Aviaja Egede Lynge, 2011
Transcription
Aviaja Egede Lynge, 2011
InterNord21_10355 - 9.6.2011 - 10:02 - page 1 INTER-NORD revue internationale d’e¤tudes arctiques international journal of arctic studies 21 Proble'mes arctiques : environnement, socie¤te¤s et patrimoine Arctic problems: environment, societies and heritage TAP - CNRS ÉDITIONS 2011 InterNord21_10355 - 9.6.2011 - 15:41 - page 2 INTER-NORD Sous l’e´gide de l’École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales et du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris Revue internationale d’études arctiques du Centre d’Études Arctiques (CNRS-EHESS) International Journal of Arctic Studies, Centre d’Etudes Arctiques (CNRS-EHESS) Publiée par les Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Published by the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique COMITÉ DE RÉDACTION / EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD Président / Chairman : Jean MALAURIE Directeur de recherche émérite au CNRS, Directeur du Centre d’Études Arctiques (CNRS-EHESS), Paris Jaime AGUIRRE-PUENTE, Ancien directeur de Recherche au CNRS, Membre d’honneur de l’Institut international du Froid, Paris Jean-Luc ALBOUY, Directeur de l’Agence Grand Nord Grand Large, Paris Ann ANDREASEN, Directrice de l’Institut Polaire d’Uummannaq, Uummannaq, Groenland Sergueï AROUTIOUNOV, Professeur, Directeur du département de l’Institut d’Ethnologie et d’Anthropologie, Académie des Sciences de Russie, Moscou Kermen BASSANGOVA, Rectrice de l’Académie Polaire d’État, Saint-Pétersbourg Michel BLAY, Professeur, Président du Comité pour l’histoire du CNRS, Paris Giulia BOGLIOLO BRUNA, Centre d’Études Arctiques (CNRS-EHESS), Paris, – Centro Studi Americanistici « Circolo Amerindiano », Pérouse Lorraine CRAIG, Maı̂tre de conférences en géologie, Imperial College, Londres Pascal DIBIE, Professeur d’ethnologie, Université Paris 7 Denis Diderot Bjarne GRØNNOW, Directeur du Centre de recherche sur le Groënland au Musée National du Danemark, Copenhague Jean-Michel HUCTIN, Doctorant en anthropologie (Université Paris 7), Membre fondateur de l’Institut Polaire d’Uummannaq et chargé de cours à l’Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines Bruce JACKSON, Professeur, Directeur du Centre d’études de culture américaine, Université de Buffalo, New York Henry DE LUMLEY, Professeur, Directeur de l’Institut de Paléontologie humaine / Fondation Albert Ier, Paris Mark MALONE, ancien Conseiller du sénateur inuit Charlie Watt et ancien membre du cabinet du Premier ministre Pierre Trudeau, Ottawa Sharon McCLINTOCK, Présidente de McClintock Land Associates, Alaska, Anchorage Juha PENTIKÄINEN, Professeur d’ethnographie nordique, Institut de la culture du Nord et de la Faculté des arts, Université de Laponie, Rovaniemi Vassili ROBBEK, Professeur, Directeur de l’Institut des problèmes des petits peuples du Nord, branche sibérienne de l’Académie des Sciences de Russie,Yakoutsk Marie ROUÉ, Directrice de Recherches au CNRS, Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris Les manuscrits, les ouvrages (articles, livres) et toute correspondance doivent être adressés à : Manuscripts, publications and correspondence should be sent to : INTER-NORD Centre d’Études Arctiques (CNRS-EHESS) 105 boulevard Raspail 75006 Paris Secrétariat de Rédaction – Editorial Secretary : Bénédicte Barillé Les opinions exprimées par les auteurs leur sont propres ; elles n’engagent la responsabilité ni de la revue ni du Comité de rédaction – The opinions expressed by the authors are there own and in no way reflect the opinions of the Journal nor its Editorial Board. Ouvrage publié avec le concours de l’Université de Versailles – Saint-Quentin ’ CNRS ÉDITIONS, Paris, 2011 ISBN : 978-2-271-06860-6 TAP - CNRS ÉDITIONS 2011 InterNord21_10355 - 3.6.2011 - 10:03 - page 273 MENTAL DECOLONIZATION IN GREENLAND By Aviâja EGEDE LYNGE * Inerisaavik (Institute of Education Sciences), Greenland ABSTRACT. The author of this paper exposes the Danish colonial influence which still remains today on the Greenlandic Inuit’s ethnical identity. Key-words : Greenland Inuit Colonial influence Ethnic identity Decolonization Education. RÉSUMÉ. L’auteur de´nonce dans cet article l’influence coloniale danoise qui subsiste encore aujourd’hui sur l’identite´ ethnique des Inuit du Groenland. Mots-clés : Groenland Inuit Influence coloniale Identité ethnique De´colonisation Éducation. C limate changes are challenging our lives in the Arctic. The Ice has begun to melt, causing us to think in new ways. Today, we are also facing another important challenge, which is about the need for melting down over two hundred and eighty years of colonial way of thinking: I shall call this ‘‘mental decolonization’’. When I was in the public school, I was one of the lucky pupils that could speak the colonial language. With strong encouragement from my family and self-confidence from my language skills, I went well through the educational system. However, what I also learned was that it was a game about being ‘‘successful’’ in the definition made by the colonial power. I often think about many of those in my schools who could not play this game. Those who could not speak Danish, those whose families could not adjust to the new modern ways of living. Some of these students gave up education or much worse chose to end their lives many years ago. This requires from us to look on our situation with honest eyes and to do something urgently. We cannot afford to loose more of these children and young people who represent the future of our country. From a social point of view, some of the main challenges facing our society in Greenland today and tomorrow are to eliminate the social dysfunction that is related to colonial history and the colonial influence on our ethnic identity. The strongest path to a strong and independent Greenland is through education. For this purpose, mental colonization is confined to the colonial influence on Greenlandic ethnic identity. Mental decolonization is about the rebuilding of a strong identity that is based on our culture whilst still being part of the international world. Rebuilding a belief in one’s own capacity and from there begin to create our own definitions of success. To illustrate how mental colonization is a challenge today, I will start by going into the historical context of insufficient mental decolonization in Greenland. F IGURE 1. Aviâja Egede Lynge. Photo J. Willemin. * Greenlandic social anthropologist graduated from the Edinburgh University (United Kingdom), she is head of the Research Department and the teacher education courses at Inerisaavik, the Institute of Education Sciences located in Nuuk (Greenland). Anthropologue groenlandaise diplôme´e de l’Universite´ d’Edinburgh (Royaume Uni), elle dirige le De´partement de la Recherche et la formation des enseignants autochtones à Inerisaavik, l’Institut des Sciences de l’Éducation à Nuuk (Groenland). Inter-Nord, 21, p. 273-276 ’ CNRS ÉDITIONS, 2011 TAP - CNRS ÉDITIONS 2011 InterNord21_10355 - 3.6.2011 - 10:03 - page 274 274 GROENLAND / G REENLAND NEED FOR MENTAL DECOLONIZATION To illustrate how mental colonization is a challenge today, I will start by quoting a poem about a hunter, by a Greenlandic writer in the 1950s, Ole Brandt. The content has its origin from the 18th century and it has been passed further through his family. The poem is meant to empower fellow Greenlanders in the time where education was first introduced to Greenland: ‘‘You believe that I am worth nothing Because I live with no books Because I do not have an education like you Because my Qajaq is my education I am leaning my great ocean In good weather and in stormy weather! I have finished what I should learn And I feel good with what I went through I raised myself with everything Even with irreplaceable sports Because I am living as a human without being a servant Also loving my world You, the new generation, in the days you live you have to learn and grow, like me Give yourself to the things you should learn With all you power! Eyes, ears, body, soul, brain Use them, not disrespecting the old! Work hard to learn Keep my words inside you Always relate them to what you learn take my hands! Take what I am giving you, use it and help Greenlanders with the courage I am giving to you!’’ In the poem, you can see that through mental colonization, people with no European education began to look down on their own worth and at their own culture. The message in the poem is that the new generations should learn, take education, but without forgetting their own roots and their pride. We have always been taught that we were one of the best colonies in the world. We learned it through Danish history books and from Danish teachers. We have not looked beyond the historical oppression with the books telling us how fantastic a colony we were, books from about the primitive Eskimos, from Eurocentric, economic or self-justifying angles. We did not know that those colonies that went though much worse actions than to Greenland had a reason to be angry, to decolonize themselves mentally. We learned to be Danish and to be thankful. Seen from history books, the colonization of Greenland seemed a mild affair. In the international world, Greenland is in many ways known as an example of a good ‘‘human’’ colonization. No slavery, no killings, the introduction of Home Rule Government as a good example of political decolonization and the good official relations with Denmark. However, I would argue that the lack of mental decolonization is having an immense impact on daily lives. Why talk about a lack of mental decolonization when Greenland stopped being a colony in 1953 and Home Rule Government was introduced in 1979? A quotation from Knud Oldendow, who was Director for Grønlands Styrelse from 1939, says: ‘‘The purpose is to tie Greenland into Denmark as close as possible and as far as possible to supply the country with Danish civilization and culture.’’ Thus, the assimilation into the Danish Kingdom was not a real decolonization in terms of the mental influence on our identity. This was a ‘‘danification’’ process, that rather strengthened the thought that ‘‘we would only be good enough’’ when reaching Danish standards. During the first stage of colonialism, Greenlanders saw their society as consisting of two distinctive ethnic groups: Inuit/Kalaallit and the Qallunaat/The Danes. The relationship between them was characterized by Danes as the authoritarian group and the Greenlanders as the colonized group. With the decrease in hunting and before the arrival of fishery, it became important for the Greenlanders to learn from the Danes in order to reach the Danish stage of development. It was an important principle for the Danish administration to advance the civilization of the Greenlanders to get them ‘‘over their condition of childhood’’. The means to reach this goal was to link Greenland and Denmark as closely as possible and to bring in Danish cultural civilization. In the early beginning of the colonial time, ethnic stratification was accepted silently and organized desire for change in the political status of Greenland did not exist. There can be different reasons for the latter issue. First, the Greenlanders accepted the colonial conditions (the main mean was based on Christianization); second, they were very obedient to the Naalakkat (the ‘‘leaders, rulers, god’’); third they were culturally conditioned to accept Danish superiority, through social engineering. The Greenlanders mentally, learned to be thankful to the colony that had posed the idea that they were there to help them. There is no doubt that they adopted an identity that was strongly influenced by the colonial period. An identity in which they saw themselves as inferior to the Danes. However, with the official end of colonialism in 1953, the Greenlanders thought they no longer would be the ones to hold the subordinate positions. As a means to becoming equal with the Danes, they wanted to strive for the same skills and positions as the Danes. The post-war period up to the introduction of the Home Rule was signalized by building up a modern economic society. Rather than becoming more independent from Danish conditions, they became even more dependent with a colossal adoption of Danish cultural items and institutions – in the name of equality. In this period and with the respect for political and economic decolonization, that one would assume could have been the time for a mental decolonization, it did not happen. By looking at the ethnic identity, there are several factors that are crucial in order to understand that colonial influence on our identity is still important even after the introduction of Home Rule. Various conditions have had an effect on the self-perception among the Greenlandic ethnic group as a subordinate and lower social group, even after the achievement of a higher degree of self-determination. It is obvious that the colonial influence on ethnic identity, namely the feeling of needing to be as good as Danes, Inter-Nord, 21, p. 273-276 ’ CNRS ÉDITIONS, 2011 TAP - CNRS ÉDITIONS 2011 InterNord21_10355 - 3.6.2011 - 10:03 - page 275 MENTAL DECOLONIZATION IN GREENLAND 275 continued in this period. The Danes and increasingly, Greenlanders with higher wages were perceived as superior group. The colonial thought that Danes were better than the Greenlanders was maintained, albeit in a different way. The difference was now that it was the Greenlanders themselves who began to strengthen this perception of self. In the 1970s, the growing ethnic consciousness made Greenlanders search for pride, self-consciousness and initiative that were broken under colonial rule. The search of a stronger feeling of worth, cultural roots and a need to feel accepted as an equal ethnic group, dominated the period just before the introduction of Home Rule. Thus, ethnic identity was initially a very important factor in the creation of Home Rule. However, the Home Rule worked with decolonization as a means for upholding economic control, and decolonization therefore more than ever became a means of economic conditions and equality between Danes and Greenlanders in the labor market, the issue of ethnic identity has been undermined. recall history to understand to what extent Greenland have been transformed by and incorporated into the colonizing state and to find the fundamental problems that influence our society. However, today, there is still a need for a common language of how colonialism has taken place and how it has affected us. Denial and taboos as successors of colonial amnesia are influencing the society today. As one of the consequences of being unaware of the effects of colonialism can be to set cultural survival at risk, the great task is to raise consciousness. There is a need to be aware of colonialism continuing influence on the Greenlandic people. This is how the victim mentality and the negative influence on Greenlandic identity as being inferior come into the picture. As a mentally colonized people, Greenlanders have looked at the colonizing country’s culture and society as more acceptable and it has generated generations of people who never question how they have got this way of thinking. In this context, the perception for many years has been that we could only develop into a modern society by copying European educational systems. Today, after twenty-eight years with Home Rule, people seem to search for Greenlandic values and acceptance. There is a continued general talk about lack of identity and an extreme need for more self-confidence, which shows that Greenlandic identity in reality is still influenced by the colonialism, a mentality that indicates a self-consciousness as inferior to others ethnic groups. ATUARFITSIALAK AND EDUCATION OF LEADERS Mental decolonization has been neglected for too long. It is a part of a ‘‘colonial amnesia’’ and it shows its face in many ways. Some of the main challenges is to be able to In Greenland, there is a direct connection between colonial influence on ethnic identity and education. Here, we F IGURE 2. Greenlandic pupils in a school in 2006. Photo by Jean-Michel Huctin. Inter-Nord, 21, p. 273-276 ’ CNRS ÉDITIONS, 2011 TAP - CNRS ÉDITIONS 2011 InterNord21_10355 - 3.6.2011 - 10:03 - page 276 276 GROENLAND / G REENLAND find the mentality that we have followed until now, that we will only get success when we meet European standards of success. As education has a strong bearing on identity, we do know we have to start with the children and the young people. A historical and very important process towards mental decolonization through education has been started with the Greenlandic school reform ‘‘Atuarfitsialak’’. In 1999, before the reform was being initiated and the wishes were clear: Greater national independence Greater self-confidence in society, stronger feeling of identity, leading positions to be taken by Greenlanders Highly educated society The visions for the public school were: To strengthen the pupils own culture and identity and be able to take part in local and international world To take part in teaching the pupils a democratic way of thinking and teach them to be aware of their own rights To take part in strengthening the pupils personal and social development and encourage their self-confidence, self-worth, sense of responsibility, respect and tolerance to other people To prepare the pupils for further education and life-long education In general, a part of the background for the school reform is the importance of maintaining the Greenlandic Inuit values as a prerequisite to be good citizens of the world and to accept the global diversity. Atuarfitsialak is a school reform that is based on the latest educational research among indigenous and postcolonial countries. It is a systematic school reform to eliminate educational, social and cultural disparities. The goal is that through learning experiences and socio-cultural and personal development processes, that all students will have opportunities to improve their own and others quality of life. Previous reforms were based on the colonial legislators and civil servants common ideology. Atuarfitsialak focuses on cultural based education through traditional and contemporary Greenlandic culture from a (Inuit) holistic view of learning and teaching: personal, emotional, cognitive, social and physical developments are essential. Culture, spirituality and motivation are of core importance. In the Greenlandic postcolonial era, the most common reaction to arguments about greater adjustments to culture is that such ideas are romantic and reactionary. Other people react by arguing that it is not compatible with the development towards globalization. However, to tailor education towards Greenland’s own societal and cultural conditions is a remedy to get over the negative mental influences such as poor self-worth and low selfesteem. It is not so surprising that this educational approach is recommended and supported today by many other ex-colonized peoples in the world to heal their communities. n REFERENCES A NDERSON (B.), 1983. Imagined Communties – Reflections on the origin and Spread of Nationalisms. London: The Theford Press. B ARTH (F.), 1969. Ethnic groups and boundaries. Boston: Little Brown and Company. C ONNERTON (P.), 1989. How Societies remember. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. E RIKSEN (T.H.), 2000. Ethnicity, race, class, nation. OFFPRINT: Edinburgh University Library. KIIIP. 1998. Children are the foundation of a country. Nuuk: Inerisaavik/Pilersuiffik. KIIIP. 2001. Motion for Landsting Regulation No. 8 of 21 May 2002 on the public school. Nuuk: Greenland’s Ministry of Education. P ETERSEN (R.), 1992. ‘‘Colonialism seen from a former colonized area’’. Arctic Anthropology, Vol. 32. No 2, pp. 118-26. L YNGE (E. Aviâja), 2001. Master’s degree Dissertation: ‘‘Colonial influence on ethnic identity in Greenland – seen from the anthropological perspective of nationalism and identity’’. Edinburgh: The Edinburgh University. L YNGE (E. Aviâja), Nov 2006. ‘‘Colonial influence on ethnic identity in Greenland seen in relation to education’’. Home Rule Government of Greenland, Conference on Education. http://www.nanoq.gl/Groenlands_Landsstyre/Direktoratet_ for_Kultur_Uddannelse/Seminar/Oplaeg/aviaaja.aspx. L YNGE (E. Aviâja), 2006. ‘‘Best Colony in the World’’. DVD: Rethinking Nordic Colonialism, Helsinski, Nordic Institute for Contemporary Art. Inter-Nord, 21, p. 273-276 ’ CNRS ÉDITIONS, 2011 TAP - CNRS ÉDITIONS 2011 InterNord21_10355 - 7.6.2011 - 08:29 - page 3 TABLE DES MATIÈRES / CONTENTS EDITORIAL La Quatrième Année Polaire Internationale : un rendez-vous décisif pour l’avenir des peuples circumpolaires . . . . . 9 Fourth International Polar Year: a decisive meeting for the future of the circumpolar peoples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 PROBLÈMES ARCTIQUES : ENVIRONNEMENT, SOCIÉTÉS ET PATRIMOINE ARCTIC PROBLEMS: ENVIRONMENT, SOCIETIES AND HERITAGE ACTES DU CONGRÈS INTERNATIONAL : OUVERTURE DE LA QUATRIÈME ANNÉE POLAIRE INTERNATIONALE ET CINQUANTENAIRE DU CENTRE D’ÉTUDES ARCTIQUES DISCOURS D’OUVERTURE – OPENING SPEECHES François G OULARD Adresse de Monsieur le Président de la République, Jacques Chirac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Address of Mr President of the Republic, Jacques Chirac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 19 Jean M ALAURIE Discours d’ouverture du congrès . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Opening speech of the Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 21 S.A.S. le PRINCE ALBERT II DE MONACO Expéditions du Prince Albert 1er de Monaco et du Prince Albert II dans les régions arctiques du pôle Nord et la fondation Prince Albert II de Monaco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prince Albert 1st of Monaco and Prince Albert II’s expeditions to the Arctic and the North Pole and the Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 S.A.R. le PRINCE HENRIK, PRINCE CONSORT DE DANEMARK Message au Congrès . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Message to the Congress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 29 Jonathan M OTZFELDT Greetings to the IPY-France Conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Salutations au Congrès de l’Année Polaire Internationale en France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 31 Arthur N. TCHILINGAROV Histoire et grandes orientations des expéditions arctiques russes contemporaines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . History and major orientations of contemporary Russian expeditions to the Arctic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 33 25 HISTOIRE / HISTORY Bertrand I MBERT Observations pour la recherche en milieu polaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Observations for the research in Polar areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 39 Jean-Claude HUREAU L’Antarctique, terre de science et de paix, un modèle de réflexion pour l’Arctique ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Antarctica, a land of science and peace : a model of reflections on the Arctic ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 43 David M. M UNRO North to the rime-ringed sun : Scottish travellers and explorers in the Arctic, 1818-1937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Au Nord du soleil auréolé de givre : les voyageurs et les explorateurs écossais dans l’Arctique, 1818-1937 49 49 Jean BORM Question de style : pour une lecture renouvelée de Knud Rasmussen et de Jean Malaurie . . . . . . . . . . . . . Say it in style : for a new reading of Knud Rasmussen and Jean Malaurie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 55 Gı́sli P ÁLSSON Hot bodies in cold zones : Arctic exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Corps chauds en zones froides : exploration arctique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 63 Inter-Nord, 21, p. 3-6 ’ CNRS ÉDITIONS, 2011 TAP - CNRS ÉDITIONS 2011 InterNord21_10355 - 3.6.2011 - 10:01 - page 4 4 P ROBLÈMES ARCTIQUES : ENVIRONNEMENT , SOCIÉTÉS ET PATRIMOINE Dominique S EWANE Les nouveaux combats d’Hummocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The new fights of Hummocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 71 CHANGEMENT CLIMATIQUE / CLIMATE CHANGE Jean-Louis F ELLOUS L’apport des observations spatiales à l’étude des zones polaires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The contribution of spatial observations to the study of Polar regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 83 Annette R INKE and Klaus DETHLOFF Observed ans modeled Arctic climate : regional feedbacks and global links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Observer et modéliser le climat arctique : Réactions régionales et liens avec le climat mondial . . . . . . . . . . 89 89 Valérie MASSON-DELMOTTE Évolution du climat : l’apport des forages dans les glaces du Groenland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Climate evolution : contribution of drilling in Greenland ices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 95 David HARPER and Lorraine C RAIG Climate and biological change : evidence from geological past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Changements climatiques et biologiques : trace de l’histoire géologique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 101 PREHISTOIRE / PREHISTORY Henry D E LUMLEY Quand les bœufs musqués, les rennes et les renards polaires vivaient sur les rives de la Méditerranée . . . . When the musk ox, reindeer and polar fox were living on the Mediterranean shores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 111 Sergueı̈ A ROUTIOUNOV Études archéologiques et ethnographiques de la Tchoukotka (1947-2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Archeological and ethnographical field studies in Chukotka (North-East Siberia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 117 Bjarne GRØNNOW Eigil Knuth et l’archéologie de l’Extrême Nord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eigil Knuth and the archeology of the farthest North . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 123 ANTHROPOLOGIE / ANTHROPOLOGY Juha PENTIKÄINEN Man and his religion under Polar Star – A paper with some audiovisual elements – Arktos and the Arctic peoples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 L’homme et sa religion sous l’Étoile polaire – un article comprenant des éléments audiovisuels – Arktos et les peuples arctiques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Tom LOWENSTEIN Tikigaq, Jabbertown, the trading chief and missionaries : Point Hope in transition, 1880-1910 . . . . . . . . . Tikigaq, Jabbertown, le chef du comptoir et les missionnaires : Point Hope en transition, 1880-1910. . . . . 149 149 Bruce J ACKSON The man who asked : ‘‘Where is its heart ?’’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L’homme qui demandait : « Où se trouve le cœur ? » . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 153 Claude ASSABA Dialogue du Grand Nord-Grand Sud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dialog Far North-Far South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 159 Giulia B OGLIOLO -BRUNA Des races monstrueuses aux peuples maudits, des préadamites aux homines religiosi : l’ image des Esquimaux dans la littérature de voyage (XVI e siècle-première moitié du XVIII e siècle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 From monstrous races to cursed peoples or préadamites to homines religiosi :the image of the Eskimo in travel accounts (16th to first half oh the 18th century). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 AVENIR / FUTURE ALSAKA / ALASKA Sharon E. M C C LINTOCK Kingikmiut : testimony of an Inupiat Activist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kingikmiut : témoignage d’une militante Inupiat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inter-Nord, 21, p. 3-6 191 191 ’ CNRS ÉDITIONS, 2011 TAP - CNRS ÉDITIONS 2011 InterNord21_10355 - 3.6.2011 - 10:01 - page 5 T ABLE DES MATIÈRES / C ONTENTS 5 CANADA / CANADA Mark M ALONE A dramatic future for the Canadian Arctic – a world in change: ‘‘end of the beginning – or beginning of the end ?’’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 L’avenir dramatique de l’Arctique canadien – un monde en mutation : « fin du commencement ou commencement de la fin ? » . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Jean M ALAURIE Un art inuit canadien avant-gardiste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An Inuit avant-gardist art of Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 221 GROENLAND / GREENLAND Ole Jørgen H AMMEKEN The evolution of the Inuit identity in a Greenlandic society in transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L’évolution de l’identité inuit dans une société groenlandaise en transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 227 Jean-Michel HUCTIN Une éducation culturellement adaptée pour les jeunes Inuit face à la maltraitance au Groenland . . . . . . . A culturally relevant education for young Inuit in Greenland facing neglect and abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 233 Ann A NDREASEN and Jean-Michel HUCTIN Children on thin ice – When care and culture help heal Greenland’s neglected children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Enfants sur la glace fragile – Comment l’affection et la culture peuvent aider à guérir les enfants groenlandais victimes de maltraitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Søren A. O LSEN and Jesper M ØLLER The Mikisoq project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Le projet Mikisoq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 265 Aviâja EGEDE LYNGE Mental dcolonization in Greenland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Décolonisation mentale au Groenland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 273 Ludvig H AMMEKEN Greenland shaped who I am today – Interview of a young Greenland studying in Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Le Groenland a fait de moi ce que je suis devenu – Interview d’un jeune groenlandais, étudiant au Danemark 277 Magdalene ZEEB , Kaalinnguaq ANDERSEN Interview of two young Inuit from Greenland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interview de deux jeunes Inuit du Groenland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 281 SIBÉRIE / SIBERIA Vassili ROBBEK Actions visant à sauver le patrimoine culturel des petits peuples du Nord comme principe fondamental du développement durable en Arctique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Actions aiming at saving the cultural heritage of the minority peoples of the North as a basic principe of sustainable development in the Arctic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Galina DIATCHKOVA Tchoukotka : problèmes de sauvegarde du patrimoine naturel et culturel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chukotka : natural and cultural heritage problems of protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 295 Irina K UZNETSOVA A call of Russian women for protection of the Siberian North and its peoples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Un appel des femmes russes pour la défense du Grand Nord sibérien et de ses peuples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 305 CENTRE D’ÉTUDES ARCTIQUES / ARCTIC STUDIES CENTER Giulia B OGLIOLO -BRUNA L’œuvre internationale du Centre d’études arctiques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The international work of the Arctic studies Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 315 Jean M ALAURIE Le Centre d’études arctiques : histoire et orientations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Arctic studies Center : history and directions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 321 Christian MOREL « Our Polar Heritage » et le développement d’une photothèque polaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . « Our Polar Heritage » and the development of an Arctic picture library. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 343 Inter-Nord, 21, p. 3-6 ’ CNRS ÉDITIONS, 2011 TAP - CNRS ÉDITIONS 2011 InterNord21_10355 - 3.6.2011 - 10:01 - page 6 6 P ROBLÈMES ARCTIQUES : ENVIRONNEMENT , SOCIÉTÉS ET PATRIMOINE DISCOURS DE CLÔTURE / CLOSING SPEECHES Jean M ALAURIE Lettre à un jeune Inuit de l’an 2022 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Letter to a young Inuit of the year 2022 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 355 Declaration of the Congress Déclaration du Congrès ANTHOLOGIE DE QUELQUES GRANDES PAGES CLASSIQUES DE L’HISTOIRE ARCTIQUE / ANTHOLOGY OF A FEW GREAT CLASSIC PAGES OF THE ARCTIC HISTORY Hans EGEDE Un missionnaire : Hans Egede, premier anthropologue du Groenland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A missionary : Hans Egede, first anthropologist of Greenland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 367 Jean-François R EGNARD Utilisation chamanique du tambour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shamanic use of drum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 369 Davis CRANZ Mores and customs of Greenlanders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Us et coutumes des Groenlandais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 371 Frederick William BEECHEY Meeting with the Western Esquimaux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rencontre avec les Esquimaux du Nord-Ouest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 373 Adelbert Von C HAMISSO Un naturaliste passionné dans le Détroit de Béring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A passionate naturalist in the Bering Strait . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ferdinand Petrovitch von W RANGEL Description des chamans sibériens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Siberian shamans description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 377 Frederick S CHWATKA Looking for John Franklin, 1878-1880 : a great American explorer neglected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . À la recherche de John Franklin, 1878-1880 : un grand explorateur américain méconnu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 379 Franz BOAS Rencontre avec les Inuit en terre de Baffin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meeting with the Inuit in Baffin land. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 381 Waldemar BOGORAS Siberian rite of initiation in prehistoric times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rite d’initiation préhistorique en Sibérie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 383 Alfred WEGENER La base d’« Eismitte » . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The « Eismitte » Station. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kenn H ARPER Minik : un des six Esquimaux polaires déportés par Peary à New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Minik : one of the six Polar Eskimo deported by Peary in New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 387 Andreas LABBA Récits d’un Saami . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Narratives of a Saami . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 391 A. LYNGE and A. OLSEN Oil and gas in Greenland : views of Greenlanders in Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pétrole et gaz au Groenland : points de vue de Groenlandais au Danemark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 395 Gaba B ROBERG et Jean MALAURIE Un Groenlandais en France : la troisième génération . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Greenlander in France : The third generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 399 Index Inter-Nord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 Inter-Nord, 21, p. 3-6 ’ CNRS ÉDITIONS, 2011 TAP - CNRS ÉDITIONS 2011