Passive possession in Oceanic

Passive possession in Oceanic
Bill Palmer
Surrey Morphology Group
University of Surrey
[email protected]
Presented at
LAGB 2006 University of Newcastle
This paper was prepared with
support from UK Arts and
Humanities Research Council
grant APN19365. This support is
gratefully acknowledged.
1. Possession in Oceanic
Possessor-indexing constructions: direct vs indirect.
Standard Fijian:
(1)
a.
ulu-gu
head-1SGP
‘my head’
b.
no-gu
Bale
GENPOSS-1SGP house
‘my house’
Indirect possessor-indexing hosts:
Standard Fijian:
(2)
a.
no-gu
Bale
GENPOSS-1SGP house
‘my house’
b.
ke-gu
uBi
FOOD-1SGP yam
‘my yam (to eat)’
c.
me-gu
yagona
DRINK-1SGP kava
‘my kava (to drink)’
‘Relational classifiers’:
The hosts classify:
- the relation that holds between possessor and
possessum (Lichtenberk 1983a, 1985),
- not the possessum noun.
Standard Fijian:
(3)
a.
no-gu
niu
GENPOSS-1SGP coconut
‘my coconut (to sell)’
b.
ke-gu
niu
FOOD-1SGP coconut
‘my coconut (to eat)’
c.
me-gu
niu
DRINK-1SGP coconut
‘my coconut (to drink)’
Indirect possessor-indexing hosts:
Oceanic languages vary in number of possessorindexing hosts.
Standard Fijian has three:
• ke- items eaten
• me- items drunk
• no- relations with items not eligible for direct marking
or for ke- or me- marking (residual).
Many Oceanic languages have two indirect possessorindexing hosts, one for items eaten or drunk, and one for
residual items:
Kokota:
(4)
a.
b.
c.
no-gu
suga
GENPOSS-1SGP house
‘my house’
(Palmer 1999:141)
ƒe-mai
tege
CONSM-1EXCP turtle
‘our turtles (to eat)’
(Palmer 1999:131)
ƒe-gu
bia are
CONSM-1SGP beer those
‘my beers (to drink)’
(Palmer 1999:131)
Some Oceanic languages have one invariant indirect
possessor-indexing host:
Yapese:
(5)
a.
b.
c.
waay roo-k’
tmg
basket POSS-1SGP PN
‘Tamag’s basket’
(Jensen1977a:245)
ææ ggn roo-k’
ART food
POSS-3SGP
‘its food’
(Anon 1999:G13)
ææ raan roo-k’
ART water POSS-3SGP
‘his water (to drink)’
Some have more than three hosts:
Paamese:
(6)
a.
b.
c.
d.
ani
one-n
coconut GENPOSS-3SGP
‘his/her coconut (to use)’
(Crowley 1996:388)
ani
aa-n
coconut FOOD-3SGP
‘his/her coconut (to eat)’
(Crowley 1996:388)
ani
emo-n
coconut DRINK-3SGP
‘his/her coconut (to drink)’
(Crowley 1996:388)
ani
ese-n
coconut DOMESTICATED-3SGP
‘his/her coconut (growing on his/her land)’
(Crowley 1996:388)
Some Oceanic languages have a large number of
possessor-indexing hosts forming a true classifier
system:
- St Matthias group
- most Micronesian
- most New Caledonian
Canonical semantic function of possessor-indexing
strategies:
• Direct:
canonical inalienable
relations (most body
parts, some kin).
• Indirect with FOOD host:
items eaten.
• Indirect with DRINK host:
items drunk.
• Indirect with CONSUMABLE host: items eaten or drunk.
• Indirect with GENPOSS host:
default category.
Non-canonical semantic functions.
In some languages a FOOD or CONSUMABLE host occurs
with semantically non-canonical relations:
Standard Fijian:
(7)
a.
ke-na
malumu
FOOD-3SGP club
‘his club (he will be killed with)’
b.
ke-na
vosa
FOOD-3SGP speech
‘his talk (ie. talk about him)’
c.
ke-na
FOOD-3SGP
‘his size’
levu
big
This has been called ‘subordinate possession’.
(Pawley 1973:162-163; Lichtenberk 1985:106-107)
the possessor has no control (…he is the patient,
target or involuntary experiencer) (Pawley 1973:162)
Pawley and Lichtenberk both note that ‘subordinate
possession’ marking may also occur with “intimate
property”.
(See also Lynch 1973:92-96)
It has also been called ‘passive possession’. (Lynch
1996, 2001)
‘Passive possession’ excludes possession of
characteristics and intimate items. (Lynch 2001:205-208)
Lynch (2001:195) defines passive possession as:
• possession by the logical object of a nominalised verb
(‘my being hit’);
• possession of nouns referring to things:
– done to or about the possessor (‘my wound (I
received)’; ‘her story (told about her)’);
– precipitating suffering on the part of the possessor
(enemies; weapons used on the possessor);
– seen as ‘suffered’ by the possessor (parasites,
disadvantage etc.).
Existing claim:
Oceanic languages mark ‘passive possession’ with
one of two strategies (Lichtenberk 1985:119; Lynch
1996:99-101; Lynch 2001:196-205):
• a FOOD or CONSUMABLE host; or
• direct possessor-indexing.
Direct marking of ‘passive possession’:
Gela:
(8)
na
tutugu-gu
ART
story-1SGP
‘my story (told about me)’
(Lynch 2001:201)
udi
tanom-a-di
banana plant-NOM-3PLP
‘the planting of the bananas’
(Lynch 2001:200)
Manam:
(9)
But… there’s a pattern in the data:
A FOOD/CONSUMABLE host occurs where the
possessum is:
• a noun referring to entities or items that act on, are used
against, or affect the possessor, typically negatively;
• a noun referring to entities in a relationship over which
the possessor has no control.
Direct possessor-indexing occurs where the
possessum is:
• a noun referring to pictures, stories, songs etc about
the possessor;
• a nominalised verb.
Palmer (2006) hypothesises:
• undergoer and subject matter possessors can be
treated differently;
• undergoer possessors are typically indexed in the
same way as possessors of items eaten;
• subject matter possessors are typically indexed in the
same way as possessors in inalienable relations,
but can be indexed in the same way as possessors of
items eaten;
• nominalised verbs may be possessor-indexed
differently to underived nouns.
This splits one of Lynch’s definitional types:
• possession of nouns referring to things done to
or about the possessor
I propose the following narrower definition of passive
possession:
the distinctive formal treatment of possessum-possessor
relations in which:
a) the possessum acts on or directly affects the
possessor; or
b) the possessor has no control over the fact of the
relation.
Relations where the possessor is the subject matter of
the possessum do not represent passive possession, but a
separate semantic relation.
Palmer (2006) surveyed 7 genetically and areally dispersed
Oceanic languages to test these hypotheses and an earlier
version of this definition.
Here I extend the survey to 22 languages and investigate
the phenomena in greater depth.
I survey possessor-indexing with four types of
semantic relation between possessor and possessum:
• passive possession as defined here;
• possession of intimate items;
• possession of characteristics;
• possession by subject matter.
Only underived nouns are surveyed.
Palmer (2006) also surveyed possessor-indexing of
nominalised verbs, finding that nominalised verbs follow a
distinct pattern to that found with underived nouns.
For reasons of time nominalised verbs are excluded from
the present paper.
The languages surveyed are:
Yapese
(isolate)
Loniu
(Admiralties)
Mussau
(St Matthias)
Manam
(Western Oceanic, North New Guinea)
Mangap-Mbula
(Western Oceanic, North New Guinea)
Keapara (Aroma dialect)
(Western Oceanic, Papuan Tip)
Gapapaiwa
(Western Oceanic, Papuan Tip)
Motu
(Western Oceanic, Papuan Tip)
Kiriwina (Kilivila dialect)
(Western Oceanic, Papuan Tip)
Kuanua (Tolai)
(Western Oceanic, Meso-Melanesian)
Kokota
(Western Oceanic, Meso-Melanesian)
Gela
(Southeast Solmonic)
Arosi
(Southeast Solmonic)
Paamese
(Southern Oceanic)
Lewo
(Southern Oceanic)
Iaai
(Southern Oceanic)
Ponapean
(Micronesian)
Puluwat
(Micronesian)
Kiribati
(Micronesian)
Eastern Fijian (Standard Fijian dialect) (Central Pacific, Fijian)
Eastern Fijian (Lauan dialect)
(Central Pacific, Fijian)
Western Fijian (Nadrogā dialect)
(Central Pacific, Fijian)
2. Passive possession
Passive possession with FOOD or CONSUMABLE host
Instruments used on the possessor:
Standard Fijian:
(10)a. ke-nai
wau
b. no-nai
wau
FOOD-3SGP club
GENP-3SGP club
‘his club (he will be killed with)’
‘his club (he possesses)’
(Schütz 1985:460)
c. ke-na
dali
d. no-na
dali
FOOD-3SGP rope
GENP-3SGP rope
‘his rope (to be used on him,
‘his rope (owned by him)’
eg. for binding or strangling him)’
(Lichtenberk 1985:109)
e. ke-mu
bai
f. no-mu
bai
FOOD-2SGP enclosure
GENP-2SGP enclosure
‘your enclosure (you are kept in)’
‘your enclosure (you own)’
(Geraghty p.c.)
nraunikau
nraunikau
h. no-na
g. ke-na
FOOD-3SGP witchcraft
GENP-3SGP witchcraft
‘his witchcraft (used against him)’
‘his witchcraft (he makes)’
(Geraghty p.c.)
(Pawley 1973:159)
Paamese:
(11)a. aai
aa-n
wood FOOD-3SGP
‘his stick (he will be hit with)’
b. aai
ona-n
wood GENP-3SGP
‘his stick (he will hit s.o. with)’
(Crowley 1982:216)
c. voolet aa-m
bullet FOOD-2SGP
‘your bullet (you will be shot with)’
b.
e.
(Crowley 1982:221)
aa-m
sitrav
FOOD-2SGP belt
‘your belt (you will be strapped with)’
(Crowley 1982:216)
siiho aa-m
mask FOOD-2SGP
‘your mask (I will frighten you with)’
(Crowley 1982:217)
Tolai:
(12)
a. ra-na
ram
FOOD-3SGP club
‘its (the pig’s) club (they hit it with)’
(Mosel 1984:38)
c. ra-na
kankan
FOOD-3SGP anger
‘[their] anger towards him’
(Mosel 1984:38)
“Unfortunate” (potentially dangerous) personal relationships:
Mangap-Mbula:
(13)a. ko-ŋ
koi
bizin
CONSM-1SGP enemy PL
‘my enemies’
b. toro-ŋ
close.associate-1SGP
‘my close associate’
(Bugenhagen 1995:102)
c. ka
moori
d. kusi-ni
CONSM.3SGP woman
spouse-3SGP
‘his mistress’
‘his wife’
(Bugenhagen 1995:102)
(Bugenhagen 1995:93)
Other possessums negatively affecting possessor:
Mangap-Mbula:
(14)
ko-ŋ
miaŋ
CONSM-1SGP shame
‘my shame’
(Bugenhagen 1995:98)
Paamese:
(15)
ipu aa-m
loss FOOD-2SGP
‘your loss/disadvantage (playing a game)’ (Crowley 1982:217)
Gela:
na
vahagi
(16)a. a-dira
CONSM-3PLP ART sickness
‘their sicknesses’
b.
a-dira
na
mate
na
ART CONSM-3PLP ART death
‘their deaths’
(Ivens 1937:1092)
(Ivens 1937:1092)
Possessums making possessor ‘who they are’:
Gela:
a-gua
na
tutugu
b. na
tutugu-gu
(17)a. na
ART CONSM-1SGP ART story
ART story-1SGP
‘my traditional story (I respect about
‘my story (about me)’
myself or my lineage, or which tells
how we got to be where we are today)’
(Crowley 2002:531)
c.
a-gua
na
tidalo
na
ART CONSM-1SGP ART ancestral.spirit
‘my ancestral spirit’
(Crowley 2002:531)
Relationships beyond control of human possessors:
Paamese:
(18)
ahol
aa-m
intended.spouse FOOD-2SGP
‘your intended spouse (reserved for you at birth)’
(Crowley 1982:217)
Gela:
(19)
a-na
kema
na
ART CONSM-3PLP clan
‘his clan’
(Codrington 1885:259 )
ka-miu
lita
FOOD-2SGP leader
‘your leader’
(Early 1994:277 )
Lewo:
(20)
Relationships beyond control of non-human
or inanimate possessor:
Mangap-Mbula:
(21)a. man ko-n
ruumu
bird CONSM-3PLP house
‘a house for the chickens’
(Bugenhagen 1995:154)
c.
b. le-ŋ
ruumu
GENPOSS-1SGP house
‘my house’
(Bugenhagen 1995:380)
zin moori
kar
ka-n
they woman village CONSM-3PLP
‘the women of the village’
(Bugenhagen 1995:136)
Lewo:
(22)
ka-na
yaru
FOOD-3SGP man
‘its (the bulldozer’s) operator, driver, expert user’ (Early 1994:211)
Alienable parts of inanimate wholes:
Mangap-Mbula:
(23)a. ruumu ka
kitiibi
house CONSM.3SGP post
‘house posts’
(Bugenhagen 1995:100)
c.
woogo ka
saama
canoe CONSM.3SGP outrigger
‘outrigger of a canoe’
b. ke
zoŋo-ono
tree fork-3SGP
‘fork of a tree’
(Bugenhagen 1995:94)
(Bugenhagen 1995:100)
Lewo:
(24)a. ka-na
wi
FOOD-3SGP water
‘its (the battery’s) water’
c.
d.
wi
b. ma-na
DRINK-3SGP water
‘her (drinking) water’
(Early 1994:214)
ka-na
kausu
FOOD-3SGP washer
‘its (the tap’s) washer’
(Lynch 2001:206)
ka-na
wil
FOOD-3SGP wheel
‘its (the truck’s) wheel’
(Early 1994:292)
Passive possession with ‘semi-consumable’ host
‘Semi-consumable’ possessor-indexing host in Kilivila:
Kilivila:
(25)a. a-gu
tetu
SEMICONSM-1SGP yam
‘my yams (plants in garden)’
c.
d.
b. ka-gu
tetu
CONSM-1SGP yam
‘my yams (to eat)’
(Senft 1986:53)
a-gu
kwabila
SEMICONSM-1SGP large.garden.plot
‘my large garden plot’
(Senft 1986:298)
a-gu
tobaki
e. ula
tobaki
SEMICONSM-1SGP tobacco
GP.1SGP tobacco
‘my tobacco (I intend to smoke)’
‘my tobacco (I will give away)’
(Senft 1986:50)
‘Semi-consumable’ host with physical and psychological
states:
Kilivila:
(26)a. a-gu
daka
SEMICONSM-1SGP dryness
‘my thirst’
(Senft 1986:53)
c.
b. daka-la
dryness-3SGP
‘it’s dryness’
(Senft 1986:212)
e-geda
[a-la
leya]
3SGS-bite SEMICONSM-3SGP anger
‘He is very angry.’ (lit. ‘His anger bites him.’) (Senft 1986:113, 307)
‘Semi-consumable’ host with inheritance and
uncontrolled relationships:
Kilivila:
(27)a. a-gu
kwabu
SEMICONSM-1SGP heritage
‘my inheritance, my heritage’
b.
a-gu
kumila
SEMICONSM-1SGP clan
‘my clan’
(Senft 1986:298)
(Senft 1986:51)
Indirect PART and passive possession
Indirect PART possessor-indexing host in Nadrogā:
Nadrogā:
(28)
e-ru
duku ulu
PART-3PLP each head
‘their respective heads’
(Geraghty 2000:245)
PART host with passive possession in Nadrogā:
Nadrogā:
(29)a. mu
haa
b. le-mu
haa
PART.2SGP spear
GENPOSS-2SGP spear
‘your spear (to spear you with)’ ‘your spear (you own)’
(Geraghty p.c.)
c.
e
baa
PART.3SGP sickness
‘his sickness
(he is suffering from)’
d. le-a
baa
GENPOSS-3SGP sickness
‘his sickness
(he is expert at curing)’
(Geraghty p.c.)
Passive possession with dedicated classifier
Dedicated passive possessor-indexing classifier host in Iaai:
Iaai:
(30)a. 
nçç-n
ykyc
b. dçç-n

spear PASS-3SGP fight
POINT-3SGP spear
‘spear for fighting’
‘his/her spear’
(Ozanne-Rivierre 1984:61)
(Ozanne-Rivierre 1984:97)
c.
y i
nçç-n
wia
kçnç
thing PASS-3SGP turn.over ground
‘plough’ (lit. ‘thing for turning over ground’)
(Ozanne-Rivierre 1984:61)
d.
ke
aat i
baate-n
nçç-n
he ka
haduç
ART man LOC side-3SGP PASS-3SGP go PURP help
‘someone there at hand to assist’
(Tryon 1968:123)
Passive possession unmarked
No formally distinct category of passive possession:
Lauan:
(31)
a
o-na
dali
ART GENPOSS-3SGP rope
‘the rope he uses, owns, is tied up with’
(Geraghty p.c.)
Aroma:
(32)
ƒe-ku
ƒiro
GENPOSS-1SGP axe
‘my axe (I own or will be used on me)’
(Craig p.c.)
Direct marking of passive possession?
Direct intimate or passive in Tolai?
(33)a. tika-na-marua-gu
some-C-firewood-1SGP
‘some firewood to warm me’
b.
(Mosel 1984:44)
ra
pulpul-i
tura-na
ART parcel-POSS brother-3SGP
‘his brother’s parcel (into which he has been wrapped)’
(Mosel 1984:45)
Directly marked passive possession in Kiribati?
Indirectly possessor-indexed kai = ‘victory’:
Kiribati:
(34)a. e
a
toka
a-u
kai
3SGS PRF get.on POSS-1SGP victory/defeat
‘I am victorious.’ (lit. ‘My victory has risen.’)
(Sabatier 1971:138)
b.
e
tae
a-na
kai
3SGS get.off POSS-3SGP victory/defeat
‘He is beaten.’ (lit. ‘His victory has gone down.’)
(Sabatier 1971:339)
Directly possessor-indexed kai = ‘defeat’:
Kiribati:
(35)a. e
a
toka
kai-u
3SGS PRF get.on victory/defeat-1SGP
‘I am punished.’ (lit. ‘My defeat has risen.’)
(Sabatier 1971:138)
b.
e
maoto kai-u
3SGS break victory/defeat-1SGP
‘I got my revenge.’ (lit. ‘My defeat has broken.’)
(Sabatier 1971:138)
Passive possession summary
Table 1: Passive possession marking
indexing
Yapese
unmarked
Loniu
?unmarked
Mussau
FOOD
Manam
unmarked
MangapMbula
CONSUMABLE
Aroma
unmarked
attested inclusions
instruments used on possessor
‘unfortunate’ personal relationships, shame,
alienable items with nonhuman possessors,
parts of manufactured items
Gapapaiwa CONSUMABLE
sickness
Motu
CONSUMABLE
enemies, generation
Kilivila
‘semiconsumable’
physical and emotional states (typically
negative), clans and heritage
Tolai
CONSUMABLE/ instruments used on possessor, negative
emotions directed at possessor /
?direct
firewood warming possessor, parcel possessor
wrapped in
Kokota
unmarked
indexing
attested inclusions
Gela
CONSUMABLE
enemies, danger, sickness, death, ancestral
spirits and legends, clans, individuals in
uncontrolled relationship with possessor
Arosi
CONSUMABLE
instruments used on possessor
Paamese
FOOD
instruments used on possessor, defeat,
spouse assigned to possessor
Lewo
FOOD
individuals in uncontrolled relationship with
possessor, alienable items with nonhuman
possessors, parts of manufactured artefacts
Iaai
dedicated
classifier
Instruments and agents effecting possessor
predicate
Kiribati
unmarked/?direct
?defeat suffered by possessor
Ponapean
?unmarked
Puluwat
?unmarked
Standard
Fijian
FOOD
Lauan
unmarked
Nadrogā
PART
enemies, instruments used on possessor,
alienable items with inanimate possessors,
parts of manufactured items
instruments used on possessor, sickness
3. Intimate possession
Intimate possession with direct possessor-indexing
Traditional clothing when worn:
Manam:
(36)a. baligo-gu
grass.skirt-1SGP
‘my grass skirt (when worn)’
b. baligo
ne-gu
grass.skirt GENPOSS-1SGP
‘my grass skirt (when not worn)’
(Lichtenberk 1983b:301)
Paamese:
(37)
tinivuse-n
penis.sheath-3SGP
‘his penis sheath’
(Crowley 1996:412)
Possessions in close contact with the possessor’s body:
Arosi:
(38)
beŋa-mu
bed-2SGP
‘your bed, your sleeping place’
(Capell 1971:58)
Puluwat:
(39)a. pro-y
box-1SGP
‘my coffin’
c.
rani-y
water-1SGP
‘my bath water’
b. yææ-y
pr
GENPOSS-1SGP box
‘my box’
(Elbert 1974:62)
raan
d. wnmæ-y
DRINK-1SGP water
‘my drinking water’
(Elbert 1974:62)
Possessions an integral part of the possessor’s daily
domestic life:
Iaai:
(40)
aabaa-n
home-3SGP
‘his/her residence’
(Ozanne-Rivierre 1976:103)
Yapese:
(41)
fea-n
possessions-3SGP
‘his possessions, his belongings, his personal property’
(Jensen 1977b:18)
Loniu:
b. um
a
yo
(42)a. umw-w
house-1SGP
house LOC I
‘my house’ (family holding)
‘my house’ (residence)
(Hamel 1994:48)
c.
khna u
land
weDLEXC
‘our land holding’
d. k
a
u
land LOC weDLEXC
‘our land’
(Hamel 1994:49)
e.
tElE-m
canoe-2SGP
‘your canoe’
(Hamel 1994:49)
f. tun
a
su/u
canoe LOC they
‘their canoe’
(Hamel 1994:50)
e.
tapwa-m
basket-2SGP
‘your basket’
a
ww
h. tp
basket LOC youSG
‘your basket
(Hamel 1994:20)
Intimate possession with CONSUMABLE host
Gapapaiwa:
(43)a. ka-na
gara
CONSM-1SGP clothing
‘her clothing (to wear)’
b. i-na
gara
GENPOSS-1SGP clothing
‘her clothing (to sell at the
market)’
(McGuckin 2002:304)
Tolai:
(44)a. o
ra
mal
a-i
ra
tutana
DEM ART dress CONSM-POSS ART man
‘the man’s dress (he is wearing)’
(Mosel 1984:39)
b.
ka-n
ta
mal
GENPOSS-3SGP some dress
‘any dress of his (he is to own)’
(Mosel 1984:18)
Intimate possession with DRINK host
Paamese:
(45)a. aisin
ma-k
clothing DRINK-1SGP
‘my clothes’
b.
aim
ma-k
house DRINK-1SGP
‘my house’
(Crowley 1982:213)
c. aim
ona-k
house GENPOSS-1SGP
‘my house’
(Crowley 1982:214)
Lewo:
(46)a. ma-na
DRINK-3SGP
‘his shirt’
b.
ma-miu
DRINK-2PLP
‘your house’
sota
shirt
(Early 1994:212)
yuma
house
(Early 1994:212)
Intimate possession with dedicated classifiers
Iaai:
ito
(47)a. ume-n
HOUSE-3SGP hut
‘his/her hut’
c.
b.
(Ozanne-Rivierre 1984:71)
kub
ii-
FLAT.ITEM-3SGP mat
‘his/her mat’
(Ozanne-Rivierre 1984:71)
ei
ii-
FLAT.ITEM-3SGP land
‘his/her field’
(Ozanne-Rivierre 1984:71)
d.
taŋ-en
taŋ
CONTAINER-3SGP basket
‘his/her basket’
(Ozanne-Rivierre 1984:106)
e.
hoo-n
hu
BOAT-3SGP boat
‘his/her boat’
(Ozanne-Rivierre 1984:54)
Intimate possession unmarked
No formally distinct category of intimate possession:
Standard Fijian:
(48)a. na
no-gu
malo
ART GENPOSS-1SGP loincloth
‘my loincloth (worn or not)’
b.
c.
(Geraghty p.c.)
na
no-gu
ituutuvi
ART GENPOSS-1SGP blanket
‘my blanket’
(Geraghty p.c.)
na
no-na
vale
ART GENPOSS-3SGP house
‘his house’
(Schütz 1985:445)
Intimate possession summary
Table 2: Intimate possession marking
indexing
attested inclusions
Yapese
direct
‘personal possession’; dwelling places
Loniu
direct
land; dwelling places; canoe; personal goods
Mussau
direct
dwelling places; canoe; tree; personal goods
Manam
direct
traditional garments when worn
Mangap-M
unmarked
Aroma
direct
dwelling places; place; some personal
possessions
Gapapaiwa CONSUMABLE
garments when worn
Motu
direct
traditional garments when worn
Kilivila
direct
traditional garments when worn; bedding;
‘personal possession’
Tolai
CONSUMABLE/ garments when worn/
direct
bedding; sleeping places; catafalque;
?firewood; ?enclosing parcel
Kokota
direct
bedding
indexing
attested inclusions
Gela
direct/
bedding; dwelling places; village/
CONSUMABLE traditional items of personal adornment
Arosi
direct
bedding
Paamese
DRINK/
direct
clothing; bedding; dwelling places; house parts/
penis sheath
Lewo
DRINK
most garments; bedding; dwelling places; some
house parts
Iaai
direct
homes
Kiribati
direct
garments; bedding; dwelling places; land; canoe;
personal adornment
Ponapean
direct
dwelling place; seat; land
Puluwat
direct
coffin; bathwater; sandals; some buildings; land
Standard
Fijian
unmarked
Lauan
unmarked
Nadrogā
unmarked
4. Characteristic possession
Characteristic possession with
direct possessor-indexing
Physical characteristics:
Gela:
(49)
na
volapa-na
na
tiola
ART width-3SGP ART canoe
‘the width of the canoe’
(Miller 1974:271)
Mangap-Mbula:
(50)
bura-ana
strength-3SGP
‘his/her strength/power’
(Bugenhagen 1995:97)
Ponapean:
(51)
neme-Ø
flavour-3SGP
‘its taste’
(Rehg 1981:177)
Psychological characteristics:
Aroma:
(52)a. vamaƒi-ku
thought-1SGP
‘my permanently held
principles and opinions’
b. ƒe-ku
vamaƒi
GENPOSS-3SGP thought
‘my passing thoughts’
(Craig 1980:125)
Loniu:
(53)
rn/i-m
muwan
attitude-2SGP bad
‘your bad attitude’
(Hamel 1994:137)
aonega-na
wisdom-3SGP
‘his wisdom’
(Lawes 1896:4)
Motu:
(54)
Customary ways and behaviour:
Kokota:
(55)a. puhi-na-na
kastom-na ka
ƒai
way-3SGP-that custom-that LOC weINC
‘the way of our custom’
(Palmer 1999:136)
b.
ira
no-u
puhi aƒo
thePL GENPOSS-2SGP way youSG
‘your way’ (ad hoc rule for game)
(Palmer 1999:136)
Ponapean:
(56)
tuwe-Ø
manner-3SGP
‘his nature, his manner’
(Rehg 1981:177)
Responsibilities and characteristic duties:
Gela:
(57)
na
lutu-na
na
vunai
ART work-3SGP ART chief
‘the headman’s duties’
(Miller 1974:272)
Ponapean:
(58)
peise-Ø
responsibility-3SGP
‘his responsibility’
(Rehg 1981:174)
Mangap-Mbula:
(59)
buga-ana
obligation-3SGP
‘his/her obligation’
(Bugenhagen 1995:97)
Characteristic possession with
FOOD/CONSUMABLE host
Innate and other uncontrollable characteristics:
Standard Fijian:
(60)
ke-mu
levu
FOOD-2SGP big
‘your size’
(Geraghty 1983:249)
Mangap-Mbula:
(61)
ko-ŋ
daama
CONSM-1SGP year
‘my age’
(Bugenhagen 1995:380)
Characteristics uncontrolled by inanimate possessors:
Standard Fijian:
(62)a. ke-na
yaŋa
FOOD-3SGP usefulness
‘its usefulness’
c.
ke-na
kaukauwa
FOOD-3SGP strength
‘its strength’
b. no-na
yaŋa
GENPOSS-3SGP usefulness
‘his/her usefulness’
(Schütz 1985:459-460)
d. no-na
kaukauwa
GENPOSS-3SGP strength
‘his strength’
(Schütz 1985:459-460)
Particularising characteristics:
Paamese:
(63)a. haiali aa-n
uiit
sucker FOOD-3SGP octopus
‘an octopus’ suckers (no other thing having such suckers)’
(Crowley 1982:218)
b.
manu aa-n
b. manu ona-n
sore
FOOD-3SGP
sore GENPOSS-3SGP
‘his/her (unusually large,
‘his/her (ordinary
numerous or noticeable) sore’
unremarkable) sore’
(Crowley 1982:220)
Characteristic possession with PART host
Nadrogā:
(64)a. gu
yabaki
PART.1SGP age
‘my age’
b.
mu
levu
PART.2SGP big
‘your size’
(Geraghty 2002:839)
(Geraghty p.c.)
Characteristic possession with dedicated classifiers
Iaai:
(65)a. mani-k
man
STRENGTH-1SGP strength
‘my strength’
(Tryon 1968:69)
b.
ho-fuuc
wa-n
SOUND-3SGP oral-speak
‘his/her speech’
(Ozanne-Rivierre 1984:67)
Characteristic possession unmarked
No formally distinct category of characteristic possession:
Lauan:
(66)
o-mu
bii
GENPOSS-2SGP weight
‘your weight’
(Geraghty p.c.)
Lewo:
(67)a. sa-la
pelaga la
GENPOSS-3PLP manner PL
‘their behaviour’
(Early 1994:416)
kasi
so-ma
GENPOSS-2SGP year
‘your age’
(Early 1994:459)
b.
Characteristic possession summary
Table 3: Characteristic possession marking
indexing
attested inclusions
Yapese
direct
age; physical characteristics; smell; sound; customary
ways & behaviour
Loniu
direct
psychological characteristics; flavour
Mussau
direct/
FOOD
??/
age
Manam
direct
physical & psychological characteristics; smell
MangapMbula
direct/
FOOD
physical characteristics; responsibilities; sound; luck/
age
Aroma
direct
age; physical & psychological characteristics;
customary ways & behaviour
Gapapaiwa FOOD
physical characteristics; responsibilities; customary
ways & behaviour
Motu
direct
physical & psychological characteristics
Kilivila
direct
physical characteristics; customary ways & behaviour
Tolai
direct
physical & psychological characteristics; customary
ways & behaviour; secrets; taboos
Kokota
direct
age; sound; customary ways & behaviour; handwriting
indexing
attested inclusions
Gela
direct
physical characteristics; responsibilities; customary
ways & behaviour
Arosi
direct
characteristic idioms; responsibilities
Paamese
FOOD
particularising characteristics, especially characteristic
afflictions
Lewo
unmarked
Iaai
direct/
some physical characteristics; responsibilities/
classifiers sound; strength
Kiribati
direct
physical & psychological characteristics; customary
ways & behaviour
Ponapean
direct
physical & psychological characteristics; flavour;
responsibilities; customary ways & behaviour
Puluwat
direct
age; customary ways & behaviour
Standard
Fijian
FOOD/
innate physical characteristics; characteristics of
inanimate objects/
colour; shape
direct
Lauan
unmarked
Nadrogā
PART
physical characteristics; age
5. Possession by subject matter
Direct possessor-indexing of subject matter
Gela:
(68)a. na
toƒale-mu
ART picture-2SGP
‘your picture (of you)’
c.
e.
f.
na
tutugu-gu
ART story-1SGP
‘my story (about me)’
b. ni-mua
na
toƒale
GENPOSS-2SGP ART picture
‘your picture (in your possession)’
(Miller 1974:276)
d. ni-gua
na
tutugu
GENPOSS-1SGP ART story
‘my story (which I wrote)’
(Crowley 2002:531)
na
uloulo-na
na
vunai
ART lament-3SGP ART chief
‘the chief’s funeral song, made and sung about him’
(Miller 1974:273)
na
belo-na
ART bell-3SGP
‘its bell’ (ie. ‘the bell signifying something’) (Miller 1974:277)
Kiribati:
(69)a. taeka-ia
word-3PLP
‘their reputation, what is
said about them’
c.
b.
a-ia
taeka
POSS-3PLP word
‘their words/messages’
(Sabatier 1971:6; Jacobs 1984:484)
anene-u
d. a-u
anene
song-1SGP
POSS-1SGP song
‘the song composed about me’ ‘the song I composed or sang’
(Sabatier 1971:13)
Possessor-indexing of subject matter
with FOOD/CONSUMABLE host
Standard Fijian:
(70)a. ke-na
vosa
FOOD-3SGP speech
‘his talk (about him)’
(Geraghty p.c.)
b. no-na
vosa
GENPOSS-3SGP speech
‘his speech, utterance, language’
(Pawley 1973:159)
c.
ke-na
meke
d. no-na
meke
FOOD-3SGP dance
GENPOSS-3SGP dance
‘his dance (concerning him)’
‘his dance (which he possesses)’
(Schütz 1985:460)
e.
ke-na
yagona
f. me-na
yagona
FOOD-3SGP kava
DRINK-3SGP kava
‘his kava’ (drunk in his honour) ‘his kava’ (which he drinks)
(Geraghty 1983:248, p.c.)
Possessor-indexing of subject
matter with PART host
Nadrogā:
(71)a. e
lawata
PARTP.3SGP poem
‘poem about him’
b. le-a
lawata
GENPOSS-3SGP poem
‘poem he composed’
(Geraghty p.c.)
Possession by subject matter unmarked
No formally distinct category of possession by
subject matter:
Lauan:
(72)
a
o-mu
sere
ART GENPOSS-2SGP song
‘your song (you composed it, you sing it, it’s about you)’
(Geraghty p.c.)
Lewo:
(73)
sa-u
toutou
GENPOSS-1SGP picture
‘my photo (either taken of me, or which I took)’
(Lynch 2001:199)
Possession by subject matter summary
Table 4: Marking of possession by subject matter
indexing
attested inclusions
Yapese
direct
pictures; songs
Loniu
direct
stories
Mussau
direct
stories
Manam
Direct
pictures; songs; stories; letters; books
MangapMbula
direct/
FOOD
pictures; news/
talk
Aroma
direct
pictures
Gapapaiwa direct
stories
Motu
direct
stories; talk
Kilivila
direct
pictures; songs; talk
Tolai
direct
pictures
Kokota
direct
pictures; books; history
indexing
attested inclusions
Gela
direct
pictures; stories; songs; news; bell signifying something
Arosi
Direct
pictures
Paamese
no data
Lewo
unmarked
Iaai
Direct
stories
Kiribati
Direct
pictures; songs; words
Ponapean
Direct
pictures; news; books
Puluwat
direct
pictures; stories; thoughts
Standard
Fijian
FOOD
talk; anything interpretable as having a subject matter;
anything done in honour of possessor
Lauan
unmarked
Nadrogā
PART
poem
6. Overview of semantically
non-canonical possessor-indexing
Distribution of indexing strategies
across semantic types
Table 5: Overview of indexing strategies by semantic type.
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct/
CONSUMABLE
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct
characteristic
direct
direct
direct/
FOOD
direct
direct/
CONSUMABLE
direct
CONSUMABLE
direct
direct
direct
Kokota
Gela
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct
Arosi
Paamese
direct
direct
direct
?unmarked
direct
FOOD
Lewo
Iaai
direct
direct
unmarked
direct
Kiribati
direct
direct
unmarked
direct/
classifiers
direct
Ponapean
Puluwat
Standard
Fijian
Lauan
Nadrogā
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct
FOOD
direct
PART
unmarked
PART/
FOOD
Yapese
Loniu
Mussau
canonical body parts by subject matter
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct
Manam
MangapMbula
Aroma
Gapapaiwa
Motu
Kilivila
Tolai
direct
direct
direct
direct
FOOD/
direct
unmarked
PART/
FOOD
intimate
direct
direct
direct
passive
unmarked
?unmarked
FOOD
items eaten items drunk
unmarked
CONSUMABLE
FOOD
DRINK
direct
unmarked
unmarked
CONSUMABLE
CONSUMABLE
CONSUMABLE
direct
CONSUMABLE
direct
direct
CONSUMABLE/
direct
direct
direct/
CONSUMABLE
direct
direct/
DRINK
DRINK
direct/
classifiers
direct
unmarked
CONSUMABLE
CONSUMABLE
semi-consmble
CONSUMABLE/
??direct
unmarked
CONSUMABLE
CONSUMABLE
CONSUMABLE
CONSUMABLE
CONSUMABLE
CONSUMABLE
CONSUMABLE
FOOD
CONSUMABLE
FOOD
DRINK
classifiers
direct
unmarked
unmarked
unmarked
FOOD
classifier
unmarked/
?direct
?unmarked
?unmarked
FOOD
unmarked
PART/
FOOD
CONSUMABLE
CONSUMABLE
FOOD
FOOD
DRINK
DRINK
unmarked
FOOD
classifiers
FOOD
DRINK
DRINK
DRINK
FOOD
FOOD
DRINK
DRINK
Marking of possession by subject matter:
• Most surveyed languages mark possession by subject
matter.
(19/22 ie. 86%)
• Overwhelming tendency for subject matter possessors to
be marked in the same way as possessors of canonical
inalienable body parts.
(18 direct/PART (90%) vs 2 FOOD/CONSUMABLE (10%))
Marking of characteristic possession:
• Most surveyed languages mark characteristic possession.
(20/22 ie. 91%)
• Strong tendency for characteristic possession to be
marked in the same way as canonical body part
possession.
(18 direct/PART (72%) vs 6 FOOD/CONSUMABLE (24%) vs 1
dedicated classifiers (4%)
Marking of intimate possession:
• Most surveyed languages mark intimate possession.
(18/22 ie. 82%)
• Strong tendency for intimate possession to be marked in
the same way as canonical body part possession.
• Some tendency for intimate possession to be marked in
the same way as possession of items drunk.
(16 direct/PART (73%) vs 5 DRINK/CONSUMABLE (23%) vs 1
dedicated classifiers (4%)
Marking of passive possession:
• A significant minority of surveyed languages do not appear
to mark passive possession.
(at least 8/22 ie. 36%)
• Strong tendency for passive possession to be marked in
the same way as possession of items eaten.
(11 FOOD/CONSUMABLE (at least 69%) vs 1 ‘semi-consumable’ (6%)
vs up to 3 direct/PART (up to 19%) vs 1 dedicated classifier (6%))
Subordinate and passive possession
‘Subordinate possession’.
• The four non-canonical semantics types are not marked
alike in any surveyed language except possibly Kiribati.
• Passive possession, characteristic possession, and
possession by subject matter are only marked in the
same way in Standard Fijian and Nadrogā Fijian.
• The notion of ‘subordinate possession’ is an artifact of
the primacy of Fijian data in earlier research.
Lynch’s broader ‘passive possession’.
• Possession by undergoer and by subject matter are
treated differently in all surveyed languages except
Standard Fijian and Nadrogā.
• The notion ‘passive possession’ does need to exclude
subject matter possessors, contra Lynch.
Non-canonical use of direct and
PART possessor-indexing:
extending ‘inalienability’
Table 6: Non-canonical direct/PART marking.
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct/
CONSUMABLE
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct
characteristic
direct
direct
direct/
FOOD
direct
direct/
CONSUMABLE
direct
CONSUMABLE
direct
direct
direct
Kokota
Gela
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct
Arosi
Paamese
direct
direct
direct
?unmarked
direct
FOOD
Lewo
direct
unmarked
Iaai
direct
direct
unmarked
direct/
classifiers
Kiribati
direct
direct
direct
direct
Ponapean
Puluwat
Standard Fijian
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct
FOOD
classifiers
direct
unmarked
Lauan
Nadrogā
direct
PART
unmarked
PART/
FOOD
direct
direct
FOOD/
direct
unmarked
PART/
FOOD
Yapese
Loniu
Mussau
canonical body parts by subject matter
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct
Manam
Mangap-Mbula
direct
direct
Aroma
Gapapaiwa
Motu
Kilivila
Tolai
intimate
direct
direct
direct
passive
unmarked
?unmarked
FOOD
direct
unmarked
unmarked
CONSUMABLE
direct
unmarked
CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE
direct
CONSUMABLE
direct
semi-consumable
CONSUMABLE/ CONSUMABLE/
direct
??direct
direct
unmarked
direct/
CONSUMABLE
CONSUMABLE
direct
CONSUMABLE
direct/
FOOD
DRINK
DRINK
FOOD
direct/
classifier
classifiers
unmarked
unmarked
unmarked/
?direct
?unmarked
?unmarked
FOOD
unmarked
PART/
FOOD
Implicational hierarchy 1: direct/PART marking.
canonical
body parts
>
by subject matter
characteristic
intimate
>
?passive
Direct/PART marking:
• Languages only treat passive possession in the same way
as canonical body part possession if the language also
marks possession by subject matter, characteristic
possession, and (with the exception of PART marking)
intimate possession in that way.
• Subject matter and characteristic possession are equal in
the hierarchy.
• Intimate possession is not ranked lower than subject matter
and characteristic possession only because of the one
Paamese directly marked intimate item.
Implicational hierarchy 1’: direct/PART marking.
canonical >
body parts
by subject matter
characteristic
> intimate > ?passive
This agrees with Nichols’ (1988) proposed hierarchy
of inalienability:
kin terms
and/or
body parts
>
part/whole
and/or
spatial relations
>
culturally
basic
items
But, the fact that the indexing strategies classify relations
shows that inalienability is not necessarily a lexical
property of nouns (contra Nichols (1988:574),
and that the hierarchy applies to inalienable relations as
well as to inalienably specified nouns.
Also, additional levels in the hierarchy are required
between part-whole and culturally basic items for:
• items with possessor as subject matter;
• characteristics.
And possibly a level below culturally basic items for:
• passively possessed items.
Is this a conceptually plausible extension of ‘inalienability’?
The data also shows that inalienably possessed material
objects (‘culturally basic items’) are not restricted solely to:
• items essential for the possessor’s livelihood. (Chapell &
McGregor 1995:4)
Instead, Oceanic languages may treat as inalienably
possessed:
• items essential for possessor’s livelihood; or
• items in close physical contact with the possessor’s body
(clothing when worn; bedding etc); or
• both.
Non-canonical use of FOOD/
CONSUMABLE possessor-indexing:
passive possession and beyond
Table 7: Non-canonical FOOD/CONSUMABLE marking.
Yapese
Loniu
Mussau
Manam
Mangap-Mbula
Aroma
Gapapaiwa
Motu
Kilivila
Tolai
Kokota
Gela
Arosi
Paamese
Lewo
Iaai
by subject matter
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct/
CONSUMABLE
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct
direct
?unmarked
unmarked
direct
Kiribati
direct
Ponapean
Puluwat
Standard Fijian
direct
direct
FOOD
Lauan
Nadrogā
unmarked
PART/
FOOD
characteristic
passive
items eaten items drunk
direct
unmarked
unmarked
direct
?unmarked
CONSUMBLE
direct/
FOOD
FOOD
DRINK
FOOD
direct
unmarked
CONSUMBLE
direct/
CONSUMABLE
CONSUMBLE
CONSUMABLE
direct
unmarked
CONSUMBLE
CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE
CONSUMBLE
direct
CONSUMABLE
CONSUMBLE
direct
semi-consumable
CONSUMBLE
direct
CONSUMABLE/
CONSUMBLE
??direct
direct
unmarked
CONSUMBLE
direct
CONSUMABLE
CONSUMBLE
direct
CONSUMABLE
CONSUMBLE
FOOD
FOOD
FOOD
DRINK
unmarked
FOOD
FOOD
DRINK
direct/
classifier
FOOD
DRINK
classifiers
direct
unmarked/
unmarked
?direct
direct
?unmarked
FOOD
DRINK
direct
?unmarked
classifiers
DRINK
FOOD/
FOOD
FOOD
DRINK
direct
unmarked
unmarked
FOOD
DRINK
PART/
PART/
FOOD
DRINK
FOOD
FOOD
Implicational hierarchy 2: FOOD/CONSUMABLE marking:
items eaten > passive > characteristic > subject matter
FOOD/CONSUMABLE marking:
• Languages only treat subject matter and
characteristic possession in the same way as
possession of items eaten if they also treat passive
possession that way.
• Languages only treat subject matter possession in
the same way as possession of items eaten if they
also treat characteristic possession that way.
• Intimate possession does not participate in this
hierarchy.
Non-canonical use of DRINK/
CONSUMABLE possessor-indexing:
intimate possession
Table 9: DRINK/CONSUMABLE marking of intimate
possession.
intimate
passive
items
items
eaten drunk
Gapapaiwa CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE
Tolai
CONSUMABLE/ CONSUMABLE/ CONSUMABLE
direct
??direct
Gela
direct/
CONSUMABLE CONSUMABLE
CONSUMABLE
Paamese
DRINK/
FOOD
FOOD DRINK
direct
Lewo
DRINK
FOOD
FOOD DRINK
Implicational hierarchy 3: DRINK/CONSUMABLE marking:
items drunk
>
DRINK/
CONSUMABLE
passive
>
FOOD/
CONSUMABLE
intimate
DRINK/
CONSUMABLE
DRINK/CONSUMABLE marking:
• Languages only treat intimate possession in the
same way as possession of items drunk if they also
treats passive possession in the same way as
possession of items eaten.
The presentation’s end.
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