiltz, Lucio Telex and Murray
Turoff. Learning Networks: A Field Guide to Teaching and
Learning Online. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996.
9. Haraway, Donna. Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of
Nature. New York: Routledge, 1991.
10. Kearsley, Greg. "Education as usual: Comments on Chris Dede's
Article," in American Journal of Distance Education. Vol. 10, No.
2, 1996.
11. Mander, Jerry. In the Absence of the Sacred: the Failure of
Technology and the Survival of the Indian Nations. (San Francisco:
Sierra Club Books, 1991).
12. Menzies, Heather. Whose Brave New World? The Information
Highway and the New Economy. Toronto: Between the Lines, 1996.
13. Paulsen, Morten Flate. "Moderating Educational Computer
Conferences," in Computer Mediated Communication and the
Online Classroom, Z.L. Berge and M.P. Collins, eds., New Jersey:
Hampton Press, 1996.
14. Penley, Constance and Andrew Ross, eds. Technoculture.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991.
15. Postman, Neil. Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology.
New York: Vintage Books, 1993.
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16. Postman, Neil. The End of Education. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
1995.
ILUSTRAREA ASPECTELOR METODOLOGICE
FUNDAMENTALE VIZÎND ORGANIZAREA ACTIVITĂŢII DE
PREDARE A DEPRINDERILOR DE SCRIERE
Natalia BEJENUŢĂ,
lector superior, MA,
ULIM, R.Moldova
Scrierea este un proces complex de redare a unei structuri fonetice
în una grafică de tipar sau de mâină sub aspect didactic. Deci, o activitate
integratoare productivă. Scrierea are la bază acţiuni coordonate de
cunoştinţă care includ perceperea textului, reacţia ochilor şi mişcarea
mâinii. Particularităţile concrete ale scrisului depind de starea generală
psihologică a celui care scrie.
Obiectivele în predarea scrierii.
Formarea competenţelor de scriere prevede dezvoltarea abilităţii
axate pe două obiective majore:
- formarea deprinderilor de scriere necesare în viaţa cotidiană
(corespondenţa personală, profesională);
- consolidarea deprinderilor obţinute în cadrul celorlalte activităţi
interogative (vorbirea, audierea, citirea) şi a competenţelor lingvistice
(vocabularul, gramatica).
Obiectivele concrete în procesul de formare a competenţelor de
scriere variază în funcţie de nivelul de cunoaştere a limbii de către student.
La nivelul incipient, studentul:
- îşi va însuşi scrierea literelor din alfabet;
- îşi va însuşi ortografierea corectă a cuvintelor;
- va putea include corect cuvintele în propoziţii şi fraze;
- va putea scrie mici texte;
- va consolida şi va dezvolta deprinderile obţinute la nivel incipient;
- va elabora un text în scris bazându-se pe unele repere;
- va reacţiona adecvat în scris când o vor cere circumstanţele.
La nivel avansat, studentul:
va putea scrie de sine stătător o compunere, exprimându-şi părerea în
scris;
va putea elabora un text în scris fără repere suplimentare.
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Activitatea de scriere presupune actul reflexiv, care conferă calitate
procesului ca atare. Descoperirea de către adult a etapelor procesului de
scriere, a elementelor sale determinative este mai eficientă decât orice
explicaţie sau comentariu al profesorului.
Când proiectează şi realizează activitatea de scriere, profesorul trebuie:
- să se asigure că include activităţi ce le vor permite cursanţilor să
comunice idei care sunt importante pentru ei;
- să includă exerciţii care ar ajuta cursanţilor să înţeleagă şi să asimileze
noţiuni specifice comunicării scrise (organizarea, aranjarea modalităţi
de exprimare a legăturii logice);
- să folosească tehnici pentru etapa de prescriere întru generarea ideilor şi
să asigure cu surse pentru îndeplinirea sarcinii de scriere;
- să le prezinte un model;
- să precizeze mai întâi mesajul cuprins în textul scris şi apoi să observe
greşelile de limbă.
Tipurile scrierii
Scrierea poate fi controlată, ghidată, liberă şi poate să se manifeste în
mai multe variante:
- scriere transformată ( redactaţi textul );
- scriere formalizată ( într-o fişă ): compuneţi o scrisoare adresată colegului
de seviciu, prietenului etc.;
- scriere variată (acelaşi mesaj grafic, dar adresat diferitor receptori şi
invers);
- scriere publicitară ( pentru ziar, revistă, TV ).
Scrierea controlată se practică, de regulă, cu începătorii, fiind
structurată în conformitate cu sarcina urmărită. Obiectivele principale în
cazul scrierii controlate vizează exersarea ortografiei, a vocabularului sau a
gramaticii. Denumirea de scriere controlată este determinată de faptul că
profesorul verifică permanent realizarea acestei scrieri. Activităţile de
scriere controlată vor include următoarele acţiuni:
- copierea directă (de pe tablă, din manual);
- copierea întârziată (când studenţii scriu o oarecare informaţie, de
exemplu cuvinte noi, bazîndu-se pe memorie);
- copierea numai a propoziţiilor corecte;
- clasificarea după un anumit criteriu (plante etc);
- corelarea imaginilor cu scrisul, a cuvintelor cu definiţiile, a jumătăţilor
de propoziţii, cu propoziţia întreagă, a răspunsurilor cu întrebările;
- completarea golurilor folosind cuvintele indicate;
- alcătuirea propoziţiilor din cuvinte dispersate;
- scrierea după dictare.
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Scrierea ghidată este mai puţin controlată de profesor. Cursanţilor li se
va prezenta un anumit conţinut şi propoziţiile pe care le vor putea utiliza cu
scopul de a exersa vocabularul şi gramatica. Produsul final va fi
asemănător, dar nu identic. Lor li se va propune începutul, sfârşitul sau
întregul schelet al ceea ce urmează să fie completat cu informaţia
corespunzătoare. Ei au posibilitatea de a discuta, de a face notiţe, de a face
schimb de informaţie, de a elabora un plan până a începe scrierea.
Scrierea ghidată poate include următoarele sarcini concrete:
- combinarea propoziţiilor simple în fraze;
- alcătuirea unui text din mai multe propoziţii simple;
- scrierea de instrucţiuni;
- scrierea poeziilor după modelul sugerat;
- scrierea de compuneri ghidate.
Scrierea liberă ( creativă ) se deosebeşte de tipurile prezentate recent
prin aceea că cursanţii trebuie să elaboreze de sine stătător textul. Neavând
un suport comun, rezultatele finale ale activităţii studenţii vor fi complet
diferite. Produsele finale vor fi compuneri, eseuri. Înainte de a scrie,
cursantul trebuie să răspundă la următoarele întrebări:
 Cu ce scop scriu acest text?
 Cine va citi textul?
 Cum să încep?
 Cum să scriu?
Această scriere necesită alcătuirea unui plan. O altă formă de scriere
creativă e scrierea jurnalelor. În cazul când profesorul răspunde la întrebări
este vorba de scriere de jurnal dialogată. Alt tip de scriere liberă este
scrierea de ziare. Ei scriu în funcţie de interesele fiecărui student (sport,
artă, cultură etc).
Pentru a forma deprinderile de scriere ale studenţilor, trebuie de
realizat următoarele acţiuni:
- copierea simplă;
- copierea cu unele sarcini simple;
- alcătuirea cuvintelor în baza literelor;
- clasificarea cuvintelor în scris;
- scrierea în baza modelului dat;
- îmbinarea cuvintelor în scris;
- scrierea cuvintelor în baza imaginilor;
- transcrierea selectivă;
- completarea textului în scris;
- scrierea rezumatului textului;
- scrierea în cooperare;
- scrierea dictărilor scurte;
13
-
scrierea unor compuneri tematice mici;
scrierea liberă.
Evaluarea scrierii
Greşelile sunt inevitabile, fiind o parte a procesului de învăţare. În
procesul de evaluare a celor scrise, studentul trebuie să răspundă la
următoarele întrebări:
 De ce culoare să fie cerneala la corectarea greşelilor?
 Cum să marchez sau comentez greşelile gramaticale?
 Să comentez ordinea desfăşurării ideilor?
 Să comentez conţinutul?
 Să folosesc simboluri pentru corectare?
 Unde să scriu comentariile (pe margine, în text sau la sfârşitul
textului)?
 Să pun o notă generală sau mai multe note?
Astfel studentul va reflecta şi asupra strategiilor de perfecţionare a
deprinderilor de scriere.
Probe de scriere
Probele de exerciţii pentru dezvoltatrea deprinderilor de scriere ale
cursanţilor pot fi diverse variind în funcţie de nivelul de studiere a limbii.
Etapa incipientă
1. Completaţi propoziţiile de mai jos cu informaţia cerută de context.
2. Terminaţi propoziţiile.
3. Scrieţi începutul propoziţiei.
4. Combinaţi propoziţiile simple de mai jos într-un text, frază.
5. Scrieţi câte 5 propoziţii despre: ce vedem; ce auzim; ce mirosim etc.
Etapa intermediară
1. Priviţi anunţurile de mai jos, alegeţi unul şi scrieţi la adresa indicată o
scrisoare pentru a obţine mai multă informaţie.
2. Citiţi formularul de mai jos şi alcătuiţi unul asemănător.
3. Scrieţi reţeta unei tartine.
4. Scrieţi sfârşitul unui text citit.
5. Formulaţi concluzia proprie a celor citite.
Etapa avansată
1. Elaboraţi în scris un eseu despre un prieten.
2. Argumentaţi în scris ideea dată.
3. Descrieţi o persoană în scris.
4. Formulaţi câteva întrebări provocatoare.
14
1.
2.
3.
4.
Bibliografie
Cerghit I., Neacşu I. Prelegeri pedagogice. Iaşi: Polirom, 2001.
Iucu Romiţă B. Instruirea şcolară. Perspective teoretice şi
aplicative Iaşi: Polirom, 2001.
Metodica predării limbilor străine. Vol. 10, Bucureşti, 1995.
www.info-ghid.com_materiale-didactice
ФУНКЦИОНИРОВАНИЕ ТЕРМИНОВ «КОМПЕТЕНЦИЯ»
И «КОМПЕТЕНТНОСТЬ» В СОВРЕМЕННОМ
НАУЧНОМ ДИСКУРСЕ
Е.Н. БЕЛЯЕВА,
Украинская Медицинская
Стоматологическая Академия,
г. Полтава, Украина
Компетентностный подход (К-подход) является ключевой
инновационной идеей современной образовательной парадигмы, о чём
свидетельствуют многочисленные работы, относящиеся к различным
отраслям науки и деятельности таким, как: философия образования,
акмеология, социология, психология, педагогика, лингводидактика и
др. [1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7].
По мнению украинского учёного — специалиста в области
философии образования С. Клепко, differentia specifica К-подхода
состоят в формировании возможности личности исследовать
определенные сферы и оптимальные формы использования времени
[4, с. 71].
Анализ литературы свидетельствует о том, что параллельное
функционирование в современном научном дискурсе однокоренных
терминов «компетентность» и «компетенция» является далеко не
решенной терминологической проблемой, вследствие чего одни
авторы рассматривают их как абсолютные синонимы [3; 4], другие
придерживаются иной точки зрения [2; 5; 6].
Следует отметить, что, несмотря на предпринимаемые на
протяжении последних лет попытки дифференциации этих категорий
[2; 5; 6], решение этой проблемы остаётся далеким от идеального.
На наш взгляд, известная сложность дифференции исследуемых
понятий состоит в том, что этимологически однокоренные термины
«компетентность» и «компетенция» восходят к латинскому глаголу
competo, īvi, ītum, ĕre, среди значений которого есть такие, как:
15
«соответствовать, подходить, согласовываться» и «быть годным,
стремиться».
Принимая во внимание сказанное vs., проблема уточнения
содержания понятий «компетентность» и «компетенция» не теряет
своей актуальности, обусловливая необходимость их более глубокого
и всестороннего анализа.
Как указывает С. Клепко, полиаспектность термина
«компетентность» объясняется тем, что, являясь синонимом
информированности, опытности, авторитетности, он конкретизируется
в соответствии с различными сферами (лингвистической, социальной,
жизненной, профессиональной, гражданской и т.д.) [4, с. 71].
Действительно, анализ литературы позволяет сделать
однозначный вывод о том, что различные учёные вкладывают
различный смысл и концентрируют внимание на различных аспектах
компетентности и компетенции. Так, в социологии компетентность
трактуется как состояние адекватного выполнения социального
задания, психосоциальное качество, обозначающее силу и
убеждённость, происходящие из чувства собственной уверенности и
востребованности и придающие человеку осознание своей
возможности эфективно взаимодействовать с окружащими [7, с. 91].
А. Садохин, ознакомившись с работами российских социологов,
заключает, что понятие «компетентность» связывается с достаточно
широким кругом явлений, включающим в себя помимо знаний,
умений и навыков (ЗУН), определенный уровень развития различных
способностей, в совокупности обеспечивающих индивиду решение
какой-либо задачи или помощь в осуществлении какой-либо
деятельности [5, с. 43].
Широкое понимание компетентности позволяет учёному сделать
вывод, что в структурном плане она представляет собой сложное
социокультурное
явление,
объединяющее
лингвистический,
информационный, социально-культурный и др. компоненты [ibid].
С. Ветвицкая для обозначения совокупности качеств личности,
общей осведомленности, базирующейся не только на знаниях, опыте,
определённых ценностях, полученых в процессе обучения в высшем
учебном заведении, но и на индивидуальных способностях, использует
термин «компетенция». При этом в работе исследовательницы речь
идет о следующих компетенциях [1, с. 192—193]:
- социальных — активность в общественной жизни, участие в
работе общественных организаций, умение опережать, регулировать
конфликты, самостоятельно принимать решения и брать на себя
ответственность за их исполнение;
16
- поликультурных - умение приходить к консенсусу в процессе
решения различных вопросов, касающихся как профессиональной
деятельности, так и обыденного общения с людьми иного
вероисповедания, иных культур и национальностей;
- коммуникативные - высокий уровень культуры общения в
коллективе, владение несколькими языками;
- информационные -умение находить различную информацию,
пользуясь
современными
информационными
технологиями,
критическое осмысление и применение полученных знаний.
Дополняют предложенную классификацию компетенции
саморазвития и самообразования —
потребность
в
самосовершенствовании, повышении профессионального мастерства,
общего культурного уровня, развитии способностй, а также
компетенции, проявляющиеся как споосбность к рациональной,
продуктивной, творческой деятельности [ibid].
Несмотря на достаточно всеобъемлющую типизацию,
предложенную С. Ветвицкой, по-видимому, следует согласиться с
мыслью другой украинской исследовательницы - И. Гудзик,
считающей, что понятие «компетенция» более узкое, чем
«компетентность», оно «соотносится с конкретными видами
деятельности и используется для обозначения серии умений, знаний,
необходимых для эффективного выполнения действий [2, с. 39]». При
этом предполагается, что компетентность формируется из отдельных
компетенций, но при этом отнюдь не сводится к ним [ibid].
И. Гудзик считает целесообразным выделить такие три
комплекса компетентностей [2, с. 40—41]:
- ценностно-смысловой, включающий
мировоззрение,
ценностные ориентации, способность видеть, понимать окружающий
мир, брать на себя ответственность за происходящее в нём, осваивать
способы физического и духовного саморазвития;
- коммуникативный, предполагающий умение успешно
осуществлять устное и письменное общение в различных жизненных
ситуациях, сотрудничать в решении различных задач;
- учебно-познавательный, информационный, обеспечивающий
умение учиться в течение всей жизни, пользоваться различными
технологиями доступа к информации, критически оценивать её,
включать новое знание в имеющееся у индивида когнитивные
структуры.
Исследовательница указывет, что в зарубежной литературе ныне
различают американский и британский подходы к компетентности и
компетенции [2]. При американском подходе компетентность
17
рассматривается как основополагающий поведенческий аспект или
характеристика человека, которая может проявляться в эффективном
и/или успешном действии, зависящем от этого действия,
организационных факторов и факторов среды, характеристик
профессиональной деятельности.
При британском подходе фокус исследования направлен на
анализ характеристик не человека, а самой деятельности, тех её
элементов, выполнение которых свидетельствует о достижении
заданного результата, его соответствии стандартам, т.е. о наличии
компетенций [ibid].
Как подчеркивает И. Гудзик, первый подход обусловливает
концентрацию внимания на компетентности людей, выполняющих
деятельность, а второй — на изучении характеристик самой
деятельности и компетенций, необходимых для их выполнения [2, с.
38].
В этом контексте небезынтересной представляется нам
трактовка терминируемых понятий в профессиональной педагогике.
Так, по К. Устемирову, Н. Шаметову и И. Васильеву, компетенция это «круг полномочий должностного лица, в переделах которого оно
должно обладать необходимыми познаниями и имеет право принимать
ответственные решения [6, с. 17]».
Компетентность, по мнению этих же авторов, — это
способность работника квалифицированно выполнять определенные
виды работ в рамках конкретной профессии, добиваясь высоких
количественных и качественных результатов труда на основе
имеющихся у него профессиональных ЗУН [6, с. 17]. Id est,
компетенция принадлежит должности, а компетентность
—
конкретному работнику.
Авторы считают, что возможны такие варианты соотношения
компетентности и компетенции:
- компетентность ниже компетенции; в этом случае работник не
может занимать определенную должность ввиду отсутствия
необходимых профессиональных ЗУН в объеме, требуемом этой
должностью;
такое
состояние
называется
служебным
(профессиональным) несоответствием; работник нуждается в
профессиональной доподготовке (в случае если он претендует на
занимаемую должность) или повышении квалификации, если
сотрудник уже занимает должность;
- компетентность соответствует компетенции; эта ситуация
является оптимальной для профессионального и личностного развития
и самореализации;
18
- компетентность превышает компетенцию; такая ситуация
характеризуется невозможностью профессиональной самореализации
личности в рамках занимаемой должности; достигнутый уровень
компетентности требует предоставления новой должности или
документального
его
оформления
в
виде
присвоения
соответствующего звания, категории etc.
Рассматривая эти соотношения в образовательном контексте Кподхода, следует согласиться с тем, что необходимый уровень
компетентности выпускника учебного заведения, определяемый
образовательными стандартами, редко достигается сразу же по
окончании вуза, поскольку молодому специалисту обязательно
необходимо время для «вхождения» в профессию, освоение новой
социальной роли, профессионального самоопределения, развитие
профессионально важных и социально значимых качеств личности,
приобретение
опыта
самостоятельного
осуществления
профессиональной деятельности [6, с. 19]. Это вызывает
несоответствие компетенции и компетентности, устраняемое в период
профессиональной адаптации выпускника.
Таким образом, одним из факторов, предопределяющих
дальнейшую компетентизацию образования и выступающих
необходимым условием его модернизации, является устранение
терминологической неоднозначности и разграничение объёма таких
базовых понятий К-подхода, как «компетентность» и «компетенция».
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Библиография
Вітвицька С. С. Основи педагогіки вищої школи. К. : Центр
навчальної літератури, 2003. 316 c.
Гудзик И. Ф. Компетентностно ориентированное обучение
русскому языку в начальных классах (в школах с украинским
языком обучения). Черновцы : “Букрек”, 2007. 496 с.
Зеленська О. До питання формування ключових компетенцій
молоді засобами іноземної мови // Імідж сучасного педагога.
2005, № 8 (57), С. 7- 8.
Клепко С. Модернізаційні процеси в сучасній освіті. К.:кільний
світ, 2008. 120 с.
Садохин А. П. Компетентность или компетенция в
межкультурной коммуникации // Вестник МГУ. Сер. 19.
Лингвистика и межкультурная коммуникация. 2007, № 3. С. 3956.
Устемиров К. Профессиональная педагогика. Алматы : ТОО
“Акнур и Кє”, 2005. 432 с.
19
7.
Шапар В. Психологічний тлумачний словник. Харків : Прапор,
2004. 640 с.
ENSEIGNER LE FRANÇAIS AUX ANGLOPHONES
Andrei BOLFOSU,
assistant, MA,
ULIM, R.Moldova
De nos jours, il n’est pas un secret que la langue française perd du
terrain sur le plan global en général et en Moldova en particulier face à la
langue anglaise. Le français commence à devenir une langue exotique en
Moldova qui est considéré un pays francophone et qui a beaucoup de
racines françaises dans la langue roumaine. La Seconde Guerre Mondiale et
puis la mondialisation ont fait que la langue française soit devancée par
l’anglais, la raison de ceci est que les Etats-Unis et le Royaume Uni sont
devenus les pouvoirs globaux, et par conséquent, la langue anglaise est
devenue la langue globale la plus parlée.
Le français, tout de même a réussi de garder son importance ou de
survivre sur le plan mondial grâce à des mesures prises par les autorités
françaises afin d’enrichir la langue. Voici quelques exemples.
Le 7 janvier 1972, le gouvernement français promulgue le
décret no 72-9 relatif à l’enrichissement de la langue française, prévoyant la
création
des
commissions
ministérielles
de terminologie pour
l’enrichissement du vocabulaire français.
La révision constitutionnelle du 25 juin 1992 insère à l'article 2 de la
constitution la phrase : "La langue de la République est le français."
Le 4 août 1994 à la suite de la loi de 1975, est promulguée la loi
dite loi Toubon qui tend à imposer l'utilisation du français dans nombre de
domaines (affichage, travail, enseignement...) particulièrement dans les
services publics.
La maintenance de la langue française est suivie par : l’Académie
française, la Délégation générale à la langue française et aux langues de
France (DGLFLF), le Service de la langue française(Belgique), l'Office
québécois de la langue française (OQLF), les Conseils supérieurs de la
langue française de France, de Belgique et du Québec.
Plus de 13 millions d'Américains se réclament d'origine française, et
1,6 millions d'Américains qui ont plus de cinq ans parlent le français à la
maison. Cela fait du français la troisième ou quatrième langue la plus parlée
dans le pays, derrière l'anglais, l'espagnol, et - si des langues telles que
20
le mandarin et le cantonais chinois sont groupées ensemble - le chinois. Le
français est la deuxième langue la plus parlée dans quatre États : La
Louisiane, le Maine, le New Hampshire et le Vermont.
En plus des 1,6 millions de francophones, il y a aussi 450 000
Américains qui parlent un créole à base lexicale française, dont la plupart
parlent le créole haïtien.
En Royaume Uni, le français a un statut à part celui-ci étant la langue
étrangère première qui est étudiée dans les institutions d’enseignement des
tous les niveaux
Les Alliances Françaises autour du monde portent un rôle grandissant
dans la propagation de la langue et culture françaises. Les méthodes
d’enseignement du français les plus nouvelles ; telles que l’utilisation de
l’audiovisuel, des sites Internet, des méthodes interactives et des jeux
instructifs sont élaborées au sein des Alliances Françaises afin de faciliter
l’apprentissage de la langue.
En Australie le français est la deuxième langue étrangère enseignée
aux lycées après le japonais.
D’une importance particulière surgit l’enseignement de la langue
française aux anglophones Québécois qui ont plusieurs motifs d’apprendre
le français telles que la facilité de trouver un emploi. En raison du fait que le
Canada est un pays bilingue les deux langues doivent être connues par tous
les citoyens.
Outre ça, l’enseignement du français au Québec porte certaines
difficultés visant le fond lexical du langage parlé, qui est différent au
Canada, puisque la langue a évolué séparément pendent plus de deux cent
ans, ayant des particularités locales.
La situation du professeur qui enseigne le français aux anglophones
n'est pas aussi simple qu'on pourrait la croire. S'il veut être honnête, il ne
peut exercer son métier impunément, ni surtout sans s'interroger tant soit
peu sur le sens de son enseignement. C'est répéter un truisme que de dire
que la société québécoise évolue très rapidement; par conséquent, comme la
langue est le véhicule sinon le reflet d'une réalité sociale, le problème de la
langue parlée et écrite n'a jamais été aussi crucial. Les Québécois
francophones réfléchissent depuis longtemps à cette question (la fondation
de la Société du Bon Parler Français au Canada remonte aussi loin qu'à
1902) mais jamais cette réflexion n'a été aussi nourrie, aussi importante
qu'actuellement. Les articles de Lysiane Gagnon sur la crise de
l'enseignement du français parus dans La Presse en avril 1975 et les
nombreuses réactions que ces articles ont suscitées en font état.
L'enseignement de la langue française, qui ne peut bien sûr s'exercer en vase
clos, en subit inévitablement les effets et le professeur de langues est forcé
21
de tenir compte d'un débat qui, il y a quelques années, ne l'atteignait presque
pas. D'ailleurs s'il s'attarde à considérer les motivations de ses étudiants, il
aura vite fait de se rendre compte qu'elles sont d'une grande diversité,
souvent complémentaires et parfois divergentes: parler français afin de
pouvoir voyager et éventuellement faire partie du corps diplomatique
canadien dans n'importe quelle partie du monde; comprendre et
communiquer dans leur langue avec les francophones de Montréal ou de la
Baie de James lorsqu'on remplit un emploi de camionneur ou de
contremaître (objectifs définis textuellement par deux étudiants d'une même
section du cours 401D "Functional French" en septembre 1974). Ces
objectifs sont typiques et constituent déjà en soi une formulation du
problème. Que faire devant des buts aussi différents, voire même opposés?
Si une langue seconde ne peut être vraiment utilisée que dans un
contexte réel de communication, c'est-à-dire "en situation," il importe de
démystifier cette conception élitiste du. fait français en détruisant toutes ces
images que la plupart des anglophones continuent à associer avec toute
culture d'expression française. En effet, bien que l'on vive dans un cadre
social nord-américain, lequel diffère considérablement et à plusieurs points
de vue du contexte européen, les manuels scolaires en usage dans les écoles
primaires, secondaires et les collèges continuent de présenter aux étudiants
des réalités étrangères auxquelles ils sont incapables d'associer leur propre
vécu: Les Champs Elysées, le musée du Louvre, la Sorbonne, les lycées, les
bistrots, le grand salon du château de Combourg, Christian Dior . . . etc.,
etc. Et l'on s'étonne qu'après dix ans ou plus d'étude du français, les
étudiants n'arrivent toujours pas à "parler" cette langue et l'identifient encore
à des clichés tels que la beauté, l'art, la vaste culture et la haute couture, les
grands parfums et les fromages parfumés au kirsch, en somme à la
sophistication et au raffinement sous toutes ses formes, clichés
correspondant à des réalités pour eux lointaines et souvent inaccessibles. Or,
comme ces images sont impressionnantes pour ne pas dire exotiques, elles
confèrent à la langue qui est appelée à les traduire les mêmes
caractéristiques, ce qui en fait, pour ceux qui tentent de l'apprendre, quelque
chose d'irréel sinon d'inabordable. Par conséquent, si l'on veut éviter cette
approche qui vide la langue de son contenu émotif et la réduit à un
ensemble de mots dont l'usage est tout à fait factice, on doit nécessairement
l'inscrire dans un cadre social et culturel concret et directement accessible.
D'autre part, il n'en est pas moins vrai qu'une même langue peut
être appelée à traduire plusieurs contextes ou milieux culturels distincts
voire même très éloignés les uns des autres. L'espagnol, par exemple, est
parlé au Mexique, en Amérique du Sud et en Amérique Centrale aussi bien
qu'en Espagne. Il en est de même pour le français qui est en usage dans
22
plusieurs pays à travers le monde. Le professeur de langue doit donc faire
en sorte que son enseignement permette à ses étudiants dont les motivations
diffèrent de rejoindre le plus grand nombre de gens qui s'expriment en
français (ce que Hymes appelle la compétence de communication). Il doit
également tenir compte aussi bien du niveau de langage que du vocabulaire
et des expressions idiomatiques propres à différentes régions et/ou classes
sociales. Pour faire ça, l'instructeur de langues doit être assez polyvalent
pour fournir à ses étudiants tout un éventail ou registre de mots et
d'équivalences.
S'il y a une norme à respecter, elle ne se situe pas au niveau des
choix lexicaux mais au niveau des structures fondamentales du français,
c'est-à-dire la place des mots dans une phrase, le temps des verbes et leur
concordance ainsi que toute la gamme des relatifs, des conjonctions et des
prépositions servant à établir un lien et une dépendance entre les différentes
unités linguistiques. Toute acquisition lexicale doit être insérée dans cette
structure de base sans pour autant affecter ou modifier la contexture propre
à la langue française.
Dans un cours de conversation avancée, par exemple, le professeur
doit amener l'étudiant à exprimer son vécu (pensées ou sentiments) en
français international et en langue québécoise si celui-ci le désire, aussi
clairement et avec une justesse égale dans les deux cas. Il doit donc
maîtriser et savoir jongler avec trois langues simultanément: la langue
anglaise (dépistage des erreurs, identification de leurs causes et mise au
point des techniques préventives et/ou correctives), la langue française
(traduction des anglicismes, interprétation en français international) et la
langue québécoise (connaissance du lexique et des expressions québécoises,
passage d'une formule internationale à une nouvelle formulation qui traduit
le vécu d'ici).
Devant cette triple exigence, les professeurs de français langue
seconde constatent souvent leurs lacunes. Peu d'entre eux finalement sont
réellement capables d'effectuer rapidement et avec suffisamment
d'exactitude ces trois opérations, tous étant, peu importe leur origine,
handicapés à certains égards. Ceux d'origine québécoise connaîtront en
général l'anglais et deviendront, de ce fait, sensibles aux calques et aux
anglicismes que font leurs étudiants, mais ils ne pourront réagir rapidement
et les traduire en français que s'ils sont eux-mêmes capables d'exercer un
discernement exact en matière linguistique et capables d'opérer pour euxmêmes la conversion qui s'impose. Etant donné les conditions économiques
et culturelles dans lesquelles se maintient l'existence du français au Québec,
ces opérations ne sont souvent possibles chez les enseignants d'origine
québécoise qu'à l'intérieur d'un processus de réflexion critique sur leur
23
propre langue comme sur celle du milieu, et qu'avec une connaissance
détaillée de la langue française acquise assez souvent par l'étude ou la
scolarisation.
Les enseignants européens ou d'origine nord-africaine connaîtront
le handicap inverse: ils sauront intuitivement repérer avec exactitude les
fautes des anglophones, les traduire en français international, mais souvent,
leur méconnaissance de l'anglais les empêchera de fournir cette analyse
comparative des deux langues qui leur permettrait d'adapter leur
enseignement à leur public. Quant à la traduction du vécu de l'anglophone
d'ici en langue québécoise, les enseignants naturalisés ou en voie de l'être
accuseront certaines lacunes, surtout au niveau avancé, étant donné les
difficultés qu'ils éprouvent à l'effectuer pour eux-mêmes. Ils doivent alors
eux aussi suppléer par l'étude (et il va sans dire un contact plus étroit avec le
milieu culturel d'ici) à leur méconnaissance de la langue québécoise ou plus
simplement du donné culturel ou civilisationnel.
Seule cette mobilité linguistique qui conditionne l'enseignement du
français au Québec peut permettre au professeur de langue d'exercer
adéquatement son métier. En plus d'une formation pédagogique et
linguistique solide, ce trilinguisme en quelque sorte nous semble constituer
une forme de compétence qui rend possible l'adaptation de l'enseignement à
la clientèle (surtout au niveau avancé) et aux conditions particulières de
l'évolution du français en milieu québécois.
D'aucuns pourront critiquer ces exigences et contester une telle
conception de la compétence du professeur de français langue seconde,
alléguant que la langue qu'il s'agit d'enseigner est la Française, qu’il s'agit
de faire acquérir et réutiliser les structures fondamentales ainsi que le
lexique et les expressions idiomatiques les plus courants afin d'assurer une
communication à l'échelle internationale. Nous ne récusons pas cette
conception dans la mesure où elle ne se veut pas restrictive ou exclusive.
Nous croyons que s'il importe de pouvoir communiquer avec les millions
d'usagers de la langue française à travers le monde, il importe également de
parler une langue dans un contexte situationnel, c'est-à-dire dans un milieu
donné, à l'intérieur d'une communauté linguistique particulière. B. Quemada
écrivait d'ailleurs qu'il faut "accorder une place préférentielle au français en
situation motivante, et en premier lieu, à la civilisation qui s'élabore sous
nos yeux."
Nous sommes persuadées que ces deux objectifs n'ont pas à
s'exclure et peuvent, au contraire; coexister harmonieusement. Au niveau
avancé surtout, l'enseignant, s'étant assuré que la structure de phrase de ses
étudiants est parfaitement française aussi bien à l'oral qu'à l'écrit, se doit de
leur offrir le registre lexical le plus étendu possible afin de leur permettre de
24
comprendre et reconnaître le plus grand nombre de mots et expressions
possibles (ceci aussi bien en français international et métropolitain qu'en
québécois); il doit de plus leur permettre d'en distinguer le niveau et le
contexte exact afin qu'ils puissent réutiliser ceux qu'ils voudront quand et
avec qui ils le jugeront à propos (des pommes de terre frites, des pommes
frites, des patates frites; elle est snob, elle est collet monté, elle se prend
pour une autre).
Il s'agit donc d'une ouverture, la plus large possible, aux réalités
linguistiques de la francophonie mondiale auxquelles les étudiants sont ou
pourraient éventuellement être exposés, mais d'une ouverture éclairée, où
chaque élément lexical, chaque idiotisme doit être identifié, remis à sa place
en fonction d'un objectif fonctionnel de réutilisation. Cependant, là ne se
limite pas le rôle de l'enseignant à notre avis. Ce dernier doit prendre
conscience des rapports d'opposition entre le descriptif et le normatif, entre
l'information linguistique et le précepte linguistique. Si un étudiant déclare:
"J'ai travaillé dans une manufacture cet été et à la fin du mois d'août, j'ai été
clairé" et qu'on fait en sorte qu'il ne connaisse et n'utilise que "congédié" ou
"mis à la porte" exclusivement, on privilégie un certain niveau de langue, on
impose un certain contexte à Texclusion d'un autre, on choisit à l'intérieur
d'une vaste série lexicale un mot considéré comme normatif.
Si l’on examine les séries lexicales du français métropolitain en
contraste avec le français québécois on arrive à des conclusions suivantes:
1. que la langue familière ou populaire en usage aussi bien au Québec
qu'en France a été complètement écartée de l'enseignement;
2. que le choix de l'enseignement (déterminant par la suite celui de
l'étudiant) s'est limité à deux mots considérés comme corrects et donc
recommandables, sur une vingtaine de possibilités;
3. que le niveau choisi élimine complètement l'expression des
émotions ou des sentiments (dépit, colère, mépris, rage ... etc.);
4. que dans le contexte de la phrase formulée par l'étudiant, le mot et
l'expression proposés opèrent la censure d'un anglicisme, certes, mais
également d'un niveau de langue (et par le fait même d'un contexte social)
populaire pour y substituer un niveau supérieur (présenté comme correct et
recommandable) plus proche finalement du niveau relevé que du niveau
familier;
5. que l'anglicisme "clairé" (ou éventuellement "slaqué") est d'ordre
lexical et s'insère donc dans une structure qui reste parfaitement française.
Dans un contexte socio-culturel où la phrase française est de plus en
plus influencée par l'anglais, il importe bien sûr, de dépister les anglicismes
et de les neutraliser en opérant la conversion qui s'impose. (L'usage de ces
anglicismes n'est d'ailleurs pas l'effet du hasard; il est le signe indéniable
25
des conditions socio-économiques dans lesquelles évolue le Québécois
parlant français et donc le français au Québec, ce qui explique que l'anglais
ne subisse par la même contamination.)
L'opération de conversion ne devrait pourtant pas devenir en fait une
opération de censure qui vise à occulter, en faveur d'un niveau choisi,
sanctionné et consacré par l'Académie, l'élément le plus dynamique d'une
langue: l'usage, qui "en dit souvent davantage sur les relations affectives,
professionnelles et sociales (actuelles et futures) des interlocuteurs que le
contenu de la conversation." Ce n'est par conséquent qu'à partir du moment
où l'enseignant, tenant compte de la dispersion géographique aussi bien que
des différents niveaux de langage, effectue une véritable description de la
langue en indiquant la place, le contexte et toutes les implications sociales
et émotives d'un registre de mots ou d'expressions, qu'il donne à l'étudiant la
possibilité de choisir, en toute connaissance de cause. Il lui permet ainsi de
choisir non seulement les mots ou expressions qu'il désire utiliser mais, par
le fait même, les milieux et les interlocuteurs à qui il désire s'adresser.
Toute démarche opposée qui tend à éliminer le registre ou à le limiter
consciemment pose en fait le problème de la norme, lequel déborde
largement le seul domaine linguistique. Ce faisant, l'enseignant implique
tacitement que toute la production linguistique se réduit à une seule donnée
(ce qui constitue en soi une exactitude du point de vue scientifique de même
qu'une imposture sinon une mystification). N'insister que sur le seul code
commun, c'est nécessairement nier tous les facteurs qui expliquent la
création et l'usage des mots, tels la culture, le rang social, l'âge, le contexte
socio-économique et culturel des usagers d'une langue, desquels facteurs
font apparaître toutes les variantes qu'on y trouve et en font un système
dynamique ainsi qu'un véritable instrument de communication. C'est
également renforcer l'aspect de la codification de la langue et contribuer à
mieux masquer son côté institutionnel. Or, s'il est évident que la langue est,
au même titre que toutes les autres, une institution qui illustre le pouvoir
d'une certaine classe, l'enseignant, reconnaissant ce fait, peut ou non le
signaler comme tel à l'occasion même de son enseignement. La disparition
de la série lexicale, la réduction à un seul terme présenté comme un absolu
entraînent le triomphe du normatif sur le descriptif, du précepte sur
l'information linguistique, le professeur se faisant juge et contrôleur plutôt
qu'informateur et témoin. TI devient ainsi responsable de cette utilisation de
la langue comme instrument de domination plutôt que de communication,
car n'utiliser que certaines formes choisies à l'intérieur d'un certain registre
choisi constitue sans aucun doute l'exercice d'un pouvoir. Par conséquent, la
norme devient pour l'enseignant le moyen d'opérer la récupération des
classes inférieures et leur assimilation idéologique aux classes supérieures,
26
tout en renforçant du même coup la stratification sociale existante hors du
milieu scolaire.
Le professeur de français langue seconde ne peut donc dans ce cas
prétendre à la neutralité ou à l'innocence, surtout au niveau avancé, car sa
vision normative constitue en somme un processus d'intégration à la classe
dominante. Nous considérons donc qu'il est important que le professeur de
langues démasque ce pouvoir en établissant clairement le registre qui fait
apparaître, à l'intérieur même du discours linguistique, ces différences de
classes. Les signaler, en identifiant bien le terme international comme tous
les autres, sans favoriser aucune forme au détriment d'une autre (ce que le
locuteur pourra bien faire lui-même pour des raisons personnelles de
communication) nous semble à la fois la seule position scientifiquement et
intellectuellement honnête en ce qu'elle respecte les libertés individuelles et
définit le rôle et les responsabilités socio-politiques de l'enseignant.
Bref, la polyvalence en signalant les rapports de force véhiculés par
la langue, est le seul point de vue pédagogique qui permette de signaler le
pouvoir institutionnel de la langue. Une fois le terme d'usage international
identifié, le jugement de valeur, la hiérarchie en ce qui concerne l'utilisation
et la définition de la norme ne peuvent être le fait que de l'étudiant qui doit
avoir entière liberté de réagir face à la langue comme institution. Celle qu'il
choisira d'utiliser pourra tout aussi bien devenir un outil de communication
qu'un instrument de domination, mais le professeur de langues ne devrait
avoir aucune responsabilité quant à ce choix.
Enfin on présentera des renseignements visant notre expérience en ce
qui concerne l’enseignement de la langue française aux étudiants
anglophones. Le cours de français a été fait mené dans la filiale de
l’Université Libre Internationale de Moldova au Soudan de Sud. Les
étudiants apprenaient la langue par le prisme de la langue anglaise qui est
une langue officielle au Soudan.
Le cours de français comprenait 30 heures, c'est-à-dire 15 séances
(leçons) par 1 heure 20 minutes et était prévu pour le niveau débutant.
La leçon introductive a été dédiée à des renseignements généraux sur
la langue française tels que l’origine, la structure ainsi que les différences et
les similitudes entre l’anglais et le français telles que les terminaisons
spécifiques pour les verbes, les genres pour les noms inanimés, mais aussi
les ressemblances lexicales dues aux emprunts des mots français à l’anglais,
ainsi que les mots qui ont un fond latin commun.
La méthode didactique qu’on a choisie est basée sur la ressemblance
maximale des structures syntaxiques et grammaticales par insertion
graduelle des éléments structurels morphosyntaxiques, dès le début à l’aide
du verbe être.
27
Ex. Je suis un garçon (I am a boy)
Elle est une belle fille (She is a pretty girl)
Puis, on a appris des expressions figées qui sont d’usage le plus
curant contenant le verbe être: être malade, être faible, être de retard, être
content, etc.
Ce qui est le plus difficile dans l’apprentissage de la grammaire
française c’est le genre des substantifs inanimés, et par conséquent, les
différents accords avec ceux-ci. Quant aux noms qui sont de genre masculin
ou féminin par définition, l’état des choses est plus simple: il est évident que
pour le mot femme on utilisera l’article indéfini ou défini une/la ou les
adjectifs - belle, émancipée, ou plaintive, de même que pour le mot homme
les catégories susnommées auront les formes suivantes: un/le/l’ et beau,
émancipé, plaintif. Pour les substantifs inanimés il ne reste que consulter le
dictionnaire ou demander le professeur et stocker la catégorie du genre dans
la mémoire.
Comme on a déjà mentionné la méthode est basée sur l’insertion
graduelle des éléments dans la phrase, par cette méthode on établit la
structure et l’ordre des catégories syntaxiques dans la proposition:
sujet+prédicat(attribut)+COD/COI.
Le verbe suivant sera avoir dans des expressions qui le contiennent
telles que: avoir soif, avoir de l’aplomb, avoir honte, avoir raison, il y a
etc.
Puis on accède à l’étude des verbes des trois groupes, aux tels que le
Présent de l’Indicatif, le Passé Composé, le Futur Simple, puis le Plus-queparfait, le Futur dans le Passé, le Passé Simple etc.
Il est important de trouver les points communs ou les équivalents
modaux entre ces temps verbaux en français et en anglais. Ainsi, le présent
de l’indicatif équivaut au Present Simple Tense; le Passé composé=Past
Simple Tense; le Futur Simple=Future Simple; le Plus-que-parfait=Past
Perfect Tense, le Futur dans le passé= Future-in-the-Past Tense etc. Il est à
noter qu’en anglais il y a des temps verbaux qui n’existent pas en français
ayant des formes différentes. Alors, en anglais il y a les temps continus
(Continuous aspect), qui n’existent pas intégralement en français à
l’exception de L’imparfait. Il y aussi les temps perfectifs qui coïncident en
français dans le cas de Futur antérieur (Future Perfect) et Plus- que -parfait
(Past Perfect), il nous reste un des temps verbaux le plus usagé en anglais
qui manque en français, c’est Present Perfect Tense. On ne parle encore de
leurs aspects continus qui aussi manquent en français. Dans ce cas le
français utilise les modalisateurs et les adverbes qui aident à rendre la valeur
modale du temps verbal mentionné.
28
En guise de conclusion on voudrait mentionner que 30 heures n’est
pas suffisamment pour qu’un étudiant -débutant apprise la langue française,
car la méthode est centrée sur l’assimilation des formules de base, on
pourrait les associer à une carcasse qui est à couvrir des mots et expressions
qui doivent être appris par les étudiants eux-mêmes.
1.
2.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Références
Essais de linguistique générale, Paris: Minuit, 1963, Vol. 1, pp. 214218.
Le drame de l'enseignement du français, La Presse du 5 au 12 avril
1975; tirés à part sous forme de brochure, Centre de documentation de
La Presse, avril 1975.
"Quels sont les facteurs de diversüication des "variétés" de français qui
seront les plus actifs dans les trente prochaines années", Le Français
dans le Monde, No 100, oct-nov. 1973, p. 21.
E. Ronlet, "Pour une meilleure connaissance du français à enseigner,"
Le Français dans le Monde, No 100, oct-nov, 1973, p. 24.
www//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ais
www.chauffeurdebuzz.com/la+langue+francaise+dans+le+monde+en+
chiffres-603
www//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langue_fran%C3%A7aise_aux_%C3%89
tats-Unis
THE ROLE OF TRANSLATION
IN THE CONTRASTIVE STUDIES
Zinaida CAMENEVA,
PhD, Associate Professor,
ULIM, R.Moldova
Before speaking about the role of translation in the contrastive
studies we must say something about translation in general. The sheer
volume of texts of all kinds, both traditional written texts and new
electronic ones, continues to increase exponentially and so does translation,
as long as there is a need to transmit those texts over linguistic boundaries.
All reading materials are, in a sense, a kind of translation, a search for
meanings in a text written by someone else. Translation is being viewed as
the rendering of a source language text ( SLT) into a target language text
(TLT) so as to ensure that the surface meaning of two will approximately be
similar and that the structure of the source text will be preserved as closely
29
as possible on condition they do not affect the target text structures.
Translation brings to the fore what is hidden in the language. This definition
lays stress on the syntactic system of the target language taking into
consideration the unit of translation which is not a simple word but a
combination of words whose meaning is not the sum of its constituents.
Sometimes the metaphorical use of a word is more common than its literal
use, as these are idioms they cannot be translated word –by-word.
The predominant purpose in translation is to express as exactly as
possible the full force and meaning of every such expression in the original,
another purpose is to produce a result that does not read like a translation at
all, but rather moves in its new dress with the same ease as in its native
rendering. Translation is therefore a process based on the theory that it is
possible to abstract the meaning of a text from its forms and reproduce that
meaning with very different forms of a target language.
Translation is a means of interlingual communication [1, 1959].
Interlingual communication is possible due to two factors: 1) that semantic
similarities in languages are due to “the common core of human
experience”, and 2) that fundamental similarities exist in the “syntactic
structure of languages especially at the so-called kernel, or core level” [4,
1976; 5,1982].
W. Wills writes that “everything can be expressed in every language”
[8, 1982]. This view is widespread in modern linguistics. In some cases
there is a large degree of variability in the translated texts which is not the
fault of the translator but it is the result of different cultural contexts in
which the translators find themselves and their subjective creative decisions.
The meaning equivalence between the two languages is more important
than the formal one. It may be achieved very seldom during the translation
of phraseological units.
The phraseology and the collocational patterning of the target version
must conform with the target-language norms, provided that the translation
does not sound foreign and the meaning is transmitted precisely. The target
language text must be equivalent to the source language text on both a
linguistic and a sociocultural level.
The relationship between the ST and the TT is complex. The
translator has to analyse very carefully the various elements which make up
the overall effect of the text, as he comes to interpret it. The translator
makes possible an exchange of information between the users of different
languages producing in the target language a text which has an identical
communicative value as the source text, e.g. it rains cats and dogs, its
translation is “ploua cu galeata”. This target text is not fully identical with
the source text, as to its form or content due to the limitations imposed by
30
the formal and semantic differences between the source language and the
target language. Nevertheless the users of target texts identify it
functionally, structurally and semantically. The functional identification is
revealed in the fact that the users handle the target text in such a way as if it
were a source text, a creation of the source text author.
The functional status of a translation is supported sometimes by its
structural and semantic similarity with the original, f.e. “no fewer than”- nu
mai puţin de (in Romanian),” sleep the sleep of the just”- a dormi somnul
drepţilor [6, 1993]. Our aim is not maximum parallelism of structure. It is
presumed that any breach of parallelism is not arbitrary but dictated by the
need for precision in conveying the meaning of the original. The translator
is allowed to resort to a description or interpretation only in case when
“direct translation is impossible [7,1960], f.e. “go back on smbd” in
Romanian it is translated as “a trăda pe cineva, a trăda interesele cuiva
[3,1976; 4, 1982].
The complex character of the idioms semantics makes its translation
no easy matter.. But there are some additional factors that make the task of
the adequate identification, understanding and translation of idioms more
complex.
First, an idiom can be confused with a free word combination if its
literal sense is not “exotic”, but rather trivial, f.e. “to measure one’s length –
a se întinde cît e de lung;„to let one’s hair down” - a lăsa la o parte
formalitaţile şi a se simţi în largul lui.
Second, a source language idiom may be identical in form to a target
language idiom, but it may have a different figurative meaning. Thus, the
English “to lead somebody by the nose” implies a total domination of one
person by the other. In Romanian it will be - a duce pe cineva de nas, and
„to stretch one”s legs means „to take a stroll” in Romanian it is translated -a-şi dezmorţi picioarele, a face o plimbare, a da o tură.
Third, a source language idiom can be wrongly interpreted due to its
association with a similar, if not identical target language unit, f.e. “to pull
the devil by the tail” that is “to be in trouble”. It may be misunderstood by
the translator under the influence of the Romanian idiom, i.e. a-l apuca pe
Dumneyeu de picioare.
Forth, a wrong interpretation of a source language idiom may be
caused by another source language idiom similar in form and different in
meaning, f.e.’to make good time (for smth.)’ – a găsi timp (pentru ceva) and
„to have good time” – a se distra. These two idioms have different
meanings.
Fifth, a source language idiom may have a broader range of
application than its target language counterpart being identical in form and
31
meaning, f.e. „to go through the hoops’ and „to jump through the hoops”.
They are translated into Romanian by: a fi pus la încercare. As we can see,
the contrastive or bistructural method of translation provides the necessary
steps to obtain not only the equivalents but also the data for the contrastive
analysis of the languages under consideration. Contrastive studies involve
comparison of selected sub-systems of the languages concerned, in our case
phraseological units, and, as comparatibility is proved by translatability,
translation has become a recognised criterion for establishing the crucial
notion of equivalence [2,1979].
Translators, interpreters, psychologists, data collectors and others
emphasize the necessity of a contrastive statement between the native and
the target languages and vice versa. The Contrastive Analysis (CA) is not
easily justified nowadays or executed as it was during the predominance of
taxonomic models of language analysis.
If the CA is defined generally as a method which enables us to
establish the differencies and similarities between languages , this task can
be approached in many different ways depending upon the theory of
language to which the investigator adheres. The results of the investigation
differ to a considerable extent because the task itself, especially the terms
‘similarity’ and ‘difference’ are understood differently in two different
theories: the structural linguist will apply these terms to the surface
structures, sentence structures, modification structures , etc.; the analyst
will compare rules which relate the common deep structure to different
surface structures rather than compare directly the surface elements of the
two languages.
The Contrastive studies concern the status of formation of the
universals in the linguistic theory being of special significance. The
problems connected with universals can be divided into three groups:
1. What are the universals? Can all common features of languages be
called universals?
2. What is the significance of finding universals? Should not they be
used only within the linguistic theory in order to distinguish universal
grammar from individual grammars?
3. Can ‘the real’ linguistic universals be distinguished from the
cognitive ones and how?
Universals were categorized into two qualitatively different groupssubstantial and formal universals - both types could be found in all three
aspects of grammar: phonetics, syntax and semantics, the easiest
universals to be established are those from phonetics.
32
Translation offers significant essential insights into the organization
of special features of those two languages at a time, the natural languages in
their written and spoken forms.
We deal with non-literary category of the text. Translating the texts
from English into Romanian we paid attention only to differences, didn’t
analyse symmetries, so-to-say cases of parallelism respectively, because the
systematic analysis of literary and non-literary texts in translation is one of
the best sources of information on contrastive lexicon and syntax of English
and Romanian languages. We arrive at a relatively complete description of
the differences and similarities between these two languages although we
had difficulties in the research
The usage of translation materials as a source of data for contrastive
studies stands no reason. Analytical work provides very useful results for
the users of these two languages. One of the effects of the research has an
immediate practical application in the area of foreign language teaching by
providing information on lexical and syntactic devices used in both
languages.
In the process of translation we paid attention to the technical
procedures described by Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet who are
considered the founders of traductology. They divided translation into direct
and indirect or oblique. As we mentioned above we do not speak about
direct translation because it doesn’t present difficulties. It is gained by using
borrowings, paraphrasing and calque.
This material belongs to the domain of English and Romanian
semantic studies of the phraseological units as the basis of the contrastive
studies in linguistics. We demonstrated the relations between the units in
these languages as the starting point. We had selected 100 of such
phraseological units and generalized their translation, organized into a
micro glossary of nominal and verbal phraseological units.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Bibliography
Jakobson, R. (1959). On Translation. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press.
Muscat-Tabakowska, M. The Function of Translation in Foreign
Language Teaching. In Papers and Studies in Contrastive Linguistics,
v.1. Poznan, 1979, pp.131 - 139.
New Concise Oxford Lingua English –Romanian Dictionary. Oxford
University Press and Educational Centre. Bucarest, 2009.
Nida, E. (1982). Translating Meaning. English Language Institute,
San Dimas, California, 483p.
33
5.
6.
7.
8.
Nida, E. (1976). A Framework for the Analysis and Evaluation of
Theories of Translation. In: R. Brislin (ed.), Translation: Application
and Research, Gardner Press, Inc., New York, pp.47 -91.
Nicolescu, A., et al. Dicţionar frazeologic englez – romîn .Bucureşti:
Editura Teora, 1993.
Vinay, J.P., Darbelnet , J. Stylistique comparée du francais et de
l’anglais. Méthode de traduction. Paris: Didier, 1960.
Wills, W. (1982). The Science of Translation: Problems and
Methods, Tu bingen: Gunter Narr.
UNELE METODE INTERACTIVE DE LUCRU
Eleonora CHEIBAŞ,
lector superior,
ULIM, R.Moldova
Ce ştim noi despre brainstorm? Cum şi de ce funcţionează, care sunt
regulile lui şi care este desfăşurarea brainstormingului?
Ce fel de metodă este brainstorm? Brainstorm e o metodă foarte
eficientă pentru a aduna cît mai multe idei şi pentru a asigura o implicare
activă a tuturor studenţilor la început, în cadrul şi la sfîrşit de oră în timpul
studierii unei limbi străine. Mai întîi de toate e distractivă şi dă posibilitate
tuturor studenţilor de a participa în discuţii fără învingători sau învinşi.
Dacă profesorul foloseşte bine tehnica, care printre altele e destul de
simplă şi eficientă atunci brainstorming-ul funcţionează destul de bine.
Grupul de studenţi trebuie să fie încurajaţi pentru a-şi exprima clar şi
benevol cît mai multe idei, păreri. Critica, observaţiile, temerile nu la locul
lor nu pot fi admise nici într-un caz. Dacă metoda respectivă se foloseşte
frecvent, ea devine destul de distractivă. Fiecare student are ideile, părerile,
propunerile, explicaţiile sale. Pentru a obţine o atmosferă plăcută,
distractivă şi desigur folositoare pentru studenţi în nici într-un caz nu
trebuie ca profesorul să evalueze răspunsurile, ideile, părerile, propunerile,
explicaţiile studenţilor, în cadrul orei, cu nici un fel de limbaj, mimică ori
cuvinte. Orice idee la orice nivel, chiar dacă sunt asemănătoare trebuie să
fie acceptate. Atunci chiar şi cei mai inhibaţi studenţi vor participa la
discuţii.
Cum se desfăşoară brainstorming-ul? Tematica e aleasă de profesor.
Aşa cum avem de-a face cu predarea limbilor străine pe tablă ori pe flip
chart, se scriu cuvintele, expresiile noi (dacă ele sunt) din textul dat pentru
a-l înţelege şi pentru a le folosi în vorbire în viitor. Apoi se anunţă ţelul.
Studenţii trebuie să înţeleagă scopul, de altfel brainstorming-ul s-ar putea să
34
nu funcţioneze. Se stabileşte timpul şi se dă startul.Aşa cum tabla, flip
chart-ul, marker-ul sau creta au fost pregătite în prealabil îndată ce studenţii
îşi expun părerile, ele sunt notate sau memorizate.
Cum se şi cuvine la sfîrşitul brainstorming-ului profesorul apreciază
studentul pentru cooperare şi eficienţă. Apoi se încep discuţiile şi evaluarea.
Se discută diverse idei. Fiecare student are dreptul să-şi expună părerea
despre text şi ideile colegilor. La început trebuie de preîntîmpinat studenţii,
că nicidecum nu se critică colegul, a căreia idee se pune în discuţie.
Dar cînd se foloseşte brainstorming-ul? Închipuiţi-vă că în cadrul orei
de studii apare o tensiune din diferite motive, sau trebuie de atenuat orice
inhibiţie a studenţilor. Noi folosim această tehnică pentru a înlătura
tensiunea din cadrul grupului, pentru a-i obliga pe studenţii vorbăreţi să
asculte, pentru a oferi un material în vederea stabilirii unui scop, sau pentru
evaluarea unei activităţi, sau pentru solţionarea unei probleme, pentru a
activa pe acei studenţi, care sunt timizi când îşi exprimă ideile, sau pentru a
înviora o atmosferă plictisitoare şi obositoare la sfârşit de oră. E foarte bine
de folosit texte, proverbe, zicători, povestioare ş.a.m.d. în legătură cu tema
respectivă. De exemplu: în fiecare an când analizăm textul “How we got
Mother’s Day” (textul “The Greatest Family In The World”) sau la
predarea şi analiza
textului despre transport le expun textul
“Misunderstands” ş.a.
Un alt gen de brainstorm sunt şi jocurile de simulare, în cadrul cărora
studenţii activează după nişte reguli stricte. Însă, deoarece situaţia în jocuri
nu este una reală, ei primesc feedback unde ei pot vedea cît de interesantă
este obţiunea. Atunci ei pot analiza evenimentele care sunt simulate mai
obiectiv, chiar decît pe cele reale din viaţă. Desigur aceste jocuri sunt
distractive şi e o modalitate destul de bună pentru a rupe monotonia în
cadrul orei de studii. Aici profesorul trebuie să hotărască mai întîi de toate
dacă jocul respectiv va atinge obiectivul educaţional. Jocurile la ore trebuie
ghidate cu iscusinţă de către profesor. El joacă rolul de expert. Profesorul
ajută studenţii să scoată concluziile cuvenite după orice activitate de acest
gen.Jocul de simulare este un dublicat al unei experienţe din viaţa de toatre
zilele. Acest joc implică doi sau mai mulţi studenţi. Ei sunt obligaţi să
acţioneze după nişte reguli stricte. Acest fapt e necesar pentru a atinge un
scop dinainte stabilit, într-o anumită perioadă de timp. Rolurile studenţilor
pot fi active. Jucătorii sunt obligaţi să vorbească şi să acţioneze în funcţie de
rolul pe care îl primesc. Dar rolurile studenţilor pot fi şi pasive. De
exemplu, toţi studenţii au o afacere în care trebuie să facă bani şi sunt în
competiţie.
Aceste jocuri de simulare implică mai mulţi participanţi. Ele sunt
distractive şi prezintă o modalitate excelentă pentru a rupe monotonia la
35
lecţii. Ele stimulează discuţiile, pot fi folosite pentru rezolvarea unei
probleme, în evoluare, analiză sau în informare, pot stimula soluţionarea
conflictelor şi dezvoltarea unor deprinderi verbale şi interpersonale.E foarte
interesant că aceste jocuri le permit studenţilor să se vadă pe ei înşişi şi pe
colegii în alte circumstanţe.
Înainte ca profesorul să folosească jocul respectiv, el trebuie să
hotărască dacă jocul respectiv va atinge obiectivul educaţional propus în
prealabil. El trebuie neapărat să decida dacă simularea este cea mai bună
tehnică de predare în cazul respectiv.
Un alt gen de brainstorming este jocul de rol. Jocul de rol este o tehnica
de interacţiune inter-umană, un comportament realist într-o situaţie
imaginară, ipotecă.Comportamentul studenţilor este spontan, deoarece ei
acţionează fără nici un scenariu. El ar trebui să fie foarte apropiat de cel din
viaţa de zi cu zi. Jocul de rol poate motiva, ajută în diagnostica cerinţelor
grupului; să perceapă punctul de vedere al unei alte persoane; să evalueze
diferite informaţii, atitudini; să evidenţieze diferite alternative, care nu au
fost vizibile înainte; să soluţioneze diferite probleme. Acest gen de
brainstorming crează o atmosferă plăcută pentru relaxarea studenţilor.
Următorul gen de brainstorming este studiul de caz. Studiul de caz este
o descriere detaliată a unui eveniment, organizaţii sau proiect. Poate să se
prezinte în format scris, oral sau pe casete audio/video, sau combinat.
Scopul lui este studiul, analiza şi concluzionarea. Studiul de caz se foloseşte
când vrei să descrii detaliat o situaţie care interesează întregul grup, dacă
doreşti să identifici cerinţele grupului să predai deprinderi necesare
soluţionării unor probleme.
Studiul de caz se foloseşte dacă profesorul doreşte să trezească
interesul studentului în luarea deciziilor, ori doreşte să încurajeze
descoperirea de sine, să formuleze nişte idei ori soluţii
personale.Deasemenea studiul de caz se foloseşte la evaluarea unui proiect
sau organizaţie.
Exista patru cazuri de studiu de caz:
 Studiu clasic in format scris, adică prezentarea în scris a unei
probleme majore; poate să fie lungă, având grafice, tabele etc.;
 Caz neterminat, adică un studiu de caz, care nu are sfârşit şi
necesită o soluţie venită din partea participanţilor (a studenţilor);
 Caz de criză prezintă o problemă, care necesită soluţionarea
imediată. Urgenţa poate să sporească motivarea participanţilor;
 După cazul faptic, ce oferă o ocazie de a analiza şi evolua din
greşelile anterioare.
36
Alt gen de Brainstorming este lucrul in grup, care educă
responsabilitatea, dezvoltă deprinderea de comunicare, încurajează
colaborarea şi formează deprinderi de luare a deciziei în baza unui consens.
Alte genuri de brainstorming-uri sunt: discuţia, discuţia în perechi,
ilustraţiile (fotografii, imagini, desene, colaje), microfonul magic, cercuri
concentric, continuum, acvariul, ierarhizarea, votul direct, votul prioritar
etc.
În încheiere, vreau să spun, că nu importă ce gen de brainstorm folosim
în cadrul orelor de studii, importă faptul că acest gen de brainstorm sa
funcţioneze cu success.
Bibliografie
Bantaş I. Pedagogie. Chişinău: ALL, 1996
Cerghit I. Metodele de învăţămînt. Bucureşti: EDP, 1998
Cerghit I. Metodele de învăţământ. Iaşi: Polirom, 2006
Schab Horst. Dicţionar de pedagogie. Iaşi: POLIROM, 2001
Cristea S. Dicţionar de pedagogie.. Chişinău-Bucureşti:Litera
Internaţional, 2000.
6. Cristea S. Pedagogie generală, Managementul Educaţiei. Bucureşti:
EDP, 1996.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
CONSIDERAŢIUNI CU PRIVIRE LA PROGNOZAREA
DIDACTICĂ ÎN CADRUL PREDĂRII LIMBILOR STRĂINE
Alexei CHIRDEACHIN,
dr., lector superior,
ULIM, R.Moldova
După cum se ştie, limba este cel mai important mijloc de comunicare
interumană. Ţinându-se cont de faptul acesta limba se învaţă pentru a putea
fi participant al procesului de comunicare. Comunicarea este schimb de idei
şi informaţii, fapt ce presupune aspectele productiv şi perceptiv şi nivelele
oral şi scris ale acesteia. Astfel, pentru a putea fi participant al procesului de
comunicare este nevoie de competenţe comunicative productive şi
perceptive orale şi scrise (a vorbi, a audia, a scrie şi a citi). Competenţele
comunicative pot fi clasificate după criteriul productivităţii şi al
receptivităţii (a vorbi şi a scrie vs. a audia şi a citi) şi după cel al nivelului (a
vorbi şi a audia vs. a scrie şi a citi) (Tab.1).
37
Tab.1. Clasificarea competenţelor comunicative
Nivel
Caracter
Oral
Scris
Productiv
Perceptiv
A vorbi
A scrie
A audia
A citi
Conform Cadrului European Comun de Rererinţă pentru Limbi [2],
procesul de însuşire a cunoştinţelor de limbă vizează 3 nivele: cunoaştere şi
înţelegere/comprehensiune, aplicare şi integrare. La nivel de cunoaştere se
formează cunoştinţele propriu-zise, la cel de aplicare ele se transformă în
abilităţi care la rândul lor se transformă în deprinderi sau competenţe
comunicative la cel de integrare (Tab.2).
Tab.2. Coraport între nivele şi obiectivele vizate în procesul de
predare/învăţare a limbii străine
Nivelul
Obiectivul vizat
Cunoaştere şi
Cunoştinţe
înţelegere/comprehensiune
Aplicare
Abilităţi
Deprinderi/competenţe
Integrare
comunicative
În procesul de predare-învăţare a limbii străine cadrul didactic se
confruntă cu greşelile studenţilor şi cu potenţialul lor de a le comite. Există
două tipuri de greşeli: greşeli individuale specifice unei persoane anumite şi
cele tipice. Cele din urmă pot avea două surse de provenienţă: influenţa
limbii materne şi cea a unei alte limbi străine. Dacă pentru un student sau
altul învăţarea limbii respective constituie prima experienţă el percepe
materia studiată prin prisma faptelor respective din limba maternă. În cazul
dacă el a mai învăţat o altă limbă anterior sau dacă o învaţă concomitent ca
limba de bază cea vizată fiind secundă el extrapolează experienţa câştigată
şi asupra celei din urmă. Astfel de greşeli trebuie prevenite, corijate şi
prognozate.
Pentru a prognoza greşelile tipice ale studenţilor, se propun două
abordări:
I. Abordarea comparativ-contrastivă: 1. Determinarea trăsăturilor
distinctive (principale şi secundare) între limbile maternă, studiată şi (la
necesitate) altă limbă străină (în general şi la nivelul compartimentului
vizat: pronunţie, gramatică, vocabular, grafie); 2. Alcătuirea inventarului
38
greşelilor tipice eventuale în cadrul compartimentului şi a sistemului de
unităţi şi subunităţi respective.
II. Abordarea statistică. Una dintre metodele aplicate în cercetările
lingvistice este cea statistică. Semnificaţia ei rezidă în faptul că ea
contribuie la determinarea ocurenţei / frecvenţei unei unităţi al limbii sau a
alteia, ceea ce permite stabilirea locului ei în succesiunea unităţilor în cadrul
fiecărui aspect în parte. Importanţa datelor statistice din punct de vedere
didactic se explică prin cerinţa ca procesul de predare a unităţilor
compartimentale ale limbii străine să se efectueze în ordinea descendentă a
gradelor de ocurenţă ale acestora. Se recomandă a se porni de la sunetele
şi grafemele (structuri gramaticale, cuvinte; în cazul celor din urmă
orientându-se spre tematica lor) cele mai frecvente la modalitatea
descendentă. Prin urmare, este necesar să se ţină cont de ocurenţa /
frecvenţa unei unităţi sau alteia în cadrul predării / învăţării limbii studiate
şi, având-o în vedere, a le prezenta în ordinea descrescândă a gradelor lor
de ocurenţă. Din atare motiv, ne propunem să examinăm modalităţi
statistice sau cantitative de prognozare didactică. În acest context, trebuie
să determinăm următoarele:
1. Numărul unităţilor şi al subunităţilor vizate în cadrul
compartimentului respectiv, dar şi procentajul fiecărei unităţi în parte din
numărul lor total în cadrul compartrimentului vizat, dar şi cel al fiecărei
subunităţi din numărul lor total în cadrul unităţii şi al compartimentului (în
continuare a);
2. Ocurenţa unităţilor şi a subunităţilor vizate în cadrul
compartimentului respectiv, dar şi procentajul fiecărei unităţi în parte din
numărul lor total în cadrul compartrimentului vizat, dar şi cel al fiecărei
subunităţi din numărul lor total în cadrul unităţii şi al compartimentului în
vorbire curent (în baza textelor, secvenţelor audio, video etc.; în continuare
b);
3. Numărul greşelilor tipice referitoare la unităţi şi subunităţi în
cauză în cadrul compartimentului respectiv, dar şi procentajul fiecărei
greşeli în parte în ce priveşte unităţi (din numărul lor total în cadrul
compartrimentului vizat, dar şi cel al fiecărei subunităţi din numărul lor
total în cadrul unităţii şi al compartimentului; în continuare c) la nivel de
inventar;
4. Numărul greşelilor tipice referitoare la unităţi şi subunităţi în cauză
în cadrul compartimentului respectiv, dar şi procentajul fiecărei greşeli în ce
priveşte unităţi (din numărul lor total în cadrul compartrimentului vizat, dar
şi cel al fiecărei subunităţi din numărul lor total în cadrul unităţii şi al
compartimentului) în vorbire curentă (în baza textelor, secvenţelor audio,
video etc.; în continuare d).
39
Pentru a determina a, este necesar să calculăm numărul total al
unităţilor şi subunităţilor vizate în cadrul compartimentului respectiv, dar şi
procentajul fiecărei unităţi în parte din numărul lor total în cadrul
compartrimentului vizat, dar şi cel al fiecărei subunităţi din numărul lor
total în cadrul unităţii şi al compartimentului. De exemplu, în cadrul
compartimentului fonetico-fonologic putem calcula numărul africatelor,
procentajul fiecărei africate în parte din numărul total al africatelor, din
nunmărul total al categoriei respective de foneme, după articulaţie din
numărul total al consoanelor şi după stuctură sau componenţă din numărul
total al unităţilor monofonematice compuse (în continuare UMC): din
numărul total al celor neomogene (africate+diftongi) şi în general
(africate+diftongi+geminate+vocale lungi care în limbile engleză şi
germană sunt relevante fonologic); apoi purcedem la calcularea
procentajului din numărul total de foneme. Calculele să fie prezentate sub
forma de tabel.
Pentru a determina b, este necesar să calculăm ocurenţa unităţilor şi a
subunităţilor vizate în cadrul compartimentului respectiv, dar şi procentajul
fiecărei unităţi în parte din numărul lor total în cadrul compartrimentului
vizat, dar şi cel al fiecărei subunităţi din numărul lor total în cadrul unităţii
şi al compartimentului în vorbire curentă (în baza textelor, secvenţelor
audio, video etc. De exemplu, în cadrul compartimentului foneticofonologic putem calcula numărul africatelor, procentajul fiecărei africate în
parte din numărul total al africatelor, din numărul total al categoriei
respective de foneme, după articulaţie din numărul total al consoanelor şi
după stuctură sau componenţă din numărul total al UMC: din numărul total
al celor neomogene (africate+diftongi) şi în general (africate+diftongi+
geminate+ vocale lungi; apoi purcedem la calcularea procentajului din
numărul total de foneme. Calculele de asemenea să fie întroduse în tabel.
Pentru a determina c, este necesar să calculăm numărul total al
greşelilor tipice referitoare la unităţi şi subunităţi în cauză în cadrul
compartimentului respectiv, dar şi procentajul fiecărui tip de greşeală în ce
priveşte unităţi (din numărul lor total în cadrul compartrimentului vizat, dar
şi cel al fiecărei subunităţi din numărul lor total în cadrul unităţii şi al
compartimentului) la nivel de inventar. De exemplu, în cadrul
compartimentului fonetico-fonologic putem calcula numărul greşelilor
tipice referitoare la africate, procentajul fiecărei greşeli de tipul dat din
numărul total al greşelilor tipice referitoare la africate, din numărul total al
greşelilor tipice referitoare la categoria respectivă de foneme
(consonantismul după articulaţie şi UMC după stuctură sau componenţă:
cele neomogene (africate + diftongi) şi în general (africate + diftongi +
geminate + vocale lungi)); apoi purcedem la calcularea procentajului din
40
numărul total de greşeli tipice. Calculele şi în cazul acesta se introduc în
tabel.
Pentru a determina d, recurgem la formula a:b=c:d; d=(b∙c):a. La
aplicarea acestei formule trebuie să se respecte corespondenţa parametrilor.
De exemplu, daca a este procentajul fiecărui diftong sau al fiecărei africate
din numărul total al diftongilor sau africatelor respectiv, aceeaşi valoare
trebuie s-o exprime şi b, c (şi prin urmare d) în cazul dat va constitui
procentajul greşelilor tipice referitoare la fiecare sunet (diftong sau africată)
în parte din numărul total al greşelilor tipice referitoare la diftongi sau
africate respectiv. Pentru o exactitate mai mare a datelor se recomandă să se
efectueze calculele indicatorului b în baza textelor (secvenţelor audio şi
video etc) folosite în procesul de predare a limbii străine în cauză. Totodată
implicarea mai multor surse textuale, audio şi video va permite obţinerea
datelor mai globale.
Menţionăm însă că o astfel de abordare în prognozarea didactică nu
exclude aplicarea metodei de observare a procesului didactic şi a
experimentului didactic cu clasificare lingvodidactică şi prelucrare
cantitativă sau statistică a datelor obţinute. Dar ea facilitează munca
profesorului în ce priveşte combaterea greşelilor, dar şi contribuie la
creşterea gradului de eficientizare a procesului de instruire lingvistică şi
implicit la calitatea cunoştinţelor, abilităţilor şi a deprinderilor/
competenţelor comunicative obţinute de studenţi.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Bibliografie
Babâră N. Pronunţarea şi ortografia engleză în contextul didacticii
(studiu lingvistico-statistic)//Probleme de lingvistică generală şi
romanică. Vol. II. Chişinău: CE USM, 2003. P. 17-22.
Cadrul european comun de referinţă pentru limbi: învăţare, predare,
evaluare. Chişinău: S. n., 2003. 204 p.
Guţu V., Cimpoieş Gh., Babuc V., Vrâncean V., Roşca V., Zacon E.,
Florea L. Proiectarea curriculum-ului învăţământului agrar în
Republica Moldova. Ghid Metodologic. Chişinău: UASM, 2001. 58 p.
Гальскова Н.Д., Гез Н.И. Теория обучения иностранным языкам:
Лингводидактика и методика. Москва: Академия, 2004. 336 с.
Гринько Г. Значение результатов контрастивного анализа для
преподавания
двух
иностранных
языков
как
специальности//Наукова спадщина професора С. В. Семчинського
i сучасна фiлологiя. Збiрник наукових праць. Частина перша. –
Киïв: ВПЦ «Киïвський унiверситет», 2001. С. 274-279.
Загвязинский В.И. Исследовательская деятельность педагога. 3-е
изд. Москва: Академия, 2010. 176 с.
41
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Загвязинский В.И., Атаханов Р. Методология и методы психологопедагогического исследования. 6-е изд. Москва: Академия, 2010.
208 с.
Колкер Я.М., Устинова Е.С., Еналиева Т.М. Практическая
методика обучения иностранному языку. Москва: Академия, 2004.
264 с.
Коряковцева Н.Ф. Теория обучения иностранным языкам:
продуктивные образовательные технологии. Москва: Академия,
2010. 192 с.
Маслыко Е.А., Бабинская П.К., Будько А.Ф., Петрова С.И.
Настольная книга преподавателя иностранного языка. Минск:
Вышэйшая школа, 2003. 522 с.
Педагогика: педагогические теории, системы, технологии.–
Москва: Академия, 2004. – 512 с.
Попков В.А., Коржуев А.В. Методология педагогики. Москва:
Изд-во МГУ, 2007. 208 с.
Селиванов В.С. Основы общей педагогики: Теория и методика
воспитания. Москва: Академия, 2004. 336 с.
ENGINEERING LINGUISTICS
Valentin CIJACOVSCHI,
PhD habilitatus, University Professor, ULIM,
Vladimir PROCOPCIUC,
PhD student, TUM, R.Moldova
Engineering linguistics as a compound part of the general linguistics
has a special place due to the fact that it is meant to solve specific issues,
using programming automaton on one hand, the main problem being the
automatic processing of the linguistic text, and on the other hand using the
theory of linguistic synergy.
It can be understood that the person who organizes and carries the
above mentioned process must be able to combine two specialties: that of
linguist and that of programmer.
Some general requirements for these specialists were partially stated
by International Center for Applied Business Intelligence (ICAPI:
[email protected]) in their job offer for engineers in natural language
machine processing (NLMP). This centre has also the following
requirements:
 Capability to work in a team of linguists, engineers and developers;
42


Clearly understanding of linguistic means;
Imagination and realization of the innovative implementations of
using the technologies for natural language processing.
Thus it becoming clear, accumulating by one person the specialty
mentioned above such a problem could be successfully solved.
In order to correspond to requirements stated by ICAPI, the future
specialist, engineer-linguist should learn a set of knowledge addressed to
two specialties: in specialization in domain of theory and practice of
engineer linguistic and in the domain of theory and practice of
programming.
Specialization in domain of theory and practice of engineer
linguistic
 diffuse nature of linguistic objects;
 linguistic models;
 linguistic sign and sign in artificial language;
 verbal-cognitive communicative process;
 speech and language synergy;
 linguistic automatons;
 artificial intelligence and its linguistic aspects;
 Databases and knowledgebase.
Specialization in theory and practice of programming
The base knowledge for this specialty consists from:
 programming;
 databases and algorithms;
 linguistic mathematics;
 object oriented programming;
 logical programming;
 formal languages;
 databases and knowledgebase;
 functional programming;
 engineer linguistics – as source of ideas for programming;
 Systems of artificial intelligence.
For attending this specialties students from foreign language, informatics
and programming departments are invited.
Education of such specialists is divided into two phases:
 Beginner’s course phase (training phase) from corresponding
departments and
 Master course phase, when they’d obtain scientific degree of
linguist-engineer / engineer-linguist.
Theoretical basis
43
Is the concept of linguistic synergetics. Synergetics or synergism.
(The term is derived from the Greek syn-ergos, συνεργός meaning working
together.) was related to the phenomenon in which two or more influences
(two or more agents), activating together, obtain an effect greater than that
can be predicted knowing just the effects of individual agents. From the
beginning it was a scientific term.
The synergy may also mean:
 A mutual advantageous link, the sum of which is greater than the
sum of their component parts;
 A dynamic state in which combined action is favored over the
difference of individual component actions.;
 Behavior of whole systems unpredicted by the behavior of their
parts taken separately. More accurately known as emergent behavior.
Strictly speaking it’s about a phenomenon which is obtained as a
result of the actions of some different factors. The last taken separately
doesn’t give the mentioned phenomenon. Theory of dynamic systems
presents the method or mathematic apparatus used in synergy.
As an example of a efficient collaboration of a linguist and a
programmer, we propose the description of the experiment of machine
translation “English business letter machine translation without postediting” from English into German.
We ascertain the fact that the existent systems of machine translation
such as Systran, Global Link, and others don't achieve a fine result in
translation that would not need any man intervention, and namely:
• an automatic translation without post-editing isn't obtained;
• the translation is based on improving the existing morphologicsyntactical data without taking into account the possibilities of a semantic
analysis based on the synergetic laws of the natural language;
• the translation is realized by programs without a corresponding
understanding of the translated text's essence.
To obtain a method of machine translation that wouldn’t need any
post-editing, we are relying on the possibilities to implement theoretical and
practical ideas of engineer linguistics, the last allow an adequate
interpretation of some concepts such as
• artificial and natural intelligence,
• linguistic synergy and methods of analysis,
• transfer and synthesis of specialized texts exposed to machine
translation
The above-mentioned process is formed up by three stages; first one
consists of the following procedures:
 Making up the vocabulary (English and German);
44




Duality elimination of some parts of speech;
Segmentation of the English sentence;
Schematization of the English sentence;
Disambiguation of the parts of speech.
The second stage consists of:
 Recoding of the German parts of speech;
 Words order fixation for the German sentence;
 Determination of the Exterior and Interior Valence Determinative
Ties (EVDT, IVDT)
The third stage consists of the final translation itself. Translation
procedures of each section are based on linguistic algorithms transferred
into mathematical algorithms and finally programmed.
As a result of all the operations described above, the program
becomes able to determine the exact German form suitable to English one
and at the same time the filtration of German equivalents is performed,
taking into consideration the polysemous character of corresponding
English word forms. There are applied different methods when choosing the
right equivalent and among them is theory and practice of terms’
disambiguation.
The apparition in the late 40’s of the computer capable of solving not
only calculation tasks but also performing logical operations made possible
its utilization in translating. As a result, already in the early 60’s the
linguistic-engineering scientific group formed up which united linguists and
mathematicians-programmers and was pursuing the goal of creating
computerized models for reproduction of different linguistic phenomena
and some aspects of the verbal-cognitive human activity (VCHA). As the
main impediment for realization of this goal was considered the behavior of
the natural languages (NL) and programming languages. Disregarding this
fact has led to the failure of the system TA EUROTRA in the 70-80’s.
Unlimited concentration of different language and speech details could not
favor the automatic processing of the text (First International Conference
on Language Resource and Evaluation, Spain, 1998).
One of the latest and often used automatic translating systems is the
American system SYSTRAN (Linguistic Description of Systran
„Luxemburg Commission of the European Communities, April 1993”). It is
based on the use of automat-statistical dictionaries of big volume and of
simplified grammatical frames. Based on this system we can obtain
translations of big volume but with a poor quality which doesn’t satisfy
users and needs post-editing.
Procedures description
Domain of application „computer solving of linguistic issues”:
45
Segmentation- automatic segmentation of initial natural language
(INL) sentence based on the system of codification of INL parts of speech,
set of rules for duality elimination of interpreting and of table of indices;
Schematization- automatic assignation of sentence’s segments
already detected by the linguistic cybernetic automat (LCA) their syntacticsemantic functions simultaneously recording their graphical sequence order;
Disambiguation- (segments’ disambiguation) automatic elimination
of the polysemy peculiar to the majority of English parts of speech, based
on the set of disambiguation rules;
Recoding - recoding of the initial natural language (INL) segment
into final natural language (FNL) in case of lacking of coincidence between
INL and FNL expression forms;
Ordering - word-order settlement in the FNL;
Filtration - choosing the FNL translation equivalent word suitable
for INL;
EVDT (Exterior Valence of Determinative Ties) - setting and
recording the general exterior valence;
IVDT (Interior Valence of Determinative Ties) -setting and recording
the general interior valence;
The subject of study is a new procedure based on the utilization of
the natural language synergetic mechanism, in this case of INL and FNL
specialized in a certain domain, in order to ensure an automatic translation
of the specialized INL texts into FNL without post-editing.
The machine translation based on utilization of the linguistic
synergetic mechanism is characterized with the fact that the machine
translation is carried out without the necessity of post-editing.
The proposed procedure for machine translation of specialized
English/German (INL) into FNL is based on forming of the generating and
perceiving operations of these texts in human mind, formalization of these
operations in the form of algorithms and their operative programming for
their posterior regeneration by the LCA.
The distinctive difference from the existent procedures of machine
translation consists in the fact that the operations sequence for solving this
issue allows automatic intimation of the functional manner of the linguistic
synergetic mechanism created in an ideal manner by setting up the
transition forms into a single definite and materialized form at the level of
words, junction of words (segments) and sentence (junction of segments).
Claims:
1. Automatic segmentation of the English (INL) sentence based on the
codification system of English parts of speech, rule set of duality
elimination and table of indices;
46
2.
schematization, thus automatic assignation of the segments of the
sentence already detected by LCA, of their syntactic-semantic
functions and simultaneously recording their graphic sequence order;
3. segment’s disambiguation, thus automatic elimination of the polysemy
peculiar to the majority if English parts of speech, based on the set of
disambiguation rules;
4. recoding of the INL segment into FNL in case of lacking of
coincidence between INL and FNL expression forms;
5. word-order settlement in the FNL;
6. filtration, thus choosing the FNL translation equivalent word suitable
for INL;
7. fastening of the morphological and syntactical constant characteristics
of the parts of speech of the analyzed FNL segment;
8. setting and recording Exterior Valence of Determinative Ties (EVDT);
9. setting and recording Interior Valence of Determinative Ties (IVDT);
10. final recording of the morphological and syntactical constant
characteristics including inconstant ones;
11. automatic choosing the translation variant, thus recording the
paradigms of the declination and conjugation of the needed word
form from the segment where it is located;
12. final fixation of the translation result from INL into FNL.
Realization stages of text machine processing of INL for its
translation into FNL
Introductory remark
In the following section is described the corresponding order of the
machine processing of specialized text/sentence of INL, i.e. the sequence
and content of the elements of this continuous process which ensures the
transition to translation into FNL.
It includes: segmentation, preceded by elimination of interpretation
duality of some parts of speech, schematization and disambiguation. All
these operations assume the presence of codification of the English (INL)
parts of speech, of rules set which regulates their realization as linguistic as
well as programming.
Automatic segmentation of INL sentence
With notion of segmentation it is understood automating setting of
the component parts of content of the analyzed sentence which takes part in
making up its meaning. The segment can be represented as a part of speech
taken apart (conjunction while) or as a junction of words (your proposal).
The automatic segments’ determination is preceded by elaboration of
the engineer reproductive models (ERM) which simulates the order of
generating and perceiving of the analyzed sentence dictated by the linguistic
47
synergetic mechanism itself, NL and VCHA. These models are based on
utilization of morphological and syntactic-semantic properties of the
English (INL) parts of speech which manifest themselves differently in
dependence on the role played in creating the meaning of the current
sentence.
Rules set for elimination of the interpretation duality
In cases when an elimination of interpretation of one ambiguous part
of speech is necessary before the operation of automatic segmentation the 3
letter of the code A will be replaced by R.
For example: the preposition to is coded with PTR, as soon as it can
introduce an infinitive, or a prepositional segment. In first case R will be
replaced by O (PTO), in the second case PTR will be replaced by PSO
(simple unambiguous preposition).
Participial conjunction considering that, when detected by the
program with its first member considering coded VGR, is to be processed in
concordance to respective rule. The latest supposes the detection of the
following part of speech that (CTA) in case of its detection allows the
fixation of the conjunctional segment coded with CPO using two intervals
().
Tables of indices are a systematization of codes arranged in
corresponding columns (1, 2, 3, ...) of the English (INL) parts of speech
which take part in building up the semantic segments of the analyzed
sentences and numbered from 0 till 9 according to number of the English
(INL) coded parts of speech. In case of extending the including codes the
table can be extended (for pronouns we introduce 4A, 4B, 4C). As an
example we shall use the table of indices from bellow.
Table of indices no. 4B
l. no.
Parts
of
spee
ch
code
s
1
FSO
FAO
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
ESO
EQO
EQA
MOA
NOA
CUL
NOA
NAO
NOA
NNO
NOA
NOA
-
-
48
10
ES
EQ
EQ
FS
0
1
F
M
CU
2
NO
NA
3
NO
NN
4
NO
NO
5
6
NO
This table refers to all segments introduced by the possessive
pronoun. It is coded as FSO when it is used as an adjectival pronoun
(associative form) and as FAO when it is used as a noun (absolute form).
Both codes take first column. In the next columns there are indicated the
codes of English (INL) parts of speech which can participate in building up
the segments introduced by FSO and FAO (adjective is introduced with E,
numeral with M, noun with N, conjunction with C).
For example, the program begins with processing of the segment
introduced by the possessive pronoun (FSO) (see table of indices no. 4B p.
3). Marking its presence in the first column of the table, the program
records its presence in one interval (your) and pursues to processing of the
next word - proposal – coded as NOA. In order to decide its membership to
the segment it is necessary to address to the second column for confirmation
of its presence. The answer being affirmative, the program records it in one
interval and pursues to the processing of the net word from the sentence –
for (PSO). Addressing to the table of indices is repeating, but this time to
the third column. The absence of PSO in the column is interpreted by
program as the beginning of the new segment which should be separated
from the previous with two intervals () - yourproposal.
In the same way was fixed the end of the first segment of the
analyzed sentence introduced by we (FNO), but this time addressing to the
table of indices 4A.
We used 16 tables of indices, 5 for segments introduced by verb, 3
for segments introduced by pronouns and one for the each rest of the parts
of speech, all these tables are projected in database with respective
architecture for recording the data for graphs.
General remarks
1. The proposed automatic translation experiment of INL specialized
texts into FNL is dedicated to simulation of process of morphologic49
syntactic-semantic analizing and synthesizing realized in human mind when
generating and perceiving the specialized and standartized text in
correspondence to architectural structure of the program through
algorythmisation and programming.
2. Taking into account the complexity of this process, we have
divided and subdivided it into linguistic units and subunits which make
possible a successive solving of the entire problem when the preceding
results allow solving the following issues.
3. It is one of the first research-work of this kind which addresses
directly to the functioning of the mechanism of synergetic linguistics at the
implementation of automatic processing of specialised text. As a result we
have marked the existence of interior interdependence relations between
linguistic and psychic phenomena which ensure the functioning of the
above-mentioned mechanism. While our thoughts are produced in an ideal
form and are properties of the substance organised in a particular mode our
reasons, notions, conclusions and the natural and artificial languages are
produced in a concrete and materialised form – grammar structures and
vocabulary.
The mutual dependence between language as a phenomenon on one
hand and materialized on the other hand based on automation of the
specialized texts allowed affirmation of machine translation without postediting.
Bibliography
1. Cijacovschi V., Procopciuc V. Lingvistica inginerească component contemporan al lingvisticii (realităţi şi perspective). Chişinău:
Centrul Ed. USM, 2005.
2. Tschizhakowski V., Schtserbina O., Popescu A. Bildung des
Terminologischen System im Fachgebiet «Wirtschaft». Chişinău: ULIM,
2003.
3. Cijacovschi V., Procopciuc V. English business letter machine
translation without post-editing. Chişinău: USM, 2005.
4. Tschizhakowski V., Schtscherbinina O., Popescu A. Bildung des
terminologischen lexisch-sematischen Systems im Fachgebiet „Wirtschaft”
(die deutsch-russische Variante)”, Chisinau: Freie Internationale Universität
Moldovas, 2002.
5. Пиотровский Р.Г. Инженерная лигвистика и теория языка
Ленинград: Наука, 1979.
50
UTILIZAREA TERMINOLOGIEI POLITICE DE ORIGINE
ENGLEZĂ ÎN LIMBA ROMÂNĂ ACTUALĂ
Valentina CIUMACENCO,
lector superior, MA
ULIM, R.Moldova
Structura vocabularului limbii române este mărturie a unui spaţiu de
comunicare deschis, de-a lungul timpului, sferelor de influenţă externe, un
spaţiu al contactelor lingvistice şi culturale temporare sau permanente,
marcate de evenimente istorice majore, de evoluţii socio-economice,
tehnice, ştiinţifice, de importul de mărfuri, modă, know how, reforme,
migraţia muncii (internă şi internaţională), migraţia de studii, turism şi
turism de afaceri şi mai ales de convieţuiri durabile. De la suprapunerea pe
substratul traco-dac a superstratului slav la adstratul tradiţional datorat
vecinilor (maghiar, grec, turc, german etc.), la avalanşele periodice sau
permanente de cuvinte în legătură cu momente/intervale istorice sau
transformări socioeconomice, politice şi culturale (spre exemplu, relaţia
limbii române ca primitoare, cu limba franceză ca donatoare), fenomenul
contactului lingvistic şi cultural este activ în permanenţă, cu intensitate mai
mică sau mai mare. Frederick Bodmer afirma că, limba română este
engleza limbilor romanice sau persana limbilor din Orientul Mijlociu, din
punctul de vedere al lexicului bogat în componente străine, între care calcul
slav predomină; totuşi, în afară de caracterul mixt al lexicului, româna nu se
poate compara cu limbile menţionate, iar gramatica sa nu a cunoscut vreo
simplificare importantă (Bodmer: 1955/1997, p. 403). Nu se poate trece cu
vederea faptul că Europa a cunoscut de-a lungul timpului trei linguae
francae: limba greacă în Antichitate, limba latină în Antichitate şi Evul
Mediu, iar în zilele noastre, limba engleză.
Pătrunderea termenilor de origine engleză s-a amplificat mai ales după
anul 1989, odată cu schimbările social-economice care s-au produs în
perioada respectivă şi care au creat o perspectivă mai mare în ceea ce
priveşte influenţa limbii engleze asupra lexicului românesc, în special
asupra terminologiei ştiinţifice (Tanase:1988 p. 93).
Limba engleză a avut toate condiţiile pentru a deveni o limbă
universală, “panterestră”; modelul de viaţă american a fost mereu transmis
prin intermediul cinematografului, ale serialelor televizate, muzicii rock şi
pop. Angloamericana este limba internaţională a marketingului, a
comerţului, a sportului în general, a modei, a massmedia. Neologismele
tehnice sînt integral englezeşti: telex, polaroid, flash, videotape, compact,
container etc; în domeniul bursier se folosesc o serie de expresii preluate
51
din limba engleză: cats and dogs, de exemplu, pentru a indica “(multe)
acţiuni speculative la nivel înalt”. Limba engleză este un fel de esperanto
pentru cei ce călătoresc, pentru comercianţi şi pentru comunicarea la nivel
global. Este de asemenea prezentă în terminologia organizatoricoadministrativă (s-ar putea spune astăzi, internaţională) a universităţilor:
campus, departament, credit, master, curricula, termeni prezenţi şi în limba
română. America domină lumea întreagă nu doar economic şi financiar, ci
şi cultural, deoarece este naţiunea care a investit cel mai mult în universităţi
şi în cercetarea pură şi aplicată.
Astăzi anglicismele îmbogăţesc pe de o parte lexicul cult al limbii şi pe
de alta, limbajele specializate, mai ales limbajul jurnalistic, publicitar si
jargonul tinerilor. Nu face excepţie şi limbajul politic actual.
Apariţia terminologiei politice este strâns legată de evoluţia societăţii
omeneşti. Vechimea, evoluţia, complexitatea acestei terminologii precum şi
caracterul său inter, multi- şi chiar transdisciplinar fac aproape imposibilă o
observare a tuturor faţetelor sale. La dificultăţile analizei contribuie atât
cantitatea imensă de elemente conceptuale şi lingvistice, cât şi trecerea
continuă a acestei terminologii prin diverse straturi (jurnalistic,
administrativ, limba comună) cu permeabilitate deosebită pentru tot ce ţine
de domeniul “politicului”.
Terminologia politică are un caracter pronunţat istoric, internaţional dar
şi naţional şi, în perioada actuală, ca reflex al “globalizării”, o vocaţie de
deschidere specială pentru împrumut (gestiunea crizelor, purificare etnică
etc.). Inventarul actual al terminologiei politice internaţionale trimite astfel,
la modul ideal, la un ansamblu de concepte-martor pentru istoria formării şi
evoluţiei ideilor politice.
Într-o analiză a terminologiei social-politice româneşti de la 1848, aşa
cum aceasta apare în textele caracteristice stilului jurnalistic al epocii,
Florica Dimitrescu considera că, aceasta are la bază trei straturi lingvistice:
cel neologic, rămas până astăzi de cele mai multe ori în forma de atunci, cel
alcătuit din cuvinte tradiţionale, vechi şi învechite, şi, al treilea apărut prin
intruziunea în sfera lexicală în discuţie a vocabularului de sorginte
religioasă.
Din categoria neologismelor impuse în limba română de contextul
extralingvistic al schimbărilor social-politice de la 1848 fac parte termeni
folosiţi şi astăzi (cu mici modificari de formă) în discursul politic:
aleg(ător), anarhie, antipatriotic, cauza poporului, civilizat, clasă, comitet,
comunism, corporaţie, demisie, deputat, discordie, diplomaţie, emancipaţie,
fraternitate, inegalitate, revoluţie, patriot(ism), politic(a), a proclama,
(idei) progresive “progresiste”, propagandă, rebel, republică, revoluţionar,
securitate, stindard, suveranitate, tricolor etc.
52
Tendinţa pentru împrumut este specifică şi pentru terminologia politică
româneasca. Dacă în a doua jumătate a secolului trecut şi în prima jumătate
a secolului nostru împrumuturile se făceau în cea mai mare parte din
franceză şi germană, astăzi, limba engleză este principala sursă pentru
neologisme.
Această însuşire deosebită pentru neologisme, mai ales pentru cele de
origine anglo-americană este explicabilă, în primul rând, prin importanţa
conceptelor în cadrul unor teorii sau modele la care trimit aceşti termeni
(management, mass media, marketing, politic).
O altă explicaţie pentru faptul că limba engleză este limba cea mai
întrebuinţată pe glob în comunicarea ştiinţifica, tehnică, comercială,
politică, diplomatică şi mediul predilect de manifestare pentru cultura pop şi
pentru activităţile turistice, ar putea să o reprezinte tendinţa sa spre
economie lingvistică şi spre adecvare conceptuală.
În unele ţări, rezistenţa la “invazia” limbii engleze este reglementată
prin politici lingvistice ale căror efecte sunt greu de evaluat. Denunţată
adesea ca “armă a unui imperialism cultural” engleza a înlocuit franceza ca
limbă a diplomaţiei.
Unii cercetători consideră că, “tentaţia spre neologism” are, în primul
rând, o explicaţie de rapiditate şi de comoditate: termenul neologic are
avantajul de a intra de la început cu statutul de termen de specialitate,
încărcat de prestigiul întregii teorii la care trimite şi ale cărei concepte le
desemnează, în al doilea rând, o explicaţie de natură psihologică:
specialistul are sentimentul că posesia termenului străin să includă condiţia
informaţiei sale exacte şi complete.
Termenii noi se introduc fie sub forma împrumutului propriu-zis, fie a
calcului lingvistic. Împrumutul propriu-zis cunoaşte diverse etape de
pătrundere şi de adaptare: de la etapa de xenisme (sau de cuvinte aloglote,
caracterizată prin menţinerea intactă a grafiei de origine şi prin marcarea
grafică deosebită, cu ghilimele sau cu caractere italice) până la etapa
integrării totale, cu semnele morfosintactice clare ale acestei integrări.
În situaţia de xenisme apar termeni foarte recenţi: feedback, focus,
impeachment etc. Pentru includerea lor morfosintactică se recurge în mod
obişnuit la clasificatori, elemente morfematice legate prin cratimă, care
asigură includerea neechivocă a termenului într-o anumită clasă lexicogramaticală, dar şi într-o paradigmă anumită a clasei. În cazul
substantivelor, rolul clasificator revine articolului (ex.: “prin intermediul
feedback-ului”, “rolul impeachment-ului …”, “yes man-ii”).
Pentru a evita frecvenţa mare de împrumuturi rebarbative, se recurge
adesea la calc sintagmatic (ex.: gestionarea crizelor, care se traduce în fr.
53
gestion des crises, dezvoltare durabilă, care se traduce în engl. sustainable
development).
Unele neologisme din domeniul politic suferă un proces de mobilitate
semantică prin adaptarea semnificaţiei în conformitate cu uzul internaţional:
dialog “formă de activitate lingvistică” ajunge să fie considerat ca
principala modalitate de soluţionare a problemelor şi divergenţelor interne
şi internaţionale” şi identificat cu democraţie, compromis şi negociere îsi
pierde conotaţia negativă şi capătă sensuri specializate în domeniul politic,
al relaţiilor publice şi al marketing-ului. A manipula migrează dinspre
domeniul tehnic spre sfera politicii, conţinutul său semantic incorporând
trăsătura de “antrenare, nesinceră, în acţiune a unor forţe (umane) câtre un
obiectiv nemărturisit”. Odată cu termenii, se împrumută şi partea nonverbală a codului (care, în terminologia politică, este reprezentată în special
prin simboluri numerice). Astfel, G-7 sau G-8 este o formă alfanumerică de
reprezentare a conceptului “Grupul celor (mai industrializate) 7 State sau
Grupul celor 8”.
La baza acestui tip de împrumut stau mai multe explicaţii, valabile în
general pentru toate terminologiile:
a) nevoia de economie grafică şi de economie a efortului de înţelegere;
b) o tentaţie spre internaţionalizare a codului, acelaşi tip de redări
grafice fiind întâlnite în discursuri lingvistice multinaţionale;
c) o tentaţie de individualizare a modelului utilizat, care se distinge nu
numai terminologic, ci şi prin expresia non-lingvistică a codului.
În aceeaşi serie de împrumuturi se înscriu şi siglele, extrem de
frecvente în terminologia politică pentru a desemna nume de organizaţii, de
acorduri, de programe inter- şi multinaţionale etc. Împrumutul de sigle este
reprezentat în general de preluarea necalchiată a formelor originale angloamericane: UNCHR (United Nations Comission on Human Rights),
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization) etc, franceze: ONU (Organisation des Nations Unies) în
concurenţă cu forma anglo-americană UNO (United Nations Organization)
sau forma anglo-americană NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization ), în
concurenţă uneori cu forma franceză OTAN - Organisation du traité de
l’Atlantique Nord (mai ales in stilul jurnalistic neglijent care “preia” şi sigla
odată cu informaţia). Formele diferite ale siglelor pot crea impresia că este
vorba despre două concepte diferite ceea ce poate reprezenta un obstacol în
comunicare.
Alte sigle sunt reprezentate de simboluri alfanumerice Start I , Start II
(Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty I şi II), indicând, prin cifre, momentele
de evoluţie şi/sau de modificare a conceptului desemnat.
54
Un caz aparte îl constituie siglele care trimit atât la un termen politic
propriu-zis cât şi la echivalentul său metaforic, care, de cele mai multe ori sa impus, prin expresivitatea sa, atât în terminologia politică, cât şi în
limbajul jurnalistic şi în limbajul comun. Astfel, SDI desemnează conceptul
Strategic Defense Initiative, cunoscut mai ales prin termenul metaforic cu
rol de intertext (titlul filmului lui George Lucas este anterior apariţiei
conceptului, în 1983) : Star Wars (Razboiul Stelelor).
Demersul investigativ de faţă este motivat în special de sporirea
semnificativă a ponderii influenţei engleze în terminologia politică
românească, în contextul general al „atacului” de anglicisme şi
americanisme, dacă e să luăm în calcul atât împrumuturile (inclusiv nume
proprii), cât şi cel mai des calcurile (frazeologice şi semantice) absente din
dicţionarele româneşti, dar frecvent utilizate în presă (corectitudine politică,
primă doamnă, foaie de parcurs, Carte Albă etc.).
În lingvistica românească, terminologia politică de origine engleză nu a
fost deocamdată studiată în mod sistematic. Referiri ocazionale se găsesc în
studii şi articole consacrate anglicismelor în general sau unor aspecte
particulare ale influenţei engleze (Avram (1997); Constantinescu et al.
(2002); Stoichiţoiu-Ichim (2001)).
Dicţionarele de tip lingvistic (Dicţionar de neologisme-DN (Florin
Marcu:1978); Dicţionar de cuvinte recente-DCR (Florica Dimitrescu:
1997); Marele dicţionar de neologisme -MDN) includ majoritatea
termenilor politici de origine englezească, de la cei mai vechi, cu etimologie
multiplă anglo-franceză (lider, miting), până la cei mai recenţi (leadership,
summit, VIP, yesman în MDN; establishment în DCR). Calcurile
frazeologice şi semantice sunt mult mai slab reprezentate în DN în
comparaţie cu DCR, unde găsim cortină de fier, gulere albe, spălarea
banilor.
Unicul dicţionar politic românesc (DP), apărut în 1975 sub egida
Academiei „Ştefan Gheorghiu”, include între cele 1700 de articole ale sale
numai 9 termeni de origine engleză: substantivele comune boss, lider,
miting, outsider, numele proprii siglate CIA şi NATO, sintagma gentleman’s
agreement şi derivatele sufixale lobbism şi machartism. Fiind elaborat – aşa
cum se precizează în prefaţă (DP, p. 7) – „în lumina concepţiei marxistleniniste, a principiilor PCR”, dicţionarul reflectă clişee ale propagandei
comuniste, care afectează obiectivitatea definiţiilor prin enunţuri evaluative
precum: „lobbismul rămâne un teren al exercitării corupţiei” (DP , p. 333);
„NATO este controlat de cercuri politico-militare agresive, interesate în
continuarea cursei înarmărilor”( DP , p. 382).
55
Politizarea” definiţiilor se întâlneşte – într-o măsură mai redusă – şi în
DN (vezi definiţia pentru lider: „conducător al unui partid politic sau al unei
organizaţii burgheze”).
Din punct de vedere etimologic, remarcăm următoarele
împrumuturi din engleză şi calcuri după modele englezeşti.
Împrumuturile (lexicale şi frazeologice) sunt:
 nume proprii: Commonwealth, Downing Street, Pentagon, Amnesty
International, Greenpeace, NATO, FBI, CIA;
 nume comune (cu referent politic sau consacrate în comunicarea
politică): agreement, Big Brother, board, boss, briefing, congressman,
establishment, exit poll, gentelman’s agreement, grey area, impeachement,
leadership, lider, lobby, mcdonaldizare, miting, political correctness, road
map, shadow government, soft money, speaker, speech, staff, summit,
yankeu.
Calcuri:
 semantice: agrea (engl. agree) „a fi de acord”; cârtiţă (engl. mole)
„spion infiltrat”; determinat (engl. determined) „hotărât”; domestic (engl.
domestic) „intern, propriu unui stat”; imagine (engl. image) „percepţie
publică”; provocare (engl. challenge) „dificultate de învins”; uliu (engl.
hawk) „personalitate oficială cu spirit belicos”;
 frazeologice: axa răului (engl. axis of evil); Carte Albă (engl.
White Paper); câine de pază (engl. watchdog); corectitudine politică (engl.
political correctness); clasă de mijloc (engl. middle class); cortină de fier
(engl. iron curtain); discriminare pozitivă (engl. positive discrimination);
foaie de parcurs (engl. road map); foc prietenesc (engl. friendly fire);
Fratele cel Mare (engl. Big Brother); gulere albe (engl. white collars);
guvern din umbră (engl. shadow government / cabinet); lider de opinie
(engl. opinion leader); ONG (după engl. NGO) „organizaţie nonguvernamentală”; pierderi colaterale (engl. colateral damages); primă
doamnă (engl. first lady), principiul dominoului (engl. domino effect);
război rece (engl. cold war); state-tâlhar (engl. rogue states); Unchiul Sam
(engl. Uncle Sam).
După gradul de asimilare („românizare”), împrumuturile se încadrează în
una dintre următoarele categorii:
 termeni integral adaptaţi (fonetic, grafic, morfologic): lider,
miting, bos, a agrea;
 termeni în curs de adaptare (anglicisme şi americanisme): board,
briefing, congressman / congresmen, lobby, speaker / spicher, speech /
spici, staff, summit, yankeu;
 xenisme („străinisme”): numele proprii - Big Brother,
establishment, leadership, mcdonaldizare, shadow government, road map.
56
În unele cazuri, procesul de asimilare este mai avansat decât rezultă din
dicţionarele româneşti care continuă să reflecte situaţia din engleză,
ignorând modificările formale sau semantice intervenite în română: de ex.
anglicismul lobby, este folosit în presă cu sensul engl. lobbysm „activitate
de influenţare, persuasiune”, dar MDN nu înregistrează această modificare
formală şi de sens.
Frazeologismele din terminologia politică a englezei sunt redate în
română prin:
 calchiere: corectitudine politică; clasă de mijloc; cortină de fier;
primă doamnă; ONG; FMI etc;
 traducere liberă: Carte Albă (engl. White Paper); principiul
dominoului (engl. domino effect); foaie de parcurs (engl. road map);
 echivalare: summit – „reuniune la nivel înalt”; NATO – „Alianţa
Nord-Atlantică”.
Din punct de vedere referenţial, termenii împrumutaţi din engleză sau
calchiaţi pot desemna:
Referenţi specifici Marii Britanii sau SUA: congressman „membru al
Congresului SUA”; speaker „preşedintele Camerei unui Parlament”;
Commonwealth „asociere liberă a unor state care au fost conduse la un
moment dat de Marea Britanie”; NATO; FBI; guvern din umbră „cabinet
alternativ al opoziţiei”; Unchiul Sam „SUA”.
Referenţi nespecifici (lider, lobby, miting, summit, speech,
establishment, Carte Albă, foaie de parcurs), susceptibili de a suferi evoluţii
semantice, cu atât mai semnificative cu cât termenul respectiv se bucură de
frecvenţă şi circulaţie mai mare.
Între calcurile frazeologice cu valoare exclusiv referenţială
(denotativă) pot fi incluse:
- clasă mijlocie (medie) (engl. middle class), înregistrat în DCR drept
calc după fr. classe moyenne.
– Summit, definit în MDN ca „întâlnire (politică) la cel mai înalt nivel”,
apare în presa actuală cu sensuri mult extinse prin anularea semelor
specifice. El este folosit şi în afara sferei politice: de exemplu, „primul
summit «verde» de la Rio de Janeiro”, „Summit-ul Pământului / Sărăciei”,
„summit-ul european al întreprinderilor mici şi mijlocii” etc.
– Miting a suferit o extindere de sens asemănătoare, prin anularea
semului referitor la politică din MDN, unde este definit ca „întrunire publică
pentru discutarea unor importante evenimente politice”. Semnificaţia
actuală – specifică „epocii de tranziţie” – este aceea de „acţiune
protestatară”: „miting de protest”; „miting anti-sărăcie” .
Dintre puţinele restrângeri de sens înregistrate, observăm sintagma
câini de pază ai democraţiei prin care se desemnează presa şi profesioniştii
57
domeniului printr-o îngustare a sensului engl. watchdog (body), definit în
Dicţionarul de politică şi administraţie – DPA (P.H. Collin:2000) drept
„organism de supraveghere (în special a departamentelor guvernamentale
sau a firmelor comerciale)”.
Analiza semantică a termenilor politici presupune o abordare mai
complexă decât cea a termenilor specializaţi din alte domenii, deoarece
comunicarea politică – în funcţie de tipul discursiv şi de intenţia
emiţătorului – poate avea finalitate informativă, persuasivă sau poate
realiza o asociere între cele două.
Investigarea semantismului actual al termenilor politici impune
asocierea analizei paradigmatice cu cea sintagamatică, pentru a urmări
situaţia termenului atât în sistem, cât şi în contexte relevante.
Dintre relaţiile paradigmatice interesează hiponimia şi parasinonimia
(echivalenţă semantică aproximativă). În plan sintagmatic trebuie urmărită
relevanţa contextului verbal pentru dezambiguizarea cuvântului
polisemantic şi pentru actualizarea unor sensuri condiţionate contextual.
Cercetarea influenţei engleze în terminologia politică ne permite să
conchidem că, deşi conceptele domeniului sunt fundamentate în baza unei
matrici lexico-semantice clasice, influenţa engleză se manifestă sub cele
mai variate forme. Faptul este în măsură să ilustreze două adevăruri general
valabile: capacităţile universale ale elementelor savante greco-latine care
fundamentează ,,superstratul cultural european” şi evoluţia rapidă a
domeniului ştiinţific de orientare anglo-americană, ce transgresează
progresul lent al limbilor naturale. Prin împrumutul lexical, prin acronim,
trunchiere sau fragmentare, ca mijloace de compunere după model englez,
limbajul nu poate neutraliza diferenţele interlingvistice. Câştigul rămâne
doar al terminologiei, care conservă două dintre caracteristicile enunţate de
Rey: originea noţiunii şi denumirea acesteia.
„Monitorizarea” termenilor împrumutaţi din engleză sau calchiaţi după
modele anglo-americane prezintă interes pentru lexicologie şi
sociolingvistică (ca expresie a dinamicii lexicului), pentru lexicografie (sub
aspectul asimilării lor în română) şi nu în ultimă instanţă, pentru publicişti şi
specialiştii în comunicare politică (în virtutea forţei de persuasiune a acestei
terminologii).
1.
2.
Bibliografie:
Avram, Mioara. Anglicismele în limba română actuală. Bucureşti:
Editura Academiei Române, 1997.
Baylon, Christian; Mignot, Xavier. Initiation à la sémantique du
langage, Paris: Nathan, 2000.
58
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Bidu-Vrănceanu, Angela. Lectura dicţionarelor. Bucureşti: Editura
Metropol, 1993.
Bodmer, Frederick. Die Sprachen der Welt, Parkland Verlag. Köln:
1955/1997.
Collin, P. H. Dicţionar de politică şi administraţie englez–român.
Bucureşti: Editura Universal Dalsi, 2000 (DPA).
Constantinescu, Ilinca; Popovici, Victoria; Ştefănescu, Ariadna.
Romanian, în Goerlach, Manfred (ed.), English in Europe. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 168-194,
Dimitrescu, Florica. Dictionar de cuvinte recente. Editia a II-a,
Bucuresti, 1997 (DCR).
Dimitrescu, Florica. Dinamica lexicului romanesc: ieri şi azi. ClujNapoca, 2000.
Gheorghiu, Ştefan. Dicţionar politic, Bucureşti: Editura Politică,
1975.
Guiraud, Pierre. Les mots étrangers, Paris, PUF, 1965.
Lehmann, Alise; Martin-Berthet. Françoise. Introduction à la
lexicologie. Sémantique et morphologie, Paris : Dunod, 1998.
Marcu, Florin. Dicţionar de neologisme, ediţia a treia, Bucureşti:
Editura Academiei, 1978 (DN).
Marcu, Florin. Marele dicţionar de neologisme. Ediţie revizuită,
augmentată şi actualizată, Bucureşti: Editura Saeculum I. O., 2002
(MDN).
Slama-Cazacu, Tatiana. Stratageme comunicaţionale şi manipularea.
Iaşi: Editura Polirom, 2000.
Stoichiţoiu-Ichim, Adriana. Vocabularul limbii române actuale.
Dinamică, influenţe, creativitate, Bucureşti: Editura ALL, 2001.
Stoichiţoiu-Ichim, Adriana. Asimilarea împrumuturilor englezeşti:
aspecte actuale ale dinamicii sensurilor, în Pană-Dindelegan,
Gabriela (coord.), Aspecte ale dinamicii limbii române actuale,
Bucureşti: EUB, 2002. p. 249-262,
Stoichiţoiu-Ichim, Adriana. „Romgleza”: opţiune personală sau efect
al globalizării?, în Gabriela Gabor (coord.), Identitate românească şi
integrare europeană, Bucureşti: Editura Ars Docendi, 2003, p. 95103,.
Rey, Alain. La terminologie: noms et notions, Paris, 1979.
Tanase, Constantin. Reinterpretarea semantică a unităţilor lexicale,
în: Limba si literatura moldoveneasca, Chişinău, nr. 3, 1988.
Van Cuilenburg, J.J.; Scholten, O., Noomen, G.W. Ştiinţa
comunicării, ediţia a II-a, Bucureşti: Editura Humanitas, 2000.
59
TEACHING AND DEVELOPING VOCABULARY
Ina COLENCIUC,
Senior lecturer, MA,
ULIM, R.Moldova
“Words are one of our chief means of adjusting all the situations of life.
The better control we have over words, the more successfu lour adjustment
is likely to be”
Bergen Evans “The Power of Words”
Perhaps the best tools teachers can give students to succeed in life are
a large, rich vocabulary and the skills for using those words. In addition to
the vital importance for success in life, a large vocabulary is more
specifically predictive and reflective of high levels of reading achievement.
S.Stahl states, “The relation between reading comprehension and
vocabulary knowledge is strong and unequivocal [6, p.5].
Reviewing the research literature on vocabulary instruction leads to
the conclusion that there is no single best strategy to teach word meanings
but that all effective strategies require students to go beyond the definition
and forge connections between the new and the known.
W. Nagy summarizes the research on effective vocabulary teaching
as coming down to the three critical notions:
I. Integration - connecting new vocabulary to prior knowledge
II. Repetition - encountering /using the word/concept many times
III. Meaningful use - multiple opportunities to use new words in
reading, writing and soon discussion [5, p.11].
Here are some activities that may help the students learn new
vocabulary:
1. Word- of- the Day. A student each day presents a new word. He/she
writes the word, its definitions and sentences for each definition.
After presenting it to the class, it is placed somewhere in the room.
2. Word stories. Any words that have an interesting history might be
presented.
3. Unscramble the letters. Each word from a list is scrambled and
students must unscramble the letters. After they unscramble the
letters they must use the word in a sentence or tell a synonym for it.
4. Find the synonym. The students are given slips of paper where there
are words from the class vocabulary list; they work in groups to
supply synonyms.
60
Matching. Beginning level students match a word with a picture.
Upper level students match definitions, synonyms, or antonyms.
6. List the objects/actions. The students are given a picture or pictures
from which they must create a list of nouns, verbs or adjectives.
7. Suffix or prefix flashcards. The students say a word that begins or
ends with what the card shows, tell the part of speech of the word,
and use it in a sentence.
8. Rhyming words. In three minutes the students write as many pairs of
rhyming words as they can.
9. Word search. The students skim an article or story and list the
people, places, compound words, or contractions they find.
10. Crossword puzzles. Crossword puzzles are a challenge, but provide
good practice.
According to M. Graves there are four components of an effective
vocabulary program:
1. Wide or extensive independent reading to expand word knowledge
2. Instruction in specific words to enhance comprehension of texts
containing those words.
3. Instruction in independent word-learning strategies.
4. Word consciousness and word-play activities to motivate and
enhance learning [3, p.8].
Research shows that there are more words to be learned than can be
directly taught in even the most ambitious program of vocabulary
instruction. Explicit instruction in word-learning strategies gives students
tools for independently determining the meanings of unfamiliar words in
their reading; any help provided by such strategies can be useful.
Word-learning strategies include dictionary use, morphemic analysis,
and contextual analysis [7, p.118].
Dictionary use teaches students about multiple word meanings, as
well as the importance of choosing the appropriate definition to fit a
particular context.
English learners may carry a bilingual dictionary, but this resource is
generally inadequate for several reasons. First, long-term bilinguals may
have limited academic vocabulary. Simply coping a translation does little to
promote reading comprehension. Further, the small bilingual dictionaries
carried by students offer limited and often inaccurate definitions. An
electronic dictionary may be equally unproductive for a bilingual or less
proficient reader tackling grade-level curricula, as it tends to offer scant
definitions and no contextualized example sentences. An electronic
dictionary is useful for a quick fix, but it is not the most considerate
resource for a student operating from a weak academic vocabulary base
5.
61
while completing grade-level assignments. Another common resource,
which is likely to utterly demoralize an under prepared reader, is a
thesaurus. To benefit from an array of synonyms, a reader must operate
from a solid academic vocabulary base. Less proficient English users will
generally have no ability to gauge contextual appropriateness and will end
up infusing their written work with glaringly inappropriate word choices.
Many publishers, including Longman and Heinle& Heinle, have
developed a line of manageable “learners’ dictionaries” for the students who
need a more user-friendly dictionary to assist them in content area
coursework. A learner’s dictionary characteristically includes fewer yet
more high-frequency definitions, written in accessible language and
complemented by an appropriate sample sentence. English language
learners benefit from the clear, simple definitions and common synonyms as
much as from the natural examples illustrating words and phrases in typical
contexts. These dictionaries are also easier for students to use than other
dictionaries because the entries are printed in a larger type size and include
useful and obvious signposts to guide them in identifying the proper entry.
A final advantage is that many learners’ dictionaries may be purchased in
book form, along with a CD-ROM providing pictures, audio, and
pronunciation of headwords.
Developmentally appropriate lexical resources are fundamental to
providing all students, regardless of their level of English proficiency or
literacy, with greater access to grade level competencies and curricula. A
democratic language classroom, marked by cultural and linguistic diversity,
must include considerately chosen and manageable dictionaries for less
proficient readers, to enable them to develop more learner autonomy and to
assist them in completing independent writing and reading tasks.
Morphemic analysis is the process of deriving a word’s meaning by
analyzing its meaningful parts, or morphemes. Such word parts include root
words, prefixes, and suffixes. If learners understand how this combinatorial
process works, they possess the most powerful understanding necessary for
vocabulary growth. In recent years, research has suggested some promising
guidelines for teaching the meanings of prefixes, suffixes, and some word
roots as well as the ways in which knowledge of these meaningful word
parts may be applied [7, p.123].
Word roots such as dict, spect, and struct are meaningful parts of
words that remain after all prefixes and suffixes have been removed but
usually do not stand themselves as words: prediction, inspection, and
construct.
Common Greek and Latin roots begin to be explored along with the
effects of prefixes and suffixes that attach to them [7, p.127]. These include,
62
for example, chron (“time” as in chronology), tele (“distant”, “far” as in
television), and fract (“break” as in fracture).
A large proportion of the vocabulary of specific content areas is built
on Greek and Latin elements. As its morphological knowledge develops,
teachers can model how it may be applied to determining the meaning of
unfamiliar words encountered in texts.
Contextual analysis involves inferring the meaning of an
unfamiliar word by scrutinizing the text surrounding it. Instruction in
contextual analysis generally involves teaching students to employ both
generic and specific types of context clues [7, p.130].
A comprehensive approach consists of the following components:
- Provide direct instruction in the meanings of cluster of words and
individual words.
- Systematically teach students the meanings of prefixes, suffixes, and
root words.
- Link spelling instruction to reading and vocabulary instruction.
- Teach the effective, efficient, realistic use of dictionaries, thesauruses,
and other reference works.
- Teach, model, and encourage the application of a word-learning
strategy.
- Encourage wide reading
- Create a keen awareness of and a deep interest in language and words.
Students with weak lexical skills are likely to view all new words as
equally challenging and important, so it is imperative for the teacher to
point out those words that are truly vital to the student’s academic
vocabulary base. In deciding which words to teach, scholars have found it
helpful to think about “levels” of vocabulary.
Level I words. These are words that are used over and over again in
everyday speech. Level I words are sometimes referred to as
“conversational speech”. Students who are learning English as a second
language will sometimes make progress with this level of vocabulary and
have difficulty making progress with words at levels beyond this one.
Level II words. These are words that are likely to be learned only
through reading or through instruction. They have been referred to as “
academic vocabulary”, and as “instructional vocabulary”. They are words
that are necessary for general success at the university. Words such as
perspective, generate, initiate, intermediate, calculation, etc. are possible
examples.
Level III words. These are words associated with a particular field of
study or profession. They make up the specialized vocabulary or jargon of a
field.
63
Level IV words. These are interesting but so rare and esoteric that
they are probably not useful even in most educational environments, and
they are not associated with a field of study or profession.
Besides “levels” of vocabulary, there are strategies for conceptually
challenging words. S. Templeton suggests the following form of structured
brainstorming designed to help students identify what they know about a
concept and the words related to the concept while provoking a degree of
analysis and critical thinking. These are the directions to students.
1. Think of all the words related to ---. (a key idea in the text)
2. Group the words listed by some shared characteristics.
3. Decide on a label for each group.
4. Try to add words to the categories on the organized lists.
Working in small groups or pairs, each group shares with the class its
method of categorization and the thinking behind its choices, while adding
words from other class members. Teachers can extend this activity by
having students convert their organized concepts into a Semantic Map [7,
p.120]
List-group-label is an excellent prereading activity to build on prior
knowledge, introduce critical concept, and ensure attention during selection
reading.
J. Allan believes that students can be taught strategic behaviors to
improve their ability to learn the meaning of words [1, p.13]. While
morphological clues, reference works, and spelling clues are all useful to
determine word meaning; they become more powerful and functional when
combined with the use of context clues in a deliberate strategy.
Based on the research and my experience in working with students, I
suggest the following sequence:
 Step 1. Carefully look at the word, decide how to pronounce it.
Carefully processing the letters or clusters of letters of a word and
thinking about the sounds for them will leave a memory trace for the
word even if it is not a word that the reader knows. At very least, it is
likely that if the reader encounters the word again in future readings
there will be at least a modicum of familiarity with it.
 Step 2. Check around the word the context clues: look within the
sentence, reread previous sentences, and read ahead for more context
clues.
 Step 3. Look in the word for prefixes, suffixes, base words, and root
words that might offer clues.
 Step 4. Make your best guess at the word’s meaning. (It is important
to stress with students that natural context most often will not lead to
64
a clear understanding of a word’s meaning and that some words will
not contain recognizable morphological clues.)
 Step 5. If you don’t have a good idea to the word’s meaning and if
the word seems important, use a dictionary or glossary.
Because vocabulary plays the central role in the English language
instruction, it makes sense to assess student’s comprehension and mastery
of essential words and phrases introduced during the course of a unit or
lesson. However, so much new vocabulary may be highlighted in any given
lesson that it makes sense to prioritize words for students and to clearly
stipulate those that are the most important and that the teacher intends to
include in an assessment.
During language instruction and assessment, it is helpful to make a
distinction between words that should simply enhance a student’s receptive
vocabulary and words that should ideally enter a student’s expressive
vocabulary. A student’s receptive vocabulary comprises the words that are
recognized and understood if presented in a rich and meaningful context
when he or she is listening or reading. This does not mean that the student
necessarily feels comfortable using words in either conversation or writing.
A student’s actual expressive vocabulary includes those words that the
individual can use both confidently and appropriately. When designing
vocabulary assessment, it seems reasonable to include a majority of words
that are truly critical to a student’s grade level academic lexicon - more
high-frequency terms that the learners are likely to encounter both within
and outside of the English language classroom as they progress in their
studies.
Traditional vocabulary assessments can reveal little about a student’s
actual word mastery, particularly those assessments that require simple
matching, a written definition, or use of the word in an original sentence.
While a student may be able to recall a memorized definition and an
example the sentence provided by the dictionary or the teacher, there is no
guarantee that the student can actually use the word with facility. Many
students have refined their skills in rote memorization and succeed with
these rote-level assessments. Then a week later they proceed to misapply
the terms in the next writing assignment. For this reason, teachers should
refrain from designing quizzes that merely tap into students’ short-term
memorization and should instead require critical thinking and creative
application.
There are many ways to design more authentic assessments.
American scholars S. Baker and D. Simmons suggest three meaningful and
alternative assessment formats that require relatively little preparation time:
65
1.
Select only four to six important words and embed each in an
accessible and contextualized sentence followed by a semicolon. Ask
students to add another sentence after the semicolon that clearly
demonstrates their understanding of the italicized word as it is used in
this context. This assessment format will discourage students from rote
memorization and merely recycling a sample sentence covered during a
lesson.
2. Present four to six sentences each containing an italicized word from
the study list and ask students to decide whether each word makes
sense in this context. If yes, the student must justify why the sentence
makes sense. If no, the student must explain why it is illogical, and
change the part of the sentence that doesn’t make sense.
3. Write a relatively brief passage (one detailed paragraph) that includes
six to ten words from the study list. Then, delete these words and leave
blanks for students to complete. This modified cloze assessment will
force students to scrutinize the context and draw upon a deeper
understanding of the word’s meanings. Advise students to first read the
entire passage and to then complete the blanks by drawing from the
study list. As an incentive for students to prepare study cards or more
detailed notes, they can be permitted to use these personal references
during the quiz (particularly if you have designed a more challenging
passage) [2, p.219-224].
Because these qualitative and authentic assessments require more
rigorous analysis and application than the most objective test formats, it
seems fair to allow students to first practice with the format as a class
exercise and even complete occasional tests in a cooperative group. Another
suggestion is to frequently assign brief vocabulary quizzes rather than
occasionally assign expansive tests, to encourage students to review
vocabulary regularly and to facilitate transfer to long-term memory.
Summing up, I would say that there are many additional strategies
that teachers can employ to assist students in building their vocabularies.
However, it is essential to keep in mind that promoting extensive reading,
carefully selecting which words to teach extensively, and choosing
strategies that help students make cognitive connections between the new
and the known are at the heart of effective vocabulary building.
1.
2.
References
Allen, J. Words, words, words: Teaching Vocabulary. York, ME:
Stenhouse, 2009
Baker, S., Simmons, D., Kameenui, E. Vocabulary acquisition.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2001
66
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Graves, M. Reading for meaning: Fostering comprehension. New
York: Teachers College Press, 2004
Moore, P. Improving Classroom Instruction. New York: Guilford
Press, 2009
Nagy, W. Teaching Vocabulary to Improve Reading
Comprehension. Newark, DE: International Reading Association,
2003
Stahl, S. Vocabulary Development. Cambridge: Brookline books,
2007
Templeton, S. Vocabulary Instruction. New York: Guilford Press,
1999
МИР ЖИВОТНЫХ В ИДИОМАХ ДЕЛОВОГО АНГЛИЙСКОГО
Ольга ДИМО, ст. преподаватель, магистр,
УЛИМ, Р.Молдова
Немаловажная трудность преподавания делового иностранного
языка заключается в том, что студенты первого курса еще
недостаточно знакомы с предметом изучения, то есть пока не овладели
материалом и необходимой терминологией на родном языке. Таким
образом, при работе со специальными текстами они склонны выбирать
из словарных статей обычно первое, наиболее общеупотребительное
значение того или иного слова (e.g. share - доля … акция … доля в
уставном капитале компании).
Эта «техническая наивность», как ее называют переводчики, в
определенной степени мешает продуктивной работе над языком,
особенно по темам, которые носят абстрактный характер.
Действительно, тематика, связанная с конкретными объектами и
явлениями
(товары,
трудоустройство,
структура
компании,
гостиничное дело), воспринимается легче, и словарный запас
накапливается, узнается и воспроизводится довольно успешно.
Именно поэтому при составлении учебных программ большая часть
данных тем планируется на первый семестр.
Элементы абстракции возникают во втором семестре, при
изучении тематики, связанной с торговлей, деньгами и видами
заработка, а также банковским делом и инвестициями, то есть при
знакомстве с элементами фондового или же денежного рынка.
Например, при вводе понятия «рынок» важно сразу оговорить
его абстрактный характер в отличие от того места, куда можно реально
67
пойти и сделать покупки. Как известно, существуют рынки труда,
капитала, недвижимости, черный рынок, фондовый (РЦБ), товарный,
валютный и др. Они организованы в виде сети реальных бирж, на
которых заключаются конкретные сделки купли-продажи.
В этом отношении понятие «рынок/биржа ценных бумаг
(piaţa/bursa de valori)», возникающее при знакомстве с темой Investing,
относится к числу пока недостаточно знакомых для студентов первого
курса. Данная реалия существует в Молдове, но не приобрела еще того
значения, какое придается ей на Западе. Зачастую студенты
теоретически не знакомы с самим понятием «ценная бумага», которое,
правда, впервые вводится на стадии темы «Структура компании»
(акционерное общество, акционер). Тем не менее, возможность куплипродажи ценных бумаг сомнений не вызывает (иначе они не
назывались бы ценными).
За этой стадией следует вопрос: где купить или продать? Ответ:
на бирже, в соответствии с котировками, публикуемыми в бюллетенях
курсов, которые на Западе широко печатаются в общедоступной
прессе, что показывает большое значение данного феномена в странах
изучаемого языка.
Как известно, цены на рынке ценных бумаг не отличаются
стабильностью, напрямую влияя на состояние экономики и жизнь
общества в целом и, в свою очередь, подвержены влиянию
политических и экономических процессов в глобальном и
национальном масштабе. Кроме того, колебания цен на рынке ценных
бумаг вызываются и поведением самих участников рынка, их
биржевой «игрой», направленной, в конечном счете, на получение
прибыли, которая основана на разнице курсов тех или иных ценных
бумаг (купил дешевле – продал дороже).
Сама ажиотажная обстановка на бирже, азарт погони за
прибылью, необходимость утаивать определенную информацию,
спекулятивные действия не могли не породить специфический
биржевой сленг, который со временем частично вошел и продолжает
входить в состав нормативной, причем не только биржевой, лексики в
виде идиоматических выражений.
Таким образом, развитие понятийного (и соответствующего
лингвистического) аппарата проходит следующие этапы:
компания  акционерное общество  акции  рынок
ценных бумаг  биржа.
При этом ограничения, связанные с недостатком жизненного
опыта и «технической наивностью», могут влиять на качество
усвоения необходимой специальной терминологии [3]. И наоборот,
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определенная эмоциональная окраска этой терминологии придается за
счет использования идиоматических выражений, что делает
восприятие новой информации более наглядным, а усвоение – более
глубоким [4].
Терминология такого рода зачастую требует этимологических
пояснений (и это непростая задача для преподавателя), но у студентов
она неизменно вызывает эмоциональные коннотации и развивает у них
ассоциативное мышление [7].
Тем не менее, независимо от степени узнаваемости, в процессе
преподавания иностранных языков идиоматические выражения
нуждаются в контексте для их распознавания, то есть в дискурсивной
среде [2].
Для облегчения усвоения любого вида лексики, включая
идиомы, ее чаще всего группируют тематически. Этот принцип лежит
в основе, например, отраслевых и тематических словарей, различных
справочных изданий и главным образом учебников, учебных пособий
и тематических разработок по иностранным языкам.
Удачным примером такого справочника может служить
тематический словарь
Божены Хошовской
«Идиоматические
выражения в деловом английском языке» (СПб, 1997) [11]. В нем
имеются разделы: Business and Management, Money Matters, Buying
and Selling, Work and Industrial Relations с соответствующими
подразделами, и всего представлено 1830 словарных единиц. (По
некоторым данным, словарь коммерческих идиом английского языка
насчитывает около 4 000 единиц.)
Тем не менее, в процессе изучения лексики словари и
справочники играют вспомогательную роль, ибо любая лексика
усваивается в процессе коммуникации – речевой либо письменной.
В нашем случае экономическая лексика в виде соответствующей
терминологии первично накапливается студентом через прочитанный
текст либо прослушанный диалог, то есть дискурс, без которого
усвоение идиоматических выражений невозможно, потому что они
воспринимаются главным образом в контексте [5].
В этом смысле восприятие идиоматических выражений с
животными имеет ряд преимуществ, поскольку они основаны на
жизненном опыте студентов: на знании внешнего вида, повадок, среды
обитания того или иного животного.
В дидактическом плане интересно отметить, что идиомы,
будучи яркими и образными, в некотором смысле облегчают
студентам процесс усвоения как общеязыкового, так и
специализированного
экономического
материала.
Например,
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выражение the arena of the bears and bulls, обозначающее фондовую
биржу (биржу ценных бумаг), иллюстрирует процессы, обычно там
происходящие. Игра на понижение курсов ценных бумаг
ассоциируется с медведем (запасливый, копит жир, готовится к зимней
спячке), а агрессивный бык играет на повышение. Игровой момент в
данном случае состоит в том, что на основе знания о характере данных
животных студенты могут судить о поведении участников рынка,
обозначаемых теми или иными словами, которые входят в состав
идиоматического выражения [1].
Идиомы приходят на помощь студенту и преподавателю еще и
потому, что в силу иного экономического развития прямого
соответствия биржевой терминологии не существует ни в румынском,
ни в русском языке, поэтому приходится прибегать к громоздкому
описательному переводу либо ограничиваться не менее громоздким
английским определением. Нижеследующая сравнительная таблица
иллюстрирует описательный характер перевода двух наиболее
характерных идиоматических биржевых терминов:
BEAR – dealer who sells shares because he thinks the price will fall
and he will be able to buy them again more cheaply later
«медведь»;
спекулянт,
„urs”;
speculant
care
играющий на понижение
mizează pe scădere / reducere
BULL – dealer who believes the market will rise, and therefore buys
shares to sell at a higher price later
«бык»;
спекулянт,
„taur”; speculant care joacă
играющий на повышение
la majorare / creştere
Таким образом, усвоив основной термин в его идиоматической
форме, студенты далее без особого труда распознают и его
производные (e.g. bearish/bullish market; to go bear/bull, etc.). В этом
отношении соответствующее идиоматическое выражение из одногодвух-трех слов, хотя бы одно из которых студентам известно,
послужит уместной иллюстрацией изучаемой языковой и смысловой
реалии.
Сфера экономической деятельности, в отличие, скажем, от
медицины, не столь замкнута. Все мы, покупая, расплачиваясь,
потребляя товары и услуги или участвуя в трудовой деятельности,
причастны к экономическим отношениям. Возможно, именно
благодаря этому в экономической лексике и сформировалось
значительное количество первоначально ненормативных, но ярких и
70
емких словечек и выражений, ставших впоследствии нормативными
идиоматическими выражениями.
Очевидно, именно обыденность экономических реалий и
вызвала к жизни достаточно большое количество идиом с животными
в деловом английском.
В методическом плане овладение такими выражениями должно
проходить на базе игровых моментов. Студенты могут самостоятельно
объяснить этимологию многих из идиом, если преподаватель
напомнит им такие характеристики животного, как внешний вид,
способ передвижения по земле, особенности поведения и среда
обитания. Скажем, запасливый медведь играет на понижение (т.е.
продает) на рынке ценных бумаг в надежде на будущие прибыли,
тогда как упрямый и агрессивный бык, наоборот, играет на
повышение, то есть покупает либо придерживает ценные бумаги.
Следует заметить, что определенные виды животных прочно
ассоциируются с географическим ареалом их обитания. Так, например,
дальневосточные рынки представлены тигром (это так называемые
новые индустриальные государства – Гонконг, Сингапур, Южная
Корея, Тайвань). Страны Азии, представляющие вторую волну
индустриализации (Индонезия, Малайзия, Филиппины, Таиланд),
ассоциируются с драконом, породив выражение Dragon Market. Акции
австралийских горнодобывающих и табачных компаний получили
идиоматическое название «кенгуру». Уместное упоминание об этом
служит для расширения общего кругозора студентов.
Таким образом, сам по себе процесс описания животного и его
поведения служит для переключения внимания и отдыха, а также для
закрепления активного неспециализированного словарного запаса.
Из различных источников автором было выбрано примерно 90
единиц идиоматических выражений делового английского языка,
содержащих названия животных. Они подверглись классификации по
двум параметрам:
 по видам животных,
 по видам экономической деятельности.
Что касается экономической деятельности, то наибольшее
число нужных нам идиом зафиксировано в сферах торговли,
биржевой активности, валютно-денежных отношений и трудовой
занятости, хотя имеются и другие разделы, в том числе и сфера
рекламы, которая здесь специально не выделена.
По первому параметру лидирует собака, за ней следуют
медведь, различные птицы, рыбы и морские животные. Если
медведь во всех случаях символизирует силовую позицию, а
71
домашняя птица - определенную слабость, то собака указывает на
некоторую подчиненность положения, что, очевидно, связано с
традиционной преданностью и покорностью хозяину. Рыбам, по
мнению людей, свойственна хитрость, ненадежность и уклончивость
поведения, они как бы "скользкие". Кошки, будучи животными
нервными, символизируют беспорядок в делах.
Свинья, как ни странно, представлена слабо - выражением to
buy a pig in a poke (купить кота в мешке) и рядом дериватов, опятьтаки относящихся главным образом к сфере торговли:
- PIGgly-wiggly (AmE) - small food shop with self-service
and slot machines;
- PIGgyback - railroad trailer platform;
- PIGgyback promotion - sales promotion for one product
which accompanies promotion of another product;
- PIGgy bank - money-box, sometimes in the shape of a pig
for saving coin money.
Раздел неофициальных, но общеизвестных, прозвищ денежных
единиц содержит самые неожиданные ассоциации:
- BUCK - $1.00; any male animal;
- EAGLE - an old US gold coin worth $10.00;
- FISHer (BrE) - 1-pound-sterling note;
- FISHskin (AmE) - $1.00;
- FROGskin (AmE) - $1.00; paper money;
- HORSE (BrE) - a 5-pound-sterling note;
- MONKEY (BrE) - a 500-pound-sterling note;
- PONY (BrE) - a 25-pound-sterling note;
- RHINO (BrE) - money in general; cash.
Идиомы с животными встречаются в различных разделах курса
делового английского, и ниже делается попытка классифицировать их
по темам.
BUSINESS AND ON-THE-JOB ACTIVITIES
-
-
BEEwax - a humorous substitute for "business";
BULLwork - a) hard work that requires enormous strength;
o b) tedious work demanding little thought or skill
wildCAT business/enterprise - a business which is managed
irresponsibly and unnecessary risks are taken without providing
for the possibility of loss;
wildCAT strike - a strike organized by workers without informing
the main union office to;
72
-
-
-
-
CRAB/LOUSE up the deal - to spoil a plan ;
yellow - DOG contract - an illegal contract between a company
management and a new employee in which the latter promises not
to join a labour union while employed by the company;
to keep a DOG and bark oneself - to fulfill a subordinate's work;
DOGsbody (BrE) (inf.) - person who does all types of
uninteresting and unpleasant work in an office for very low wages;
to DOG it - to avoid work; to refuse to exert oneself;
DOGgy – inferior leap;
FROGging pay demands - pay demands, where each section of
workers asks for a rise to earn more than other sections, which in
turn ask for further increases;
LOBSTER shift - the work shift between 8pm and 4am or between
midnight and 8am (lobster = fool here);
MONKEY/funny business - dubious and dishonest business
dealings;
PIGEONhole - (n) one of a number of small open boxes (eg above
a desk) for keeping papers in; (v) to put papers in a pigeonhole
and ignore or forget them; to postpone consideration of smth;
RAT - strike breaker; an employee who refuses to stop working
during a strike;
the RAT race - wild competition for success in business or
employment; continual struggle for success to talk;
TURKEY - to speak seriously and plainly (esp. about business
matters);
ZOO agency (AmE) - abbr. "zero on originality" = to work for a
"zoo" advertising agency is to work for an agency that is lacking
innovation and creativity (ant. "boutique" - a small and creative
advertising agency).
BUYOUT, MERGER, TAKEOVER
- BEAR hug - a notice given to the board of a target company
saying that a takeover bid will soon be made;
- killer BEES - firms and experts (e.g. law firms, PR firms, proxy
solicitors) employed to fight off a takeover;
- SHARK - smb who attempts a hostile corporate takeover; a
raider;
- SHARK repellent - any defensive tactic in the event of a
takeover bid;
- SHARK watcher - a consultant who tries to identify possible
sharks among the buyers of a company's shares.
73
CURRENCY
- BUCK - $1.00; any male animal;
- EAGLE - an old US gold coin worth $10.00;
- double EAGLE - - " - " - $20.00;
- half EAGLE - - " - " - $ 5.00;
- quarter EAGLE - - " - " $ 2.50;
- red DOG (AmE) - a banknote with a red stamp on the reverse side;
- FISHer - one pound-sterling banknote;
- FISHskin (AmE) - $1.00;
- FROGskin (AmE) - $1.00; paper money;
- HORSE (BrE) - a 5-pound-sterling note;
- MONKEY (BrE) - a 500-pound-sterling note;
- PONY (BrE) - a 25-pound-sterling note;
- monetary/currency SNAKE - exchange rate modifications within
established limits;
MONEY MATTERS
- to put the BEE on smb - to ask for money (esp. for a loan);
- CHICKEN feed/money - a ridiculously small amount of money;
- to make/play DUCKS and DRAKES with one's money - to waste
money; spend it extravagantly (origin: "to play ducks and drakes"
means to throw pebbles into the water so that they leap and make
jumps;
- nest EGG - a part of one's savings set aside as a reserve for the
future (esp. in case of urgent unforeseen need);
- FISHy - financially doubtful;
- PIGgy bank - money-box, sometimes in the shape of a pig for
saving coin money
- to PONY up - to pay for;
- to pour money down the RAThole - to waste money utterly; to
spend much for smth;
- RHINO (BrE) - money: cash.
PERSONAL/CORPORATE FINANCIAL STATUS
- gold BUG (AmE) - an investor who uses gold reserves as a cushion
against inflation;
- fat CAT (AmE) - a rich person resorting to bribery at elections; a
tycoon;
- to sit in the CATbird seat - to be in the position of advantage (esp.
financial);
74
-
lame DUCK - a company or businessman which is in a difficult
financial situation;
DOG - an enterprise that costs more to operate than it produces in
income;
to kill the GOOSE which lays the golden eggs - to make excessive
demands on a source of profit, so that it is ruined (origin: a fable by
Aesop).
STOCK MARKET
- BEAR (AmE) - dealer who sells shares because he thinks the price
will fall and he will be able to buy them again, and cheaper, later.
The difference between his buying and selling prices is his profit;
- BEAR (BEARish) market/BEAR run - period when Stock
Exchange prices fall because dealers are selling; a market that is
going down;
- BEAR campaign/raid/tack (AmE) - actions by dealers aimed
to drive prices down by selling stocks, so that they may be
bought back later at a lower price;
- to be in a BEAR/BEARish position - selling stocks one does
not own and borrowing to make delivery in the hope that the
stocks will be bought back after a drop in value;
- BULL - dealer who believes the market will rise, and therefore
buys shares to sell at a higher price later;
- BULL market - period when share prices rise because people are
optimistic and buy shares;
- to be in a BULL/BULLish position - holding securities in
anticipation that they will go up in price;
- dead CAT bounce - a small increase in the market averages after a
substantial drop;
- CATS and DOGS - dubious stocks that cannot serve as loan
collateral;
- DOGS/PUPS - cheap, inactive stocks;
- DOLPHIN (AmE) - a person who buys shares only to sell them for
high profit immediately the trading opens (see STAG);
- lame DUCK (BrE) - dealer who is unable to meet obligations;
speculator who lost a big sum of money;
- bottom FISHer - investor who buys the cheapest stocks;
- bottom FISHing - "buy cheap" strategy;
- HERRING - something used to distract attention;
- red HERRING/red-HERRING prospectus - preliminary prospectus
of shares to be issued (the booklet usually has a red cover);
75
-
-
LAMB - an inexperienced investor; smb who tends to buy and sell
on rumour and questionable tips;
KANGAROOS = shares in Australian companies (esp. in mining,
land and tobacco);
PIKEr (AmE) - petty speculator;
STAG - person who buys new issues of shares hoping to make a
fast profit by selling them soon after trading on a stock exchange
opens;
to STAG an issue/in new issues - to buy a new issue of shares not
as an investment, but to sell immediately at a profit
TRADE
- call BIRD - a low-priced product advertised to attract customers to
the point of sale where they are offered more expensive goods;
- wild CATS - products which are not very profitable (with a low
market share and a high growth rate);
- DOG - a product which arouses little interest and is likely to be
dropped from a company’s product line;
- hot DOG - That's good! Exceptional!
- DOGS in blanket/hot DOG (AmE) - sausage in a bun;
- white ELEPHANT - smth that is costly to obtain or maintain and
provides little benefit or value;
- FIShwife - woman selling fish;
- to HAWK smth round - to take a product (an idea, project, etc.) to
various shops, companies, etc., to see if smb will accept it;
- HORSE trading - a sharp and hard bargaining which ends with
someone giving smth in return for a concession from the other
side;
- HORSE trader - person who makes a hard bargain and is difficult
to bargain with;
- hotDOGger - smb who hunts for publicity/advertisements for an
advertising agency;
- to buy a PIG in a poke (old-fashioned) - buy or pay for smth
without seeing or examining it carefully first (origin: old market
trick of putting a rat in a bag/poke and selling it as a young pig);
- PIGgly-wiggly (AmE) - small food shop with self-service and slot
machines;
- PIGgyback - railroad trailer platform;
- PIGgyback promotion - sales promotion for one product which
accompanies promotion of another product;
76
-
to sell smb a PUP - to sell smb smth that has no value or is worth
much less than the price paid for it (origin: old market trick of
putting a puppy in a bag and selling it as a young pig.
Bibliography
Berzosa M.J. Zoo techniques in the stock market // Forum, No.4. 1999,
pp. 29-31.
2. Cooper Th. (1998) Teaching idioms //http://idiomagic.com/iditext2.htm
3. Dimo O., Sofronie S. Multilingual and multicultural approach to colour
symbolics and colour idioms in teaching modern languages to students
of economics. - Lecturi Filologice, Chis., ULIM, Nr.3. 2006, p. 53-58.
4. Dimo O. Корпус английских идиоматических выражений по теме
«Банки и финансы». - Didactica limbilor străine: strategii şi tehnologii
educaţionale actuale (materialele seminarului metodologic cu
participare internaţională).- Chiş., 2010, p.24-28.
5. Dimo O., Colenciuc I. Типы упражнений по усвоению
идиоматических выражений с животными в курсе делового
английского языка. - Вопросы современной филологии и методики
обучения языкам в вузе и школе: сборник статей XV
Международной научно-практической конференции /МНИЦ
ПГСХА. – Пенза: РИО ПГСХА, 2010. Стр. 95 – 87.
6. Kang Sh. Learning styles // Forum, No.4, 1999, pp.6-11.
7. Nippold M., Taylor C. Judgements of idioь familiarity and
transparency: a comparison of children and adolescents // Journal of
Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, vol. 45, April 2002, p. 384391.
8. English Business Dictionary. - Hove: Peter Collin Publishers, 1986.
9. Oxford Idioms Dictionary. - Oxford: OUP, 2001.
10. Patras M. et al. Economic and financial-banking English-Romanian
Dictionary. - Chisinau, 2002.
11. Хошовская Б. Идиоматические выражения в деловом английском
языке.- СПб, 1997.
1.
TEACHING A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
IN A POLYCULTURAL WORLD
Tatiana GRITAC, Senior lecturer, MA,
ULIM, R.Moldova
Modern realities of the polycultural world dictate new approaches to
modern language education. Polycultural competence is regarded as a new
77
perspective in this view. Modern intercultural paradigm of foreign language
teaching refers to the principles of polycultural personality development to
acquiring knowledge in educational sphere, and namely interaction of
culture and society.
In order to prepare future linguists for their effective professional
activity in the globalizing polycultural world so that they could help people
from different countries of the world to cooperate with each other a new
approach to the process of language education should be created and
namely a new methodological system for developing a polycultural
competence in the system of a foreign language teaching should be
developed.
The dialectical connection between language and culture has always
been a concern of second language teachers. If during the first decades of
the 20th century researchers discussed the importance and possibilities of
including a cultural component into a second language curriculum, more
recent studies show inseparability between second language and second
language culture teaching. The formation of intercultural competence is a
compulsory discipline included into the curriculum of colleges and
universities of Australia. Special trainings for different categories of
population are organized there. France also displays a special activity in
teaching intercultural communication by encouraging contacts of the young
people representing different cultures, thus creating possibilities for
discussions on the most urgent topics. A wide campaign oriented to
intercultural cooperation allowing to overcome prejudices and stereotypes is
promoted in Germany. Polycultural communication becomes a part of
national policy in such countries as Canada and Australia.
One of the major goals of humanitarian education in different
countries is to develop citizens of the world, who identify themselves
culturally, and who see themselves within a broad spectrum of countries. A
foreign language is a prominent tool in achieving this goal. Therefore,
teaching a second language and a second language culture will enable the
learners to engage in the following:
 to initiate and maintain intercultural contacts for the purpose of
learning about values, norms, spiritual heritage etc. of others and act as
representatives of native cultures;
 realize themselves as polycultural subject with multiple group
membership;
 accept diversity as a norm within modern polycultural societies;
 take an active part in the elimination and minimization of
cultural inequality, cultural discrimination, cultural aggression and
vandalism.(for details see Sysoyev, P.V. 2002, pp.7 – 28).
78
As a result of second language culture teaching learners should
develop cultural awareness which includes the development of tolerance
and empathy towards representatives cultures (Byram M., Fleming M.,
1998). When teaching a foreign language these affective components
encourages the use of positive lexical units within the communication
referring to ethic origin, race religion etc.
Another component of intercultural competence is a cognitive one
which is mainly oriented to getting information about second language
culture, history, traditions as well as about the native (first language) values.
Strategic component comprises different strategies in teaching a
foreign language.
Polycultural education presupposes polylinguistic competence. As a
ground for developing a polylinguistic competence the student may use
linguistic and sociology studies in the field of communication in a
multicultural society. A student has the choice: either to learn English as a
language of intercultural communication or to learn several foreign
languages which is more preferable.
Nowadays our intercultural and polycultural communication in the
greater part takes place in the virtual reality, in the Internet. Knowing the
rules, language strategies for this type of communication is important for
developing technological communicative competence in a modern language
student who may use Internet – resources not only for searching necessary
information, but also creating interaction with representatives of different
cultures.
Many scientists agreed that one of the main reason of
misunderstanding between people belonging to different cultures is not only
in the sphere of language (it’s a problem which can be overcome), but in the
sphere of mentality, conceptual picture of the world. For solving such
difficult
problems
interdisciplinary
competence
is
required.
Interdisciplinary competence concerns to such blocks of knowledge as
philosophy, sociology, psychology which are focused on different aspects
of communication.
The most effective methods in second language culture teaching are
considered to be:
 Informative (culture traditions and civilization courses are closely
connected with this method).
 Analytical - it presupposes the procedure of analyzing different
language material(word – etymology, dictionary analysis, context
analysis, interpretation component).
 Interactive – such activities as role – games, trainings are
suggested within this method.
79
The other productive methods such as Direct, Content – Based, Task
based and Participatory Approaches and Communicative Language
Teaching can be recommended as being fruitful in second language culture
teaching (for details see Larsen – Freeman, D. 2008, pp. 23, 121,137).
Participation in different international projects, organization of tours,
business trips, cultural – and – educational students’ exchange are
considered to be practical methods of intercultural education and
cooperation.
Each lesson of a foreign language is a crossroad of cultures and
intercultural communication practice. The process of a second language
teaching is an efficient way to form a new type personality able to effective
communication in a foreign language on an intercultural level. We can
conclude that intercultural foreign language teaching allows to solve the
following objectives:
 to train qualified foreign language teachers, translators, referents,
touristic agents etc;
 to provide solid scientific basis for second language teaching and
develop intercultural competence;
 to enlarge the professional competence of the second language
teacher, which includes not only the knowledge of the second
language culture but also skills and abilities to compare and analyze
its economical, political, ethical and language peculiarities;
 to master positive perception of the second language culture and
ability to appreciate originality and uniqueness of one’s own culture;
 to form and develop personal qualities of the students and their
abilities to the conscious, adequate communication in social
determined situations.
We are convinced that language, learning, teaching are dynamic
mutable process. There is nothing fixed about them. So, in the polycultural
constantly changing world a new generation of foreign language teachers
and translators should know how to build bridges with the representatives of
various countries and cultures. And in this connection cross - culturalism is
accepted to be both an actual method of research and a methodological basis
for the second language teaching
in a polycultural world.
.
References
1. Byram M., Fleming M., 1998 – Language Learning in Intercultural
Perspective: Approaches through Drama and Ethnography, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
2. Larsen – Freeman D., 2008. Techniques and Principles in Language
Teaching, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
80
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Guirdham M., 1999. Communicating across Cultures. West Lafayaette:
Bloomsbury, pp 383.
Crystal D., 2001. Language and the Internet. Cambridge : Cambridge
University Press, pp. 272.
Sysoyev P.V., 2002. Teaching Foreign Language for Cultural Identity
and Dialogue of Cultures. In P.V. Sysoyev (Ed.), Identity, Culture and
Language Teaching ( pp. 7-28). Iowa City, IA: Center for Russian, East
European, and Eurasian Studies.
Гальскова Н.Д., 2006. Теория обучения иностранным языкам.
Лингводидактика и методика. Москва.
www\\ byui.edu \ perspective \ v 2 n3\ v2n3 – dilyard.pdf
HUMANISTIC APPROACH TO LANGUAGE TEACHING
Inga GUSCOVA, Lecturer, MA,
ULIM, R. Moldova
Nowadays there are many approaches to foreign language teaching.
Some of them proved to be more effective and others became less and less
proficient.
Language teaching in the twentieth century was characterized by
frequent change and innovation and by the development of sometimes
competing language teaching ideologies. Much of the stimulus for change
and innovation in approaches to Language teaching came about from
changes in teaching methods. Common to each method is the belief that the
teaching practices it supports provide a more effective and theoretically
sound basis for teaching than the methods that preceded it (Richards, J.C.,
and Rodgers, T.S., 2001, p.1).
This article lays a great stress on humanistic approach to language
teaching, the influence of some important affective factors on language
learning. It is important to understand whether the teachers in present days
pay attention to students’ emotions and feelings in terms of foreign
language learning. Language learning and the affect are very much
connected and prompted many researchers to investigate this field of
learning and acquiring the language. People’s attention was more and more
attracted by humanism in education since 1970s.
In contrast to other approaches to language teaching, humanistic
approach views the learner as a human being rather than an ordinary
learner.
81
The main goal of this article is to show that when students (learners)
feel good about the course and about themselves, they will learn better than
when they do not.
Basic concepts of Humanistic Language Teaching
Humanism is originally a psychological term which emphasizes the
significance of the human being’s inner world; it brings the individual’s
feelings, thoughts and emotions to the forefront of all human developments.
Carl Rogers (a prominent figure in Humanistic field, 1969) advocated
that human beings have a natural potential for learning, but this would take
place only if the subject matter is perceived to be of personal relevance to
the learners and when it involves active participation of learners.
Humanistic approach is a language teaching method which emphasizes
humanism as the most significant element in the teaching process (Stewick,
E.W., 1990, p.21).
According to Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics the definition
of humanistic approach in language teaching states that the term is used for
methods in which the following principles are considered very important:
- development of human values
- evolution in self-awareness and in the understanding of others
- sensitivity to human feelings and emotions
- active student involvement in learning and in the way learning
takes place
Earl W. Stewick is one of the most important figures for humanistic
approach. In his book “Humanism in Language Teaching”, (1990) he points
out that in a language course, success depends less on materials, techniques
and linguistic analyses and more on what goes on inside and between the
people in the classroom (p.34). From humanistic approach there originate
three eminent methodologies: the silent way, community language learning
(CLL) and suggestopedia.
The silent way originated from Caleb Gattegno (1972), it is based on
the premise that the teacher should be as silent as possible in the classroom
but the learner should be encouraged to produce as much language as
possible. The learning hypotheses are:
1. Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than
remembers and repeats what is to be learned.
2. Learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects.
3. Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to
be learned (Richards,J.C. and Rodgers,T.S., 2001, p.81).
Community language learning (CLL) was developed by Charles
Curran and his associates on the basis of counseling-learning, that is, the
learners sit in a circle as a community and decide what they want to say.
82
Counseling here means one person giving advice, assistance, and support to
another who has a problem. The role of the teacher is viewed as the
“counselor” and the role of learners is viewed as the “clients” in the
language classroom. The basic procedures of CLL can be seen as derived
from the counselor-client relationship (Richards,J.C. and Rodgers,T.S.,
2001, p.90).
Suggestopedia was founded by Georgi Lozanov (1979) it is concerned
with the theory that people are capable of learning more when their minds
are clear of other things and also free of anxiety. The most conspicuous
characteristics of Suggestopedia are the decoration, furniture, and
arrangement of the classroom, the use of music, and the authoritative
behavior of the teacher (Richards,J.C. and Rodgers,T.S., 2001, p. 100).
In sum, humanistic education starts with the idea that all students are
different; it tries to help students become more like themselves and less like
others. Humanistic techniques engage the whole person, including the
emotions and feelings (the affective realm) as well as linguistic knowledge
and behavioral skills (Richards,J.C. and Rodgers,T.S., 2001, p.90).
Affectivity in Humanistic Language Teaching (HLT)
We have to admit that a great attention in the humanistic approach
to language teaching is paid to the emotional side of learning. HLT
practitioners are conscious of the fact that to view a person (learner) as a
whole it does not mean to only pay attention to his/her emotional side. To
consider a whole person means to consider all the sides of the learner.
It is believed that reason is prejudiced if emotion is not brought
into the picture. HLT emphasizes including the affective side, not to
exclude cognition. Many language teaching approaches do not pay attention
to the emotional side of the learner, but that does not mean that HLT totally
excludes the cognitive side of the student. "It is not a question of lowering
standards for students' cognitive development, but of recognizing that it can
be very beneficial for teachers to choose to focus at times on affective
matters also" (Arnold,J.,1998,p.8).
Moskowitz proposes to practice the vocabulary of colors, parts of
the body, giving and comprehending directions along with the affective
goals as to encourage being observant of others, to encourage creativity in
responses and etc (Moskowitz,G.,1979,p.53).
Similarly, Rinvolucri and Davies suggest working with
grammatical structures but in a format which has learners focusing on
expressing things about themselves and others; "they absorb the grammar,
as it were, through peripheral vision. With some types of learner this is
much more effective than direct, primary focus on the grammar"
(Rinvolucri,M. and Davies,P.,1995,p.67) . What is important is to take a
83
broader perspective on the learning process, using more tools at our
command in order to maximize language learning (HLT web Magazine,
article by Arnold, J, 2001).
Generally there are several important affective factors in language
learning which may be divided into two types:
- Individual factors (inhibition, anxiety, extroversion-introversion,
self-esteem, motivation, and underestimating)
- Rational factors (empathy, classroom transaction, cross-cultural
processes and etc.)
It is very common for language learners to feel anxiety when sitting in
a class room. It is not an easy thing to overcome it. HLT approach can, to a
certain extent, help students deal with foreign language anxiety. Those
teachers who use many of HLT methods are aware of this problem and
would never ask a student to perform in front of the class unless he/she feels
is ready for that.
Eysenck says that: “The feeling of fear and nervousness are intimately
connected to the cognitive side of anxiety or worry, and worry will waste
energy that should be used for memory or processing on a type of thinking
which in no way facilitates the task at hand” (Eysenck,M.W.,1979,p.13).
The most important functions of the teacher
Perhaps the most important variable in language learning is the
learner’s emotional attitude towards the teacher, towards his/her fellow
learners, and towards the target language and culture. It is crucial for the
teacher to carefully select the content, materials and learning activities. In
HLT the teaching is subjected to learning. We do not have to forget that
HLT is a learner-centered approach which means integrating activities
which support language learning by favorably predisposing the learner.
The teacher has to develop an atmosphere conducive to the
learning process and make the learning relevant to the learner.
The teacher should develop the critical awareness of students.
Unlike with other approaches in HLT the learning is much more important
than the production.
According to Stewick, the five most important functions of the teacher are
as follows:
1. The cognitive function. We, as teachers, possess a certain amount of
knowledge about the target language, and our students expect us to
impart it to them.
2. The classroom management function. Our students expect us to take
responsibility for how their time is used in class. The students rely on
our training and our experience with time management, materials, and
techniques.
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3.
Practical goals. It is important to understand which goals the students
as well as society have for language courses. The teacher is expected to
give his/her students the practical expression in language teaching
syllabuses.
4. The personal or interpersonal function. As teachers with the desired
skills and knowledge, we have a great deal of power in the classroom
and it is within our responsibility and competency to set the tone or
interpersonal classroom climate. The atmosphere we set will determine
whether the students’ non-linguistic emotional needs are met or not in
the classroom.
5. The final function is closely related to the fourth, but is more subtle. It
has to do with the warmth and enthusiasm that we (teachers) radiate –
the vibes that we put out (Nunan, D., 1991, p.234).
Teachers should be real facilitators of learning in terms of HLT, they should
focus more on how to learn than what to learn, i.e. provide students
with fishing gear rather than fish (Wang,G.,2005,p.3).
In addition to knowing the academic topic and methods, a teacher-facilitator
should also be familiar with psychological learning process.
Underhill (1999) distinguishes seven points for the teachers, worth to
pay attention to:
 the way you listen;
 the way you speak;
 your use of power and authority;
 your attention to the process in the group;
 noticing your own attitudes and beliefs;
 redefining problems, seeing things differently;
 your own inner state (Underhile,A.,1999,p.49).
Some HLT techniques and activities
The input (activity brought by the teacher) in humanistic language
teaching has to be comprehensible. Only if the input is understandable then
it will engage students in further activities.
An HLT language teacher should never forget that his/her aim is to develop
students as people. HLT is not training; it is rather something what makes
you better for the world, makes you better through the language learning.
All the classroom activities in HLT approach have to include
students themselves. What is important to understand in regard to focusing
on the "self" is that studies of the brain indicate that learning is optimized
when personal meaning is involved. Referring to the brain's constant
tendency to search for meaning through patterning, Caine,R.N. and
Caine,G. (1994,p.90) note that "for teaching to be effective, a learner must
85
be able to create meaningful and personally relevant patterns"
(Arnold,G.,2001,HLT Magazine).
It is arguable that personal meaningfulness is in close connection
with intrinsic motivation. Students who are intrinsically motivated work on
tasks because they find them enjoyable, therefore the learning process is
highly appreciated by them.
For many instructors these activities may seem as game-like ones,
but all language teachers have to understand that humanistic (affective)
teaching is considered to be one of the strictest disciplines. It is
unacceptable to waist learners’ time and intelligence with activities that do
not advance their learning process and do not lead to the expected results
(Hooper Hansen,G.,1999).
Group-work and pair-work are very much practiced in HLT
approach. The only thing to be mentioned here is that group or pair
members have to be exchanged once in a while. This should be done in
order to:
 introduce some freshness in the group for the students’ stimulation
of interest,
 avoid weak student meeting the strong one,
 bring new ideas and topics of discussion within the group or pair,
 make all the participants communicate with culturally different
students.
Advantages and Disadvantages of HLT in terms of Second Language
Acquisition Research
"Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious
grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill." (Stephen Krashen,
1987).
Krashen's theory of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) consists of five
main hypotheses:
 the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis,
 the Monitor hypothesis,
 the Natural Order hypothesis,
 the Input hypothesis,
 the Affective Filter hypothesis.
According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second
language performance: ‘the acquired system’ and ‘the learned system’.
What concerns the humanistic language teaching is that there is very little of
conscious learning, therefore it fits more the ‘the acquired system’ where
acquisition is the product of subconscious process.
In the Monitor hypothesis Krashen defines the relationship
between acquisition and learning and how strong the process of learning
86
influences the process of acquisition. In terms of HLT there is more
acquisition than learning. Attention is not paid to what to learn but to how
to learn the language.
In the Natural Order hypothesis it is suggested that acquisition of
grammatical structures follows a ‘natural order’ which is predictable. In
humanistic language teaching the focus is rather on the content than on the
language. Grammatical mistakes are very rarely corrected by the teacher
because of the assumption that grammatical sequencing is not the main
point here.
The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner
acquires a second language. In terms of HLT the ‘natural order’ learning
occurs only when the input to which the learner is exposed is
comprehensible. Krashen suggests that ‘natural communicative input’ is the
key to designing a syllabus.
The Affective Filter hypothesis consists of several ‘affective
variables’ such as: motivation; self-confidence; anxiety.
We wouldn’t be wrong to claim that humanistic language teaching is
mostly dealing with students of high motivation, self-confidence and quite
low level of anxiety.Emotion plus cognition result in partners in the mind.
To conclude this article I would like to cite Stephen Krashen’s words
with which I absolutely agree and which suit perfectly the humanistic
language teaching approach: "The best methods are therefore those that
supply ‘comprehensible input’ in low anxiety situations, containing
messages that students really want to hear. These methods do not force
early production in the second language, but allow students to produce
when they are ‘ready’, recognizing that improvement comes from supplying
communicative and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and
correcting production." (Stephen Krashen, 1987).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Bibliography
Arnold, J. Affective Factors and Language Learning, 1998,p.8-9.
Caine, R.N. &Caine, G. Making Connections: Teaching and the
Human Brain, 1994,p.90, cited in HLT web magazine,
www.hltmag.co.uk
Eysenck, M.W. Anxiety, Learning and Memory,1979,p.13
Hooper Hansen, G. Humanising Language Teaching(Pilgrims Web
magazine),1999. /// www.hltmag.co.uk
Krashen, S.D. Principles and Practice in Second Language
Acquisition”,1987, cited in web magazine of Ricardo Schutz (2007).
www.sk.com.br/sk-krash.html
87
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Moskowitz, G. Caring and Sharing in the Foreign Language Class: A
Sourcebook on Humanistic Techniques,1979,p.53,70.
Popper, K. Unended Quest, 1976, cited in Stewick, E.W. Humanism
in Language Teaching,1990.
Richard, J.C. and Rodgers, T.S. Approaches and Methods in
Language Teaching, 2001,p.81-100.
Rinvolucri, M. and Davies, P. More Grammar Games: Cognitive,
Affective and Movement Activities for EFL Students, 1995, p.67,
cited in HLT web magazine by Arnold,G., 2001.
Stewick, E.W. Humanism in Language Teaching, 1990, p.21-34.
Underhill, A. Facilitation in Language Teaching, 1999.
Wang, G. Web HLT Journal Humanistic Approach and Affective
Factors in FLT, May 2005,Volume 2, edited by Zhenhua Lv, Hua
Zhou, Yanhong Zuo.
Williams, M. Learning Teaching: A Social Constructivist Approach,
1999, p.12-14.
THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE NATIONAL WORLD
PICTURE BY MEANS OF INTERNET
Natalia HANBEKOV, Senior lecturer, MSU,
Zinaida CAMENEVA, PhD, Associate Professor, ULIM,
Nadejda EŞANU, Senior Lecturer, MSU,
R. Moldova
The Problem of Conceptualization of the national world picture by
means of Internet presents special interest for the linguists,
linguoculturalists, psychologists, philosophers and anthropologists.
The insistent demand in the working out of the concept “national
picture of the world in the language of the literary text” is explained by the
necessity to interpret the situation of the multitude of variants existing in the
domain of position and the situation of consequently changing each other
paradigms. Thus, the understanding of the world picture can rely on the
sources of two types situated in the Internet: on the descriptions made
within the society which has this world picture (“autodescription”) and the
“foreign description”, performed by the external observers. Actuality of the
study of the Moldovan national picture of the world represented in the
modern English websites is connected with the insufficient scientific
description of the language means which express the national specificity of
the ethnology.
88
The actuality of the work is determined by the necessity to illuminate
the problems of the conceptualization of the national character on the basis
of the linguistic material of the literary texts that will allow to show some
peculiarities of the Moldovan national world picture in the perception of the
foreign users of the Internet emphasizing thus the concepts “journey”, “trip”
and “hospitality” which have a high social significance and play a special
role in the intercultural relation nowadays.
The object of the investigation is the language units functioning in
the English text of websites forming the Moldovan world picture.
The subject of the research is the linguocultural and ethnospecific
particularities of the text determining the conceptualization of the national
world picture.
The texts from virtual libraries served as the practical language
material of the work and their translations (Зарубежная проза
http://lib.ru/INPROZ/) opening great possibilities for the comparison of the
conceptual world pictures of the writers. The sources of the control of the
language material were also the dictionaries: English English Dictionary
under A. Hornby (http://zhurnal.lib.ru/w/wagapow_a_s/), Russian-Russian
Dictionary of the Russian language (http://mega.km.ru/ojegow), S.I., The
Dictionary of Pushkin’s Language under the reduction of V.V.Vinogradov
(http://www.slovari.ru/ default.aspx?p=230), (http://lib.ru/NOSTRHIST)
and other sources.
The purpose of the investigation is the multiaspectual investigation
of the language of literary texts, determination of the concepts, representing
the interrelation of the Moldovan and English cultures, the determination of
the lexical means that form and describe the national linguistic picture of
the world.
In accordance with the purpose concerned the following tasks are
formed and solved:
- to analyse the cultural and national specificity of the language
picture of the world;
- to establish the essential characteristics and peculiarities of the
correlation “concept” and “notion”;
- to consider language as the reflection of the life of socium in the
context of intercultural communication;
- to determine the authors interpretation of the key concepts forming
the national character;
- to characterize the language means forming the basis concepts of the
Moldovan world picture in the English literary texts;
- to find out the specificity of conceptualization of the national picture
of the world in the native language (Romanian/Russian);
89
- to establish the linguistic and national-cultural factors influencing the
interpretation and translation of language realia of the Moldovan picture of
the world;
- to perform the social questionnaire and generalize the data of the
comparative analysis.
The novelty of the research consists in the interpretation of the
aspects of the conceptualization of the national picture of the world from the
level of the linguocultural points of view for the first time namely the
complex study and description of the Moldovan linguistic picture of the
world in the English texts taking into consideration the extralinguistic
criteria and norms.
The conceptual picture of the world is represented by the concepts of
two topics “travelling” and “hospitality”.
The analysis of the websites confirms that Moldova is closely
connected with the concept “travelling”. The concept of “travelling” is
taken from the dictionary of symbols of Kerlota. According to Yung
travelling is a symbol of active hope and unsatisfied demand.
The comparative research of the Moldovan, English and Russian
pictures of the world, the determination of the national-cultural and the
individual “authors” peculiarities of the perception of the national character
represented in the language of fiction is new.
The theoretical significance of the research is determined by many
aspects of concern and systematization of linguocultural and ethnospecific
parameters and the process of the conceptualization of the national picture
of the world; by the description of the language means of expression of the
Moldovan culture concepts in the English picture of the world. It consists in
the theoretical elaboration of the principles of evidentiation of the analysed
concepts in the Russian national picture of the world that in general is
connected with the broadening of studies of the basic conditions of the
cognitive linguistics, sociolinguistics and linguoculturology.
The practical significance of the research is due to the possibility of
the application of the materials and results in the further elaboration usage
in the instruction process in the course of language theory at the university,
of linguoculturology, intercultural communication, civilization and
sociolinguistics as well as the elaboration of the corresponding
methodological textbooks and didactic materials for the preparation of
practical lessons, special courses and seminars, in the practical teaching of
the Moldovan and English languages.
The linguistic picture of the world representing the particularities of
the national conscience in which the intercultural concepts are reflected is
formed under the influence of the sociocultural factors in fiction. The
90
translatability is understood as the transfer of the concept of one culture in
to the other one in the communication process. The concept fixes the
collective experience which becomes the property of the individual person,
for example, the tourists’ review on the tourists’ agencies sites. The English
texts on the English sites representing the personality’s general language
serve as the adequate translation of the national concepts creating the image
of the culture of Moldova in the English picture of the world.
Moldovan and English pictures of the world and, in consequence,
their national characters are differentiated in the language of the writers’
works, participants of the forums, chats, guests’ books. Moldovan linguistic
picture of the world includes the concept “hospitality”, the English picture
of the world includes the concept “travelling” being represented in the
English fiction as the most significant cultural-specific components of the
language conceptualization of the Moldovan and English pictures of the
world. The given concepts in the verbal aspect represent the complex manystaged education demonstrating the cultural-social direction of the
formation of the conceptual picture of the world of these two ethnic people.
The linguistic conceptualization of the Moldovan picture of the
world in the English texts is characterized by the variety and plurality of the
lexical means representation, semantical components of which actualize the
relation characteristics to travelling in Moldova and Moldovan hospitality.
Moldovan proper names (anthroponyms, toponyms, hydronyms, zoonyms)
fulfil an important textual and culturological function in the language of
English literary texts being the concept markers of “travelling” and
“hospitality” and in general of Moldova’s linguistic picture of the world.
The key notions in the Moldovans’ national conscience are
conditioned by the subject concept and high frequency of usage; they are
displayed on the lexical level being determined by the subjective selection
of the English authors. The key words are forming the system of values and
are used by the authors for the description of the national character of the
Moldovans and the English.
The concepts “travelling” and “hospitality” realized in the literary
texts by means of key words connect the corresponding notions,
representations, images, priorities, stereotypes and values reflecting the
specificity of the national outlook and world perception as well as the
system of sociocultural relations, traditions, customs characteristic of
Moldovan and English cultures, in such a way the essential differentiation
in the vision of the world of these people is displayed. The conceptual
spheres (mutual relations, appearance, dress, peculiarities of the character,
tenor of life, colour background, landscape and weather) contain a
significant volume of the social and ethnocultural information and possess a
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cultural-cognitive direction. The given conceptual spheres are differentiated
by the lexical markers in the Moldovan and English linguistic picture of the
world in the course of describing of the man and his surrounding reality.
The analysis of the Russian classical literature confirms that the
conceptualization of the national picture of the world has a universal
character. The analyzed concepts of “travelling” and “hospitality” are
represented in Pushkin’s and other Russian writers’ works evidencing the
specific national and cultural-historic peculiarities of the Russian people.
The methods and methodology of research are conditioned by the
specificity of the object, of the linguistic material as well as the scope and
objectives of the work. In the project of the scientific approach we used the
interpretation method; while studying the texts we applied the methods of
the empiric and theoretical research: the analysis, synthesis, comparison as
well as the componential, contextual and the comparative methods of
studying.
We examined the questions connected with the theoretical
substantiation of the selection of the cognitive, sociolinguistic and
linguocultural approaches to the study of the Moldovan national picture of
the world; we determined the basic concepts of the cognitive linguistics:
“concept”, “conceptosphere”, “linguistic picture of the world” and “the
conceptual picture of the world” as well as the problems of the intercultural
communication and the role of the language.
The understanding of the concept as the collective property of the
spiritual life of the whole society that describes the mental reality was
proposed on the basis of the analysis of the scientific literature. Conscience
is the region where the concept appears, culture determines the concept,
language or speech are the spheres where the concept is confirmed. In our
work we differentiate between the “concept” and the “notion” under which
we understand not simply the sum of the essential necessary properties of
the object but the mental national-specific education, the contents of which
are the sum of the knowledge about the given object, the expression of it is
the sum of the lexical units which nominate and describe the given object.
Only those phenomena of the reality become concepts which are actual and
valuable for the given culture, have a great quantity of linguistic units and
are topics of the proverbs, sayings, poetical and prosaic texts. The concepts
are carrying the people’s culture. The concept has the form of a layer,
different layers are the result, the deposit of the cultural life of different
epochs. Taking into account the idea that the concept unlike the notion has
an emotional colour it appears that all the concepts are emotional both
universal and ethnic.
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The sum of the concepts forms the conceptosphere as some integral
and structural area. It is understood as the system of people’s ideas and
knowledge about the world reflecting their cognitive experience on the
prelinguistic and linguistic levels. The basis of the national outlook and the
evaluation of the world are created by special correlations of the set of
universal concepts characteristic only to these people. The collective
property of the spiritual life of these people is reflected in the architecture,
music, dances and language: folklore, paramie, phraseological units. The
national-cultural specificity of the sphere of concepts is also formed by the
nature, different physical phenomena characteristic for the given
geographical area: the history of the people, which implies its traces on the
national outlook and character; mode of life characteristic only to certain
community being reflected on the behaviour of the people as well as the
realia, cultural stereotypes of the behaviour, norms, values and occupation.
The picture of the world is the initial global image of the world
which is at the basis of the man’s outlook. It is the result of all the spiritual
activity of the man. The scientists differentiate the linguistic and conceptual
picture of the world. The linguistic picture of the world is understood as the
subsystem of the conceptual picture of the world including those of its
components with which the linguistic signs are related. According to the
scientists’ opinion (B.A.Serebrennikov, E.S.Postovalova and others) the
conceptual picture of the world is wider, richer and more various than the
linguistic picture of the world as different types of thinking as well as the
non-verbal one participate in its creation.
In the course of the research of the basic language functions it was
remarked that the man’s view of the world is influenced by many factors
such as heredity, environment, as well as the linguistic perception of the
reality. It is not possible to consider the language alone from thinking or
reality because the essence of the communication is acquired in the process
of the interrelation of these layers. Language and culture are constantly
interrelated and influence each other. The objects and events are fixed in the
language representing the cultural significance. The language is a social
phenomenon closely connected with the social structure of the society. Both
the natural medium in which the society lives as well as the society itself are
reflected in the language. In the process of communication an important role
is played by the correct understanding of the national-specific cultural
peculiarities of the sotsium, that is, the disclosure of the national picture of
the world and the national character.
An important component of the linguistic personality is his/her
national character which determines the belonging to the ethnicity included
in the national culture. Each national culture is individual and specific, it
93
plays a determining role in the establishment, formation and development of
the linguistic personality.
Thus the concept is the mental essence of the language which is an
element of the cognitive level of the linguistic in the conscience.
Consequently, forming and analyzing the concepts which are actual for the
given person as well as determining the national-cultural specificity of the
sphere of concepts of the people we have the possibility to imagine the
conceptualization of the national picture of the world.
We investigate the structure of the culturally important concepts:
“travelling” and “hospitality” as the basic concepts in the system of human
interrelations of the English, Russian and Moldovan people, the nationalcultural priorities of the Moldovan, Russian and English pictures of the
world are established, the linguistic means of the representation of these
people’s culture are investigated.
The culture cannot develop in isolation, in the process of life it is
constantly forced to address either to the past or to the experience of other
cultures. The people exchange their thoughts, feelings, personal experience
and due to such communication, due to the exchange of knowledge the
interaction not only of separate individual persons but whole nations and
cultures takes place.
A special interest in linguoculturology presents the research of the
ethnic conscience through the prism expressed by the literary texts of the
author’s picture of the world. In the context of our work we should remark
the actuality of the study of Moldovan cultural concepts in the interpretation
of the English authors as for the revealing of the culture components which
have a national-specific character it is necessary to have the interrelation of
at least two-three cultures.
The analysis of the websites confirms that Moldova is closely
connected with the notion “travelling”.
Travelling from the spiritual point of view is not the crossing of the
area but the expression of the passionate wish to make discoveries and
changes that accompany them. Thus, to study, to investigate, to look for, to
live with the impressions of new and old experiences means to travel or, in
other words, all these are the symbolic meanings of the word “travelling”.
Such an interpretation of the notion “travelling” is given in Kerlota X.E.
Dictionary of Symbols (http://www.libex.ru/detail/book150080.html). The
heroes are always travellers, in their predilection they are very active.
According to Yung (http://www.countries.ru/library/culturologists/yung.
htm), travelling is the symbol of passionate striving and unsatisfied wish.
To the notion “travelling” such words as “flight”, “swimming” and “run”
94
belong as well as “dreams”, “day-dreams” and “fantasy”. First of all, to
travel means to look for.
In the area of the English belles-lettres there were settled the
following lexical groups forming the concept “travelling”.
- partial synonyms of the notion: “travelling”, journey, călătorie,
путешествие; trip, excursie, călătorie, поездка; tour, călătorie, voiaj,
поездка; voyage, voiaj circular, морское путешествие; pilgrimage,
pelerinaj, паломничество; wandering, pribegie, hoinăreală, странствие;
tourism, turism, туризм;
- person: traveller, calator, путешественник; tourist, turist, турист;
companion, tovarăş de drum, спутник; pilgrim, pelerin, пилигримм;
palmer, pelerin, паломник; wanderer, pribeag, странник;
- transport: train, tren, поезд; airplane, aeroplan, самолет; car,
automobil, машина; ship, corabie, корабль; boat, luntre, лодка; yacht, iaht,
яхта; bus, autocar, автобус; taxi, taxi, такси; bicycle, bicicletă, велосипед;
motorcycle, motocicleta, мотоцикл;
- sightseeing: buildings, clădiri, архитектурные здания; snow-white
house, casă albă, белоснежный дом; palace, palat, дворец; castle, castel,
замок; fortress, cetate, крепость; mosque, moschee, мечеть; sculpture:
monument, monument, памятник; entertainment centres: tavern, tavernă,
cârciumă, таверна; coffee house, cafenea, кофейня; café, restaurant,
cafenea, кафе; restaurant, restaurant, ресторан; lexical units designing the
open space: street, strada, улица; square, scuar, площадь; park, parc, парк;
alley, alee, аллея;
- landscape: sea, mare, море; beach, plajă, пляж; harbour, port,
бухта; olive grove, dumbravă de măsline, оливковая роща; pine, pin,
сосна; mountain, munte, гора; rock, rocă, скала; plain, şes, câmpie,
равнина; lake, lac, озеро; ditch, râpă, канава; marsh, mlaştină, болото;
hill, deal, холм;
- designation: country, ţară, страна; megalopolis, megapolis,
мегаполис; city, oraş-capitală, город; town, orăşel, город; village, sat,
село;
- travelling purpose: introspection, reculegere, самоанализ;
investigation, investigaţie, исследование; education, educaţie, обучение;
work, lucru, работа; vacation, concediu, отпуск; pleasure, plăcere,
удовольствие; holiday, vacanţă, каникулы; rest, odihnă, отдых;
- way of travelling. There are a lot of verbs included in this group: to
sail, a naviga, плыть (на корабле, лодке); to swim, a înota, плавать; to
boat, a pluti (în luntre), плыть на лодке; to row, a vâsli, грести; to go, a
merge (pe jos, cu un oarecare fel de transport), идти, ездить; to ride, a se
plimba calare (a călări), ехать верхом; to drive, a conduce o maşină, вести
95
машину; to fly, a zbura, лететь; to walk, a se plimba (a merge pe jos),
гулять, прогуливаться; to roam, a hoinări (a se plimba), блуждать; to
wander, a hoinări, странствовать; to rove, a călători fără ţintă,
путешествовать, странствовать; to ramble, a hoinări, странствовать;
- place of living: hotel, hotel, гостиница; inn, birt, гостиница;
hostel, cămin, общежитие; boarding house, pensiune, internat, пансион;
bungalow, bungalou, casă cu verandă, бунгало; villa, vilă, вилла; flat,
apartament, квартира;
- accessories of the tourists: luggage, baggage, bagaj, багаж; bag,
geantă, сумка; suitcase, valiză, geamantan, чемодан; photo camera, aparat
de fotografiat, фотоаппарат;
- the personal (for service): air hostess, stewardess, stewardesă,
стюардесса; pilot, pilot, летчик; driver, şofer, водитель; taxi driver, taxist,
таксист; guide, ghid, гид; innkeeper, host, hangiu, хозяин гостиницы;
administrator, manager administrator, администратор; maid, servitoare,
горничная;
- types of walking tours: sightseeing tour, vizitare a obiectelor
turistice, осмотр достопримечательностей; drive, plimbare cu maşina,
прогулка а автомобиле; walk, plimbare, прогулка; ride, plimbare călare,
прогулка верхом; sail, plimbare pe mare, прогулка под парусами; row,
plimbare cu barca, прогулка в лодке.
Thus, linguistic designation of travelling may be represented in the
way of concept that is formed on the account of the lexical groups
mentioned above. In their turn the semantic fields are formed round each of
these key notions that get a certain lexical filling.
It is necessary to mark that the lexical-semantical field is an ordered
sum of semantical and associative close units that reflect a certain notional
sphere in the language of the texts.
As a result of the analysis of the dictionaries the following aspects of
the meaning of the word “travelling” were evidentiated: 1) to move; 2) to
ride; 3) far distance; 4) period of time, term. In such a way, the concept
“travelling” characterises such associative notions as personality, distance,
long (short) term, types of transport and movement.
In the investigated texts we observed lexical units with high
frequency of usage forming the concept “travelling” witnessing its actuality
and significance for the Moldovan people. Travel became an inseparable
part of the life of the people, one of the most actual notions of the modern
world. It is namely due to this action (process) that the international,
political, economical and cultural ties are established and organized.
Moldova is a country of tourism, tourism is connected with rest, holidays,
entertainment, consequently, travelling is a necessary component of the
96
Moldovan culture which can be considered as a kind of rest and a special
way of entertaining. The analysis of the English literary texts leads to the
understanding by the English people of the concept how the English
perceive the Moldovan culture, i.e. the determining of the Moldovan picture
of the world in the way the English understand it. The universality of this
concept allows us to determine it also in the Russian culture.
The name as a cultural universal reflects the national traditions,
social conscience, the history of the people. The frequency of the proper
names usage by the language carriers creates the image of the national
culture, of the people’s outlook, their ideology and moral principles.
Consequently, while studying the peculiarities of the proper names we
evidentiate certain associations that are peculiar to the conscience of the
carriers of that or other language.
Linguoculturality studies the objects and phenomena, unique for a
certain culture as well as the national symbols, i.e. the images with which
the representatives of that or other people associate themselves. The proper
names, i.e. the names of the people, animals, inhabited places, rivers and
mountains, as well as the names of the newspapers, hotels, firms, shops
belong to them.
The Moldovan anthroponyms also constitute an important element in
the formation of the concept “travelling” because by their specificity they
involve the national colour of the country under consideration. The
examination of the lexical units allowed us to evidentiate the aspects of the
development of the signs of travelling in the English literary text.
In the process of the analysis of the English texts describing
Moldova, its landscape, population, traditions and way of life, in general,
the interrelation and intersection of two cultures represents a special
interest. As a result of the given research we came to the conclusion that the
connection between these communities are more vividly observed in the
scheme” the English-Tourist, Traveller, Guest” and “the Moldovan a
Hospitable Host”. The English texts describe how the English experience
the new impressions received in the course of their travel through the
country and how they acquire a new experience of cognition as a result of
which a new system of values takes place in English conscience which is
assimilated with the Moldovan picture of the world.
Thereby, one of the principal and significant concepts of the
Moldovan culture and Moldovan world outlook is the concept “hospitality”
which also influences the formation of the Moldovan national image in the
foreigners’ understanding and conscience.
97
The research of the examples from the literary texts connected with
the conceptualization of “hospitality” allowed us to determine the following
thematic groups:
- personality and his/her character: guest, oaspete, гость; visitor,
vizitator, посетитель; tourist, turist, турист; stranger, foreigner, străin,
necunoscut, иностранец; Englishman, englez, англичанин; British,
britanic, британский; host, stăpân, хозяин; islander, insular,
островитянин;
- relation: friendliness, bunăvoinţă, дружелюбие; good nature, bun
la inimă, добродушие; amiability, affability, amabilitate, приветливость;
respect, respect, уважение; kind-heartedness, bunătate, добросердечность;
courtesy, politeţe, почтение; consideration, considerare, внимание;
sincerity, candour, sinceritate, искренность; interest, interes, интерес;
nonchalance, nepăsare, indiferenţă, безразличие; indifference, indiferenţă,
равнодушие; hostility, ostilitate, враждебность;
- reception: feast, petrecere, застолье; banquet, banchet, банкет;
party, serată, вечеринка; festivities, festivitate, торжество;
- mood:
inner
mood,
stare
sufletească,
внутренняя
расположенность; sympathy, simpatie, симпатия; affection, afecţiune,
привязанность; love, dragoste, любовь; joy, bucurie, радость; delight,
încântare, восторг; gladness, veselie, bucurie, восторг; enthusiasm,
entuziasm, энтузиазм; cheerfulness, voie bună, optimism, бодрость.
Linguistic designation of the concept “hospitality” may be
presented in the way of a frame which is formed due to the notions
associated with hospitality. Here we regard the notions partially synonymic
to hospitality. Every of these key notions form some semantic fields that
partially cross each other and are filled with certain lexis. The concept
“hospitality” is directly connected with the following aspects: “reception”,
“cordiality”, “entertainment”, “treating” with smth (food).
The semantic field of the concept “hospitality” in English is in the
form of a multilayer, at the level of life conscience of the English the given
concept is associated with entertainment, gaiety, good mood and generous
treating (with food).
The universal concept “hospitality” is characteristic also to the
Russian culture, it is conditioned by the high frequency of usage of the
lexem “hospitality” and other lexical units forming the given concept on the
basis of literary texts of the Russian classic A.S. Pushkin in his description
of Russia.
It is also underlined that belles-lettres reproduce the image of social
life, the national character and world outlook of the people. The Moldovan
ethnic image is brightly reproduced in fiction. The language, traditions,
98
nature and landscape, education and instruction and other social factors
influence the formation of the world picture. Different people possess one
and the same values but in different proportions. In order to describe the
peculiarities of the national character leaning on the materials from Internet
(http://www.iatp.md/mymoldova), it is necessary to single out the following
peculiarities: a) the relations among the people of the given above nations;
b) the manner of intercourse and temperament; c) the mode of life,
traditions and customs; d) specific features of the Moldovan, Russian and
English character; e) cultural realia (meals, mode of life, appearance and
attire); f) description of the landscape, climate.
The linguistic picture of the world is formed according to the
foundations of the society. People’ perception of each other is realized in
the light of the already formed stereotypes which are an indispensable
element of any culture because they influence the people’s psychology and
behaviour as well as their conscience and international conflicts between
people. But very often the stereotypes are based on semi-truth and
distortions thus not giving an exact view about the people with whom they
have intercultural contacts.
Our general view, for example, about England forms stereotypes
which do not always correspond to reality. We find out about many things
that are typically called English from the books, songs, plays. The study of
English, Russian and Moldovan culture on the basis of belles-lettres
allowed us to compare the national characteristics of the given societies.
Side by side with the descriptions of Moldova and its inhabitants the authors
of the analyzed works very often make comparisons with England
mentioning in their retelling the English quality inherent either to the very
English national character or the English mode and style of life.
The investigation of the interrelation of the English, Russian and
Moldovan culture in the area of belles-lettres is very important for a more
precise conceptualization of the Moldovan national picture of the world in
the works of the English and Russian authors. For our investigation it is
advisable to clear up the stereotypes the representatives of these two people
put down in accordance with each other in the course of their close
historical and political interrelation and intercourse. In the process of the
analyses of J. Fowles, L. Darrell, J. Darrell we come to the conclusion that
the Moldovan regard England and everything that concerns it with great
interest. The analysis of the material demonstrated that hospitality, freedom,
family, money, rest are the key concepts in the national conscience of the
Moldovan people, the lexical units naming these notions being very
frequently used.
99
The given key words are forming the system of values in the
Moldovan social life. For the description of the features of the Moldovan
national character the English authors use such lexical units that
characterize the Moldovan people as friendly, sociable, energetic people. At
the same time solitude, haughtiness, monotony are characteristic for the
representatives of the English people according to the opinion of the
English writers. This is indicated by the background of the picture of the
world of Moldova and England. The English picture of the world in the
description of the people and landscape uses grey, pale-brown and palegreen colours. White and blue colours are presented in the presentation of
the Moldovan picture of the world, they are found in the description of
clothes, mode of life, landscape, architecture, as well as the symbol of the
flag.
We observe different ways of men’s description and the reality of the
environment in Internet: photos, videotexts, telephone conversations,
videoconferences, chats, forums, etc.
But the universal features are displayed on the lexical level in the
evaluation of the national character of the Moldovan and English, because
“free loving” is a quality characteristic to every man. General features are
also observed in the description of the capitals of Moldova and England
because “comfortless” and “tiresome” are the signs characteristic for any
megalopolis that is connected with the focus of political, economic and
cultural life of the country as well as the flow of population from the
provincial towns and backward countries.
In conclusion we can say that the linguistic representation of the
concepts “travelling” and “hospitality” are characteristic to the English,
Moldovan and Russian linguocultural communities, they enable the
formation of the national picture of the world, conditioned by the specificity
of the national-cultural context, frequency of the characteristics of the
language units and the author’s personal picture of the world in Internet. It
seems to us promising since the knowledge of the linguistic means taking
into consideration the national particularities in the process of translation
and interpretation, enables the achievement of the effectiveness in the
process of intercultural communication. The ethnospecific verbal and
linguoculturological peculiarities of the Moldovan picture of the world are
reflected on the following websites: http://www.usm.md/do/slovo;
http://usm.md/do; http://www.iatp.md/ccp_contact/; http://ydc.md.iatp.net;
http://www.usm.md/do/mymoldova; http://usm.md/do/engl11/index.html;
http://water.usm.md,http://www.iatp.md/mymoldova. http://rki.md.iatp.net/.
100
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UTILITATEA PRODUSELOR TERMINOGRAFICE
INFORMATIZATE ÎN PROCESUL DE PREDARE-ÎNVĂŢARE
LA FACULTĂŢILE DE LIMBI STRĂINE (Cazul ITeC).
Ludmila HOMETKOVSKI,
dr. conf. univ. ad-interim,
ULIM, R. Moldova
Ţinând cont de dezvoltarea noilor tehnologii informaţionale, în prezent
atât activitatea terminografică, cât şi procesul educaţional, în general, nu
mai pot fi concepute fără folosirea informaticii. Prin facilităţile pe care le
oferă, informatica a deschis noi perspective pentru terminologie,
traductologie, didactica limbilor străine. Cu ajutorul computerului produsul
terminografic poate fi elaborat într-un termen relativ scurt, cu cheltuieli
financiare reduse şi în condiţiile cele mai bune, iar cursurile teoretice şi
disciplinile practice universitare pot fi predate la un nivel modern şi
adecvat. Informatica a pătruns adânc în activitatea cetăţeanului modern, a
specialiştilor din diverse domenii ale cunoaşterii, prin asigurarea exactităţii
şi rapidităţii tuturor operaţiilor. Şi studentul de astăzi nu face excepţie.
În scopuri ştiinţifico-didactice a fost creată baza de date terminologice
în domeniul dreptului comunitar (sau dreptului Uniunii europene) pe care
am numit-o InfoTerminographe Communautaire (ITeC). În prezentul
articol, nu ne vom opri la latura ştiinţifică a ITeC, primordială fiind în
cadrul seminarului nostru metodic perspectiva didactică, adică modul în
care putem folosi acest instrument terminografic în procesul de predareînvăţare la specialitatea limbi moderne.
ITeC este instalat în laboratorul multimedia № 405, spaţiul E-books
DIB ULIM şi este plasat pe blogul-ul autoarei (lhometkovski.ulim.md) unde
102
baza de date poate fi accesată gratuit de toţi doritorii prin internet sau
dispozitivul WAP (prin telefonul mobil).
Figura 1. ITeC pe pagina principală a blog-ului personal.
Care sunt informaţiile oferite de ITeC şi cum ele pot fi folosite la orele
de traducere specializată la ciclul licenţă sau la orele de traducere şi limbaje
specializate la ciclul masterat? Pe pagina principală ITeC studentul va găsi
şi în vederea unei documentări corecte în ITeC va trebui să facă cunoştinţă
cu rubricile:
 A propos de l’ITeC (conţine informaţii despre ITeC, avantajele
produsului, utilizatorii potenţiali, sursele informaţiilor înregistrate):
Figura 2. Imaginea grafică a rubricii A propos de l’ITeC.
103
 Mode d’emploi (ghidul de utilizare unde se explică cum de lucrat
cu baza de date):
Figura 3. Imaginea grafică a rubricii Mode d’emploi.

Corpus (colecţie de texte legislative europene în patru limbi):
Figura 4. Imaginea grafică a rubricii Corpus.

Contactez-nous (asigură legătura între administrator şi utilizator):
104
Figura 5. Imaginea grafică a rubricii Contactez-nous.
Pe lângă aceste rubrici, tot pe pagina principală ITeC, studentul are la
dispoziţie:
 Cutiile de căutare în cele patru limbi implicate în ITeC.
Studentul poate căuta termenul pornind de la oricare din aceste limbi (de
exemplu: cour/curtea/court/суд). Este important de menţionat că căutarea
termenului se efectuează în baza unei părţi a termenului, cuvântului-cheie,
în baza termenului concret (şi în acest caz în ajutorul studentului vine cutia
de autosugestie care economiseşte timpul utilizatorului, deoarece
utilizatorul nu trebuie să tapeze în cutie unitatea terminologică în
integritate). Un alt moment important privind depistarea termenilor prin
intermediul cutiilor de căutare constă în faptul că utilizatorul poate să nu
ţină cont de semnele diacritice sau litere majusculule, existente în forma
termenului.
 Căutarea termenilor poate fi, de asemenea, efectuată cu ajutorul
filtrelor alfabetice pentru termenii francezi. La fiecare filtru
corespunzător primei litere a termenului, termenii francezi se afişează în
ordine alfabetică. Dacă studentul ştie concret ce vrea să găsească în ITeC, el
poate folosi şi această metodă de căutare.
 Unele date statistice oferite de computer cu privire la termenii
înregistraţi în ITeC (care, totodată, familiarizează studenţii cu fenomenele
lingvistice depistate în terminologie – în cazul ITeC este vorba de
polisemie, sinonimie, antonimie, hipero-/hiponimie şi abreviere).
 Data ultimei reactualizări a bazei (adăugarea de termeni noi,
modificarea sau completarea informaţiilor etc.).
105
Figura 6. Imaginea grafică a paginii principale ITeC.
Totuşi, în orice bază de date informaţia cea mai preţioasă se conţine în
fişa terminologică.
Figura 7. Imaginea grafică a fişei ITeC
De exemplu, în fişa termenului Curtea de justiţie a Comunităţilor
europene, studentul va găsi următoarele: termenul în limba franceză,
categoria gramaticală a acestuia (acest câmp este important pentru student,
deoarece se mai întâmplă ca ei să confunde genurile, de exemplu, şi, prin
106
urmare să nu facă corect acordul), etimologia, definiţia termenului
(definiţiile), echivalentele în română, engleză şi rusă (pornind de la limbile
implicate în actul de traducere studentul îşi va alege echivalentul respectiv),
sinonime, antonime (în cazul termenului dat este vorba de antonimie
instituţională înregistrată în fişă din perspectiva „a nu se confunda”, ca
studentul să nu ia drept acelaşi termen o denumire a altei instituţii europene,
caci, deseori, aceste denumiri au forme asemănătoare, de exemplu, Curtea
de justiţie a CE şi Curtea internaţională de justiţie – organ al Consiliului
Europei, şi nu a UE), hiponime/hiperonime (parte-întreg), contexte în
franceză şi română cu referinţe bibliografice (care exemplifică funcţionarea
lingvistică a termenului în text şi vin totodată să completeze definiţiile cu
informaţii juridice), frazeologisme juridice în franceză şi română extrase din
corpusul legislativ, comentarii enciclopedice, forma abreviată a termenului,
iniţialele autorului fişei terminologice şi data creării sau completării ei cu
noi informaţii. În caz de necesitate, fişa poate fi imprimată pe suport hârtie.
Tabelul 1. Fişa termenului Cour de justice des Communautés européennes
(în format de imprimare)
Terme:
Catégorie
grammaticale:
Etymologie:
Définition:
Cour de justice des Communautés européennes (CJCE)
n. f.
lat. curtis
1. Organe juridictionnel des Communautés européennes*
institué pour assurer le respect du Droit dans
l’interprétation et l’application des traités et composé de
juges nommés pour six ans par les gouvernements des
Etats (en pratique un par Etat) qui a pour l’essentiel
compétence pour constater les manquements des Etats à
leurs obligations, interpréter les traités sur renvoi
préjudiciel, annuler sur recours les actes des institutions,
statuer sur la responsabilité contractuelle ou
extracontractuelle de la Communauté et peut être saisi,
selon les cas, par les Etats membres*, leurs ressortissants
(personnes physiques ou morales), les institutions
communautaires ou les juridictions nationales (Cornu,
Gérard. Vocabulaire juridique, Quadrige/Puf, 2003, p.
241). 2. La Cour de justice assure le respect du droit dans
l'interprétation et l'application des traités constitutifs. Elle
est composée d'autant de juges qu'il y a d'États membres*
(article 221 TCE) et compte actuellement 27 juges. Leur
renouvellement est réalisé partiellement tous les trois ans.
À sa tête, un Président est désigné par ses paires pour un
mandat de trois ans renouvelable. Les juges sont assistés
107
Traduction
(Română):
Traduction
(English):
Traduction
(Русский):
Synonyme(s):
Antonyme(s):
Hyponyme(s):
Hyperonyme(s):
Contexte
(Français):
Contexte
(Română):
Phraséologismes
juridiques
(Français):
Phraséologismes
juridiques
de huit avocats-généraux nommés pour six ans d'un
commun accord par les États membres* (Glossaire
Scadplus, http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/index_fr.htm)
Curtea de Justiţie a Comunităţilor Europene (CJCE)
Court of Justice of the European Communities (ECJ)
Суд Европейских Сообществ
Cour européenne de justice (CEJ), Cour de justice.
Cour internationale de justice (CIJ); Cour européenne des
droits de l'Homme (CEDH).
Président de la Cour de justice des Communautés
européennes, juges de la Cour de justice des Communautés
européennes, avocats-généraux de la Cour de justice des
Communautés européennes.
Institutions européennes*
La Cour de justice des Communautés européennes, est
issue du traité de Paris de 1952; elle est désormais
commune aux deux Communautés et à l’Union
européenne. Son rôle consiste à veiller au «respect du droit
dans l’interprétation et l’application» des traités et du droit
dérivé (art. 220 CE) (Dollat, P. Droit européen et droit de
l’Union européenne. Paris: Dalloz, 2007. - p. 184).
Curtea de Justiţie a Comunităţilor Europene, cu sediul la
Luxemburg, este o instituţie care veghează la respectarea
dreptului în cadrul Comunităţilor Europene. Judecătorii şi
avocaţii generali sunt numiţi de guvernele statelor membre
de comun acord, pentru un mandat de 6 ani (art. 223 din
Tratatul CE, art. 139 alin. 1 din Tratatul CEEA).
Judecătorii pot fi numiţi pentru un nou mandat. Tratatele
comunitare nu prezintă nicio prevedere expresă cu privire
la inamovibilitatea judecătorilor pe perioada mandatului
lor (Gornig, G., Rusu, I.E. Dreptul Uniunii Europene.
Bucureşti: C. H. Beck, 2007. – p. 65).
introduire un recours auprès de la Cour de justice des
Communautés européennes; statuer à l'unanimité sur
demande de la Cour de justice des Communautés
européennes; adjoindre à la Cour de justice des
Communautés européennes une juridiction; établir la
procédure en accord avec la Cour de justice des
Communautés européennes; saisir directement la Cour de
justice des Communautés européennes;
a introduce un recurs la Curtea de Justiţie a Comunităţilor
Europene; a hotărî în unanimitate la solicitarea Curţii de
108
(Română):
Abréviation:
Commentaires
encyclopédiques:
Auteur:
Date de
rédaction:
Justiţie a Comunităţilor Europene; a alătura Curţii de
Justiţie a Comunităţilor Europene o instanţă; a stabili
procedura în acord cu Curtea de Justiţie a Comunităţilor
Europene; a sesiza direct Curtea de Justiţie a Comunităţilor
Europene;
CJCE
La CJCE peut siéger en chambres (de trois à cinq juges),
en grande chambre (treize juges) ou en plénière. La CJCE
a été créée par le traité instituant la Communauté
européenne du charbon et de l'acier en 1952. Elle remplit
deux fonctions principales: • vérifier la compatibilité des
actes des institutions européennes* et des gouvernements
avec les traités* (recours en manquement, recours en
carence et recours en annulation); • se prononcer, à la
demande d'un tribunal national, sur l'interprétation ou la
validité des dispositions du droit communautaire* (renvoi
préjudiciel). Face à l'engorgement de la cour et à la durée
de plus en plus longue des recours, un tribunal de première
instance des Communautés européennes (TPICE)* a été
créé en 1989. Il introduit un double degré de juridiction et
permet d'alléger le travail de la CJCE. Dans le même ordre
d'idée, depuis le traité de Nice* il est possible de créer des
chambres spécialisées, à l'exemple du tribunal de la
fonction publique européenne qui est opérationnel depuis
février 2005. Toujours dans un souci de simplification et
de rationalisation du fonctionnement de la Cour, son statut
peut dorénavant être modifié par le Conseil* qui statue à
l'unanimité* sur demande de la Cour ou de la
Commission*. De même, l'approbation du règlement de
procédure de la Cour par le Conseil* s'effectue désormais à
la
majorité
qualifiée*
(Glossaire
Scadplus,
http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/index_fr.htm).
L. H.
09/01/2010
Fişa terminologică ITeC, fiind în mare parte francofonă, poate fi utilă
nu doar pentru studenţii care studiază limba franceza ca limbă străină de
bază, dar şi pentru cei de la secţia de limbă engleză cu limba B franceză. În
realizarea unei traduceri studentul se va documenta în ITeC şi va găsi
informaţii utile şi corecte.
Pentru viitor preconizăm introducerea câmpurilor pentru limbile
spaniolă şi germană, pornind evident de la combinaţia de limbi predate în
cadrul facultăţii noastre.
109
Lucrând cu ITeC studentul va fi, totodată, iniţiat în domeniul
terminografiei, în general. El va înţelege mai bine ce este o BDT şi va simţi
din propria experienţă toate avantajele produselor terminografice
informatizate.
Studentul poate, de asemenea, juca rolul administratorului BDT, şi nu
doar rolul utilizatorului. Astfel, studentul poate fi antrenat în procesul de
completare a ITeC cu informaţii noi. Primind scheletul fişei terminologice,
după explicarea principiilor, etapelor şi constrângerilor de terminografiere,
studenţii pot elabora singuri fişe terminologice în drept comunitar sau în
orice alt domeniu de activitate umană, de exemplu, în partea practică a
tezelor lor de licenţă şi master.
Introducerea şi suprimarea datelor în şi din ITeC se efectuează foarte
uşor, mai grea fiind colectarea datelor adecvate căci ele trebuie spicuite de
administrator în urma unei documentări riguroase din diverse surse credibile
(dicţionare generale, specializate, enciclopedice, etimologice; lexicoane,
baze şi bănci de date; opere doctrinare în drept, articole ştiinţifice; legislaţie
etc), activitate ce necesită mult timp. Pentru introducerea datelor se
deschide pe pagina administratorului Redactorul de fişe, se introduc în fişă
şi se înregistrează aceste date cu ajutorul butonului Enregistrer. Automat se
modifică şi statistica ITeC.
Studenţii de la alte specialităţi decât limbile moderne fiind, deseori,
vorbitori de limbi străine, pot, de asemenea, consulta productiv ITeC-ul. De
exemplu, studenţii-jurnalişti vor găsi informaţii utile cu privire la Uniunea
Europeană, activităţile, politicile, strategiile, programele unionale etc.
pentru scrierea de articole, elaborarea de emisiuni. Studenţii de la filierile
francofone (specialităţile drept, relaţii internaţionale, relaţii economice
internaţionale şi altele) pot folosi ITeC-ul ca un ghid la disciplina drept
comunitar, un mini-manual în domeniu.
În concluzie, din punct de vedere didactic şi utilitar, putem enumera
următoarele avantaje ITeC:
 formatul electronic facilitează şi rentabilizează cu mult activitatea
utilizatorilor (fie acest utilizator student, profesor sau specialist în
domeniu);
 legătura directă între utilizator şi administrator (student - profesor);
 posibilitatea de a extrage informaţii din ITeC prin copierea
fragmentului solicitat sau imprimarea informaţiei pe suport tradiţional (nu
toate produsele terminografice permit aceasta);
 ITeC este un dicţionar cvadrilingv francez-român-englez-rus;
 consultarea celor mai importante acte legislative ale UE în patru
limbi direct în ITeC;
110
 consultarea ITeC fără acces la internet în cazul instalării
programului în computerul utilizatorului (săli de curs, mediatecă, bibliotecă,
etc.);
 prin natura şi conţinutul său, ITeC este o culegere de termeni şi
documente juridice utile pentru tot spaţiul francofon;
 ITeC contribuie, de asemenea, la stabilirea posibililor legături
culturale, economice şi juridice între Republica Moldova şi statele membre
ale UE;
 posibilitatea de amplificare nelimitată a ITeC şi de modificare a
structurii fişei terminologice, prin adăugarea de noi câmpuri;
 oferă frazeologisme juridice comunitare contribuind la
perfecţionarea cunoştinţelor lingvistice şi jurilingvistice;
 prin conţinutul său contribuie la perfecţionarea cunoştinţelor la
disciplina drept comunitar şi comprehensiunea corectă a întregului sistem
juridic comunitar;
 poate fi folosit ca un suplimentul la sursele de bază la disciplina
dreptul Uniunii Europene, Instituţii comunitare europene, Relaţii
internaţionale etc.
 contribuie la armonizarea terminologiei şi legislaţiei naţionale cu
cea europeană.
Bazele de date nu sunt structuri fixe, ele trebuie actualizate în continuu
prin crearea de noi fişe şi îmbogăţirea celor existente pentru a dispune de
informaţii cu adevărat utile. Realizarea produselor terminografice
informatizate implică o bună organizare, o documentare riguroasă şi
adecvată, o participare a utilizatorilor reali şi o revizuire periodică. În
crearea ITeC au fost larg utilizate ofertele informaticii, ceea ce a contribuit
la utilitatea şi calitatea produsului obţinute cu cheltuieli financiare
minimale.
111
ESP: СПОСОБЫ ФОРМИРОВАНИЯ ИНОЯЗЫЧНОЙ
КОММУНИКАТИВНОЙ КОМПЕТЕНЦИИ У СТУДЕНТОВМЕДИКОВ
В.Г. КОСТЕНКО, к.ф.н., доц.,
И.Н.СОЛОГОР, к.ф.н., доц.,
И.В. ЗНАМЕНСКАЯ, , к.ф.н., доц.,
Украинская Медицинская Стоматологическая Академия,
г.Полтава, Украина
В последнее время, когда политические, экономические и
социальные условия жизни диктуют приоритеты использования
иностранного языка как средства общения, становится все более
актуальным поиск новых путей преподавания иностранного языка в
вузах. Все это, а также присоединение Украины к европейскому
образовательному пространству предполагает переход к качественно
новому уровню владения иностранными языками, и, соответственно,
новым, продуктивным методикам их преподавания. Эти тенденции
побуждают преподавателей к разработке и внедрению таких
подходов, комплексов, учебников, которые способствовали бы
максимальному приближению преподавания иностранных языков к
условиям реального профессионального и бытового общения.
Изучение иностранного языка – личностная потребность,
которая проявляется в социальном взаимодействии, общении.
Успешность общения зависит не только от желания говорящего
вступить в контакт, но и от умения реализовать речевое намерение,
которое зависит от степени владения единицами языка и умения
употреблять их в конкретных ситуациях общения (при этом знание
отдельных элементов языка само по себе не может быть отнесено к
понятию ˝владение языком как средством общения˝). Эти условия
владения
языком
составляют
сущность
коммуникативной
компетенции, которая была выдвинута в число центральных
категорий коммуникативной лингвистики и лингводидактики.
Коммуникативная компетентность врача - профессионально
значимое качество. Профессия врача предполагает в той или иной
степени выраженное интенсивное и продолжительное общение: с
больными, их родственниками, коллегами. От умения общаться,
устанавливать и развивать взаимоотношения с людьми во многом
зависит профессиональная успешность врача. Умение общаться, или
коммуникативная компетентность, обеспечивает взаимопонимание,
112
доверие в отношениях, эффективность в решении поставленных
задач.
Анализ современной научной литературы позволяет говорить о
коммуникативной компетенции как о междисциплинарном феномене,
в определении которого отсутствует четкая определенность.
Причинами
неопределенности
толкований
данной
лингводидактической категории, да и границ самого понятийного
поля, можно назвать:
а) многоаспектность рассматриваемой категории, которая, с
одной
стороны,
характеризуется
самостоятельностью
ее
составляющих, с другой – в совокупности представляет собой
совокупность
личностных
качеств,
типов
поведения,
индивидуализации протекания коммуникативного акта;
б) особенности перевода данного термина: в русскоязычном и
украиноязычном научном сознании английское ˝communicative
competence˝ обозначается как ˝коммуникативная компетенция˝ и как
˝коммуникативная компетентность˝. Нечеткость границ термина
приводит к наличию многочисленных дефиниций, например,
коммуникативное
совершенство,
речевая
компетентность,
коммуникативная грамотность, коммуникативные способности,
социолингвистическая компетентность, вербальная коммуникативная
компетентность и др.
Коммуникативная компетенция является лингвистически,
психологически и методически организованной системой. В ней
достигается единство ˝языка-речи˝ как средства (язык) и способа ее
реализации (речь). Коммуникативная компетенция индивидуальна и
динамична. Она относится к классу интеллектуальных способностей
индивида. Сферой проявления этих способностей является
деятельностный процесс, необходимым звеном которого выступает
речевой компонент (речевая деятельность).
В понятие коммуникативной компетенции включаются навыки
и умения адекватного использования иностранного языка в
конкретной ситуации общения. Коммуникативная компетенция
определяется как творческая способность человека пользоваться
инвентарем языковых средств (в виде высказываний и дискурсов),
которая складывается из знаний и готовности к их адекватному
использованию. В данное понятие включаются когнитивные,
аффективные и интенциональные факторы. Вятютнев М.Н.
рассматривает коммуникативную компетенцию ˝как выбор и
реализацию программ речевого поведения в зависимости от
способности человека ориентироваться в той или иной обстановке
113
общения; умение классифицировать ситуации в зависимости от темы,
задач, коммуникативных установок, возникающих у учеников до
беседы, а также во время беседы в процессе взаимной адаптации˝ [2,
С.38]. Эта способность к выбору и реализации программ речевого
общения и поведения осуществляется ˝на фоне культурного
контекста˝ [3, С.5] и приобретается в результате ˝естественной
коммуникации или специально организованного обучения˝ [5, С. 55].
Таким образом, приобретение коммуникативной компетенции
индивидом становится доминирующей целью обучения, при этом
внимания педагогов переносится со структуры или системы языка
(как это имело место в структурной лингвистике) и фокусируется на
структуре речи, отличающейся ситуативностью, профессиональной и
национально-культурной спецификой.
Организация учебного процесса, нацеленного на формирование
и развитие иноязычной коммуникативной компетенции у будущих
работников здравоохранения, по нашему мнению, должна решать
такие основные задачи:
 использование знаний, умений, навыков, которые студенты
приобрели либо приобретают во время изучения других предметов,
использование их жизненного опыта;
 использование во время изучения иностранного языка таких
навыков и умений, которые могут быть использованы в сфере
профессиональной деятельности.
Как
показывает
опыт,
формирование
иноязычной
коммуникативной компетенции  это интегрированный процесс,
предполагающий единство целей, задач, методик его воплощения,
двустороннюю направленность (преподаватель ↔ студент),
непрерывность, динамичность и способствующий развитию
профессионально-личностных качеств. В высшей медицинской школе
этот процесс осложняется, так как должно происходить не только
обучение
общению,
но
и
обогащение
этого
общения
профессионально-ориентированным материалом.
В свете вышесказанного, занятия по иностранному языку
следует рассматривать как деятельность общения, которая
предусматривает отказ от доминирования формальных языковых
упражнений в пользу деятельностно- и интеллектуальноориентированных заданий. Сам термин «задание» мы употребляем в
соответствии с его формулировкой в «Общеевропейских
рекомендациях о языковом образовании» [4, C.10]. Задания могут
быть различными по своей сути и включать поисковую деятельность,
решение проблемных вопросов, ситуаций, ролевые игры, такие как
114
заполнение различных форм, доклад, презентация и их обсуждение с
коллегами.
Такие задания в большей степени приближены к
реальному общению и отличаются от педагогических упражнений,
которые представляют собой «целенаправленные, взаимосвязанные
действия, которые выполняются в порядке нарастания языковых и
операциональных трудностей, с учетом последовательности
формирования речевых умений и навыков, а также характера реально
существующих речевых актов [1, С.373]».
Обучение будущих медиков должно моделировать реальный
целостный контекст профессионально-ориентированного общения,
его интерактивный характер
и способствовать познавательнокогнитивному развитию студентов (процессы поиска и отбора
информации, ее анализа, описания, сопоставления, обобщения) [6].
Важно разработать такую систему учебных заданий, которая бы
обеспечила последовательный переход от перцепции текста
(прочитанного, услышанного) к его проблемному обсуждению и
проецированию этих проблем на самого студента в процессе
коллективного взаимодействия.
В содержательном плане материалы для чтения, прослушивания
или видеопросмотра должны быть неоднотипными, познавательно
значимыми благодаря новизне информации, новому освещению
известных фактов; по своей сложности соответствовать уровню знаний
и интеллектуальных возможностей студентов, соответствовать их
опыту, интересам. Относительно формальных характеристик следует
отметить, что предлагаемые материалы должны быть разными в
функциональном и жанровом плане, включать грамматические
конструкции, активно используемые в наиболее типичных
коммуникативных ситуациях данной отрасли, термины как широкого
общенаучного
значения,
так
и
узкоспециализированные,
профессионализмы, условные обозначения и т.п.
Чтение по-прежнему является наиболее активно используемым
видом речевой деятельности среди
отечественных работников
здравоохранения,
являясь
средством
удовлетворения
как
коммуникативных, так и познавательных потребностей, поскольку
оно позволяет пользоваться всеми разнообразными источниками
информации – журналами, патентами, Интернетом, своевременный
доступ к которым практически закрыт для тех, кто не владеет языком.
Правильно созданные серии разнообразных проблемных
заданий к прочитанным / прослушанным текстам или просмотренному
видеоматериалу побуждают студентов к высказыванию собственных
мыслей, способствуют формированию критического отношения к той
115
или иной точке зрения. Ведь именно при столкновении различных
взглядов и мнений рождаются наиболее оптимальные способы
решения задач, и вполне естественно возникает потребность в
общении.
Вторым по значимости видом
речевой деятельности для
украинских врачей и ученых является письмо. К заданиям,
вызывающим интерес у студентов, можно отнести заполнение
различных форм (Request for Out-Patient Consultation, Discharge
Summary), анкет (Registration Form, Hotel Booking Form), составление
личных или деловых писем
(Letters of Referral, Letters of
Recommendation), заявки на грант (Research Projects), составление
резюме, СV, Bio-Data; участие в конференциях on-line; написание
малых текстов таких академических жанров как Research Paper
Abstracts, Conference Abstracts.
Учебные материалы, которые при этом используются, имеют
определенную социокультурную специфику, которой не следует
пренебрегать. Наличие общих профессиональных знаний является
важной предпосылкой эффективного общения, особенно в случаях,
когда коммуниканты принадлежат к разным лингвокультурным
сообществам, и именно недостаток фоновых знаний зачастую
осложняет общение либо делает его менее продуктивным.
Таким образом, формирование коммуникативной компетенции –
это непрерывный процесс, ведущий к расширению границ
коммуникации, готовности к гибкому взаимодействию с партнером по
речевому общению, к развитию языкового чутья и рефлексивной
деятельности. Успешная реализация обозначенных задач предполагает
качественную подготовку и переподготовку преподавателей
иностранного языка, которые должны овладеть необходимым
профессионально-коммуникативным репертуаром, разработку и
использование соответствующих средств обучения.
1.
2.
3.
Библиография
Азимов Э.Г., Щукин А.Н. Словарь методических терминов
(теория и практика преподавания языков). Ст-Пб.: Златоуст,
1999. 474 с.
Вятютнев М.Н. Коммуникативная направленность обучения
русскому языку в зарубежных школах / М.Н.Вятютнев //
Русский язык за рубежом. 1977, № 6, С. 38-45.
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общении народов мира: проблемы функционирования и
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Oxford University Press, 2000. 182 p.
НЕКОТОРЫЕ КОМПОЗИЦИОННО-СОДЕРЖАТЕЛЬНЫЕ
ОСОБЕННОСТИ УРОКА ИНОСТРАННОГО ЯЗЫКА
(НЕЙРОПСИХОЛИНГВИСТИЧЕСКИЙ АСПЕКТ)
Ю.Г. КРИВОТУРОВ,
к.ф.н., доцент,
УЛИМ, Р. Молдова
Типология урока иностранного языка обуславливается его
(урока) целевыми характеристиками, а отсюда
и логическими
характеристиками процесса
познания, формирования первичных
умений, навыков по всем аспектам языка и речевых умений. Любой
тип
урока включает в себя композиционную составляющую,
содержание и используемые методы.
Задача каждого урока вплетена в систему всего процесса
обучения и выполнение заданий каждого урока приближает
обучаемых к определенной учебным процессом цели.
В данной работе будут затронуты лишь некоторые
композиционно-содержательные особенности урока, так как его
типичные «классические» характеристики разработаны достаточно
хорошо и подробно учеными-методистами, некоторые из которых
упомянуты ниже.
Урок является средоточием важнейших требований педагогики,
психологии, физиологии, социологии и преподаваемого предмета.
Именно на уроке «реализуются общие и непосредственные задачи
обучения, воспитания и развития; органически сочетается
деятельность учителя и учащегося, выступают
в сложном
взаимодействии цели, содержание и методы» (Дидактика…, с.232233).
117
Являясь звеном стратегической цепи, урок позволяет решать
стратегические и тактические задачи, поскольку «урок – это основная
единица учебно-воспитательного процесса, обладающая всеми
свойствами целого» (Бим И.Л.1988, с. 114.). Именно в поурочном
обучении «взаимодействуют в диалектическом единстве цели и
содержание образования, последовательность и связь его частей,
методы
и
приемы
обучения,
мотивы
учения,
степень
самостоятельности учащихся в учебном труде, …(Якушина Л.З., 1974,
с.10)
Как звено общего процесса обучения урок иностранного языка
(и не только) демонстрирует достаточно сложную композицию. Он
имеет свою собственную внутреннюю структуру, значение и
функциональную составляющую.
Композиционно
уроки могут иметь различные варианты
построения. Особенно это касается циклов уроков (от 3 до 5 уроков в
цикле), в течение которых решаются конкретные задачи. Известным
фактом при обучении является то, что зачастую на одном уроке
невозможно достигнуть необходимого результата по объективным
(психофизиологическим) причинам.
Отсюда возникает необходимость в нескольких уроках,
посвященных овладению одним и тем же языковым явлением.
Циклическая система не является закрытой, т.е. по мере успешности
усвоения материала преподаватель может постепенно, дозировано
включать элементы нового материала (в большей степени это касается
лексики), не упуская из виду главную задачу текущего урочного
цикла. Этим создается преемственность в усвоении знаний и
постепенному переходу первичных умений в навыки, а затем и в
речевые умения.
Гибкость в проведении урока состоит в том, что в течение этого
учебного времени преподаватель решает запланированные задачи, но
может также решать и задачи, связанные с внезапно возникающими
проблемами,
часто не предусмотренными заранее или
не
считавшимися важными при программировании всего учебного
процесса.
Так, например, если у студентов, начавших изучать в вузе
новый для них иностранный язык, произошел «сбой» в
произносительной системе изучаемого нового языка, то фонетике на
уроке можно уделить больше времени, чем на это было рассчитано
ранее, для повышения уровня произносительных навыков студентов, а
запланированное
дальнейшее формирование грамматических,
лексических, коммуникативных и т.д.
навыков перенести на
118
последующие уроки, компенсируя на предыдущем уроке затраченное
время более обширной работой над грамматикой или лексикой и т.д.
Необходимость такого смещения диктуется опасностью закрепления
неверных фонетических навыков.
Мы останавливаемся на этом аспекте языка специально, так как
студенты, начинающие изучать новый для них иностранный язык в
вузе, уже имеют в своем арсенале нормативное владение родным
языком, определенную степень владения иностранным языком,
изучавшимся в школе, лицее, гимназии и т.д., а в билингвальных
ситуациях - определенную степень владения вторым языком, и новый
для них иностранный язык является «конкурентом» по отношению к
языкам уже усвоенным. И новый «конкурентный» язык «отвергается»
предыдущими. Собственно это обстоятельство и является причиной
ошибок по всем аспектам языка у всех обучаемых.
Разбитый на этапы урок позволяет сменить форму работы и
мотивировать обучаемых на выполнение разнообразных учебных
действий.
Из психофизиологии известно, что внимание
является
динамическим процессом, который проявляется в селективности,
направленной «на любой объект стимула: на его физическую или
лингвистическую характеристику» (Данилова Н.Н., 2010, с. 57). И
сосредоточение внимания только на одном объекте на длительное
время при обучении негативно сказывается на результатах процесса
обучения – рутинные действия являются неэффективными. Поэтому
обоснованное переключение внимания студентов с одного аспекта на
другой, с одних заданий на другие благотворно влияет на усвоение
ими учебного материала и на формирование умений и навыков. Здесь
преподаватель должен чувствовать наличие у студентов интереса к
изучаемому материалу, его снижение или его отсутствие и находить
способы, стимулирующие выполнение необходимых заданий. Всякая
успешность в усвоении материала, в формировании первичных умений
и навыков вызывает все больший интерес у обучаемых к данной
деятельности и, в свою очередь, приводит к такому вниманию, которое
уже не требует особых «усилий воли, так как поддерживается
интересом» к этой деятельности (Данилова Н.Н., 2010, с. 58). Kроме
того, повышающийся уровень языковой компетенции изучаемого
языка благотворно влияет на духовное развитие обучаемого
(Butzkamm W., 2002, S. 52).
Последовательность
уроков
позволяет
преподавателю
проследить динамику усваиваемости
учебного материала,
становления и развитие умений и навыков. И, если через некоторое
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количество уроков уровень усвоенности материала остается низким, а
уровень умений и навыков остается практически без изменений, то
это является сигналом к тому, что методика овладения учебным
материалом студентами является недостаточно эффективной. Вывод
напрашивается сам собой: необходимо немедленно скорректировать
методику обучения.
Наиболее сложной задачей является формирование речевых
навыков и умений. Это возможно только по достижении синтеза
(Пассов Е.И. 1991, с.114) уже сформированных фонетических,
грамматических и лексических навыков. Возникновение и развитие
синтеза навыков происходит не всегда явно и не одинаково у
студентов
любой
группы.
Это
объясняется
различными
индивидуальными особенностями студентов.
К сожалению, студенческие группы формируются по
административному принципу, а не по уровню и виду способностей и
вообще не по индивидуальным особенностям студентов. Это в
большей степени является негативом. Поэтому решение учебновоспитательных задач наилучшим образом состоит в «умении
разрабатывать оптимальные варианты построения процесса обучения»
(Бабанский Ю.К., 1989, с. 183).
Сюда относятся: умение преподавателя учитывать особенности
данной группы, каждого обучаемого, умение «находить такие
сочетания современных форм, методов и приемов обучения и
воспитания, которые наилучшим образом обеспечивают решение
учебно-воспитательных задач» (ib.). Преподаватель, как субъект
учебной деятельности, уже с первых уроков начинает определять
общий уровень образованности студентов, их познавательные
интересы, специальные способности, их мотивации при обучении ИЯ.
Здесь велика роль творческого подхода преподавателя в попытке
«относительного выравнивания» у студентов группы речевых навыков,
в переводе количества уже сформированных навыков на более
высокий качественный уровень. Этому способствуют правильно
отобранные упражнения, задания, этюды, ситуации, на основе которых
активные действия студентов по синтезу разнообразных навыков как
раз и формируют речевые навыки и умения.
В педагогической практике, как известно, выделяют три
основные группы методов обучения:
1. Методы организации учебно-познавательной деятельности;
2. Методы стимулирования учебной деятельности;
3. Методы контроля. (Бабанский Ю.К., 1989, с. 310)
120
Все указанные методы необходимы и при обучении ИЯ с учетом
«удельного веса» относительно частотности и насыщенности каждого
из упомянутых методов.
Вопрос о применении той или иной методики на занятиях
остается открытым. Этот вопрос не может быть решен однозначно,
так как каждый метод имеет свою логику, свои положительные
свойства (впрочем, как и слабые стороны). В условиях отсутствия у
студентов иноязычной среды (кроме аудиторной) преподавателю
важно найти «время и место» для продуктивного использования
соответствующего метода. Известно, что правильный подбор и
использование методов ускоряет овладение студентами иностранным
языком. Поскольку на уроке могут ставиться и выполняться разные
задачи, сочетание разных методов на уроках не противоречит
основной цели обучения иностранным языкам.
Для студентов, только начинающих изучать в вузе новый для
них иностранный язык, полезно начинать уроки с беглого опросаповторения пройденного (усвоенного) материала (как правило, в
коммуникативной форме).
Эти опросы-повторения показывают
преподавателю уровень овладения текущим материалом у обучаемых.
В свою очередь у студентов такая повторяемость создает уверенность
в их владении данным учебным материалом. Этот этап плавно
переходит в ориентировочную часть урока.
Центральные этапы урока выполняют основную роль при
выполнении главной задачи. Именно на этих этапах преподаватели
представляют новый материал и помогают в становлении первичных
умений с последующим их совершенствованием, выходом их на
уровень навыков, а затем, при их синтезировании, и на уровень
речевых умений. Методы при проведении этой работы могут быть,
как уже было отмечено, совершенно разными, но замыкаться все
методы и методические приемы должны на коммуникативной
деятельности.
Одним из важнейших методов, на наш взгляд, является
сознательно - сопоставительный метод, суть которого заключается в
глубоком осознании того языкового явления, которое осваивают
обучаемые на данном этапе.
Сознание рассматривается как один из самых важных факторов
познания – это усвоение знаний, а также формирование и
совершенствование навыков и умений (в нашем случае - речевых
умений). Сознание – это «определенное состояние бодрствующего
мозга или как уровень реактивности мозга» (Данилова Н.Н., 2010, с.
121
297) Важно иметь ввиду, что сознание не всегда явно «сопровождает»
речевые процессы.
Известно, что чем выше навыки и речевые умения, тем меньше
непосредственного участия сознания в речевых процессах.
Управляющий правильностью речи (УПР), «следящее устройство»
(Лурия А.Р., 1975, с. 42) как частный случай сознания, имеющий
ориентировочную функцию, всегда (или почти всегда) находится в
«состоянии готовности» не только исправить неверный выбор по всем
аспектам языка, но и найти вариант правильный. «За сознанием
остается функция отбора гипотез на основе их логического анализа»
(Данилова Н.Н., 2010, с. 296). «Состояние готовности» УПР включает
в себя (по Бернштейну Н.А.) вероятностное прогнозирование,
позволяющее выбрать предположительно правильный семантический
вариант, либо вариант парадигматики или синтагматики и, благодаря
функции обратной связи (по Бернштейну Н.А.), сверить отобранную
единицу с единицей замысла. Если прогнозируемая единица совпадает
с установочной (единицей замысла), то процесс продуцирования или
рецепции продолжается, т.е переходит к следующему этапу. При
несовпадении происходит «изменение прогноза или правил перехода
от программы к высказыванию или самой программы» (Леонтьев А.А.,
1969, с. 213). Кратко говоря, УПР – это частный случай
общечеловеческого сознания, часто называемый языковым сознанием,
имеющий «регулятивно-управляющую» функцию (Залевская А.А.,
2007, с.135).
Осознание языкового явления связано с мышлением
индивидуума, что позволяет при выполнении соответствующих
упражнений усваивать материал в более быстром темпе путем его
понимания, образования первичных умений и переводом их на
уровень навыков. Осознание языкового явления облегчается путем
сопоставительных операций, то есть при помощи мышления, которое
является средством усвоения языка, но не идентично ему (Zimmer
D.E., 2010, S. 167, и др.).
Сопоставления могут быть внутри- и межъязыковыми.
Сознательные сопоставительные операции ускоряют процесс
формирования первичных умений. Это может касаться, например,
грамматики немецкого языка. Отметим однако, что, даже учитывая
сложность грамматических явлений немецкого языка, нельзя забывать
о коммуникативной составляющей урока иностранного языка, (следуя
Мартину Лютеру: Grammatica soll nicht regnare super sententias).
Cознательно-сопоставительные операции осуществляются в
процессе мышления, благодаря которому любое грамматическое
122
явление становится ясным и понятным. Под мышлением мы понимаем
«процесс познавательной деятельности, при
котором субъект
оперирует различными видами обобщений, включая образы, понятия
и категории» (Данилова Н.Н., 2010, с. 271).
Отметим, что сознательно-сопоставительный метод не
противоречит методу коммуникативному при правильной организации
урока. Преимущество его состоит в том, что благодаря этому методу у
обучаемых за короткое время (в отличие от прямого метода) возникает
ясное и точное понимание языкового явления изучаемого языка
адекватного языковому явлению в родном языке, что, соответственно,
значительно сокращает время для его усвоения и его правильного
употребления в речи.
Объем и сложность коммуникативных заданий определяется
преподавателем на каждом уроке. Формирование коммуникативных
умений сопровождается, по крайней
мере, двумя основными
трудностями для студентов:
«синхронностью
мысли и ее
вербализацией» (Бубнова Г.И., Ратникова Е.И., 2009, с.126). Эти два
параметра не всегда совпадают: на начальном этапе формирования
речевых навыков вербализация либо отсутствует, либо значительно
отстает от уже сформированной мысли. С развитием речевых умений
синхронность мысли и ее вербализации «выравниваются»,
т.е.
совпадают. Однако наличие ошибок варьируется в зависимости от
степени сформированности предварительных навыков.
Лингвистические знания, полученные осознанным или
неосознанным путем, при выполнении различного рода заданий
трансформируются в навыки, то есть в действия, которые составляют
основу
коммуникации.
Комплексное
фонетико-лексикограмматическое действие может быть правильным или неправильным
либо по всем аспектам языка, либо по одному или двум из них. Урок
предоставляет преподавателю возможность определять не только
ошибки
в
речепроизводстве,
но
и
определять
уровень
коммуникативной компетенции, который в статусе «интеръязыка»
должен быть под постоянным контролем преподавателя, так как
относительно свободное владение на ИЯ с небольшим набором
ошибок первого уровня создает у обучаемого иллюзию свободного и
правильного владения. Например, такое предложение в немецком
языке: Er sagt, dass er gestern hat die Universität besucht будет
правильно понято носителем языка,
несмотря на структурную
ошибку. В этом случае, если сам студент не поправит себя сам или не
будет исправлен кем-то другим, у него возникнет иллюзия
правильности высказывания, что закрепит ошибочность в реализации
123
синтаксической структуры. Такое состояние
языка,
как
интеръязык (Шевнин А.Б., 2004, с. 37), может быть длительным и
устойчивым, чего нельзя допускать; и урок в этом случае дает
возможность преподавателю определять степень аппроксиматичности
системы и ее устойчивость. Все это определяется анализом системных
ошибок, который преподаватель проводит совместно с обучаемым,
составляет перечень методических приемов, чтобы преодолеть
«переходную компетенцию» обучаемого (Шевнин А.Б.,2004, с. 37).
Процесс обучения иностранному языку в этом случае приобретает
новые грани: наряду с обучением, представляющим собой
двустороннюю деятельность, т.е. преподавание, овладение /преподаватель ↔ обучаемый/- добавляется деятельность обучаемого по
изучению иностранного языка,
как правило, самостоятельным
образом. Это не только возможно, но и в высшей степени необходимо,
тем более что обучаемый владеет иностранным языком уже настолько,
что и сам в состоянии «добывать» необходимые знания.
Исследователи
отмечают
важность
этапа
овладения
иностранным языком, который (этап) рассматривается как интеръязык,
так как с его помощью преподаватель определяет (как правило, на
уроке) насколько далеко продвинулся обучаемый в овладении
иностранным
языком,
каковы
необходимые
действия
по
совершенствованию владения им. Кроме того, преподаватель ↔
исследователь
определяет
«какими
стратегиями
пользуется
обучаемый» (ib.). К тому же, интеръязык помогает самому
обучающемуся
проверить
«свои
гипотезы
относительно
правильности/неправильности овладения языком» (ib.).
Правильность/неправильность всегда предполагает отсутствие/
наличие ошибок в речи. Важно различать ошибки по форме и по
содержанию. Если ошибки по форме относятся к первому типу
ошибок, то есть содержание при этом не искажается и не разрушается,
то такие ошибки считаются несущественными: в английском языке в
предложении «Will you to show me?» употребление приглагольной
частицы to является ошибочным (Edge J. 1989, p. 2), однако собеседник
поймет этот вопрос абсолютно правильно. То же явление наблюдаем и
в немецком языке: предложение «Ich möchte dich zu besuchen» вполне
понятно, хотя перед инфинитивом частица zu после модальных
глаголов не ставится. Конечно же, ошибки по форме могут быть
настолько значительными, что они могут исказить или разрушить
коммуникацию.
Гораздо более опасными ошибками являются
ошибки, связанные с содержанием (ib.), поскольку они искажают
124
высказываемую идею и, тем самым, делают коммуникацию
неосуществимой.
В данной работе мы лишь вскользь коснулись проблемы
ошибок. Рассмотрение вопросов, связанных с возникновением ошибок,
не является
главной задачей настоящей статьи. Поэтому эта
глобальная тема будет освещена в следующей работе. Будут
рассмотрены нейропсихо-лингвистические основы появления ошибок:
межъязыковая и внутриязыковая интерференция, а также ошибки,
обусловленные
экстра-лингвистическими
факторами,
которые
исследуются паралингвистикой.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Библиография
Бабанский Ю.К. Избранные педагогические труды. М.,
«Педагогика», 1989. 560 с.
Бим И.Л. Теория и практика обучения немецкому языку в
средней школе. М., «Просвещение», 1988, с. 114.
Бубнова Г.И., Ратникова Е.И. Устнопорождаемая
речь:
изучение синергетических свойств на акустическом уровне.
Вестник Московского Университета, Сер. 19, Лингвистика и
межкультурная коммуникация. 2009, N. 3.
Данилова Н.Н. Психофизиология. Аспект Пресс, М., 2010. – 368
с.
Дидактика средней школы. Под ред. М.А. Данилова, М.А.
Скаткина. М., 1975
Залевская А.А. Введение в психолингвистику. Учебник. М.,
2007. – 560 с.
Леонтьев А.А. Психолингвистические единицы и порождение
речевого высказывания. М., «Наука», 1969. – 308 c.
Лурия А.Р. Основные проблемы нейролингвистики. МГУ, 1975.
– 254 c.
Пассов Е.И. Коммуникативный метод обучения иноязычному
говорению. М., «Просвещение», 1991. – 224 с.
Шевнин А.Б. Эрратология и межъязыковая коммуникация.
Вестник ВГУ, Серия «Лингвистика и межкультурная
коммуникация», 2004, N. 2, с. 36-44.
Якушина Л.З. Методика построения урока иностранного языка
в средней школе. М., «Педагогика», 1974. – 96 с.
Butzkamm W. Psycholinguistik des Fremdsprachenunterrichts: von
der Muttersprache zur Fremdsprache. Tübingen; Basel: Francke.
2002. – 320 S.
Edge J. Mistakes and Correction. London, New York, 1989.
125
14. Zimmer Dieter E. So kommt der Mensch zur Sprache. Über
Spracherwerb, Sprachentstehung und Sprache & Denken. Wilhelm
Heyne Verlag. München, 2010. – 288 S.
ГРАМАТИКО-ПЕРЕКЛАДНИЙ МЕТОД НАВЧАННЯ
ІНОЗЕМНИХ МОВ У ЗАХІДНІЙ УКРАЇНІ (1867- 1890 РР.)
Б.І. ЛАБІНСЬКА,
Чернівецький національний університет
імені Ю.Федьковича,
Чернівець, Украïна
Вихід на сучасний рівень іншомовної підготовки потребує
глибокого переосмислення накопиченого педагогічного досвіду,
подолання фрагментарності історичних знань стосовно розвитку
методики навчання ыноземних мов (ІМ) на західноукраїнських землях
у контексті різних за масштабністю і змістом реформ. Завдання
обґрунтування цілісного ретроспективного знання й визначення його
місця в сучасній методиці навчання ІМ зумовлене соціальнопрактичною потребою критичного аналізу історико-педагогічних умов
трансформування школи як певного досвіду для творчого його
осмислення в ході сучасної модернізації освіти в нинішній соціальноекономічній, суспільно-політичній і культурологічній ситуації.
Історію методів навчання іноземних мов свого часу
досліджували: В.Є. Раушенбах (проаналізував методи з І до ХХ
століття), Г.Є. Ведель (продовжив висвітлювати це питання до
середини ХХ століття). І.В. Рахманов (вивчав методичні проблеми
навчання нових західноєвропейських мов ХІХ–ХХ ст.), О.О.
Миролюбов проаналізував стан методики навчання іноземних мов у
Росії XX–XXI ст. Історію методів навчання ІМ в європейських країнах
розглядали Г. Нойнер (Gerhard Neuner), Г. Гунфельд (Hans Hunfeld), В.
Гюлен (Werner Hüllen) та ін. Аналіз методичної літератури, яка складає
цілий пласт у недрах методичних знань, свідчить, що на сьогодні не
узагальнений і не проаналізований накопичений досвід навчання ІМ
західноукраїнськими педагогами. Розв’язання цієї проблеми вимагає
системних досліджень.
У період з 1774 р. до австрійської частини монархії увійшли
Галичина і Буковина, а до угорської i Закарпатська Україна.
Конституційні закони 1867 р. завершили формування системи
управління Австро-Угорщиною, яка з невеликими змінами
126
проіснувала до її розпаду. Буковина, як і Галичина, входили до
австрійської частини монархії – Ціслейтанії
і були її автономними
коронними краями. Закарпатські землі не мали такої автономії,
залишалися звичайними адміністративними одиницями Угорщини.
Представництво центральної влади на Буковині і в Галичині
здійснювалося крайовим президентом, який призначався імператором
і підпорядковувався міністерству внутрішніх справ. При президенті
діяло крайове управління, якому підлягали начальники повітових
управлінь.
На той час широко декларувалися демократичні свободи,
зокрема рівність усіх громадян перед законом, свобода пересування,
занять, право володіння рухомими і нерухомим майном, вільно
висловлювати свої думки, видавати часописи, сповідувати свою віру,
вчити і навчатися рідною мовою, подавати прохання, збиратися на
збори, засновувати товариства, партії, інші об’єднання. Зазначалося,
що „всі народності держави рівноправні і кожна народність має право
охороняти і розвивати свою національність і мову” [1, с. 70 - 71].
Однак більшість із наведених свобод від самого спочатку не
виконувались належно ні соціально-економічними, ні політикокультурними чинниками. Влада залишалася в руках німецьких,
румунських, польських, угорських поміщиків.
Загальноавстрійські державні закони від 25 травня 1868, закон
від 14 травня 1869 року започаткували нову історію в законодавстві
щодо освіти. Управління освітою переходить від рук церкви до
держави. Міністерству віровизнань та освіти Австро-Угорщини
підпорядковується Крайова шкільна рада під керівництвом
президента краю. Народна школа з 1869 року стає державною
інституцією. Шкільництво й учительство набуває більшого значення
серед суспільства. На підставі цього закону була проведена шкільна
реформа [3, с. 64].
Створена у 1869 р. Крайова шкільна рада була вищою
інстанцією у справах нагляду та керівництва школами Буковини та
Галичини. Їй підлягали навчальні заклади, які входили в коло
діяльності повітових шкільних рад, педагогічні семінарії, середні
навчальні заклади, приватні та спеціальні школи, початкові школи [6,
с. 56- 57].
У компетенцію Крайової шкільної ради входили: контроль за
діяльністю повітових і місцевих (общинних) шкільних рад,
педагогічних семінарій; затвердження директорів і викладачів шкіл,
що знаходились на утриманні общини; затвердження навчальних
планів і підручників для початкових і середніх шкіл; складання різних
127
звітів про стан шкільної справи в краї. Її діяльність була припинена у
1918 році у зв’язку з розпадом Австро-Угорщини.
Проаналізувавши історичні передумови на західноукраїнських
землях перейдемо до мети навчання ІМ досліджуваного часового
відтинка.
Метою навчання німецької мови на західноукраїноукраїнських
землях було чітке розуміння повідомлень інших іноземною мовою,
вміння правильно й вільно висловлюватись в усній і письмовій формах,
формувати навички виразного читання написаного та надрукованого
[8].
У праці Л. Сальо повідомляється, що питання навчання
німецької мови до 1868 року не виникало, позаяк в усіх середніх
школах навчали цієї мови за підручниками, укладеними для
німецькомовного населення й не пристосованими до потреб
україномовних учнів. З 1867/8 року введено польську і українську
мову як мову навчання, при цьому німецька мова залишалася
обов’язковим предметом навчання у всіх типах шкіл Оскільки наука
німецької мови була нова й не мала ”ніяких традицій в школах“, як
зауважуює Л.Сальо, навчали її філологічно-граматичним методом,
запозиченим з навчання латинської мови. Основні принципи цього
методу такі: переклад із німецької мови на рідну і навпаки, навчання
граматики. Пізніше подавалися для читання оповідання (від легких до
важчих), класичні літературні твори [7, с. 99].
Аналіз
західноукраїнських
програм,
затверджених
Міністерством віровизнань і освіти Австро-Угорщини [4], корпус
підручників [5], статей досліджуваного періоду дають підстави
стверджувати про існування граматико-перекладного методу навчання
ІМ. Відомості про метод навчання іноземних мов на
західноукраїнських землях у другій половині XIX століття та його
принципи ми можемо почерпнути лише з програм, підручників,
надрукованих статей, тез у педагогічних виданнях досліджуваного
періоду, оскільки їх автори, на жаль, не залишили фундаментальних
праць.
Перейдемо до аналізу навчання ІМ за аспектами мови.
Навчання читання відбувалося на основі вивчення літер і
звуків, поділу слів на склади. У статті Г. Вольфа (1775 р.)
зауважується, що учні мають право читати тільки після того, як
вивчені відповідні правила читання. Перед читанням усього речення
пояснювалися правила читання кожного слова. Спочатку читав
учитель, а учні повинні уважно стежити за його вимовоюпізніше
читали учні, вчитель корегував правильність читання [10, с. 66 69].
128
У 1887- 1890-ті роки існувало поняття ”орфографічне читання“,
що передбачало вміння повільно читати й виразно вимовляти. Вчитель
стежив за правильністю читання і вимови [9, с. 7–8].
Аналіз програм і статей показує, що тогочасасні
західноукраїнські вчителі звертали увагу на вимову, що не притаманно
граматико-перекладному методу. Однак у підручниках ми не знайшли
алфавіту, правил чи вправ для формування навичок і вмінь правильної
вимови. Вивчення правил коректної вимови можна пояснити
нагальною необхідністю розуміння їх україномовними школярами під
час спілкування з німецькомовним населенням у шкільному оточенні
та в побуті. Таку потребу усвідомлювали й враховували на місцях.
Навчання лексики. Виділених нових лексичних одиниць до
текстів у підручниках нами не віднайдено, однак підручники для
читання вміщали словники в алфавітному порядку з перекладом. У
статті Г. Вольфа знаходимо рекомендації про те, що нові слова вчитель
повинен писати на дошці. Відтак учні мусили переписати ці слова в
зошит разом із перекладом [10, с. 84 –85]. Нова лексика, яка вводилася
в одному уроці, не була тематичною, а групувалася за частинами мови.
Як правило, лексика слугувала ілюстрацією до якого-небудь правила.
Навчання граматики здійснювалося систематично (спочатку
вивчали все, що стосується іменника, пізніше i прикметник та ін.).
Граматика була і метою, і засобом навчання. В ній вбачали, з одного
боку, добрий засіб для розвитку мислення, а з іншого i найбільш
дієвий спосіб навчання говоріння і письма [2, с.143]. Пояснення
граматичних правил відбувалося рідною мовою. В основу кожного
уроку підручника була покладена певна граматична тема. Розподіл тем
здійснювався за принципом ”від простого до складного“. Всі правила
записувалися в зошит, незважаючи на те, що вони подавалися в
підручнику. Вважалось, що сам процес записування правил у зошит
сприяє кращому запам’ятовуванню. Всі правила вивчалися напам’ять.
Для закріплення граматичного матеріалу Г. Волф рекомендував
використовувати:
 відмінювання (дієслів, іменників та ін.);
 конструювання речень;
 підбір синонімів, антонімів;
 письмовий і усний переклад з рідної мови на іноземну і
навпаки;
 аналіз граматичних явищ, які зустрічалися при читанні та
перекладі текстів [10, с.156 -159].
Навчання письма. Основними видами письмових робіт були:
 списування з підручника вдома або в школі;
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 занотувати з пам’яті в зошит-чернетку вивченого тексту та
самостійне корегування його за допомогою підручника. Наступним
етапом було записування з пам’яті в зошит-чистовик вивченого тексту
та виправлення допущених помилок учителем. Під час аналізу
помилок вчителям не рекомендувалося записувати на дошці слова з
помилками;
 написання диктантів, які можна було давати після
багаторазового читання тексту, який буде диктуватися. Диктанти
рекомендувалося начитувати повільно й чітко. Диктанти в чернетках
учні мали право коректувати самостійно за допомогою підручника.
Тексти, написані в чистовиках, перевіряв і виправляв учитель.
 переклад, який рекомендувалося робити не дослівно, а
намагаючись передати смисл, закладений автором. У викладі Д.
Вєнцковского ”Толкованья и переводы“ (у назві збережено мову
оригіналу) акцентується увага на тому, що учень, який робить
переклад, повинен врахувати особливості мови, мовні звороти, які
неможливо точно передати рідною мовою, слід передавати
відповідними виразами, які б коректно передавали задум автора
тексту. Переклад, на думку автора статті формує в учнів навички не
лише письма, але й розвиває вміння письмово передавати думки інших
[2, с.157–158].
Отже, вище викладене дає можливість стверджувати, що
західноукраїнські педагоги у програмах, підручниках і рекомендаціях
для навчання ІМ використовували принципи граматико-перекладного
методу. Граматико-перекладний (його ще називали синтетичний,
філологічно-граматичний) метод грунтувався на навчанні граматики
іноземної мови, читання й перекладу, розвитку логічного мислення
вивчаючих. В його основі лежить вивчення граматичних явищ, аналіз і
вміння конструювати одиниці мови, вправляння в перекладі. Найбільш
відомими представниками граматико-перекладного методу були
Майденгер (Німеччина), Г. Оллендорф (Англія).
Отже, як показує аналіз навчальних програм, підручників,
наукових праць, граматико-перекладний метод має такі характерні
принципи:
 обов’язковість здійснення перекладу;
 оскільки головними операціями логічного мислення були
синтез і дедукція, учні повинні були починати навчання з вивчення
граматичних правил і слів, з яких згодом будувалися речення. Кожне
граматичне правило, ускладнене цілою серією найдрібніших винятків,
супроводжувалося прикладами i вправами на переклад спочатку
коротких і простих, а потім чимраз складніших конструкцій з рідної
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мови на іноземну. Учні спершу вивчали морфологію (форми), а потім
синтаксис (функції цих форм);
 основним способом семантизації нових слів і граматичних
форм слугував переклад;
 для закріплення мовного матеріалу рекомендувалося
використовувати переклад, заучуючи його напам’ять, оскільки за
допомогою цих прийомів створювалися більш стійкі асоціації;
 навчання мові будувалося на зразках письмового мовлення;
 з метою засвоєння граматики й лексики рекомендувалося
виконувати вправи на аналіз граматичних і лексичних явищ у реченнях
і текстах, а також конструювати речення за правилом. Рідна мова
виступала засобом навчання: нею пояснювався новий матеріал і
здійснювалася міжмовні порівняння.
Проблема цілей навчання іноземних мов досліджуваного
періоду ґрунтувалася на розвитку логічного мислення, тренування
розумових здібностей. Тому вимагалося знання граматичних правил,
які дозволяли розуміти та конструювати речення самостійно, вміти
читати. Мова вивчалась формально, напівсвідомим, напівмеханічним
шляхом. Уесь матеріал (правила і приклади) вивчався напам’ять, без
попередньої аналітичної роботи, яка б забезпечувала усвідомлення
цього матеріалу. Від учня вимагалося вміти перекласти першу-ліпшу
думку з рідної мови на іноземну мову або ж навпаки. Одним з
основних прийомів було заучування великої кількості окремих слів
найрізноманітнішого змісту, так званих вокабул. Лексичні одиниці
добиралися тільки з граматичного погляду. Зі словника бралося тільки
те, що могло слугувати ілюстрацією якогось правила. Цілком
очевидно, що різноманітний і строкатий словниковий матеріал міг
бути засвоєний тільки шляхом механічного заучування вокабул.
Що стосується змісту навчання, то в центрі уваги залишалася
граматика, лексика виконувала роль ілюстрації граматичних правил.
Рекомендацій до відбору текстового матеріалу не було, оскільки в
одних підручниках використовувалися тексти Євангелія, а в інших –
уривки з художньої літератури.
Отже, розвиток мовленнєвих умінь на західноукраїнських
землях у досліджуваний період (1867-1890 рр.) здійснювався на основі
знань і навичок лексики, граматики; вміння: читати й розуміти
запропоновані тексти, здійснювати спілкування в писемній формі
відповідно до поставлених завдань, що ототожнювалося тоді з
практичним володінням іноземною мовою.
Підсумовуючи сказане, зауважимо, що окремі прийоми
граматико-перекладного методу досі використовуються для навчання
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читання іншомовних текстів, письма, перекладу. І сам переклад
вважається одним з ефективних способів набуття іншомовної
компетенції.
Список літератури
1.
Буковина: історичний нарис / [упорядкув В.М. Ботушанський]. –
Чернівці : Зелена Буковина, 1998. – 416 с.
2. Вєнцковскій Д.И. Толкованья и переводы // Pädagogische Blätter.
Czernowitz, 1873.–S. 142 – 143, 157–158.
3. Карбулицький І. Розвій народного шкільництва на Буковині.
Вашківці : Руська Рада, 1905. – 148 с.
4. Лабінська Б.І. Загальна характеристика західноукраїнських
програм з іноземних мов для початкової школи 1887–1890 років ///
Вісник КЛНУ. Серія Педагогіка та психологія. К. : КНЛУ, 2010. –
Вип. 18. – С. 6–13.
5. Лабінська Б.І. Структура і зміст західноукраїнських підручників з
іноземних мов 1918–1930 років // Наукові записки. Національний
педагогічний університет ім. М.П. Драгоманова. К. : Логос, 2010. –
№ 85. – С. 116–12.
6. Путівник // Державний архів Чернівецької області. Том 1. Фонди
дорадянського періоду. - Київ-Чернівці, 2006. – 427 с.
7. Сальо Л. Наука німецької мови в середніх школах і підручники до
неї: давнїйші Dr. Petelenz Dr. Werner (1890- 94) і теперішні Ippoldt
et Stylo (1905-1909) / Л. Сальо // Наша школа : Науковопедагогічний журнал. – Львів, 1910. С. 98- 111.
8. Samlung der Bukowiner Volkschul. – Gesetz und Verordung bearbeitet
von Josef Wotta k.k. Profesor Romunald Schully’s Verlag. –
Czernowitz, 1899. – 580 S.
9. Wie hat der Lehrer im Unterrichte in der Orthographie vorzugehen,
damit seine Schüler fehlerfrei schreiben lernen // Bukowinaer Schul –
Zeitung. Czernowitz. 1881. – N 6.–S. 7 – 8.
10. Wolf H. Ueber das Thema, welches in der Nr-21 vom 1-Dezember
1874 erschinen ist: „Was für eine grundlage ein Lesebuch hat“’ / H.
Wolf // Pädagogische Blätter. Czernowitz , 1875. – 348 S.
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LE RÔLE DU DOCUMENTALISTE DANS LA POLITIQUE
DOCUMENTAIRE DE L’ÉCOLE
Raluca LĂPĂDAT,
Drobeta Turnu Severin,
Roumanie
La documentation : une image de modernité
En un demi-siècle, la place de la documentation n’a cessé de croître
au sein de l’institution scolaire et de s’affirmer comme un élément essentiel
à la qualité de l’action éducative et pédagogique. Son image a changé, elle
est désormais liée à la modernité, à l’innovation pédagogique et aux
nouvelles technologies. La documentation n’est pas une fin en soi. Pour
l’enseignement, c’est l’acquisition d’une culture, d’une formation de la
pensée et d’une méthode de travail. Elle représente le point de départ de la
réflexion et de la recherche.
A l’heure des TIC, on parle d’une acquisition du savoir différent. Il
est important que l’école donne à l’élève les compétences et les savoirs qui
lui permettent de rechercher les informations dont il a besoin. Yanick
Bernard et Bernard Usé (2) ont fait le constat que les médias ne transmettent
pas le savoir et que «la seule médiation est humaine».
Les médias sont devenus omniprésents dans la société et participent à
la mise en place de valeurs intervenant dans les communications entre
individus, offrant des modèles esthétiques et de consommation. Ils
influencent, parmi d’autres facteurs, l’éducation, la culture, la
consommation des individus. Comme le monde des médias est complexe,
chaque individu doit donc être éduqué afin de pouvoir se positionner par
rapport à cet univers.
L’école doit jouer un rôle déterminant dans cette éducation, en
faisant travailler les jeunes sur les médias. L’éducation aux médias peut
concerner tous les niveaux de l’enseignement et toutes les disciplines. Il est
utile de préciser la définition et les enjeux de l’éducation aux médias.
L’UNESCO a officialisé le terme d’«éducation aux médias» et a
proposé en 1979 une définition: l’éducation aux médias reflétera « toutes les
manières d’étudier, d’apprendre et d’enseigner à tous les niveaux et en
toutes circonstances, l’histoire, la création, l’utilisation et l’évaluation des
médias en tant qu’arts pratiques et techniques, ainsi que la place
qu’occupent les médias dans la société, leur impact social, les implications
de la communication médiatisée ». Ainsi, par l’éducation aux médias, il
s’agit d’amener l’élève à être actif et autonome face aux médias. Les enjeux
d’une telle éducation sont: s’informer, se former.
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A. Perotti (11) met en évidence le rôle essentiel de l’éducation et de
la connaissance de l’information dans notre rapport aux autres, dans nos
jugements sur l’autre et nos comportements vis-à-vis de lui. Le rôle du
documentaliste n’y est pas du tout simple. Se tenir en veille est une
exigence absolue pour cette profession et remettre à jour ses connaissances
est un devoir; il doit «créer les conditions didactiques de l’acquisition des
savoirs à travers l’outil documentaire» (3).
L’acquisition de compétences documentaires représente trois enjeux
(au minimum):
 un enjeu pédagogique: on offre des méthodes qui favorisent la
construction des savoirs et l’autonomie de l’élève ;
 un enjeu social: l’élève doit savoir utiliser les outils et les techniques et
s’approprier des codes de lecture ou de l’image, pour s’intégrer dans la
société et, plus tard, évoluer dans son activité professionnelle;
 un enjeu civique: par l’acquisition de compétences documentaires, les
élèves apprennent à se construire une opinion et ils développent leur
esprit critique face à la pluralité des sources et surtout s’ouvrent à
d’autres cultures.
La mission principale du documentaliste est de former l’élève à
être un «acteur» libre et actif, d’acquérir une culture d’information, une
pratique culturelle autonome par une permanente recherche documentaire
(trouver des informations nécessaires, effectuer une recherche
d’information, réaliser un produit de communication).
Brigitte Januals (6) distingue pour la notion de «culture de
l’information»:
 la maîtrise de l’accès à l’information, qui suppose une formation à
l’information documentaire;
 la culture de l’accès à l’information, qui au-delà des compétences
techniques et documentaires exige une utilisation critique et créative de
l’information allant jusqu'à la production des savoirs.
La culture de l’information a le rôle de favoriser l’appropriation
d’une culture générale, nécessaire à l’intégration des jeunes d’aujourd’hui et
de demain. Philippe Meirieu [9] a affirmé que la culture permet de penser le
monde et de penser dans le monde.
Pour Vincent Liquète (7), la culture de l’information est envisagée
comme un système de valeurs, d’attitudes et de comportements, de
connaissances et d’attitudes qui conduisent non seulement à un usage
intelligent et approprié de l’information externe, mais surtout à contribuer à
la diffusion et à la bonne utilisation de l’information tant externe qu’interne,
donc une culture de partage et d’enrichissement collectif. En effet, chaque
professeur participe, à sa manière, à une culture d’information (artistique,
134
scientifique, ...). Dans le cadre de la politique documentaire, cette
dimension de culture de l’information, est bien présente.
La pédagogie documentaire, ou pédagogie de «construire sa
connaissance par les documents», vise plusieurs objectifs. Tout d’abord,
cette pédagogie suppose l’autonomie de l’élève qui n’attends pas qu’on lui
délivre un savoir; il va lui-même se l’approprier en cherchant l’information
dans des documents, et en la restituant selon ses attentes, ses besoins.
La pédagogie documentaire vise également le développement de
l’esprit critique de l’élève car apprendre avec des documents, c’est
apprendre à valider l’information, apprendre à reconnaître la pertinence
d’un document par rapport à une véritable « marée » documentaire avec le
développement des techniques de l’information et de la communication.
Enfin, la pédagogie documentaire a pour objectif immédiat
l’utilisation des outils d’un centre de ressources par l’élève, puisque avant
de pouvoir apprendre avec des documents, il faut au préalable maîtriser les
outils de recherche.
La pédagogie documentaire vise encore l’acquisition d’une méthode
de recherche documentaire pour savoir répondre aux défis de l’explosion
informationnelle. Le nombre sans cesse croissant de documents et leur
dispersion, ainsi que les demandes plus spécifiques des usagers entraînent
de nouvelles méthodes de recherche. Et les documentalistes se situent au
confluent de deux mondes, vers l’émergence d’une nouvelle vision
informationnelle. La pratique pédagogique est complexe et nécessite d’allier
à la fois les éléments de base de toute entreprise de recherche documentaire,
ainsi que des éléments émergents et des notions de services pouvant
répondre aux attentes des usagers. L’enseignant documentaliste se situe aux
confluences de plusieurs champs disciplinaires par sa participation active et
transversale au sein des enseignements. Acteur transversal et « ubiquiste »
du système éducatif, il doit être aussi bien gestionnaire que pédagogue, en
alliant savoirs (les sciences de l’information et de la communication pour
l’enseignement), savoir-être et savoir-faire, pour maîtriser la vague
informationnelle.
Documentaliste - une profession ou métier
Qui est le documentaliste? C’est un organisateur de l’ensemble des
ressources documentaires, un homme de culture, un pédagogue conseiller
en recherche d’information, un enseignant qui a le sens de l’accueil et le
souci de la coopération.
«Plus d’une profession, l’enseignant documentaliste représente un
métier au sens artisanal du terme» (7), son travail se forge au fil du temps,
s’adapte, se modifie. On attend du documentaliste des initiatives culturelles
et une contribution à l’ouverture de l’établissement.
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Un documentaliste peut ouvrir le CDI tout le temps et que rien
d’intéressant ne s’y déroule. Pour lui, il y a des temps fonctionnels mais
aussi des temps formateurs. Contrairement à l’enseignant de discipline, le
documentaliste ne dispose pas de programme sur lequel appuyer ses
pratiques. Autrefois, le documentaliste assurait la gestion du fond
documentaire dans une perspective plus conservatrice et patrimoniale que
pédagogique. À présent, il doit construire les contours de son métier. Si le
professeur de discipline ancre ses pratiques pédagogiques dans une
perspective verticale de transmission des savoirs, l’enseignant
documentaliste, lui, se situe davantage dans une perspective horizontale. Il
doit « apprendre aux élèves à apprendre ». Les méthodes et les compétences
attendues en matière de recherche d’information sont identiques quelle que
soit la discipline concernée.
Il ne doit pas devenir le gestionnaire d’un système d’information, à la
pointe des plus hautes technologies, car il y a beaucoup à faire du côté de la
formation des élèves (le développement de leurs compétences
documentaires). L’enseignant documentaliste doit nécessairement
repositionner ses pratiques et mettre en place des projets construits et
cohérents- la condition sine qua non d’une formation de qualité pour
l’élève. Plus que jamais, l’élève doit être autonome dans ses recherches
documentaires (la lecture, l’analyse, la réflexion y sont présentes).
Le rôle de l’enseignant documentaliste dans la mise en place de la
politique documentaire de l’école a des facettes multiples. Il s’agit d’une
fonction technique, d’accueil et de relations humaines et, surtout, une
fonction pédagogique partagée (initiation à la recherche documentaire, à la
lecture, constitution de dossiers documentaires, montage d’expositions
pluridisciplinaires…). C’est un travail basé sur une étroite collaboration. Et
les TICE apparaissent comme un « catalyseur » pour un travail en
collaboration selon des stratégies favorables.
La mission pédagogique du documentaliste
Le documentaliste apporte ses compétences pédagogiques et
éducatives à la communauté éducative. Il offre sa vision de l’action
pédagogique à l’ensemble de ses collègues enseignants disciplinaires et
facilite la mise en œuvre des programmes d’enseignement qui font
largement appel à la recherche d’information, à la production de documents
(par les élèves eux-mêmes). Il ne se substitue pas aux enseignants
disciplinaires ce qui n’exclut des interventions globales toujours possibles.
Il apporte toute l’aide et le conseil direct aux élèves en situation de
recherche.
Les missions du documentaliste pourraient être organisées selon
quatre pôles :
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
pilotage: organiser des ressources documentaires; définir et faire
évoluer le système d’information de l’école ;
 mise à disposition: mettre les ressources documentaires à disposition
de toute la communauté éducative; contribuer à l’alimentation du
système d’information ;
 formation: contribuer à la formation des usagers; collaborer à
l’évolution des demandes pédagogiques de façon à ce que les
ressources documentaires soient mieux intégrées; être un acteur des
nouveaux processus de formation; sensibiliser tous les membres de la
communauté éducative à l’importance de l’information dans la
société;
 ouverture: contribuer à l’ouverture de l’école sur son environnement
dans ses dimensions technologiques, professionnelles et culturelles.
Le documentaliste a un rôle de médiateur avec le lieu CDI et ses
ressources, médiateur entre l’élève et les savoirs documentaires, médiateur
avec le monde extérieur. Le lieu qu’il gère est un espace ouvert, un lieu
d’échanges et de confrontation, un lieu qui offre des repères culturels et les
moyens d’un regard critique. Son rôle est aussi de favoriser l’apprentissage
de la vie collective, de la vie sociale.
Le Centre de Documentation et d’Information
La pédagogie documentaire s’est construite avec l’institution
progressive des Centres de Documentation et d’Information dans les
établissements scolaires et avec le développement des TIC(E). Lieu de
documentation, d’étude, d’innovation et d’animation, lieu culturel, il est
aussi un espace de rencontres et d’émancipation, sans oublier qu’il
représente un fort auxiliaire pédagogique.
L’idée de CDI participait au mouvement d’une école nouvelle,
assise sur des méthodes actives, interactives, faisant appel à toutes les
ressources pédagogiques utiles et aux moyens modernes d’enseignement.
Dès l’origine, l’idée de CDI était d’offrir un cadre pour apprendre différent
de celui constitué par la classe, favoriser le travail en autonomie, la
recherche documentaire, la lecture, le plaisir de s’informer. Le CDI se
présente comme un ensemble d’espaces, chacun étant dédié à une fonction
particulière (lecture- accès aux journaux, aux dossiers documentaires,
recherche de l’information sur le net, débats, manifestations culturelles).
Réseau et espace- ces ressources sont indissociables pour une action
intégrée à l’action éducative et pédagogique.
Le CDI appartient conjointement à tous ses utilisateurs. C’est pour
cette raison qu’il est souvent perçu comme le cœur de l’établissement. Lieu
de socialisation, de rencontres et d’échanges, il implique des règles de
fonctionnement qui doivent être acceptées par tous. Les élèves se retrouvent
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au CDI hors du contexte de la classe et ils y croisent leurs enseignants dans
un rapport qui se démarque de la pédagogie frontale quotidienne. L’élève se
conforme au contact des autres. Il n’est plus seul et le dialogue l’oblige à
vérifier sa position. Le CDI favorise la socialisation en développant le
travail de groupe dans un climat de confiance. La mise en place du travail
de groupe peut se matérialiser (expositions, projets, dossiers
documentaires). Le travail de groupe développe des liens de convivialité, il
encourage une meilleure écoute de l’autre et détermine une plus grande
confiance des jeunes en eux-mêmes.
On peut distinguer trois sortes de médiation dans un CDI:
technique (du lieu et de ses ressources), des savoirs et sociale (dans le
rapport aux autres: enseignants de disciplines, documentalistes, élèves).
L’espace CDI permet une approche individuelle de l’élève et la
création d’apprentissages autonomes en vue de son adaptation à la société.
L’élève sort de la logique de didactique disciplinaire. Le rapport traditionnel
enseignant -élève est bouleversé. La démarche de recherche, de traitement
de l’information et de communication, l’usage des « langues »
documentaires, la comparaison des ressources, fait appel à des compétences
intellectuelles de questionnement, d’analyse, de reformulation et de
synthèse. Selon A. Touraine [12], «l’école sera de moins en moins vouée à
la transmission d’un ensemble de connaissances, de normes, de
représentations, mais elle sera de plus en plus centrée d’un côté sur le
maniement d’instruments et de l’autre côté sur l’expression et la formation
de la personnalité».
L’élève met en place un processus d’autoconstruction individuelle
qui fait appel à l’éveil de l’esprit critique et entraîne son autonomie. Le CDI
est pressenti comme «moyen d’épanouissement de l’individu» [5].
Dès les années ’70, le CDI apparaît comme un cadre de vie «où les
activités scolaires s’organisent autour d’une pédagogie des projets,
conduisant au travail indépendant des élèves» [5]. Mais l’exploitation du
CDI nécessite une remise en cause de la pratique pédagogique visant le
travail d’équipe, l’élaboration conjointe d’objectifs et la diversification des
séances d’apprentissage. C’est dans cette logique que l’enseignant de
discipline et le documentaliste peuvent se rejoindre en conjuguant leurs
complémentarités professionnelles.
Le CDI devient un lieu offrant des activités multiples, un travail
autonome, des loisirs, des recherches personnelles, de la lecture, le tout
donnant les moyens à l’élève de se responsabiliser. Par ailleurs, le CDI se
définit comme un lieu de recherche et de formation. Il devient nécessaire de
former les élèves à une démarche intellectuelle, d’approcher une nouvelle
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manière du savoir et acquérir une certaine autonomie. De fait,
parallèlement, le rôle du documentaliste évolue dans cet espace.
Activités au Centre de Documentation et d’Information
Les activités au CDI sont de différents ordres :
 Accueil des élèves: ils peuvent lire, faire des recherches
documentaires, emprunter des ouvrages;
 Activités pédagogiques: on peut faire des recherches documentaires.
Ces projets de recherche sont menés en partenariats avec les
enseignants de discipline. Des activités autour de la lecture sont
également proposées;
 Club lecture: il a le rôle de faire découvrir des livres et de faire
partager les lectures,
 Ouverture culturelle: les élèves et les enseignants trouvent au CDI les
ressources concernant les manifestations culturelles du moment (La
Journée de l’Europe, La semaine de la Francophonie);
 Exposition communication: le CDI propose des expositions
d’ouvrages, de travaux d’élèves (exposition sur l’Europe, poèmes
écrits par les élèves).
Lieu de promotion de la lecture, CDI est aussi lieu de promotion de
l’écriture: la rédaction d’un journal de l’école. En ce cas, au niveau de la
langue, on donne du sens à l’acte d’écrire. Au niveau des techniques
journalistiques, on essaie de collecter des informations, de réaliser une
interview, d’utiliser la palette des genres journalistiques («habiller» un
article, trouver des titres accrocheurs).
Au niveau des TIC, on peut utiliser le traitement de texte,
rechercher des informations sur Internet, insérer et travailler des images.
Travailler pour un journal, c’est aussi prendre des initiatives, développer
son esprit critique, travailler en équipe la presse écrite du CDI.
Une action bien valorisante au CDI est celle concernant la presse
écrite. La presse est un rouage fondamental de la démocratie, et pour qu’elle
le reste, il faut former des futurs lecteurs, critiques, mais aussi des amateurs
de bons articles, de bons reportages. La lecture de la presse offre la
possibilité d’accéder à des types de textes variés (narratif, descriptif,
argumentatif). Les activités qui s’y rapportent sont orientées d’une part vers
une lecture cursive, visant à une compréhension globale ou à une recherche
d’informations spécifiques, des mots-clés ou de champs lexicaux, et d’autre
part vers une lecture plus détaillée, demandant, par exemple, une
compréhension des phrases, une recherche des articulateurs logiques, le
repérage des temps employés et leur valeur, ou l’étude des différents
champs lexicaux. Il ne faut pas oublier la lecture de l’image (dessins de
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presse, photos, images publicitaires) qui est un des meilleurs stimuli pour
l’élève.
Toutes les actions de remédiation en lecture et d’apprentissage
pour les élèves de FLE reposent sur ce que Philippe Meirieu [10] a appelé
«lecture positive». Il s’agit, en effet, de rendre confiance à l’élève en
l’aidant à développer des stratégies de compréhension globale qui
s’appuient sur ce qu’il connaît déjà afin de pouvoir tenter d’émettre des
hypothèses sur ce qu’il ne comprend pas. C’est le principe de la plupart des
exercices : textes lacunaires, remise en ordre d’un article, comparaison de la
même information dans deux journaux différents.
L’activité – lecture de la presse, favorise l’acquisition du
vocabulaire usuel, quotidien, les éléments culturels très divers, le
développement de l’esprit critique, une prise de parole plus spontanée. Une
dimension non négligeable, c’est l’acquisition de réflexes, de stratégies ou
de techniques de lecture: lecture globale, rapide, s’appuyant sur les titres,
les intertitres, les images, les chiffres…, et sur différents repères
typographiques.
Constat
L’expérience du Kiosque de la Presse au CDI de notre école a donné
lieu à des travaux suivis tout au long de l’année. La presse a été utilisée
comme support aux apprentissages disciplinaires. On a constaté combien de
journaux étaient un formidable outil de remotivation des élèves face à la
lecture qui ont découvert l’intérêt pour une telle lecture riche et variée.
L’équipe professeur disciplinaire et documentaliste a essayé de faire
comprendre aux jeunes que la presse est avant tout une ouverture sur le
monde dans lequel ils vivent et une source d’informations sur ce qui les
intéressent.
Ainsi, former les élèves à l’utilisation du CDI pour la presse écrite,
c’est les former à savoir trouver les bonnes sources, savoir filtrer ce qu’elles
offrent et pouvoir produire de l’information, source de savoir. Le CDI va
trouver sa finalité grâce à un travail de collaboration interdisciplinaire pour
œuvrer conjointement à l’éducation des élèves aux medias du savoir, à
l’ouverture vers le monde extérieur. CDI est conçu comme un espace
pédagogique particulier, où l’élève peut apprendre sans qu’on lui enseigne.
L’élève s’y retrouve acteur de sa propre formation, mais appuyé par le
documentaliste, médiateur entre élève et document.
Une action de presse au CDI- projet pédagogique
Au cours des activités proposées, les élèves vont être amenés à lire
des journaux sélectionnés par eux-mêmes.
 Le cadre du projet: Un projet pédagogique centré sur la presse a été
impulsé par le constat de la faible consultation de la presse en langue
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étrangère proposée en accès direct au CDI au Kiosque Presse.
L’objectif global des activités était de susciter une approche critique de
la presse chez les élèves de lycée.
 Objectif de l’action : différents objectifs généraux et disciplinaires ont
été déterminés: 1) objectifs généraux: mieux connaître l’offre de presse
aujourd’hui; habituer les élèves aux faits de civilisation française
contemporaine; étudier la structure des documents de la presse;
réfléchir sur l’actualité; développer l’esprit critique; 2) objectifs
disciplinaires: pratiquer la lecture documentaire; apprendre à analyser
les images de presse; saisir la spécificité de la langue de la presse;
étudier certains registres et procédés rhétoriques; travailler
l’argumentation et la narration; enrichir le vocabulaire des élèves de
mots, d’expressions et de tournures usuelles; sensibiliser les élèves à la
cohérence et à la progression textuelle.
Développer son esprit critique et apprendre à analyser les images
sont à la fois des objectifs transversaux et disciplinaires. Il s’agit d’enjeux
fondamentaux de l’éducation aux médias, mais également au FLE.
Niveaux : moyen, avancé.
Supports : articles de presse.
Démarche: travail individuel avec mise en commun des travaux.
Déroulement des activités: la mise en activité des élèves se réalise par:
 lecture individuelle d’un article (narratif ou argumentatif) ou la
recherche d’information se fait de manière individuelle et autonome;
 débat sur le document choisi (travailler l’argumentation sur le choix
de l’article, sur l’aspect présenté);
 la rédaction en commun ou individuelle d’un article de presse sur un
certain sujet;
 évaluation des productions des élèves après un questionnaire tel: 1)
Avez-vous trouvé cette action presse intéressante?; 2) Vous
intéressez-vous à l’actualité de façon régulière?; 3) Quels sont les
articles qui attirent particulièrement votre intérêt?, 4) Quels sont les
supports de diffusion de l’information que vous utilisez le plus?.
En conclusion, la question principale qui a déterminé le contenu de
l’action presse se posait en ces termes: comment susciter une approche
critique de la presse chez les élèves de lycée?; Comment valoriser les
apprentissages de la langue française?
Le projet mené a été conçu pour participer à la construction, par les
élèves, d’une stratégie active d’information à la mise en place d’une attitude
critique face à l’actualité, mais aussi à un renforcement de leurs lectures de
la presse écrite.
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Plus les actions d’éducation à la presse seront multipliées, plus les
élèves seront familiarisés avec cet univers et auront envie de s’y intéresser:
«Apprendre à lire la presse ou à comprendre le message audio-visuel, c’est
pouvoir devenir acteur dans une société complexe» [4].
Bibliographie
[1]. Baguet, Catherine, Bersweiller, Daniel, Braun, Jean-Paul et al, Dossier:
La documentation, un outil pour toute une équipe, in Cahiers pédagogiques,
Mars-Avril, 1995, No.332-333, pp.13-96.
[2]. Bernard, Yanick et Usé, Bernard, Internet au collège: une éducation
nécessaire, Université de Poitiers, Poitiers, 2003, pp.77-80.
[3]. Charrier, Colette, Le CDI, outil pédagogique des enseignants pour une
mise en place d’une formation a l’information en équipe professeurdocumentaliste, 62nd IFLA General Conference - Conference Proceedings August 25-31, 1996.
[4]. Crinon, Jacques, La percée de la presse en classe de français, les
Cahiers pédagogiques, Paris, 1997, pp.10-11.
[5]. Hassenforder, J., et Lefort, G., Une nouvelle manière d’enseigner :
pédagogie et documentation, Paris, 1977, p.34.
[6]. Januals, Brigitte, La culture de l’information, Hermès, Paris, 2003,
p.81.
[7]. Liquète, Vincent, Dessiner les contours d’un métier en mutation :
quelles perspectives pour l’enseignant documentaliste ?, Toulouse, CRDP,
Avril 2003.
[8]. Le Roux, Loïc, Les professeurs documentalistes aux confluences des
mutations, http://www.reunion.infm.fr/Recherche/Expressions/expressions
24.
[9]. Meirieu, Philippe, Deux voix pour une école, Revue « Mediadoc »,
Paris, Mars 2003, pp.10-13.
[10]. Meirieu, Philippe, Deux voix pour une école, Revue « Mediadoc »,
No.2, Paris, 2009, pp.11-14.
[11]. Perotti, A., Sociétés pluriculturelles et éducation, Paris, Hatier, 1990,
pp.31-33.
[12]. Touraine, A., Pourrons-nous vivre ensemble, Fayard, 1997, p.35 .
142
QUAND LA GASTRONOMIE ENTRE DANS LA CLASSE DE FLE
Raluca LĂPĂDAT
Drobeta Turnu Severin,
Roumanie
La cuisine c’est bien une histoire de culture, nous retrouvons dans ce
vecteur commun une quantité de disciplines étonnantes, allant de
l’ingénierie des produits, des équipements, en passant par l’histoire, la
philosophie, les sciences appliquées, l’économie, la chimie, la physique, la
sociologie et bien d’autres encore. Cet article vous permettra de voir peut
être la cuisine sous un autre angle et relier effets et modes culinaires avec
événements politiques, économiques, scolaires...vous comprendrez aussi le
va et vient des modes, les mises en avant des uns ou des autres, la mise au
placard de techniques ou de produits ou encore la vulgarisation de modes
médiatisées...
La lecture gourmande est une vraie littérature car le vocabulaire, la
précision narrative sont nécessaires pour décrire ce qui est au fond
indescriptible; ce que l’on voit, entend, sent, et ressent…[4]
Enseigner une langue autrement
Enseigner une langue vivante, le français en l’occurrence, est aussi
présenter les coutumes des pays qui la parlent. La gastronomie, prise au
sens large d’alimentation et de règles de vie, est l’un des éléments
quotidiens présents et bien intéressants, étant donnée la vision offerte par
ces usages alimentaires sur la vie d’un peuple. Les recettes de cuisine sont
des textes de civilisation et de langue, des documents authentiques qui
s’inscrivent dans la sociologie des repas d’un peuple. Elles représentent, à la
fois, des possibilités d’appréhension de la manière de se nourrir, de
“penser” la cuisine, un aperçu sur la culture du pays et des réalisations
linguistiques et discursives exploitables du point de vue didactique [3]. Du
point de vue linguistique, il faut penser qu’il ne s’agit pas tant d’enseigner
une langue étrangère pour elle-même, que pour en faire mieux saisir les
emplois passés dans la langue commune et augmenter ainsi la compétence
langagière des apprenants d’une langue.
Au retour d’un voyage, autour d’une table conviviale, il y a
presque toujours une question qui attend une réponse-récit: “Et là-bas,
qu’est-ce qu’on mange?”. La question est la preuve qu’un pays se définit
aussi par sa nourriture. Et bien plus, car dans la question, il y a la cuisine
même, son caractère, ses différences, mais aussi l’indéfinissable, l’ambiance
des repas, comment on vit à plusieurs, ce moment exceptionnel de la vie.
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La gastronomie-une histoire culturelle
La diversité des pratiques alimentaires, ainsi que les espaces de
localisation et de relation afférents, contribuent à une compréhension des
cultures au-delà de la seule lecture anthropologique. Au-delà des pratiques
culinaires, on peut cerner les origines et les évolutions d’une société. La
nourriture a été depuis toujours une motivation principale de l’évolution de
l’homme. La nourriture est un élément, un facteur social, même une
identité.
Les goûts et le savoir-faire culinaires donnent, en effet, un reflet de la
mentalité des gens (comme dit le proverbe: “dis-moi ce que tu manges, et je
te dirai qui tu es”). Les pratiques alimentaires se diversifient
considérablement en fonction de la géographie ou des cultures et peuvent
contribuer à la création d’un sentiment d’appartenance commune.
La gastronomie, la cuisine, en général, est la résultante d’un grand
nombre de facteurs (surtout l’influence des habitudes sociales et,
naturellement des modes et des conventions). La gastronomie varie selon
les cultures et les régions. Les différences suivent celle de la cuisine. On
distingue des différences liées aux ressources alimentaires et aux principes
socioculturels.
La gastronomie- un lieu d’identité culturelle
Le rapport entre la gastronomie et la France semble aller de soi. La
cuisine est le plus ancien des arts, écrivait en 1820 Brillat-Savarin. Un art
dont l’histoire est inséparable des transformations du goût aussi bien que
des manières de table. En France, la gastronomie est plus que l’art de bien
manger, elle est un résumé de l’art de vivre, celui du savoir-vivre. C’est
pour cela qu’elle a été érigée en sujet d’orgueil national, et que les Français
en tirent une légitime fierté, estimant sa réputation incontestable et sa
qualité reconnue universellement (quand on parle de la gastronomie, on
pense à la France).
Chaque pays possède des spécialités culinaires qui dévoilent son
identité. Les Français, eux, vouent un véritable culte aux plats et à la
cuisine. Les grands chefs cuisiniers se considèrent plus comme des artistes,
eux qui manient les saveurs pour en faire des “oeuvres d’art” pour le palais.
Il faut comprendre qu’en France, manger est un rituel du bonheur, de
la convivialité. Cette notion définit le plaisir d’être ensemble et de partager
le repas dans la bonne humeur. La convivialité est un élément actif qui naît
avec le goût et le plaisir de partager sa table. Le partage convivial de la table
réunit donc le plaisir de manger ensemble, l’art de la conversation,
confirmation du lien social. Lieu de rencontre et de partage, la table est
d’abord un lieu commun de régulation des relations familiales. Le fait de
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manger ensemble est l’un des moyens les plus efficaces de création ou de
revitalisation des liens [12].
Il y a aujourd’hui des pratiques déconstruites: le plateau télé, les plats
pré cuisinés, les buffets à grignoter (qui s’inscrivent dans une logique
individualiste). Mais elles sont loin de la logique conviviale.
On parle de plus en plus d’une cuisine du terroir, axée sur les plats
spécifiques traditionnels. La globalisation a déterminé une valorisation des
produits du terroir. Les produits du terroir français sont le fruit d’un accord
entre la nature et les hommes, un accord d’autant plus logique que tous deux
sont nés sur cette même terre. Cela crée des liens et une certaine complicité.
Ce que l’on apprécie dans la gastronomie a base de produits traditionnels du
terroir, c’est qu’elle est simple, franche, parfumée avec une odeur de fumet,
de senteur saisonnières; elle a aussi et l’apanage exclusif des produits
traditionnels du terroir.
À la bourse des valeurs culinaires, le terroir et les saveurs
traditionnelles s’envolent. Les recettes issues du patrimoine culinaire
régional ont le vent en poupe. La cuisine devient une cuisine du cœur et du
cru, avec un plaisir partagé entre celui qui prépare les produits et les plats et
celui qui les déguste et les savoure.
Avant d’être dans l’assiette, le bonheur a été mijoté au fond de la
marmite et avant encore, les produits ont été savamment élaborés, avec un
grand savoir-faire, par les gardiens de la tradition. À la recherche des
racines, la cuisine du terroir offre le goût de l’authentique, des saveurs
d’autrefois.
La cuisine dans l’histoire française
L’histoire de la gastronomie française révèle des traits particuliers et
explique la présence des caractéristiques uniques dans cette culture. En fait,
la gastronomie française est un héritage du XIXe siècle où elle s’est
élaborée autour d’une série de règles destinées à marquer les différences
sociales. À cette époque-là, le discours qui s’y réfère établit une stricte
correspondance entre un style d’écriture et un style de vie raffiné et élégant.
Il y a une lente sophistication de la cuisine française. La naissance
d’une tradition culinaire a eu lieu à la fin du Moyen Âge, en s’acheminant,
peu à peu, vers une identité culinaire : les premiers traités de cuisine, le
savoir-faire et les secrets de cuisine, les épices, les usages de table, les
espaces et les modes de restauration.
Le Moyen Âge et la Renaissance furent l’âge d’or des épices. On leur
prêtait toutes les vertus : venues d’Orient, c’est-à-dire de ce que l’on
considérait alors comme le centre du monde et la porte du paradis. Au
Moyen Âge, plus on épiçait les plats, plus on faisait paraître son rang élevé
dans la stratification sociale.
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Dès le XVIIe siècle, on raréfie les épices exotiques à la table des
grands, on les remplace par des aromates indigènes. En France, on ne rêve
plus de l’Orient, on est devenu le centre du monde à cette époque du RoiSoleil.
La Renaissance a marqué une nouvelle “ère culinaire” et l’œuvre de
Rabelais en est un véritable document. Quelques siècles plus tard, naît un
nouvel art de vivre. Expression d’une culture, reflet d’une société, la
gastronomie française reste encore un synonyme du raffinement, de la
bonne chère (faire un bon repas), malgré les mutations survenues (la
diététique, la restauration rapide, la mondialisation des pratiques
alimentaires, les exigences des consommateurs, l’émergence d’un “marché
planétaire” de la pizza et du hamburger, la congélation, le snobisme
écologique, etc). [5].
“Cette cuisine s’est affinée et s’est perfectionnée à la cadence de la
civilisation” [1, p. 92] et exprime sa “francité” parce que le vin y joue un
rôle essentiel: “le vin est une forme liquide de “francité” et la façon de le
boire, avec modération et non pas pour s’enivrer – une manière de pratiquer
un savoir-vivre tout français” [2]. En effet, le vin est l’expression de
l’identité culturelle française, au même titre que la cuisine.
Le discours gastronomique français
Le discours gastronomique évolue en fonction des mutations
techniques, économiques, sociales, esthétiques, mais aussi politiques
(colonisation, guerres, mondialisation). Il se caractérise par une simplicité
des formes grammaticales et des structures employées afin de conseiller,
indiquer, donner des instructions sur les actions requises pour confectionner
un plat. Les informations données dans ce genre textuel des recettes de
cuisine, s’organisent dans des séquences d’actes de parole qui observent un
certain ordre: opérations préalables, simultanées, successives. Cette
chronologie des opérations s’exprime par des adverbes, des gérondifs, des
participes passés, des conjonctions, en créant de cette manière la spécificité
de ce genre de langage. Il y a aussi, comme actes de parole, un énoncé du
problème (acte d’écrire), des conseils sous forme de consigne (demander,
suggérer de faire), au moyen d’infinitif ou d’impératif (“mettez à bouillir”,
“faites à chauffer”).
Ce genre textuel, les recettes de cuisine, relève des discours
procéduraux où domine le contenu des actions, ou prévalent les actes de
langage. L’impératif est un mode d’action -en vue de provoquer un résultat.
Il implique un dialogue (réel ou fictif) au cours duquel on cherche à agir, la
motivation étant soutenue par des mouvements affectifs. L’actance est
présente dans ce type de discours par la haute fréquence des verbes factifs
146
(laisser, faire et l’infinitif). L’infinitif est employé avec une intention
impérative (“faire fondre”, “verser”, “réserver au froid”).
Les recettes de cuisine offrent l’avantage de faciliter l’expression de
la quantité (les partitifs), de la manière (“faites bouillir mais pas trop”), du
temps (“pendant ce temps”, “lorsque”, “jusqu'à ce que”). Il y a dans ces
textes gastronomiques une syntaxe où on rencontre des phrases relatives,
hypothétiques, restrictives, finales, temporelles, etc. La spécificité
syntaxique des textes de cuisine est donnée par le recours aux phrases
courtes, en général.
Le vocabulaire de la gastronomie
Le vocabulaire de la gastronomie française est un lexique
éminemment français, il est bien riche et couvre une réalité très étendue et
très spécialisée concernant : art culinaire, équipement de la cuisine,
opérations culinaires, alimentation, aliments, façons de manger, repas,
service de table, personnel, consommateurs.
Une première qualité de ce vocabulaire est sa précision. Il y a de
nombreux verbes désignant une opération précise dans le processus de
préparation d’un plat (“assaisonner”, “habiller”, “mariner”). L’évaluation
d’un plat ou d’un aliment fait appel aux adjectifs pour une appréciation
positive ou négative (succulent, savoureux, délicieux, raffiné, exquis, bon,
pas mauvais, mauvais, fade, insipide, dégueulasse).
Ensuite, le lexique fait preuve d’une richesse presque littéraire par le
recours abondant à l’emploi métaphorique dans les menus, ainsi que dans
les chroniques gastronomiques. Sans doute est-ce dû au souci d’expressivité
de la part des restaurateurs et des chroniqueurs- transmettre l’impression de
délectation que suscite la dégustation d’un plat ou d’un vin. “Les danseuses
de prairies chemisées de beurre rehaussé d’ail” – des cuisses de grenouilles
au beurre d’ail – c’est une formulation qui fait venir l’eau à la bouche. De
même, “une rousse piquante” ou “une brune voluptueuse” ne désignent pas
pour autant des femmes, mais...une bière. [8]
La langue gastronomique se distingue par un emploi spécifique des
déterminants. En effet, dans l’intitulé des différents plats d’un menu, on
utilise les articles définis, les déterminants possessifs. Le possessif
n’exprime pas la possession, mais désigne plutôt l’accompagnement où il
entraîne la personnalisation du plat et lui donne de ce fait un statut plus
important. Son emploi donne une connotation plus prestigieuse au plat et
fait plus chic (“les ravioles fines de homard et sa sauce glacée au corail”,
“l’œuf poche et son coffret de morilles et de jets de houblon”).
Les emprunts sont de plus en plus présents – “flambé”, “pané”,
“sirop”, “paella” dans le lexique de la gastronomie française. Et les
nombreux emprunts que les autres langues font du français, prouvent
147
l’importance de la gastronomie française dans le monde (“millefeuille”,
“foie gras”, “pot-au-feu”)
Le discours gastronomique français se caractérise par une abondance
de gallicismes, tandis que les discours informatique, économique, sportif
sont bourrés d’anglicismes.
La gastronomie est un aspect important de la culture et de la tradition
d’un pays, pourquoi ne pas l’utiliser comme un moyen d’unir les gens,
d’élargir nos horizons, d’apprendre à apprécier et profiter de la gastronomie
de diverses cultures. Échanger autour des habitudes de consommation et de
la culture gastronomique devient une étape vers le dialogue interculturel.
La gastronomie française et les manuels roumains
La gastronomie, prise au sens large d’alimentation et de règle de vie,
est l’un des éléments quotidiens présents dans les manuels utilisés dans
l’enseignement du français en Roumanie. La France, dans ces manuels, ce
sont d’abord pêle-mêle des spécialités culinaires : fromages, crêpes,
escargots, coq au vin, cassoulet, salade niçoise, choucroute, bouillabaisse,
bœuf bourguignon, galette des rois, bûche de Noël, etc. Il y a des spécialités
qui proposent aux élèves une vision sur la diversité de la France, une
comparaison avec les habitudes culinaires roumaines.
Exercices proposés pour la classe de langue française [10]
1. Publicité et fromages français :
Quand on parle de la bonne table française, on parle des fromages.
Les Français sont entichés de la préparation des fromages. Ils en raffolent et
en mangent chaque jour comme dessert.
Ainsi, peut-on voir sur les étiquettes des fromages, des paysages
représentant symboliquement la région de provenance et aussi des coutumes
et des mythes, voire le procédé de fabrication.
Les étiquettes des fromages français, fonctionnant comme des
publicités, joue un rôle important dans la civilisation française. Aimer les
fromages français et savoir choisir un fromage selon le goût, le pourcentage
de matière grasse, le repas où on le consomme, c’est une chose complexe
qui a demandé, en France, des siècles et des générations d’apprentissage du
goût : savoir les sentir, les goûter, les comparer, c’est l’une des dimensions
de la civilisation française, surtout parce que les fromages représentent l’un
des derniers bastions de la spécificité gastronomique française.
2. Imaginez maintenant que vous préparez un dîner français pour des
amis. Que proposez-vous ?
3. Expliquer ces proverbes :
Il faut manger pour vivre et non pas vivre pour manger.
Vendre son cochon et garder le lard.
Le vin est tiré, il faut le boire !
148
L’appétit vient en mangeant.
À bon appétit peu de mets résistent.
4. Complétez ce menu dans l’ordre des plats servis :
En entrée………….. avec….. . Comme boisson ………. Comme plat
principal…….avec……….Comme
boisson……..Suivi
de
………avec…….Comme
boisson……..Puis………..avec……….Comme
boisson……….Pour
terminer, en dessert………….et après le dessert……….
5. Comparez deux recettes : roumaine et française.
6. Essai : Manger sain.
7. Dressez la liste des épices employées en France et en Roumanie.
8. Donnez des synonymes pour les expressions soulignées :
L’addition, elle était salée, ça m’a coûté les yeux de la tête.
Désolé, je n’ai pas un radis…
J’ai l’impression de bosser pour des prunes.
Ne t’en fais pas, c’est pas la fin des haricots.
Va demander à Jacques, il est bon comme le pain blanc.
C’est vrai, il met du beurre dans ses épinards.
9. Présentez une coutume française concernant la gastronomie.
10. Trouvez les ingrédients d’une bouillabaisse (exploitation de la chanson
“La Bouillabaisse” interprétée par Fernandel.
11. Fabriquez une recette en employant : verbes à l’infinitif, à l’impératif,
ingrédients, adjectifs, adverbes.
Bibliographie
[1] Bollon, P., Bout, Fr. Comment la cuisine française à évoluer, in Ça
m’intéresse, no.227, 2000, p.90-96.
[2] Durbant, J.C. Gastronomie: l’invention de la grammaire de l’estomac ou
comment les français devinrent les maîtres à manger du monde, 1999,
site
[3] Véronique, D. La didactique des langues et des cultures face à
l’apprenant de langues étrangères et ses activités d’appropriation, ELA,
no.105, 1997, p. 95-110.
[4] Ory, Pascal. Le discours gastronomique français : des origines jusqu'à
nos jours, site.
[5] Rambourg, Patrick. De la cuisine à la gastronomie, Ed. Audibert, Paris,
2005, p.57-63.
[6] Toussaint-Samat, Maguelonne, Histoire naturelle et morale de la
nourriture, Paris, 2000, p.15-21.
149
[7] Bonescu, Mihaela. Convivialité et espace public, Univ. de Bourgogne,
Dijon, 2007, p.11-12.
[8] Roman, Dorina. Linguistique et enseignement du français, Ed. Umbria,
1992, p.162-170.
[9] Kauffmann, J.C. À table le théâtre des familles, site- gastronomie
interculturelle.
[10] Cuisine pédagogique et pédagogie de cuisine, LFDM, no.330, 2003,
p.64.
EMOTIONS AND THEIR EXPRESSION IN DYADIC
COMMUNICATION
Viorica LIFARI, PhD, Associate Professor,
MSU, R. Moldova
Emotions are a part of the human intellect. The cognitional theory of
emotions considers them as a function of the mind. Human emotions are the
subject of psychology, physiology but not philology. This was the point of
view supported by many researchers up to the moment when Ch. Bally
introduced the idea that “… all in language is moved by emotions.
Everything is emotional in a language” German linguists paid attention to
the fact that fiction records emotional life of people [3, p. 14-34].
As mentioned above very little attention was given to emotions from
the linguistic point of view. Linguistics was the last to understand that
emotions are the subject of its domain as well. Moreover, we the linguists,
are emotional people as well, this turns the linguistics of emotions into a
difficult task. It is impossible to a researcher who deals in the field of
emotions to be detached, to be impartial when he/she analyses the selected
data [3, p. 7].
Today the topic of emotions is treated in many works not only in
philology or psychology but also in linguistics. What attracts the linguists’
attention is the expression of emotions in different communication acts and
between various nations.
Nowadays we come across such a term as emotiology – this denotes
an interdisciplinary branch of science. It bases its theory on the data taken
from different concepts and theories of emotions: philosophical, biological,
cognitive, psychological, social, motivational, informational and functional
to name just a few [3, p. 21].
On the other hand the problem of verbalization of human emotions is
the research centre in which several paradigms intersect: the
150
communicative, cognitive, textual, pragmatic, cultural, categorial and
others.
Emotions are associated with the thought. It means that the thought is
created by different types of emotions [3, p. 35]. It is said that the world of
emotions is richer psychologically than linguistically, very often it is
difficult to express the emotions you have. “The linguistic blanket” can
never cover the whole “emotional body” of the being it has holes it is
poorer, and more primitive [3, p. 37].
It is difficult to study and categorize emotions as they are subjective
and depend on the situation [3, p. 19]. Still linguists make attempts to do
that taking into account the fact that emotions are an indispensable
component of consciousness. The emotional consciousness is a means of
interaction between individual and the society.
In his works professor Shakhovsky V. I. divides the lexical means of
rendering emotions into 3 groups: words that name emotions, those that
describe them and words that express the emotional state of a person or
his/her feelings [4, p. 88].
Many linguists agree that emotions have a cognitive and
communicative function. Special investigations show that all the people are
both linguistic and emotional animals at the same time. This means that
speech, thoughts and emotions of the people interweave in the process of
communication and the balance between ratio and emotio is inclined
towards emotionality [3, p. 43-46].
The universal emotions that people all over the world experience are:
anger, joy, fear, happiness, sadness, hate, love, etc.
Every culture and every person has its individual way to emphasize
and intensify emotions in speech acts. This individual character of rendering
emotions on the ethnic level is a matter of discussion in modern linguistics.
Russian researchers such as Shakhovsky V. I., Larina T. V. and others treat
emotions in cross-cultural communications in their books in order to come
with recommendations for the reader because the rendering of emotions
depends on the vocabulary of a certain language system. We perceive the
world according to the words and language system we have learned.
Talking to a child the mother will call it puişor in Romanian, рыбочка in
Russian and sweetie in English, though the Romanian variant for sweetie is
dulceaţă, which can go as an equivalent. In addressing the spouse the
Russians may say солнце мое Romanians would say dragul meu/draga mea
and English people would prefer darling, honey. If in these cultures the
connotational situational meaning of the emotive lexis is actualized and
emphasized there are other cultures in which words denoting the terms for
emotions become semantically empty, simply being a way of greeting –
151
Arabic habibi and Turkish canim. The Arabic habibi appeared from hob
(love) and the initial meaning was my love (addressed to both men and
women). Nowadays when men meet they say: “Marhaban habibi”.
The Turkish canim (soul) in the greeting merhaba canim lost its
emotional meaning as well. It is used in the same way as the Arabic
greeting.
If we agree with the ideas that first were the emotions and then the
thought we should discuss the problem of emotions in language in
connection with the thought. We all distinguish 3 types of vocabulary units
regarding emotivity: positive, negative and neutral. Recent investigations
prove that there is only emotionally coloured vocabulary and there are no
neutral words.
William D. Brooks and Robert W. Heath consider that the statement
“You are beautiful tonight” is not only about the person to whom the
comment is directed, but also about the feelings of the speaker. In essence,
what the speaker is saying is, “I love you and I feel good about you and so I
am indicating my happiness to you” [1, p. 76].
We have stated already that our intellect is composed of reason and
emotions. It is a mistake for a person to believe that a speaker who shows
no emotion or feeling is necessarily logical or that the speaker who shows
feeling cannot be logical. At this point we would like to come with an
example from the Russian film “Демидовы”. The phrase said by the father
to the son when they go to St. Petersburg to visit the sick tsar Peter I on his
request. The context is that tsar Peter I has a bad flu as a result of jumping
into the water to save the drowning sailors. The son (Demidov) says:
“Отец, ты нас учил – Надо всегда делать что разум велит, а не то, что
сердце подсказывает”. Father: “Как видишь, иногда надо поступать
наоборот. (Как наш государь поступил и полез в ледяную воду
моряков спасать.) Век живи, век учись”. (“Father you taught us that one
should do what the reason says not what his heart wants” – the son said.
“Sometimes one should act differently. One should learn in the course of
life.” – the father said.) This example illustrates that having certain
emotions the person remains logical.
The ideal situation is one in which emotion and reason act together.
In any behaviour there is a cognitive and an emotional component – an
element of reason as well as an element of emotion. As long as one’s
emotional state is not at the level of being debilitating to thought then
emotion and feeling ought to operate with reason to enable one to be most
effective in interaction [1, p. 78].
It is a well known fact that there are two ways of expressing
emotions taking into consideration the verbal and the nonverbal type or
152
using either the linguistic or the paralinguistic means. The facial
expressions and gestures express various emotions even if the speaker tries
to hide this/her feelings and pretends to be cold linguistically. Tactile
communication is communication by touch the earliest and most elementary
mode of communication for the human organism [1, p. 110]. Through the
touch of a hand one can feel fear, coldness and anxiety or love, warmth, and
security.
It is considered that the nonverbal means of expressing feelings and
emotions, attitudes and relationships are richer than the verbal ones. When
relationship is the central concern of communication verbal language is
almost meaningless. – This was mentioned by P. Watzlawick [2, p. 63].
The condition for an elementary type of verbal communication is the
presence of at least two people that speak one common language. This type
of communication is called dyadic. Other conditions for a successful
communication are interpersonal attraction, trust and supportiveness.
In dyadic communication, two persons initiate messages and
responses as they mutually influence each other. Each person
simultaneously sends and receives information so as to create shared
meanings. This free interchange gives to dyadic communication a high
potential for information sharing and effective integration. It is not
surprising, then, that some of the most influential and satisfying
communication experiences for each of us are dyadic.
Dyadic communication in its turn can be classified into intimate type
of communication and social one.
In what follows we would try to determine the emotional means that
are used in dyadic communication in “Lady Chatterley’s Lover” by D. H.
Lawrence. The following situation begins with a tactile communication.
“She was crying… He laid his hand on her shoulder, and softly, gently, it
began to travel down the curve of her back, blindly, with a blind stroking
motion …” (p. 121), that leads to an intimate dyadic communication
expressed verbally. “Shall you come to the hut?” he said in a quiet, neutral
voice.
The word hut obtains a special connotation in this context as it means
the place where the gamekeeper and Connie spend their time in an intimate
way. This connotative meaning can be followed through the whole story in
the dyadic conversation between these two characters.
(Meeting unexpectedly)
‘How’s this?’ he said in surprise.
‘How did you come?’ she panted.
‘How did you?’ Have you been to the hut?
‘No! No! I went to Marehay’
153
He looked at her curiously, searchingly, and she hung her head a
little guilty.
‘And were you going to the hut now?’ he asked rather sternly.
(“Lady Chatterley’s Lover” by D. H. Lawrence, p. 138)
The hut in this context means desire, passion and craziness on the
side of the gamekeeper towards Connie. This is a coded desire which
Connie is able to decode. It means they speak the same language, because
the word hut associates with all those nice emotions they pass through when
they spend the time in the hut.
This novel contains less emotions / feelings expressed in dyadic
conversation. The author describes the state of Connie by using the
vocabulary of describing emotions. At the same time he uses the terms to
describe the state of love and adoration, passion and fear. Still there are
dyadic conversations where one can notice the meaning of anger and even
hate expressed linguistically without using direct terms which gives the
utterance an intense meaning of emotiveness.
(After Clifford read Racine for Connie)
‘Thank you so much! You do read Racine beautifully!’ she said
softly.
‘Almost as beautifully as you listen to him,’ he said cruelly.
‘What are you making?’ he asked.
‘I’m making a child’s dress, for Mrs. Flint’s baby’.
He turned away. A child! A child! That was all her obsession.
(“Lady Chatterley’s Lover” by D. H. Lawrence, p. 144)
Clifford expresses his irritation, anger and hate towards Connie by
using irony as a stylistic means and by using the paralinguistic means
described by the author such as a cold, cruel look and the tone of his voice,
the repetition of the word child and the exclamation mark is also an
indicator of anger and irritation.
Very often the verbal means hide the true thought of an interlocutor
and it is here that the nonverbal means come to help the listener to decode
the intentions or the true thoughts of the speaker. In the following dialogue
we notice Clifford being sincere in expressing his distrust and suspicion
about Connie’s desire to come back to him after her trip in July and August
to the Villa Esmeralda in Venice:
‘July and August?’ said Clifford.
‘Oh, I wouldn’t stay all that time. Are you sure you wouldn’t come?’
‘I won’t travel abroad,’ said Clifford promptly.
‘Do you mind if I go?’ She said.
‘You know it was promised, for this summer’.
‘For how long would you go?’
154
‘Perhaps for three weeks.’
There was silence for a time.
‘Well,’ said Clifford slowly and a little gloomily. ‘I suppose I could
stand it for three weeks: if I were absolutely sure you’d want to come back.’
‘I should want to come back,’ she said, with a quiet simplicity heavy
with conviction. She was thinking of the other man.
(“Lady Chatterley’s Lover” by D. H. Lawrence, p. 156-157)
At the same time the conviction that was expressed by Connie
calmed Clifford down and convinced him that she was sincere.
The feeling of care, joy and happiness is reflected in another dyadic
conversation between the game-keeper and Connie:
(She came to his cottage, he was eating)
‘Do eat,’ she said.
But he did not touch the food.
‘Shall y’are something?’ he asked her.
‘Shall y’are a cup of tea? t’Keltle’s on t’boil’ – he half rose again
from his Chair.
‘It you’ll let me make it myself,’ she said rising. He seemed sad and
she felt she was bothering him’.
‘… Will you have a cup of tea? She said
‘If you like…’
‘Shall I take your plate away?’ she asked him. He looked up at her
with a faint ironical smile.
‘Why… if you like,’ he said slowly eating bread and cheese.
(“Lady Chatterley’s Lover” by D. H. Lawrence, p. 173)
These emotions are expressed indirectly by using sentences like:
Shall you have something? (a cup of tea) etc. It shows that each of them was
glad to be together and didn’t want to disturb each other much it is a
reciprocal care and politeness.
Another interesting thing is the rendering of positive emotions
indirectly and the negative ones directly, by using the lexis of nomination as
in the following example: (Connie tells the gamekeeper about her journey to
Venice and the desire to have a baby).
‘That was why you wanted me, then, to get a child?’
She hung her head.
‘No, not really,’ she said.
‘What then, really?’ he asked rather bitingly.
‘I don’t know’
He broke into a laugh.
‘… you’ve made use of me’ – he said.
‘But I didn’t make use of you,’ she said pleading.
155
‘At your Ladyship’s service,’ he replied.
‘No,’ she said. ‘I liked your body’.
(“Lady Chatterley’s Lover” by D. H. Lawrence, p. 176)
Letters are a means of dyadic communication as well. It is a feed
back in a communication act even if it is a delayed one. In this case one
interlocutor encodes the information and describes his/her feelings emotions
and information needed and the other decodes it. This is seen in the letter
written to Connie by the game-keeper (Mr. Mellers) at the end of the novel
from which we collected the examples of dyadic communication.
The means of rendering his love to Connie are different, for example
hope expressed directly: ‘We’ll be together next year’ (p. 313), indirectly: ‘I
believe in the little flame between us.’, reassurance: ‘…patience, always
patience’, and the feeling of tiredness to express emotions verbally: ‘Well,
so many words, because I can’t touch you. If I could sleep with my arms
round you, the ink could stay in the bottle.’ (pp. 313 – 314).
Having analysed all the mentioned above examples we come to the
conclusion that human emotions have to be nominated, described and
expressed linguistically so as to be able to teach our students to distinguish
between different types of means of rendering them, besides, it is a matter
of ethics as well. We see that psycho-linguistics as a new branch of science
can help in describing what happens to the speaker during the
communication act. We have proved that emotions create thoughts and they
verbalize in case they cannot be rendered nonverbally in an intimate dyadic
type of communication that has been analysed. The most intensely
emotional coloured are the dialogues that contain emotive messages
indirectly, no matter whether these are expressive means or simple
sentences. The hidden meaning is associated with the hidden psychological
state of a human being.
Another conclusion may be the fact that a dyadic communication
with all its elements expressed is better to be analysed on examples from
films or real life situations, as to cover the voice sound, the tempo, which
express the emotions of the speaker as well.
Bibliography
1. William D. Brooks, Robert W. Heath, Speech Communication, wcb,Wm.
C. Brown Publishers Dubuque, Iowa 1985.
2. Paul Watzlawick, Janet Helmick Beavin, and Don D. Jackson, The
Pragmatics of Human Communication New York: W.W.Norton and
Company, Inc., 1967
3. Шаховский В. И., Лингвистическая теория эмоций. – М.: Гнозис,
2008.
156
4. Шаховский В. И., Категоризация эмоций в лексико-семантической
системе языка. – Воронеж, Изд.-во Воронежского университета, 1987.
5. Lawrence D. H., Lady Chatterley’s Lover. – London: Penguin Popular
Classics, 1994.
HÖRVERSTEHEN. LERNTECHNIKEN IM
FREMDSPRACHENUNTFERRICHT. PRŰFUNGEN
Aliona LISNIC,
Olerlehrer, Magister,
ULIM, R. Moldau
Das Hörverstehen ist eine „ (…) vielschichtige Aktivität, ein Prozess
der rezeptiven Sprachverarbeitung, bei dem das Sprachwissen und das
Weltwissen des Rezipienten mit den eingehenden sprachlichen Stimuli
interagieren und eine kognitive Repräsentation des Textes hervor[gebracht
wird].“ (Vollmer 1997)
„Das Hörverstehen ist ein aktiver mentaler Prozess: Laute und
Geräusche werden aufgenommen und in Einheiten (chunks) segmentiert,
denen dann Bedeutung zugewiesen wird. Neben das Gesagte tritt dabei
immer auch das Gemeinte, d. h. der Hörer muss interpretieren. Hierbei
spielt das Weltwissen eine entscheidende Rolle. Ähnlich wie beim Leseverstehen ist der Hörer stets bemüht, die Daten und Informationen des
Textes mit seinen eigenen Wissensstrukturen abzugleichen und auf diese
Weise Sinn zu konstruieren.“ (Nieweler 2006)
 Hörverstehen leistet einen Beitrag zum Detail- und Globalverstehen
allgemein.
 Es
erlaubt
die
Überprüfung
rezeptiver,
teils
auch
produktiver/konstruktiver Kompetenzen.
 Die Interaktion von Sprach- und Weltwissen spielt beim Hörverstehen
eine bedeutende Rolle.
 Eine frühe Begegnung mit authentischen Texten trägt wesentlich zur
Schülermotivation bei und unterstützt den Anwendungsbezug.
 Hörverstehen besitzt eine hohe kommunikative Relevanz (nach
Feyten 1991: 45 % Anteil des Hörens an der Gesamtkommunikation).
All dem verdankt sich eine Neuorientierung in der
fachdidaktischen Diskussion:
„Inzwischen schrumpft […] die Zahl derer, die französische Texte im
Original lesen können, beinahe täglich. Dabei kann jeder Lehrer ebenfalls
157
täglich beobachten, dass, um die Lesefähigkeit zu erwerben, der Lerner eine
Hörverstehenskompetenz
ausgebildet
haben
muss.
Diese
Hörverstehensfähigkeit wird aber im traditionellen Französischunterricht
nur höchst unzureichend gefördert. Weil man allzu bereitwillig gleich
meint, auf Schrift als Hilfe angewiesen zu sein.“ (Bleyl 1999; vgl. auch
Gemeinsamer
europäischer
Referenzrahmen,
Bildungsstandards,
Sprachzertifikate wie DELF, neuer Lehrplan für die modernen Fremdsprachen am Gymnasium)
Zu unterscheiden:
 Hörverstehen gebunden an eine direkte Kommunikation zwischen
Sprechern
 Hörverstehen im Zuge der Rezeption medialer Kommunikation
Zu beachten ist auch die Mehrdimensionalität des Verstehensprozesses, z.
B.:
 formale Rückmeldung über die Hörverstehenstätigkeit
 Signalisieren von Verständnisschwierigkeiten
 inhaltliche Rückmeldesignale
Hörverstehen in kognitionspsychologischer Perspektive:
 Hörtexte sind flüchtig, eine Wiederholung in der normalen
Kommunikation ist oft schwer möglich, und in Prüfungskontexten ist
das Präsentationstempo durch den Hörer kaum zu beeinflussen. Um
einer vorzeitigen Entmutigung zu begegnen, muss gerade im Unterricht und bei Lernzielkontrollen die Linearität des Hörens (ggf.
abschnittsweise oder wiederholt) berücksichtigt werden.
 Das Vorwissen des Lerners über die Welt in Bezug auf einen Hörtext
ist integraler Bestandteil des Verstehensprozesses. Das Abgleichen
mit bekannten Wissensständen ist also ein didaktischer Imperativ für
die und vor der Durchführung einer Hörverstehensübung.
 Sprechgeschwindigkeit, Nebengeräusche, Lexik und Sprachregister
müssen jeweils auf die Lernerindividualität bezogen werden [vgl.
auch Progression im neuen Lehrplan].
 Die jeweilige Individualität des Lerners, seine spezifischen
Schwierigkeiten und sein Vorwissen müssen bei der Durchführung
der Hörverstehensübung berücksichtigt werden.
Fragestellungen aus und zur konkreten unterrichtlichen Praxis
Die Einbindung von Hörverstehen in den Unterricht wirft eine Reihe
didaktisch-methodischer, aber auch pädagogischer Fragen auf Seiten der
Lehrkraft auf:
 Wie integriere ich die Arbeit in diesem Kompetenzbereich in den
laufenden Unterricht?
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Welches Material setze ich ein?
Wie verbinde ich aktives, übendes Hörverstehen mit der Explizierung
von Hörstrategien?
Wie kann ich die Texte so anordnen, dass sich ein Lernzuwachs im
Bereich des Hörverstehens ergibt?
Welche Möglichkeiten gibt es, bei der Ausbildung des Hörverstehens
pädagogischen Prinzipien wie Lerner-, Handlungs- und
Prozessorientierung Rechnung tragen?
Welche Formen der Überprüfung des Hörverstehens wende ich an?
Wie kann ich Hörkompetenzen einschätzen und bewerten?
Konkrete Übungsformen des Hörverstehens im Unterricht
Diskriminierendes Hören: Laut, Wort, Form, Aussagetyp.
Nachsprechen, nachsingen, aufschreiben
Selbstentdeckendes Lernen: Lernstrategien
Spiel, kreative Formen, Mimik, Gestik, Körpereinsatz
Identifizieren, korrigieren, zuordnen (zunehmende Komplexität)
Prinzipien der Aufgabenerstellung
Kriterien für die Textauswahl
 Das Textmaterial soll authentisch, kommunikativ, abwechslungsreich
und repräsentativ sowie schülermotivierend und altersgerecht sein.
 Schwierigkeitsgrad und Textlänge müssen angemessen sein.
 Das Textverständnis sollte i. d. R. ein nicht zu hohes Maß an
Hintergrundwissen voraussetzen.
 Sind mehrere Sprecher an einem Gespräch beteiligt, so muss ihre
Anzahl überschaubar bleiben und jede einzelne Sprecherstimme klar
von den anderen unterscheidbar sein.
 Der Hörverstehenstext sollte einen Titel haben; Illustrationen sind auf
das Nötige zu beschränken.
 Je nach Aufgabenstellung kann ein und derselbe Text auf
verschiedenen Referenzniveaus verwendet werden.
 Es sollten Hörtexte aus Radiosendungen oder Audio-Dateien aus dem
Internet zugrunde gelegt werden; die Tonqualität muss zumindest
angemessen sein. Beim Einsatz von Fernsehsendungen müssen diese i.
d. R. als Hör-/Sehmaterial dargeboten werden, da sonst ein
Informationskanal fehlt, was das Verstehen erschwert oder gar
verunmöglicht.1
Grundsätze bei der Aufgabenerstellung
 Bei der Aufgabenerstellung ist zunächst zu berücksichtigen, ob es sich bei
der Hörverstehensaufgabe um eine (a) Übungs-, (b) Prüfungs- oder (c)
159
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Diagnoseaufgabe handeln soll: Abhängig davon werden die Items sich (a)
auf einzelne Teilfertigkeiten (z. B. diskriminierendes Hören,
Detailverstehen) oder (b) ein- und dasselbe Referenzniveau beziehen
bzw. (c) eine breitere Streuung hinsichtlich der möglichen
Referenzniveaus (z. B. A2 bis B1+) anstreben, um den gewünschten Grad
an Differenzierung bzw. eine trennscharfe Diagnose zu erlauben.
Ähnliches gilt für die Kombination anspruchsvoller Texte mit einfacheren
Aufgaben und umgekehrt.
Ebenso muss der Aufgabenentwickler eine klare Vorstellung davon
haben, welche Hörverstehensfertigkeit genau mit welcher Aufgabe
geprüft oder getestet werden soll.
Die Aufgabenstellung muss den Schülern vertraut und eindeutig (i. d. R.:
in der Zielsprache) formuliert sein; standardisierte und v. a. knappe
Anweisungen sind zu bevorzugen.
Die Bearbeitungszeit muss ausreichend bemessen sein.
Jede Einzelaufgabe darf nur einen Aufgabentyp (z. B. Multiple-Choice
oder Kurzantwort) enthalten.
Empfehlungen zum Aufgabendesign
Pro Text/Aufgabe sollten mindestens fünf Items gefordert werden.
Die Items müssen der Reihenfolge im Text folgen und gleichmäßig
über den Text verteilt sowie durchnummeriert sein.
Sie dürfen nicht voneinander abhängen (der Schüler darf nicht die eine
Lösung benötigen, um eine andere zu finden) und sich nicht
überschneiden bzw. ähnliche Antworten verlangen.
Geprüft wird das Hörverstehen, nicht die Kombinationsfähigkeit der
Schüler – entsprechend dürfen die Lösungen nicht ohne Textkenntnis
erschließbar sein. (Bei Zuordnungsaufgaben können z. B. mehr
Optionen als die korrekten Paare angeboten werden.)
Items sollten nicht auf Eigennamen (z. B. Personennamen,
geographische Bezeichnungen) aufgebaut sein und sich nicht auf nur
einen Typ von Sachinformationen (z. B. Nationalitäten, Produkte,
Aktivitäten) beschränken.
Die Arbeitsanweisungen müssen kurz, klar und unmissverständlich
ausdrücken, was die Schüler zu tun haben.
Bei jeder Aufgabe ist am Rand die Anzahl der erreichbaren
Bewertungseinheiten zu vermerken; am Schluss sollte die maximale
Punktesumme angegeben werden.
Das Layout sollte einheitlich und übersichtlich, die einzelne Aufgabe
so formatiert sein, dass sie auf einer Seite oder auf zwei nebeneinander
liegenden Seiten Platz findet.
160
Hörverstehen als Bestandteil von Methodenkompetenz
Der Aufbau einer Hörverstehensstrategie strahlt in den Bereich
„Methodenkompetenz“ aus. Dazu geben sowohl die neuen Lehrbücher als
auch die Lehrpläne differenziert Auskunft.
Folgende Vorüberlegungen können hilfreich sein:
 Hörverstehen sollte immer vorbereitet sein (z. B.: Vorhersagen machen,
visuelle Einstimmung; Wörter, die man kennen sollte; Signale, die
nützlich sein können; Mind-Maps, Wortkombinationen).
 Das Verstehen sollte durch Strategiewissen unterstützt werden (z. B.:
W-Fragen beim Hören, Signalwörter, thematischer Fokus).
 Zu
unterscheiden:
Globalund
Detailverstehen
sowie
zielgerichtetes/aufgabenorientiertes Hören.
 Auch parasprachliche Elemente sollten bewusst wahrgenommen und
ausgewertet werden.
 Gehörtes muss oft nicht allein im Kurzzeitspeicher des Gehirns
verarbeitet werden; häufig gilt es auch, es zu behalten und zu fixieren:
Techniken des Mitschreibens (Notizen machen – aber richtig!),
Mnemotechniken (z. B. Loci-Methode).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Auswahlbibliographie:
Bleyl, Werner (1999): „Empfehlungen zur Verwendung des
Schriftlichen im Fremdsprachenerwerb in der Grundschule". In:
PRIMAR 22/1999, S. 45-52.
Blombach, Joachim (1991): „Lerntechniken zur Förderung des
Hörverstehens“. In: Der Fremdsprachliche Unterricht – Englisch
2/1991. S. 20-24 und 31-33.
Feyten, Carine M. (1991): „The power of listening ability: an
overlook dimension in language acquisition”. The Modern Language
Journal 75. S. 173-180.
Der Fremdsprachliche Unterricht– Englisch 64/65 (2003):
Hörverstehen.
Leupold, Eynar (2000): „Didaktische Aspekte des Hörverstehens“.
In: Der Fremdsprachliche Unterricht – Französisch 6/2000. S. 4-10.
Rodier, Christian (2004): „L'Internet: une aide à la compréhension
orale au niveau débutant et élémentaire". In: Münchow, Sabine (Hg.):
Computer, Internet & Co. im Französischunterricht. Berlin. S.154189.
Nieweler, Andreas (2006) (Hrsg.): Fachdidaktik Französisch.
Tradition – Innovation – Praxis. Stuttgart.
Vollmer, Helmut J. (1997): „Strategien der Verständnis- und Verstehenssicherung in interkultureller Kommunikation: Der Beitrag des
161
Hörers“. In: Rampillon, Ute und Zimmermann, Günther (Hgg.):
Strategien und Techniken beim Erwerb fremder Sprachen. München.
S. 216-269.
LA PONCTUATION DE LA LANGUE FRANÇAISE : HISTOIRE.
TRADITION. MODERNISME. LA PLACE ET L’IMPORTANCE DE
LA PONCTUATION FRANÇAISE DANS LE PROCESSUS DE
L’ENSEIGNEMENT A LA FACULTE DES LANGUES ETRANGERES
ET SCIENCE DE LA COMMUNICATION, ULIM
Ion MANOLI, docteur d’Etat, professeur universitaire,
ULIM, R.Moldova
Notre ponctuation est vicieuse car elle est à la fois phonétique
et sémantique, et insuffisante dans les deux ordres.
P. Valéry
Une bonne ponctuation correcte et normative annonce une tête logique
associant bien ses idées. La véritable ponctuation consiste à séparer par des
signes tous les membres transposables d’une phrase. Parmi les premières études
scientifiques consacrées à la ponctuation on peut citer :
Un traité de la Ponctuation : Essai sur l’usage des lettres capitales est
inserré dans les pages du Dictionnaire Universel de la langue française, avec le
latin et l’étymologie. Manuel encyclopédique de grammaire, d’orthographe, de
vieux langage et de néologie, Paris, Firmin Didot Frères, Fils et Cie, 1857, p.5055.
De 1'avis géneral, la ponctuation a au moins une double fonction:
logique, elle évite I'ambiguité et clarifie le sens; expressive, elle tente de
restituer à 1'écrit les pauses et les intonations manquantes sur le papier. Elle
est donc parfois aussi importante que les mots eux-mêmes dans la
communication écrite. Pourtant, c'est à la fois une discipline négligée et
controversée. Négligée, car les études sont fort peu nombreuses, et ses
spécialistes rares. Controversée, car c'est un domaine ou pratiquement
personne n'est d'accord ; pas même pour savoir, entre autres, par exemple, si
1'astérisque constitue un vrai signe de ponctuation ou seulement un « signe
typographique ». Plus généralement pas même aussi pour déterminer si elle
fait partie de 1'orthographe, de la grammaire ou de la typographie, ou
encore de la stylistique grammaticale.
162
La ponctuation pose au linguiste une série de problèmes théoriques
qu'il devient de plus en plus difficile d'élucider :
— il s'agit d'un système de signes non alphabétiques, plus ou moins «
idéographiques », ce qui ne correspond pas à la conception habituelle de
nos types d'écriture, en principe calqués sur les unités sonores;
— ils fonctionnent comme des signes linguistiques, et cependant n'ont en
général aucune correspondance articulatoire, ce qui remet en cause notre
conception habituelle de la langue comme fondée sur des éléments appelés
phonèmes;
— solidement installés dans la plupart des langues, ils fonctionnent en tant
qu'universaux, et n'ont cependant jamais a été reconnus comme tels;
— enfin, il s'agit de signes linguistiques apparus à un moment donné de
1'histoire; ils sont liés à un système second de communication, devenu
pour 1'homme cultivé tout aussi indispensable que le premier, ce qui
pose le problème de la prise en compte de cette dualité de
fonctionnement linguistique et de leur interaction réciproque;
— ces signes linguistiques échappent en grande partie a 1'auteur, sont
imposés à son texte par les gens du livre, par des conventions extérieures à
lui dont il a beaucoup de mal à remettre en cause 1'application : nous
dirons que cet aspect du langage est, tout comme 1'orthographe,
particulièrement codifié, socialisé, pour ne pas dire aliéné. En fait, sans
doute, il nous fait simplement prendre conscience de la façon dont
fonctionne réellement le langage tout entier en tant qu'instrument social
de communication.
Ces premières constatations nous amènent à avancer que, pour bien
comprendre les valeurs de la ponctuation française, il nous faudra revoir trois
conceptions : celles « historiques » que nous avons de nos écritures, celle que
nous avons de la langue normative, et celle que nous avons des rapports actuels
tissés entre l'écriture et la langue.
L'erreur serait grave de ne voir dans la ponctuation qu'une question
de points et de virgules. Il y a, en plus, tout un arsenal de signes qui permettent
à la pensée de se présenter et de s'exprimer avec un sérieux complément de
finesse et de précision.
La ponctuation distribue, jalonne, éclaire un texte, elle l'aide à
parvenir à son but, la parfaite compréhension de ce que l'on veut écrire. Elle
achève et complète la mission de l'orthographe grammaticale.
Le but de cette communication est d'analyser les valeurs de la
ponctuation dans le texte classique et celui moderne. Pour y arriver, nous
avons trouvé nécessaire de parler un peu de l’histoire de la ponctuation et ses
valeurs traditionnelles.
163
Dans les premières pages nous nous arrêtons sur quelques moments
généraux concernant la ponctuation française. Premièrement nous faisons une
petite incursion historique à travers les siècles passés pour voir quel a été et
reste encore le rôle de la ponctuation dans les écrits correspondants. Nous
ferons quelques remarques sur la ponctuation des XVe et XVIe siècles
qu'on considère le vrai début de la ponctuation réglementée du français. Puis
nous nous déplaçons au XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles. Ensuite c'est le XIXe siècle
qui a presque changé l'attitude générale envers la ponctuation et a mis les
bases de la ponctuation qu'on a de nos jours en français. Et enfin, c'est le
XXe siècle, plein de controverses et d’expérimentations dans le domaine de la
ponctuation. Le point suivant de cette introduction présent les définitions
essentielles pour donner la réponse à la question «Qu'est-ce que la
ponctuation ? ». Nous y analysons plusieurs aspects de la ponctuation :
ponctuation et mise en page, caractères spéciaux et capitalisation, ponctuation
et caractères typographiques, aussi bien que le rôle du ponctème dans le
système graphique. Vers la fin de l’article nous présenterons les fonctions
essentielles de la ponctuation française : syntaxique, communicative et
sémantique.
La plus grande partie de l’article est dédiée entièrement à l'analyse
des valeurs de la ponctuation en français contemporain. Pour commencer,
nous allons préciser quel est le statut de la ponctuation dans le cadre des
œuvres littéraires : signes de ponctuation et poésie, ponctuation dans la prose.
Une question s’impose de soi « Quel avenir pour la ponctuation ? ». C'est
une question qui apparaît normalement lors de l'étude de l'évolution de la
ponctuation. Les technologies informationnelles menacent d'une manière la
bonne ponctuation. La ponctuation dite normative nous avons abordé le
problème des émoticônes et de binettes qui sont porteurs des valeurs
supplémentaires dans les textes écrits contemporains (messages courts, courriels,
forums, etc.).
L'utilité théorique et pratique de cette étude consiste dans le fait que
le matériel traité pourra être utilisé comme source de documentation dans le
cadre des cours d'histoire de la langue, de lexicologie et de civilisation. Nous
insistons sur le fait que la Ponctuation française doit avoir sa place à part dans les
Plannings universitaires, surtout dans le cadre des facultés des langues et
littératures étrangères où le français occupe une place à part comme études
philologiques.
La liste de sources bibliographiques utilisées et consultées lors de nos
recherches est assez riche, en incluant des travaux des auteurs comme : Ch.
Bally, C. Blanche-Benveniste, N. Catach, J. Damourette, A. Doppagne, R.
Gourmont, C. Gruaz, etc.
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PONCTUATION FRANCAISE. GENERALITES
Une chose est certaine : il y a à distinguer entre une ponctuation
littéraire dite normative à côté d’une ponctuation courante, flexible. Les
linguistes discutent largement le problème.
La ponctuation est le lieu privilégié d'une réflexion sur l'aliénation
du langage (elle nous appartient autant qu'aux gens de pratique), sur l'aspect
conceptuel (et pas seulement sonore) de la langue, sur le caractère
idéographique de toute écriture (et de l’orthographe).
A la suite du précurseur Vachek (1939) et d'autres linguistes du Cercle
Linguistique de Prague, on ne considère plus l'écriture aujourd'hui comme la
seule image de la voix. Il est intéressant, pour mieux comprendre la place et
le rôle de la ponctuation, de la replacer dans une conception d'ensemble des
écritures.
Elles ont au moins deux origines, dont la seconde paraît bien avoir été
historiquement primitive : porte-voix et aide-mémoire. Si l'écriture est bien du
« langage en conserve », c'est bien d'abord pour attester des événements et des
transactions, échanger des reçus, établir des inventaires de biens et des
généalogies de rois qu'elle a été utilisée. L'ethnologue Goody J. (La Raison
graphique, Paris: Éd. de Minuit, 1979) a démontré, d'une façon convaincante,
que l'écriture en deux dimensions (listes ou tableaux) a été largement répandue
plusieurs millénaires avant Jésus-Christ, et qu'elle était déjà chez les
Sumériens, les Assyriens, les Égyptiens, ce qu'elle est aujourd'hui, un
incomparable outil de stockage de l'information. Il ne s'agit pas alors
essentiellement de séparer ces données, mais de les conserver.
D'où, déjà, l'utilisation de toutes les ressources visuelles du plan
imprimé : blancs, retraits, signes de reconnaissance (certains idéogrammes
servaient exclusivement à séparer les notions les unes des autres, ou à les
unir). Ce qui expliquerait, entre parenthèses, que les premières écritures aient
été idéographiques : l'essentiel n'était pas de fixer le flot de la parole humaine,
mais d'abord d'énumérer et de transmettre de façon stable un certain nombre
de connaissances acquises. Ce n'étaient pas des écrivains, c'étaient des scribes,
des savants, des prêtres et des secrétaires qui ainsi « prenaient des notes »,
comme nous le faisons encore aujourd'hui. Sommes-nous si loin de la
ponctuation? Pas tellement, en ce sens qu'elle aussi, comme l'écriture, présente
deux faces, l'une visuelle, l'autre vocale.
Toute une partie des signes de la langue française sont, dès le Moyen
Age, des signes muets de reconnaissance, des repères de lisibilité : appels de
notes, procédés d'ordonnancement, de gloses, d'ajouts, de retraits, de
corrections, etc. Lorsque nous écrivons une date (par ex. 25.01.2010) que
faisons-nous sinon séparer des notions distinctes de jour, de mois et d'année
dans un certain ordre, grâce à une ponctuation de mots? En ce sens, nous
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avons conservé toute une tradition de l'écrit en tant qu'outil conceptuel de
première importance, que l'on retrouve autant dans un classement
mathématique en unités, dizaines, centaines, que dans nos distinctions entre
noms communs et noms propres, initiales de mots pleins et de substantifs dans
certaines langues, et surtout séparation systématique des segments fonctionnels à
tous les niveaux.
De même qu'il faudrait distinguer une ponctuation de prose et une
ponctuation de vers, on retrouve ici les deux tendances fondamentales des
textes, littéraires et artistiques d'une part, scientifiques et techniques de
l'autre. Selon les époques, la littérature orale ou la littérature conceptuelle l'a
emporté. Mais nous pensons qu'il faudra, pour bien saisir dans toute leur
ampleur les procédés mis au point pour mettre en valeur le langage écrit,
chercher à la fois dans ces deux directions.
La ponctuation des débuts de l'imprimerie à nos jours
Si, à de nombreux égards, l’orthographe française est devenue une institution
française aussi, et une des plus solidement ancrées, si des générations de
grammairiens, d'enseignants, d'écrivains se sont attachés à en exprimer les
règles avec le maximum de précision, à les transmettre et à les respecter, on
est obligé de constater qu'en face de ce monument, la ponctuation n'a
suscité qu'un intérêt très marginal. Elle représente un domaine où semble
avoir régné la plus grande confusion.
Lui consacrer un numéro de Langue française (1980,vol. 45, Nr.1)
devrait, heureusement, rétablir un certain équilibre et contribuer à attirer,
sur les problèmes qu'elle pose, l'attention qu'ils méritent.
Parmi eux se trouve celui, essentiel à nos yeux dans une démarche
qui se veut scientifique, d'une véritable définition de la ponctuation, de
l'établissement d'une liste de ses signes et de leur classement. Faute de quoi on
continuera à en parler sans savoir de quoi l'on parle.
Il nous a donc paru utile, pour montrer tant le désordre que les amorces
de réflexion, de passer en revue, dans l'ordre chronologique, les idées des
devanciers, et surtout des plus récents d'entre eux, sur la ponctuation avant
d'exposer les autres les plus récentes. Pour les plus anciens, nous ne pouvons
faire mieux que de renvoyer le lecteur, pour des renseignements
supplémentaires plus précis, en particulier à L'orthographe française à
l'époque de la Renaissance de N. Catach, que l'on complétera par l'article du
même auteur et ceux d'A. Lorenceau et I. Barko dans Ponctuation I.
État de la ponctuation aux XVe et XVIe siècles
Les premiers manuscrits français ne comportent pratiquement pas de
signes de ponctuation et pourtant ces signes existaient dans les textes grecs et
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latins dès le XVe siècle. Ce n'est qu'en 1520 environ que l'imprimerie
française commence à ponctuer de façon régulière.
Aux XVe et XVIe siècles, nous n'avons pas trouvé de définitions
proprement dites de la ponctuation. Certains auteurs, cependant, dressent des
listes de signes et en indiquent l'usage.
Le premier à le faire est, à notre connaissance, Jean Heynlin dans son
Compendiosus dialogus de arte punctuandi imprimé à Paris en 1471. Sa
liste comprend : virgula (ou subdistinctio) - (,); colon (point à mi-hauteur) - (.);
periodus - (;); comma (ou distinctio) (point moyen avec virgule suscrite) - (.');
punctus interrogativus - (?). Il parle également de la parenthesis et l'utilise. Il
fait usage d'une division, simple (/) ou double (//) pour les coupures de mots en
fin de ligne.
Les mêmes signes, à quelques unités près, réapparaissent, sous des
noms parfois différents, chez Lefèvre d'Étaples (octobre 1529) puis chez Dolet
(1540) et Aide Manuce Le Jeune (1549). Calviac et Habert reprennent presque
mot pour mot Dolet.
A la fin du XVIe siècle donc, l'usage est à peu près fixé comme
actuellement pour les principaux signes, à la différence des périodes
(ponctuation forte) et du deux-points qui se situe, par son rôle, entre notre
point-virgule et le point. A partir d'Aide Manuce Le Jeune, les listes font
apparaître un certain consensus et déjà percent, sous la terminologie utilisée,
les deux principales théories qui s'affronteront jusqu'à nos jours : celle qui
considère que la ponctuation répond aux besoins de clarté, de logique, et
celle qui lui attribue un rôle principalement respiratoire.
XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles
Au XVIIe siècle, le système de ponctuation de la Renaissance n'est plus
en vigueur et rien n'est venu le remplacer. La ponctuation est rare et peu
diversifiée. Les grammairiens sont muets : la Grammaire de Port-Royal n'en
parle pas.
C'est, semble-t-il, chez Furetière que l'on trouve la première
définition de la ponctuation:
Observation grammaticale des lieux d'un discours où on doit faire de
différentes pauses, et qu'on marque avec des points et petits caractères pour en
avertir le lecteur.
La formule alliée assez subtilement les conceptions pausale et
grammaticale de la ponctuation; mais dans l'examen de détail c'est cette
dernière qui l'emporte.
II faut attendre le XVIIIe siècle pour voir s'élaborer un véritable
système de ponctuation qui sera la base de la ponctuation moderne. Tous
les grammairiens de cette époque s'en préoccupent : Buffier, Restaut, l'abbé
Girard, Grimarest, Beauzée, Leroy, de Wailly, Douchet, sans oublier des
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imprimeurs comme Fertel de Saint-Omer, Momoro et Quinquet. Pour cette
période, on peut se reporter aux deux études d'A. Lorenceau, dans
Ponctuation I, pp. 127-151 et dans la revue Dix-huitième siècle (X, 1978, pp.
363-378).
II faut cependant rappeler ici qu'au XVIIIe siècle, la ponctuation doit
aider celui qui lit à haute voix. Beauzée écrit : « La ponctuation est l'art
d'indiquer par des signes reçus la proportion des pauses que l'on doit faire en
parlant ». Et Fertel : « La ponctuation en écrivant ou en composant, est très
nécessaire pour le soulagement de celui qui doit faire la lecture, soit d'un
manuscrit, soit d'un imprimé. Elle lui fait distinguer plus facilement le sens,
et elle lui marque où il peut faire des pauses, afin de respirer le temps qu'il est
nécessaire pour continuer à son aise sa lecture ». Et l'abbé Girard : « La
ponctuation soulage et conduit le lecteur ».
C'est une ponctuation basée sur l'oral, sur le rythme de la voix. J.
Mourot l'écrivait, en 1952, en parlant de Diderot : « On observera que la
ponctuation des phrases citées plus haut est conforme à leur diction naturelle :
la virgule marque seulement l'acmé et la pause à la fin de la protase; qu'on
fasse l'expérience inverse en notant la pause que ménage dans son débit un
speaker sans prétention et l'on retrouvera la ponctuation du XVIIIe siècle.
Elle vient d'ailleurs spontanément sous la plume. »
Cette ponctuation orale est sobre, puisque rythmée par le souffle de la
voix. Beauzée écrit que trois principes doivent être respectés : la sobriété, le
respect de l'unité de la pensée totale, la clarté de renonciation. A propos de la
sobriété, il écrit : « On ne doit pas employer plus de signes qu'il n'y a de choses
à signifier ». Mais cette règle est nuancée par le souci de la clarté de
renonciation : « On ne doit rompre l'unité de la proposition entière que le moins
qu'il est possible, mais on doit encore préférer la netteté de renonciation
orale ou écrite, à la représentation trop scrupuleuse de l'unité du sens total,
laquelle, après tout se fait assez connaître par l'ensemble de la phrase, et
dont l'idée subsiste toujours tant qu'on ne la détruit pas par des repos trop
considérables, ou par des ponctuations trop fortes ». C'est donc un système dont
les règles sont relativement bien définies et qui, pour aider le lecteur, tendent à
être sobres et claires.
Au XVIIIe siècle, la théorie pausale semble la plus largement répandue,
mais, chez les uns comme chez les autres1, apparaît l'idée que la ponctuation a
1
Ainsi on peut citer Chimarest (1707), Febtel (1723), Restaot (1732), Lerov (1739), l'abbé Girard (1747)
et de Wailly (1763) auxquels on peut ajouter Condillac et Diderot.
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aussi un rôle logique à jouer. Ils voient plus une symbiose équilibrée entre les
deux fonctions qu'une réelle opposition.
La meilleure expression de cette conception de la ponctuation se
trouve chez Beauzée :
Le choix des ponctuations dépend de la proportion qu'il convient
d'établir entre les pauses; et cette proportion dépend de la combinaison de
trois principes fondamentaux : 1 ° le besoin de respirer; 2° la distinction des
sens partiels qui constituent le discours; 3° la différence des degrés de
subordination qui conviennent à chacun de ces sens partiels dans l'ensemble
du discours.
Toutes ces considérations ne s'appliquent, en général, qu'aux « signes
usuels de la ponctuation » : virgule, point-virgule, deux-points, point.
Parenthèses, points de suspension, guillemets, alinéa, sont souvent traités à
part, de même que les points d'interrogation et d'exclamation. Toutefois
l'ensemble des signes est à peu près toujours le suivant :
— virgule, point-virgule, deux-points, point;
— point d'interrogation, point d'exclamation;
— parenthèses;
— points de suspension ;
— tiret ;
— guillemets.
Il faut bien reconnaître qu'on est là très près de l'usage actuel. La
différence la plus notable est constituée par le deux-points : il est alors
utilisé, entre autres, comme signe de séparation d'un pouvoir intermédiaire
entre le point-virgule et le point (d'où sa place dans la liste, souvent conservée
jusqu'à nos jours).
La ponctuation au XIXe siècle
Au XIXe siècle, le nombre des lecteurs s'accroît, l'imprimerie se
développe beaucoup et c'est probablement pour faciliter la lecture visuelle que
l'on augmente considérablement le nombre des signes employés. Voici un
exemple, presque caricatural, pris dans un livre qui, s'il date de 1928, n'en
reflète pas moins l'aboutissement de cette tendance : « A côté de ces deux
hommes, siégeait un autre prêtre, appelé à jouer, à travers la Révolution, le
rôle le plus étrange, l'abbé Sieyès : lui aussi, je le camperai en pied devant
vous, ce qui me dispense de m'arrêter longuement à lui; philosophe politique,
entouré, dès 1789, d'un prestige tout entier issu de sa fameuse brochure :
Qu'est-ce que le Tiers? il a été accueilli avec une sorte de vénération presque
superstitieuse et a pris tout de suite l'attitude d'un oracle; mais, en qualité
d'oracle, il s'est enfermé dans des formules solennelles, obscures, —
hermétiques, dirions-nous aujourd'hui, et si l'on continue, faute de le
comprendre, à le tenir pour profond, l'Assemblée, plus portée à suivre les
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violents, s'est détachée de ce pontife qui reste, aigri jusqu'à l'exaspération,
sur son piédestal » (Madelin, Louis, Les Hommes de la Révolution, Paris,
1928, p. 104). 22 virgules, 2 points-virgules, 2 deux-points, 1 tiret et 1 point
final dans une unique phrase.
On a donc abandonné au XIXe siècle une conception orale de la
ponctuation pour adopter une conception purement grammaticale et
syntaxique; ce qui compte avant tout, c'est l'analyse grammaticale.
Pourtant les grammairiens de cette époque ne donnent pas des règles
très différentes de celles du siècle précédent. Si l'on ouvre une dés plus
importantes grammaires du XIXe, celle de Giraut-Duvivier, la Grammaire
des grammaires, qui date de 1810 et a été souvent rééditée, on trouve dans le
chapitre XI sur la ponctuation un démarcage de la Grammaire générale de
Beauzée dont il a repris les exemples. Le deux-points y figure encore
comme signe de ponctuation entre le point-virgule et le point.
Les grammaires scolaires s'appuient encore essentiellement sur la
notion de pause. Larive et Fleury, La Deuxième Année de grammaire (1887) :
« La ponctuation est employée pour éclaircir le sens des phrases et pour
indiquer les pauses que l'on doit faire en lisant ». Noël et Chapsal,
Grammaire (1894) : « La ponctuation est l'art de séparer par des signes
particuliers, qu'on appelle signes de ponctuation, les phrases et les différents
membres d'une phrase. Elle indique aussi les pauses que l'on doit faire en
lisant ». On trouve cependant des définitions qui intègrent l'idée
grammaticale de la division des parties d'une phrase. Le Nouveau Manuel de
typographie (1897) de Leclerc écrit : « La ponctuation est l'art de diviser les
parties du discours au moyen de signes. Ces divers signes conventionnels
indiquent les rapports qui existent entre les parties constitutives du discours en
général et de chaque phrase en particulier. Les pauses plus ou moins longues
que l'on doit observer à la lecture sont aussi marquées par la ponctuation;
mais, dans ce cas, elle ne doit pas nuire à l'intelligence du sens général; car
son but est, avant tout, la clarté du langage écrit ». (Il faut noter les derniers
mots : la clarté du langage écrit, il ne s'agit plus de lecture à haute voix.) M.
L. Leclair et M. C. Rouzé dans Grammaire française écrivent : « La
ponctuation a pour but de distinguer, au moyen de signes, les différentes
parties d'une proposition ou les propositions entre elles ». Cette définition
s'apparente déjà à celles qu'on trouve le plus fréquemment dans les
grammaires contemporaines.
Pourtant, au cours de ce XIXe siècle, la ponctuation évoluait
rapidement, mais l'impulsion ne venait pas des grammairiens : les
imprimeurs avaient pris le relais. Leur volonté de rationalisation et de
transformation éclate à la lecture du journal L'Imprimerie, Journal de la
typographie et de la lithographie, qui a paru de 1863 à 1904 sous la direction de
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Gabriel Charavay. Dans le n° 137 d'avril 1876, on lit : « La ponctuation est
l'anatomie du langage ou de la pensée, et non point une affaire de
tâtonnement ou de fantaisie : ponctuer c'est disséquer les phrases et donner à
chacune de leurs parties le sens voulu par l'auteur. Basée sur la logique, elle
est universelle, c'est-à-dire pour les idiomes de tous les temps et de tous les
pays, s'appliquant sans aucune différence au grec, au latin, à l'italien, à
l'espagnol, à l'anglais, à l'allemand comme au français ».
Une première tentative de présenter un traité de la Ponctuation a été
faite en 1857, quand le Dictionnaire Universel de la langue française, avec le
latin et l'étymologie : Manuel encyclopédique de grammaire, d'orthographe,
de vieux langage et de néologie (Paris, Firmin Didot Frères, Fils et Cie, 1857,
p.50-55) inserrait dans ses Annexes une étude assez détaillée sur la
Ponctuation. Celle-ci a été plus tard reprise par d'autres auteurs.
Pour la première fois, en France, un livre entier est consacré à la
ponctuation : le Traité de ponctuation de Ricquier (1873). Le point de vue
cependant ne présente aucune originalité par rapport aux prédécesseurs, si ce
n'est que la liste des signes est singulièrement enrichie : virgule, point-virgule,
deux-points, point, points de suspension, point exclamatif, point interrogatif,
points conducteurs, tiret, trait d'union, guillemets, parenthèses, crochets,
alinéa, apostrophe, et cœtera, astérisque, paragraphe, souligné, accolade.
Les règles données pour l'usage de chaque signe sont fondées sur la
syntaxe. La règle pour le deux-points est pausale, mais les emplois où
Ricquier le recommande sont ceux d'aujourd'hui.
L'autre auteur qu'il convient de signaler dans ce siècle, par ailleurs peu
productif, est Pierre Larousse, qui consacre un article à la ponctuation dans
son Grand dictionnaire universel du XIXe siècle. Pour lui, c'est le rôle logique
de la ponctuation qui est déterminant, fût-ce aux dépens de ses fonctions
respiratoires.
Par ailleurs il propose une esquisse de classement : virgule, point-virgule,
deux-points et point dans une catégorie; points interrogatif, exclamatif,
suspensifs, parenthèses, guillemets et tiret dans une autre2 .
2
Les écrits théoriques sur la ponctuation au XIXe siècle sont plus abondants dans le domaine
anglais, bien que tous n'aient pas une grande importance. Deux noms méritent d'être cités :
Brenan (1830) et Allardyce (1884). Ce dernier semble d ailleurs être le premier à attribuer à la
ponctuation un rôle de désambiguïsation.
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Le XXe siècle
Au XX siècle, les ouvrages portant exclusivement sur la
ponctuation peuvent se répartir en deux vagues, la première à la fin des
années 30, et la seconde, qui nous porte encore, dans les années 70.
La première vague est marquée par deux congrès : le «Congrès
international de linguistique romane » à Nice en 1937, avec une
communication intéressante de Hjelmar Lindroth et le « Ve Congrès
international des linguistes » à Bruxelles en 1939.
Ce courant novateur, influencé par le linguistique comparatiste, ne s'est
pas maintenu.
En revanche, un assez grand nombre d'auteurs marchent sur les
traces de leurs devanciers sans grand souci d'innovation. Citons pour
mémoire Henri Sensine et, plus remarquable, Jacques Damourette. Le
premier se borne à énumérer les cas où chaque signe s'emploie. Le second
fait preuve d'un esprit de système plus marqué; il pousse plus loin le souci
de l'exactitude, attribue à la ponctuation un rôle mélodique et un rôle pausal
étroitement liés à ses fonctions grammaticales.
Dans leur sillage, on trouvera, avec des valeurs diverses : Etienne Le
Gai, Charles-Joseph Millon, ainsi que Brun et Doppagne (1958), nettement
postérieurs, mais qui reprennent les idées de Damourette.
La deuxième vague est annoncée par deux contributions de Lydia
Hihschberg en 1964 et 1965 qui abordent la ponctuation sous un angle
nettement scientifique, dans la perspective du « traitement automatique [...]
des lois syntaxiques des langues naturelles écrites ». Sa démarche est, à notre
connaissance, restée isolée.
Le véritable mouvement se dessine plus précisément à partir de la «
Table ronde internationale sur la structure de l'orthographe » organisée à
Paris en janvier 1973, sous la présidence de N. Catach. On y relèvera surtout
une communication de L. Védénina sur « La ponctuation par rapport aux autres
sous-systèmes de langue ».
Sur la même lancée, vient en juin 1977 une brochure intitulée : La
ponctuation, recherches historiques et actuelles, qui regroupe une dizaine de
contributions de chercheurs gravitant autour de la même équipe du CNRS :
N. Catach (les débuts de l'imprimerie), I. Bawco (XVIIe siècle, Racine). A.
Lorenceau (XVIIIe siècle), A. Husson (usage des majuscules dans les préfaces
des dictionnaires de l'Académie). C. Gruaz (Nouveau Roman). L. PasquesBiedebmann (un conte de Marcel Jouhandeau), J. Varloot (la ponctuation dans
les rapports entre auteurs et éditeurs). C. Tournier (définition et classement,
bibliographie générale).
e
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Cette nouvelle vague de réflexions sur la ponctuation trouve son
origine moins dans des préoccupations d'ordre purement linguistique ou
grammatical qu'éditorial.
Aucun auteur ne s'attache à donner une définition très précise de ce
que l'on doit entendre par « ponctuation ». Toutefois, l'étude de leurs travaux
permet de les classer — de manière parfois artificielle — en partisans plus
ou moins convaincus d'une ponctuation logique ou d'une ponctuation
prosodique.
On se rend compte qu'à défaut de définitions utilisables on se trouve
en face d'un fatras de propositions plus ou moins contradictoires entre
lesquelles peu d'auteurs ont essayé de choisir une position stable et claire.
On ne trouve nulle part l'énoncé des critères qui délimiteraient
orthographe et ponctuation, qui permettraient de classer les différents signes
graphiques (lettres, symboles, signes de ponctuation, etc.), de ranger tel ou tel
d'entre eux dans la ponctuation... C'est la plus grande incohérence qui règne ici.
Une seule certitude peut-être se dégage : il est impossible de
n'attribuer à la ponctuation que des fonctions respiratoires ou logiques.
Des classements n'apparaissent qu'à partir du XXe siècle, sur critères
prosodiques ou logiques.
Damourette distingue ainsi signes pausaux (virgule, point-virgule,
point) et signes mélodiques, en reconnaissant que ces deux catégories ne sont
pas totalement imperméables. Ce classement a été repris, parfois sous des
terminologies différentes, par Doppagne, Gauchet, Brunot et Bruneau.
Millon, un an plus tôt que Damourette, proposait un classement assez
semblable dans lequel le deux-points se joignait aux signes pausaux.
Hartmann et Dutreuilh utilisent des critères syntaxiques : il y a « les
signes qui terminent la phrase » et ceux « qui divisent la phrase », auxquels
ils ajoutent « les signes supplémentaires » comme les guillemets.
Fischer et Hacquard proposent un classement assez curieux à partir de
critères qui ne s'excluent pas, ce qui lui enlève toute valeur.
Thimonnier distingue, lui. entre une ponctuation grammaticale (point et
virgule) et une ponctuation expressive, divisée elle-même en deux groupes : les
signes auxiliaires du point et les signes auxiliaires de la virgule.
Malheureusement, certains signes restent difficiles à classer.
Les seuls autres auteurs à avoir esquissé un classement sont Lecerf et
Javet et Matthey. Mais ils n'explicitent pas leurs critères.
On constate que, depuis les débuts de l'imprimerie jusqu'à nos jours,
les idées sur la ponctuation n'ont pas manqué; le tour a été fait de ses
fonctions possibles, des rôles qu'elle pouvait remplir, mais on est bien obligé
de reconnaître qu'aucune véritable théorie de la ponctuation n'a été construite
: aucune définition correcte, aucun classement digne de ce nom qui expliciterait
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ses critères. Il était donc urgent, à notre avis, de déblayer le terrain sur ce
point, les idées émises par nos devanciers nous donnant la possibilité
d'éviter nombre de pièges et d'écueils.
Ni au niveau des définitions, ni à celui des listes et des classements,
n'apparaît une réelle unanimité. Ce qui frappe le plus, c'est, au contraire,
l'incohérence, tant entre les auteurs que chez chacun d'eux. On a l'impression
que leurs exposés, pour la plupart, ne sont faits que de morceaux épars,
récoltés à droite et à gauche, et assemblés sans souci d'harmonie. Beaucoup
copient sans vergogne leurs prédécesseurs. La théorisation la plus poussée est,
sans aucun doute, celle de Beauzée, même si elle doit être révisée
aujourd'hui. Quelques autres figures se détachent pour leur réel effort de
systématisation comme Damourette et Thimonnier, ou pour leur grande
rigueur, comme L. Hirschberg.
Restent les espoirs, ils sont nombreux, que l'on peut fonder sur le
mouvement d'aujourd'hui, s'attachant autant à l'histoire de la ponctuation qu'à
son usage actuel, ses raisons d'être, ses fonctions, dans une perspective
pratique (l'édition) ou théorique. La ponctuation nous semble être, en effet,
par excellence, le lieu où se révèlent les différentes fonctions du message écrit
: vecteur d'un contenu sémantique identique à son correspondant oral certes,
mais également d'une foule d'autres informations sur lui-même et sur ce qui
l'entoure. C'est à quoi devraient s'attacher, à notre sens, les recherches à venir.
La ponctuation n'en est encore qu'au début de son histoire.
Tous les chercheurs de toutes les époques sont unanimes sur le fait qu’une
bonne ponctuation correcte et normative annonce une tête logique associant bien
les idées. La véritable ponctuation consiste à séparer par des signes les membres
transposables d’une phrase.
Qu'est-ce que la ponctuation?
On entend habituellement par signes de ponctuation une dizaine
d'éléments graphiques surajoutés au texte : virgule, point-virgule, points
(final, d'exclamation, d'interrogation, de suspension), et ce que nous
appellerons signes d'énonciation (deux-points, guillemets, tirets, parenthèses,
crochets).
L'information qu'apportant ces signes joue par prèsence/ absence. La
virgule et le point semblent les signes universels, qui peuvent servir d'unités de
référence.
On leur reconnaît en général trois types de fonctions :
— organisation syntaxique : union et séparation des parties du discours, à
tous les niveaux (jonction et disjonction, inclusion et exclusion,
dépendance et indépendance, distinction et hiérarchisation des plans du
discours). Exemples :
• jonction : ceci, cela, cela aussi (= et).
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• disjonction : ceci, pas cela (= mais)
• inclusion/exclusion : ceci qui est vrai, cela qui est faux (inclusion par
absence de signe, opposition entre les deux syntagmes par présence)
• hiérarchisation des plans du discours : Oui, dit-il, c'est vrai (deux
énonciateurs différents).
— correspondance avec l'oral : indication des pauses, du rythme, de la
ligne mélodique, de l'intonation, de ce que l'on appelle en bref le « suprasegmental», tous phénomènes qui, notons-le, ne sont pas marqués à l'écrit
par ailleurs, et qui peuvent être appelés à ajuste titre «la troisième
articulation du langage». C'est ce qui explique que la plupart du temps
l'effet des signes, contrairement à ce que pourrait laisser croire leur
dénomination, n'est pas «ponctuel», mais continu, portant sur toute une
phrase ou un segment de phrase. Exemples :
• Tu viens, ou je me fâche (montée, puis descente).
• C'est vrai, dit-il (ton bas continu pour le 2e énonciateur).
— supplément sémantique : ce supplément peut être redondant ou non par
rapport à l'information alphabétique, compléter ou suppléer les unités de
première articulation, morphématiques, lexicales ou syntaxiques. Exemple:
Il dit : « Son nom » (différent de : II dit son nom).
Ajoutons, malgré ce que nous disions tout à l'heure, que la ponctuation,
du fait de son fréquent caractère de redondance, se prête particulièrement
bien aux effets littéraires, à la liberté stylistique, du moins en France où elle
n'est pas totalement codifiée. Plus exactement, les infractions au code
permettent des effets stylistiques puissants et deviennent les éléments marqués
du message (ex. l'absence de ponctuation ou des majuscules).
Ponctuation et mise en page
Cependant, on ne peut se satisfaire longtemps d'une délimitation aussi
étroite (dix à onze signes) du secteur considéré.
Et d'abord, que veut dire « élément graphique »? En l'absence d'un
signe de ponctuation, que reste-t-il? Un blanc, lequel est déjà un signe, le plus
primitif et essentiel de tous, un « signe en négatif».
Il faut bien nous rendre compte que, tout comme la photo en noir et
blanc, la page imprimée s'inscrit dans notre champ visuel par une série de
contrastes entre l'implicite et l'explicite :
« Le texte moderne, prétendument réduit à la seule écriture, n'a pu se
développer que par son inscription dans un espace graphique, espace resté
implicite parce qu'il était visuel et non verbal » [Laufer, 1987 : 25].
La principale différence entre l'audible et le visuel est précisément
cette conversion d'une chaîne qui se déroule dans le temps en une chaîne qui se
déroule dans l'espace.
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Cet « espace graphique » est parfaitement analysable pour un
professionnel. Il comprend des unités de trois ordres de grandeur : au niveau
des mots, au niveau des phrases, au niveau du texte.
Au niveau des mots, les espaces interlittéraux s'opposent aux espaces
(plus grands) inter-mots; l'absence d'espace pour l'apostrophe et le trait
d'union (lexicaux) s'oppose à l'espace ménagé après les signes de ponctuation
syntaxiques. Le trait de division marque que le mot n'est pas terminé.
Au niveau des phrases, la majuscule marque le début de la phrase (à
elle seule au début du paragraphe), comme le point en marque la « fin ». mais
une fin provisoire, puisqu'il s'oppose au passage à la ligne de l'alinéa, au passage
à la page pour un nouveau chapitre, etc.
Où s'arrêter, et comment considérer les uns et rejeter les autres?
On peut, me semble-t-il, opposer une définition plus ou moins limitée à
une définition extensive du domaine considéré. Conservant quant à nous les
espaces et procédés des deux premiers niveaux (mots et phrases, paragraphes)
nous les opposerons (contrairement à ce que fait plus loin R. Laufer par
exemple) au 3e niveau, qui entoure et dépasse le texte et en général échappe à
l'auteur : agencement général du livre et des chapitres, justification, marges,
filets, titres et intertitres, disposition des interlignes, appel de notes, opposition
des capitales et des types de caractères, procédés de mise en valeur,
détermination du format, couverture, rappels de collection, couleurs,
illustrations, etc.
Les premiers types de signes ont en effet une série de caractéristiques
qui les opposent plus ou moins nettement aux seconds : ils sont intérieurs au
texte, en général explicites, discrets, formant système, et dépendent malgré
tout dans une grande mesure de l'auteur : ils sont en général communs au
manuscrit et à l'imprimé et font partie du message linguistique. Mais il faut
reconnaître que certaines franges entre ponctuation et mise en page resteront
floues.
Voilà ce que disent les vrais maîtres de l'écriture à propos du blanc :
« Le blanc n'est pas en effet seulement pour le poème une nécessité
matérielle imposée du dehors. Il est la condition même de son existence, de sa
vie et de sa respiration. Le vers est une ligne qui s'arrête, non parce qu'elle est
arrivée à une frontière matérielle et que l'espace lui manque, mais parce que
son chiffre intérieur est accompli et que sa vertu est consommée... Entre un
ensemble de vers et la page qui le contient, le plateau où il nous est présenté... Il
y a un rapport en quelque sorte musical... »
Paul Claudel : « Un poème n'est point fait de ces lettres que je plante
comme des clous, mais du blanc qui reste sur le papier... Les poèmes ont
toujours de grandes marges blanches, de grandes marges de silence où la
mémoire ardente se consume pour recréer un délire sans passé. »
176
Nous ajouterons donc quant à nous aux signes énumérés plus haut
la ponctuation de mots (blanc de mot. apostrophe, trait d'union, signe de
division) au moins une partie de la ponctuation de texte (alinéas, retraits,
paragraphes, etc.), l'usage des majuscules et en partie des capitales, et
certaines alternances classiques des caractères typographiques.
Ponctuation, caractères spéciaux et capitalisation
Parmi les sous-ensembles tout proches de la ponctuation que nous
allons à présent tenter de délimiter, certaines fonctions sont communes,
d'autres s'opposent, les intersections sont nombreuses et mériteraient d'être
analysées de plus près. En réalité, nous avons affaire à une série de secteurs
annexes, souvent spécifiques de langages de groupe ou de techniques
particulières.
Certains de ces signes sont des séparateurs, et en ce sens se rapprochent
beaucoup des signes de ponctuation traditionnels : ainsi les anciens « pieds de
mouche » qui marquaient le début des paragraphes, les filets, croix, ronds,
astérisques, étoiles, losanges, tous éléments dont les dictionnaires, par
exemple, sont particulièrement friands. La seule différence entre ces
séparateurs et nos signes est une différence de fréquence et d'usage.
D'autres sont ce que l'on appelle des symboles, et partagent par
conséquent avec nos signes leur troisième fonction (complément
sémantique) : symboles grecs, mathématiques, techniques peuvent être
prononcés ou non (+ plus, — moins,& infini, < inférieur ou égal à, etc.). On
peut en compter plusieurs dizaines sur les boules spécialisées des machines à
écrire, ce qui prouve un usage assez étendu; ils complètent ou remplacent
morphèmes, lexèmes ou syntagmes et atteignent pleinement, par conséquent,
un niveau d'écriture idéographique : ce sont des logogrammes d'une espèce
particulière. C'est cet aspect de message direct, non alphabétique, ayant ou
non un correspondant à l'oral, qui les rapproche des signes de ponctuation.
Ainsi, le point abréviatif de M. (Dupont, Durand) oppose M
(majuscule de nom propre, qui renvoie aussi parfois au phonème /m/, parfois
à la lettre « ème ») à M. (le point remplaçant ici le segment [onsieur] d'un
mot défini). Le point abréviatif est un idéogramme d'une espèce particulière,
en ce sens qu'il peut se substituer à n'importe quel segment oral abrégé et
qu'il est le signe de cette abréviation.
De même, la virgule ou les deux-points sont souvent équivalents au
signe + (ceci, ceci et cela) ou au signe = (ex. définition : action de définir).
Les majuscules sont des lettres plus grandes et d'une forme particulière.
Cette double opposition introduit dans le système alphabétique lui-même
certains aspects idéographiques autonomes, qui se rapprochent beaucoup des
effets puissants que peuvent tirer les imprimeurs des changements de
caractères. Nous proposons de réserver le terme de capitales aux oppositions
177
continues des grandes lettres aux petites (dans les titres par exemple), et le
terme de majuscules aux lettres initiales (même imprimées) plus grandes.
Nous avons parlé des majuscules de phrase, qui sont, au même titre que le
point final, de véritables signes de ponctuation syntaxiques. Mais l'on ne
peut
ignorer
les
nombreux
autres
effets
que
tire
le
langage écrit de l'usage des majuscules: oppositions nom propre/nom
commun, mise en valeur des « mots importants » du texte (avec effets de
respect, de distanciation, de mépris, d'ironie, etc.)3 . Si l'on considère la
ponctuation de mots comme une véritable ponctuation, cette dernière
comprend également tous ces usages de la majuscule (qui n'était au départ
qu'une lettre initiale permettant de mieux distinguer le début du mot).
Parmi les nombreux aspects de la fonction séparatrice et organisatrice de
la ponctuation, on ne peut oublier en effet la fonction de mise en valeur de
certains éléments du texte par rapport à d'autres. En ce sens, les divers
usages des capitales (la capitalisation),comme ceux des soulignements des
textes manuscrits, bien qu'échappant à l'auteur, rejoignent l'usage des majuscules.
Ponctuation et caractères typographiques
II n'est nul besoin d'insister de nouveau sur ce qui peut apparaître
aujourd'hui une évidence : la ponctuation, comme l'orthographe, a été
conçue, élaborée, mise au point et appliquée sous bien des aspects par les gens
du livre, en fonction des nécessités techniques et industrielles de ce langage en
conserve qu'est l'objet-livre4. C'est ce que N. Catach a appelé
l'orthotypographie [Catch, 1980 : 20], qui recouvre tous les aspects de
l'orthographe (dont la ponctuation, l'usage des majuscules, les divisions,
certains accents, l'usage des divers caractères, etc.) relevant essentiellement
de l'autorité des ateliers d'imprimerie, et qui sont explicitement traités comme
tels dans les codes et manuels typographiques.
De même qu'une étude de la ponctuation ne peut se concevoir sans
une prise en compte des nécessités des espaces et de la mise en page, il est
impossible de la couper des usages, non seulement typographiques mais
culturels (modes, effets esthétiques, courants artistiques, architecturaux, etc.)
3
Cette Fonction de type affectif n'est pas seulement individuelle, mais sociale : il ne
dépend pas du locuteur que certains mots prennent la majuscule (ex. l'état / l'État, l'assemblée /
l'Assemblée, etc.). C'est particulièrement net pour les protocoles épistolaires, les mots de
l'appareil d'État, les mots d'église, etc. Il faut noter cependant que sa fonction sociolinguistique
(fonction « de majesté ») est en net recul depuis le XVIII siècle.
4
Par objet-livre, nous entendrons non seulement le livre lui-même, mais tout
objet manufacturé porteur d'information écrite, tract, affiche, journal, revue, le livre en étant
l'expression la plus achevée.
178
qui ont cours à chaque époque concernant les « écritures » et la disposition des
caractères.
L'exemple le plus typique en est sans conteste celui des guillemets,
qui se sont largement répandus au XVIIe siècle, selon l'avis même des
imprimeurs, pour épargne du caractère italique.
Les difficultés extrêmes de l'imprimerie française expliquent peut-être
qu'on ait, après le XVIe siècle, préféré « guilleméter » les passages à mettre en
relief. Les guillemets, mis « au long» dans la marge, qui évitaient de changer de
caractères, se sont donc répandus largement, non seulement pour les citations,
mais pour les idées générales, les passages importants, et plus tard pour les
dialogues, de plus en plus nombreux dans les romans du XVIIIe siècle.
Aujourd'hui encore, italique et guillemets alternent et ont des usages souvent
interchangeables. De même, un titre entouré de blanc « épargne », lui aussi, le
soulignement ou l'italique, etc. La parole est aux gens de métier, qui auraient
beaucoup à nous dire sur ces échanges incessants.
Tout ce qui précède nous amène à partager la double définition,
proposée par N. Catach, l'une large et extensive, l'autre plus étroite, du domaine
considéré : « Définition de la mise en page : Ensemble de techniques visuelles
d'organisation et de présentation de l'objet-livre, qui vont du blanc des mots aux
blancs des pages, en passant par tous procédés intérieurs et extérieurs au
texte, permettant son arrangement et sa mise en valeur.
Définition de la ponctuation : Ensemble des signes visuels
d'organisation et de présentation accompagnant le texte écrit, intérieurs au
texte et communs au manuscrit et à l'imprimé; la ponctuation comprend
plusieurs classes de signes graphiques discrets et formant système, complétant
ou suppléant l'information alphabétique » [Catach, 1980 : 21].
Le ponctème dans le système graphique
S'il fallait à présent, du point de vue linguistique, intégrer à plein titre
ces unités dans un système d'ensemble, comment pourrait-on les classer?
Que sont ces signes surnuméraires, ces microsystèmes d'appoint que
nous nous sommes donnés? Nous nous référerons à la description basique
que N. Catach a donnée du graphème [Catach., 1979 :23].
Le graphème peut être soit un cénème (signe « vide », signifiant de
signifiant), soit un plérème (signe « plein », selon la terminologie de
Hjelmslev, c'est-à-dire possédant à lui seul un signifiant et un signifié). Les
cénèmes, ce sont les signes d'une écriture phonétique ou phonologique, qui
ne visent pas à autre chose qu'à donner l'équivalent des phonèmes, éléments
neutres de formation des mots. Les plérèmes, ce sont par exemple les
hiéroglyphes des Égyptiens ou les idéogrammes des Chinois, encore qu'ils
aient très souvent un appoint cénémique.
179
En français, certains de nos phonogrammes sont à la fois cénèmes
(ils renvoient au phonème correspondant) et plérèmes, en ce sens qu'ils sont
porteurs en outre d'une signification et d'une fonction. Ainsi ai renvoie à a,
ain, an (fait, facteur; sain, sanitaire, santé); au renvoie à al, eau à el (autre
/ alterner, chapeau / chapelier), etc. D'autres sont totalement des plérèmes,
ils ne sont jamais « prononcés », mais sont là en tant que rappels de série ou de
sens (le / de enfant par ex., ou certains nt des finales verbales).
Il est aisé à présent de voir où se situent les ponctèmes, en tant que
classe particulière des graphèmes : si l'on reconnaît aux pauses et à
l'intonation le caractère d'une troisième articulation de l'oral, il faudra peutêtre trouver encore un mot pour indiquer cette fonction, qui n'est ni vraiment
cénémique ni vraiment plérémique, qui est en tout cas « dérivée » de l'oral,
et la chose méritera d'être reprise ailleurs plus à fond.
En attendant, nous classerons les signes de ponctuation comme étant
essentiellement des plérèmes, directement chargés d'un sens et d'une fonction.
Cependant, là encore, et sans vouloir outre mesure compliquer les
choses, nous allons être bien obligés de les distinguer de nos morphogrammes
(signes alphabétiques utilisés dans deux directions différentes, selon qu'ils
sont prononcés ou pas) et de nos logogrammes (formés, eux aussi, de
graphèmes, unités plus petites, en partie prononcées, elles-mêmes
subdivisibles en lettres). Les signes de ponctuation sont les plus
plérémiques de nos graphèmes : ce sont purement et simplement des
idéogrammes, quatrième et dernière catégorie du plurisystème graphique
proposé par N. Catach [Catach, 1978].
Mais leur qualité d'idéogrammes (signes extra-alphabétiques) ne les
empêchent nullement de jouer selon les cas un rôle équivalent à celui des
morphogrammes ou des logogrammes. Nous avons vu en effet qu'ils
pouvaient à volonté se substituer à un élément phonique manquant
(l'apostrophe par exemple), indiquer un lien sériel (le trait d'union verbal par
ex.), remplacer une conjonction, ou n'importe quel mot d'une phrase (il
préfère les blondes, et lui, les brunes).
Nous avons des signes-pauses, des signes-sèmes, des signesmorphèmes, des signes-syntagmes, des signes-phrases, des signes-texte, des
signes-symboles. Les uns, pour reprendre la terminologie de Pulgram (1976),
sont glottaux (internes à la langue) les autres non glotlaux : il n'y a guère de
différence, par exemple, entre le signe & et la virgule, mais il y en a une
entre le signe & (prononcé) et, d'autre part, le point abréviatif, ou le pointvirgule, qui marque seulement que le discours n'est pas terminé.
Nous avons en tous cas affaire à de véritables signes linguistiques.
Restera à affiner, à l'aide d'une recherche systématique des différents
cas, les diverses réalisations de ces signes, et à mieux démontrer que
180
finalement il ne s'agit pas d'éléments auxiliaires, non indispensables au
langage, mais, au contraire, d'une acquisition historique fondamentale de la
communication humaine.
Fonctions de la ponctuation
L'ensemble des réalités graphiques que recouvre le terme de
ponctuation est très difficile à caractériser. Dans son Essai de définition de la
ponctuation et de classement des signes, C. Tournier juge impossible une
définition non ambiguë qui serait fondée sur les fonctions de cet ensemble de
signes, et tente d'adopter pour critères les propriétés au lieu des fonctions. Mais
les propositions qu'il est amené à avancer à partir de là ne permettent guère, à
mon sens, de surmonter les difficultés, ce que les trois points suivants tenteront
de mettre en évidence.
1. La ponctuation étant caractérisée comme appartenant à l'écrit et
non à l'oral, et comme fondée sur un jeu d'unités discrètes, la propriété
fondamentale est ainsi énoncée : « Un signe de ponctuation ne se prononce
pas »; d'où cette définition : « Un signe de ponctuation est un signe graphique
discret et sans correspondance phonémique ».
Cette définition indique des traits exacts, mais elle reste
essentiellement négative, et rappelle par là celle de la prosodie qu'a proposée
André Martinet dans ses Eléments : « tous les faits de parole qui n'entrent pas
dans le cadre phonématique... » (Martinet, 1960: 77). Le lien est évident entre
le caractère négatif de la définition et l'impossibilité de caractériser
fonctionnellement l'ensemble de faits considéré : ce sont deux manifestations
de l'absence d'unité fonctionnelle.
2. S'il est particulièrement gênant d'en rester à une définition
négative de la ponctuation, c'est que. comme l'a fait C. Tournier, on est
amené à reconnaître aux signes de ponctuation une autre propriété : « ils ont
une signification », à l'inverse des graphèmes.
Ici encore, on pense à ce qui est dit dans les Éléments de linguistique
générale à propos des faits prosodiques, plus précisément à propos de la
place de l'intonation dans cet ensemble de faits : elle est « ce qui reste de la
courbe mélodique une fois qu'on a fait abstraction des tons et des faits
accentuels », alors qu'on lui reconnaît des fonctions linguistiques : une
fonction « directement significative » (marquer l'interrogation dans il
pleut?) ou une fonction « expressive » (Martinet, 1960 : 78-79).
C. Toumier précise que les signes de ponctuation « se comportent
comme tous les autres signifiants linguistiques : le mot vis-à-vis de son
sens, lettre et graphème vis-à-vis des phonèmes, etc. » et forment « un
système » au sein duquel on veut établir « des relations d'opposition et de
similarité, tant dans leurs formes que dans leurs fonctions ».
181
Si les signes de ponctuation doivent être traités comme des
signifiants, comment ne pas admettre que la seule manière de les étudier
scientifiquement consiste à les envisager dans leur fonction?
3. C'est bien, en définitive, la position adoptée par C. Tournier, qui
en vient à tenter un classement fonctionnel des signes de ponctuation.
Sur quelles bases pratiquer ce classement? Les signes de ponctuation
ne sont pas dans la situation des lettres, qui ont une correspondance
phonique et servent à transcrire, plus ou moins bien, dans la représentation
écrite de la langue la chaîne des phonèmes réalisés oralement. Il est
évidemment impossible de considérer que les signes de ponctuation sont les
représentants graphiques de certaines propriétés de la chaîne parlée et par là,
si l'on admet qu'ils sont chargés de signification, manifestent graphiquement
un ordre de significations qui dans la réalité orale de la langue serait attaché
à ces propriétés. Il est exclu que la fonction de la ponctuation, telle qu'elle
est définie, soit de représenter l'intonation. Ce n'est pas que le caractère
ponctuel des signes, placés en un point unique d'une séquence (une
extrémité) s'y oppose : on pourrait imaginer ainsi qu'au paradigme des
schémas intonationnels (eux-mêmes chargés de véhiculer certaines valeurs
énonciatives) corresponde un paradigme de signes de ponctuation, même si
ces signes ne sont pas, dans leur réalité graphique, coextensifs aux chaînes
porteuses de ces schémas. Mais le fait est que les signes correspondent aussi
bien à des pauses qu'à des indications qualitatives sur les séquences délimitées
par eux, et d'ailleurs l'extension donnée à ces signes à partir d'une définition
non fonctionnelle condamne le descripteur à en faire un fourré-tout où il est
hors de question qu'on puisse trouver une quelconque correspondance entre
l'ensemble des signes et un ordre donné de faits phoniques : entre l'alinéa et le
point d'interrogation, entre la majuscule initiale de nom propre et les
guillemets de citation, comment imaginer une relation qui corresponde à
l'unité d'un certain ordre de faits phoniques?
II faut donc passer directement des signes de ponctuation à des ordres de
signification et c'est ce que fait justement C. Tournier. Il classe les fonctions
de ces signes en les considérant comme opérant essentiellement des
délimitations dans les séquences de l'écrit; il distingue à cet égard quatre
niveaux : « trois niveaux successifs dans l'élaboration du texte écrit », et «un
ensemble de procédés qui relèveraient plutôt de la présentation ». Les
fonctions reconnues à ces différents niveaux sont les suivantes :
— délimitation des « mots graphiques » (blancs essentiellement, mais
aussi traits d'union ou apostrophes);
— délimitation des phrases et membres de phrases (majuscules et points
divers; virgule, point-virgule, deux-points, guillemets, parenthèses,
crochets, tirets, etc.);
182
—
délimitation des paragraphes, chapitres, etc. (alinéas, renfoncements,
tirets de dialogue...);
—
signalisations sémantiques ou extralinguistiques diverses (majuscules
initiales de noms propres ou pseudo-noms propres, astérisques, points de
suspension marquant l'hésitation, etc.).
Il se dégage de ce classement que la définition adoptée élargit au
maximum le champ de la ponctuation, y incluant même des signes amalgamés
en quelque sorte aux graphèmes et non plus autonomes, comme les
majuscules, réalisation particulière de lettres signalant soit une limite (à titre
redondant, après un point), soit un nom propre ou assimilé. Mais quel intérêt
y a-t-il à faire de la ponctuation un pareil fourré-tout?
L'essentiel du matériel pris en compte peut certes être considéré
comme servant à marquer des délimitations (à ce titre, même les blancs font
partie des signes de ponctuation), mais il faut bien introduire autre chose que
cette notion de délimitation, puisqu'une délimitation de même niveau peut
être réalisée par des signes différents, qui constituent de ce fait un paradigme (.
? !). II apparaît ainsi que les signes de ponctuation, reconnus comme signes
linguistiques, présentent cette caractéristique fondamentale des signes
linguistiques d'être soumis à un mode de fonctionnement réglé à la fois sur un
axe syntagmatique et sur un axe paradigmatique. Il faut seulement préciser
que leur syntagmatique ne se présente pas comme un système de
combinaisons entre ces signes, ce que note justement C. Tournier (ils « ne se
combinent pas entre eux pour former des unités de niveau supérieur ») :
fonctionnant de façon délimitative, et se présentant aux extrémités des segments
qu'ils délimitent, ils donnent lieu à une syntagmatique qui est celle des
segments délimités : membres de phrases au sein des phrases, phrases au sein
des paragraphes, paragraphes au sein des textes, etc.5
Les linguistes ont remarqué, il y a longtemps, que le comportement
verbal d'un individu est en relation avec différents aspects de l'activité
psychique, ce qui a amené à la distinction de trois plans linguistiques (Bally,
1950 : 43) :
— plan sémantique qui reflète les rapports entre le signifié et le signifiant:
5
C. Tournier introduit d'ailleurs un correctif à l'observation qui vient d'être citée en
précisant que les signes de ponctuation « peuvent, dans certains cas, se suivre à plusieurs
et former des groupes», mais sans aller jusqu'à constater que leur jeu est fondamentalement
d'ordre syntagmatique
183
—
plan « actuel » ou communicatif. qui envisage en problèmes de la
communication linguistique les rapports de l'objet-pensée avec la
situation de communication;
— plan grammatical (celui de la linguistique interne) qui considère un
ensemble de signes conventionnels — le code — au moyen duquel
les messages, parlés ou écrits, se trouvent matérialisés.
Considérée dans cette optique, l'étude de la phrase (représentée dans
l'écrit par un groupe de mots limité à gauche par une majuscule et par un
point à sa droite), devient multidimensionnelle. Elle comprendra trois
analyses, chacune d'elle traitant la phrase selon un des aspects mentionnés :
— premièrement, en tant que structure sémantique (dite profonde), ou
organisation des unités de sens qui sont les monèmes;
—
deuxièmement, en tant qu'énonciation, ou organisation des unités
psychiques qui sont le thème et le propos; représentant 1° ce à propos de
quoi on énonce quelque chose, 2° le terme d'aboutissement, ce qu'on
énonce à propos du terme initial;
— troisièmement, en tant que proposition, ou ensemble des unités
linguistiques qui, au niveau de la syntaxe, constituent les mots.
La ponctuation tout comme les autres constituants de la phrase fait
partie de tous ces trois mécanismes qui unissent leurs efforts pour assurer
le processus de la créativité syntaxique.
Signes syntaxiques
La ponctuation aide l'ordre des mots, les mots de liaison et l'ellipse
dans leur travail pour former la phrase.
a) La ponctuation et l'ordre des mots
Les signes de ponctuation accompagnent Tordre des mots pour
réaliser l'opposition membre syntaxique/membre non syntaxique (apposition) :
 Le cargo passait sur le canal muet. — Muet, le cargo passait sur le
canal.
 Il arriva radieux. — Radieux, il arriva.
 On va t'y cacher sûrement.— Sûrement, on va t'y cacher.
 Entends Marie.—Marie, entends.
La position distinctive une fois neutralisée, la ponctuation devient le
seul moyen de différencier les homonymes syntaxiques
non ponctué : ponctué
membre syntaxique membre non syntaxique :
 Le cargo passait sur le canal muet. — Le cargo passait sur le canal,
muet.
 Il arriva radieux. — II arriva, radieux.
 On va t'y cacher sûrement. — On va t'y cacher, sûrement.
 Entends Marie. — Entends, Marie.
184
b) La ponctuation et les conjonctions
Les signes de ponctuation et les mots de liaison ont des objectifs
parallèles dans la phrase, les premiers marquant les limites des segments
qu'on relie, les derniers qualifiant les rapports entre ces segments. Ainsi dans
la phrase M'aimes-tu parce que tu m'aimes, ou parce que je t'aime? (R.
Rolland) la virgule indique qu'il y a deux segments qui, grâce à leur
voisinage, sont à relier. La conjonction ou apporte une information plus
spéciale, faisant de la relation entre les deux segments rapprochés un rapport
d'égalité.
La présence d'une conjonction rend inutile l'emploi d'un signe
graphique : la conjonction réunit la fonction de qualificateur de liaison avec le
rôle délimitatif des signes de ponctuation, comme le montre la phrase ci-dessous :
// avait une pipe à la bouche et il fumait. (R. M. du Gard).
Si les mots de liaison sont nombreux (surtout dans les cas où la
même conjonction fonctionne et à l'intérieur et à l'extérieur d'un segment), la
ponctuation vient les renforcer pour distinguer la conjonction extérieure de celles
de l'intérieur; comme dans l'exemple qui suit :
Les seules tuyauteries nécessaires sont les jonctions entre pompes
et bloc, et les jonctions entre vérins et bloc.
On voit ainsi que les mots de liaison et la ponctuation coexistent dans la
phrase, travaillant chacun dans son domaine et s'entraidant en cas de nécessité.
La parataxe demande le renforcement des marques graphiques : les signes
de ponctuation deviennent indispensables là où ils étaient redondants à cause de
la présence d'une conjonction bifonctionnelle : On les chercha, on ne les
retrouva pas. (G. Maupassant) et on recourt à la ponctuation forte pour «
compenser » l'affaiblissement d'autres indicateurs de liaison : Je ne suis pas
sorti: il pleuvait. (R.-L. Wagner). Le matin : composition française (P. – V.
Couturier).
c) La ponctuation et l'ellipse
Dans les phrases elliptiques, la ponctuation annonce la ruption
syntaxique en signalant le caractère non syntaxique du voisinage des mots
résultant de cette suppression. La phrase :
 À Orlando, la moitié des gens âgés n'appartenaient à aucune
association; à Palm Beach, les deux tiers. (S. de Beauvoir)
devient incompréhensible avec la partie elliptique non ponctuée :
 À Orlando, la moitié des gens âgés n'appartenaient à aucune
association: à Palm Beach les deux tiers.
Les signes de ponctuation disent au lecteur qu'il ne faut pas relier les
mots qui sont graphiquement séparés : il y a un mot ou un syntagme
implicite entre eux. La forme linguistique de ce dernier sera reconstituée à
185
partir de l'environnement, elle le sera dans notre exemple par le parallélisme des
deux parties de la phrase citée :
1. complément circonstanciel - sujet - prédicat verbal;
2. complément circonstanciel - sujet.
qui suggère le syntagme prédicatif non explicite :
A Palm Beach les deux tiers n'appartenaient à aucune association.
L'analogie absolue entre les phrases elliptiques et non elliptiques
(parallélisme grammatical + identité lexicale) fait de la ponctuation un
moyen d'établir la distinction entre ces phrases. On s'en persuadera après
avoir examiné les deux phrases qui suivent :
 Après la guerre. — Après, la guerre.
où la ponctuation signale les rapports syntaxiques modifiés : le mot après
dans la deuxième phrase détermine non la guerre (comme on le constate
dans la première phrase) mais un autre déterminé qui est implicite.
Signes communicatifs
La ponctuation aide Tordre des mots et le lexique à construire
renonciation (ce qu'on appelle, d'après les linguistes tchèques, la division
actuelle de la phrase).
a) La ponctuation et l'ordre des mots
A l'aide de l'ordre des mots on réalise « l'insertion », c'est-à-dire
une réorganisation de la phrase visant à adapter l'écorce matérielle
syntaxique aux impératifs de la communication. L'insertion constitue la
rupture d'un groupe syntaxique par un membre périphérique (une épithète,
un complément, un complément circonstanciel ou un mot apposé) qui y
apparaît. Il en résulte une énonciation à trois segments où les mots liés
syntaxiquement entrent dans des groupes différents, séparés par un segment
intercalé :
// me voyait ministre un jour. - II me voyait, un jour, ministre.
Les phrases avec insertion et celles sans insertion diffèrent du point
de vue de leur interprétation communicative. On pourra le voir en
examinant la division actuelle des phrases où sont neutralisées les autres
marques communicatives. Ainsi, pour les phrases sans insertion on constate :
T
P
II me voyait
ministre un jour
tandis que dans les phrases avec insertion la distribution des mots entre la
partie-thème et la partie-propos est tout autre :
T
P
II me voyait un jour
ministre.
Il me voyait
un jour ministre.
T
P1
P
II me voyait
un jour
ministre.
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Dans le mécanisme de l'insertion les signes de ponctuation servent
de partenaires à Tordre des mots : ils signalent la rupture syntaxique en
marquant les limites d'un segment intercalé. L'ordre des mots et les
différences lexicales une fois neutralisés, la ponctuation devient le seul
moyen permettant de coordonner un tout syntaxique avec une énonciation. Les
exemples qui suivent montrent que la quantité de l'information transmise
par la phrase ponctuée sera plus grande que celle de la phrase sans insertion.
sans ponctuation (pas d'insertion)
avec ponctuation (inertion) :
type TP
type TP1P
Les membres de l'équipe sont là
Les membres de l'équipe sont
là,
comme vous l'aviez demandé.
comme vous l'aviez demandé.
/= Ils sont présents, répondant à une/ = Ils sont, en cet endroit, vêtus,
équipés, convocation./etc., comme on le leur avait demandé/.
b) La ponctuation et le lexique de la phrase
Le lexique est un des moyens importants de la division actuelle de
la phrase, il influence la distribution des mots entre la partie-thème et la
partie-propos. La pertinence du lexique devient évidente si on examine la
démarcation entre les parties communicatives et celle entre le sujet et le
prédicat verbal. On constate la corrélation syntactique et communicative dans
les cas où le sujet de la phrase est exprimé par un mot significatif, et
l'absence du parallélisme si le sujet perd son autonomie lexico-grammaticale :
T
P
Jacques
fume.
Il fume6
La ponctuation contribue à l'augmentation de la valeur
communicative des mots non autonomes, comme dans le cas de vous et de
nos où la mise en vedette typographique en fait une dominante
communicative :
Je voudrais que vous fissiez du théâtre (A. Maurois). Mais nos
nuits ne seront pas mille et une... — Hélas! Nos nuits, (ibid.).
Identique est le rôle des signes de ponctuation dans les exemples qui
suivent (mise en vedette typographique) :
TP : // Il n'a ni femme ni enfant.
TPPi : Il n'a ni femme, ni enfant.
6
La division actuelle des phrases citées résulte de données expérimentales. La
comparaison des variantes actuelles est basée sur le témoignage le plus typique fourni par les
informants.
187
TP : Elle est enfermée dans la forêt par Valérie, son enfant.
TPP1 : Elle est enfermée dans la forêt par Valérie son enfant.
Nous avons vu qu'à l'aide des marques graphiques un des
compléments (ni enfant) et l'apposition (son enfant) sont élevés à un rang
communicatif plus important : un élément de la partie-propos se trouve
transformé en un membre communicatif autonome qui constitue une partie —
propos à part (P1 ).
c) La ponctuation comme actualisateur de la phrase
On connaît des cas où la valeur communicative des segments
s'exprime seulement par des signes graphiques, la ponctuation n'ayant besoin
d'être ni complétée ni renforcée par aucun autre procédé grammatical ou
lexical. Le code graphique possède des symboles spéciaux capables de
«rématiser » un segment, en faisant d'un élément de renonciation un
message à part (TP2P, au lieu de TP). Ce sont des signes bilatéraux : deux
tirets et des parenthèses. Les tirets transforment un segment en partie plus (ou
aussi) importante (P2) que la partie-propos 1 :
La route monte — insensiblement — vers le village (P. Mérimée)
A l'aide des parenthèses le segment-propos 2 est relégué au second plan
communicatif en tant que phénomène moins important :
La route monte (insensiblement) vers le village.
Signes sémantiques
En parlant des signes sémantiques, nous pensons à la corrélation directe
entre la ponctuation et le sens7 . On trouvera parmi les signes sémantiques
des signes de démarcation (a), ceux de régulation (b) et ceux de qualification
(c).
a) Sont directement liés au sens
— le blanc typographique, espace libre qu'on laisse entre les mots :
la - l'a.
abaissé - a baissé.
desseins - des seins.
— les majuscules et les points marquant la limite gauche et la limite
droite de la phrase :
7
Cela ne signifie pourtant pas que les signes examinés dans les paragraphes précédents ne
sont pas liés au sens. Il s'agit de rapports exprimés sous des différentes formes: dans le
premier et le deuxième paragraphes les relations sémantico-graphiques peuvent être
qualifiées d'indirectes et visent à satisfaire les besoins de l'expression linguistique, tandis
que le fonctionnement des signes qu'on envisage dans la rubrique « sémantique » obéit aux
impératifs du sens.
188
La fête battait son plein, mais les veilleurs restaient à guetter dans
leur cachette. /La construction avec le point au lieu de la virgule n'est pas
équivalente : La fête battait son plein. Mais les veilleurs restaient à guetter
dans leur cachette [Mahmoudian et autres, 1976 : 222].
— ainsi que les virgules qui aident le lecteur à s'orienter dans le texte,
en indiquant la fin du groupe-sujet, comme dans la phrase suivante :
Elle expliqua plus tard que le couvent d'abord, puis la vie avec sa
mère qu'elle n'aimait pas, l'avaient ainsi contrainte à se fermer » (J.
Damourette).
b) Les signes de ponctuation unissent ou séparent les membres de la
phrase, faisant entrer certains d'entre eux dans le même segment ou bien les
distribuant dans différentes parties de la phrase. Ce rôle régulateur de la
ponctuation sera illustré par les deux phrases ci-dessous où le complément
par mon frère, se voit attribué, grâce à la virgule, tantôt au groupe
prédicatif, tantôt au segment formé par le sujet :
Cette maison construite par mon frère, l'an dernier a été
démolie. — Cette maison construite par mon frère l'an
dernier, a été démolie (J.-P. Colignon).
c) Dans le groupe des qualificateurs entrent des signes à valeur modale.
— les guillemets, qui annoncent le changement de registre en attribuant le
segment à un autre sujet parlant ou à un autre champ sémantique :
« Voilà des gens bien peu dignes d'intérêt » qu'ils penseraient.
(L. Aragon). « Sophie » c'est le camion (A. Lanoux).
— le point d'interrogation et le point d'exclamation, qui expriment une
modalité non assertive (interrogation, ordre) :
Réponse ou façon d'éluder? (titre) La clef celle d'en haut! (G.
Flaubert)
Nous avons constaté que les signes de ponctuation sont rattachés à
trois plans linguistiques : la virgule, le point-virgule et les deux-points font
partie des procédés de la syntaxe constructive; la syntaxe communicative
pour exprimer la valeur informative d'un segment, possède ses moyens à
elle qui sont les tirets, les guillemets et la mise en vedette typographique:
tandis que le blanc, les majuscules, le point et les guillemets tout comme le
point d'interrogation et le point d'exclamation forment le répertoire
sémantique. Cette distribution de rôles doit être traitée non comme la
fixation rigide d'un signe à une sphère déterminée, mais comme la
dominante fonctionnelle d'un symbole graphique. Les signes de ponctuation
peuvent être employés et s'emploient dans la fonction secondaire, dans des
sphères voisines.
On connaît par exemple l'emploi des deux-points comme procédé
emphatique. Ce signe fait du segment de droite la partie-propos 2 :
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Il avait séquestré sa propriétaire/, on l'enferme à son tour : en
prison.
Si on compare cet exemple avec la phrase homologue non
ponctuée, on verra que l'absence du signe graphique, contribuant à la «
désaccentuation » du prédicat verbal, la transforme en une énonciation à un seul
propos (TP1P2 → TP) :
On l'enferme à son tour en prison.
Encore un témoignage illustrant, cette fois, la réunion des fonctions
syntaxique et sémantique. La virgule qui est un signe syntaxique peut être mise
au service de la sémantique comme indicateur des rapports logiques entre le
déterminant (proposition relative) et son déterminé (antécédent). L'analyse
de deux phrases identiques va prouver la différence des relations exprimée
par la ponctuation : Les voyageurs qui avaient faim demandèrent à manger. —
Les voyageurs, qui avaient faim, demandèrent à manger (R. Le Bidois).
On assiste à une modification sémantique: une caractéristique
particulière devient une qualification générale: dans la deuxième phrase il
s'agit de tous les voyageurs, tandis que dans la première il s'agit d'un groupe,
de ceux qui avaient faim.
La phrase française est donc enveloppée d'un triple réseau de
ponctuation, constitué par les signes syntaxiques, communicatifs, et
sémantiques. Ils reflètent dans leur ensemble les rapports multidimensionnels
qui pénètrent le corps de la phrase, en créant son ossature et en assurant son
fonctionnement dans le discours.
Tout ce qu'on vient d'analyser concernant le sujet de la ponctuation
l'étudiant de la Faculté des Langues Etrangères doit connaître en profondeur
pour mieux correspondre aux atouts du Processus de l'éducation de Bologne
Malheureusement, il ne la connaît pas parce qu'il ne l'apprend pas
systématiquement, parce qu'on lui ne l'enseigne pas en profondeur. Le professeur
du français le fait d'une façon sporadique pendant les classes de phonétique, de
grammaire, du lexique.
La Ponctuation et l'Orthographe n'occupent pas pour le moment une
place à part dans des programmes universitaires. Il faut changer les choses.
Il est vrai que les étudiants guidés par les spécialistes en d'autres
matières de langue le font à leur guise et en cas de nécessité les manuels
répandus sur le marché n'ont pas au moins des chapitres, des parties consacrés à
la ponctuation. Les grammaires de classe ne s'en occupent pas. Cette mise à
l'écart de la ponctuation et de l'orthographe doit être changée en faveur de cellesci. Ces deux disciplines doivent occuper chacune à part leur place pour leur
redonner l'importance qu'elles avaient autrefois.
190
Bibliographie
1. Bally, Charles, Linguistique générale et linguistique française, Berne:
Francke, 1950
2. Burney, Pierre, L'orthographe, Paris, P.U.F., 1959, 128 p. Col. Que sais-je ?
3. Catach, N., L'orthographe, Paris, P.U.F., 1978, Col. Que sais-je ?
4. Catach, N., Le Graphème, in Pratiques, Paris, 1979.
5. Catach, N., La Ponctuation, in Langue Française, 1980, vol. 45, N1, p.16-17.
6. Congnon, J.P., La Ponctuation : art et finesse, Paris, 1975.
7. Doppagne, A., La Ponctuation française, in Langue et Administration,19681970, p.208-285.
8. Drillon, J., Traité de ponctuation française, Paris, Gallimard, 1991.
9. Lorenceau, A., La Ponctuation au XIX-ème siècle, in : Langue française,
1980, vol. 45, N1, p. 50-59.
10. Mahmoudian, M., Pour enseigner le français. Présentation fonctionnelle de
la langue, Paris, P.U.F., 1976
11. Martinet, André, Eléments de linguistique générale, Paris, Armand Colin,
1960.
12. Pulgram, E. Writing without letters, recueil d’article publiés par Haas,
Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1976, vol.4
13. Salvat, M., La Ponctuation : Etat moderne de la ponctuation française, in :
Le Grand Larousse de la langue française, vol. V, Paris, Larousse, 1976, p.
4454-4459.
14. Timbal Duclaux, L., L'Ecriture créative, Paris, Reitz, 1986.
15. Tournier, C., Essai de définition de la Ponctuation et de classement des
signes, in : Ponctuation, p. 223-243.
16. Vedenina L., La ponctuation de la langue française, Moscou, 1975.
ENHANCING FLUENCY
THROUGH COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES
Tamara MATEI, PhD, Associate Professor
Ludmila PRICEPA, Lecturer, MA,
MSU, R. Moldova
In the era of global communication, our planet has turned into a
village in which people who belong to different cultures and places
encounter and these encounters lead to communication. The success of
communication is directly related to overcoming the barriers which
language can erect. Therefore, learning foreign languages has become a
necessity, even for those whose mother tongue is English. This is why
191
language teaching has enjoyed great popularity, becoming one of the most
significant professions. However, language teachers have to deal with the
complex task of making the learners sound natural and fluent in a foreign
language.
Learners study new words, and then create sentences and structures,
which have already been automatized by them. In Dodson’s opinion, “a
growing command of words and structures gradually leads to messageoriented communication, where people exchange messages and mean what
they say” [3, 86]. A language teacher has to devote part of each lesson to
genuine communicative activities, students should be engaged in both roletaking and role-making activities, and activities only in the foreign language
should gradually replace the bilingual exercises. The mother tongue can be
avoided in the classroom, but it is a long and painstaking process “to banish
it from the students’ minds. It would even be counterproductive since it
would mean trying to stop them from thinking altogether” [3, 86]
Three types of activities to improve communication, namely
imitation, rehearsal and extemporaneous speech are suggested by Morley
[7, 481]. Imitation, which is considered the most efficient practice, requires
that the learners copy a model speech. Rehearsal is the activity where
pseudo-communication takes place. Extemporaneous speech exercises
provide an opportunity to improvise speaking and use language more freely
and creatively, thus enhancing fluency. In addition, all these practices are
designed to improve pronunciation.
Message-oriented communication refers to “those rare and precious
moments in foreign language teaching when the target language is actually
used as a means of communication.” [6, 5]. Real communicative situations
can emerge spontaneously, as, for example, making comments on the recent
political events, or on the new trends in fashion. However, most language
teaching situations are oriented towards language-oriented communication,
that is, the students are assigned tasks depending on their level and
structures that have been consolidated. Thus, most activities require
predetermined reactions from the learners. Since the purpose of language
learning is communication, the teacher should make the most of all
situations in which real communication occurs. Such activities will be
focussed on the learners themselves, as their linguistic responses to
communicative situations will be natural and entail expressing their own
points of views, judgements, and attitudes.
The traditional textbooks do not lead to the learners’ identification
with the foreign language. Activities which require a personal reaction will
improve the learners’ performance and will raise their interest. Priorities,
Desert Island, Values Topics are activities which involve personal reasons,
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attitudes, suggestions. In Priorities, students are asked to rank a list of items
in order of importance for them; they will also have to justify their ordering.
In Desert Island, students have to choose five most useful things from a list
and to rank them in order of their usefulness, if they were on a desert island.
A very popular activity among foreign language learners is the board game
Values Topics. Here, the teacher will need a handout with the board game, a
die and counters. The topics included could be various such as Fun; Your
Hopes for the Future; Your Feelings about Smoking; A TV Programme You
Like; An Ideal Teacher; Describe What You Did Last Sunday etc. A student
throws the die, moves the counter forward accordingly, and tells the class
something about the topic on the square. If the student does not feel
comfortable to speak on one of the topics, she or he should be given the
permission to refuse to answer that question. This activity is efficient as it
can also entail asking questions for clarification, for finding out details,
points of view etc.
The efficiency of learning is related to the learners’ participation in
the process. Learners can be challenged by such activities which require that
they find discrepancies or mistakes, fill in the missing information, put the
sentences or pictures in order. An example of such activity could be
Ordering. This activity could be based on a written story or on a story in
pictures. In the first case, the students are offered a story containing as
many sentences as there are students in the classroom. Each sentence is
written on a separate strip of paper. In case there are too many students,
they can be divided into two groups. Each student is given a strip of paper
with a sentence that must be remembered by heart. Nobody is allowed to
show the sentence to anybody else. After a few minutes, the teacher collects
all the sentences and explains that all the sentences that have been
memorised form a story and the students have to work out the sequence of
the sentences. A dialogue can be used instead of the story. If the story is in
pictures, each student receives a picture which cannot be shown to anybody.
Each student takes turns and describes his picture in details. After each
student has completed this task, the group has to decide on the content of
the story and agree on the sequence of the pictures by presenting the story in
front.
Learners can be attracted into doing things, such as interviewing a
famous person, producing a radio or television programme. For this
purpose, they will have to find information on the suggested topic, read,
write, talk in the foreign language. An example of such activities could be
Guided Interviews, which can be organised both in pairs and in groups. This
activity is really successful and enhances the learners’ performance and
fluency as the topics of the interview can be suggested by them. The
193
following topics can provoke discussions as Generation Gap; Clothes;
School Uniforms etc. The students in Guided Interviews are provided with a
list of answers, and they have to make questions to fit those answers and
decide on the type of the person who was interviewed. The answers could
include the following: Never. Yes, I occasionally do that. It’s difficult for me
to answer this sincerely. That would be a disaster. etc.
Foreign language activities educate values and build personalities.
They teach learners to cooperate, to listen and respect each other; they also
raise learners’ awareness about the feelings of others, make them sensitive
and teach them to share their joys and concerns. Consequently, an
atmosphere of mutual understanding and support will be created in the
classroom.
A frequently asked question by language teachers is What is
successful speaking? Do I have to correct all the mistakes students make
while speaking? There are two approaches to students’ mistakes while
speaking. One approach is that as long as communication takes place, which
is the purpose of learning a language, the speech is successful no matter
how incorrect the language is. Another approach insists on grammar and
pronunciation correctness in every aspect of language. The first is known as
the fluency-oriented approach, according to which small grammatical or
pronunciation errors are insignificant, especially in the early learning stages
and too much emphasis on correcting them is considered harmful rather
than helpful, for it may hinder the natural acquisition of spoken skills and
cause embarrassment among students. Naturally, many language teachers
are in favour of this viewpoint. The second approach, on the contrary,
places most emphasis on accuracy, being called the accuracy-oriented
approach. According to this opinion, teachers should not allow their
students to make any mistakes at all, especially grammatical mistakes are to
be identified and corrected every time they are committed. Although once
supported by many linguists, nowadays it is regarded as rather outdated. It
discourages students from speaking fluently rather than raise their
awareness about grammar. Most students would feel insecure and hesitant if
they are frequently interrupted and corrected. In reality, accuracy and
fluency are closely related, which leads us to the notion that accuracy as
well as fluency is necessary for successful communication. “Teachers must
balance issues of fluency and accuracy depending on the specific needs of
learners and the resources of time and materials for instruction.” [5, 24-26].
A much more constructive approach is observing and helping only when the
students are not able to formulate their ideas and when they ask their
teachers for this help. Even in these conditions, students should be
encouraged to find a way out by using synonyms, opposites, descriptions,
194
paraphrases etc. in order to express what they want to say. It would be
useful for the teacher to provide students with handouts with speech acts to
facilitate accuracy, fluency and to ease communication in a foreign
language. According to John Searle, speaking a language is performing
speech acts, acts such as making statements, giving commands, asking
questions, making promises, and so on [8]. There are numerous strategies of
teaching speech acts. Given a speech act such as apologising, requesting,
complimenting or complaining, the first concern of second language
acquisition researchers has been to arrive at the set of realisation patterns
typically used by native speakers of the target language, any one of which
would be recognised as the speech act in question, when uttered in the
appropriate context. This set of strategies is referred to as the speech act set
of the specific speech act. It has become increasingly clear to researchers
that learners of a language may lack even partial mastery of such speech act
sets and that this lack of mastery may hinder or even cause embarrassment
in communication. Thus, the list of the following speech acts would lead to
the unconscious acquisition of the patterns used by native speakers: asking
for someone’s opinion; expressing one’s opinion; defending one’s opinion;
agreeing/ supporting other people’s opinions; disagreeing/ contradicting
other people’s opinions; expressing certainty/ uncertainty; making
comparisons; expressing interest or indifference; insisting; giving in;
making suggestions etc.
Some researchers point out that teaching fluency is different from
teaching other aspects of language. As Brown points out, in teaching
fluency, we must be willing to down-grade, or let go of, some of the
controls in our classrooms. Language teachers should be willing to let
learners have some say, authority, and responsibility over the oral work
being carried out. We must set up exercises and situations in which fluency
can develop and flourish, encouraging learners to orally communicate in a
positive and enriching environment inside and outside the classroom. Such
changes will obviously not take place over night, especially in many
countries where the teacher – centred approach dominates classroom
instruction. “Teachers can use five approaches in their classrooms that will
promote fluency: (a) encourage students to go ahead and make constructive
errors, (b) create many opportunities for students to practice, (c) create
activities that force students to focus on getting a message across, (d) assess
student's fluency not their accuracy, and (e) talk to the students about
fluency.” [2, 1]. As language teachers, we have the mission to help our
students to reach their fullest potential when speaking a foreign language.
Only by offering them the full range of communicative language tools and
195
strategies along with sufficient language input and speech-promotion
activities can this mission be accomplished successfully.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
References:
Austin, John Langshaw, How to Do Things with Words, Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 1962
Brown, J., Promoting fluency in EFL classrooms. Paper presented at
the JALT Pan-SIG Conference Proceedings. Retrieved November 7,
2004, from http:// www.jalt.org/pansig/2003/
Byram, Michael, Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and
Learning, Routledge, London, 2002
Doughty, Catherine and Long, Michael, The handbook of second
language acquisition, Blackwell Publishing, 2003
Ebsworth, Miriam Eisenstein, Accuracy & fluency: Which Comes
First in ESL Instruction? ESL Magazine, March/April 1998
Klippel, Friederike, Keep Talking. Cambridge Handbook for
Language Teachers, Cambridge University Press, 1984
Morley, J. (1991). The pronunciation component in teaching English
to speakers of other languages. TESOL Quarterly, 25 (3)
Searle, John, Speech Acts, Cambridge University Press, 1969.
ON SOCIOLINGUISTICS AND TRANSCULTURALITY.
NEOLIBERAL PROFIT MAXIMISATION OR DEVELOPING
THROUGH ANOTHER?
Fabian Patrick MAYR, PhD.
Austrian Lectureship Programme of OeAD
(Austrian Agency for International
Cooperation in Education and Research)
Languages in today’s increasingly globalised world play a, and as
many argue the, key role. Lingo, in its nature of cultural expression, has
both a certain subtle assertiveness and a cosmopolitan, inter- or even
transcultural quality. Therefore languages play a central point in foreign
cultural policy of nation states, particularly of the economically more
powerful ones. This entanglement of language and political-economics
respectively of language and cultural exchange is the essence of this essay.
Phillipson coined the term Macro-sociolinguistics arguing that the
role of language in corporate-driven globalisation requires researchers to
view cultural politics first of all through a neoliberal lens (2008: 1-43). This
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argument that languages are learnt primarily because of business
opportunities and dynamics shall be one guiding notion. On the other hand I
will point out that from a peace research perspective lingo in its very nature
is connecting people from different cultures. This entangling nature of
language on culture through encounters goes beyond intercultural notions of
pure exchange and comparison of norms and customs to deal with another
efficiently. The essence of the approach of transculturality is to co-create
transformed common cultures through another, with another and for
another.
On those two seemingly contrary realist (influence for profit)
respectively idealist (cultural encounters for mutual co-development) ends
of the linguistic paradigm I will elaborate on in more detail in the first two
parts. Thirdly I will eventually apply those insights to the Moldovan context
in which I will discuss the linguistic crossroads which already make
Moldova the unique country in Europe in which largely bilingually Slavic
and Romanic languages are spoken. Combined with the Germanic
languages of English and German Moldova could become a language
service hub for trade relationships in an enlarged EU and with Russian
speaking Eastern European and Asian countries.
The focus will be to some extent held on German in this article
however it will consider also highly the influence of all major languages on
Moldova interdisciplinary when combining political-economical,
psychosocial and linguistic aspects as to why we learn a language.
Macro-sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics generally describe how societies influence languages
and vice versa. The additional prefix of macro puts special emphasis on the
(macro-) economical dimension of society and their means of
communication. Phillipson in his research on linguistic imperialism for
instance argues that “valid analysis of the role of language in corporatedriven globalisation requires theory-building that situates discourses and
cultural politics in the material realities of neoimperial market pressures”
(Phillipson, 2008: 1).
In other words, the reason why people learn a certain language like
Mandarin, English or German does have very little to do with the aesthetics
of those languages but first of all with successful cultural politics based on
convincing economic arguments. For instance the reason why somebody
studies German has largely to do with the fact that German speaking
countries, due to first of all Germany itself, by far account for the biggest
economic power in the EU.
Since new markets, such as the Moldovan one, are competitive,
foreign governments are through their cultural policy programmes also
197
trying to lay the ground linguistically and culturally for a positive foreign
investors’ climate. If we follow a critical macro-sociolinguistic approach
then Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) might more subtly underlying cultural
politics than the positivistic aesthetics of the respective culture and
language. From a short to mid term perspective one may be very optimistic
about FDI, also from a recipients’ perspective: Foreigners invest in a third
country and thereby jobs are being created, incomes generated and
standards of living raised.
But on the other hand FDI remains an investment of one company
from one country to produce or provide services in another country. After
setting up the business, and hopefully also expanding it, the bottom line
remains the same: to maximise profits. Thus, the vast majority of profits is
transferred back to the investors’ headquarters and is therefore leaving the
developing country in the long run. Typically the investors profit more from
FDI than the recipients do. In addition, if the political and economical
climate is not conducive enough the investment might be withdrawn or not
even made (Mittelhäuser, 2010: 6-7).
The additional externalisation of costs on the developing country
such as environmental destruction, bad working conditions, and prolonged
tax holidays shed only a positive light on FDI if companies follow a long
term sustainable development strategy rather than profit maximation bound
down to quarterly figures. This asymmetry of profits typically is mirrored
also in the hierarchies of workforce. Foreigners strategically manage the
branch, while the operative and manual work is being done by considerably
lower paid local staff who is speaking the language of the foreign investor.
In marketing terms this may yet be called a win-win relationship.
However, if one wins much more than the other, the gap between the so
called developed and developing is widening. Catching up development
therefore remains a myth (Mies, 1999) since one is developing much faster
than the other can catch up. The subjective feeling and desire that the others
are having more which we want too therefore is deepening even though
maybe the absolute standard of living is rising. In post-soviet Moldova this
modernist dichotomy of have gots vs. have nots, the so called Westerners
and the subjectively perceived own situation of poverty, has a very strong
psychosocial momentum. Especially since about one million Moldovans
work abroad and are sending remittances with which many Western
products are then in turn bought back home. In Moldova the relationship
between imported and exported products is at least three to one (Meyer,
2008). This negative trade balance deepens the socioeconomic development
dilemma in which too little is invested by locals in domestic enterprises,
while much more products are imported than exported.
198
When coming back to linguistics, we may see that the interest of
employers is highly economical, while potential employees try to learn the
necessary skills in order to get hired or to even worse leave the country.
Language thereby plays a key role as it is often a precondition to learn
further, more technical skills. International employers are linguistically in
Moldova in a very comfortable position. They are able to set as a
precondition that candidates must speak besides the taken for granted
Romanian and Russian also English and preferably a forth or fifth Indogerman language like French, German, or Ukrainian and yet get many
applications fulfilling this criteria.
The cultural and aesthetic aspects of languages are in a neoliberal
world system (Wallerstein, 2007) very secondary ones. If one has read for
instance great German speaking authors such as Goethe, Freud, and
Wittgenstein or has listened to Mozart, Beethoven and Hayden remain
largely irrelevant cultural aspects of lingo. In addition, the meta-linguistic
foundation of for example understanding German language as being a
pluricentric language emerging out of pluricentric cultures of various
European (trans-) national histories is often widely lacking.
In conclusion we may say that the argument of macrosociolinguistics that people are mainly learning languages because of
employment opportunities is probably the most accurate one in the
contemporary neoliberal world system. This insight might appear very
shallow and self-evident at first but it shall here briefly be pointed to its
fuller consequences. The famous humanistic psychologist Erich Fromm of
the Frankfurt School has, besides others, pointed to the consequences of
modernist labour division and its dire implications on societies. Fromm
argues that industrialised societies are producing mindless alienated
consumers whose tastes are engineered and standardised by a powerful
marketing machinery (Fromm, 1960: 110). Those alienated consumers
rather than citizens largely work in highly specialised departments of
transnational companies where they produce only fragments of products in
highly repetitive work steps while having lost the knowledge of how to
produce the product as such.
If this so called modern way of life (consumerism) of buying more of
what we do not need because of peer pressure rather than satisfying more
real human needs (Freud, 1961; Maslow, 1970); shall be adopted is a
question especially developing countries should ask themselves before
transnational companies and sometimes also agencies gain momentum in
their citizens’ consumption patterns and in their policy making. One very
self fulfilling need which is today largely unattended is for instance a
mutually enriching personal encounter based on honest, compassionate
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interest for another that is not faked by a hidden agenda of how to profit
from another. Or as Fromm has put it:
[…] our craving for consumption has lost all connection with the
real needs of man. Originally, the idea of consuming more and better
things was meant to give man a happier, more satisfied life. Consumption
was a means to an end, that of happiness. […] it now has become an aim
in itself (Fromm, 1960: 134).
If we go back to the essence of what a language is: a means of
communication to understand and learn from another, then we can see that
the meaningless egocentric capital accumulation of abstract entities owning
transnational companies is not a value in itself (Fromm, 1960). Given the
fact that according to humanistic psychological research (Inglehart and
Baker, 2000; Fromm, 1960) consumerism is a rather positivistic ideology
which essentially produces depressed societies (the inability to experience
emotions). In consumerism individuals mostly match their value according
to their (equally consumerist) peers in what Fromm described as herd
conformity (Fromm, 1960: 60-63) while being unable to experience life’s
intensity.
So far the largely realist perspective on languages in which lingo is a
means of communication to maximise one’s own profit. In terms of
globalised markets language and cultural representations are often also
involuntarily laying the ground to on the one hand develop new markets,
and in synergy, on the other hand secure work force for production outlets.
Cultural policy is the branch of foreign policy of states which is
concerned with the representation of culture and language. Cultural politics
in its simplest form may be called governmental Public Relations. From
music over theatre to libraries various activities are normally arranged
through embassies and its respective programmes and affiliates including
language courses. Critics call this language outreach depending on the
integrity and intensity of the programmes also linguistic imperialism
(Phillipson, 2008) when foreign states typically in competition with another
try to convince people to learn their languages in a subtle way. This realist
struggle can also very concretely be observed in Moldova if we look at the
amount of cultural activities which are being organised by the cultural
agents of respective countries. Particularly the amount of Chinese and
Korean lectureships at university level may be highlighted in this context
which are much more in number than the historically more related Austrian,
German, Polish or Turkish ones. Instead of the military-industrial complex,
which describes the dangerous interlinkage of legislators, armed forces and
the industrial sector (Eisenhower, 1968), some critical linguists go as far as
to call this subtle politicised instrument of learning languages linguistic200
industrial complex. These realist aspects of lingo, which for some appear
even conspirative, however only account for one contemporary dimension
of lingo. Language on the other hand also has a cultural facet which
provides the possibility for a dialogue of cultures through transcultural
encounters to which we will turn in the following and what may also be
called the idealist scope of sociolinguistics.
Transculturality
Different from intercultural comparisons of how the others are in
comparison to myself and what I have to do to operate efficiently with the
others, in the concept of transculturality the learning and questioning of
one’s own societal norms and values is central besides the integration of
gained insights with and while being with the so called others. Language’s
nature is only to a small extent to exchange information in order to produce
goods and services but to a much larger degree to build relationships within,
across and beyond cultures. If we agree with the postulate that relationship
building through cultural exchange and co-development is by and large
more peaceful and conflict transforming one then learning languages may
be regarded as positive.
This probably most basic insight of lingo as a culturally connecting
means is however not undisputed. Particularly in the post Cold War
International Relations debate scholars are arguing mainly on the
imperialistic, realist, and idealist-cosmopolitan nature of culture and
civilisations. Representatives of the respective notions in this order are for
instance Fukuyama’s End of History (Fukuyama, 1992) which is suggesting
a homogenised liberal-democratic capitalistic world order in which his last
man is an English speaking consumer. Huntington’s even more famous, but
rather from Pearson and Galtung adopted, Clash of Civilizations
(Huntington, 1996) is opposing Fukuyama’s postulate of homogenising
cultures. Huntington formulated his realpolitical cultural clash largely as a
response to Fukuyama, in which he rejects the idea of a hegemonic
Western-universal ideology and claims that culture is mainly defined by
religion. According to Huntington conflicts emerge rather between than
within civilisations, which is why cultures should stay amongst themselves
rather than mix-up in order to avoid major conflicts. Cosmopolitans argue
differently to these two realist dichotomies when suggesting that in an
increasingly globalised village-like world firstly cultural exchange is
unavoidable and that secondly, as above mentioned, cultural encounters, if
they do not have an imperialist corporate agenda, are positive as such.
Rather than a clash a transcultural Dialogue of Civilizations (UN, 2006) is
most realistic for idealists in which cosmopolitically new culture is being
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co-created with another, from another and through another. This notion of
transculturality we shall discourse on in the following a little deeper.
Transcendence is the noun the prefix trans is deriving from. The
nature of transcendence and transformation is a change in the form and
gestalt of phenomena, its context rather than its content. Applied to
linguistics therefore we may argue that the way we talk to another is more
important than what we say. The prefix trans comes from the noun
transcendence (Galtung, 2000; Heidegger, 1995; Husserl, 1985) which
describes in its most simple form beyondism, or in German Verwindung. It
can be understood integrally as surmounting or rising out of and beyond
former contexts while including them at the same time. The approach is
nowadays often used in a variety of contexts expressing an understanding
that includes but goes beyond the phenomena in focus, i.e. the respective
noun in combination with the trans prefix. For instance, scholars do use
increasingly transdisciplinary approaches rather than interdisciplinary or
multidisciplinary ones, transform rather than resolve conflicts or, as it is
here in focus, speak about transcultural rather than intercultural or
multicultural encounters.
Different from inter- or multi- approaches to social phenomena
transcending notions are not only focusing on comparing, in our case here,
cultures and learning from another as separate entities but that the main
insights are gained while being with another and learning through another.
The notion of interculturality seems not to be far reaching enough since the
fast majority of intercultural trainings focus on building capacities in order
to deal with the so called others mostly in corporate environments.
Intrapersonally transculturality suggests that one’s own culture is not
neglected but remains a grounded centre which is enriched by new cultural
encounters. Important for the concept of transculturality is that we do not
only compare and adopt positive and negative cultural aspects of the others,
but while spending time with another, together co-create new culture (Mayr,
2010: 15-20). Transculturality has the big potential to transform negative
aspects of one culture with positive insights gained from another culture.
Thereby the concept of transculturality is arguing, different from cultural
relativism in which cultures are only researched and compared without
judging another, that through cultural encounters we are changed. This
positive transformation which is first of all emerging from the quality and
nature of relationship building, the fact that we actually meet new people,
has the potential to become a commonly uniting however diverse basis in
which I am because you are. This collective personality development is
based on grounded selves in our own diverse cultures who integrate positive
aspects from other people. Different from unreflected assimilation that
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everything foreign is good while one’s own social norms and values are
regarded as old-fashioned transculturality focuses on the processes of
building transcending, cosmopolitan cultures. The commonly developed
cultural tissue allows for a dialogue of cultures, based on a cultural
understanding of unity in diversity, rather than the clash of them.
This entangling nature of culture and language go beyond the
concepts of interculturality. Transcendence as such can be described by four
pillars (Mayr, 2010: 20-30): transrationality (relationships are first of all
emotional rather than corporate), transpersonality (cultural encounters
transform the me in you and the you in me), translocality (here and there at
the same time), and transtemporality (cultures have a past, a presence and a
future which in common encounters can become the presence of the past in
the future which we co-create together).
After having now outlined those two highly relevant dimensions of
sociolinguistics which are both a reality also for Moldova we shall now in
the third part of this article analyse and synthesise the challenges and
opportunities for Bessarabia.
The Moldovan context
In this concluding part of this article I will highlight the high
linguistic capital and potential that is inherent in Moldova. The Republic of
Moldova is not only geographically in the centre of Europe as a potential
hub between Western and Eastern Europe. Also linguistically Moldova is
the European country which mostly bilingually combines Slavic languages
(Russian and to a minor extent also Ukrainian) and a Roman language
(Moldovan/ Romanian). In combination with the Germanic languages of
English and German, of which at least the former is also widely spoken as a
second language, Moldova has probably the highest linguistic potential in
Europe.
It is often forgotten that Russian with far over 100 Million mother
tongue speakers is the most spoken language in Europe. Since more than
75% of Russia’s 140 million inhabitants live in Europe, and including many
of the post-soviet states of which considerable amounts of the population
speak Russian as their first language, this accounts for the leading linguistic
position in continental Europe. German on the other hand is the most
spoken native language in the EU with a little less than 100 million speakers
mainly situated in Austria, Germany and Switzerland. Besides the common
German speaking roots in the Bukovina, which has been part of Moldova
and later the Austro-Hungarian Empire, also the Bessarabian Germans left
its linguistic and cultural roots in the region. Besides the macrosociolinguistically very convincing argument that German speaking Europe
is by far the biggest economical power in the EU and Europe there are also
203
highly relevant historical and therefore transcultural dimensions to be
rediscovered when speaking about why German shall be learnt in Moldova.
In addition to increasing German and Austrian investments in Moldova and
some common history there is also rising political cooperation. Austria for
instance is already the biggest investor in Rumania (Lukavsky, 2010) and
has implemented a focal policy for the Danube Area, and the Black Sea
Region at large.
Together with English as the most taught foreign language and as
the lingua franca of the modern era (Graddol, 1997) also the Romanic
languages (800 Million speakers worldwide) of mainly French, Italian,
Romanian, and Spanish play a key role in Europe and globally (Metzeltin,
2004). The unique advantage of Moldova is as mentioned above that it
combines Russian with Romanian. Romanian thereby is considered to be
the most Latin language of the Romanic languages which allows for its
speakers to learn other Romanic languages much easier. For instance many
Moldovan workers immigrating to Italy or Spain therefore adapt to, rather
than literally learn, the respective languages up to a good working level
often within months.
By holding such a high linguistic potential Moldova may orient itself
to sectors in which lingo plays a key role. Particularly the increasingly
important services sector, ranging from logistics over finance or
administrative and IT outsourcing shall be highlighted in this context. This
tertiary sector may, besides the primary sector of agriculture, emerge as a
second pillar of Moldovan economy and society in which well trained and
multilingual Moldovans manage the flow of goods and provide the services
for a united Europe which includes all of the continent. If we try to outline
the potential of Bessarabia as being a language hub for the services industry
then this naturally suggests that not the young and qualified workforce is
emigrating from it. This brain drain in fact might be hampering Moldova’s
socioeconomic development most severely.
In conclusion I may point out that Moldova is culturally often
described as a torn country (Huntington, 1996) between Western and
Eastern powers. However, on the other hand this betweenness may also be
utilised transculturally and linguistically. In an enlarged EU Moldova may
in the long run play an integral role when utilising its linguistic potential
transculturally and economically. Metaphorically an image of Moldovans
may be drawn in which they are not cleaning and building the houses of
western Europeans or Russians but in which Bessarabians are active
multilingual coordinators of building a common European house that is not
only a Western notion nor that makes Moldovans its peripheral appendix.
Therefore Moldova may in the future not only be geographically the centre
204
of Europe with a grounded Moldovan identity as transculturally flexible and
integrative. Bessarabia surely has a historically developed cultural and
linguistic capability whose potential is far from being recognised
sufficiently, neither nationally nor internationally.
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SEMANTIC EVOLUTION OF LEXEMES
IN COGNATE LANGUAGES
Dumitru MELENCIUC,
PhD, University Professor,
MSU, R. Moldova
The factors accounting for semantic change may be roughly
subdivided into two groups: extra-linguistic and linguistic causes. By extralinguistic causes we mean various changes in the life of the speaking
community: in economic and social structure, changes of ideas, scientific
concepts, way of life and other spheres of human activities. Among the
linguistic and extra-linguistic means of semantic change we could mention:
generalization, specialization, melioration, pejoration or deterioration,
metaphorical usage, etc. Confronting lexemes, taken from related
languages, we try to find out elements of common origin and differences.
The degree of change is greater in borrowings. The borrowed words
continue to modify their semantic structures under the influence of the new
206
extra-linguistic reality of the given linguistic community: historic
conditions, traditions, culture, development of science and technology. The
social-linguistic approach can be successfully used in the research of many
linguistic problems connected with the evolution of languages. Thus, all the
Indo-European languages originate from a common parent language. In
prehistoric times the economic, political, ecological situation, the relatively
low level of development of the existing society and other extra-linguistic
reasons imposed the separation of population into smaller groups, migrating
to other territories, in order to survive. The isolation from the original
people and lack of daily communication brought to the development of new
related languages. There have been cases when the invaders were
assimilated by the occupied people. The Normans occupied the Latinized
territory of the present day France, and they were completely assimilated
from the linguistic point of view. The Normans took over England in 1066
and gradually underwent a second linguistic assimilation (during 3
centuries) and contributed to the enrichment of the English language with
many French words. Now science and technology have achieved an
impressing level of development, resulting in a sophisticated system of
communication. The process of globalization is practically destroying the
territorial and communicational isolation, stopping the process of formation
of new languages. There is a struggle in the framework of the existing
languages for survival. New international communication languages have
appeared. Latin had this function up to the XVIth century, and then French
took over. In the second half of the XX-th century English became the first
among a number of international and regional languages as French, Russian,
Spanish, Chinese, Hindi, and Arabic. Some languages are getting out of
usage and even become extinct. People learn prestigious languages. An
international vocabulary appeared in most languages.
An interesting case represents the lexeme garbage (syn. food waste,
refuse, entrails, offal, trash, corrupted data in computers), borrowed into
Engl. (via Norman French) from the Italian garbuzo, coming from the Old
Italian garbuglio. In Modern Italian garbuglio means confusion, muddle,
mess; jumble, mishmash. In Engl. we find backformations like garble. Of
the same origin with the It. garbulio are the Rom. harababură (variant –
arababură) – (disorder, noise, scuffle, scandal), the Sp. garbullo (1.brawl,
fight, scuffle, thrashing, whipping, beating; 2.disposal dump, refuse dump,
refuse tip, rubbish dump), and the Fr. grabuge (quarrel; altercation;
variance; falling-out, wrangle, squabble; noise, scandal; scuffle, fight). In
Hindi the related word is gar-bar (1.1) uneven (of roads); 2) disorderly,
confused; twisted; 2. м. 1) disorder, confusion, mess; muddle, jumble,
mishmash; chaos; 2) confusion, disarray (embarrassment, confusion);
207
commotion, perturbation (panic), implication. See also the Hindi harbа оружие, вооружение; военное снаряжение; харба-хатхияр - оружие,
вооружение; харббa м. 1) беспорядок, анархия; 2) .шум, гам. Harb
(war) sounds identical in Arabic and Turkish, in their turn they seem related
to the Rom. grabă - în grabă – in a hurry; a grăbi – to act quickly, to move
in a hurry, to accelerate... (cf. Bolgarian - grabja), Rus. грабеж - robbery;
pillage, plunder(ing), robber; burglar; Ukranian – грабувати, грабíж. Cf.
the Engl. grab and the Germ. graben, Grab [4] In Engl. grab has developed
a rich semantic structure: clutch, grasp, seizure; snatcher, resurrectionist,
catchpoll, bumbailiff, policeman. It also has a number of semes belonging to
technical terminology: excavator, digger, power shovel, steam shovel,
earth-moving machine, scoop, dipper, ladle; bucket. In the Germ. Selbst
sein Grab graben we find identical meanings to the Rus. гроб and the Ukr.
грiб, гробу. The Rom. gropar (grave digger), the Rus. грабарить (dig out),
грабарский, the Ukr. грабарь (navvy; digger) and грабарувати (dig out)
are in a way identical to the Germ. graben. Cf. also the Rus. words
арбалет, арбитр, арбитраж, арба. The Hindi haraba (a specific vehicle
with high lateral sides, initially used mostly in military operations) has its
equivalents in Rom. haraba (rack waggon), Turk. harabe and Rus. арба
(bullock-cart). Thus, the Hindi lexeme araba corresponds to the Turk.
araba (cart; wag(g)on; vehicle, conveyance; carriage, car). In Rom.
haraba has a relatively narrower meaning than the equivalents in Hindi,
Turkish and Arabic and means a vehicle with high lateral sides to transport
a large amount of load or goods. It is not surprising that most semantic
structures have most of their specific semes developed in the given speaking
communities. Any remnants of complete or partial coincidence of certain
semes of a given lexeme are very important to be singled out from those
which have developed different meanings and still having identical or
recognizable forms characteristic to “false friends”.
Next is an example of a lexical unit which still can be readily
identified in many closely and distantly related languages: the Sanscrit
juvah, the Avestian jivo, the Latin vivo, vividus, vivus, vita, the Engl. life,
live, alive, vivid, vivacity, vividness, the Fr. vivre, vie, vivant, vif; the Italian
vivere, vivo, vivente, vita; the Spanish vivit, vivo, vida; the Germ. Leben,
leben, lebendig; the Rus. жизнь, живой, жить, живо, живить,
живительный, животворность, животное, and живость, живот,
etc. [1] and the Ukr.: живий, живi, живлючий, живо, жваво, живiсть,
жвавистi, жiвит, жiвотаю живучий, etc [8, 136] are relatively the
closest in form and meaning to the Sanscrit and Hindi variants; the Rom.
viu, (colloq. jiu), vivace, vioi, vivacitate, vivandieră, vivant, vivariu, vivieră,
vifiant, vivpar, vital, vită viaţă, a veţui, a conveţui, etc. .[5, 1166] In Hindi
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we find a long list of word combinations with jivan [divan] (life,
existence) in [4, 432].
It should be mentioned that Hindi during several centuries has
undergone a strong influence of the English language. Tens of thousands of
words have been borrowed from English: атам-бам - атомная бомба;
адвокэт - aдвокат, афсар - офицер; инкам ж. доход, приход;
эяркрафт-кайрияр - авианосец; эярпорт - аэропорт. эярфорс военно-воздушные силы, etc. At a closer look we find in Hindi a multitude
of recognizable equivalents in the European languages. Thus, the Latin
oculus - oculi; Rom. ochi – ochii, Sp. - ojos, Germ. - Auge,-n (Augenarzt);
Fr. – œil, des yeux, Rus. - oко-очи, очки, очкаристый,
очковтирательство, околдовывать, окошко, окно, очкo, окулист [1]
are related to the Hindi akh – akşi - akşan. [4, 106] The Hindi – dĭa - day,
adĭa (today) are very close in form and sound to the equivalents in Latin dies, Rom., zi – ziua (colloq. dziua), ziar, diurne, cotidian, jurnal; Sp. - dia
in buenos dias, It. - bon giorno, giornata, giornale, cotidian, quotidianità,
Fr. - jour, journal, Rus.- день, дни, дневной, дневник, журнал. The Hindi
words ab, abi (вода), udic (водный), oda (umed) [4, 97] have equivalents in
Rom. apă, acvatic, ud, udeală, umed, umiditate; Rus.- вода, водный, see
also: аквакомплекс, акваланг, аквамарин; Germ.– wasser, Engl. –
water, humid, humidity, aquatics, aqueous; Celtic – avon; Fr. – eau,
humide, It. - acqua, umidità, umidezza, umido, umidire, Sp. – agua,
húmedo. húmido, humedad. [1] The two variants in Hindi have equivalents
in many European languages.
Let’s take some examples connected with kinship terms taken from the
Hindi – Russian dictionary [4]: pardada, dada, prapitamah - прадед по
отцовской линии; нар I– человек, мужчина, муж; люди, народ; нар II
м. особь мужского пола, самец; abba, pitri, pita – папа, отец, nata родство; natin - внучка, nati – внук, nam - имя; мадар – мать,
мадарватан – родина, мадарй - материнский; мама - дядя по
материнской линии, мама - 1) мать; 2) мать, матушка (обращение); 3)
служанка. mami - тётка (жена брата матери.[4]
Analysing the kinship terms and their translation into Rus. we single
out terms close to the terms in the target language like pardada, dada. As
we see some terms are polysemantic: мама – дядя, and мама - 1) мать; 2)
мать, матушка; mami - тётка. [4, 601] Kinship terms display various
semantic modifications in the cognate languages. Taking the Sanskrit pita
(Greek and Latin pater, Gotic fadar) and comparing them with the Hindi
abba, pitri, pita we find the corresponding terms in Engl. father, dad,
daddy, paternalism, paternal, paternity; in Russian отец, папа,
(патернализм); the Rom. tata, babac, (see also patern, paternalism,
209
paternitate), Sp. padre, paternidad, paternal; Fr. père, paternal,
paternalisme, paternité; It. padre, papà – papa I (father), II ( Pope) papa,
paternale, paternita, paternalismo; Germ. – Vater, Vati, Pater, Paternitat.
Abba is relatively identical to papa, the Rus. папа. All the rest of the
variants go back to pita. (Cf. the Japanese toto, Turchic – babashi, ata.)
Within the Romance languages there is a significant evolution from the
Latin pater. We find it less changed in the lexeme patriot and its
derivatives: патриот (Rus.), patriot (Rom.) patriot (Engl.) Patriot (Germ.),
patriote (Fr.), patriota (It.), patriota (Sp.). Cf. some derivatives of the Hindi
pitri (father): pitric – paternal, fatherly, pitrigrih - the house of the wife’s
parents, pitrighat – parricide, patricide, pitritantra – patriarchat, pitridash,
pitrinishtha, pitribhumi - fatherland, pitrimulak - patriarchal, pitrivat fatherly, pitrihin - fatherless лишившийся отца, paitric – paternal,
fatherly, ancestral; 2) patrimonial, inherited. [4, 702]
Analyzing all the
terms above we observe very much in common and we find it easy to
recognize the relation of most terms to the Sanskrit pita, Greek and Latin
pater. The kinship terms usually possess semantic structures specific to
different related languages, at the same time some of the meanings may still
coincide. Thus, the Hindi madar (madarvartan – motherland, madari maternal) is very close in form to the corresponding māter (mātris) in Latin,
mother in Engl., Mutter (diminutive Mutti, Mutting) in Germ., мать in
Rus.. The Hindi madar is partially synonymous with mama (and amma),
which is polysemantic: 1) mama – Mama in Germ.; mamma, mam mum,
mom (AE), ma, mother; mama, mamma, maman – Fr.; mama – Sp., mama;
– Rom.; mama, madre – It.; мать, мама, матушка (обращение) – in Rus..
At the same time in Hindi mama also means 1) uncle (mother’s brother) 2)
maidservant. Mami - aunt (the wife of mother’s brother). Analyzing the
kinship terms in Hindi we also find the lexeme matri – very close in form to
the Latin māter in the meaning of mother, and used in many derivatives:
matringrih - maternity hospital, matritva - 1) maternity, motherhood; 2)
maternal obligations; matrinishtha - matriarchy; matripram – maternal
love, etc. The related word mamta in Hindi has developed meliorative and
pejorative meanings: 1) love, maternal love; 2) egoism, arrogance, selfconceit, self-importance, greed(iness), avidity; avarice, meanness. We can
reiterate the fact that Hindi is distantly related to Germanic, Romance and
Slavonic languages and we still find thousands and thousands of lexemes
which have recognizable equivalents and homonymous discrepancies in the
European languages.
A diachronic analysis proves the fact that some units can ameliorate
their semantic structure in a language while preserving and developing
pejorative structures in other languages. Thus, the Latin stultus, stultitia 210
folly, foolishness is found in English still possessing negative meanings:
stultification (ridiculization, derision); Rom. derâdere, Rus. высмеивание;
stultify (ridicule, deride)–1.высмеивать. 2. (jur.) доказывать
невменяемость. In Germ. stolz (mândru/гордый) goes back to the Latin
stultitia and has developed a meliorative semantic structure, only some
pejorative semes have been detected. In Italian the original pejorative
semantic structure has been preserved and further developed: stoltezza folly, foolishness, incapacity; absurdity. Syn: stolidezza , stolidità; stoltizia,
stoltezza; stolto 1. foolish, imbecile; absurd; Syn: stolido. stolto; stolidezza
(= stolidità), stoltezza,1) Syn: stolidità, stolidezza, stolido, stolto.[1]
The Germ. stolz (гордый) corresponds to the Rom. mândru
(proud), of the same origin as the Rus. мудрый (wise) and possessing now
completely different semantic structures. The lexeme mândru, according to
DEX, was borrowed from the Slavonic mondru. [5] In Modern Russian
(like in other Slavonic languages) there is an extended semantic field of the
lexeme мудрый. In Hindi we attest that mad and mād have the meanings
of „arogance, conceit, haughtiness, content, satisfaction, pleasure, joy,
dizziness”. A variation of this root „mudar” (cf. with the Rus. мудрый) is
widely spread: „mudarris” – professor, teacher, madrasa – shcool.
Madrasa is found in many languages, including Arabic. From Arabic it was
borrowed into many European languages: Engl.– madrasa, madrasah,
madrassah; Rus. – медресе; It. – madrasa, Fr. – madrasa, médersa. In
the Gagauz language the lexical unit mudric (wise) is used. Its semantic
structure is close to the Russian мудрый. In Rom. and Rus. mândru and
мудрый possess semantics fields with only some semes expressing partial
pejorative meanings. [3] The word mondru (proud) is attested in Sardinian
and Lithuanian. Babina-Rusu T. has analyzed the lexical-semantic field of
“mândru” in Romanian and. singled out 60 terms grouped in three
paradigms. [2,150-155] Initially mondru had only meliorative meanings,
but with time it developed a considerable number of pejorative semes in
Rom., Rus. and Ukr. As to the meaning of wise, sage (înţelept, мудрый) in
Hindi we find such units as dana – wise, clever, wise man; danai –
wisdom. Both words are related to dan – gift, talent, and dai - gift;
inheritance; money to be given away, dani – generous. In Rus. we find “
дань” (tribute, levy, homage) and the word combination “дары данайцев”
(Greek gift - a gift made with the intention to deceive).[5]. Very close to the
Hindi meaning is the Rom. “danie” explained as “faptul de a dărui (avere,
bani, donaţie, donator, donor, etc.); concret: dar (donaţie, avantaj,
binefacere, har divin, etc. [5]. In colloquial speech people use the verb a
dona. The Latin verb dare (to give) corresponds to the Rom. a da, a dărui,
It. dare, Sp. dar, Rus. давать, дать, дарить, даровать. In Fr. donner,
211
donne, donné, données, donneur, donneuse with their corresponding
semantic structures are being used. In Engl. donate, donation, donator,
donative, have appeared under the Fr. Influence. [1] In the biblical times the
word “danai” was used by Moses as an euphemism to substitute the lexeme
“god”. Danai in Latin it turned into dominus/domini, which has developed a
rich thematic group in the European languages. The Latin deus corresponds
to the Hindi dăo in the meaning of god. In Romanian we find the compound
word dumnezeu, which goes back to the Latin domine deus, both elements
had and still have the meaning of god. In Hindi there are several terms to
name God. Thus, khuda м. is probably the equivalent (god, Gott), khudai
1. божественный, божеский; The term бог in the Slavonic languages is
likely to be related to the Hindi bhagta –верующий, abhagti - безбожие.
[4,70], prabhu - бог [4, 781]. Relative coincidences we find in the Hindi
plavai and the Russian - плавание; plavan - наводнение; потоп; купание;
плавание. Pariplav м. 1) плавание; 2) наводнение; 3) угнетение,
насилие. Pariplavit, pariplut 1) наводнённый; затопленный; 2)
намоченный; мокрый. [4, 614] Related words could be found in other
European languages: to float, fleet in English; a pluti, plută, flotă, flotant in
Rom., etc. In most Romance languages they also use in the meaning of to
swim, to navigate, naval such words as a înota, a naviga, navă, naval
(Rom.), nager, naval, nautisme (Fr.), notare, navigare, nauta, nave (It.);
nadar, naval, nav, naveta (Sp.) [1] – related to the Hindi words navic
(sailor, boatman), navia (navigable), naiia [1] (nava/nave in Romance
languages) - and all of them are related to the biblical name of Noah, a man
who had been told by God to build an Ark to save living beings during the
Great Flood. The lexemes moarte, mort, are atested in hindi as well: mrit умерший; мёртвый; mritac м. мертвец,; mritvat 1. безжизненный,
как мёртвый; maran м. смерть; marna нп. 1) умирать; amaran –
nemurire, бессмертие, amar – nemuritor, бессмертный; [4, 637], cf.
engl. mortal, mortify; fr, mort; it. morto; sp. Muerto; rusă-мертвец,
мертвый, мертветь, омертветь. [1] Analyzing the lexemes from hindi
we observe a considerable number of coincidences in the European
languages: a) in Romanian: ankurā – ancoră; antar - înăuntru, între;
harabe - haraba; kha:rbuza: - zămos, garappa – groapă; djug (pereche;
cuplu), cf. jug;, аdant - fără dinţi, caciulla - cupă de metal, kiraia – chirie
pentru apartament, etc., cutia - colibă, căsuţă; cort; coş - cutie; ladă;
portmoneu; cаssab - măcelar; metaf. ucigaş; călău. Cf. a căsăpi; zor forţă, putere; energie; rapiditate; muncă; efort; cf. dăi zor! nasa - nas;
ciarinda (vite), cf. cireadă; casar - cusur, defect; păşab - urină; кхабар (veste, noutate; anunţ; rumoare) cf. habar n-am! [4, 38-139] b) in Russian:
agni- огонь, agniastra – огнестрельное оружие; din - день; dur- prefix
212
cu sens negati; azar -болезнь; беспокойство (cf. азарной); gul - крик,
шум; гул; ciaru - прекрасный, красивый. (cf. чары, очаровывать; [4,
601] caviradj – врач; zamin - земля, почва; djiti - живой, живущий;
djivan -. жизнь; [4,432 ] nar - человек; мужчина; муж; люди, народ.
nar. особь мужского пола, самец; nav - новый; [4, 548-550 ] piar любовь; ласка; piara - дорогой, милый; излюбленный; [4, 736] nabh
- нёбо, небеса; dada- дед; c) in Spanish: almari din hindi (via Arabic)
(шкаф; гардероб; зеркальный шкаф) corespeunde armario; zaitun олива, маслина; оливковое масло. [4, 601] zaituni оливковый se traduce
în spaniolă: 1) aceitunado оливковое дерево — aceituno , 2) (fruct) oliva,
aceituna. The terms like almari, narang, zaituni are also intermediate
borrowings from Hindi via Arabic or they might have been brought into
Spanish the Nomad population coming from the North of India migrating
westward due to the Tatar-Mongolian invasion (initially called: rahmani,
ramani, ramali, in Romanian: română romi, ţigani; in Spanish: gitanos,
cíngaro, bohemios, in English: Gipsy).[1]
In the words of common origin there exist new meanings in the
result of the development of the corresponding linguistic communities. We
have made an attempt to single out what is identical in form and content,
what has been created specifically by the linguistic communities of the same
origin. We have analyzed several lexemes to demonstrate the evolution of
their semantic structure in different related languages in various historical
conditions. What we are interested in here is also what has remained
apparently common, and what kinds of lexemes have still preserved
similarity of forms and contents.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Bubliography
ABBYY Lingvo 10, 2004 ABBYY Software Ltd.
Babin-Rusu Tatiana. Rolul analizei contextuale în studiul lexical. In
Studia Universitatis Nr.4, Studii Umanistice, Chişinău, CEP USM,
2007, pp.150-155.
Баскаков Н.А. Гагаузско-русско-молдавский словарь. Москва,
1973.
Бескровный В.М. Хинди-русский словарь. Москва, 1959.
Dicţionarul explicativ al limbii române. Bucureşti, 1996. pp.1996.
Melenciuc D. Comparativistics. Chisinau: CE USM, 2003
Melenciuc, D. Linguistic Units in a Process of Continuous Semantic
Change. In Studia Universitatis Nr.4, Studii Umanistice. Chişinău :
CEP USM, 2007. pp.188-191.
Украиньско-росiйський словник. Киiв, 1984.
213
TESTAREA – O METODĂ EFICIENTĂ DE CERTIFICARE A
COMPETENŢELOR COMUNICATIVE
Ana MIHALACHI,
dr. conf. univ.,
ULIM, R.Moldova
Limba ca sistem funcţional se utilizează în societatea umană ca
instrument al cunoaşterii şi exprimări gândirii umane în procesul
comunicării. Comunicarea, la rândul său, este un fenomen complex ce
presupune, mai întîi de toate, cunoaşterea limbii ca o competenţă lingvistică
şi comunicativă, precum şi cunoaşterea factorilor extralingvistici. Sub
aspect funcţional, termenul competenţă lingvistică semnifică cunoaşterea
limbii ca un cod de semne lingvistice şi a regulilor de aranjare corectă a
acestor semne.
La rândul său, noţiunea de competenţă comunicativă e definită de către
cercetători ca „o adoptare a competenţei lingvistice la integrul cadru
situaţional informaţional” [Noveanu, 12], ca „capacitatea de a prezenta
propriile invenţii, nevoi, interese în procesul de comunicare” [Schaub, 42],
sau „comme l’emploi affectif de la langue dans des situations concrètes”
[Chomsky, 13]. Din definiţiile date se poate conchide că competenţa
comunicativă reprezintă capacitatea de emitere şi de recepţie a mesajului în
timpul utilizării actelor de vorbire în situaţii concrete.
Aşa deci, comunicarea constituie un fenomen universal de socializare
umană, prin intermediul căruia membrii societăţii însusesc experienţa de
veacuri a omenirii, fac schimb de informaţii, formează relaţii interpersonale
şi coordonează activităţile interumane.
În era noilor tehnologii şi a internaţionalizării învăţământului superior
competenţa comunicării într-o limbă străină a devenit o necesitate stringentă
pentru înţelegerea transculturală. În prezent, anume formarea competenţelor
de comunicare într-o limbă străină constituie unul din scopurile principale
ale studierii limbilor străine.
Strategia didactică de studiere a limbilor străine aplicate se axează pe
paradigma funcţional-comunicativă care presupune formarea competenţelor
comunicative paralel cu competenţele lingvistice menite să asigure
corectitudinea exprimării.
Studierea limbilor străine aplicate de către studenţii facultăţilor nonfilologice înseamnă pentru viitorii specialişti avantajul de a se încadra mai
reuşit în câmpul muncii, deoarece există premize că absolvenţii pe lângă
competenţe de comunicare în limba maternă, posedă şi competenţe
profesionale în limba străină.
214
În prezent se vorbeşte mult despre optimizarea procesului de învăţare a
limbilor străine. S-a pus accentul pe elaborarea şi implementarea unor
programe şi metodologii noi care trebuie să promoveze dezvoltarea
abilităţilor lingvistice funcţionale de participare a studenţilor la situaţii
comunicative. În societatea în care interactivitatea crează termeni noi pentru
a reprezenta concepţii noi, scopurile funcţionale ale studierii limbilor străine
aplicate sunt definite de nevoile de comunicare ale studenţilor.
Un rol important în perfecţionarea eficacităţii studierii limbilor străine îl
are controlul nivelului de cunoştinţe şi anume testarea. Testarea este o parte
inseparabilă a procesului de învăţământ modern şi prin urmare, trebuie să-i
acordăm o atenţie deosebită.
Termenul testare e format de la cuvântul test (lat. testum) care vine din
limba engleză, unde e utilizat cu sensul de probă, verificare, încercare, eseu,
control periodic, etc. În procesul de predare/învăţare a limbilor străine
testarea este o metodă pedagogică de evaluare, verificare şi certificare a
cunoştinţelor prin intermediul testelor.
Testul ca termen lingvodidactic prezintă un instrument de apreciere a
cunoştinţelor şi cuprinde un şir de sarcini care permit de a determina gradul
de posesiune a competenţelor comunicative de către studenţi.
În calitate de metodă de evaluare şi validare a competenţilor
comunicative testarea îndeplineşte mai multe funcţii didactice printre care:
1. Funcţia instructivă
Realizarea sistemului de sarcini şi exerciţii din testul de control asigură
sintetrizarea materialului învăţat şi a competenţelor comunicative căpătate
în perioada supusă testării. Sistemul de exerciţii din testele propuse
studenţilor constituie nu numai la controlul nivelului de cunoştinţe la limba
străină, dar înlesneşte nemijlocit perfecţionarea procesului de studiere a
limbii străine.
2. Funcţia educativă
Inevitabilitatea periodică a testării ca metodă de control a nivelului de
cunoştinţe la limba străină organizează, disciplinează şi îndrumează
activitatea didactică a studenţilor, le ajută să înlăture lacunele din cunoştinţe
şi să-şi dezvolte aptitudinele şi competenţele comunicative în limba străină.
Paralel cu aceasta testarea ca metodă de control contribuie la
dezvoltarea mai multor calităţi ale celor testaţi ca: independenţa, străduinţa,
perceperea, atenţia precum şi gândirea logică.
3. Funcţia de control a testării asigură verificarea realizării de către
studenţi a unui nivel anumit de aptitudini şi competenţe comunicative la
limba străină într-o anumită perioadă de timp. Paralel cu determinarea
nivelului de cunoştinţe, rezultatele testării permit de a depista lacunele din
215
cunoştinţele studenţilor, precum şi de a stabili pricinele şi motivele de a le
înlătura.
4. Funcţia de motivare constă în crearea motivelor pozitive pentru
însuşirea limbilor străine. E ştiut că notele bune aduc emoţii pozitive, iar
notele rele – emoţii negative care trezesc dorinţa de a lichida lacunele din
cunoştinţe.
Funcţiile enumerate ale testării în procesul învăţării limbilor străine se
realizează practic în timpul tuturor genurilor de testare: iniţială, curentă,
tematică şi finală.
Testarea iniţială la începutul studiilor în şcoala superioară are ca scop
de a determina nivelul competenţelor lingvistice şi comunicative ale
studenţilor anului întâi la limba străină studiată la liceu.
La primele lecţii studenţii facultăţilor non-filologice sunt supuşi unei
testări orale în privinţa posedării competenţelor comunicative de înţelegere
şi de vorbire în limba străină. Tematica testării iniţiale poate fi foarte variată
şi anume: locul naşterii absolventului, liceul unde a învăţat, studierea
limbilor străine şi succesele obţinute, participarea absolventului la viaţa
liceului – olimpiade, întreceri, concursuri, serate, proiectele de viitor ale
studentului la specialitatea aleasă etc.
În conformitate cu rezultatele testării iniţiale studenţii sunt divizaţi în
grupe cu nivel avansat de cunoştinţe şi grupe cu nivel intermediar.
În dependenţă de nivelul cunoştinţelor studenţii studiază limbile străine
după programe diferite. Grupele avansate lucrează conform unei programe
mai complicate care prevede studierea aprofundată a terminologiei de
specialitate pe baza textelor originale, elaborarea unui glosar de termeni de
specialitate în limba străină, adnotarea şi comentariile asupra textelor
studiate, participarea la conferinţele studenţeşti cu rapoarte în limba străină
etc. Studenţii din grupele cu nivel intermediar lucrează după programe
obişnuite.
Testarea curentă este cea mai răspândită şi eficientă formă de control
şi se aplică sistematic pe parcursul întregului curs de studiere a limbilor
străine aplicate. Cu scopul de a verifica nivelul de însuşire a competenţelor
comunicative profesorul înclude în testul de evaluare aşa sarcini ca:
comentarii în limba străină privitor la terminologia de specialitate,
introducerea termenilor de specialitate în contexte situative profesionale,
adnotarea în scris a textelor de specialitate originale, răspunsuri la întrebări
asupra unui text de specialitate audiat, eseuri scurte pe teme cotidiene cu
aplicarea şi verifcarea competenţelor gramaticale (de exemplu: Si j’étais
maire de la capitale, je ferais ..., etc.)
Testarea tematică are loc, de obicei, după studierea unei teme din
programul de studii şi are ca scop înţelegerea, controlul nivelului de însuşire
216
şi posedare nu numai a competenţelor comunicative pe tema dată, dar şi a
sistemului de factori care întrunesc aceste competenţe într-un tot întreg.
Testarea finală la facultăţile non-filologice are loc la finele cursului de
studiere a limbii străine şi are ca scop de a determina nivelul de formare şi
posedare a competenţelor comunicative acumulate în timpul procesului de
studii. Testarea finală prevede verificarea şi certificarea competenţelor de
citire, audiere, vorbire şi scriere în limba străină studiată.
Utilizarea sistematică a testelor didactice stimulează activitatea creativă
a studenţilor faţă de procesul de studii şi sporeşte responsabilitatea
profesorilor faţă de metodele şi procedeele de însuşire a competenţelor
practice la limba străină.
Testele dezvoltă gândirea analitică a studenţilor şi anume: priceperea de a
evidenţia principalul din materialul studiat, de a generaliza şi de a face
concluzii.
La rândul său, testarea dezvoltă logica gândirii, constată calitatea însuşirii
materialului studiat, determină nivelul de posedare a competenţelor
comunicative, prognozează rezultatele viitoare în procesul de studiere a
limbilor străine.
Astfel, testarea poate fi privită ca o metodă de verificare şi certificare a
cunoştinţelor, repezentând un sistem de teste de control de o formă specifică
cu dificultăţi mereu crescânde, care permit de a aprecia obiectiv şi sigur
nivelul de formare şi de posedare ale aptitudinilor lingvistice şi ale
competenţelor comunicative la cei testaţi.
Savanţii didacţi sunt de părerea că testarea pentru verificarea şi
certificarea cunoştinţelor la limba străină nu constituie doar o metodă de
cuantificare a informaţiei deţinute de studenţi, ci este un instrument ce ajută
în mod activ la învăţare, fiind o cale mai eficientă de sedimentare a
informaţiei în comparaţie cu celelalte metode folosite.
În virtutea eficientizării testării nivelului de cunoştinţe la limba străină e
necesar de a spori varietatea şi complexitatea testelor didactice pentru a
dezvălui toate componentele abilităţii de comunicare, cât şi pentru a
evidenţia rolul testării în procesul de studiere a limbilor străine.
1.
2.
3.
Bibliografie
Chomsky, N. Aspects de la théorie syntaxique, Paris, 1971.
Noveanu, E. Didactica limbilor moderne, Bucureşti, 1977.
Schaub,H., Zenke, K.G. Dicţionar de pedagogie, ed. Polirom, Iaşi,
2001.
217
LANGUAGE CLASS AND CREATIVE GAMES
I.S. MURADKHANIAN,
PhD, Associate Professor,
Yuriy Fedkovych Chernivtsi National University,
Chernivtsi, Ukraine
Summary
There are many advantages of using games in the classroom:
1) games are a welcome break from the usual routine of the
language class;
2) they are motivating and challenging;
3) learning a language requires a great deal of effort, games
help students to make and sustain the effort of learning;
4) games provide language practice in various skills – speaking.
writing, listening and reading;
5) language learning is a hard work. Effort is required at every
moment and must be maintained over a long period of time.
Games help and encourage many learners to sustain their
interest in work.
Games also help the teacher to create contexts in which the
language is useful and meaningful. The learners want to take part,
and in order to do so, must understand what other communicators are
saying or have written, and they must speak and write in order to
express their own point of view or give information.
The need for meaningfulness in language learning has been
accepted for some years. A useful interpretation of ”meaningfulness”
is that the learners respond to the content in a definite way. If they
are amused, angered, intrigued or surprised the content is clearly
meaningful to them. Thus the meaning of the language they listen to,
read, speak and write will be more vividly experienced and, therefore,
better remembered.
If it is accepted that games can provide intense and meaningful
practice of language, then they must be regarded as central to a
teacher’s repertoire. They are thus not for the use solely on wet days
and at the end of the term.
218
WAYS OF MAKING UPPER-LEVEL UNIVERSITY ENGLISH
CLASSES MORE INTERACTIVE
Rodica NECULCE, Lecturer, MA
Diana STARODUB, Lecturer, MA,
ULIM, R. Moldova
English has now acquired the title of the world’s leading “global
language” because it is used for business, science, and politics. [ 2 ]
Teaching English as a Foreign Language sounds the perfect way to make
some money while visiting or living in another country. There are natural
teachers - born communicators who have the ability to explain easily,
instantly modifying their own vocabulary, rephrasing and effortlessly
incorporating actions, gestures and even pictures so that the person on the
receiving end 'gets it', even if they do not speak the same language. But
these gifted individuals are in a tiny minority.
Many new teachers begin (or are persuaded to begin) by teaching
“conversation” in the belief that this is an easy option. What often happens
is that you end up doing most of the talking, that conversation dries up
altogether or that you start translating, if you happen to speak the student's
own language. The most crucial things to remember about conversation
classes are that they should be well prepared, with stimulating material that
interests the student (not only you) and that they are pitched at the correct
level. Conversation is not just talking about the first thing that comes into
your head as you walk into the classroom, it's not about correcting the
student the minute he makes a mistake and it's not a teacher (or student)
monologue. Discover your students’ interests - remembering people are
always better at talking about their pet subjects, even in another language then think of ways to prompt conversation: a newspaper article, a picture, a
song, a film extract, ... For example, on the Internet teachers and learners
can access the International Corpus of English (www.ucl.ac.uk/
eanglish/usage/ice) [ 7 ], which provides samples of many national and
regional varieties of English. Students and teachers can also access WorldNewspapers (www.world-newspapers.com) [ 8 ],which provides links to
English language newspapers from around the world.
Classroom technology is not only the sign of improvement of today's
technology but also an efficient and effective way to provide the students,
an excellent and creative education. To improve the quality of the studies,
you should have to insert some latest technological tools and terms in the
classrooms to make the teaching more meaningful.
219
A student's brain would capture the concepts rapidly if it is explained
with related images, pictures or videos. So prepare presentation slides using
power point or other presentation software and explain the lessons using it.
You could include related pictures in the slides so that the students could
understand easily. Also you could list out all the important points with
bullets or numbering and highlight the important points using different
colors. This will make the students feel at ease to study and thus create an
interest in them to learn.
Another important classroom technology to implement is
presentation tools. The basic thing for a student to study well is the way of
presentation that is provided to him by his teacher. So presentation plays a
major role in teaching and learning. The way the teacher presents the
lessons should be clear and informative and should be related to the topic
taken by him/her. According to Willis D. and Willis J., “writing
complements oral activities and provides opportunities for language focus
because: speaking is a real-time activity, in which there is normally no time
for careful consideration of language. Writing, on the other hand, allows
time to think about language”. [ 5 ]
Music has the magic power to improve the mood of any person. It
has the ability to create pleasant surroundings. So create a nice environment
to freshen up your student physically and mentally. A relaxed person can
involve in his/her studies well. Add Background music to the presentation
slides or videos while you take lessons; it should be soft and mild.
Information sharing is the best way to contribute your knowledge to
other people and also gain new information that you may not know. So the
network helps you gradually in this regard. Create online community or
blog and make your friends to join. Share your views and thoughts about
anything you are interested. It could be something related to your studies or
general stuffs like current affairs etc. You could also create a community
among your students in which you could clear their doubts online when you
are not in class. So that there will be good interaction between you and your
class students.
Due to the fact that the students sometimes are naughty and not
motivated and are not willing to undertake studies seriously the teacher has
additional problem of controlling and motivating such students. His role
becomes very challenging as he has dual task of taking measures to ensure
that such students are encouraged to undertake studies and at the same time
they do not disturb the class where most of the students may be interested.
Joan Sedita, a teacher trainer and literacy specialist, reminds us that” there
are some students who need direct, systematic instruction to develop the
organizational skill”. [ 6 ]
220
Such students tend to take advantage of any situation to demonstrate
their power and their unwillingness to study. They also tend to create such
situations in the class by which the teacher is not allowed to proceed any
further with the curriculum; few of the situations can be as follows:
 Create noise whenever the teacher faces the board.

Asking questions which may be irrelevant and not connected to the
current topic.
 Saying that they did not understand what has been taught or arguing
on something wasting the valuable time of the class.
 Coming late deliberately and asking for permission to enter thereby
disturbing the class.
 Throwing chalk pieces or flying paper airplanes whenever teacher is
not facing them.
 Not attending the classes in generall.
 Complaining to university authorities about the teacher and his
behavior or the way he teaches.
To tackle above listed problems following methodology is suggested:
1. Do not give a chance to the mischievous students to be not under
watch. There are number of ways to do that;
(a) Saving time on board work: The thing that a student is most afraid
is coming to the board and facing the class. Use this to your advantage. Call
students on the board to write what you otherwise would have written. Most
of the time it may be possible to write on the board while still facing the
students. However in cases when there are long spells of writings to be done
like in case of drawing a diagram or making a table which forces the teacher
to face the board, it may be good idea to call a student on board to draw the
diagram on the board.
(b) Eye to Eye contact: Maintaining eye to eye contact is one of the
most important means for controlling the students. With little practice one
can read the eyes to know what is the status of his mind, is he thinking of
creating some mischief or something else. The first step is to identify such
students who may indulge in such activities. May be such students are
sitting in a group, in such cases the teacher should attempt to break the
group. The teacher should be very particular to give some extra attention to
identified students by maintaining eye contact and asking occasional
questions. Normally teachers have a tendency to ignore such students which
amounts to running away from the problem. Making the student to feel that
he is important to the teacher will control him to quite an extent.
2. Lectures should not become monologue. Emphasis should be to
involve the students in class participation. Following are some suggestions:-
221
(a) For example instead of giving a direct answer for some topic
under discussion the teacher may ask the students to suggest some answers
themselves, he may even nominate some students to suggest answers. The
important thing to remember is that the students who are not willing to
participate should invariably be thrown upon some questions and they
should be encouraged to participate even if they give wrong answers. By
criticizing them for giving wrong answer they will shy away to give answer
next time and will distance themselves further away from the class. The
teacher can discuss the answer given and diplomatically correct them as the
answer is discussed with the class. “The verbal of the ideas also gives the
teacher the opportunity to provide positive reinforcement, which further
enhances the students’ confidence”. [ 3]
(b) One more technique that may be very powerful is that any
question thrown by the student to the teacher may not be directly answered
by the teacher himself and the teacher throws the same question to the class
for any one to answer. Any one answering such question may be suitably
rewarded by the teacher. This will keep the interest of the class and
motivate them to involve themselves and at the same time the teacher will
come to know the extent to which the students have understood the subject.
3. Never attempt to speak over the group. It is far more important to
identify one particular student who may be the king pin and target him. If
you need, stop whatever you are doing or saying and stare at the student
creating problem. Keep your mouth closed and simply watch them. Natural
instincts give us all the ability to recognize when someone is staring at us
and to react to it. Make certain that your eyes focus on each student in the
group which was talking until they cease. You can tell the target student that
it is either you or me who can talk, you can also add that there must be some
thing very important than the subject, so important that you have to discuss,
even at the cost of the lecture, so please go ahead and whole class will wait
for you to finish.
4. It is not difficult to remember all the names in a class. The best
way of remembering the names is that you call the attendance by name
instead of calling them by their roll number and each time you take some
name make sure that you look at that particular student. Whenever some
student makes some noise it is better that you call him by name, it will be
very effective measure for controlling him. Even out side the class if you
see such students, call them by name this is bound to inculcate some sense
of discipline and fear in them.
5. Group and pair work are indispensible to task-based teaching. This
type of classroom arrangements creates a completely different atmosphere
from that of a traditional teacher-centered class; instead of strictly
222
controlling the students, the teacher coordinates their work. According to
Brown, “group work creates a favorable climate for communication by
relieving students of the anxiety of having to talk in front of the whole
class”. [1] Group work makes students more responsible and autonomousthey have equal responsibility for performing a task.
6. It will be good idea to use huge resource of manpower at your
disposal to your advantage. Remember that every individual has some
unique quality. The trick is to identify this and strike a personal rapport with
the individual students to use his quality to your advantage. It may be
possible to identify the leaders in the groups with little attention. Next step
would be to woo them to your side to control your classroom through them.
The class leader is not necessarily the best student or the most socially
acceptable student, but is one that others follow. Find a way to win them
over and to use their abilities to your advantage. Always acknowledge the
strength of each student in the class.
7. Never reveal any weakness that can be used by students against
you. It may be useful to watch your own video recording of the lecture
which you may have delivered. It may happen that one is using some of the
phrases excessively or may be making some gestures very often which can
be mimicked by the students.
8. It is important that the teacher is always well dressed, is ready with
the subject and has acquired in-depth knowledge of the subject and is
sympathetic towards the students. If a student makes an odd remark, there is
no hurry to answer back. Time will come when one will catch the same very
student on wrong footings and correct him while reminding him of his
earlier remark.
We can never fully ensure the academic success of our students.
However, it is our job to prepare them to be successful. Using these taskbased activities in my upper level classes have really helped to encourage
my students to communicate in English and made my lessons livelier.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Bibliography
Brown, H.D. Teaching by principle: An interactive approach to
language pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. 1994
Crystal, D. English as a global language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.2003
Gattis, K.W. Importance of student verbalization. Science Junction.
Raleigh,
NC:
North
Carolina
State
University.
www.ncsu.edu/sciencejunction/route/professional/verbal.html1998
Wallace, M.J. The use of video in teacher training. London: British
Council. 1995
223
5.
6.
7.
8.
Willis, D., and J. Willis. Doing task-based teaching. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.2007
Sedita, J. Helping your child with organization and study skills. LD
online. 1999 // www.ldonline./org/article/5884. 1999
www.ucl.ac.uk/eanglish/usage/ice
www.world-newspapers.com
KONTRASTIVE LEXIKOLOGIE: DAS NEUE LEHRBUCH
Alexander OGUY, Prof. Dr.
Die Nationale Universität
„ Yurii Fedkovici” aus Czernowitz,
Czernowitz, Ukraine
Zielsetzung: Im Rahmen des Bologna-Prozesses braucht die Ukraine
das Lehrbuch in kontrastiver Lexikologie des Deutschen und des
Ukrainischen (34 St. im Semester), an dem ich, Alexander Oguy, Autor von
„Lexikologie der deutschen Sprache“ (Aufl. 1. Winnytza, 2003. 417 S.; gepl.
Aufl. 2. 2011) arbeite. Es gründet sich einerseits auf die postmodernistischen
und didaktischen Prinzipien: Interdisziplinarität, holistische Synergie;
Trichotomie der Lehrmaterialiengestaltung; Systematisierung und
praktische Ausrichtung des Lehrganges; Bologna-Krediten-Modullehrprogramm, andererseits auf den Vergleich als Darstellungsverfahren, was die
Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede von lexikalischen Einheiten zweier
Sprachen zur Grundlage der Analyse macht und dadurch die Aneignung der
Sprache(n) erleichtert.
Inhalte: Das Lehrbuch soll kulturspezifisch, sprachkontrastiv,
international
zusammengestellt
werden.
Die
Darstellung
des
funktionierenden deutschen bzw. ukrainischen Wortschatzes im Vergleich
kam im Lehrbuch durch die Auffassung der ganzheitlich ausgerichteten
Trichotomie, d.h. durch autorenspezifische Triaden (These als Material –
Antithese als Mechanismus – Synthese als Funktionieren) zum Ausdruck.
Diese Triaden wiederholen sich immer auf einem höheren Niveau, da die alte
dichotomische Sehweise nicht imstande ist, alle sprachlichen Gegensätze in
ihrer dynamischen Ganzheit (d.h. holistisch) zu erfassen. Im Lehrbuch,
dessen theoretischer Teil (Teil 1: Vorlesungskursus) zehn Themenkreise
umfassen muss, werden also Hauptprobleme und kontrastive lexikologische
Grundbegriffe in ihrem Zusammenhang erläutert und es wird auf die
Fachliteratur verweisen, mit der weiter gearbeitet werden kann. Diese Kapitel
müssen synthetisiert einen Überblick über die wichtigsten Probleme der
deutsch-ukrainischen Lexikologie anbieten. Das Lehrbuch beginnt mit einer
224
allgemeinen Übersicht und entwickelt an Hand zahlreicher Beispiele und
quantitativen Charakteristika weiter terminologische Grundlagen (Gegenstand
– Methoden – Lehrbücher; Syntagmatik – Paradigmatik – Epidigmatik) und
dann auf einem höheren und komplizierteren Niveau andere Probleme, die
sich wieder auf Epidigmatik (Polysemie/ Homonymie; Bedeutungswandel),
Syntagmatik (Phraseologie; Wortsyntax) und Paradigmatik (Wortschatzstand
und Entwicklung) beziehen.
Kapitel 10 kann der zweisprachigen
Lexikographie gewidmet werden. Im praktischen Teil, der „den Geist (der
Studenten) hinterrücks zu eigenem Denken verleitet“ (Christopher Morley),
werden zahlreiche literarische Beispiele, viel Humor, manche Sprüche und
Witze angeführt, die den theoretischen Inhalt des Buches beleben.
So können durch Trichotomie auch Literaturwissenschaft, Linguistik
und Unterrichtsprozess einig werden. Um literarische Beispiele bereichert und
für den Unterrichtsprozess verwendet, wird hier die deutsch-ukrainische
kontrastive Lexikologie auf diese Weise enger an das Leben herangerückt.
Bezug zu Leitfragen der Sektion
Auf jedem neuen Niveau (langue – parole – langage; Syntagmatik
– Paradigmatik – Epidigmatik) wiederholen sich die Erscheinungen, aber
mit einem anderen Akzent, der das Sprachsystem ergänzt und vollständig
macht. Darüber hinaus muss im Lehrbuch das Prinzip des ganzheitlich
funktionierenden Systems herrschen, dem das dreidimensionale
Zeichenmodell (Inhaltsseite – Ausdrucksseite – soziale Kommunikation)
zugrundeliegt. Dadurch scheint es möglich, statt der dichotomischen
Statik der Sprache sprachliche Dynamik und Synergie der lexikalischen
Erscheinungen in beiden Sprachen auf verschiedenen Sprachebenen zum
Ausdruck zu bringen.
Die Beispiele von lexikologischen Phänomenen, die den
theoretischen Betrachtungen zugrunde liegen, werden sprachlich
gegenübergestellt und qualitativ bzw. quantitativ ausgewertet, wobei dazu
die Resultate kontrastiver Dissertationen und anderer Arbeiten angewendet
werden. Dazu gehören quantitative Charakteristika der Polysemie, der
Entlehnungen, der Wortbildung in den deutschen und ukrainischen
Sprachen, vom Autor früher untersucht. Vom großen Interesse ist der
lexikalisch-grammatische Angleichungsprozess des Deutschen und des
Ukrainischen in Kontaktzonen wie Bukowina und Galizien, der vom Autor
des Projektes quantitativ bearbeitet worden war und jetzt als Lehrmaterial
angeboten werden kann.
Der „wahre Zweck“ meines geplanten Lehrbuches ist es auch, „den
Geist (der Studenten) hinterrücks zu eigenem Denken zu verleiten“
(Christopher Morley).
Deswegen werden in dem darauffolgenden
Übungsteil, Teil 2 „Praktikum“, der sich den theoretischen Darstellungen
225
anschließt, Aufgaben zur praktischen Anwendung und eigenen
Kenntnisprüfung sowie für die Arbeit im Seminar gestellt. Das
ganzheitliche Konzept (als sein Geist), durch Fragen zum Ausdruck
gebracht, „beseelt“ aber das Lehrbuch selbst, was nicht nur durch
spezifische Fragenstellungen, sondern auch durch trichotomische
Aufteilungen des praktischen deutsch-ukrainischen Materials zu jedem
Punkt der theoretischen Kapitel zum Ausdruck kommt. Viel Humor,
manche Sprüche und Witze sollen den theoretischen Inhalt des Buches
beleben und das Interesse an der Lexikologie fördern. Der Autor (als
Vertreter des Trichotomie) verfolgt auch bei den Seminaren in kontrastiver
Lexikologie das dreifache Ziel, den Blick der Studenten auf die wichtigsten
Aspekte der Lexikologie zu lenken, die ganzheitliche Auffassung vor dem
Hintergrund anderer (insbesondere struktureller) interdisziplinär
darzustellen und ihre Kenntnisse dadurch an die der deutschen Studenten
anzugleichen. Auf solche Weise kann ein umfassendes Basiswissen zur
kontrastiven Lexikologie bereitgestellt werden, das sowohl für das Studium,
als auch für die spätere Berufspraxis und / oder die wissenschaftliche
Tätigkeit einen konkreten Gebrauchswert hat.
KONTRASTIVE LEXIKOLOGIE: DAS NEUE LEHRBUCH
Hauptprinzipien des Lehrganges und Lehrbuches
Post-nichtklassische Basis auf Grund der Interdisziplinarität, Synergie,
holistischen Auffassung etc.; Trichotomie der Lehrmaterialiengestaltung;
Systematisierung und praktische Ausrichtung des Lehrganges; BolognaKrediten-Modullehrprogramm.
DETAILLIERTE MODUL-STUNDENVERTEILUNG DES LEHRMATERIALS
NACH DEM GEPLANTEN LEHRBUCH.
Nach der Modul-Gestaltung des Lehrganges (1 Modul ist gleich 37 Stunden)
wird die folgende Stundenverteilung nach drei Ebenen (E.1: Lexikologie im
Hauptstudium: Semester 5-6; E.2: linguist. Zirkel: 7-8; E.3: Magisterlehrgang:
9-10) vorgeschlagen.
MODUL 1
Ebene 1. Benennung der
Vorlesung
Vorl.1.1:
Struktur
der
k.Lexikologie
2.1-2.2:
Sprache
und
Zeichen
3.1.1-3.1.4: Das Wort in
Stdn.:
T/P
Ebene
2
1.2.
Stdn
2
Ebene
3
1.3.
Stdn
2
2.3.
2
3.1.5
1
2+2
4+2
3.1.6
226
2
Langue/ Parole/ Langage
3.2.1-2: Wortbedeutung im
Kontrast
3.3:Wort bzw. Bedeutung im
Bewusstsein der Deutschen u.
Ukrainer
4.1: k. Kategorien der
Syntagmatik
4.3: Phraseologismen im
Kontrast
CREDIT 1 (mit Vorbereitung)
MODUL 2
5.1.2-3; 5.2: k.Paradigmatik
u.Gruppen
Vorl.6.1-3: Epidigmatik im
Kontrast
Vorl.7.1.7: Polysemie in
Synchronie
Vorl.7.2.1-4: k. Homonymie
4+2
2+2
-
3.2.4
1
3.2.3
2
3.3.
1
3.3.
2
4.2.
1
4.3.6
2
5.1.1
2
5.3
2
6.3.2
2
7.1.1-6
2
7.1.8
2
7.2.5
1
7.2.0
1
7.3.4
1
7.3.0
2
9.2
1
9.3.
2
4+2
4+4
3
4+2
4+2
4+2
4+2
Vorl.7.3.1-3:
k.
Bedeutungswandel
Vorl.8.1:Arten
vomBedeutungswandel
CREDIT 2 (mit Vorbereitung)
MODUL 3
Vorl.8.2: Entlehnung (im
Kontrast)
Vorl.8.3: Wortbildung (im
Kontrast)
Vorl.8.3:Territoriale
Gliederung d.WS
Vorl.8.5:
Historische
Gliederung imK.
Vorl.8.6: Soziale Gliederung
im K.
Vorl.9.1: Probleme der
Syntagmatik
Vorl.10:Lexikographie(im
4+2
...
3+2
3
...
4+2
...
4+2
3+2
...
3+2
...
4+2
2+1
...
227
Kontrast)
CREDIT 3 (mit Vorbereitung)
INSGESAMT
2+2
4
65+39+
10
18
18
DIFFICULTIES INVOLVED IN TEACHING IDIOMS
TO EFL STUDENTS
Olga PASCARI,
Senior lecturer, MA,
ULIM, Moldova
It is evident that idioms play a very important role in English
vocabulary. As an essential part of the general vocabulary, idioms reflect
the environment, life, history, and culture of the native speakers, and are
closely associated with their innermost spirits and feelings. Furthermore,
familiarity with idioms and ability to use them appropriately in context are
one of the distinguishing markers of a native-like command of English. As
we know an English idiom is a group of words with a special meaning
different from the total meanings of its constituent words. But let us have a
deeper glance of the definitions of idioms viewed by different linguists. One
can point out that “idiom” according to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary of
English Idioms, is “a group of words whose meaning is different from the
meanings of the individual words” [13]. V.V. Vinogradov gives idioms
another name - fusion. “A fusion is a unit which is completely nonmotivated” [12]. A.I. Smirnitsky considers that idioms proper are such
“combinations of words which occur in metaphorical use and possess a
special stylistic colouring or expressiveness” [11]. English and American
authors give so many definitions to idioms and idiomatic English that it is
by no means easy to disentangle their essential features. Here are just a few
illustrations:
For William Freeman an idiom is “an established word or phrase
with a special meaning that is independent of the dictionary's definition and
frequently of the rules of grammar as well. Idioms have become a
fundamental part of our language; they are frequently nothing more than
vigorous abbreviations of common phrases. They are a terror to any
student with a logical and orderly mind. Many of them, indeed, are beyond
any common-sensible explanation whatever. Others are based on passages
from the Bible, Shakespeare, on proverbs, and, in fact, on anything which
can be employed to convey one's thoughts briefly and effectively,” etc. [6].
228
Idioms are found in every language and learning them is an important
aspect of the mastery of a language. The English language is no exception
as it contains a large number of idioms, which are extensively used.
However, because of their rather rigid structure and quite unpredictable
meaning, idioms are often considered difficult to learn. Although little
research has been done to date on the nature of idioms as well as how they
are used, a better understanding of variations in idioms can nevertheless be
acquired by looking at some theories and thoughts about their use and their
structure.
Idioms enrich the language like a necklace of pearls embellishes a
woman's neck. Generally, language follows rules. If it did not, then its users
would not be able to make sense of the random utterances they read or
heard and they would not be able to communicate meaningfully themselves.
Learning idioms has always been very difficult for second-language
learners. Idioms are difficult to learn, including the fact that most materials
for teaching idioms are inadequate.
To help teachers prepare materials and activities for teaching them,
criteria are suggested for deciding which idioms to teach, and ten activities
are described which will help students understand and produce idiomatic
English.' 'Familiarity with a wide range of idiomatic expressions and the
ability to use them appropriately in context are among the distinguishing
marks of a native-like command of English' ([3]. While many secondlanguage learners may be satisfied with something less than 'nativelike'
command, idiomatic usage is so common in English that it can be difficult
to speak or write without using idioms [10]. The learning of idioms must
therefore be considered an integral part of vocabulary learning.
There are several explanations for the fact that idioms are very
difficult to learn in a second language. Some of these will be explored
below. Idioms are not literal; they do not mean what they say. For example,
the idiomatic meaning of ‘he spilled the beans’ has nothing to do with beans
or with spilling in its literal sense. Most idioms also have literal
counterparts, which makes them even harder to learn. A native speaker will
quickly realize which meaning is intended, while the second-language
learner is left trying to figure out where the beans came from and how they
were spilled.
Exposure to idioms is frequently omitted in the speech addressed to
second-language learners. Native speakers tend to use simple, concrete,
everyday vocabulary when they address second-language learners; the use
of idioms is avoided. On the other hand, idioms are commonly used in
movies and on television. However, television and movies do not provide
the kind of interaction which is necessary for learning language; input
229
without interaction is not sufficient for language acquisition [8]. Thus
learners' exposure to idioms appears to occur mainly in noninteractive
situations, where there is no opportunity for negotiation of meaning, rather
than in interactive situations which allow learners to clarify meaning and
receive feedback on use.
Even when learners do master the meanings of some English idioms,
it is still very difficult to learn to use them correctly. Idioms vary in
formality from slang {you got it) and colloquialisms {he kicked the bucket)
to those which can be used in formal situations {run the risk). In addition to
situational appropriateness, many idioms have grammatical constraints. You
can tell your friends that you 'didn't sleep a wink' last night, but you can't
tell them that you 'slept a wink'. You can be 'fed up with' something, but
you can't 'feed him up with' the same thing. Most idioms are invariant and
must be learned as wholes, but the verbs must still be put into the correct
form, and pronouns must agree with their antecedents. If learners try to rely
on their first language to help them use idioms in their second, they will be
successful in only a very few instances. In most cases, this strategy will
produce an incorrect and often comical form. A Spanish man will not make
a very good impression on his companion if he tells her she has 'chicken
skin', although his literal translation from Spanish is not very different from
the English idiom goose flesh.
Another reason why second-language learners do not learn idioms is
that we do not teach them very well. Many second-language teaching
materials either ignore idioms entirely or relegate them to the 'other
expressions' section of vocabulary lists, without providing exercises or other
aids to learning. Typically, an idiom will appear in the introductory reading
or dialogue, a definition, translation or example will be provided in the
margin or notes, and the idiom will then appear again in the vocabulary list.
These are obviously not sufficient aids to learning, unless the teacher
provides additional exercises and practice. Materials designed specifically
to teach idioms do, of course, provide exercises to help learners master
them. However, a survey of five ESL idiom books (Reeves 1975, Feare
1980, Goldman 1981, Dixson 1983, Adams and Kuder 1984) revealed that
many of the exercises are inadequate. In some cases, it was possible to do
the exercises without any knowledge of the meaning of the idiom. For
example, Reeves provides dashes to indicate the number of letters in each
word of the idiom which is to be inserted into a sentence. Dixson has
students answer questions containing idioms, but many of the questions can
be answered simply by manipulating their structure, without any need to
understand them. Exercises which do involve understanding usually require
comprehension only and do not ask students to produce the idioms. These
230
include matching the idiom with its definition or substituting one for the
other (Feare, Reeves, Dixson), multiple-choice exercises where the correct
definition or paraphrase is chosen (Feare, Adams and Kuder), and
completion exercises where the correct idiom is chosen from a list and
inserted into a sentence (Goldman, Reeves, Adams and Kuder). In some
cases, exercises requiring production of idioms are included only in review
lessons which Learning and teaching idioms [9, 6, 7, 4, and 1].
Training students to infer meaning from context and to deal with
figurative comprehension speech enables them to generalize beyond those
idioms which they have learned and to understand idioms which they have
never encountered before [2].
Let us have a look at the possible activities that can be used for
learning idioms.
1. Write a paragraph containing an idiom in a logical context, but
omit the idiom. Ask students to complete the paragraph with a word or short
phrase which fits the context. When this has been done correctly (i.e. the
word or phrase is a paraphrase of the idiom you omitted), tell them what the
idiom is, and show them how they have already inferred its meaning from
the context.
2. Draw (or get the students to draw) sets of pictures showing both
the literal and the idiomatic meanings of an idiom. Then have students
matched the pictures that go together and match them with the idiom (this
could be done by playing 'Concentration' or 'Fish').
3. Make up and get the students to make up stories using the literal
meanings of idioms. For example: 'I went to a party last night and there was
a guy there who was telling such funny stories that I just cracked up. I was
in stitches all evening. It was so bad that before I could go home I had to go
to the hospital to have the crack fixed and the stitches taken out.' Discuss
why the story is strange.
4. Make up and ask students to make up dialogues involving a literal
misinterpretation of one or several idioms. For example:
Girl: Why don't you give me a ring some time?
Foreign boy: Oh, no! I don't know you well enough to marry you!
Girl: You must be pulling my leg!
Foreign boy: How can I pull your leg? I'm not even near you!
Discuss why the misinterpretation occurred.
5. Give students an envelope containing a card with an idiom written
on it, and the props needed to act out its literal meaning. Have other
students guess the literal meaning; then discuss the idiomatic meaning.
6. Play idiom charades. Divide the class into teams. Each member of
each team gets a slip of paper with an idiom written on it. (These can be
231
prepared by the teacher or by the students; in the latter case, each team
thinks up the idioms to be acted out by the members of the other team.)
Each member of the team acts out first the idiomatic meaning and then the
literal meaning of the idiom, while the rest of the team tries to guess it. The
teacher times how long it takes to guess the idiom (time limits may be
imposed); the team with the shortest total time wins. (Hand signals should
be taught in order to designate whether it is the literal or idiomatic meaning,
the number of words, which word is being acted out, the number of
syllables, etc.)
7. Tell an 'add-on' story. Begin the story by giving a sentence
containing one of the idioms on the list. Students add to the study by
contributing a sentence containing another idiom from the list.
8. Students write short plays, puppet show, stories, or dialogues,
from lists of idioms which the teacher supplies or which they collect
themselves.
These can be impromptu, in-class activities, done either individually
or in groups, or they can be formal assignments.
9. The teacher tells a story containing several idioms (or students tell
them to each other, using stories they wrote in the previous activity). (For
example: 'Jack was down in the dumps. His car had a flat tyre, his stereo
was broken, and his girl friend was going out with somebody else. He really
felt blue, and he looked as though he had lost his best friend. So he bought a
lottery ticket. How did he feel when he found out that he had won $
100,000? He was in seventh heaven! Now he could buy a new car and a
new stereo and get a new girl friend! He was on cloud nine! Jack was
walking on air for months after that.') Students then re-tell the story to the
teacher or to one another, trying to include as many of the idioms as
possible.
10. Students role-play a situation suggested by the teacher, using
idioms which they have learned previously. This activity allows them to try
out actually using idioms in a non-threatening situation, and to receive
feedback on the appropriateness of their use in that situation.
Most students are very interested in learning idiomatic language.
They recognize it as an area in which they have difficulties, and appreciate
systematic instruction. The activities described here can be adapted for any
level, and have been used successfully in high-school ESL and foreign
language classes. Learners enjoy them, and ESL students report that the
practice provided in class gives them confidence to try to use idioms outside
the classroom. Students should be given ample opportunity to practise using
idioms in non-threatening natural situations in order to give them
confidence that they can use them correctly. Comparing and contrasting
232
literal and figurative meanings of idioms will enable students to recognize
idiomatic usage and to interpret idioms accordingly. It also establishes a
link between the form and the meaning. Comparing idioms in the first and
second languages will enable students to discover which idioms are
identical.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Bibliography
Adams, T., and S. Kuder. Attitudes Through Idioms - Unpublished
doctoral dissertation. – Boston: Newbury House, -1984.
Adkins, P. G. Teaching idioms and figures of speech. Modern
Language Journal 52:148-52. - 1968.
Cowie, A. P., and R. Mackin. Oxford Dictionary of Currant
Idiomatic English, Vol. I: Verbs with Prepositions and Particles.
London: Oxford University Press,-1975
Dixson, R. J. Essential Idioms in English. New York: Regents, 1983.
Feare, R. E. Practice with Idioms. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1980.
Freeman, William. English for Foreigners. London: Oxford
University Press, 1945.
Goldman, L. Getting Along with Idioms. New York: Minerva, 1981.
Long, M. H. Questions in Foreigner Talk Discourse. New York:
Ballantinc, - 1982.
Reeves, G. Idioms in Action. Rowley, MA: research interests
include transfer in second-language acquisition, and strategies of
lexical acquisition.- Boston: Newbury House, 1975.
Seidl, J., and W. McMordie. English Idioms and the Strategy of
Transfer in Second Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University
Press,1978..
Smirnitchii, A. Lexicologia angliiscogo iazyca. Moscow: Visshaia
shcola, 1972.
Vinogradov, V. Osnovnye tipy frazeologhiceskih edinits. Moscow:
Visshaia shcola. 1977.
Wemeier, S.. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary. London:
Oxford University Press. 2000.
233
CREATIVITATEA ÎN PEDAGOGIE
Rodica RIVENCO,
lector, MA, ULIM, R.Moldova
„Creativitatea nu înseamnă să găseşti un lucru, ci
să faci ceva din el după ce l-ai găsit.”
(James Russell Lowell)
Creativitatea este un ideal, un fenomen general uman, forma cea
mai înaltă a activităţii omeneşti. Efectuînd o muncă perseverentă, migăloasă
sau inspirată, omul îşi utilizează forţele fizice şi spirituale la transpunerea în
practică a imaginaţiei şi fanteziei creatoare. Într-o asemenea activitatecreaţie, omul îşi dezvăluie calităţile psihice, cognitive, morale – întregul
conţinut al personalităţii.
Creaţia nu poate fi concepută fără memorie, inteligenţă, imaginaţie,
inspiraţie, voinţă, pasiune, spiritualitate, motivaţie, muncă şi peerseverenţă.
Creativitatea în pedagogie, ca şi în alte domenii, constituie un complex de
capacităţi şi însuşiri psihice fundamentale ale personalităţii, care, în condiţii
favorabile, permit pedagogului să-şi demonstreze posibilităţile, generalizînd
teorii, idei, metode, tehnologii valoroase pentru educaţie şi instruire.
Procesul creativităţii pedagogice este valoros, dacă prin el se rezolvă o
problemă educaţională (se schimbă metodele, conţinutul, tehnologiile şi
sporeşte importanţa educaţiei).
Pentru a facilita creativitatea, trebuie de atras atenţia asupra
aptitudinilor şi calităţilor ce sunt indicii unei bune iscusinţe în domeniul dat,
adică indicii unui bun profesor. Aceste indicii pot fi clasificate în trei
categorii principale:
- aptitudini generale, care sînt necesare lucrului în grup;
- calităţi personale, care fac, prin ele înseşi, ca persoana respectivă să
fie un bun promotor al creativităţii;
- aptitudini cognitive, care maximizează probabilitatea realizărilor
creative.
Aptitudinile muncii în grup
Persoana care se ocupă de dezvoltarea creativităţii mai are nevoie şi
de abilitatea de a structura o lecţie. Lucrul eficient în grup implică de
asemenea calităţile de a fi hotărît şi tolerant, respectuos faţă de potenţialul
creativ al fiecăruia, de a-i putea să-i faci pe studenţi să-şi expună ideile şi să
fii tacticos.
Profesorul trebuie să fie capabil să organizeze un grup productiv, să
monitorizeze semnale non verbale ale acestui grup şi să dirijeze procesul în
234
funcţie de timpul disponibil, rămînînd totodată flexibil în cadrul perioadei
stabilite.
Tannebaum spunea că profesorul nu trebuie să impună grupului
propriile idei, ci să facă ca procesul de muncă să fie plăcut şi să fie pregătit
să accepte unele manifestări mai puţin serioase, tinzînd în acelaşi timp către
un ţel serios.
Calităţile personale
Persoana interesată de dezvoltarea creativităţii trebuie să fie în mod
sincer entuziast, devotat muncii sale, optimist, flexibil şi spontan.
Caracteristicile cognitive
Persoana care facilitează creativitatea trebuie să aibă capacităţi bune
de a generaliza şi a clasifica şi să fie deschisă ideilor noi. Ea trebuie să
accepte ambiguitatea, dar şi să menţină echilibrul necesar pentru a introduce
o ordine mai bună în dezordine şi ambiguitate.
Relaţiile dintre profesori şi studenţi
'' Consideră elevul o făclie pe care să o aprinzi, astfel incît mai tîrziu
să lumineze cu o lumină proprie'' a specificat cândva Plutarh. Cu siguranţă,
toţi profesorii trebuie să ţină cont de îndemnul lui Plutarh, deoarece ei deţin
un rol important în dezvoltarea creativităţii studenţilor lor. Deseori, foştii
studenţi îi elogiază pe profesorii lor, care au contribuit la formarea acestora
ca personalitate şi la obţinerea succeselor ulterioare. Un exemplu
concludent ar fi cel al lui Einstein, care, l-a elogiat pe profesorul său, Reuss,
pentru faptul că era mai flexibil şi mai puţin conformist decît ceilalţi
profesori şi pentru că l-a încurajat să gîndeasca independent. Dacă
profesorul doreşte ca studenţii să fie creativi, atunci trebuie să-i convingă că
ei pot fi. Nu poţi să-i dirijezi să fie creativi. E vorba mai mult de crearea
unui mediu în care să se poată manifesta creativitatea. Presiunea, foarte rar
se soldează cu realizarea unei lucrări creative.
Unii profesori dezvoltă creativitatea, apreciind ideile studenţilor.
Încep prin a discuta şi a-i asculta. Este important să accepţi ideile lor drept
pozitive şi să le reţii, inclusiv ideile plauzibile, considerate reuşite, dar care
nu pot fi folosite la momentul respectiv. Nu ai dreptul să spui: „Asta e
stupid.”
Cultivarea gândirii inovatoare a devenit o sarcină importantă a
instituţiilor de învăţămînt contemporane. Stimularea creativităţii tinerilor se
poate realiza printr-o susţinută şi elevată pregătire teoretică şi practică;
dinamizarea iniţiativei şi muncii independente, a spiritului critic ştiinţific;
dinamizarea activităţii de documentare şi experimentare independentă;
receptivitatea faţă de nou; pasiune pentru ştiinţă în concordanţă cu
aptitudinile fiecăruia. Vorbim de învăţare creativă atunci când studentul
235
dobândeşte o experienţă nouă prin propriile puteri descoperind-o şi
exersând-o în cadre problematice divergente.
Interactivitatea presupune creativitate, în timp ce creativitatea poate
fi individuală sau de grup.
Învaţarea interactiv-creativă este o formă specială a învăţării apărută
din necesitatea de a crea un om activ, un constructor de idei, care nu rămâne
suspendat în sistemul său ideativ ci îl foloseşte pentru a elabora decizii şi a
rezolva problemele vieţii prin acţiune. Ea pune accentul pe învăţarea prin
cercetare-descoperire, pe învăţarea prin efort propriu, independent sau
dirijat; pune accent, mai ales, pe echipamentul intelectual operatoriu, pe
gândire şi imaginaţie creatoare. Stimularea activismului şi a creativităţii în
instituţiile de învăţămînt presupune favorizarea unui mediu de învăţare
interactiv,incitator. Torrance oferă câteva sugestii privind stimularea
creativităţii în rândul elevilor prin:
- Recompensarea permanentă a comportamentelor creative;
- Neimpunerea propriilor idei şi soluţii studenţilor;
- Provocarea studenţilor cu idei interesante şi paradoxuri aparente;
- Oferirea de evaluări deschise, idei controversate care să provoace
punerea unor probleme;
- Încurajarea studenţilor să-şi noteze ideile proprii.
Profesorul totodată trebuie să faciliteze cunoaşterea de către studenţi
a tehnicilor creative.
Pentru încurajarea creativităţii în educaţie şi cercetare, instituţiile de
invăţămînt superior trebuie să promoveze o cultură care să recompenseze
performanţa, dar să nu sancţioneze eşecurile, tocmai pentru a încuraja
membrii comunităţii universitare să pună sub semnul îndoielii ideile vechi,
să treacă dincolo de cunoaşterea convenţională şi să tindă spre originalitate.
Omul creativ trebuie să îşi asume riscuri în cadrul sistemului educaţional
care, la randul lui, trebuie să îl protejeze.
Predarea orientată spre creativitate implică un set de condiţii
favorabile, multe dintre care au fost relevate de profesori, toate necesitînd să
fie luate în considerare.
Ca premise ale performanţelor în învăţământ, creativitatea şi
capacitatea de inovare au un rol important, iar obiectivele pe care instituţiile
de învăţămînt contemporane ar trebui să le aibă în vedere, pot fi
următoarele:
 Să sprijine toate formele de creativitate;
 Să creeze un context care să permită tinerilor să dobândească
competenţe de exprimare a propriei personalităţi, necesare de-a lungul
vieţii;
 Să promoveze diveritatea culturală ca sursă a creativităţii şi inovatiei;
236

Să încurajeze utilizarea TIC ca modalitate de exprimare creativă a
propriei personalităţi;
 Să contribuie la formarea unui spirit antreprenorial mai pregnant;
 Să sensibilizeze linia publică cu privire la perceperea inovaţiei drept
modalitate de promovare a dezvoltării durabile;
 Să aducă în atenţia publicului strategiile regionale şi locale bazate pe
creativitate şi inovaţie ;
În concluzie, putem afirma că creativitatea poate fi dezvoltată.
Atenţia principală se îndreaptă asupra climatului favorabil în care
creativitatea se poate afirma şi asupra măiestriei de predare. Dezvoltarea
creativităţii cere o iscusinţă înaltă din partea profesorilor, care trebuie să
predea măiestria, iar studenţii au nevoie să li se dea posibilitatea de a se
implica activ în realizarea unor sarcini instructive, interesante şi relevante,
fie individual, fie în grup cu alţi colegi.
Creativitatea mai este şi o nevoie socială. Provocările lumii moderne
impun soluţii creative. C. Rogers consideră că adaptarea creativă este
singura soluţie pentru a ţine pasul cu schimbarea. Pentru a se adapta la
realităţile noi, cadrul didactic trebuie să-şi cultive aptitudinile creative , să-şi
activizeze resursele interne care acţionează favorabil asupra propriei
creativităţi şi să stimuleze creativitatea studenţilor pe care îi formează.
Bibliografie
Guilford G. P. The nature of human intelligence. New York, 1967.
Herivan M. Educaţia la timpul viitor. Bucureşti, 1986.
Gerngrass G. Creative Grammar practice. Cambridge, 1996.
Tannebaum A. G. Gifted children: Psychological and educational
perspectives. New York, 1993.
5. Gondiu E. Pedagogie generală. Cartier, 1997.
6. Bontaş I. Pedagogie.Bucureşti, 1996.
7. Oprea O. Didactica Nova. Tehnologie didactică. vol.II, Chişinău, 1992.
8. Cristea S. Curriculum pedagogic. Bucureşti: E.D.P., 2008
9. Roco M. Creativitate şi inteligenţa emotională. Bucureşti: Ed.Polirom,
2004
10. http://www.tribunainvatamantului.ro
1.
2.
3.
4.
237
PROCEDURES OF TEACHING THE ETYMOLOGY OF
COMPUTER SCIENCE TERMINOLOGY
Rodica RIVENCO,
Lecturer, MA,
ULIM, R.Moldova
Computer science is the study of the theoretical foundations of
information and computation and their implementation and application in
computer systems. Computer science has many sub-fields; some emphasize
the computation of specific results (such as computer graphics), while
others relate to properties of computational problems (such as
computational complexity theory). Still others focus on the challenges in
implementing computations. For example, programming language theory
postulates approaches to describing computations, while computer
programming applies specific programming languages to solve specific
computational problems. A further sub-field, human-computer interaction
focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful,
usable and universally accessible to people.
During the 1940s, as newer and more powerful computing machines
were developed, the term computer came to refer to the machines rather
than their human predecessors. As it became clear that the computers could
be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer
science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began
to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1960s, with the
creation of the first computer science departments and degree programs.
Since practical computers became available, many applications of
computing have become distinct areas of study in their own right.
Many initially believed it impossible that computer themselves could
actually be a scientific field of study, though it was in the late fifties that it
gradually became accepted among the greater academic population.
English computer science terminology is very popular nowadays.
Computer science terms appear every day and even every hour in all
spheres of our life and in all languages. It is a great problem for a translator
or interpreter because not all the new words can be found in existing
dictionaries.
The era of modern computing began with a flurry of development
before and during World War II, as electronic circuits, relays, capacitors
and vacuum tubes replaced mechanical equivalents and digital calculations
replaced analog calculations are often directly attributable to a specific
individual, publication, period or event.
238
Computer science, formal science as well as engineering science has
become a basic science of social development. It features and methods for
modeling, abstraction and construction. However, this is not the only reason
for its outstanding position in the canon of science. It is its tendency of
affecting other fields of science, which makes computer science so unique
and important for general education.
The etymology of computer terminology deals with the study of the
history of words and especially, the period when they entered the language,
from what source and how their form and meaning have changed over the
time.
As a language, English is derived from the Anglo-Saxon, a West
Germanic variety, although its current vocabulary includes words from
many languages. However, language change has eroded many grammatical
elements, such as the noun case system, which is greatly simplified in
Modern English; and certain elements of vocabulary, many of which are
borrowed from French. Though more than half of the words in English
either come from the French language or have a French cognate, most of the
common words are still of Germanic origin. When the Normans conquered
England in 1066 (the Norman Conquest) [5, p.93], they brought their
Norman language with them. During the Anglo-Norman period which
united insular and continental territories, the ruling class spoke AngloNorman, while the peasants spoke the English of the time. Anglo-Norman
was the conduit for the introduction of French into England. This led to
many paired words of French origin. English words of more than two
syllabes are likely to come from French, often with modified terminations.
For example, the French words for „syllable” , „modified”, „terminations”
and „example”, are „syllabe”, „modifié”, “terminaisons” and “exemple”. In
many cases, the English form of the word is more conservative than the
French form. Therefore the computer terms having a French origin are the
following:
 Access (v) – dating from the 14th century, from old French accessus.
 Apply (v) - dating from the 14th century, from old French applier.
 Band (n) - dating from the 15th century, from old French bende.
 Button (n) - dating from the 14th century, from old French boton.
 Execute (v) - dating from the 14th century, from old French executer.
 Image (n) - dating from the 13th century, from old French imagine.
There are many others with the same etymology. English has proven
accommodating to words from many languages.. Scientific terminology
relies heavily on words of Latin and Greek origin. Here are some examples:
 Macro (n) – from Greek macros large;
239
Paragraph (n) – dating from the 16th century, from Medieval Latin
paragraphus;
 Scan (v) – dating from the 16th century, from Late Latin scandere;
 Search (v) – the 14th century, from old French cherchier, from Late
Latin circare;
 Text (n) – the 14th century, from Medieval Latin textus;
 Transfer (n) – the 14th century, from Latin transferre;
 Transmission (n) – the 17th century, from Latin transmission.
If speaking about the translation of computer terms, it is worth
mentioning that while translating them one can find different methods of
doing that so, we can use direct translating procedures or indirect.
New words are coined in the language to give names to new objects
or phenomena which become known to the people. This process is going on
a considerable scale as shown by the necessity of publishing dictionaries of
new words. With the English vocabulary constantly expanding, no
dictionary can catch up with the new arrivals and give a more or less
complete list of the new words. Moreover, there are numerous short-lived
lexical units created ad hoc by the English-speaking people in the process of
oral or written communication. Such words may never get in common use
and will not be registered by the dictionaries, but they are well understood
by the communicants since they are coined following the familiar structural
and semantic model.
One of the most essential characteristics of the computer language is
its dynamism. It is a domain that is in permanent transformation and this
feature creates significant difficulties for a translation dealing with
computer terminology. That’s why, specialized dictionaries of computer
terms provide an invaluable service to translators, and language learners.

Bibliography
1. Bauer L. English Word Formation. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1983.
2. Corbolante L. Software terminology and localization. University of
Vienna, 1997.
3. Sweet Henry. History of Language. Folcroft library editions, 1876.
4. Kuhlwein W. Linguistics in Great Britain. London, 1970.
5. Vascenco V. Probleme terminologice. Chisinau, 2003.
6. Clark John. Cambridge International Dictionary of English.
Cambridge University Press, 1995.
7. Fowler H.W. Advanced learning dictionary of current English.
Warsaw: Polish Scientific Publishers, 1956.
8. www. encyclopedia.com
9. www. yourdictionary.com
240
PARADIGMELE EDUCAŢIONALE VĂZUTE PRIN PRISMA NTIC
Ghenadie RÂBACOV, drd.,
Universitatea Liberă Internaţională din Moldova
Revoluţia tehnologică din anii ’80 precum şi saltul electronic
produs în anii ’90 ai secolului trecut au transformat vertiginos lumea
economică, socială şi implicit cea educaţională. Graţie emergenţei noilor
tehnologii informaţionale şi comunicaţionale (NTIC) ce pot fi utilizate cu
succes în spaţiul educaţional, statutul sistemului tradiţional şi arhitectura
paradimelor educaţionale capătă cu totul alt contur, făcându-şi loc sisteme
noi de învăţare: învăţarea la distanţă, învăţarea online, învăţarea de tip
hibrid (Blending Learning), tele-educaţia, e-learning, care sunt practic
cvasisinonimice. Conform definiţiei propuse de Comisia Europeană, elearning înseamnă « utilisation des nouvelles technologies multimédia et de
l’Internet pour améliorer la qualité de l’apprentissage en facilitant l’accès
à des ressources et des services, ainsi que les échanges et la collaboration à
distance ». (http://www.definition.be/defipoints/point2.asp, consultat la
10.01.2011) – utilizarea noilor tehnologii multimedia şi a Internetului
pentru a îmbunătăţi calitatea învăţării, facilitând accesul la resurse şi
tehnici precum şi schimburile de informaţii şi colaborările la distanţă
(traducerea noastră).
În sensul Hotărârii Consiliului Uniunii Europene din 27 iunie 2002
« L’éducation et la formation sont un instrument indispensable pour
promouvoir la cohésion sociale, la citoyenneté active, l’épanouissement
personnel et professionnel, ainsi que l’adaptabilité et « l’employabilité ».
(...). Elles devraient permettre à tous d’acquérir les connaissances
nécessaires pour participer en tant que citoyens actifs à la société de la
connaissance et au marché du travail. » (http://landrypp.free.fr
/french/index_.php?page=textes_fondamentaux#cit20
consultat
la
20.01.2011). – Educaţia şi formarea sunt mijloace indispensabile pentru
promovarea coeziunii sociale, a cetăţeniei active, dezvoltării personale şi
profesionale, precum şi adaptabilităţii şi „angajabilităţii” (...). Ele trebuie
să permită tuturor să achiziţioneze cunoştinţele necesare pentru a participa
activ în societatea informaţională şi pe piaţa muncii (traducerea noastră).
În pofida disparităţii de opinii cu privire la rolul şi impactul NTIC
în procesul de predare /învăţare, majoritatea didacticienilor opinează că nu
trebuie să ne întrebăm dacă instruirea se ameliorează prin utilizarea
calculatoarelor şi care este soarta ei fără strategiile metodologice
tradiţionale. Savantul Gilbert de Landsheere, profesor emerit la
Universitatea din Liege, Belgia, menţionează că „Educatia trebuie sa
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prevină utilizările oarbe ale noilor tehnologii informaţionale în
comunicare, să impiedice înstrăinarea omului, să lupte contra dorinţei de
divertisment permanent, contra fricii nejustificate faţă de noile tehnologii
informatice în comunicare, să prevină diminuarea spiritului creativ” (citat
de Daly, 2008, p. 380). În opinia noastră aplicarea corectă a NTIC în
procesul de predare reprezintă un adevărat succes şi incontestabil duce la
îmbunătăţirea sistemului de educaţie dacă sunt combinate armonios cu
metodele tradiţionale, rolul profesorului în sala de curs rămânând
primordial. Drept model al implementării reuşite a NTIC este Finlanda, care
în 2002-2003 a fost printre tările lider ce mizează foarte mult pe implicarea
activă a profesorilor în utilizarea tehnologiilor informaţionale şi
comunicaţionale pentru a îmbunătăţi performanţele în domeniul literaturii,
matematicii şi ştiinţei. Aceste modificări au generat noi tipuri de studenţi,
noi procese de învăţare şi noi abordări de evaluare, care, la rândul lor, au
provocat schimbări în metodologia predării şi în rolul profesorilor. Un alt
exemplu elocvent pe care îl putem cita, este cel al Marii Britanii, care a
lansat sistemul educaţional bazat pe instruirea asistată la calculator. În acest
sens, în perioada 1997-2004, Guvernul britanic a investit 1 miliard de lire
sterline în NTIC pentru educaţie şi aceste investiţii s-au soldat cu succes.
Peste 99% din şcoli sunt conectate la internet, în mare parte cu viteză de
bandă largă.
Prof. Bill Messner de la Carnegie Mellon University consideră că
motivul pentru care noile tehnologii educaţionale au fost acceptate şi
răspândite pe larg este eliberarea de rutină, utilizarea lor facilă atât pentru
profesor cât şi pentru student, furnizarea de informaţii pertinente într-un
format accesibil, cu minim de efort (Educom Review, Vol. 33/1, 1998, pp.
50-54). John Etchemendy, la rândul său, afirmă că învăţarea asistată de
calculator este binevenită: „Computers are far and away the most flexible
tools ever created by mankind and as such, they will eventually
revolutionize how most subjects are taught” – Computerul este cel mai
flexibil instrument creat vreodată de omenire şi de aceea va schimba modul
de predare (Ibidem). După cum susţin autorii T. Bălan şi F. Kurko (2004, p.
59), numai în ultimii ani performanţele calculatorului au atins un nivel, care
în urmă cu două-trei decenii era de domeniul science fiction. Cărţile, tabla,
proiectoarele sunt mijloace educaţionale care fac predarea mult mai
eficientă. Calculatorul, însă, ne permite să utilizăm tehnici pe care înainte
nu le puteam utiliza.
Constatăm că la etapa actuală arealul noilor educaţii este unul
foarte fierbinte, fiind în continuă mişcare şi reformare, datorită
complexităţii sale în concordanţă cu perspectiva procesuală şi relaţională a
educaţiei. Prezenţa şi utilizarea computerului în sălile de curs este
242
echivalentă cu descoperirea tiparului. În prezent aproape fiecare curs de
lecţii este secondat de o prezentare PowerPoint în format electronic,
publicaţii pe pagini web, baze de date multimedia. Este de menţionat şi
faptul că noile faţete ale paradigmelor educaţionale sunt focusate pe inter- şi
transdiciplinaritate, aplicarea cărora reprezintă o adevărată revoluţie
didactică. Dat fiind că ne aflăm astăzi în plină revoluţie a inteligenţei,
trebuie să înţelegem că transdisciplinaritatea ne descoperă dimensiunea
poetică a existenţei, traversând toate disciplinele, dincolo de ele, spune
fizicianul franco-român şi acad. Basarab Nicolescu într-un interviu publicat
pe situl http://www.cafeneaua.com. Din confruntarea dintre discipline, a
fenomenelor şi proceselor complexe, transdisciplinaritatea face să apară noi
puncte de intersecţie dintre discipline şi noi rezultate.
Profesorul şi teoreticianul canadian Marshall McLuhan afirmă că
studentul viitorului va fi un explorator, un cercetător: „The student of the
future will truly be an explorer, a researcher” (1967, p. 24). Pentru aceasta
el trebuie să înţeleagă importanţa învăţării prin cercetare, prin descoperire,
importanţa realizării conexiunilor între diferite discipline. În contextul
societăţii de astăzi, mulţi cercetători lansează postulatul că din punct de
vedre axiologic, orice cucerire ştiinţifică trebuie transpusă în termeni
didactici. Actualitatea prezentului studiu se explică şi prin necesitatea
sistemului educaţional de a ţine pasul cu evoluţiile NTIC. Astfel, principala
urgenţă educativă este eminamente legată de intervenţia NTIC şi includerea
lor în curriculum-urile naţionale, aşa cum s-a procedat in Anglia în anul
1988 când pentru prima dată Legea engleză stabilea imperativitatea
educaţiei pentru noile tehnologii şi elabora programe bazate pe evoluţiile
din noile tehnologii informaţionale şi de comunicare. Un an mai târziu, în
Franţa, Legea demarează prin redefinirea idealului educativ, a misiunilor
educative şi procedurilor de evaluare; organizarea modulară a
conţinuturilor. În topul ţărilor care au implementat reforma curriculară,
alături de Danemarca, Germania, Suedia, SUA, Japonia, se situează şi ţara
vecină România. Universitatea din Bucureşti face parte din primele 10
universităţi din lume care şi-au creat centre de calcul acum 4 decenii, graţie
acadmicianului Grigore Constantin Moisil, celebru matematician român
considerat părintele informaticii româneşti.
Reformele produse în sistemul de învăţământ au impus trecerea la
o abordare de tip paradigmatic a realităţii educaţionale. Aşadar, utilizarea
frecventă a conceptului de paradigmă în teoria şi practică pedagogică
necesită anumite precizări. Să vedem care sunt accepţiunile şi definiţia
acestui termen. Cuvântul paradigmă provine de la latinescul „paradigma”
care însemna exemplu, model. Vehiculat în literatura de specialitate odata
cu apariţia lucrării lui Thomas Kuhn The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
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/Structura revoluţiilor ştiinţifice (1962), conceptul de paradigmă
desemnează în prezent un ansamblu de teorii şi metode investigative cu un
pronunţat caracter normativ care ghidează şi orientează la un moment dat
cercetările efective întreprinse într-un anumit domeniu.
În opinia lui Cezar Bârzea, paradigmele educaţiei reprezintă
„sloganul pedagogic” de ultimă oră considerat salvator pentru înţelegerea
relaţiei Teorie-Practică, dintotdeauna „călcâiul lui Ahile” al cercetării
pedagogice (1995, p. XII). Cercetătorul are curajul de a propune o ştiinţă a
educaţiei definită sintetic prin calitatea sa de „ştiinţă a paradigmelor”.
Există trei sensuri ale cuvântului paradigmă, explicitate de C. Bârzea
(1995, pp. 96-97):
1) Sensul lingvistic → În limbile care folosesc declinări şi conjugări,
paradigma semnifică ansamblul formelor flexionare ale unui cuvânt; într-o
accepţiune lărgită, cuprinde totalitatea termenilor aparţinând aceleiaşi
categorii gramaticale, care se pot substitui unul cu altul.
2) Sensul filosofic → În scrierile filosofice, cuvântul „paradigmă” a
fost întrebuinţat cu sensul de exemplu sau model al unui sistem de gândire.
La Platon, paradigmele sunt exemplele sau cazurile individuale prin care se
exprimă ideile.
3) Sensul epistemologic → Paradigma a devenit un instrument al
cunoaşterii ştiinţifice abia în anii ‘60-70, în contextul „noii metateorii”,
când apar primele studii care necesită o profundă reflecţie asupra sistemului
intern al pedagogiei, susţinând nevoia clarificării statutului epistemologic al
acesteia. Pe acest fond extrem de favorabil, a apărut cartea lui Th. Kuhn
Structura revoluţiilor ştiinţifice. Kuhn argumentează că cercetarea ştiinţifică
nu este condusă în primul rând de teorii şi reguli metodologice generale, ci
de experienţe împărtăşite în comun, ce sunt încastrate în paradigme. Sensul
filosofic trece pe plan secundar, astfel încât s-a adoptat foarte repede această
accepţiune epistemologică: paradigmele sunt teoriile dominante folosite de
comunitatea ştiinţifică într-o anumită epocă sau la un anumit stadiu de
evoluţie al ştiinţei respective. Această definiţie a fost revizuită şi completată
la diversele ediţii ale cărţii lui Kuhn, dar şi de criticii săi: Masterman
(1970), Shapere (1971), Sneed (1975), Getzels (1976), Bohme şi Van den
Daele (1977), Kisiel (1982), Landry (1986).
Referindu-se la organizarea spaţiului şcolar în corespundere cu
teoriile metodologice predominante de-a lungul timpului, Getzels (citat de
Bârzea, 1995, pp. 101-102) vorbeşte despre existenta a patru paradigme
fundamentale în sistemul educaţional:
1) Paradigma clasei dreptunghiulare → paradigma clasică sau
magistrocentrică, originară din sec. al XIX-lea, conform căreia organizarea
clasei trebuie să favorizeze exercitarea autorităţii absolute a profesorului.
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Pupitrele elevilor erau fixate pe podea, în rânduri paralele, orientate spre
catedră: de acolo veneau lumina cunoaşterii, comenzile şi indicaţiile. Un
precursor al acestei abordări este John Brubacher, autorul celebrei lucrări
History of the Problems of Education (1966). Această paradigmă era
expresia viziunii pedagogice care punea accentul pe predare, nu pe învăţare.
2) Paradigma clasei pătrate → a luat naştere în anii ‘30 ai sec. al
XX-lea, ca urmare a teoriilor puerocentriste şi a mişcării în favoarea
metodelor active, centrate pe elev i necesită ile sale. Vechea concepţie a
copilului ca „tabula rasa” (Locke şi Helvetius), a unui recipient vid care
trebuie umplut cu informaţii, este înlocuită cu o „pedagogie activă”.
Pionierii acestei paradigme sunt: Maria Montessori, medic şi pedagog
italian; Decroly; Claparede; Jean Piaget, psiholog elveţian, opera lui fiind
cunoscută peste tot în lume constituind o sursă de inspiraţie în domenii ca
psihologia, sociologia, educaţia, epistemologia. Clasa dreptunghiulară,
centrată pe profesor, este înlocuită cu clasa pătrată în care elevii au mai
multă libertate. Catedra este coborâtă de pe piedestal şi plasată undeva, întro poziţie secundară. Pupitrele nu mai sunt fixate de planşeu, ele devin
mobile şi disponibile pentru diversele grupări şi regrupări ale elevilor.
3) Paradigma clasei circulare → este rezultatul trecerii, în anii ‘50 ai
sec. trecut, de la teoria asociaţionistă la o concepţie structuralistă asupra
învăţării. Elevul nu mai este conceput ca o entitate inactivă care trebuie
dotată cu informaţii, nici ca un „organism activ” care trebuie stimulat, el
este un „organism social” plasat într-un câmp de influenţe reciproce (Kurt
Lewin). Accentul se deplasează de la activitatea individului la acţiunea
colectivă, iar prioritatea este acordată coeziunii şi dinamicii grupului de
învăţare. Aceasta este paradigma învăţământului centrat pe grup, unde
fiecare este plasat cu faţa la ceilalţi (aranjamentul de tip workshop sau masă
rotundă). Băncile sunt trapezoidale, astfel încât să poată fi asamblate în
cerc.
4) Paradigma clasei deschise → este paradigma anilor ‘70 ai sec. al
XX-lea, născută din teoria învăţământului prin descoperire (Bruner, Hunt,
Getzels, Gordon, White, Barth). Această paradigmă a fost formulată printrun slogan celebru al pedagogiei americane: „The child is born curious”
(Copilul se naşte curios). Se propune înlăturarea pupitrelor şi a catedrei şi
organizarea aşa-numitei „open classroom” (clasă deschisă). E vorba de o
învăţare fără constrângeri spaţiale sau temporale. Elevii nu mai sunt grupaţi
după criteriul unificator al vârstei, ci după interese şi aptitudini. Lecţiile se
desfăşoară în spaţii polivalente de patru ori mai mari decât clasele
tradiţionale, unde există posibilităţi de organizare modulară şi de alegere a
mijloacelor de învăţare. Rolul profesorului este de consilier şi sursă de
informaţii suplimentare.
245
Ţinând cont de comutarea de paradigme educaţionale în societatea
cunoaşterii, în care sunt încurajate creativitatea, inovaţia şi cercetarea,
propunem următorul tabel comparativ:
Nr.
1.
2.
3.
Caracteristicile vechilor
paradigme
Învăţarea este centrată pe
predare, pe autoritatea
profesorului.
Învăţarea are loc predominant
prin memorare şi reproducere
de cunoştinţe.
Sarcinile şcolare par a fi o
povară şi o obligaţie neplăcută.
4.
Învăţarea generează competiţie
între elevi /studenţi, cu scopul
de ierarhizare, iar succesul este
atribuit doar unora dintre ei.
5.
Lecţiile sunt liniare, simpliste,
cu secvenţe în succesiune, iar
viaţa cotidiană, experienţa
personală sunt ignorate ca fiind
neştiinţifice.
Elevul /studentul este produsul
instituţiei de învăţământ.
6.
Caracteristicile noilor paradigme
Învăţarea este centrată pe elev
/student, profesorul având rolul
de ghid.
Învăţarea are loc predominant
prin formare de competenţe şi
deprinderi practice.
Sarcinile şcolare sunt
transformate în activităţi
interesante, atractive.
Învăţarea se realizează prin
colaborare profesor-elev, se
urmăreşte progresul întregului
grup şi succesul este atribuit
tuturor.
Lecţiile se derulează în spirală şi
încurajează cercetarea, iar viaţa
cotidiană şi experienţa personală
sunt folosite în învăţare.
Elevul /studentul este rezultatul
propriului proces de formare şi
dezvoltare, a colaborării cu
instituţia de învăţământ.
Astăzi paradigmele educaţionale sunt de neconceput fără NTIC. În
pedagogie, în special în anul 1960, termenul de tehnologie a circulat cu 2
sensuri: pe de o parte, el desemna ansamblul tehnicilor şi mijloacelor de
predare (este ceea ce Titone a numit „tehnologia didactică”); pe de altă
parte, este vorba de folosirea raţionalităţii tehnologice în organizarea artei
predării. Noţiunea de tehnologie provine din limba greacă: teche însemnând
„măiestrie” şi logos „ştiinţă”. S. C. Spaulding consideră că „Tehnologia
instruirii include întregul proces al formării obiectivelor, permanenta
renovare a planurilor şi programelor, testarea strategiilor alternative şi a
materialelor didactice, evaluarea sistemelor pedagogice în ansamblu şi
redefinirea obiectivelor îndată ce devin cunoscute noi informaţii despre
246
eficienţa sistemului” (citat de Mândâcanu, 1997, p. 170). După Association
for Educational Communications and Technology din SUA „Tehnologia
educaţională reprezintă un proces complex, integral, incluzând oameni,
idei, utilaje şi organizare, pentru analiza problemelor, instrumentarea,
implementarea, evaluarea şi monitorizarea soluţiilor la temele care vizează
aspectele învăţării”.
Computerele au început a fi aplicate în procesul de învăţământ cu
aprox. 50 de ani în urmă. Începutul erei înstruirii computerizate este anul
1958 când la Universitatea din statul Illinois (conform clasamentului
mondial al universităţilor din 2009 s-a clasat a 25-a din peste 1000 de
instituţii internaţionale recunoscute), SUA, a fost realizată prima lecţie
computerizată. Învăţarea pe bază de calculator prevede de asemenea crearea
softurilor educaţionale. Softul educaţional este definit drept un produs
program care a fost deliberat construit pentru a putea fi utilizat în
organizarea unor situaţii de învăţare. Un soft este conceput pentru a învăţa,
se adaptează în funcţie de caracteristicile individuale ale utilizatorului şi
trebuie să asigure interacţiunea flexibilă student-computer sau computerprofesor. Există o mulţime de activităţi TIC complementare pentru studierea
unei limbi străine: utilizarea dicţionarelor electronice bilingve şi explicative,
glosarelor terminologice, portofoliile electronice (e-folio), HotWords,
exerciţii (ex. Hot Potatoes), programe de gramatică, traducerea automată,
Yahoo Groops, cursuri organizate în Moodle (platformă de învăţare elearning), blog-ul educaţional etc. Universitatea Liberă Internaţională este
printre primele instituţii din RM care şi-a creat un model educaţional aparte
centrat pe student, în strictă conformitate cu legislaţia în vigoare şi
standardele europene.
E-learning este o industire relativ nouă şi puţin explorată, care
presupune acoperirea unui set vast de aplicaţii şi procese bazate pe învăţarea
cu ajutorul calculatorului. E-learning înseamnă de asemenea distribuirea
conţinutului informaţiei pe cale electronică, convergenţa dintre învăţare şi
Internet. Ca şi orice sistem de învăţare, e-learning are avantaje şi
dezavantaje, notate în tabelul de mai jos:
e-learning
avantaje
dezavantaje
 cel mai rapid mod de învăţare,
 dificultăţi în determinarea
cu cele mai reduse costuri, care
cerinţelor unui curs academic,
permite creşterea accesului la
lipsa accesului rapid la un
educaţie pentru toţi
profesor sau cunoştinţe precare
participanţii;
despre tehnologia utilizată pentru
 posibilitatea de învăţare oriunde
transmiterea cursurilor la distanţă;
247
şi oricând; mai puţin stress;
 structurarea informaţiei pe
module – învăţare progresivă;
 capacitatea mare de stocare a
informaţiei.
 obstacole privind integrarea unor
persoane în sistemul e-learning;
 factori psiho-sociali,
imposibilitatea de a frecventa
centre de specializare în utilizarea
TIC;
 neadaptarea cadrelor didactice la
noile tehnologii.
Etiam seni esse discendum (chiar şi cei bătrâni trebuie să înveţe),
spunea Seneca. Acest aforism conţine ideea învăţării continue pe parcursul
întregii vieţi. De aceeaşi părere era şi pedagogul ceh Jan Amos Comenius
care susţinea că „viaţa este o şcoală”. La fel şi Nicolae Iorga afirma că
,,învăţat e omul care se învaţă necontenit pe sine şi învaţă necontenit pe
alţii”.
Pornind de la înţelegerea educaţiei ca tot, ca experienţă globală –
în plan cognitiv, practic, personal şi social – Raportul UNESCO pentru
secolul XXI elaborat de Comisia Internaţională pentru Educaţie, a avansat
direcţiile de dezvoltare a educaţiei
1) A învăţa să cunoşti, care presupune însuşirea instrumentelor
intelectuale, cu accent pe trăirea valorilor şi aplicarea informaţiei.
2) A învăţa să faci, axă ce pune problema formării profesionale, adică
a competenţelor personale şi specifice activităţii profesionale.
3) A învăţa să trăieşti împreună cu alţii, ceea ce presupune învăţarea
nonviolenţei, a cooperării, a dialogului şi a empatiei.
4) A învăţa să fii, a se determina pe sine, a fi capabil de autonomie şi
spirit critic.
(http://www.cempres.ro/centru/index.php/femeia-sistudiul/studiile-si-cariera/20-educatia-permanenta-o-necesitate,
consultat la 18.03.2011).
Într-o societate pluriformă, în permanentă schimbare, cunoştinţele
şi abilităţile oamenilor au devenit cel mai valoros capital al lor. Orice
dezvoltare trece prin educaţie. Astfel, sistemul de învăţământ trebuie să se
integreze şi să îşi adapteze ofertele pentru a veni în sprijinul noii generaţii,
actualizându-şi permanent finalităţile şi resursele, de o manieră în care să
poată răspunde noilor provocări. Revigorarea procesului de învăţământ este
practic imposibilă fără implementarea tehnologiilor informaţionale
avansate. NTIC avansate pot fi foarte eficiente însă nu dau rezultate dacă
profesorii nu le pot folosi şi aplica în mod corespunzător.
Concluzionând, putem spune că NTIC sunt indispensabile, îşi au
rolul şi partea lor meritorie, însă, în cazul limbilor străine, trebuiesc
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combinate cu metodele şi strategiile tradiţionale de predare/învăţare.
Secolul XXI va continua această dezbatere, o va intensifica, va sta sub
semnul acestor probleme deschise. Ţara noastră se aliniază ţărilor europene
care au depăşit stadiul de „alfabetizare digitală”, cu un tineret foarte
receptiv în domeniul noilor tehnologii. E-learning trebuie considerat ca:
 o completare, şi nici într-un caz o substituire a învăţământului
tradiţional;
 o formă de evaluare a lucrului individual, prevăzut în programele
analitice;
 un hobby pentru studierea unei limbi, cunoaşterea acesteea la
nivelul „tourist clever”;
 o dorinţă de a cunoaşte culturi diverse, nevoia de a se integra sau
pur şi simplu pasiunea pentru o anumită civilizaţie.
Absolvirea unei specializări la Litere reprezintă un paşaport pentru
un post de traducător. NTIC reprezintă o condiţie sine qua non în predarea
traducerii, însă rolul profesorului în sala de curs rămâne primordial.
Învăţarea şi asimilarea unei limbi străine are la bază în primul rând
comunicarea, care „pluteşte peste aproape toate ştiinţele” (Bourgnoux,
2000, p. 17). Internet-ul, alături de metodele tradiţionale poate face educaţia
mai eficientă. Tot ceea ce ne mai rămâne de facut este să tim cum să
valorificăm din punct de vedere pedagogic magia acestui fenomen.
Referinţe bibliografice:
Bălan T. şi Kurko F. Dimensiunea performanţei. In „CHIP Computer &
Communications” nr. 9. Bucureşti, 2004.
2. Bârzea C. Arta şi ştiinţa educaţiei. Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi
pedagogică, 1995.
3. Bourgnoux D. Introducere în ştiinţele comunicării. Iaşi: Polirom, 2000.
4. Daly M. Studiul matematicii prin aplicaţii software dedicate. In
„Virtual Learning – Virtual Reality. Tehnologii moderne în educaţie şi
cercetare” a VI-a Conferinţă naţională de învăţământ virtual. Bucureşti:
ed. Univ. din Bucureşti, 2008, pp. 380-387.
5. Educom Review, Vol. 33/1. Washington, 1998, pp. 50-54.
6. Mândâcanu V. Bazele tehnnologiei şi măiestriei pedagogice. Chişinău:
Lyceum, 1997.
7. McLuhan M. & Leonard G. B. The Future of Education: The class of
1989. In „Look”, February 21, 1967, pp. 23-24.
8. http://www.aect.org, consultat la 10.01.2011.
9. http://www.definition.be/defipoints/point2.asp, consultat la 10.01.2011.
10. http://landrypp.free.fr/french/index_.php?page=textes_fondamentaux#c
it20, consultat la 20.01.2011.
1.
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11. http://www.cempres.ro/centru/index.php/femeia-si-studiul/studiile-sicariera/20-educatia-permanenta-o-necesitate, consultat la 18.03.2011
12. http://www.cafeneaua.com/nodes/show/8779/transdisciplinaritatea%E2%80%93-o-nou%C4%83-viziune-asupra-lumii/1, consultat la
22.03.2011.
ИСПОЛЬЗОВАНИЕ КОМПЬЮТЕРНЫХ ТЕХНОЛОГИЙ
ПРИ ОБУЧЕНИИ ЛЕКСИКЕ НА УРОКАХ
ИНОСТРАННОГО ЯЗЫКА
Александра РУСУ,
преподаватель, магистр,
УЛИМ, Р.Молдова
Язык- это хранитель национальной культуры народа, и
поэтому языковые единицы могут стать источником любой
информации, надо только научиться ее извлекать из них. Более того
язык может быть не только источником информации, но и средством
ее предъявления и дальнейшего хранения. Каждый, кто собирается
изучать иностранный язык, имеет определенную цель. Кому-то
требуются лишь базовые знания, чтобы “читать и переводить со
словарем” деловую переписку в офисе, а кто-то мечтает защитить
диссертацию в престижном иностранном университете.
При обучении лексике любого языка возникает ряд трудностей,
которые связанны с :
- овладением необходимым объемом значения слов, который в
большинстве случаев не совпадает с родным языком;
- многозначностью слов;
- характером сочетаемости одних слов с другими;
- употреблением слова в конкретных ситуациях общения.
К основным этапам работы над лексикой относятся:
ознакомление с новым материалом, первичное закрепление, развитие
умений и навыков использования лексики в различных видах речевой
деятельности. Все перечисленные стороны работы над лексикой
представляют собой единое целое, и вычленение каждой из них
проводится чисто в методических целях для того, чтобы
предусмотреть основные трудности в упражнениях.
Для повышения эффективности обучения лексике необходим
дифференцированный подход к отбору словарного материала, его
презентации и закреплению. Несмотря на то, что необходим
дифференцированный подход к отбору языкового материала, мы
250
должны помнить, что основными принципами отбора являются
частотность и распространенность. Частность определяется при
помощи ряда учебных словарей, учебников и справочников.
Усвоение лексического запаса всегда представляет одну из
наибольших трудностей при изучении иностранного языка, поэтому
существует потребность в разработке различных новых методов и
приемов обучения лексике, в том числе и с использованием
наглядности, которая может быть эффективна на стадиях
предъявления, закрепления и контроля изучаемых слов, так как
помогает их семантизации и способствует созданию устойчивых
ассоциаций в сознании обучаемых.
Современный педагог отказывается от готовых методических
рецептов, жестко регламентирующих деятельность в рамках
конкретной методической системы, в пользу эффективного
использования новых технологий в учебном процессе. Современные
технологии – это, несомненно компьютерные технологии, имеющие
ряд преимуществ перед традиционными методами.
Компьютерное обучение несет в себе огромный мотивационный
потенциал. Новизна работы с компьютером, которая способствует
повышению интереса к учебе, и возможность регулировать
предъявление учебных задач по степени трудности, а также поощрение
правильных решений позитивно сказываются на мотивации.
Применение компьютерных технологий
при
формировании
лексических навыков значительно усиливает эффективность данного
процесса. Все операции с лексическими единицами выполняются в
строгой последовательности. Компьютер не пропускает студента к
следующей операции, пока предыдущая
операция со всеми
лексическими единицами не будет полностью выполнена правильно.
Многократное выполнение этих операций способствует более
простому закреплению каждой лексической единицы. Кроме того,
благодаря компьютеру такие упражнения не отнимают много времени.
Для отработки значения слова может служить, например,
упражнение на распределение слов по тематическим группам
(weapons: gun, submachine gun, pistol, carbine, machine gun).
Для тренировки употребления слов с помощью компьютера
можно, например, предложить cтудентам составить предложение из
данных слов: is, a, good, there, library, school, in, militry, our. (There is a
good library in our military school). На этапе тренировки и применения
лексики для продуктивной деятельности определяющими будут
операции по соединению слов, исходя из содержания высказывания. С
целью формирования продуктивного навыка выполняется упражнение
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по заполнению пропуска в высказывании. Показателем правильности в
данном случае является соответствие смыслового значения
подставляемой лексической единицы той, с которой она сочетается.
Например, студентам предлагается заполнить пропуски в
предложениях подходящими лексическими единицами. Быстрое
выполнение подобных упражнений дает возможность увеличивать
объем изучаемой лексики за счет сэкономленного времени.
Проведенная работа по формированию лексических навыков
позволяет перейти к формированию речевых навыков диалогической
речи. Отметим, что компьютерные технологии могут применяться
наравне с традиционными средствами обучения. Однако, практика
применения компьютерных программ показывает, что компьютерные
технологии имеют много преимуществ перед традиционными
методами обучения. Среди них индивидуализация, интенсификация
повышения самостоятельности студентов, повышение познавательной
активности и мотивации, интенсификация обучения и создание
комфортной среды обучения.
Изучение английского языка с помощью компьютерных
программ вызывает огромный интерес у студентов. Существующие
сегодня диски позволяют выводить на экран компьютера информацию
в виде текста, звука, видеоизображения, игр. Обучение с помощью
компьютера дает возможность организовать самостоятельную работу
каждого студента. Интегрирование обычного урока с компьютерным
позволяет преподавателю переложить часть своей работы на
компьютер, делая при этом процесс обучения более интересным и
интенсивным. При этом компьютер не заменяет преподавателя, а
только дополняет его. Подбор обучающих программ зависит, прежде
всего, от текущего учебного материала, уровня подготовки обучаемых
и их способностей. Сфера применения компьютера в обучении
иностранным языкам необычно широка. Компьютер может быть
эффективно использован для ознакомления с новым языковым
материалом, новыми образцами высказываний, а также с
деятельностью общения на иностранном языке. На этапе тренировки и
на этапе применения сформированных знаний, навыков, умений
компьютер может быть использован в самых разнообразных
коммуникативных заданиях и ситуациях с учетом личностных
особенностей обучаемых.
Он может создавать оптимальные условия для успешного
освоения программного материала: при этом обеспечивается гибкая,
достаточная и посильная нагрузка упражнениями всех студентов в
классе. Кроме того, трудно переоценить роль компьютера как средства
252
осуществления контроля за деятельностью студентов со стороны
учителя, а также как средства формирования и совершенствования
самоконтроля. В затруднительных случаях компьютер позволяет
студенту получать необходимые сведения справочного характера за
короткий промежуток времени, предъявлять ему те или иные “ключи”
для успешного решения задания.
Часто на уроках иностранного языка процесс вовлечения
учащихся в устную речь по различным темам бывает неинтересным.
При работе на уроках с использованием компьютеров это исключено,
так как необходимые на уроках наглядность и ситуации на мониторах
вполне реальны – “изображения” движутся, разговаривают поанглийски, задают вопросы и т.д. Некоторые учителя могут спросить:
а не превратится ли урок при этом из творческой работы в нечто
развлекательное? Нет, так как, чтобы получить при работе с
компьютером хорошую оценку, студенту приходится творчески
работать. Он делает все с радостью, но учителю приходится
приобретать необходимые электронные учебники и делать подборку
по ним нужных ситуаций, а также распечатку дополнительных
вопросов и текстов и перенос их на все компьютеры, чтобы в
определенный момент на лекциях учащиеся
могли сесть за
определенные компьютера, найти и открыть нужную папку в “Моих
документах”, выполнить, например, тест по аудированию или чтению.
Это большой труд, но он себя оправдывает. Радость познания – вот что
дает использование компьютеров на уроках. А это, в свою очередь,
вместе с развитием мышления ведет к развитию инициативной речи.
Сейчас уже все понимают, что Интернет обладает
колоссальными информационными возможностями и не менее
впечатляющими услугами. Интернет создает уникальную возможность
для изучающих иностранный язык пользоваться аутентичными
текстами, слушать и общаться с носителями языка.
Важно определиться, для каких целей мы собираемся
использовать его возможности и ресурсы. Например:
- для включения материалов сети в содержание урока,
- для самостоятельного поиска информации студентами в
рамках работы над проектом,
Используя информационные ресурсы сети Интернет, можно,
интегрируя их в учебный процесс, более эффективно решать целый
ряд дидактических задач на уроке:
- формировать навыки и умения чтения, непосредственно
используя материалы сети разной степени сложности,
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- совершенствовать умения аудирования на основе аутентичных
звуковых
текстов
сети
Интернет,
также
соответственно
подготовленных учителем,
- совершенствовать умения монологического и диалогического
высказывания на основе проблемного обсуждения представленных
учителем или кем-то из учащихся материалов сети,
- пополнять свой словарный запас, как активный, так и
пассивный, лексикой современного иностранного языка, отражающего
определенный этап развития культуры народа, социального и
политического устройства общества,
- знакомиться с культуроведческими знаниями, включающими в
себя речевой этикет, особенности речевого поведения различных
народов в условиях общения, особенности культуры, традиций страны
изучаемого языка.
Оптимальным является также создание мультимедийных Power
Point презентаций. Применение компьютерных презентаций на уроках
позволяет ввести новый лексический, страноведческий материал в
наиболее увлекательной форме, реализуется принцип наглядности, что
способствует прочному усвоению информации. Самостоятельная
творческая работа учащихся по созданию компьютерных презентаций
как нельзя лучше расширяет запас активной лексики.
Задачи модернизации образования не могут быть решены без
оптимального внедрения информационных технологий во все его
сферы. Использование информационных технологий дает толчок
развитию новых форм и содержания традиционных видов
деятельности студентов, что ведет к их осуществлению на более
высоком уровне. Работа с компьютером должна быть организована
так, чтобы с первых же уроков начальной ступени обучения она стала
мощным
психолого-педагогическим
средством
формирования
потребностно-мотивационного
плана
деятельности
студентов,
средством поддержания и дальнейшего развития их интереса к
изучаемому предмету. Правильно организованная работа учащихся с
компьютером может способствовать, в частности росту их
познавательного и коммуникативного интереса, что в свою очередь
будет содействовать активизации и расширению возможностей
самостоятельной работы обучаемых по овладению английским
языком, как на уроке, так и во внеурочное время.
1.
Библиография
Донцов Д. Английский на компьютере. Изучаем, переводим,
говорим. М., 2007
254
2.
3.
4.
Нелунова Е.Д. К проблеме компьютеризации обучения
иностранным языкам. Якутск, 2004
Пахомова Н.Ю. Компьютер в работе педагога. М., 2005
http: // festival. 1 september.ru
ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНО-ОРИЕНТИРОВАННОЕ
ОБУЧЕНИЕ ИНОЯЗЫЧНОЙ ПИСЬМЕННОЙ РЕЧИ
СТУДЕНТОВ НЕЯЗЫКОВОГО ФАКУЛЬТЕТА
Светлана САРАКУЦА,
Ст. преподаватель, магистр,
УЛИМ, Р. Молдова
В свете требований, предъявляемых к современному
специалисту, перед преподавателем иностранного языка встает вопрос
совершенствования методики обучения и оптимизации учебного
процесса. Причем, нужно отметить, что, мотивационная ориентация
обучения на процесс и результат деятельности, в первую очередь,
способствует ускорению процесса обучения [1]. И, следуя данным
психологии, обучение может быть успешным лишь в случае
совладения его целей и методов с личностной мотивацией обучаемых.
Иными словами, студент должен получать удовлетворение, как от
самого процесса учения, так и от сознания того, что приобретаемые им
знания, навыки и умения найдут применение в будущей
профессиональной
деятельности.
Поэтому,
профессиональная
ориентация обучения является одним из важнейших условий
формирования у студентов положительного отношения к процессу
учения и к иностранному языку.
Несмотря на то, что одним из основных видов иноязычной
речевой деятельности является чтение, письменная речь (написание
текста доклада, статьи, рецензии, делового и личного письма и т.д.)
также занимает определенное место в будущей профессиональной
деятельности студента.
Изучение психологических особенностей письменной речи
затрудняется тем, что сам процесс порождения письменного
высказывания не поддается непосредственному наблюдению. Поэтому
анализ механизмов письменной речи может осуществляться лишь
опосредованно, через анализ его продукта – текста. Методика такого
анализа письменной речи с точки зрения ее продукта разработана Н.И.
Жинкиным, который на основе ученических сочинений определил в
255
качестве основных механизмов данного вида речевой деятельности
анализ и синтез. [3]. Овладение умениями письменной речи
осуществляется путем овладения именно данными мыслительными
операциями. Причем, несформированность механизмов на родном
языке характеризуется замедленностью соответсвующих операций
отставанием операций, что выражается в неумении связать мысли
между собой. Поэтому при обучении письменной речи на родном
языке особое внимание уделяется обучению синтетическим
операциям, необходимых для обеспечения связности текста.
При обучении письменной речи на иностранном языке данная
задача также является основной. Принципиальным вопросом при
разработке системы обучения письменной речи является выбор
профессионально-значимых
видов
высказывания,
которым
необходимо обучать студентов. На основе анализа лингвистической и
методической литературы было выделено две группы видов
высказывания: аннотация, реферат, статья, доклад, текст рекламы и
деловое письмо. Если первая группа характеризуется объективностью,
содержит преимущественно информацию предметно-логического
характера, то вторая группа имеет черты субъективности, например, в
оценке рекламируемой продукции, а также предполагает установление
контакта с адресатом письма или предлагаемым покупателем,
содержит элементы образности. Таким образом, вторая группа
высказываний, по нашему мнению, является более сложной. Поэтому
на первом и втором этапах обучения целесообразно сконцентрировать
внимание на первой группе высказываний.
Возникает вопрос, в какой последовательности и объеме
следует обучать данным видам высказывания? Представляется
оправданным подход к обучению письменной речи, предлагаемый И.
А. Уваровой [4], которая исходит из того, что всем жанрам научной
прозы присущи общие характеристики, касающиеся способа и методов
изложения. Так, общими для четырех исследованных автором жанров лекции, доклада, статьи рецензии – являются описание, рассуждение и
повествование как способы изложения. Исходя из общности черт,
присущих основным видам высказывания, на начальном этапе
обучения целесообразно обучать указанным выше способам и
методам, на продвинутом этапе – знакомить студентов с
особенностями данных жанров. Такой подход представляется
продуктивным, так как экономит время обучения, делает его более
целенаправленным.
Овладение
умениями
построения
различных
видов
высказывания как на родном языке, так и на иностранном
256
осуществляется на основе образцов данных видов текста. Поэтому
вслед за И. А. Зимней мы установили две стадии обучения письменной
речи: ориентировочно-исследовательскую и исполнительскую.
Ориентировочно-исследовательская
стадия
обучения
предполагает анализ смысловой структуры, средств связи, словаря
готовых текстов. Исполнительская - упражнения, имеющие целью
порождение собственных высказываний от уровня отдельного
предложения до целого теста.
Принимая во внимание общий низкий уровень языковой
подготовки студентов первого курса, в исполнительскую стадию мы
включили подготовительные и коммуникативные упражнения.
Рассмотрим более подробно упражнения второй стадии
обучения.
К
подготовительным
упражнениям
аналитикосинтетического характера на уровне отдельных слов и предложений
относится, в частности, следующие:
- выбрать из группы слов те, которые относятся к заданной
теме, составить из них предложения;
- выбрать из группы служебных слов соответствующие
средства связи и с их помощью из нескольких сконструированных в
предыдущем упражнении предложений составить единое смысловое
целое.
Обучение письменной речи осуществляется во взаимосвязи с
другими
видами
иноязычной
речевой
деятельности.
Профессиональная
ориентация
обучения,
коммуникативная
направленность упражнений и оптимальные формы организации
учебной
работы
способствуют
активизации
мыслительной
деятельности студентов, формированию положительной мотивации и,
следовательно, успеху обучения. Для иллюстрации этого положения
рассмотрим ход одного из экспериментальных занятий, основной
целью которого было формирование умения написать фрагмент текста
доклада на общественно- политическую тему, а сопутствующим совершенствование навыков и умений поискового и ознакомительного
видов чтения. На занятии сочетались индивидуальные формы работы
студентов с работой в триадах. Студенты онакомились с традиционной
композицией доклада – ориентировочно-исследовательская стадия
обучения. Распределив между студентами газетный материал,
преподаватель попросил их просмотреть определенную страницу
газеты и найти статью на одну из трех заданных тем (просмотровое и
поисковое чтение). Выполнив первое задание, студенты ознакомились
с содержанием соответствующей статьи и выписали ее основные
мысли в тетрадь (ознакомительное чтение). Далее студентам было
257
предложено выяснить у своих коллег тематику их статей. С целью
организации дальнейшей работы в триадах газетный материал
подбирался таким образом, чтобы к каждой из предложенных тем
относилось три статьи. Далее осуществлялась работа в триадах.
Студенты, выполняющие работу по одной тематике, получали задание
– на основании трех статей написать фрагмент доклада на
соответствующую тему по схеме: основной тезис, аргументы из всех
статей, вывод. Причем каждая триада представляла один конспект
доклада и получает общую оценку. Роли между студентами
распределялись следующим образом: один планировал работу, второй
выполнял, третий контролировал выполнение. Осознание студентами
профессиональной значимости формируемого умения и сама форма
организации работы в триадах способствовали повышению
мыслительной активности студентов, формированию положительной
мотивационной ориентации на сам процесс учебной деятельности, а
осознание профессиональной значимости приобретенных умений
создавало также положительную ориентацию на результат обучения.
Таким образом, результаты экспериментального обучения
подтвердили наше предположение о том, что профессиональноориентированное обучение на основании предлагаемой системы
упражнений аналитико-синтетического характера способствует
успешному овладению студентами навыками и умениями иноязычной
письменной речи, что выражается в качественном и количественном
увеличении показателей сформированности умения данного вида
речевой деятельности.
Библиография
1. Савонько Е. И. Самооценка и мотивация как факторы социальнопсихологической адаптации студентов к условиям обучения в вузе
// Науч. тр. МГПИИЯ им. Тореза. Вып. 162. М. , 1990
2. Симонова Н. М. Опыт исследования характера мотивационных
ориентаций студентов при усвоении иностранного языка в вузе //
Науч. тр. МГПИИЯ им. Тореза. Вып. 162. М. , 1990.
3. Жинкин Н. И. Развитие письменной речи учащихся. М. , 1999
4. Уварова И. А. Возможные пути интенсификации обучения
письменной речи // Науч. тр. МГПИИЯ им. Тореза. Вып. 236. М. ,
1996.
258
ROLUL CREATIVITĂŢII ÎN PROCESUL DE PREDAREÎNVĂŢARE A LIMBILOR STRĂINE
Diana Starodub, lector, MA,
Rodica Neculce, lector, MA,
ULIM, R.Moldova
„Creativitatea nu înseamnă să găseşti un lucru ci,
să faci cevadin el după ce l-ai găsit.”
(James Russell Lowell)
Creativitatea constituie una dintre problemele
majore ale
contemporaneităţii şi totodată una din cele mai fascinante. într-o accepţiune
largă, creativitatea constituie un proces de însuşiri şi aptitudini psihice care,
în condiţii favorabile, generează produse noi şi de valoare pentru societate.
Ea este forma cea mai înaltă a activităţii omeneşti [1, 38].
Elementele potenţiale de creativitate pot fi expresivitatea,
flexibilitatea, fluenţa, sensibilitatea cerebrală, inclusiv calităţile
analizatorilor şi caracteristicile temperamentale care au un rol important în
declanşarea, dezvoltarea şi manifestarea creativităţii. Aici avem în vedere
relaţia subiectului cu factorii de mediu şi educaţionali [4, 73]. Funcţia
esenţială a procesului de creaţie o constituie imaginaţia. Ea este definită ca
un proces de combinare a imaginilor, ceea ce se potriveşte mai mult
imaginaţiei artistice. Fiind componenta cea mai importantă a creativităţii,
însuşirile prin care ea se manifestă pot fi considerate drept principalele
caracteristici ale creativităţii.
Fluiditatea este posibilitatea de aţi imagina în timp scurt
numeroase imagini sau idei, unele fără utilitate, dar printre ele găsindu-se şi
cele adecvate.
Plasticitatea este uşurinţa de a schimba punctul de vedere, modul
de abordare a unei probleme, când un procedeu se dovede te inoperant.
Originalitatea este expresia noutăţii, a inovaţiei; când dorim să
testăm această calitate la cineva, ea poate determina prin rapiditate statistica
unui raspuns. Anume originalitatea garantează valoarea rezultatului muncii
creatoare.
Disocierea este capacitatea combinatorie a doua sau mai multe
lucruri şi fenomene pe care alţii nu au avut curiozitatea sau abilitatea de a le
asocia. F. Bruner scrie „Orice formă de creativitate, creşte dintr-o activitate
combinatorie”.
Motivaţia poate fi un imbold de dinamizare a creativităţii. Fără
efort, nici pregătirea şi nici creativitatea nu pot ajunge la nivele ridicate de
259
performanţă. Mobilurile intrinsece, în deosebi spiritul de născocire,
pasiunea pentru un domeniu şi motivele extrinsece, recompensele
dinamizează creativitatea. Nu în ultimul plan se plasează şi factorii
aptitudinali fără de care omul nu poate ajunge la nivele ridicate de
performanţă [3: 22, 31, 46, 57].
Factorii temperamentali şi caracteriali au o influenţă deosebită în
dezvoltarea creativităţii. Predispoziţiile şi capacităţile nu sunt suficiente
pentru ca cineva să devină inventator sau creator de artă. Pentru aceasta este
nevoie de o motivaţie, o dorinţă, o aspiraţie creatoare. Adevăraţii creatori
devin animaţi de sentimente trainice, chiar de veritabile pasiuni care le
domină preocupările, aspiraţiile de fiecare zi. Succesele le cauzează emoţii
puternice intensificând obsesiile lor creatoare. Pentru a crea se cere o voinţă
fermă, perseverenţă, depunerea îndelungatelor eforturi. Nici în artă, nimeni,
chiar marile talente, n-au creat nimic remarcabil fără o luptă tenace pentru
îmbogăţirea mijlocului de expresie, armonia culorilor. Edison spunea: că în
creaţie este nevoie de 99% transpiraţie şi 1% inspiraţie [2, 76].
Viaţa, în toate domeniile ei, necesită că aproape fiecare individ să
realizeze unele operaţii noi, ca urmare a unor combinări şi recombinări,
asocieri a datelor elementelor existente, care se obiectivează în anumite
soluţii, metode utile şi mai eficiente, de exemplu o inovaţie care reprezintă
unele elemente de creativitate. Conform opiniei lui Bontas, Piajet [2, 82],
creativitatea propriu – zisă necesită înzestrări şi capacităţi intelectuale,
deosebite, care să se obiectiveze în produse noi, originale şi care determină
schimbări calitative într-un domeniu anumit. Creativitatea se poate
manifesta în toate domeniile cunoaşterii şi vieţii sociale: ştiinţifică, tehnică,
economică, artistică, organizatorică, pedagogică etc.
Creativitatea ca rezultat al stimulării şi activităţii înseamnă
acumulări de capacităţi, abilităţi şi posibilităţi de realizare a ceva nou,
original, în plan ideal – abstract ca şi, după caz, în plan practic, deci
inventivitatea ideatică şi practică. Autorii Bontas, Piajet, Nicola, Comarova
[2, 84] afirmă că: la naştere copilul posedă doar o anumită potenţialitate
creativă, evidenţiată de o anumită flexibilitate, fluenţa, sensitivitate a
scoarţei cerebrale şi a sistemului nervos în general. Ulterior, în procesul
educaţiei şi activităţii, al rezolvării unor probleme ridicate de viaţă, sporeşte
potenţialitatea
menţionată:
flexibilitatea,
fluenţa,
expresivitatea,
sensitivitatea, desigur, în funcţie de dezvoltarea şi manifestarea factorilor
intelectuali, aptitudinali, caracteriali şi de mediu, dezvoltându-se alte
niveluri ale creativităţii, aşa cum sunt originalitatea şi inventivitatea.
Pentru a asigura progresul uman şi bunăstarea materială şi
spirituală a oamenilor, este nevoie de multă creativitate, de depistarea,
stimularea şi de finalizarea ei în inventivitate ideatică şi practică, în toate
260
domeniile. Trebuie cunoscut, stimulat şi valorificat acest potenţial. Au
studiat fenomenul H. C. Lehman, A. F. Osborn şi alţii [2, 87]. Creativitatea
se poate manifesta în toate etapele de vârstă, pe tot parcusul vieţii, însă
vârsta cea mai productivă în creativitate este între 25-40 ani.
Din punct de vedere al produsului creativ, creativitatea poate
manifesta urmatoarele tipuri:
expresivă – este cea manifestată prin soluţii mai eficiente de
producţie, ca urmare a unor mai multe eficiente de productivitate , cu
valenţe de perspicacitate;
productivă – este cea mai manifestată prin soluţii mai eficiente de
producţie, ca urmare a unor combinări şi recombinări, asocieri de date şi
soluţii existente, cunoscute;
inovativă – este legată de cea expresivă şi productivă, dar aduce o
soluţie nouă care sporeşte productivitatea;
inventivă – constă în depăşirea calităţii şi performanţelor creaţiei
productive şi inovatoare în baza unei gândiri şi restructurări noi, produce o
idee, soluţie, tehnologii noi, originale ce dinamizează progresul teoretic sau
practic într-un anumit domeniu tehnico-ştiinţific. Invenţiile reprezintă
inteligenţa creativă de specialitate foarte valoroasă a indivizilor şi ale unui
popor [4, 60].
În desfăşurarea procesului creativ sunt remarcate anumite etape
interdependente, prima etapă fiind pregătirea. Creativitatea nu porneşte de
la un loc gol, de la nimic, ea se bazează pe un fond ideatic şi acţional
aperceptiv, ea înseamnă şi învăţare nouă, prin documentare şi experimentare
care se restructurează cu cele aperceptive. Inspiraţia este apariţia bruscă a
noului, a creaţiei, a noilor idei, modele, sisteme, structuri, teorii, tehnologii ,
în mod inconştient, subconştient, preconştient, în vise şi conştient.
Verificarea, creaţia fiind un rezultat al factorilor subiectivi şi obiectivi are
nevoie de controlul veridicităţii, autenticităţii valorii, aplicabilităţii şi
eficienţei în plan teoretic şi aplicativ [2, 63].
Există interacţiune între creativitate, inteligenţă, conţinutul
învăţământului şi rezultatele învăţării. Inteligenţa a cunoscut numeroase
definiţii: capacitatea de adaptare mintală la situaţii noi, capacitatea ce
exprima nivelul dezvoltării mintale ca factor de disponibilitate şi
operativitate, în cadrul unor situaţii noi.
Cercetarea pedagogică evidenţiază că nu este întotdeauna
concordanţă deplină între inteligenţă şi creativitate. Unii profesori apreciază
pe cei inteligenţi şi mai puţin pe cei creativi. Se constată că cei inteligenţi
nu obţin, în mod obligatoriu şi randament maxim la învăţătură, mai ales
dacă nu depun şi eforturi de învăţare.
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Totuşi, cercetarea şi viaţa au arătat că atunci când inteligenţa este
îmbinată cu eforturile de învăţare, de aflare, creativitatea are un rol foarte
important.
Atitudinile creative ale cadrelor didactice orientează capacităţile
personalităţii acestora în direcţia proiectării unor activităţi pedagogice
inovatoare. Între atitudinile creative ale cadrelor didactice se remarcă
încrederea în forţele proprii (dublată de o pregătire profesională foarte
bună), interesele cognitive şi devotamentul faţă de profesie, atitudinea
antirutinieră, cutezanţa, perseverenţa în căutarea de soluţii optime,
atitudinea valorizatoare şi simţul valorii, receptivitatea la nou, respectul fată
de originalitate şi cultivarea consecventă a acesteia şi angajarea sociala.
Creativitatea este o nevoie socială. Provocările lumii moderne
impun soluţii creative. C. Rogers consideră că adaptarea creativă este
singura soluţie pentru a ţine pasul cu schimbarea. Pentru a se adapta la
realităţile noi, cadrul didactic trebuie să-şi cultive aptitudinile creative, să-şi
activizeze resursele interne care acţionează favorabil asupra propriei
creativităţi şi să stimuleze creativitatea studenţilor pe care îi formează [2,
65].
,,Creativitatea presupune o dispoziţie generală a personalităţii spre
nou, o anumită organizare a proceselor psihice în sistem de personalitate”
[3, 33]. Ea solicită procese de combinare, de imaginare şi restructurare
continuă a datelor prin situarea celui care învaţă în situaţii problematice care
necesită rezolvare. Vorbim de învăţare creativă atunci când studentul
dobândeşte o experienţă nouă prin propriile puteri descoperind-o şi
exersând-o în situaţii problematice divergente. Interactivitatea presupune
creativitate, în timp ce creativitatea poate fi individuală sau de grup.
Profesorul trebuie să-şi asume responsabilităţi în formarea la studenţi a unui
fond atitudinal propice creativităţii, de exemplu, încredere în sine,
independenţă în modul de a fi şi de a gândi, asumarea unui risc rezonabil,
umor [4, 53].
Pentru valorificarea creativităţii în educaţie şi cercetare, instituţiile
de învăţământ superior trebuie sa promoveze o cultură care să
recompenseze performanţa, dar sa nu sancţioneze eşecurile, tocmai pentru a
încuraja membrii comunităţii universitare să pună sub semnul îndoielii
ideile vechi, sa treacă dincolo de cunoaşterea convenţională şi să tindă spre
originalitate [5]. Înclinaţiile creative ale corpului didactic, ale studenţilor,
spiritul inovativ, depăşirea atitudinii de suficienţă şi autosuficienţă, a
paradigmelor bine înrădăcinate, trebuie autorizate şi protejate. Omul creativ
trebuie să-şi asume riscuri în cadrul sistemului educaţional.
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Bibliografie:
1. Cristea Sorin, Dicţionar de termeni pedagogici, Bucureşti: E.D.P., 1998.
2. Joiţa, Elena Pedagogie şi elemente de psihologie şcolară, Craiova:
Editura ARVES, 2003.
3. Popescu-Neveanu, Paul. Dicţionar de psihologie, Bucureşti: Editura
Albatros, 1978.
4. Popescu-Neveanu, Paul. Evoluţia conceptului de creativitate În Analele
Universităţii Bucureşti, seria Psihologie, Editura Academiei, 1971.
5. www.didactic.ro
6. www.preferatele.com
WARMERS AT THE LESSON OF ENGLISH
Inga STOYANOVA,
PhD, Associate Professor,
ULIM, R.Moldova
The beginning of the lesson is one of its most important stages which
is vital for the good procession and success of the lesson. As the
Englishmen say: “A good beginning makes a good ending”. The purpose of
the teacher at this stage is to introduce the learners into the atmosphere of
the language, substituting the formal organizational moment of the class by
an active didactic means namely warmers.
This is what we could simply call the warm-up to distinguish it from
the lesson introduction. The very step that immediately follows the warmup is the introduction. Therefore, the warm-up, pedagogically speaking,
comes first and it is more than just a review so as to bridge the gap between
the previous and the current lesson or to set the tone for what will follow.
Warm-up and introduction are to be intermingled in one phase to tile
the way for a smooth presentation stage. This opening activity is not only
indispensable to English-mind-set the pupils but also is a powerful
component to bring the kids closer to the ambiance of the English lesson
and setting them to get involved.
Activities at the start of the lesson deserve more attention than they
usually receive. Thus, the initial activities that start the class are very
important for the following reasons:
 Warm ups set the tone of the lesson. For example, an activity that
students find too difficult or confusing can prove discouraging. The students
need to be settled in a relaxing not challenging atmosphere. The teacher has
to build up an ambiance of confidence and mutual trust. The teacher also
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has to focus and bring up energy to each class in the first ten or fifteen
minutes or to break the ice with a new class of students [8].
 Warm ups get students to begin thinking and focusing on English.
It may have been a few days, a week, or even longer since they last used
English. A little time here will improve receptivity later.
 Warm ups allow the teacher important opportunities to assess
character and ability. After all, some students work well together, and others
don't. Some students have good days, and others bad. During the initial
activity, the teacher can determine who will form the best groups for
subsequent activities.
 Warm ups provide a transition into the topic. An activity at the start
of the lesson activates pre-existing knowledge on a subject, and may even
get students to use (or consider) some of the ideas, vocabulary, or even
grammar important to the lesson, specially applied to advanced students
[10].
 Warm ups are also useful to fill a small block of time when a
lesson runs shorter than a teacher planned or to replace the lesson that the
students can’t grasp or are bored with.
Further we present ideas on the use of warmers at the practical
lessons of the English language. All of them are divided into phonetic,
lexical and grammatical aspects.
Phonetic warmers.
The importance of correct pronunciation cannot be overestimated.
The way we sound when we speak a foreign language has a strong influence
on the assumptions other people make about us and the judgments they
make about the sort of people we are. A learner who consistently
mispronounces a range of phonemes can be extremely difficult to
understand. This can be very frustrating for the learner who may have a
good command of grammar and lexis but have difficulty in understanding
and being understood by a native speaker [4].
The practice shows that many students, especially those having
Russian as mother tongue have difficulties in pronunciation of the sounds
[w] and [v]. They often mispronounce very as wery or will as vill. In order
to eliminate this misspelling the teacher can practice the pronunciation of [
w] by learning the following poem:
Why do you cry Willy?
Why do you cry?
Why Willy? Why Willy?
Why, Willy, why?
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Tongue twisters are a very good example of a phonetic warmer.
Some teachers avoid them, however, these can be amusing and effective in
helping learners to produce problematic sounds or distinguish between
closely related sounds. Tongue twisters should be start slowly, and then
build up speed to make it more challenging. This type of activity can be
given to be practiced at home or to be done in class. Some example might
be:
 It’s the fourth door on the forty-fourth flour.
 Thirty-four workmen walked through the door.
 I walk to work because I can’t park my car.
 Pat Black has a red setter that gets on his lap.
The interplay between [s] and [ sh] is vividly shown in the
following tongue-twister.
She sells sea shells at the seashore.
The shells she sells are surely sea shells.
So if she sells shells on the seashore,
I'm sure she sells seashore shells.
In the activity Odd one out the students have to distinguish which
word in a series of four is different from the other three. Using words with a
minimal difference, four words are read aloud, only one of which has a
different sound. Students have to say which word in the sequence is
different. For example:
Teacher: Pet, pet, pat, pet.
Students: number three.
Lexical warmers.
All teachers of English know very well how important vocabulary is.
They know students must learn thousand of words that speakers of English
use. Fortunately, the need for vocabulary is one point on which teachers and
students agree. Here are some of the warming activities which can be used
to improve the students’ vocabulary.
Riddles
In order to make English funny and to get students thinking the following
activity based on riddles can be used! The class is divided into teams. The
teacher must specify that attention is essential. The teacher reads the clues
to the riddles, team can guess what the answer is. If they are correct after
one guess they score 6 points, after 2 guesses five points, etc... If a team
gives the incorrect answer they cannot have another try. Here some
examples of riddles:
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***I’m usually made of
paper,
but in Australia
I’m plastic.
I come in lots of
colours.
I have pictures and
numbers on me.
You use me to buy
things.
(bank-note)
***I’m yellow and
round.
I’m the same size
as an apple.
You can’t eat me.
You hit me with a
racquet.
(tennis ball)
***Every country has
one.
I have different
colours.
I need wind to
fly.
The British one
is red, white and
blue.
(flag)
Silly dictation.
As the statistics show students do not like dictation, either it is easy
or difficult. However, this type of “boring” activity can be transformed into
a funny one. It can be successfully used at the lessons of Writing as well as
the means of acquiring general and specialized vocabulary on the basis of
the studied text. This activity also encourages thinking skills and allows
students to process the language. The teacher pretends to have a sore throat
but he is still going to do a dictation. If the students don’t hear words, they
just have to guess/ or remember what the teacher said / or what was written
in the homework text/. For example, at the Psychology department the
following type can be used:
****Some psychological … / problems/ may appear during the …./
teenage/ age.
The state of depression is very near to … / suicide/
There are many …../ reasons/ why people commit …/suicide/.
An alternative to this warmer is “Gapped examples” activity.
Students write out a list of five or ten useful phrases or short sentences from
the studied text, omitting one word or phrase from each other. They
exchange lists with a partner or another pair, who has to complete them
from memory, or they can read them aloud to the whole class for
completion [3].
“Noughts and crosses” tend to revise vocabulary from previous
lessons in a fun, stress-free, game-like way. The teacher draws the grid
above on the board. The class is divided into two teams. The teacher asks
questions about vocabulary from the previous lesson(s). If the students get
the answer right, the team’s symbol goes into the square (usually X or O). If
they get the answer wrong, the opposition team gets a chance to answer the
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question for an extra turn. The first team to have a line of correct answers in
any direction is the winner.
What and Why?
Another activity is meant to practice questions forms and a wide
range of specialized and general vocabulary. The condition is that this
activity does not have to be linked with any others. The teacher is going to
read out something strange and the students have to work out what has
happened. The activity can be done individually or in groups. The students
can ask questions about the situation and you can only respond with a
yes/no/maybe. The first student to guess what has happened is the winner.
Examples of situations:
 A man is lying dead in a snowy field. There are no footprints to or
from his body. The man has a pack on his back. How did he die? /
Answer: He jumped out of a airplane with a parachute on his back
that failed to open./
 Five pieces of coal, a carrot and a scarf are lying on the grass.
Nobody put them on the grass but there is a perfectly logical reason
why they should be there. What is it? /Answer: They were used by
children who made a snowman. The snow has now melted.
 A woman had two sons who were born on the same hour of the same
day of the same year. But they were not twins. How could this be so?
/ They were two of a set of triplets (or quadruplets etc.)/
 A man rode into town on Friday. He stayed for three nights and then
left on Friday. How come? / Answer : The man's horse was called
Friday./
Sherlock Holmes
The majority of students like mystery and detective stories. By the
following activity students are given the possibility to become Sherlock
Holmes himself. The activity can be practiced in a small groups. The
teachers hands out strips of paper with directions like these: How many
students are wearing black shoes today? How many chairs are there in the
classroom? How many students are holding pencils? How many posters
are there on the classroom walls? The students wander around the
classroom finding the answer to their question. As soon as they have their
answer, they run to the board, write the question and answer and their name.
If there are a lot of students and access to the board is confined, students
who have finished can sit down in their seats when they are finished and
then read out their questions and answers in the order they finished at the
end of the activity [7].
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A very good warmer based on the revision of the vocabulary is My
and your shoes. Here the teacher prepares the questions like Where were
your shoes made? How did you get them? What colour/size/shape are they?
Was there a special reason for getting them? Where have you been in those
shoes? The teacher asks the students to look at their shoes and think about
their history for a minute in silence, and then asks them to take a pen and
paper and find a partner. In pairs the students take it in turns to find out as
much as possible about the other person's shoes (time limit is allowed).
While they listen to each other's answers they can take notes. At the end of
the activity each student takes turns to tell the class one interesting thing
they found out about their partner's shoes and the partner himself!
Grammar warmers.
Grammar acquisition is increasingly viewed as crucial to language
acquisition. However, there is much disagreement as to the effectiveness of
different approaches for presenting vocabulary items. Moreover, learning
grammar is often perceived as a tedious and laborious process. There are
numerous techniques concerned with grammar presentation. However, there
are a few things that have to be remembered irrespective of the way new
lexical items are presented. If teachers want students to remember new
grammar it needs to be learnt in the context, practiced and then revised to
prevent students from forgetting. Teachers must take sure of that students
have understood the new words, which will be remembered better if
introduced in a “memorable way”. Bearing all this in mind, teachers have to
remember to employ a variety of techniques for new grammatical
presentation and revision [2].
Further we examine some techniques and language games for
grammar presentation and revision, in order to determine their
successfulness in presenting and revising grammar.
Poetic article
For some reasons it is very hard for students to understand the concept of
why we use the indefinite article a , an, and the definite the. So,
memorizing a poem can help them remember it by association:
If you know the answer,
you must use THE.
But if you don't know,
use An or A.
Phrasal Verb Lethal Chilli
As with many kinds of activity, competition can spice up the most dreary of
grammar. The students are divided into teams and given a list of 5-10
phrasal verbs from their course. They must define the phrasal verb without
268
using it. The other teams can guess the answer in rotation and a successful
answer gets two points. If a team guesses incorrectly another team can
claim one point. But if the definer defines incorrectly their team will lose
two points.
Songs and grammar
Songs have been part of the human experience for as long as we can
remember. Songs have become an integral part of our language experience,
and if used in coordination with a language lesson they can be of great
value. Fortunately, with the expanding prevalence of the Internet and
specifically the World Wide Web into both the classrooms and lives of
students, access to music and lyrics has been made easier D.K. Eken states
that songs can be used: to present and practice a topic, a language point,
lexis; to focus on common learner errors in a more direct way; to encourage
extensive and intensive listening; to stimulate discussion of attitudes and
feelings; to encourage creativity and use of imagination; to provide a
relaxed classroom atmosphere etc [1,p.46]. Thus, songs seem to be an
indispensable means of teaching very often being used both as a warmer
and a independent exercise. Here are some examples of the use of songs as
warmers /or fillers / at the lessons of English grammar, when doing classical
grammar becomes a boredom.
Song lyrics
The teacher plays recordings of well known songs and deletes verbs in
accompanying text. For example, The Beatles song, “All My Loving” is
used to introduce Future with “will”:
Close your eyes and I'll kiss you,
Tomorrow I'll miss you;
Remember I'll always be true.
And then while I'm away,
I'll write home ev'ry day,
And I'll send all my loving to you.
Students listen to the song without the text and the teacher can ask a
question to focus attention on the tense used. Then they listen with the text
and do the close exercise. Then they highlight the form of the verb tense
and extend into a Controlled Practice.
Nowadays, WWW has a lot of sites where lyrics and the music of
the
teaching
songs
can
be
downloaded.
For
example,
www.songsforteaching.com has a large variety of grammar activities on
special topics.
English verbs are recognized to be the most difficult part of speech
for the learners. In order to easy the way the students comprehend verbs’
269
features, the teacher can perform / if he/she has vocal talent/, or make the
students listen to the following / an excerpt of a Verb Rap is given/:
Talking 'bout all the words that are verbs
Don't you know they are action words?
Without verbs no sentence is complete
Learning verbs is as fun as this beat.
Don't care what you've heard now.
Verbs are action words now.
Use 'em when somebody's doing something
Anything that happens needs a verb to begin
Here're examples to show what I mean….
Present Continuous rap.
The use of Present Continuous Tense and its difference from Present Simple
may cause problems to the beginners. In this context, the following song
can be much useful in explaining the rules of the tense / the performance
may be accompanied by music/:
The present continuous is what I´m saying
Grammar is the game that I am playing
The form of BE, the verb plus ING
And if you want to use it just follow me!
N-O-W, now!
Preposition rap
Prepositions also seem to be a milestone in English grammar. Although it
may seem strange, their correct use can be taught by the use of songs. Here
there is an excerpt of the song to teach prepositions:
The cat sleeps on the floor
Jimmy walks in through the door
You drive in a car, you sleep under a tree
You're outside with your friends
Mary stands in front of you
Freddy stands beside you
And Susan stands behind you…..
Another way of plunging into the atmosphere of grammar in the
English classroom is organizing a Press Conference. Students adore
celebrities and talk much about them. Combining both the students’ interest
in famous people and Reported Speech patters, while at the same time
having some fun, a good result can be achieved. First the teacher and the
students discuss the advantages and disadvantages of being famous. Then
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one student is asked to impersonate someone rich and famous. The other
students guess who s/he is and interview him/her. Meanwhile, one student
pretends having hearing problems and asks his colleagues to report their
questions and answers: A asks a question, B reports it, C reports the answer
and so on. Here is a list of some characters it would be nice to interview, as
well as some sample questions: Madonna (Are you really a material girl?);
Claudia Schiffer (Do you eat a lot of ice-cream?)
Further we discuss the idea of introduction of politics at the lesson of
English grammar. Politics is discussed everywhere and anytime. The lesson
of English is not an exception. Organizing “live political debates” is a
perfect possibility to teach the first conditional [5]. The class is divided into
two teams. It’s the night before the general election, and it’s the last chance
for the two main parties to convince voters to vote for them. To keep it fun,
give the parties names such as the ‘Beer Party’ or the ‘Chocolate Party’.
Students are given a few minutes to decide on their policies and how they
will convince ‘the public’ to vote for them. Sometimes teachers need to give
a couple of examples first, such as:
 If you vote for us, we’ll give everyone a free bottle of beer on their
birthday.
 If you choose their party, they will steal all your money.
Thus, the teachers should remember that the warm up opens the
class session, setting the atmosphere and expectations of the lesson, but it
also allows important opportunities which will later determine the type of
the activities and the scope of the lesson. Equal consideration should be
always given to warm up as to the steps of the lesson. Despite the various
forms the warms-up can take, it is an indispensable step to prepare and
launch the tasks in the appropriate frame of utility.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Bibliography
Eken, D. K. Ideas for using pop songs in the English language
classroom. English Teaching Forum, 34, (1996), p. 46-47.
www.elscafe.com
www.englishclub.narod.ru
www.enzinearticle.com/?expert=Chris_Cotter
http://jobs.languagelink.ru/tefl_clinic/practical_teaching/teaching_
grammar/conditionals.php?PHPSESSID=69kd335lsov8h5qutaa5g
nrd61
www.onestopenglish.com
http://referat.ru/referats/view/19556
271
8.
www.scribd.com./doc/27017236/The-Warm-Pp-as-theLocomotive-of-the-Lesson
9. http://www.songsforteaching.com/grammarpunctuationspelling/par
tsofspeech/prepositionsde.php
10. www.teachingenglish.org.uk
AUDIOVIZUALUL ÎN PREDAREA LIMBII STRĂINE
Lilia STRUGARI, lector superior, MA,
Zinaida RADU, dr. conf.,
ULIM, R.Moldova
Înţelegerea nu este o activitate simplă de recepţionare: înţelegerea
orală înseamnă cunoaşterea sistemului fonologic, valoarea funcţională şi
semantică a structurilor lingvistice vehiculate, însă de asemenea cunoaşterea
regulilor socioculturale ale comunităţii în care se efectuează comunicarea
fără a uita de factorii extralingvistici, cum ar fi gesturile sau mimica.
Competenţa înţelegerii orale este, deci, cel mai greu de căpătat, dar este cea
mai indispensabilă. Introducerea unei pedagogii a ascultării pentru
antrenarea urechii şi favorizarea timpului de exploatare a limbii franceze şi
diferitor tipuri de vorbire sunt necesare chiar de la începutul învăţării, chiar
dacă accesul spre sens este doar parţial (Boiron : 2008).
Pentru a facilita înţelegerea sensului, este necesar să-l punem pe
student în situaţie de ascultare activă, formulând o sarcină concretă înainte
de ascultarea documentului; de exemplu brainstorming (discutarea la tema
sau aspectele abordate, activităţi ludice axate pe vocabular, etc.). Această
strategie permite stabilirea unui câmp propice situaţiei active de ascultare şi
se prezintă ca un ajutor pentru înţelegere. Pentru a asigura dezvoltarea
competenţei trebuie să variem tipurile de document, să introducem
documente autentice. Noi am optat pentru cântec.
Cântecul este o combinare de text şi muzică, este un domeniu vast,
creat pentru orice gust, orice dispoziţie, orice ocazie (dragoste, chef, religie,
protest, etc.). Din ce în ce mai mult, profesorii de limba străină doresc să
introducă cântecul la ora de limbă străină. Fiind un mijloc ludic, motivant şi
original, atât pentru cei mai mari, cât şi pentru cei mai mici, cântecul dă
undă liberă spre cultura franceză, limba franceză contemporană,
descoperind-o în toată diversitatea sa (Cavalet : 1980).
Cântecul contemporan ne permite să descoperim limba franceză sub
toate aspectele sale. Francezii dispun de multe niveluri de limbă pentru
adaptarea discursului la contextul situaţional propriu: profesional, şcolar,
amical, familial, intim, etc. Aceste niveluri de limbă franceză diferă prin
272
apropierea sau îndepărtarea lor de norma gramaticală. Exemplul cel mai
răspândit este omiterea lui “ne” în registrul familiar. Există de asemenea
diferenţe la nivel fonetic, sintaxic, lexical cu folosirea argoului sau
procedeelor de transformare cum este, de exemplu, procedeul “verlan”,
inversarea cuvintelor. Este necesar să putem distinge aceşti marcatori
sociali, şi mai ales să putem să-i folosim, căci această competenţă
lingvistică şi culturală este în perpetuă evoluare. Ea este mai dificilă în
predare deoarece unele practici valabile şi răspândite în 2009, nu mai sunt
valabile în 2010.
Cântecele contemporane permit să urmărim “în direct” tendinţele
limbii franceze. Ascultând mai mulţi interpreţi şi trupe populare, devine
posibilă înţelegerea limbii din stradă nefiind în mediul francez, adică în
Franţa. Cântecul propune o abordare mai diversificată a limbii vorbite decât
presa.
Este important să ştim să alegem cântecul potrivit. Un cântec corect
ales trebuie să corespundă criteriilor următoare:
* calitate sonoră (cuvintele trebuie să fie clar pronunţate)
* calitate lingvistică (cuvintele trebuie să fie cunoscute)
* calitate tematică (cântec emoţional şi amuzant exprimă caracterul
cultural al ţării)
* stil muzical variat pentru a da valoare cursului.
O modalitate de selectare a cântecului este de a include la recreaţie,
înainte de începerea orei de clasă, un cântec în limba franceză sau în altă
limbă străină (astfel, timpul programat pentru ora oficilaă rămâne intact)
profesorul reuşind să introducă grupul în atmosfera limbii franceze în aşa
mod, capătând mai uşor atenţia şi, la figurat vorbind, introduce în clasă o
gamă întreagă de voci autentice franceze. Dacă cântecul are ceva de spus,
cei care-l ascultă, vor rămâne impresionaţi, chiar dacă la început la un nivel
pre-intelectual, emoţional (http://www.francparler.org/articles/chanson
2004.htm).
Atunci când alegem cântecul, trebuie să luăm în consideraţie şi
interpreţii. La început e bine să alegem interpreţii muzica cărora este pe
placul studenţilor, sau celor care studiază limba franceză, de exemplu:
Maxime LeForestier, Michel Polnareff, Mama Béa, Anne Sylvstre,
Francesca Solleville, Celine Dion, Particia Kaas, Garou, Lara Fabian,
Philippe Katerine, Bénabar, Carla Bruni, Mickey 3D, Alizé. Desigur, că
putem avea şi surprize, cand studenţii ar putea să nu aprecieze un anumit
cântec, iată de ce e bine să includem cantecele în timpul recreaţiei. Dacă un
cântec le place, ei vor dori să-l asculte din nou, sau vor ruga profesorul să le
spună cine este interpretul, sau cum se numeşte piesa, astfel aflăm
preferinţele muzicale ale grupului dat. Pentru aceasta vă propunem nişte
273
link-uri ce ne oferă cântece autentice, cuvintele şi variantele instrumentale
ale cântecelor, astfel profesorul va putea folosi la ora de limbă străină şi
karaoke, ceea ce le place enorm studenţilor.
 www.tv5.org/TV5site/enseignants/musique/php;
 InfosMusic.net;
 Les Victoires de la musique;
 Paroles de musique de France-jeunes.net;
 ABC de la chanson francophone;
 TV5 - Paroles de clips;
 Le plaisir d'apprendre - Chansons;
 La chanson dans la classe de français;
 Paroles.net ;
 La Chanson française et francophone.
Atunci când alegem această modalitate de lucru în clasă, activităţile
folosite vizează diferite competenţe. Pentru începători lucrul este axat pe
fonetică: pronunţie, debit, ritm, plasarea accentului; ascultând şi
reproducând cuvintele, studenţii învaţă expresii curente pe care le aplică
mai apoi în practica orală. Cântecele generează “fraze-cheie” utile în viaţa
de zi cu zi. Pentru studenţii intermediari şi avansaţi cântecul permite
definirea sau redefinirea normelor: cele mai actuale contractări (il y a – y a),
câmpuri lexicale în care termenii standart sunt folosiţi deopotrivă cu
termenii familiari, deformări gramaticale. Cântecul este o sursă de cultură
despre viaţa de zi cu zi a francezilor, despre obiceiurile, dezbaterile politice
şi sociale.
Astăzi profesorii folosesc clipurile video, mai instructive, deoarece
combinăm văzul şi auzul, deci dezvoltăm două competenţe: audio şi video,
care atrage şi mai mult studenţii.
Atunci când exploatăm un cântec la ora de limbă străină, ne punem în
faţă nişte obiective : a exploata textul unui cântec pentru dezvoltarea
competenţelor orale, scrise şi fonetice; a cânta; a demonstra utilitatea
cântecului la ora de franceză; a descoperi un interpret francez; a pregăti, a
realiza şi a analiza un interviu (imaginar); a redacta un articol şi o critică
muzicală; a vorbi despre muzică; a aprecia un cântec(Chamberlain :2009).
În cele ce urmează, vom încerca să redăm cele mai importante etape ale
lucrului în clasă:
Etapa I : lucrul cu sunetele
- Studenţii ascultă melodia cântecului fără text;
- Studenţii ascultă prima strofă, iar profesoruprin gesturi explică
sensul;
- Se repetă activitatea precedentă cu celelalte strofe;
- Studenţii ascultă cântecul de două ori;
274
- Studenţii încearcă să fredoneze cântecul.
Etapa II : lucrul cu textul (înţelegerea orală şi scrisă).
- Exerciţii (cu goluri, corectarea greşelilor de ortografie sau
gramaticale; de discriminare auditivă (profesorul scrie textul pe tablă,
omiţând unele cuvinte, apoi pronunţă două cuvinte în care sunetele se
aseamănă, studenţii trebuie să aleagă cuvântul potrivit), puzzle, punerea
frazelor în ordine, copierea cântecului în caiete, eliminarea dificultăţilor
prin găsirea explicaţiei cuvintelor, restituirea cântecului, etc).
- Clipul video (studenţii privesc clipul fără sunet, exprimând în
limba franceză istorioara derulată).
În cadrul acestei etape includem şi analiza textului cântecului. Iată
câteva tipuri de întrebări care vor ajuta studenţii să înţeleagă mai bine sensul
textului cântecului.
- Care este subiectul cântecului?
- Există o aluzie la referinţe precise (locuri, fiinţe, evenimente, etc.)?
- Ce relaţie există între titlul şi conţinutul cântecului?
- Găsiţi un alt titlu.
- Puteţi identifica cine “spune” mesajul şi cine “face” acţiunea?
- Cui se adresează cântecul?
- Cum este organizat cântecul (planul) strofa, refrenul?
- Explicaţi ideea principală din fiecare strofă.
- Relevaţi vocabularul care se referă la tema cântecului.
- Identificaţi verbele: care sunt timpurile şi modurile determinante,
care este persoana ce predomină, ce concluzii putem face?
- Este prezent registrul familiar?
- Foloseşte autorul figuri de stil, care este funcţia lor, sensul?
- Explicaţi legătura care există între muzică şi text.
- Găsiţi un alt autor care tratează aceeaşi temă, chiar şi în limba
maternă.
Etapa III : interpretarea cântecului (cu suport)
Textul cântecului este scris pe tablă şi studenţii cântă sau
profesorul include versiunea Karaoke a cântecului.
Etapa IV : tema pentru acasă
 A învăţa textul cântecului şi a cânta cântecul;
 A ilustra cântecul;
 A realiza un interviu imaginar cu interpretul cântecului;
 A inventa un concurs al cântecului.
Pentru folosirea cântecului la ora de limbă străină este destul de
important să avem la dispoziţie un echipament adecvat, care funcţionează
bine, şi mai ales butonul “pauză” care trebuie să funcţioneze rapid, ceea ce
275
ar permite să oprim şi să pornim sunetul fără pierderi. De exemplu,
casetofonul, playere CD, DVD, televizor,computer conectat la Internet.
Fiecare cântec învăţat şi asimilat va prezenta o cantitate de structuri
şi expresii care vor rămâne în memoria auditivă, vizuală, atât de importante
ca şi punct de referinţă în limba maternă, dar atât de dificile în limba străină.
Cântecul poate servi ca şi punct de plecare de discuţii pe subiectele
abordate. Este posibil să găsim un cântec care ţine de aproape toate
aspectele realităţii noastre. Fiecare cântec prezintă o abordare specificăşi
bine înrădăcinată în limba şi cultura autorului, permiţând studenţilor să intre
în sensibilitatea autorului, să-l înţeleagă, să-l confrunte. Cântecul ne
îmbogăţeşte din punct de vedere cultural.
Cântecul poate însoţi orice alt manual sau metodă folosită în clasă,
adăugând elemente mai vii decât orice alt text, care nu este decât un simplu
text.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Bibliografie
Boiron, M. Chansons en classe, mode d’emploi. Le Français dans
le monde, 2008.
Cavalet, Louis-Jean. La chanson dans la classe de français langue
étrangère.- Paris, CLE international, 1980. 64 p.
Chamberlain, A. Stratégie pour une étude de la chanson française.
Le Français dans le monde, 2009.
http://www.francparler.org/articles/chanson2004.htm
К ВОПРОСУ О ПОСТАНОВКЕ ПРОИЗНОШЕНИЯ В
ПРОЦЕССЕ ПРЕПОДАВАНИЯ ИНОСТРАННЫХ
ЯЗЫКОВ В УЧЕБНЫХ ЗАВЕДЕНИЯХ АТО ГАГАУЗИЯ
С.К. СУЛАК,
к. ф. н., доцент,
Комратский Госуниверситет, Р. Молдова
Главной целью обучения иностранным языкам является
развитие способности обучаемого к общению на иностранном языке,
т.е. обучение в равной степени грамматике, лексике, аудированию,
чтению и произношению.
Бим И. Л. выделяет следующие основные цели обучения
произношению:
- овладение умениями аудирования, т.е. развитие фонематического
слуха;
276
- овладение навыками произношения, т.е. доведенное до
автоматизма владение артикуляторной базой иностранного языка,
способами интонирования;
- развитие внутренней речи (внутреннего проговаривания) как
психологической основы для внешней речи [1].
От умения аудирования зависит произнешение. И то, и другое
влияет на развитие внутренней речи, а последнее во многом
определяет развитие произносительных навыков и внешней речи в
целом.
По мнению М. Богдана, Н. Корлэтяну, И. Загаевского и других
исследователей в области лингвистики и педагогики, от овладения
навыками произношения зависит и способность учащихся усваивать
материал, относящийся к другим аспектам языка [3].
Не возникает вопросов о том, что обучение произношению в
целом подчинено развитию речевой деятельности. Но методистам не
всегда было понятно, стоит ли сконцентрировать работу над
произношением на начальном этапе или постепенно совершенствовать
фонетические навыки в течение всего периода обучения.
На определенном этапе считалось, что первый вариант является
наиболее приемлемым. Отражением данной точки зрения стало
появление так называемых «вводных фонетических курсов». Однако
такой подход имел ряд существенных недостатков:
- будучи первостепенной задачей, отработка произношения на
начальном этапе препятствовала формированию коммуникативных
навыков и, как возможность работы в этом направлении резко
сокращалось ввиду того малого количества времени, которое имеется в
распоряжении школьного учителя;
- на среднем и старшем этапах обучения работа над
произношением прекращалась, поскольку считалось, что навыки
сформировались на начальном этапе, хотя именно этот тип навыков
можно считать наиболее подверженным деавтоматизации;
- попытки сразу поставить безукоризненное произношение были
напрямую связаны с подробными объяснениями артикуляции, что ведет
к чрезмерной теоретизации учебного процесса.
В настоящее время методисты считают, что работа над
совершенствованием произношения должна проводиться в течение
всего срока обучения, хотя роль этой работы и ее характер меняются на
различных этапах.
В школьной фонетике функциональный аспект изучения звука
терминологически почти не представлен, т.е. не проводится
разграничение между звуками как физическими единицами речи и
277
фонемами как смыслоразличительными единицами языка. В связи с
вышесказанным будущему учителю-филологу следует обратить
внимание на использование таких упражнений, которые позволят в
процессе их выполнения обнаружить смыслоразличительную роль
звуков.
Как показывает опыт работы, в вузовском обучении
недостаточно внимания уделяется овладению навыкам произношения.
В условиях неязыковой среды, или, проще говоря, на уроке
иностранного языка, постановке произносительных навыков следует
уделить значительное внимание [2].
Целесообразной, на наш взгляд, является такая организация
работы, когда будущий учитель осваивает в комплексе форму
языковой единицы и ее функционирование, овладевает навыками ее
употребления, готовится к правильной организации работы над этим
языковым явлением в школе и осознает различие в методических
приемах, применяемых в школе и в вузе.
Выполнение заданий, связанных с освоением
навыков
произношения, вызывает заинтересованность у будущих специалистов
к специфическому, профессионально ориентированному содержанию
деятельности, чем и обусловлена, по нашему мнению, истинно
педагогическая направленность на учебно-воспитательную работу в
школе.
Таким образом, в современных условиях гуманизации
образования роль познающего субъекта уже не сводится к простому
«сбору информации». Приобретение новых знаний должно быть
основано на оптимальном сочетании и взаимодействии теоретических
знаний и практических умений. Взаимопроникновение теории и
практики в процессе обучения студентов может дать школе такого
специалиста, который умеет принять решение в нестандартной
ситуации, систематизировать и обобщить наблюдаемые факты на
творческом уровне, а в итоге утвердиться в правильности выбора
профессии.
В прежние времена к фонетическим ошибкам относились
снисходительно, ошибки же грамматические считались очень
грубыми. Сейчас в практике живого языка ошибки должны
расцениваться совершенно иначе: те ошибки будут грубыми, которые
мешают взаимопониманию, а это гораздо чаще будут ошибки
произношения, нежели ошибки грамматические.
Особенно важным становится правильное произношение тогда,
когда приходится выступать публично. В наше время, когда, с одной
стороны, общественная жизнь получила такое исключительное
278
развитие и когда, с другой стороны, радиотехника уничтожила, в
сущности, расстояние, устная публичная речь стала могущественным
фактором жизни. Но для того, чтобы кого-либо в чем-либо убедить,
публично или даже в частном разговоре, надо говорить выразительно.
Следовательно, для людей, желающих беседовать с
иностранцами, необходимо усвоить хорошее произношение. Как же
это сделать? Есть два пути: один – поместить человека в
соответствующую иноязычную среду с тем, чтобы он интуитивно и
очень постепенно перенял правильное произношение, и другой –
рационализировать дело обучения. Первый способ практически в
большинстве случаев недоступен; компьютер лишь в ничтожной доле
может заменить иностранное окружение и, в лучшем случае, будет
способствовать развитию понимания, но не правильного говорения. В
чем же тут дело? Многим кажется, что дело только в «активной
практике».
Однако суть вещей сложнее. Слушая иностранную речь, мы
обыкновенно воспринимаем ее звуки как ближайшие по звучанию
свои (конечно, кроме тех случаев, когда у нас нет совсем ничего
похожего) – таков основной закон механизма нашей речи.
Соответственно мы, конечно, и подражаем иностранной речи,
подставляя везде свое произношение. Отсюда и получается
коверкание. Самое трагичное при этом то, что мы вовсе не слышим
своего коверкания, больше того, по существу вещей, мы и не можем
его услышать, если принять к тому особых мер: нам кажется, что мы
правильно подражаем чужому произношению. И этого не так легко
достичь; но зато, когда это достигнуто, главное уже сделано. Попутно
надо помочь органам речи найти те непривычные для них движения,
которые необходимы для достижения правильного эффекта. Здесь на
помощь приходит фонетика – наука, изучающая наряду с другими
вопросами разные движения органов речи, от которых и зависит все то
разнообразие речевых звуков, которое наблюдается у человечества.
Таким образом, научить различать на слух правильное
произношение от неправильного и научить правильно произносить
иностранную речь – вот первая задача при обучении активному
владению иностранным языком. Она должна быть первой, должна
предшествовать всему остальному, так как иначе слова и фразы долгое
время будут заучиваться в плохом произношении, и затем студентов
придется переучивать, а известно, что нет ничего труднее, как
переучивать что-либо заученное неправильно.
Основная сложность в обучении произношению заключается в
межъязыковой интерференции. Приступая к изучению иностранного
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языка, обучаемые обладают уже устойчивыми навыками слушания и
произношения звуков родного языка, т.е. основными интонемами они
уже владеют.
Интерференция возникает за счет того, что слухопроизносительные навыки родного языка переносятся на
иностранный, а это означает, что звуки иностранного языка
уподобляются звукам родного языка. Особенно это явление заметно у
учащихся школ Гагаузии, где каждый обучаемый владеет кроме
иностранного языка еще 2-3 языками. Учитель обязан предвидеть
появление таких ошибок и по возможности предупреждать их
появление. В центре внимания должны находиться при этом те
явления, которые составляют специфику артикуляционной базы
изучаемого языка.
Далее остановимся на вопросах преодоления интерференции
слухо-произносительных
навыков.
Интерференция
это
заимствованный из точных наук термин, который в методике
используется для обозначения отрицательного влияния родного языка
при овладении иностранным языком в виде наложения навыков.
Большой интерес представляет собой природа этого явления, его
психофизиологические основы и роль при обучении иностранным
языкам.
Интерференция объективно проявляется на фонетическом,
лексическом, грамматическом, синтаксическом уровнях. Что касается
борьбы с интерференцией на фонетическом уровне, то здесь большие
надежды возлагаются на ТСО. Однако опыт убеждает, что
использование ТСО не дает полной гарантии устранения
интерференции. Рассмотрим некоторые из возможных способов
борьбы с интерференцией слухо-произносительных навыков.
Одним из условий снижений интерференции является
образцовое произношение учителя, которому в свою очередь
необходимо систематически над ним работать. Вполне очевидно, что
cо временем даже хорошо поставленное произношение деформируется
при отсутствии должных языковых условий и постоянном
самоконтроле. Учитель становится менее требовательным к своей речи
(в частности, к ее фонетической стороне) и все более терпимым к
фонетическим отклонениям в речи учащихся. Это, безусловно, не
может не сказаться на общем уровне слухо-произносительных
навыков. Главным средством борьбы с фонетической интерференцией
являются специальные фонетически направленные упражнения,
которые могут быть двух видов: а) аудирование; б) воспроизведение.
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Обе группы тесно связаны между собой и одинаково важны как для
слуховых, так и для произносительных навыков.
Аудирование всегда должно
сопровождаться заданием,
концентрирующим
произвольное
внимание
обучаемых
на
определенной характеристике фонемы или интонемы. Нельзя
допускать
нагромождения
трудностей,
а
упражнения
в
воспроизведении также должны быть направлены на формирование
произносительных навыков. Эффективность этих упражнений
значительно возрастет, если воспроизведению предшествует
прослушивание образца независимо от того, тренируется ли новый
материал или повторяется ранее изученный.
Однако не следует думать, что многократное повторение
автоматически снимает интерферирующее влияние родного языка. Это
следует делать систематически. И нельзя дать никаких советов или
рекомендаций по поводу того, сколько раз нужно воспроизвести одну
и ту же учебную фонетическую единицу в пределах одного урока или
серии уроков, чтобы достичь желаемых результатов. Это может
определить только сам учитель в каждом конкретном случае, учитывая
влияния конкретного языка (гагаузского, болгарского, русского или
румынского и т.д.).
Доступным и достаточно эффективным способом борьбы с
интерференцией является использование стихов, рифмовок, считалок,
загадок. Ориентированные на ту или иную фонетическую трудность,
они способствуют разработке речевого аппарата учащихся,
формированию прочности и гибкости навыка.
Однако прежде чем начать борьбу с интерференцией,
необходимо попытаться ее предупредить на различных уровнях. В той
или иной мере это можно сделать за счет следующих факторов:

методически
грамотно
организовывать
фонетическую
отработку учебно-речевого материала;

не допускать нагромождения трудностей, а, следовательно, и
ошибок;
 обращать внимание учеников на возможные трудности и
помогать с ними справляться;
 умело использовать транспозицию в обучении фонетическим
навыкам.
Вспомним, что фонемы, например, немецкого языка можно
условно разделить на три группы:
- фонемы, имеющие аналоги в родном (русском) языке;
- фонемы, имеющие некоторое сходство с фонемами родного
языка;
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-
фонемы, отсутствующие в родном языке учащихся
В целях предупреждения интерферирующего влияния родного
языка на фонетическом уровне при работе над фонемами первой и
второй групп следует воспользоваться транспозицией - тогда не
потребуется продолжительной фонетической отработки.
Работая над фонемами третьей группы, учителю следует учесть,
что они представляют наибольшую трудность для учащихся.
Следовательно, требуется усиленная тренировка. Необходимо помнить
- в отрабатываемом речевом образце должна быть только одна
фонетическая трудность. Иногда целесообразна тренировка в отрыве
от явления, которое провоцирует интерференцию. Это относится и к
внутриязыковой интерференции.
Таким образом, основной путь преодоления интерференции
слухо-произносительных навыков заключается в систематической и
целенаправленной тренировке на базе специальных упражнений в
слушании и воспроизведении.
Библиография
1. Бим И.Л., Рыжова Л.И. Первые шаги. М.: Просвещение, 2002. 103
с.
2. Гузь М.Н., Ситникова И.О. Фонетика. Читаем и говорим понемецки. СПб.: КАРО, 2005. 160с.
3. Кирдякин А.А., Бабырэ Н.М., Сулак С.К. О постановке и
коррекции произношения в процессе преподавания английского
языка/ Международная научно-практическая конференция «Наука.
Культура. Образование». Комрат: КГУ, 2008.С. 228-230
CREATIVITATEA ÎN PROCESUL DE INSTRUIRE
Gabriela ŞAGANEAN, dr. conf. univ.,
Daniela PASCARU, lector, MA,
USM, R. Moldova
În şcoala modernă metodele de predare au devenit o rutină în
procesul de instruire. Se pare că noi, profesorii, predăm materiile de studiu
în mod obiectiv, fără a le da posibilitate studenţilor să experimenteze
procesul de descoperire şi cum acesta transformă lumea. Îi învăţăm pe
studenţi să fie consumatori de cunoştinţe, însă nu-i încurajăm să participe la
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crearea acestor cunoştinţe. Încurajarea creativităţii studenţilor presupune
parcurgerea unui proces creativ în care posibilităţile devin realitate.
R. J. Sternberg şi T. I. Lubart, în 1991, au propus teoria investiţională
a creativităţii ca mijloc de înţelegere a naturii creativităţii. În conformitate
cu această teorie, creativitatea necesită o combinare de şase resurse
interdependente: abilităţi intelectuale, cunoştinţe, stiluri de gândire,
personalitate, motivare, mediu. Deşi aceste resurse ţin de deosebirile
individuale, adeseori decizia de a le utiliza este cea mai importantă sursă a
deosebirilor individuale.
Abilităţile intelectuale includ abilitatea sintetică de a vedea
problemele din mai multe perspective, abilitatea analitică implică
recunoaşterea ideilor care merită a fi urmate şi abilitatea contextuală
practică presupune convingerea altora de propriile idei.
Studenţii trebuie învăţaţi cum să-i convingă pe alţii de valoarea
propriilor idei. Astfel, dacă au elaborat un proiect ştiinţific, este o idee bună
pentru ca ei să-l prezinte şi să demonstreze de ce acesta constituie o
contribuţie importantă. În cazul în care realizează o lucrare artistică, ei
trebuie să fie pregătiţi să descrie de ce cred că aceasta posedă valoare.
Pentru a-şi atinge obiectivele tinerii au nevoie de cunoştinţele
respective. Nimeni nu poate fi creativ fără cunoştinţe. De aceea trebuie să-i
învăţăm pe studenţi cum să-şi imagineze lucrurile şi din alte puncte de
vedere, să perceapă importanţa înţelegerii, respectului şi să răspundă la
părerile altora. Acest fapt este important deoarece mulţi studenţi cu un
potenţial intelectual ridicat nu se bucură de succes din cauză că nu-şi
dezvoltă inteligenţa practică. Ei pot avea succes la testări, dar nu pot să
înveţe cum să se descurce în diferite situaţii de viaţă sau să vadă lucrurile şi
pe ei înşişi după cum îi percep alţii.
Stilurile de gândire se referă la o gândire progresistă, în diferite
moduri, aspecte. În literatura de specialitate se vehiculează ideea că este
posibil de a ajuta studenţii să-şi determine propriile preferinţe şi să-şi
contureze propriul stil de învăţare, ca să poată face faţă cerinţelor unei
anumite activităţi didactice.
Florin Druţă menţionează că „ideală ar fi posibilitatea adaptării
stilurilor în funcţie de problemele şi exigenţele situaţiilor, iar profesorul săşi cunoască atât propriul său stil cognitiv, cât şi pe cel al studentului” [1997:
173].
Pornind de la ideea că fiecare individ are propria sa personalitate,
care îl face unic şi nerepetabil în felul său de a fi, de a gândi şi de a simţi, el
trebuie să poată să-şi asume riscul să tolereze ambiguitatea şi autoeficienţa.
Un aspect important al învăţării studenţilor să fie creativi este formarea
deprinderilor de a-şi asuma responsabilitatea atât pentru succes, cât şi
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pentru eşec. Astfel, învăţându-i cum să-şi asume responsabilitatea,
înseamnă să-i înveţi pe studenţi să înţeleagă procesul creativ, să se
autocritice şi, totodată, să se mândrească cu cel mai bun lucru creativ. De
multe ori încercăm să găsim un vinovat extern pentru eşecurile noastre.
Deseori creativitatea este limitată de atitudinea sau motivarea
persoanei. În multe cazuri, persoanele pesimiste pot inhiba creativitatea lor
prin declaraţii de felul: „Nu sunt o persoană creativă”; „N-am avut niciodată
idei bune” etc. Teresa Amabile vorbeşte despre rolul motivării în activitatea
creativă şi sugerează ideea că oamenii rareori pot face ceva creativ dacă lor
nu le place ceea ce fac.
În cele din urmă, omul are nevoie de mediu, care va susţine şi va
recompensa aceste idei creative. Teresa Amabile şi colegii săi au făcut
distincţie între motivarea intrinsecă pentru o anumită activitate creativă şi
cea extrinsecă, care îşi are originea în aşteptări şi circumstanţe
imprevizibile.
Suntem de acord că fără o motivare internă şi un imbold va fi dificil
să susţinem efortul necesar pentru a atinge rezultatul creativ scontat. Sursele
motivării intrinsece sunt într-o oarecare măsură misterioase. Profesorii pot
prezenta teme interesante, acest fapt îi va face pe studenţi să se intereseze de
subiect într-o măsură mai mare sau mai mică.
În general, pregătirea unor lecţii dinamice şi interesante ar putea
contribui la captivarea studenţilor, modelând stiluri de gândire creativă care
ar duce la dezvoltarea acestora şi crearea unei atmosfere tolerante în sală de
studii, care ar putea încuraja studenţii care nu doresc să-şi asume un risc s-o
facă, profesorii atrăgând mai multă atenţie la cunoştinţele şi abilităţile
intelectuale.
L. Vygotsky a constatat că imaginaţia creativă îşi are originea în
jocul copiilor. De asemenea, a făcut distincţie dintre imaginaţia
reproductivă, în care individul îşi imaginează lucrurile din memorie, şi
imaginaţia combinată, în care el combină elementele din experienţa
anterioară în situaţii noi sau comportamentul care caracterizează
creativitatea. Deoarece copiii au mai puţine interese, înţelegeri mai puţin
complexe, şi mai puţine gânduri diverse decât adulţii, ei sunt capabili de
mai puţină creativitate matură. “În procesul de dezvoltare a copilului,
imaginaţia, de asemenea, se dezvoltă, ajungând la maturitate numai când
este matur” [1967: 97]. După L. Vygotsky, tranziţia dintre imaginaţia
copilului şi creativitatea matură a adultului are loc în etapa medie –
adolescenţa. Astfel, adolescenţii dezvoltă abilitatea de a manipula cu
concepte abstracte, ei încep să dezvolte o creativitate mai activă şi dorită
decât cea din copilărie. Marele savant susţinea că dezvoltarea creativităţii
este influenţată de vorbirea lăuntrică, educaţie şi gândirea în concepte.
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Vorbirea le permite indivizilor să se gândească, să reprezinte şi să
comunice lucruri care nu sunt prezente. Gândirea conceptelor permite
indivizilor să proceseze şi să combine experienţele în unele noi, mai
complexe.
Creativitatea este o stare a minţii. Abilitatea de a fi creativ nu este
înnăscută, dar este o deprindere care poate fi învăţată şi dezvoltată prin
intermediul utilizării diferitor strategii. În scopul stimulării şi dezvoltării
creativităţii în învăţământ este necesar de a lua în consideraţie unele
recomandări:
a. Menţinerea unei atmosfere creative de grup care permite
conversaţia, gândirea şi lucrul într-o atmosferă fără stres şi anxietate, de
asemenea, şi fără frica de a fi pedepsit. Amânarea evaluării imediate şi
limitarea timpului pentru realizarea unei activităţi. Profesorul nu acţionează
ca un evaluator şi organizator, dar ca un partener.
b. Evitarea neînţelegerilor în grup şi a invidiei cauzată de
competiţie, dar susţinerea unei atmosfere sociocooperante. Identificarea
obiectivelor şi lucrul în echipă, cât şi susţinerea implicării personale.
Fiecărui student trebuie să i se ofere dreptul ca ideile şi gândurile sale să fie
luate în serios.
c. Utilizarea şi aprecierea umorului, deoarece diferite studii
vorbesc despre relaţia strânsă dintre umor şi creativitate.
d. Manipularea cu obiective şi idei, de ex.: „Ce dacă…?” Este
importantă găsirea şi utilizarea analogiilor şi metaforelor. Întrebarea „Ce
dacă…? sau Ce ar fi fost dacă…?” permite dezvoltarea fanteziei şi
menţinerea curiozităţii.
e. Susţinerea iniţiativei de a pune întrebări. De obicei, punerea
întrebărilor nu constituie o tentativă de a deranja, dar de a demonstra
eforturile individuale în căutarea sensului şi adevărului. Reacţii de a
suprima creativitatea pot fi: “Această informaţie ţine de o altă temă/sau este
pentru mai târziu”. O reacţie mai adecvată ar fi: “De ce credeţi că această
întrebare ar putea fi importantă acum?”
f. Susţinerea intereselor, perceperea şi acumularea de cunoştinţe
într-o varietate largă şi în diferite domenii.
g. Aprecierea ideilor neobişnuite, originale, creative.
h. Încurajarea studenţilor să accepte, să conştientizeze şi să
aprecieze propria gândire şi activitate creativă.
i. Dezvoltarea şi demonstrarea unei critici constructive. Critica
devine constructivă numai când apare din apreciere personală, şi apoi poate
fi acceptată fără a cauza mult rău. Nu se recomandă de a atrage atenţie la
greşeli, cu excepţia celor mai grave, deoarece pe greşeli se învaţă.
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Studenţii trebuie să cunoască că de la ei se cere să fie creativi. A fi
creativ înseamnă să studiezi cunoscutul din diferite puncte de vedere, să
găseşti noi relaţii dintre lucruri care par a nu avea nici o legătură, să găseşti
în cadrul dat noi alternative. Aceasta înseamnă să fii deschis faţă de mediul
în care trăieşti, să înţelegi sentiment ale celor din jur şi să-ţi creezi propria
sa experienţă.
Obiectivul pedagogului este de a elabora exerciţii care i-ar încuraja
pe studenţi să pună întrebări despre viaţa lor, ce cunosc despre trecut,
implicarea lor socială şi ideile pe care le au referitor la viitor. Este important
de a-i implica pe studenţi în definirea conceptelor generale precum:
curiozitatea, deschiderea, flexibilitatea, imaginaţia, surpriza, simţul
umorului şi evaluarea rolului şi valorii acestui concept.
O altă activitate ar fi ca elevii să-şi imagineze lumea peste un interval
de 30 ani: casele noastre, sistemul de comunicaţii, mijloacele de transport,
odihna, serviciul, viaţa de familie; prezentarea unui cuvânt şi utilizarea
acestuia într-un discurs scurt fără pregătire; completarea spaţiilor libere ale
unui text, astfel exersându-se intuiţia; iniţierea unei discuţii prin prezentarea
unei liste de întrebări şi posibilitatea de a alege întrebările preferate printre
posibilităţile interesante ar fi :
Of all your unforgettable memories, which one would you like to
forget?
What famous person are you most like?
What correlations can you make between chefs and lions?
Utilizarea întrebărilor în scopul stimulării creativităţii:
What if women ruled the world?
What if no one were allowed to earn more than $100,000 a year?
What if all celebrities had to donate five hours a week to a charitable
cause?
Utilizarea citatelor în scopul generării unei discuţii:
“I’d rather know some of the questions than all of the answers.”
(James Thurber)
“When you ask a dumb question, you get a smart answer.”
(Aristotle)
Parafrazarea unui citat care nu este considerată o activitate pasivă,
dar una care implică creativitate lingvistică atât la nivel cognitiv (abilităţi de
abstracţie şi generalizare), cât şi la nivel lingvistic (utilizarea corectă şi
variată a lexicului şi sintaxei); intervievarea unei persoane.
Putem încuraja gândirea creativă, făcându-i pe studenţi să aleagă
singuri temele pentru lucrări şi prezentări, să aleagă propriile modalităţi de
rezolvare a problemelor şi, chiar să înţeleagă că propria alegere a fost o
greşeală. Oferindu-le şansa de a alege singuri, le permitem studenţilor să-şi
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dezvolte gustul şi buna raţiune, ambele aspecte fiind elemente esenţiale ale
creativităţii. Într-un moment oarecare fiecare face greşeli în alegerea unui
proiect sau metode de elaborare a acestuia. Trebuie să ţinem minte că un
aspect important al creativităţii este cel analitic – de a te învăţa să recunoşti
greşeala.
Fiecare face presupuneri. Deseori persoana nu ştie că posedă aceste
presupuneri deoarece ele sunt împărtăşite şi de mulţi alţii. Oamenii creativi
pun la îndoială presupunerile şi îi fac şi pe alţii să facă la fel. Punerea la
îndoială a presupunerilor face parte din gândirea analitică implicată în
creativitate.
Societatea tinde să facă o greşeală pedagogică, evidenţiind răspunsul
şi nu punerea unei întrebări. Student bun este considerat acela care oferă
rapid răspunsuri corecte. John Dewey susţine că faptul cum cineva gândeşte
este mai important, decât ce gândeşte cineva. Şcoala trebuie să-i înveţe pe
studenţi cum să pună întrebări corecte (întrebări care sunt bune, generatoare
de idei interesante) şi minimizează rolul învăţării pe de rost.
Oamenilor creativi le place să genereze idei noi. Mediul de generare
a ideilor poate fi critic în mod constructiv, dar nu trebuie să fie critic în mod
distructiv. Studenţii trebuie să realizeze că unele idei sunt mai bune decât
altele. Profesorii şi studenţii trebuie să colaboreze în scopul identificării şi
încurajării oricărui aspect creativ al ideilor care sunt prezentate. Când ideile
sugerate par a nu avea o mare valoare, profesorii nu trebuie numai să le
critice. Ei trebuie să sugereze noi abordări, de preferinţă acelea care conţin
unele aspecte ale ideilor precedente, care păreau că nu erau prea valoroase.
Studenţii trebuie apreciaţi pentru generarea de idei indiferent de faptul dacă
acestea sunt sau nu foarte originale şi elocvente în contextul dat, fiind
încurajaţi să identifice şi să dezvolte cele mai bune idei pentru lucrările şi
activităţile sale.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Bibliografie
Amabile, T. M., The Social Psychology of Creativity. New York:
Springer Verlag, 1983
Druţă, Florin, Psihologie şi educaţie. Bucureşti, Editura Didacticã şi
Pedagogicã, 1997
Sternberg, R. (ed.) The Nature of Creativity. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1988
Sternberg, R.J. and Lubart, T.I., The concept of creativity: Prospects
and paradigms. In RJ Sternberg (ed.), Handbook of Creativity, pp.
3–15. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999
Vygotsky L., Play and Its Role in the Mental Development of the
Child. Soviet, Psychology, Volume 5. 1967
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LE PROVERBE - DU LINGUISTIQUE VERS
L’HERMENEUTIQUE OU COMMENT S’Y PRENDRE
Victor UNTILĂ,
docteur, maître de conference,
ULIM, R. de Moldavie
„Chacun veut se croire au-dessus
des proverbes, et se trompe en cela”
Alain, Proverbes (Minerve
ou de la sagesse)
Cadre épistémologique
Les proverbes constituent le genre discursif le plus paradoxal. L'un des
plus anciens, sans doute, mais aussi celui qui a le mieux résisté à l'érosion
du temps. Difficile à cerner, investi comme il est, en amont, par les dictons,
les lieux communs, les expressions proverbiales, les locutions populaires et,
en aval, par les adages, les sentences, les maximes, le proverbe reste malgré
tout reconnaissable. Sa brièveté, les images sidérantes qu'il impose, ses
inventions stylistiques (métaphores, périphrases, antithèses, rapprochements
imprévus, jeux de mots, rimes, assonances, etc.) l'impriment dans la
mémoire.
Du point de vue formel, le proverbe se distingue souvent par :
- le caractère non ordinaire (archaïque) de sa construction grammaticale
: l'absence de l'article, l'absence de l'antécédent, la non-observation de
l'ordre conventionnel des mots. Le présent employé est le temps
anhistorique qui aide à énoncer, sous forme de simples constatations, des
vérités éternelles. L'impératif, en instituant une réglementation hors du
temps, assure la permanence d'un ordre moral sans variations. Les autres
traits spécifiques du proverbe en français sont : l'emploi du cas-sujet et du
cas-régime dans les expressions nominales, la présence de compléments
déterminatifs, l'ellipse des relatifs, les consécutives négatives, les relatives
au subjonctif, l'infinitif substantivé ou servant de thème dans une phrase à
prédicat, la conjonction de coordination introduisant une principale, les
phrases nominales et les constructions chiasmatique;
- la structure rythmique du proverbe est souvent binaire. On y trouve
l'opposition de deux propositions ou de deux groupes de mots à l'intérieur
de la proposition. La rime ou l'assonance vient parfois souligner
l'opposition;
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- le plan lexical est souvent renforcé par l'utilisation d'oppositions, la
répétition des mots, la mise en présence syntagmatique de couples
oppositionnels de mots.
Les procédés stylistiques vont de pair avec les caractéristiques formelles du
proverbe :
 le rythme et la rime : à chaque oiseau / son nid est beau ;
 rythme avec assonance et/ou allitération : faute avouée à moitié
pardonnée ;
 syntaxe défectueuse/archaїque : qui trop embrasse mal étreint
(relative sans antécédent) ;
 répétition d’un même terme : tel maître, tel valet;
 emploi des termes antonymiques : si jeunesse savait, si vieillesse
pouvait;
 paranomase : qui trop s’excuse, s’accuse;
 négation absolue : un malheur ne vient jamais seul;
 paradoxe : on perd tout en voulant tout gagner.
Devenu a-contextuel, vide, ce fait énonciatif s'offre comme le lieu idéal
de l'insertion de
nouvelles instances émettrices qui, les manipulant à leur guise, en assume
provisoirement la responsabilité. Ceci explique la forte charge idéologique
et le fonctionnement comme signe univoque, mono-isotopique, propriété qui
le rend utile lorsqu'il s'agit d'établir un consensus rapide entre idiolectes.
La formulation archaïsante des proverbes renvoie à un passé non
déterminé, leur confère une sorte d'autorité qui relève de la sagesse des
anciens. Le caractère archaïque des proverbes constitue une mise hors du
temps des significations qu'ils contiennent.
Le proverbe se donne, dans sa formulation brève, elliptique et
imaginée, comme une vérité d’expérience, comme un conseil de sagesse
pratique commun à tout un ensemble social. Cette impersonnalité propre à
une sagesse collective se caractérise d’autre part par la fixité de sa structure,
un style propre, reconnaissable, qui lui assure immédiatement son statut de
savoir catégorique et invariant. Cette sagesse proverbiale semble être une
garantie contre le temps et une référence stable et immuable par-delà les
singularités et les subjectivités. Le proverbe est une sorte de court poème,
souvent rimé, toujours rythmé d’une certaine manière, de façon que la
mémoire machinale ne le déforme pas aisément.
Le proverbe vaut comme résumé d’une expérience ayant valeur de
généralité, et exprime avec couleur, image, vivacité et rythme une sagesse
issue d’un ensemble social. La fixité de la structure, l’impersonnalité de
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l’énonciateur font de l’expression proverbiale une assertion catégorique non
critique. Les proverbes constituent la partie intégrante de toutes les langues.
Quoique, de nos jours, ils aient perdu leur pertinence d’autrefois et la
fréquence d’emploi, ils restent toujours dans la langue un moyen
d’expression important. Les proverbes reflètent l’histoire des peuples
différents, leur mode de vie, leurs coutumes, leur mentalité.
L’analyse comparative des proverbes des langues différentes
contribuerait à connaître les particularités nationales des peuples, à observer
l’évolution de leurs conceptions étiques et esthétiques. Elle permettrait
également de résoudre le problème de la genèse des proverbes, de découvrir
le mécanisme de la corrélation de la langue et de la pensée, de suivre
l’évolution de la pensée philosophique et poétique.
Ayant acquis une signification générale, les proverbes ne s’appliquent pas
toutefois à une personne, un événement ou une situation concrets, mais à
une classe de situations typiques.
Sagesse populaire, morale de fabulistes ou jeux de rimes et de mots - le
proverbe est une courte phrase ou très court texte qui résume une idée, une
pensée, assène une vérité, ou une "contre-vérité".
Dimensions méthodologiques
L’étude des proverbes (la parémiologie) pourrait être rapportée à deux
théories linguistiques:
- la théorie des stéréotypes (figements) ;
- la théorie de l’argumentation dans la langue, qui profilent à leur
tour deux approches:
référentialiste et analyse l’analyse du discours
Comme suite, le paradigme du fonctionnement du proverbe dévoile les
composantes suivantes :
- finaliste (linguistique) ;
- compréhensive (herméneutique) .
Fonctions pragmatiques :
 Sens littéral : qui ne dit mot consent ;
 pour donner son avis sur quelqu'un, sans en avoir l'air : lorsque le sage
montre la lune, l'idiot regarde le doigt, tel père tel fils, l'habit ne fait
pas le moine ;
 expliquer un comportement: qui veut voyager loin, ménage sa monture;
 excuser une maladresse : on ne fait pas d'omelette sans casser des œufs;
 justifier un geste étrange : qui veut noyer son chien, l'accuse de la rage;
 se consoler : un de perdu dix de retrouvés;
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





s'encourager : à coeur vaillant, rien d'impossible, même si à
l'impossible nul n'est tenu;
clore un débat : il n'est bonne compagnie qui ne se quitte, toute bonne
chose a une fin;
apporter un conseil, renseignement utile : la nuit porte conseil;
menace explicite : rira bien qui rira le dernier;
valeur prédictive, prévisionnelle : qui veut la fin veut les moyens;
avertissement : bourgeon qui pousse en avril met peu de vin au baril.
Le décalogue synoptique du proverbe
1. forme sententieuse plutôt figée;
2. régularités prosodiques, métriques et phonétiques;
3. brièveté, simplicité des formants (structures binaires);
4. construction par mise en homologie de syntagmes;
5. étagement
du
sens :
scénario
figuratif/énonciation
pragmatique/injonction morale;
6. généricité à caractère de loi;
7. universalité du genre traversant les langues et les cultures;
8. sagesse des nations, vérité „quintessenciée”, ordre moral;
9. statut citationnel renvoyant à une autorité ou tradition;
10. l’anonymat de la source, nommée on-énonciateur.
Défis et enjeux didactiques
À la fois évident et énigmatique, le proverbe est une œuvre d'art en
miniature. Etant une construction lapidaire, lacunaire, opaque, parfois
obscure et/ou ésotérique, le proverbe présente un sens latent qui „se montre”
mais qu’on ne peut pas „dire”. Le problème qui se pose alors est qu’il faut
savoir comprendre pour expliquer et il faut savoir expliquer pour
comprendre. En plus, cette compréhension/explication est dépendante de
l’actualisation de toutes sortes de compétences : linguistiques, logiques,
pragmatiques, axiologiques, discursives etc. dans toute leur complexité et
interdépendance. Cette tache didactique se complique par l’apparition
durant le processus d’interprétation des antinomies : langue-langage ;
dénotatif-connotatif/figuré ; objectif-subjectif ; contenu-valeur ; abstraitconcret ; référence-signification ; sens-vérité etc.
Autrement dit, comprendre/expliquer les proverbes c’est se lancer sur une
voie herméneutique pour trouver les chemins de la sagesse.
Fiche méthodique N 1
Modèle d’analyse/interprétation d’un proverbe :
291
Les stratégies d’analyse /interprétation sont multiples, mais généralement
on devrait prendre en compte 2 composantes :
 finaliste - retrouver dans les énoncés les caractéristiques structurelles
(I, II) ainsi que les significations (lexicographiques offertes, inscrites).
Pour cela faire il faut insister sur la dimension intensive du sens
dénotatif des mots clefs (synonymes, antonymes, champs sémantiques
etc.) ainsi que sur la spécificité grammaticale et de style – (III);
 compréhensive (herméneutique) - reconnaître la possibilté des
inférences metatextuelles, qui conduisent vers des extensions
conotatives, émergences et implications axiologiques/philosophiques –
(IV).
I
Type de composition
II.
Rythme, tonalité
III
Caractéristiques
linguistiques
IV
Herméneutique
Métaphorique (image, analogie) ou/et
notionnel (concepts, notions abstraites)
2, 3 temps (syntagmes)
assonance et/ou allitération
symétrie/ asymétrie
pôles (oppositions)
sémantiques, contraste/antithèse/paradoxe,
synonymie/ antonymie
archaїsme/ néologie
morphologique/ syntaxique
procédés et figures de style etc.
inférences axiologiques, philosophiques
Modèle d’analyse : „La chance est un hasard, le bonheur est une
vocation”
I. Type de formation: notionnel, formé par l’agencement de notions
abstraites oppositives: chance-hasard-bonheur-vocation.
II. Rythme : à 2 temps, (groupes rythmiques) : la chance est un hasard / le
bonheur est une vocation.
III. Caractéristiques linguistiques :
- symétrie notionnelle : chance=hasard ; bonheur=vocation
- asymétrie des pôles sémantiques oppositifs ; contraste/antithèse des
concepts :
chance ≠ bonheur, hasard ≠ vocation, hasard ≠ bonheur
- le verbe copule – est (être) au présent anhistorique aide à énoncer et à
mettre en relief sous
forme de simples constatations, des vérités éternelles.
292
- construction nominale : Sujets – la chance, le bonheur.
Prédicat nominal : est un hasard, est une
vocation.
IV. Herméneutique. L’affirmation insiste sur une comparaison double :
(chance=hasard) ≠ (bonheur=vocation) et une antithèse de deux notions :
chance ≠ bonheur, qui reflètent deux aspirations constantes de l’existence
humaine.
La chance est une manière favorable ou défavorable selon laquelle
un événement se produit, une éventualité, une probabilité potentielle qui
s’actualise par hasard. C’est un coup de hasard, une occurrence, une
occasion, une circonstance fortuite et casuelle, adventice, inattendue ou
d’aventure et toujours quelque chose d’indéterminé (description dénotative
intensionnelle par des synonymes).
Le bonheur est un état d’aise, de pleine satisfaction, béatitude,
félicité, plaisir, de bonne condition, de confort existentiel, de joie, de
ravissement, d’enchantement moral (description dénotative intentionnelle
par des synonymes) où le rôle du hasard est limité, et par contre, le rôle de
la vocation (destination, mission acquise par des mouvements et des efforts
humains intérieurs) est bien prononcée. L’Homme a été créé par Dieu à sa
ressemblance avec la mission et la destinée d’être heureux, mais doit
apporter à ce bonheur tout de même sa pierre.
Donc, on pourrait conclure (conclusion axiologique) que
l’affirmation voudrait mettre en relief une opposition nette entre les deux
notions : tandis que la chance est une éventualité potentielle, actualisée
occasionnellement et qui ne dépend pas de l’homme, le bonheur est un art
de vivre où l’individu s’accomplit pleinement et manifeste ses possibilités
d’épanouissement et d’intervention volitive personnelle à tous les niveaux
de l’affirmation vitale, même si parfois on affirme que le hasard est un acte
de Dieu qu’il n’a pas signé.
Références :
1. Anscombre, Jean-Claude. Proverbes et formes proverbiales: valeur
évidentielle et argumentative. In : Langue Française, N102, 1994,
pp.95-107,.
2. Kleiber, Georges. Sur le sens des proverbes. In: Langages, 34, n°
139. La parole proverbiale. pp. 39-58.
3. Maloux, Maurice. Dictionnaire des proverbes. Paris : Larousse,
2002.
4. Michaux,Cristine. Le proverbe dans la théorie de la polyphonie.
in: Paremia, N 6,1997, p.393-398.
293
5. Michaux,Cristine. Proverbe et jugement individuel : deux
incompatibles ? In: Orbis, Lingua-rum, 1998, vol. 8, p.129-138.
6. Michaux, Cristine. Le proverbe. Vers une théorie de la parole
évocative, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Thèse de doctorat, 1998.
7. Montandon, Alain. Les formes brèves. Paris : Hachette, 1992.
8. Postalova, Katerina. Les proverbes en classe. Brno, 2006.
„AVATARURILE” ORTOGRAFIEI LIMBII ROMÂNE
Ana VULPE,
dr. conf. univ.,
ULIM, R. Moldova
Cuvântul ortografie provine, după cum se ştie, de la grecescul orthos
„corect" + gra-phein „a scrie”. Deşi „în orice ortografie nu totul este logic,
ci mai totul este convenţie“ (afirmaţie susţinută încă de Nicolae Iorga),
totuşi orice vorbitor al unei limbi, care pretinde a se considera cult, trebuie
să se conformeze acestei convenţii instituite de lingvişti (indiferent dacă
place ea sau nu), întrucât „competenţa de scriere (şi de pronunţare) corectă a
unui text este, indiscutabil, un indiciu al nivelului de cultură al unei
persoane. A scrie greşit cuvintele şi locuţiunile, dar mai ales a insista în una
şi aceeaşi greşeală, scade mult din autoritatea unei personalităţi (2, pag.6).
Norma (inclusiv cea ortografică, ortoepică, morfologică) este un ansamblu
de condiţionări, de esenţă socioculturală, impuse, implicit sau explicit,
subiectului vorbitor în întrebuiţarea limbii naţionale. Ea cuprinde un cadru
tradiţional de actualizare a sistemului, acea sumă de prescripţii şi restricţii
care reglează utilizarea corectă, exactă a mijloacelor de limbă şi care se
impune vorbitorilor ca model lingvistic.
După cum cunoaştem, în 2005, la Institutul de Lingvistică „Iorgu
Iordan - Al. Rosetti“, din cadrul Academiei Române a apărut o nouă ediţie,
a II-a, a Dicţionarului ortografic, ortoepic şi morfologic al limbii române -DOOM2 , (ediţia I – DOOM1 a apărut în 1982), revăzută şi adăugită,
coordonator Ioana Vintilă-Rădulescu (printre autori: Rodica Zafiu, M.
Dimitrescu ş.a.). În ediţia respectivă au fost păstrate toate intrările
(cuvintele-titlu) din vechiul dicţionar, iar cca 3500 de cuvinte au suportat
variate modificări; în plus, au fost înregistrate cca 2500 de cuvinte noi. De
asemenea, au fost actualizate şi (parţial) reformulate o seamă de reguli şi
principii de scriere şi pronunţare a cuvintelor.
294
Dar, mai întâi, propunem, pe scurt, câteva aspecte din istoria
ortografiei limbii române, (insistând în mod special asupra problemei
privind scrierea lui [î] din [i] sau din [a].
Ortografia românească a parcurs câteva etape importante în
dezvoltarea ei (şi în acest sens). Elaborarea ortografiei limbii române pe
baze strict lingvistice ţine încă de numele lui B. P. Haşdeu şi cel al lui Titu
Maiorescu. In problema transcrierii sunetului [î], Haşdeu, in primele două
volume masive din Cuvente den bătrani, promova regula de scriere la
inceputul cuvintelor [î] din [i], iar în interiorul cuvintelor [î] din [â]: râu,
când, pâine, lucrând, nevăzând etc.
Promotorul ideilor lui B. P. Hasdeu a fost Titu Maiorescu, care a
contribuit in mod esenţial la elaborarea regulilor ortografice, scriind un
studiu intitulat Despre scrierea limbii române (vezi: 3). Maiorescu lansează
ideea principiului fonetico-etimologic in scrierea limbii române, punând
accentul pe aspectul fonetic. Privitor la sunetul [î], Maiorescu prefera să-l
scrie doar prin [â].
În perioada anilor 1926 şi 1932, se reia discuţia in problema scrierii
sunetului [î]din [a]. Forul academic acceptă aşa-numitele Reguli „Sextil
Puşcariu”, care prevedeau ca la începutul şi la sfârşitul cuvântului să se
scrie întotdeauna î: încontinuu, întreg, îi, înger, a coborî, a hotărî, a urî
etc.; tot î se va scrie şi in corpul cuvintelor, când, prin compunere, [î] de la
începutul cuvintelor ajunge medial: neînduplecat, neînchipuit, preaînălţat, a
se reîntoarce etc. În alte cazuri se scrie [â].
În 1953 ortografia limbii române suportă o altă reformă, inspirată,
de fapt, de unele persoane străine de limba, cultura şi tradiţia neamului
românesc. Drept consecinţă, se trece la scrierea lui [î] doar din [i], iar
literele k, q, y, w se exclud din alfabetul limbii române.
In 1964, Prezidiul Academiei a luat Hotărârea privind reintroducerea
in alfabetul limbii române a literei [â], insă numai pentru cuvinte ca
România, român şi derivatele lor.
În 1993 prin Hotărârea Adunării Generale a Academiei Române se
revine la scrierea sunetului [î] cu litera [a] in conformitate cu Legile „Sextil
Puşcariu” şi la forma sunt, păstrându-se, în felul acesta, tradiţia, care, după
cum se ştie, este parte a spiritualităţii unui popor.
Evident, această Hotărâre a Academiei Române a provocat apariţia
unor reacţii dintre cele mai variate, începând cu cele de susţinere
entuziasmată cvasitotală şi terminând cu cele de condamnare acerbă a
acestei iniţiative. Dacă in România discuţia in problema ortografiei are un
caracter preponderent ştiinţific, in Republica Moldova problema ralierii la
ortografia nouă are şi o conotaţie de accentuată pondere ideologică şi
politică. Şi în Republica Moldova s-a întreprins o iniţiativă de modificare a
295
ortografiei limbii române, dictată, în primul rând, de recunoaşterea
identităţii limbii de stat din republica noastră cu limba română din România
(la fel precum statele în care limba franceză este limbă oficială se
conformează normelor stabilite de Academia Franceză), chiar dacă acest
adevăr ştiinţific nu este recunoscut oficial de Parlamentul Republicii
Moldova [vezi: 4].
Ultima „reformă" în ortografie este cea din 2005, cu care, de fapt, am
şi început expunerea şi prin care s-au operat, după cum s-a menţionat, circa
3500 de modificări.
Care sunt acestea? Vom insista doar în linii generale şi, în special,
asupra unora dintre cele mai frecvent utilizate, spicuite din DOOM2 (cu
extinderea, în unele cazuri, a şirului de exemple). Menţionăm că inventarul
DOOM2 conţine peste 62.000 de cuvinte. S-a păstrat cea mai mare parte a
intrărilor din DOOM1.
SCRIEREA ŞI CITIREA UNOR ABREVIERI
Actualmente se preferă scrierea fără puncte despărţitoare a unor
abrevieri de tipul SUA, UNESCO , AŞM, ASEM, ULIM etc.
ACCENTUL8
La unele cuvinte (mai vechi sau mai noi) se admit variante
accentuale literare libere (indicate în Dicţionar în ordinea preferinţei), cu
unele deosebiri faţă de DOOM1, atât la unele cuvinte vechi în limbă, cât şi
la unele neologisme, de ex. acatist/acatist, alo/alo, antic/antic,
asfixie/asfixie, gingaş/gingaş, intim/intim, hatman/hatman, jilav/jilav,
penurie/penurie, trafic/trafic etc.
Se recomandă o singură accentuare la avarie, crater, despot, la
formele verbului “a fi”: suntem, sunteţi.
SCRIEREA CU LITERĂ MICĂ SAU MARE LA INIŢIALĂ
-
8
Scrierea cu literă mare la iniţială
Se scriu cu literă mare la iniţială şi:
toate componentele (cu excepţia, de regulă, a cuvintelor ajutătoare):
numelor proprii (inclusiv ale unor unităţi lexicale complexe folosite
ca nume proprii) care desemnează marile epoci istorice (chiar dacă
nu reprezintă evenimente) (Antichitatea, Evul Mediu), inclusiv
războaiele de anvergură (Primul Război Mondial, al Doilea Război
Mondial);
Vocala care poartă accentul principal este subliniată cu o linie.
296
-
-
numelor proprii de instituţii, inclusiv când sunt folosite eliptic:
secretar de stat la Externe; Lucrează în Universitate de cinci ani;
student la Litere; admiterea la Politehnică;
locuţiunilor pronominale de politeţe: Alteţa Sa Regală, Domnia
Sa, Excelenţa Voastră, Înălţimea Voastră, Sfinţia Sa;
numai primul element din numele proprii compuse care reprezintă
denumirile organismelor de conducere şi ale compartimentelor din
instituţii: Adunarea generală a Academiei, Facultatea de limbi
străine şi ştiinţe ale comunicării, Catedra de filologie romanică,
Comisia de cultivare a limbii a Academiei Române, Departamentul
de evidenţă şi monitorizare a procesului educaţional, Secretariatul,
Serviciul de contabilitate.
SCRIEREA CUVINTELOR COMPUSE
I. Se revine la scrierea într-un cuvânt a tuturor formelor pronumelui negativ
compus niciunul, niciuna „nimeni” şi ale adjectivului pronominal
corespunzător niciun, nicio, care se încadrează într-un întreg sistem la care
se aplică de mult aceleaşi reguli:
-
-
niciun adjectiv pronominal (N-are niciun chef să facă ce i se cere;
n-are nicio dorinţă să facă ce i se cere) şi nici un adverb + articol
(Nu e naiv şi nici un om neştiutor) sau nici un conjuncţie + numeral
(Mă confundaţi, eu nu am nici un frate, nici mai mulţi);
niciunul pronume (N-a venit niciunul, niciuna „nimeni”) şi nici
unul ,nici una conjuncţie + pronume nehotărât (Nu-mi place nici
unul, nici celălalt, nici una, nici cealaltă
II. Se scriu cu cratimă:
- adjectivele compuse nesudate cu structura adverb + adjectiv
(adesea provenit din participiu), când compusul prezintă o diferenţă
de sens faţă de cuvintele de bază: bine-crescut „cuviincios”, binecunoscut „celebru”, bine-venit „oportun, agreat”;
- termeni care denumesc substanţe chimice distincte, specii distincte
de plante sau de animale (cu nume ştiinţifice diferite) ş.a., la care
se generalizează scrierea cu cratimă - indiferent de structură: fluturede-mătase, gândac-de-Colorado (specii de insecte), viţă-de-vie
(plantă).
- tipuri izolate: cuvânt-înainte „prefaţă”, mai-mult-ca-perfect (timp
verbal).
297
-
SCRIEREA LOCUŢIUNILOR9
în locuţiunile odată ce „după ce, din moment ce” şi odată cu „în
acelaşi timp cu”, adverbul odată se scrie într-un cuvânt.
după-amiază, după-masă „a doua parte a zilei” se scriu cu cratimă .
Câteva norme morfologice.
Adjective
La unele adjective neologice, norma actuală, reflectând uzul
persoanelor cultivate, admite la feminin forme cu şi fără alternanţa o
(accentuat) - oa, în ordinea de preferinţă analoagă/analogă,
omoloagă/omologă (în timp ce la altele nu admite forme cu oa: barocă,
echivocă); adjectivul/substantivul vagabond are femininul vagaboandă, nu
vagabondă.
Locuţiuni adverbiale
Deoarece locuţiunile adverbiale nu cunosc categoria numărului,
locuţiunea adverbială altă dată nu are plural, alte dăţi fiind o locuţiune
distinctă.
Articolul10
Articolul hotărât enclitic (singular şi plural) se leagă cu cratimă
numai în împrumuturile neadaptate:
- a căror finală prezintă deosebiri între scriere şi pronunţare:
bleu-ul [blöul];
- care au finale grafice neobişnuite la cuvintele vechi din limba
română: dandy-ul (nu dandiul), dandy-i11; gay-ul, gay-i; hippy-ul,
hippy-i; party-ul; playboy-ul, playboy-i; story-ul, story-uri.
Se recomandă ataşarea fără cratimă a articolului la împrumuturile - chiar
neadaptate sub alte aspecte - care se termină în litere din alfabetul limbii
române pronunţate ca în limba română: gadgetul [gheğetul], itemul
[itemul], weekendul [uĭkendul], inclusiv în cazul unor anglicisme ceva mai
vechi, scrise şi conform DOOM1 fără cratimă: westernuri ş.a.
9
Deoarece nu pun alte probleme de scriere decât cele generale, precum şi ale
componentelor lor, multe locuţiuni – interpretate uneori şi drept grupuri de cuvinte –
nu au fost incluse în DOOM1, în DOOM2 adăugâdu-se un număr restrâns.
10
În DOOM2 s-a păstrat categoria articolului, deşi în noua Gramatică a Academiei
acesta nu mai este recunoscut ca parte de vorbire.
11
Dar derivatul dandism, nu dandysm.
298
Substantivul:
se admit două variante literare libere: basc/bască (beretă) (bascuri,
băşti) , colind/colindă (cântec);
 se admite un singur gen, norma actuală optând pentru astru masculin,
foarfecă feminin. La substantivele mass-media şi media „presa scrisă
şi audiovizuală” s-a admis folosirea ca feminin singular: (mass)media actuală, cu genitiv-dativul articulat (mass-) mediei: prin
intermediul (mass-)mediei.
Tendinţa distingerii între forma de singular şi cea de plural se
concretizează în acceptarea de către norma academică a singularului cârnat
(şi nu cârnaţ), refăcut din forma moştenită tocmai pentru marcarea mai
clară a opoziţiei de număr şi prin alternanţa t/ţ.
Unele substantive feminine omonime la nominativ-acuzativ singular
au genitiv-dativul singular diferit: maică „călugăriţă”, g.-d. art. maicii;
maică „mamă”, g.-d. art. maicei/maicii/maichii.
La unele nume proprii, normele actuale admit variante de flexiune:
Ilenei/Ileanei.
Poate exista ezitare în ce priveşte forma de plural (în cadrul
aceluiaşi gen) la unele substantive feminine cu pluralul (şi genitiv-dativul
singular nearticulat) în -e sau -i şi neutre cu pluralul în -uri sau -e; la
aceste substantive, opţiunea normei actuale este una din următoarele:
- ambele forme sunt admise ca variante literare libere, cu preferinţă
pentru una dintre ele (indicată prima în Dicţionar): căpşuni/căpşune,
cicatrice/cicatrici, cireşe/cireşi, coarde/corzi, coperte/coperţi,
găluşte/găluşti (ca şi râpe/râpi), respectiv niveluri/nivele „înălţime,
stadiu, treaptă” (ca şi chipie/chipiuri, tuneluri/tunele);
- s-au admis, atât la cuvinte vechi, cât şi la cuvinte mai noi, unele
forme
ca
variante
literare
libere:,
becisnic/bicisnic,
cearşaf/cearceaf, corijent/corigent, delco/delcou, diseară/deseară,
fierăstrău/ferăstrău,
filosof/filozof,
luminiscent/luminescent,
muschetar/muşchetar, pieptăn/ pieptene, polologhie/poliloghie,
tumoar/tumoră;
- se admite o singură formă la unele substantive feminine (monede,
dar gagici, poieni, remarci, ţărănci, ţigănci) şi neutre precum
seminare (seminarii nemaiavând sprijin într-un singular în -iu);
s-au eliminat unele forme sau variante, recomandând (numai) astm,
carafă,
container, crenvurst, israelian, lebărvurst, machieur,
machieuză, maseur, maseuză - nu (şi) astmă, garafă, conteiner,
crenvurşt, lebervurşt, machior, machieză, masor, etc.;

299
La împrumuturile recente, în curs de adaptare, norma actuală a adoptat
soluţii diferite, şi anume:
- folosirea unor substantive cu aceeaşi formă la singular şi la plural:
dandy, gay, hippy, peso, playboy;
- încadrarea în modelul substantivelor româneşti, prin formarea
pluralului:
- la cele masculine - cu desinenţa -i, cu altenanţele fonetice
corespunzătoare: adidaşi, bodyguarzi/bodigarzi, brokeri, dealeri,
rackeţi (ca în DOOM1 boşi);
- la cele neutre, în general cu desinenţa -uri, legată
- direct (fără cratimă) la cuvintele - chiar nedaptate sub alte aspecte care se termină în litere din alfabetul limbii române pronunţate ca
în limba română: gadgeturi [gheğeturi], itemuri [itemuri], trenduri
[trenduri], weekenduri [uĭkenduri]);
- prin cratimă la cuvintele a căror finală prezintă deosebiri între
scriere şi pronunţare (bleu-uri [blöuri], show-uri [şouri]) sau care
au finale grafice neobişnuite la cuvintele vechi din limba română:
party-uri, story-uri.
Verbul
Tratarea în DOOM2 a verbelor de conjugarea I cu sau fără -ez şi de
conjugarea a IV-a cu sau fără -esc continuă în mare parte DOOM1.
Situaţia verbelor de conjugarea I la care s-a intervenit asupra
normării din DOOM1 este următoarea:
- au devenit numai fără -ez a ignora (ignoră), a îndruma (îndrumă), a
înfoia (înfoaie); tot fără –ez continuă să se conjuge verbele a
conserva (conservă), a rezerva (rezervă), a contesta (contestă), a
suspenda ( suspendă), a contempla (contemplu) ş. a.;
- sunt cu –ez: a copia (copiez), a (se) îngloda ((mă) înglodez), a
încleia (încleiez).
- au devenit fără şi cu -ez, în această ordine, a înjgheba (înjghebează /
înjgheabă) ş.a.
Verbele de conjugarea a IV-a la care s-a intervenit asupra normării din
DOOM1 se află în una din următoarele situaţii:
- au devenit numai fără -esc a bombăni (bombăne), a dăinui
(dăinuie); la fel a absolvi, inclusiv pentru sensul „a termina un an/o
formă de învăţământ” (absolvă);
- au devenit cu şi fără -esc, în această ordine: a biciui (biciuie /
biciuieşte), a birui (biruie / biruieşte) ş.a.;
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-
-
a continua are, conform normei actuale, la indicativ şi conjunctiv
prezent, persoana I singular, forma (să) continui (nu (să) continuu),
ca şi la persoana a II-a singular, după modelul unor verbe în -ia (ca a
apropia);
a mirosi are la indicativ prezent, persoana a III-a plural, forma (ei)
miros (nu (ei) miroase).
Adăugiri
S-au adăugat cca 2.500 de cuvinte:
- împrumuturi din latină şi din diverse limbi moderne, (re)intrate în
uz, majoritatea din engleză, dar şi din franceză, spaniolă etc., marcate
ca angl(icisme), fr(anţuzisme), hisp(anisme) etc.: acquis, advertising,
airbag, broker, cool, curriculum, dealer, gay, hacker, item, jacuzzi,
macho, trend etc.;
- cuvinte existente în limba română, dar care, din diverse motive,
lipseau din DOOM1 (unele intrate în limbă sau devenite uzuale după
elaborarea acestuia):
- a accesa, acvplanare, aeroambulanţă, aeroportuar, alb-negru, albargintiu, anglo-normand, aurolac, a se autoacuza, autocopiativ,
blocstart, cronofag, dublu-casetofon, electrocasnic, a exînscrie, extra
adj. invar., gastroenterolog, giardia, heliomarin, metaloplastie,
neocomunism, neoliberal, policalificare, politolog, preaderare,
primoinfecţie, proamerican, sociocultural, super adj. invar.,
teleconferinţă, a tracta, ultra adj. invar. etc.;
- compuse absente din DOOM1: à la, alaltăieri-dimineaţă, mâinedimineaţă; azi-mâine ş.a.;
- dublete ale unor cuvinte existente în DOOM1: compleu, emisie,
frecţie, mental, ocluzie, papua, repertoar ş.a. - alături de complet,
emisiune, fricţiune, mintal, ocluziune, papuaş, repertoriu;
În concluzie menţionăm o dată în plus că modificările la ortografia
limbii române, bazată, în fond, pe principiul fonetic, este un proces firesc.
Cu siguranţă că peste un anumit timp ea va suferi alte revizuiri, dictate de
uz, întâi şi întâi. De aceea pentru moment, este important ca aceste
intervenţii operate în ediţia academică a dicţionarului să fie acceptate şi
utilizate în mod obligatoriu de vorbitorii comunităţi, asigurând o funcţionare
adecvată a limbii române şi deci o înţelegere între vorbitorii ei. Or,
respectarea normei la orice nivel este o cerinţă de bază.
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Referinţe bibliografice:
1) Dicţionarul ortografic, ortoepic şi morfologic al limbii române.
Bucureşti: Univers Enciclopedic, 2005
2) Ungureanu E., Crudu-Zgardan A., Dicţionar ortografic şcolar.
Chişinău: Ştiinţa, 2007
3) Maiorescu T., Despre scrierea limbei române, Iaşi, 1866.
4) Bahnaru V. Modificări in ortografia limbii române. Academos,
2010, nr. 1 (16), martie
5) Constantinescu-Dobridor Gh. Despre noua ortografie. Limba
romană. XLI, 1992, nr. 9
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