Kitchen pottery - Musée de Glozel

Kitchen pottery: Pre-roman, Western Europe, Semitic languages.
Herbert Sauren1
Kitchen Pottery and its Uses in Western Europe
in the Late 1st Millennium BC and the Early 1st Millennium AD:
the Evidence from Semitic Inscriptions
A guide to the poster.
Above the image of Llíria, 8-D.12, cf. 1.3.
The poster is limited in space, gives only some examples of thousands published
and needs more information, which is noted by the 8 lines and the pieces. The titles and
functions of the users, line 2, are cited more extendedly following the inscriptions
mainly written on ceramic objects found in Spain, in order to give information about the
society of the period.
1
Prof. Dr. emer. UCL, Belgium: [email protected].
The title
Kitchen pottery: Ceramics are of daily use in a household, in the kitchen, on the
table, for eating and drinking. Quality and decoration depends from the people using.
The king or the emir uses better fabrication and rich painted ware; poor people had
rough, rural dishes, jugs, and cups. Some vases were fabricated for special events and
served exposed in the houses of the governors. If ceramics were a gift, the persons, who
received them, guarded perhaps the vases with more attention. I understand “kitchen
pottery” in a large sense.
Pre-roman: This word needs some precision and correction. The correct date of
the ceramics is not known. Most of them are made on the rapid turning disc; some are
put together combining the layers of clay. But the technique of fabrication can in no
way indicate a dating; it notes the different evolution and richness of the society and
persons. Some Latin inscriptions and bilingual texts with indigenous words show that
most of the items found date in the late 1st millennium BC and in the early 1st
millennium AD.
The legends on pre-roman coins, found in Portugal and Spain, show the same
letters and languages. The coins offer a more exact date. Treasure founds in ceramic
jugs and vases are very helpful to determine the date.2
To date using the criterion of the evolution of script, can not assure exact dates.
The writing shows some very old letters already attested at the beginning of the 2nd
millennium BC, e.g. in Byblos and on the Sinai. Other letters changed more rapidly in
determined regions. The lost of specific Semitic phonemes is a hint. Greek and Latin
letters mixed up with the letters from the older writing systems can help to date
approximately.
The date, noted by these reasons, is different from one region to the other and
depends from the contact with the Romans and their conquest of Western Europe. This
process started early in Italy and lasted until the end of the 2nd century BC in the actual
territory of Portugal. Before, the population were either Semites or indigenous. Romans
tried to suppress and to eliminate the older script and languages, starting at the period of
the Roman Empire. Also the process of suppression lasted long in some regions.
Western Europe: Several thousands items of inscribed ceramic vases have been
found and published. Some are in good condition; many are fragmentary.
Italy: The poster shows some examples of the north, the region of Trent, later the
Rhaeto-Roman region.3 I do not dispose of inscribed pottery of the Etruscan region, but
the wide spread sites from the Trasimenian lake in the north up to the region of Naples
in the south, makes the existence of items more than probable, as older objects have
been found and as letters of the same writing appear in the Etruscan inscriptions of all
periods.4 The program of the congress notes some colleagues specialized in this matter,
I beg to inform me.
Switzerland: The items found north of the Alps, close to the region of Trent have
been considered as Celtic, in spite of equal forms of the letters and the languages.5 The
2
M.ª Paz, García-Bellido, Cr. Blázquez, 2001.
St. Schumacher, 2004.
4
J. de Hoz, 2005, 377, map of Etruscan sites; M. Botto, 2005, 59, fig. 17, to compare with a similar
object found in Huelva, Spain. The colleagues Ann Steiner, Laura Banducci, participants of the congress,
will us tell more.
5
J. Rhys, 1906, R. C. de Marinis, S Biaggio Simona, 2000.
3
Celtic theory, defended by W. Meid and the Institutes of the Universities of Innsbruck
and Vienna, led to the hybrid falsification of Celtiberian.
France: The inscriptions found at Glozel and on several sites up to the region of
Paris have been published and translated in 2008.6 Thirty years before, the inscriptions
of Ensérune, Hérault and neighbouring towns have been published. They are mainly
incised on ceramics.7
Spain and Portugal: The published items are abundant and the bibliography also.
Only some publications are cited.8
Sardinia and Corsica: The Orientalisation is largely documented by the Nuragian
inscriptions. Ceramics of older periods are published; I am waiting for inscribed items.9
Marocco, with the excavations at Lixus, had certainly also ceramic objects; coins
are known with identical legends in Spain. Ceramics, coming from the eastern
Mediterranean, have been found on the Canaries; they are not inscribed and date from
the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, the beginning of the period of orientalization.
The poster disregards these regions, but as orientalization is proved, the regions
show to the same culture and languages as in Western Europe.10
I disregard the few items found in Bautzen, Germany, which origin perhaps not
from this region, but were probable transported by Roman mercenaries coming from
regions, where the script and language was used.11
Semitic languages: This is not the place to give an extensive history of the
decipherment; I note only a short summary of important steps.
All the authors cited above could not read nor translate and interpret the script
and the languages. Most of the letters were determined wrong; Semitic languages were
never taken in consideration. The script has been deciphered in 2000 by me and the first
publications appeared years later.12
The script is known since the 16th century, by coins found in Italy,13 long before
the writing of Egypt and Mesopotamia were deciphered. Scholars of the 18th century
collected the first known inscriptions, which were mainly on stone. I would like to name
W. Conyngham, 1790, F. Pérez Bayer, 1782, Manuel do Cenaculo Villas Boas, 17261814, Th. Mommsen, 1874, E. Hübner, 1893.
The knowledge of the older Semitic languages and alphabetic inscriptions was
then limited to the Bible and the Koran, to the Hebrew quadrate writing and Arab script
until the stela of Mesha of Moab had been found in 1868, with an older alphabetic script
but of the north western family of Semitic languages. It was quite natural that by
absence of any comparison the inscriptions found in Western Europe have been
attributed to the region and to indigenous people living there as permanent inhabitants.
The trade of the Greek emporiums, Massalia, and Ampurias, were an exception. Greek
and Latin sources were the basic proves.
The 20th century brought new texts and new writing systems from many sites of
the Near East, of the 2nd millennium BC: Byblos, the Proto-Sinaitic script, ProtoCanaanite, cuneiform writing at Ugarit. All these systems were alphabetic, while
Hittites and Greek linear A., B. used syllabic script. The discoveries of the 1st
millennium BC came mainly from the eastern coast of the Mediterranean and with
6
H. Sauren, 2008, 2010.
J. Untermann, 1980, MLH.
8
J. Untermann, 1990, 1997, MLH, H. Bonet-Rosado, 1995, M.ª I. Panosa, 1993, 2001, 2005.
9
P. Bernardini, 2005, 75-96, M. Ruiz.Gálvez Priego, 2005, 251-275.
10
All cited publications add a large bibliography and by this way more items.
11
A. Morlet, 1955, and H. Sauren, 2008.
12
H. Sauren, 2005.
13
J. Caro Baroja, 1976, 681, 698, citing Antoni Augustini, 1587.
7
languages mainly from the north western Semitic family. The study of the Old
Testament rose the interest and meanwhile a dictionary collects the lexemes.14
The studies of the Old Arab inscriptions were practised by fewer scholars; there
is no collective dictionary up to now and I have to use the Arab dictionary of
Kazimirsky, which has the advantage that is notes not only literary texts but also the
sayings of the people.15
Old Arab alphabetic inscriptions had been found in Yemen, Sana, Timna and
other places, in Saudi-Arabia, Al-’Ula, in the Negev, up to the region of Damask,
including the Nabatean at Petra in the kingdom of Jordan. Letters of these inscriptions
appear on the items found in Western Europe. The Romans conquered Arabia Felix and
the trade became more intensive. A table of letters in comparison with other writing
systems has been published.16
Inscriptions, which show entirely letters of the writing known from inscriptions
found in Western Europe are rarer and origin from quite other regions. A. Morlet, 1955,
announced already some short inscriptions from Hissarlic, Turkey. Some longer stone
inscriptions are conserved in Museum of Ankara. Others have been found at Gordion.
More recently, the Spanish excavations in the region of the sources of the Euphrates
found more inscriptions of this type.17
Archaeology accepts meanwhile as proved that the influence was permanent
from the Near East to Western Europe. The period of orientalization is known from the
8th century BC to the period of the Punic Wars, with an interruption about 450 BC and
the time of the wars with the Parses and the Greek. To defend an orientalization without
people coming from the Near East is absurd. Trade marked the history and provoked
coming and going on the Mediterranean from many regions to all the lands of Western
Europe rich of metals as copper, tin, silver and gold. Iron has been brought from the
north, probably by Celtic people, if the interpretation of T. Live is correct.
Coins name the cities Sidon, M. 2.45-47, and Arad, M. 2.111-112, which people
from the Levant gave to their new home. Several texts name people from Tyre. The cult
of the goddess Astarte and of the god Baal is often attested, a series of inscriptions
names Allah as god. The presence of Semite people from the near East is proved by
many documents.
The interpretation by Semitic languages respects the archaeological discoveries.
The right identification of the letters permits a coherent understanding of all
inscriptions. The longest inscription known as the great Botorrita bronze tablet, a
pleading in a case of murder before the royal court, has 4 columns of each 60 lines and
each line counts an average of 12 letters. The inscriptions on ceramics are rather short,
but the context permits a logical reading and interpretation. The dictionaries and the
grammar of Semitic languages are the final prove. Errors are always possible, but after
the interpretation of more than 3 thousand texts, the method of decipherment, reading
and interpretation can not be denied.
Unfortunately the specialization of scientific disciplines, the ignorance of
languages concerned as well of the Semitic languages of antiquity as also of modern
European languages, seems to be insurmountable.
The poster: The poster tries to show groups of ceramic items in eight lines. The
content of the inscriptions determine the group.
14
J. Hoftijzer, K. Jongeling, 1995.
A. Kazimirski de Biberstein, 1860.
16
M. Dietrich, O. Loretz, 1988, table of letters p. 102.
17
H. Sauren, 2006, and the same title of a governor H. Sauren, 2008, in the south of Portugal.
15
1st Forms and decorations: The description of the ceramic is very important for
the interpretation of the incised inscriptions, e.g. the technique of production, the
composition of the clay, the practical form to use the ceramic object, the measurements
of size and thickness of the walls. Few publications respect the needed details. The
work should be done anew in collaboration of archaeology and philology. The poster
has no other choice than to take the published items. Many are only published by a
drawing showing approximately the place, where the letters had been written.
Some general rules of reading the script are added to the items.
1.1. The pitcher to fill with drinking water should not be used for other liquids.
The inscription is made later, after producing and buying. The incised letters are outside
and good visible. The thickness of the wall guards the water cool. This type is used in
warm lands, while bronze vessels are used for water in the Alps.
J. Untermann, 1997, 102, 11, cites the fragment with the measurements: 13,0 x
8, 5, x 2,5 cm. He adds l. c. 103, 13 another pitcher found at Huelva, Cabezo de San
Pedro: l m y m, *limayīm, for water. The first letter is the Greek minuscule lamda.
Fernández Jurado J., Correa, J., A., dated the vase in the 7th and 6th century BC.
The nw. writing is rare: m y m, *mayīm : C. 12.1, E. 8.1, E. 9.1, UJ 97, 102/ 11,
UJ 97, 103, 13, while the sw. writings are frequent: m a5, *mā : B. 1.255, C. 7.6, C.
11.5, E. 1.126, E. 1.127, E. 1.140, m h, *mū : B. 1.91, m w, *mū : K. 0.14, m w2, *mū :
E. 1.180, PM 93, 204. Sw. : mā, ًَٕ, eau, nw.: m y m, subst. m. pl. : water.
The example shows different pronunciation, which the phonetic writing notes in
absence of any obligatory orthography. Different languages or dialects are more than
probably. The script is generally not vocalized. Nw. and sw. is a sufficient
differentiation to understand.
I collected 5 items in nw. Semitic and 30 in sw. Semitic language. Even if the
distributions between the two linguistic families changes from one region to the other
and also during the centuries of use of the script, the relation gives an idea of ethnic
composition of the merchants coming from the Near East.
1.2. The example is one of the beautiful painted vases. The painting and the
inscription show the high standard of the rich governing people. The title n w2, *nawiyy,
is noted in the bilingual inscription F. 13.11: a6 m h r, *’amūr: n w2 p w2 y m n w2
a6 m h r , Nawiyy, in the language of Yemen: ’amur, today: emir, cf. H. Sauren, 2005,
532-533.
The word for language is sw.: fāh, ً َ, bouche; nw. : p y1, mouth. The texts read:
p w2, *fū, mouth, were many European languages use a word for “tongue”. The
inscriptions on vases of Edeta, Liria, note also, F. 13.16: p w2 y s r, *fū ’assur,
Assyrian, as the bilingual texts notes Assyrian and sw. words. p w2 y n m i, *fū yānimī,
Ionian language, includes in Arab the language of the Greek and the Romans.
The title š d, *sād / sa‘id, lord, sw.: Sw. : sāda, ‫َ َد‬, être chef, sā‘id, ً َِٔ, sādat,
‫َ َد ًة‬, pl., chef, prince, is here higher than the position of the emir. The phonetic script is
not consequent differentiating the sibilants. The context is decisive.
The example shows that letters of an alphabetic script can indicate every
language as here some Latin words. The grammatical endings are generally suppressed,
either in writing or also in pronouncing.
1.3: Llíria, 8-D. 12, 24 cm. height, Ø 18 cm., below, Ø 34,4 cm. above, know as
the navel battle. The subject of the painting seems to be different. There is no
representation of action as European art likes to show, but a representation of facts,
expressed by pictures and symbols as Oriental art usually does. The centre is the town
and a bridge. The quadratic symbol of the town is known from some representations of
Egypt before the dynasty of Narmer. The governor protects the town. He stands before
his baldachin and shoots arrows. A long sword is the symbol of his power. In other
regions and about centuries older, the governors held a hatched in their hands. Both
weapons as symbols of power are known from Mesopotamia, the hatchet of the Akkad
period of Naramsin, the sword of the late Assyrian time.
Two boats are river down before the chief of the town. Both boats follow the
same direction as the mast shows. The river is symbolized by fishes as already on high
palaeolitic rock engravings. The men on the first boat do not have and do not need
weapons. The men on the second boat are the enemies, they are drawn smaller and there
are fewer. The size is not chosen to mark the perspective but only to note the more and
less importance.
On the other side of the town, bigger fishes indicate the river. All fishes show
their fish-bones. This makes evident, that the painter did not wish to paint reality. At the
side of the river, are flowers and a horse is grazing. At the end of the picture, a bird,
perhaps an eagle marks the neighbourhood of the mountains. Both wings and the feet
are drawn, but both to the same side as known from palaeolitic rock engravings. The
bird is seen from the side in profile drawing.
The date is nevertheless the 1st century BC. The title should be: Defending the
town against pirates.
The demonstrative, determinative, pronoun is written: d, *de, a pronoun known
in all Roman languages but missing in classical Latin, which uses the genitive. It seems
to be borrowed from sw.: dū, ‫ذُو‬, dāt, ‫ذَات‬, f., maître, possesseur.
The word, š š, *sūs, horse, shows the use of the letter for several sibilants, cf.
1.2.
1.4 : The jar from Clermont-Ferrand shows letters, which could be Latin
majuscules. The first word is already of French language: PE, *paie, pay (of a soldier),
in dialects: pre. The frequent omission of the phoneme r, in phonetic writing, or the
different writing of vowels led to the same solution. The letter with two vertical strokes
marks the second vowel in recent Latin inscriptions, cf. 2.1.
For the second word, the Arab dictionary notes: sw. : šurta, ًَُْ, garde, soldat,
condition, troupe qui commence la charge, le combat, garde, chef de police. We learn
that the pay of the mercenaries was given in natural products and not in coins, which
already existed. The vessel contained burned grains of cereals, when it has been found.
The letter š is equal in form with the Greek and Latin majuscule M, cf. already
1.2, 1.3 for this letter. The oldest form of the letter š is attested in Byblos about 1750
BC. It shows the incisors of men:
, šin, tooth. The form is guarded in Hebrew
quadrate writing, ‫ש‬, and Arab script, ‫س ش‬. Both writing systems use diacritical points
do differentiate the phonemes šin and śin. The writing in Western Europe inverts the
letter and uses it for both phonemes. The letter šin, was the last or last but one of old
alphabets. The numeral value of the letter was 1000. An old Latin alphabet was based
on the roman numbers and M = 1000, mil, stood at the end. The place of the letter either
before or after N is more recent, cf. 6.2, 6.3.
1.5: The names as Phoenician, Attic ceramic, are conventional. It would be
better to avoid these terms, as they provoke wrong determination of the date. Is there a
difference between the example 1.1 and 1.5? 1.1 has nothing to do with Phoenicians.
2: Users. The inscriptions allow much information about the ancient society. I
wish to note therefore more items than the poster presents. The documentation,
available to me, is mainly from archaeological excavations in Spain and in the south of
France. We should distinct several groups.
1st Administrative unities, which had to take care of their personal, are the
owners of ceramic items. The people working for these institutions lived together,
certainly during the time of working. The impact on family live is evident.
2nd Titles mainly of high governors are named. The users of the ceramic objects
are never cited by their personal name but always by their title or function.
3rd People, who visited frequently the master of great households, had their own
dishes and cups.
4th The serving personal got their own ceramic. There is no attestation for slaves,
which existed following to some inscriptions.
2.1-2.2: The bowl found at Lattes, Hérault, France, has been published by B.
Arnaud, 2010. The comparison with 2.2, published by J. Untermann, 1980, proves that
habitudes of the Semitic merchants continued, when Latin became the language of rich
men demonstrating that they were “Latin people”. It is likely that only some of them
were Romans. The writing under the foot is equal on all the three items, proving the
same period of fabrication.
2.3-2.4: m r t, *mara’at, lady, m r, *limara’, master, is exactly the same in sw.
and sw.: mar’, ُْٕ َ, homme, nw. : m r ’, lord, master, joining the ending of feminine
words.
2.5-2.6: Other words are used, even at the same place, showing that the
population was far from homogenous but composed by members of different languages
and regions of origin. 2.5: sw.: sitt, ِ, dame, maîtresse, a word, which continues in the
Portuguese language spoken in Brazil. 2.6 names the title of the landlords of the 3rd and
2nd century BC in the actual Portugal and in the south of Spain, sw.: ’a‘yān, ‫ن‬
ً َْ ‫َأ‬,
personnage principal, seigneur, maître, chef, later reduced to’ān. The word is also used
as invocation of god. It became the Greek AYΩN, the emanation of the supreme deity,
eternal and more powerful than Zeus. We guard the word as “aeon, eon”, an
immeasurable period, the eternity.
2. gifts, presents. It was a habitual practice to present ceramics to friends at
some occasions. Words with this signification are added to other inscriptions, which
show that the present was estimated.
2.1-2.3: h2 d l2, *hatl, ً َ, don, présent. Lattes, France.
2.7: n a5, n2 a, n h, n h a, n w, *nū, naw’, ‫ًْٲ‬#َ$, don, présent, faveur. B. 1.22, B.
1.40, B. 1.140, C 1.16, Ampurias, Gerona, C. 2.17, n h š3 p t r, present of the potter,
Ullastret, Gerona, Panosa, 1993, 187, 194 – 196, Catalonia, Untermann, 1997, 353-354,
Segovia ( ?), the plate is certainly no falsification as many words are attested in longer
inscriptions. Cf. 4.8.
2, other users, 1st group:
> (a y,) *’ay, factory, cf. H. Sauren, 2005, BAEO 41.
> (d r,) *dār, house. D. 4.12, Sobra, Barcelona, D. 6.1, Tornabous, Lérida, E. 1.103, E.
1.233, E. 1.246, E. 1.247, Azaila, Teruel, cf. nāt, men, below. Sw. : dār, ‫دَا ًر‬, habitation,
lieu où il y a plusieurs maisons ou tentes, demeure, séjour, maison, cercle, nw. : d r1 ,
family, d r h1, courtyard, d r h2, cercle, administrative subdivision of the town.
> (h2 z, h 2 z3, h2 z t,) *ha uz /*ha uzat, the royal court, K. 1.18, F. 8.1, K. 1.12, Panosa,
1993, 205, different writing in Caminreal, K., identical in Castellón, F. 8.1, fem. gender
in Catalonia, and K. 1.3, Botorrita. Sw. : hauzat, ‫َْ َز ًة‬, côté, réunion, cercle, assemblée.
K. 1.3, attesté pour la cour royale comme haute instance de justice.
> (g š,) *ğaiš, army, C. 2.46, Ullastret, Gerona.
> (k2 n t2,) *kanat, assembly, Panosa, 2005, 1056, Can Sotaterra, Solsona, Solsonès,
Lleida. Nw.: k n t1, companion, colleague; hebr.: keneset, lat.: consilium.
> (m r w2 š t2,) *mar‘usūt, subjects, E. 1.337, Azaila, Teruel. Sw. : mar’us, ‫س‬
ً ‫َُْأ‬, frappé,
sujets, les gouvernés, ceux qui obéissent à un chef. The ending, – ūt, is the Assyrian
ending for abstract nouns.
> (n s2, n š, n z,) *nisā‘, women, E. 1.271, E. 1.276, E. 1.349, E. 1.279, Azaila, Teruel.
Sw.: nisā’, &ًَ'ِ$, femmes, aphesis of ’ānisat, ًَ'ِ$(, fille d’un caractère doux, bonne fille,
’int, ’ināt, femme.
> (n t2, n t,) *nāt, men, E. 1.334, Azaila, Teruel, G. 8.3, Benidorm, Alicante. Sw. : nāt,
‫ت‬
ً َ$, pour nās, les hommes. Cf. E. 1.324: d r n z3 š z2 h2, the house of the men, who
come together, cf. 2nd group, ba‘al, below.
> (p a6, p a4 a4,) *fi’at, the troupe, the company, C. 2.18, Ullastret, Gerona, cf. 2.5.
2nd group:
> (a m r,) *’amur, emir, K. 9.11, Garray, Soria, Numantia. Cf. 1.2 above.
> (a n š ‘,) *’ānisat, princess. Panosa, 1993, 180, Empurion, La Escala. Cf.: nisā‘,
above. The title occurs on funeral stela.
> (‘ n,) *’ayān, lord, master, E. 1.330, E. 1.331. Cf. 2.6.
> (a z, a4 z3, ‘ z, ‘ z2, ‘ z3,) *‘azīz, mighty, C. 2.15, Ullastret, Gerona, E. 1.162, E.
1.186, e. 1.189, E. 1.277, E. 1.294, E. 1.300, Panosa, 2005, 1051, Tossal de les Tenalles,
Sidamon, Pla d’Urgell Lleida. Sw.: ‘azīz, )ً ِ)َ , puissant, nw.: ‘ z z1-2, to be strong.
> (b l, b2 l2) *ba‘al, master, B 1.7, C. 2.21, Ullastret, Gerona, n.º 301. A second
inscription explains: d r š R w2 h, the house to give to drink.
> (b n h n,) *ben hanni, son of His Grace, E. 1.108 – E. 1.112. Sw. : ’ibn, *
ً ْ+‫ِٳ‬, pl. :
banun, ‫ن‬
ً #ُ-َ+, fils, bint, ًْ-ِ+, pl. : bināt, ‫َ ًة‬-ِ+, fille; nw. : b n1, son, daughter. Aphesis as in nw.
> (d n, t n, t2 n,) *dannu, mighty, B. 1.73, joins ‘ z, *‘azīz, D. 5.6, Solana, Sotaterra,
Lérida, E. 1.67, E. 1.68, cf. nawiyy, emir, E. 1.82, E. 1.91, E. 1.281, E. 1.310, and more.
Assyrian, also attested at Glozel and in Etruscan inscriptions.
> (g d,) *qāid, chef. C. 11.9, C. 11.2, g d k2 h2 n, qāidāk hann, your chef, His Grace.
Sw.: qāid, ً َِ, qui conduit, qui mène, chef, gouvernant, commandant, port., esp. : alcaide.
> (h n,) *hann, His Grace, B. 1.86, E. 1.184, E. 1.299, E. 1.318, E. 1.319, F. 11.21,
Sagunt. Exceptional is the plural form, C. 23.1, h n m, *hannīm, Their Graces, and E.
1.185: š h2 n z m z z3, (cup,) which His Grace filled with denarii, cf. 7.5. Several
governors were addressed by this word. Sw.: hann, *
َ., compassion, piété; hannān, très
miséricordieux, nw. : h n n1-3, to be benevolent,
> (n a, n w2, n2 w2,) *nawiyy, emir, Liria, fig. 140, 0301-Sup, C. 11.8, Rubi, Barcelona,
D. 9.1, Margalef, Torregrossa, Lérida, E. 1.67 - E. 1.72, E. 1.105, E. 1.148, E. 1.183
(na), E. 1.298, Azaila, Teruel, E. 12.1, Alcañiz, El Tiro de Cañon, Teruel, Panosa 1993,
179-180, Empuries La Escala.
> (r s2, r z2,) *rais, chief, president, B. 1.7, joins ba‘al, E. 1.92, E. 1.253 – E. 1.256, E.
1.283.
> (r t, r t2, r t t2, r t2 t2) *ratt, prince, C. 7.5, Cabrera de Mar, Barcelona, E. 1.202, seven
attestations, cf. 2.5. Sw.: ratt, ‫ت‬
‫ َر‬, chef, prince.
2
4
5
> (s ‘, z a , z a , z‘, *sain, prefect, E. 1.94, E. 1.122, E. 1.143, Panosa, 1993, 188, 210 –
211, 217, Medellín, 86/TP-2, an urn for a prefect, H. Sauren, 2006, 145-162.
> (š w2 s2, z2 s2, z5 z5 t2,) **siyāsa(t), sovereign, E. 1.92, E. 1.227, Glozel, France, GLO.
68.4. Sw.: siyāsat, ًََِ, gouvernement, commendement.
> (š h2,) *šaih, sheikh, B. 1.54, C. 15.1, Begas, Barcelona, with dedication: “for the best
of mankind”, Panosa, 1993, 179, Mas Castellar, Pontos. Sw.: šaih, /
ً َْ, vieillard, ancien,
cheikh.
> (š r t2), *šurta, soldat of the guard, C. 26.1, Vinebre, Sant Miquel, Tarragona, E.
1.243, cf. 1.4. Sw.: šurta, ًَُْ, garde, soldat.
> ( a g, w2 g, w2 g h,) *wagah, head, position of command, B. 1.13, E. 1.282, Panosa,
1993, 193, 198. The title is attested in south Portugal, 3rd, 2nd, century BC, and in
eastern Turkey. H. Sauren, 2006, 54-57, 2008, 53-58. Sw.: wağh, ً0َ1‫ َو‬, wuğuh, ً #ُ1‫ ُو‬, pl,
principal, chef.
> (s ‘ a4 r, z a r, z a4 r, z2 a4 r,) *ziwar, chief, B. 1.21, E. 1.4, E.1.5, E. 1.20 – E. 1.24,
cf. zaur. Sw.: ziwar, ‫ ِز َو ًر‬, maître seigneur, chef, prince. Sw.: ziwar, ‫ ِز َو ًر‬, maître seigneur, chef, prince. Cf. zaur.
3rd group.
2
> (t t p,) *daif, guest, B. 1.65, Sw. : daif, 3
ً َْ4, hôte, visiteur, convive.
2
> (g-L s ,) *ğils, friend of the house, C. 2.26, Ullastret, Gerona. Sw.: ğils, 5
ً ْ6ِ1,
compagnon, familier, ami de la maison.
> (h d,) *hūd, jew, D. 5.10, Solana, Sotaterra, Lérida, E. 1.56, E. 1.57. Sw.: hūd, ‫ه ًد‬,
juifs.
> (h2 z y w2,) *hāziyu, connoisseur, E. 1.226, C 3.2, š3 z y, phonetic writing of the
laryngal, attested also in J. 22.2, cf. J. 22.1. Sw. : hāzin, ‫َ ٍز‬., connaisseur.
> (h2 n R,) *hānir, friend, B. 1.38. Sw.: hānir, ً ِ$َ8, ami vrai et sincère.
> (h2 l2,) *hill, friend, B. 1.85, E. 1.173, E. 1.257 – E. 1.259, E. 1.332. H. Sauren, 2006,
163-168. E. 1.332, an amphora, has a stamp on the handle: MEAD, port.: meado, half,
indicating the content.
ً َ9,
> (l ‘, l w2, l w2 ‘,) *lā‘, ill, sick, E. 1.179, E. 1.239, Panosa, 1993, 212. Sw.: lā‘, ‫ع‬
malade, qui éprouve une malaise.
> (l2 s2, l z m,) *lāis, gourmand, E. 1.95 – E. 1.97, B. 1.103, B. 1.115, Panosa, 2005,
1002, pl., Darreres Troballes a l’Ebre. Sw.: lāis, 5
ً َِ9, qui aime les friandises, les
douceurs.
> (r g l,) *rağul, man, E. 4.7, Alloza, El Castelillo, Teruel. Sw.: rağula, ;
َ ُ1‫ َر‬, être
homme.
> (w2 d, w2 d t2,) *wudd, lover, mistress, E. 1.2, E. 1.15, E. 1.19, E. 12.2, Alcañiz, El
Tiro de Cañon, Teruel. Cf. zimm. Sw.: wudd, ‫ ُو د‬, amour, amant, ami, amoureux, amants,
amis.
> (l2 y h-n i,) *liyūni, for the Greek, D. 3.2, Manlieu, Barcelona, Museum Vich 6995. A
second hand adds: d d n n[a m]h2 l2 s2, for the poor humpbacked. Cf. 1.2.
> (z m l2,) *zamal, family, D. 4.6, Sobra, Serrat de San Miquel, Barcelona. Sw.:
zamalat, ً ََ‫ َز‬, famille, maison y compris les domestiques et les suivants.
3
2
> (z m, z m,) *zamam, neighbour, E. 1.192 – E. 1.197, E. 1.3, joins: w d, lover. Sw.:
2
zamam, ً َ‫ز‬, proche, voisin. Cf. 2.6, z m > zamīt, ً ِ‫ َز‬, puissant, considérable par le
rang, qu’il occupe et par l’autorité, homme, personnage, and zaur. The synonyms
determine the signification.
> (z h r, z r, z2 r,) *zaur, visiter, C. 2.9, Ullastret, Gerona, E. 1.39, E. 1.41 – E. 1.45, E.
1.52 – E. 1.54, E. 1.321, E. 1.322, E. 1.40, joins: z m, cf. zamam. Sw.: zaur, ‫ َزوْ ًر‬,
visiteur.
4th group.
> (d d, d d t2,) *dādat, wet-nurse, E.1.245, E. 1.248 – E. 1.250, E. 1.285. Sw. : dādat,
‫دَا َد ًة‬, nourrice, sage-femme.
> (d g,) *dāiğ, servant. D. 5.8, Solana, Sotaterra, Lérida. Sw.: dāğa, ‫ج‬
َ ‫دَا‬, servir
quelqu’un comme valet, domestique.
> (G t, G t2 y, k2 t,) *qitt, cat, E. 1.145 – E. 1.147, E. 1.286. Sw.: qitt, ِ, chat mâle. No
dog is attested, but B. 3.1, = K. 17.1, Gruissan, Aude, mentions in the inscription a dog
for the hunt.
> (r s2 l2 n,) *rasūlnu, our messenger, E. 1.242. Sw.: rasūl, ‫ َرُ ًل‬, envoyé, messager.
> (w l a4 d m,) *waladīm, pl., children, C. 2.19, Ullastret, Gerona, on a chamber-pot for
children. Sw.: walad, ً َ9‫ َو‬, enfant, petit d’homme ou d’animal, nw.: y l d2, substantive
with collective meaningl: children.
> (z3 š,) *zūğ, house servant, D. 5.9, Solana, Sotaterra, Lérida, E. 1.18, E. 1.89, E.
1.284. B. 1.2 joins : w2 h2! d t h2, *wa hada‘a, and the subdued. Sw.: zauš, ‫ش‬
ً ْ‫ َزو‬, un
domestique, vaurien, hadaa, =َ َ>َ8, être humble, soumis.
3: Names and size. Few words continue in European languages. There are more
names for ceramic as the poster can note. About two dozen terms exist only for
ceramics to conserve and to drink wine. The names, which occurred together with the
mark of property for factories, have been cited in H. Sauren, 2005, 279-286.
3.1: Sw.: ğarrat, ‫َ ? ًة‬1, jarre, esp., port. : jarra, jarro, frequent and for different
use, also in Ingl., French, Germ. etc. E. 1.335, writing: SCOPA, *ğarra, offers a
bilingual: fitat, ًَ@ِ, jarre, gr. : pitos. Cf.: SC = š > ğ, O = ‘a > a, PA = Greek majuscules
rho, alfa.
ً ‫ َردَا‬, grande marmite, ruhuh, , plats larges.
3.2: Sw.: radāh, ‫ح‬
3.3: Sw.: rahh, ‫ َر‬, large et peu profond, qui n’est pas très creux, plat, bassin,
cuvette.
3.4: Sw.: ’azifa, ‫ف‬
َ ‫َأ ِز‬, être en petite quantité, ou de peu de volume.
3.5: Sw.: dalā, َ9‫ َد‬, faire descendre, tirer, retirer le seau du puits, dalw, ً ْ‫ َد‬, seau en
bois ou en cuir, broc.
3.6: Sw.: ’awir, ‫َأ ِو ًر‬, dur, tās, 5
ً َ, écuelle, soucoupe, tassat, ?'َ, espèce
d’écuelle, assiette, soucoupe, Germ. : Tasse.
3.7: Sw.: taur, ‫ْ ًر‬#َC, vase à boire, gobelet, tallat, ً َ , odeur agréable, vin doux et
délicieux, qīqā’at, ‫ٍََ ًة‬DِE, sol dur et raboteux, vase à boire en bois de palmier.
3.8: anse > asa. The Portuguese, Spanish word in the North of the Alps may be
astonishing. Attested is also: l l, *lula, squid, genus: loligo, Schuhmacher, SZ 4-5, cf.
the figurines of a hippocampus, SZ 3, and of a dolphin, SZ 13. A Portuguese word for a
cloth of rough wool has been announced in an early Latin inscription found at Milan.
The documents prove the migration of people either by trade or as refugees of war.
Sw. : tulmat, ً َ!ُْ , gâteau, galette que l’on cuit dans les cendres. As the word
tallat, wine, does not form a plural, the ending would be: –īm, t l2 m, belongs to another
word. One of the methods to read is the identification by exclusion of other possibilities.
4. Food, spices. The full list of food contains cereals, vegetables, meat of
animals, birds, and fishes, cake, sweets, and fruits. About 50 different items have been
collected, written on ceramic.
4.1: K. 5.1. Jug, height 23 cm, Ø 22 cm., painted with fishes below and abstract
decoration in the upper part. Perhaps, the jug served only for drinking water. The
inscription stands inside the can with handle, near to the rim. I add the transliteration
and the lexemes: š a4 ‘ h h2! t n2 t d ‘ g g s2. š a4 ‘,*ša’, he wishes (to be),
perfect 3rd p. m. sing., sw.: šā’a, ٍَ َ, vouloir, h–, *ha–, article nw. used also in sw.
inscriptions, h2! t, *hūt, fish, subject, sw.: hūt, ‫ت‬
ً #., poisson, surtout très grand, the letter
h stands inverted, younger in this region and it shows the Etruscan form, n2 t, *nūtī, a
seaman, sw.: nūtī, F
ً ِC#ُ$, marin, matelot, d ‘ g, *da‘ğā’, sw.: ’ad‘ağu, Gُ َ ْ‫َأد‬, da‘ğā’, َٕ1ْ‫ َد‬,
f., noir, se dit de toute chose, g s2, *ğasa’, ًٕ 5َ1, eau gelée, the two last words are
accusatives of localization.
4.2: Other indications of fishes, C. 14.1, h2 t2 z n, * hūt zana’, small fish,
dextrose reading, Collbató, Barcelona, H. 4.1, h2 t2, * hūt, fish, comes from Toya, Jaën,
the ruins of Tugia are on the river Toya. Both originals are lost. The towns were situated
either at the sea coast or on rivers, so that fishes were everywhere available.
4.3: there are many words for the different qualities of honey.
š r, *šaur, honey from the bee-hive : B. 1.57, B. 1.58, E. 1.55, E. 1.296, K. 9.9,
D. 5.4, š r k2, *šaurāk, honey for you. Sw.: šaur, ‫ْ ًر‬#َ, miel enlevé de la ruche. D. 5,
Solsona, Lerida, K. 9, Garray, Numantia.
a5 z l a6, *‘asal, honey, is today the most common word, but only attested ones
in the inscriptions. White and black honey is distinguished. E. 6.2, Teruel, Alto chacón.
Sw.: ‘asal, ;
ً َ'َ , miel d’abeilles.
l m, l2 m, *li’am, honey, is the word from which several European languages
borrowed the word by metathesis : B. 1.33, B. 1.319, E. 1.131, E. 1.144, E. 1.174, E.
5.2, F. 18.1, Panosa, 1993, 196, Sw.: li’am, ‫ ًم‬Iَِ9, accord, miel.
t2 z, t2 z y, s z a4, *zayy, creamy honey : Untermann, 1997, 101, 10, 106, 18,
south of Portugal, E. 1.287, sw.: zayy, F
َJ, miel. There existed no letter for the phoneme
dha, ‫ظ‬, which the actual Arab script marks with a diacritical point. The ancient script
used sometimes two letters to indicate the phoneme.
halwa is a sweet doughy confection made with honey, which is sold nowadays
in the souks and shops. Attested on the ancient ceramics: h2 l2 ‘, *halwa : B. 1.123,
Panosa, 1993, 206, Catalonia, h2 l2 t2, *halwat : Bonet Rosado, 1995, 134/ 501, C. 24.1,
Palou, Barcelona. M. 2.265-266 refers to the factory of a town, where halwa has been
produced. Sw.: halwa, ‫ ًة‬#َ ْ6َ., pâte sucrée, toute pâte mêlée de sucrre ou de miel,
E. 1.14, w h2 z, *wahīz, honey cake, sw.: wahīz, "ً ِ#‫ َو‬, gâteau de miel.
C. 2.23, Ullastret, Gerona, r i š3 g n2 i šz2 [, brings an uncertain translation as g
2
n i, *ğanā, signifies either: fresh dates, or: honey; first dates or best honey. Sw.: ğanā,
Lَ-َ1, or, dattes fraîches, récemment cueillis, or, miel.
4.4 : n r d, *nardīn, lavender. K. 9.8, Garray, Numantia. The word is hapax.
Lavender grows in southern France and Spain. The common use is the perfume and
thee. Sw.: nardīn, *
ً ‫َْ ِد‬$, lavande. g n y, *ğanī, to gather, sw.: ğanā, َ-َ1, cueillir des
fruits.
4.5: t n, t y n, *tīn, figs, collective, C. 1.14, Ampurias, Gerona, H. 11.1, Vilches,
Jaën. Sw.: tīn, *
ً ِC, figue. m y h n, *mihan, sw. : mihan, ‫ن‬
ً َMِ, grand de taille. The figtree is common in Spain, but there are only two attestations.
4.6-4.7: z t, z2 t2, z3 y2 t, *zait, olive-oil, B. 1.95, C. 2.44, Ullastret, Gerona, K.
1.10, Botorrita, Zaragoza. Sw. : zayt, ً ْ‫ َز‬, huile d’olive, nw. : z y t , olive, olive oil,
olive tree. The Portuguese word add the Arab definite article: azeite, *az-zeite.
4.8: The dish from Sanzeno, North of Italy, Schuhmacher, SZ 70, had been
given as a present; it was filled with a meal to satiate. t2 a6 w2 a6, *tawā, satisfies. Sw.:
tawan, ‫ًى‬#َ, faim, contrary signification: satisfaction, to quench hunger.
The word outside the dish is special interesting: a2 l, *’al, present, gift. The
word is attested in Tell Keisan, Israel, J. Briend, 1976, on ceramic, attesting the same
writing and costumes in the Near East, cf. nw. The word is frequent in Spain. The
writing on the dish, found in the region of the later Rhetic Romans and by exception at
Bautzen, Germany, on the lid of an inscribed cup to drink, prove the use of the same
script and languages in Western Europe.
a l, a l2, a2 l, ‘ a4 l2, ‘ l, ‘ l2, *’alw : B. 1.97, C. 19.2, Els Monjos, Barcelona, E.
1.117, E. 1.156, E. 1.157, E. 1.290, G. 9.13, Campello, Alicante, GLO-2.43, Bautzen, F.
11.22, Panosa, 1993, 190. Sw.: ’alw, #ً ْ9‫َأ‬, bienfait, faveur, grâce, don, présent, nw. : ’ l9,
inscribed on a jar. The dictionary of Hoftijzer adds that the signification is unknown to
them.
5: Wine Vases. Amphoras have been found in many regions to store and to send
wine. Jugs and cups of different forms served to drink wine as the inscriptions tell us.
The ceramics of this group had often stamps, cf. line 8.
5.1: C. 2.8, Museum of Ullastret, Gerona, n.º inv.: 1468, has the form of a bull.
Long: 13 cm., Ø 8,2 – 6.4 cm. The script is only partly visible on the photograph. Here
the drawing in MLH, the transliteration and translation commented. The first line stands
probably near to the head, which is lost. The writing stands around the neck. The second
line is shorter. It binds at the left side, but the direction of reading is sinistrorse. The
third line is very long; it goes around the body and a photograph shows the midst of the
letters between the feet. The last and 4th line binds also at the left; it is shorter and
describes the vessel. Some letters are in bad drawing or writing.
1
r h z n t m n h m h2 n 2a5 m g l t2 m l n w2 3n w2 d z r q d z2 p r z
h2 n h2 t2 n z2 r l2 m 4‘ a5 m q z t r z g k2
Look the beauty. It takes a rest after work. It quenches our thirst. It is the friend
of wine and drinking. It unites in peace intimate friends kissing one another. It is
profound, it is a drinking vessel, it is a rhyton.
r, *ra, look, imp. sing. Sw.: raā, ‫ َرأَى‬, voir, apercevoir quelque chose, nw. : r y, to see, h–, *ha–, article nw. used also in sw. inscriptions, cf. 4.1, z n, *zaina, beauty,
acc., sw.: zain, *
ً ْ‫ َز‬, ornement, beau, beauté, t m n, *tamana, to take a rest, sw.: tamana,
*
َ َOَ, coucher son dos sur quelque chose pour repouser, m h2 n, *mahn, work, sw.: mahn,
%
ً ْ&َ, doux, occupation, surtout voyage, que l’on continue toute la journée sans
désemparer. The letter h2 changes the direction from left to right, cf. line 3.
2 5
a m g, *’amağ, thirst, acc., sw.: ’amağ, G
ً َ‫َأ‬, chaleur brillante, soif, l, *li, for,
to, preposition, sw.: li, ‫ ل‬: préposition inséparable, pour, aussi avec l’infinitif, t2 m,
*tamma, to cover, sw. : tamma, Q? َ. , former, présenter une grande masse, couvrir
quelque chose de sa masse, n w2, *nū, us, possessive suffix. Literary: to cover for us the
thirst.
3
n w2, *nawiyy, friend, cf. also the title: emir, nom., sw.: nawiyy, ‫ى‬
#ِ َ$, ami,
compagnon animé des mêmes intentions, d, *de, of, for, pronoun of Roman languages, z
r q, *zarqā’, wine, lit.: blue, sw.: az-zarqā’, ًٕ َْ‫ َزر‬, le vin, mizraq, ‫ق‬
ً ‫ِ"ْ َر‬, vase à boire, z2 p
r, * zafara, sw.: zafara, *َ َ+‫ َز‬, puiser de l’eau pour en arroser le sol ou donner à boire.
z h2, *zāha, unites, sw.: zāha, ‫ح‬
َ ‫زَا‬, réunir ce qui était dispersé, n h2, *nūh, peace,
nw.: n w h1-3, to be calm, adj.: calm, at rest, t2 n, *tinn, friends, collective, sw.: tinn, *
ِC,
2
ami, compagnon, semblable, pareil, z , z, *zī, relative pronoun, nw.: pronoun, r l m,
1
*rālīm, kissing, participle, pl., sw.: rawwala, ‫ل‬
َ ‫ َر ?و‬, II, baver, kissing is an euphemism,
the dictionary notes: avoir l’écoulement du sperme avant le coït.
4
‘ a5 m q, *‘amīq, deep, profound, sw.: ‘amīq, Rً ِOَ , profond, long, nw.: ‘ m w q,
depth, the word-play with thirst, line 2, is surely intentional, t r, *tūr, > taur, jug, cf.:
3.7, g k2 ‘, * qīqā’a(t), cf. 3.6.
5.2: The cup found in the harbour of Alexandria has been presented as cup of the
Last Supper, by the archaeologist. Sensation seems to sell better than science. Most of
the words are already interpreted above: d w2d, *dūd, love, nw.: Nw. : d d3, love, d w d4,
friend, cf.: *wudd, lover, mistress, 2, 3rd group, t r, tāra, to go around, sw.: tāra, ‫َ َر‬C,
faire le tour, circuler autour d’un point, cf.: *tūr, > taur, jug, 3.6, 5.1, p ‘ t, *pitu, pitos,
cf.: 3.3. The other words are post-Latin or Greek. A longer interpretation and also the
photo of the back side have been put on the site: Gianfrancopintore, Sardinia.
5.3-5.4: The bilingual text on a wine pitcher, found on the Puy de Dôme, near to
Clermont-Ferrand offers much information. The Museum Bargoin notes that the object
has been found at the temple of Mercury on the top of the Puy de Dôme. The French
word proves that it has been inscribed by French speaking people. The writing with the
letter S2 is mainly attested in Portugal, as well on a dolium for wine, in Santa Vitoria de
Ameixial, Estremoz, as also in several inscriptions on stone and on coins. The word is
good attested on ceramics for wine. The variants of writing and the dictionary prove the
reading as sibilant, while the form is similar to the Greek, Latin majuscule B: S2 h h2 m
y, *suhāmiyy : Untermann, 1997, 105/ 16, Estremoz, s2 h2 M y, *suhāmiyy : C. 7.7,
Cabrera de Mar, Barcelona, S2 h2[m y], *suhāmiyy : G. 5.2, Serra de Mariola, Alicante /
Valencia, S2 h m y y w2, *suhāmiyy : CF 1, Ckermont-Ferrand, s2 h3 [m y a], *suhāmiyy
: F. 13.74, š [h m y], *suhāmiyy : F. 13.73. Liria, Edeta. Sw. : suhāmiyy, F
َِM, vin
doux, qui a du velouté, et qui descend facilement dans le gosier.
The dolium of Estremoz leads to another bilingual: RAN t, *raynat : B. 1.77,
Bonet, 1995, 458/ 99, F. 13.73, Untermann, 1997, 105/ 16, R N, B 1.10, cf. 5.4. The
word is more attested and a town, Arranis, was named in the region of the Alentejo,
where wine production is abundant. Sw.: raynat, ًَ-ْ‫ َر‬, raynāt, ‫َ ًة‬-ْ‫ َر‬, pl., vin.
The pitcher of Clermont-Ferrand teaches us about the method to read ancient
texts in an unknown script. We have to read and to understand whole the word, when
we try to identify the phoneme indicated by the letter. The contrary, unfortunately often
practised, to read the letter following a hazardously known writing system, leads to
errors. The letter with the form B, could be the Greek, Latin majuscule, could be a letter
to read w, as in G. 1.1, a letter found at Alcoy, Alicante, but is in the cited context a
sibilant. Knowing the form of the letter š, , the additional stroke indicates the phoneme
sin, ś.
َ َE, faire la sieste, boire du
5.5: k2 l, *qāla, take the wine for the siesta, sw.: qāla, ‫ل‬
vin à midi, qail, ;
ً َْE, toute boisson que l’on prend à l’heure du midi (comme lait, vin,
etc.), qazza, )? َE, avoir du dégout, contraire: desirer. Cf. aussi: qāzūzat, ‫َزُو َز ًة‬E, vase à
boire, bouteille.
6: Learning. On ceramic objects and more on cups of silver, people incised the
letters of the writing system. We find sometimes different forms for the same phoneme,
sometimes a row of letters of the alphabets used at that time. The reconstruction of the
whole alphabetic list is possible by these writings. About 10 and more forms existed for
the letter l and alif, and the same number of alphabetic lists.
6.1: The bowl found at Glozel makes remarks to two letters. The inscription runs
from the left to the right.
1st the letter dhad. The form shows two parallels and between three strokes. A
row of letters exists with one, two and three strokes. The letter with one stroke, ,
indicates in the ancient script the phoneme z, transliteration: z3, it became in Greek: eta,
and in the Latin alphabet: H. The letter with two strokes, , indicates the emphatic
dental of the soundless t, tha / thet, it became in the Greek and Etruscan alphabet theta,
Θ, cf. the inscribed sign. Etruscan inscription write also the Semitic emphatic with this
letter. The letter with three strokes and the phoneme dhad are only attested in south
west Semitic languages of antiquity and in Arab. Arab language is called the language
of the dhad. The phoneme is the emphatic pronunciation of the sonorous dental d. Every
time when this letter appears in the inscriptions, the Arab dictionary answers with
lexemes of dhad.
The affinity of the sw. languages with Arab can not better be proved. The
contact with other, mainly indigenous languages, provoked the lost of the Semitic
phonemes and led to writings with letters for other dentals. The bowl of Glozel notes
some of them.
The second line reads: ]l V z5 t, *l 5 zet, there are five el, and they are: follow
five different forms of the letter. The writer uses the Roman number V. He shows that
two forms are derived from Y / y, a letter, which disappeared at the beginning of the
alphabet and went to the end.
6.2 : The row of letters on the ceramic, found at Huelva, was enigmatic to the
cited author. The Greek alphabet notes the row: zeta, Z, eta, H, theta Θ. The ancient
writing systems know three forms for zet, 1st identical with the Greek and Latin
majuscule Z, 2nd identical with the Roman number X, and 3rd the letter mentioned above
6.1. The Roman number X = 10 and its value as letter stands between V = 5 and L = 50.
The enigma could be the place after L on the ceramic of Huelva.
To understand the order of the letters, we have to compare the stone inscription
J. 7.4 and the alphabet from Ugarit, 1200 BC. Ugarit notes 15: l, 16: m, 17: d / dal, 18:
n, J. 7.4, notes the old forms of the letters and the Greek majuscule: λ Λ // m M // d Z [n
N]. Huelva advances the dal before M. The pronunciation of dal is similar to zet. The
tradition of writing systems from Ugarit to the last centuries BC may be astonishing but
the fact can not be denied.
6.3: The inscribed vessel from Liria, Edeta, shows the same row of letters. The
scribe wrote the letter w2, *wa, and between each. H. Sauren, 2005, 519-534.
6.4: The example shows that potsherds have been used as writing support. The
bilingual text proves the presence of Latin language. H. Sauren, 2006, 163-168.
7: Proverbs and sayings. Some texts manifest their opposition against the
Roman occupation others express the belief of the people.
7.1: K. 5.4, height: 8 cm., Ø 41 cm, Museum Teruel, n.º inv.: 9731, seems to be
a stamp on the ceramic and a personal name could be read in dextrorse direction. The
reading in sinistrorse direction gives quite another sense. The dish has a second stamp,
which has entirely letters of the old writing system. The translation reads, 1st line:
government, dynasty: we eliminate what is contemptible. 2nd line: His Grace: we
observe what is good. The first stamp expresses believe on god, named Allah. Sw.:3
َ ?9IََC ,
ta’allafa, V, avoir des rapports d’amitié, ’alf, 3
ً ْ9‫ َأ‬, ًmille, sūl, ‫ ًل‬#ُ, demande, prière,
requête, nw. : š ’ l, to ask.
7.2: Schuhmacher, SR 15, names also the god Allah, proving the same religion
of people living in the region north of the Alps. Several inscriptions found in the south
of Portugal name Allah, and the Portuguese writing is: Alá, without the assimilation
between the Arab article and the word like in the old texts. Certainly, the name does not
indicate the religion of Islam. The word is composed by the Arab definite article ’al–
and word ’ilah, god, and contracted by assimilation. Allah means the god, the article
expresses monotheism or at least monolatria, worship only to this god. t l2 y, *talā, he
abhors, sw.: talā, َ6َC, délaisser, abandoner, h2 t2 l 2! t, *hattālat, attitude without gene,
hattālat, ًَ9?Uَ8, dévergondée, une femme indécente dans ses manières.
7.3: Ceramic objects have been used as money-boxes. Treasure founds of coins
in ceramic vessels permit to date. Cf. E. 1.185, line 2, hann, His Grace. Schuhmacher,
NO-12, Museo Prov. d’Arte, Trient: n.º inv.: 6409. z w2 z, *zūz, name of a coin, equal to
the denarius, nw.: z z, certain type of weight/coin, for Egypt in the fifth century BC
probably weight corresponding to half a shekel, in Palmyra, Jewish Aramaic, late
Hebrew a coin with the value of an attic drachma = denarius = 1/4 shekel; equal with
the denarius. l a5 l, *laula, he goes back, sw.: laulā, Lَ9ْ#َ9, tourner le dos et faire sa
retraite. g n, *ğanna, black, sw.: ğanna, *
? َ1, être enveloppé et couvert, couvrir,
envelopper tout se dit de la nuit, de son obscurité. l2 a6 l2, *lāla, fun, sw.: la’la’, ٍَ9ْIَ9,
allégresse, joie sans mélange.
7.4: B. 1.36, B. 1.37: n y n h, *ninīha, we presented a gift, sw.: nīha, V
َ َ$, faire un
don. Cf. line 2, and 4.8. d r, *dūr, long-lasting, nw.: d r1, for ever, z3 n r, *zanara, filled
up, sw.: zanara, *َ َ,‫ َز‬, remplir un vase, n r, *nūr, shine, light, sw.: nūr, ‫ ًر‬#ُ$, lumière.
The foot shows a stamp composed by the letter r, , and the letter š, attached to
the stem. This kind of stamp is also found in the region of Alcoy, Alicante, G. 2.1, G.
9.4. r-š, *rēš, best quality, nw.: r š2, r ’ š, head, first rank. The word on stamps but in
different forms is frequent, in all regions, and from many factories.
7.5: B. 1.15, Ensérune. The Greek inscription, PANOS, cites the god of wine
and the jug has been used as a wine pitcher. m y n, *mīn, the table prepared for meal,
sw.: māna, ‫ن‬
َ َ, apporter, fournir des vivres, R š m, *rēšīm, first, cf. 7.4, p, *fa, sw.: fa,
‫ف‬
َ , and then, hitr, banquet, meal, sw.: hitr, ً ْ@ِ., banquet. Before stands the definite
article, cf. above.
7.6: A money-box found at Glozel, France, GLO-53.2, A. Morlet, 1927, 356357, fig. 7, 26,5 x 11,5 cm., Ø 4 cm. The inscription runs around the small vase, the
lines have been written boustrophedon. The inscription uses Greek and Latin
majuscules, here the transliteration in full.
1 2
l -M L a6 . w2 y L l w2 l g d 2 t2 h5 l T d t2 h5 h5 d t2 t2‘ R 3 T A z5 w2 z5
g T ‘ C z5 // . t-t .
To fill it up. It is not deep and gross. It receives and one takes out. 2You may
change, gather, hide, collect, and circulate it. 3It is at yours disposal for money. It is
good, strong, 4great.
1 2
l , *li, in order to, for, preposition, cf. above, M L a6, *mala’a, to fill, sw.:
mala’a, W
َ َ, emplir, remplir, w2, *wa, and, y L l, *yalala, it is gross and not deep, sw.:
yalal, ٍ?6َ , court, bref et épais, l g d, *lağada, it receives and one takes out, sw.: lağada,
َ َXَ9, manger, dévorer,
t h5 l, *tahālu, you may change, sw.: hāla, ‫ل‬
َ َ., changer et passer d’un bon état
à un mauvais, T d t2, *tadūt, gather, sw.: dawwata, َ‫ط‬#? َ4, II, rassembler, réunir, h5 h5,
2 2
*hāha, hide, sw.: ahaha, ‫خ‬
َ َ8‫َأ‬, IV, se dérober aux regards, être cache, d t2, cf. before: T
d t2, t2‘ R, *tāra, let circulate, sw.: tāra, ‫َ َر‬C, faire le tour, circuler,
3
T A, * tā‘a, sw.: tā‘a, ‫ع‬
َ َ , obéir à quelqu’un, être à sa disposition, z5 w2 z5, *zūz,
money, denarius, cf. above, the letter at Glozel has only two parallel strokes like the
letter at Ugarit, g T, *gād, it is good, sw.: ğāda, ‫َ َد‬1, être bon, excellent, ‘ C z5, *‘azīz,
strong, cf. above, 2. titles. The writer uses the old Greek sigma to indicate the sibilant.
4
t t, *tāta, great, sw.: tāt, ً‫ َط‬, grand, long, haut, brave, hardi.
8: Stamps. Cf. 2, 3rd group, hill, and already 7.4. Stamps are often on ceramic
objects for wine, later mainly on high quality ware as ceramic sigillate. Some
inscriptions seem to be engraved by the potter.
8.1: q z2, *qas, potter, nw.: q s, manufacturer of cups. Cf. above for p t, pitos,
vessel. The Greek minuscule pi, is also used on the cup, 5.2.
8.2: The Greek inscription shows a second handwriting and the note: “made in
Gerona” indicates a remark of the potter, cf. H. Sauren, 2008, 59. The older writing
shows: n s i, *nisā’, we go out, nw.: y s ’ , to go out, to leave, p l q t a, *plaqa, place, cf.
the placa in Athens.
8.3: The stamp could be completed by the two half. Cf. for the verb s ’ , to go
out, 8.2, the sweet wine is cited above, 3.7, š a5 a6, *ša’a, to distribute, sw.: ša‘‘a, . َ/,
répandre ça et là.
8.4: B. 1.351, B. 1.352 a, B. 1.352 b, fragmentary, are dolia vessels, equal in
form. B. 1.352 adds a decoration line in zigzag above and below the script. The stamp
indicates that the dolium contains wine for the m l2 h, > *malich > *malik, king. The
phonetic writing is also attested at Liria, Edeta, H. Sauren, 2005, 532-533. Another
phonetic writing is more frequent: m l g, *maliğ > malik, king. Small kingdoms were
tolerated by the Romans, when the king collaborated; cf. the kingdom of Judea,
Palmyra, in the Near East. Kingdoms with a Semite king are attested in the south of
Spain since the 6th century BC.
The varieties of wine inscribed are: B. 1.351,‘ z, *azīz, strong, sw.: ‘azīz, )ً ِ)َ ,
rare précieux, strong. Cf. also, C. 2.52, E. 2.1. It seems that fortified wine has been
prepared as today the Porto and Madeira, B. 1.352: t R š, *tiroš, new wine, wine yet in
the first stadium of fermentation. Nw.: t r š1, must, new wine.
8.5: K. 1.8, Museum, Zaragoza, 7432, ‘ p g, *’afiq, best quality, sw.: ’afīq, 0
ً ِ+‫َأ‬,
excellent, de qualité supérieure, nw. : ’ p q, the brave ones. The letters form a
cryptogram, or a kind of monogram, joining the letters and not writing on a line. It
seems therefore to serve as a stamp, identification of the factory of the potter.
We would consider the writing on a painted “kalathos” as ruining the object.
But, it seems that the people accepted the ancient writing as something antic and
precious, perhaps already without understanding the meaning.
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