Student Accessibility Centre University of New Brunswick

Transcription

Student Accessibility Centre
University of New Brunswick
Accessibility Guidebook
2008
Acknowledgements
This guidebook was compiled as an updated and revised version of the Student
Accessibility Centre’s original Faculty Guide to Accessibility. This effort was
funded through the Government of Canada’s Department of Human Resource
and Skills Development Canada, as part of the Office of Learning Technology’s
support of the University of New Brunswick’s Successful Transition to
Employment Program (STEP).
The collaborative efforts of many individuals were employed in the creation of
this guidebook, with special thanks to Gavin Kotze for his invaluable assistance.
University of New Brunswick
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Table of Contents
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
Preface ........................................................................................................ 4
Introduction ................................................................................................... 5
The UNB Student Accessibility Centre.......................................................... 5
Responsibilities ............................................................................................. 6
General Information for Instructors ............................................................... 8
Faculty Guide for Accommodating Specific Disabilities .............................. 12
Exam Information for Instructors and Students ........................................... 26
Successful Transition to Employment Program (STEP)..................................
Glossary..........................................................................................................
Resources and Works Cited ...........................................................................
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I. Preface
This guidebook has been developed to assist students, faculty and staff in
understanding the principles of disability accommodation, as well as the
procedures practiced by the Student Accessibility Centre in advocating for and
supporting students with disabilities. The guide offers suggestions for techniques
of instruction and accommodation that will help students achieve their full
potential. Above all, this guidebook calls on all stakeholders to approach tasks
with a positive attitude. We are not alone in our desire to assist persons with
disabilities in their search for independence, self-respect, and hope for a better
future. It is reassuring to know that there are many government and private
agencies, as well as informed individuals, who are ready to help.
Whether these statistics indicate an increase in the prevalence of specific
disabilities in western society, or advances in reporting and identification
procedures, there is an increasing awareness of the need to structure education
systems around the diverse needs represented in North American classrooms.
Statistics Canada’s Participation and Activity Limitation Survey (2007) reports
that over 4.4 million non-institutionalized Canadians have a disability. This figure
represents 14.3% of Canada’s general population; up from a reported 3.6 million
individuals with disabilities in Statistics Canada’s 2001 census figures. With the
closing of separate schools and institutions for individuals with special needs in
the 1980s, and the full integration of students with disabilities into the public
school system, the number of students with disabilities entering the university
community will continue to grow. The Canadian Council on Social Development
states that more than one third of Canadians with a disability have graduated
from a post-secondary institution (Faba, 2008). The rate at which Canadians
with disabilities graduate with a university degree climbed from 10% in 1999 to
13% in 2004. For people without disabilities, the same upward trend was
exhibited, as the rate went from 17% to 21% (Government of Canada, 2006).
Adults with disabilities have the right to live a full and meaningful life. All learners
require appropriate education and training to meet their individual needs in order
to maximize future productivity and independence.
During the last decade, universities and colleges across Canada have worked
with students with disabilities to establish and promote educational
accommodations that are appropriate for postsecondary settings. In the following
sections, disabilities as deafness and hardness of hearing, learning disabilities,
blindness and visual impairments, mobility impairments, psychological/psychiatric
disorders, and other disabilities will be discussed. Accompanying the descriptions
will be lists of reasonable accommodations for classroom and lab settings, as
well as suggestions on test and exam formats and procedures that will facilitate
learning for students with disabilities. Only those accommodations that have
been widely accepted for use by postsecondary institutions in North America
have been included.
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These accommodations are intended to help students with disabilities to have an
equal chance to participate and learn in a postsecondary setting. They should
not be considered nor used to lower academic standards.
II. Introduction
The University of New Brunswick is committed to the equitable treatment of
students with disabilities. In May 1996, the UNB Senate demonstrated this
commitment by adopting the following statement:
While all students are expected to satisfy the requirements for
courses and programs, the administration, faculty and staff at UNB
are expected to provide reasonable accommodation to meet the
needs of students with disabilities. Reasonable accommodation is
the use of originality and flexibility in adjusting to particular needs; it
is not to be interpreted as the lowering of academic standards.
Reasonable accommodations may include such things as special
seating, wheelchair accessible tables, adjustments to lighting or
ventilation, use of a computer, digital recorder or FM system, and
extended time for tests or exams.
This statement recognizes the responsibility of the student to identify his or her
specific needs for which accommodation is requested; it also recognizes the role
of the university to preserve, as much as possible, the confidentiality and privacy
of students' affairs; and finally it recognizes the joint effort of student and
university needed to create and support an environment where students with
disabilities will have the opportunity to attain academic and personal success.
III. The UNB Student Accessibility Centre
The Student Accessibility Centre exists to provide services and resources to
assist students who have disability-related needs.
Accommodations are
intended to help students with disabilities have an equal chance to participate
and learn in a post-secondary setting, and should never be considered nor used
to lower academic standards.
Services
The Student Accessibility Centre provides an array of services to support
students with disabilities, both visible and invisible, during their academic
experiences at UNB. Services include:
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Alternative media to support exceptional needs and individual learning
styles
Design of academic and classroom accommodations
Assistance with applying for the Canada Study Grant for students with
permanent disabilities
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Access to assistive technology, advocacy, and support
Mentoring services for students with transition needs
Special arrangements or accommodations for tests and exams
Students with specific, documented needs related to a disability may be provided
with exam accommodations, such as a separate location or extended time for
exam completion. Procedures and regulations related to exam accommodations
are found in Section 10: Exam Information for Instructors or Students. Up-todate information on exam procedures can be accessed online at the Student
Accessibility Centre website, www.unbf.ca/studentaccessibility/.
The Student Accessibility Centre also supports faculties and instructors through
consultation around issues related to disabilities, classroom accommodations,
and instructional design.
The Centre does not undertake the following procedures:
 Advising on specific, program-related course selection
 Proofreading assignments
 Formal diagnoses requiring psychological assessment
 General Student Loan and financial advising
 Exam accommodation or invigilation for students without documented
disabilities or accessibility needs.
Resources
The Centre provides registered students with access to the following resources:
 Small computer lab equipped with various assistive technologies
 Large screen computer monitors
 Visual aids and learning disability software
 Onsite technical assistance
 Book magnification via CCTV
 Text scanner for use with audible visual aid software
 Digital recorders
 NCR carbon paper notepads
 Support and counsel related to transition needs
IV. Responsibilities
Although it is understood that students with disabilities may learn in unique ways,
require the use of specialized equipment, or receive other accommodations
specific to their disabilities, they are expected to maintain the same academic
standards as students without disabilities. The University offers various services
and resources to assist students who have disability-related needs. An
appointment with a staff member of the Student Accessibility Centre, well in
advance of the beginning of classes if possible, will contribute greatly toward a
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smooth transition to university life and to the successful completion of a
university degree.
The Student Accessibility Centre does not seek out students with disabilities, but
will respond to student requests for information and support. Therefore, students
with disabilities are encouraged to contact the Centre to ensure that they are
receiving the support and accommodations available to them. All requests are
treated confidentially. If special arrangements are expected or required by
students, it is essential to confirm in advance which services and resources are
actually available prior to arrival on campus to start the academic year.
Students will be required to provide the Centre with documentation of their
disability. This information will be stored in a confidential file at the Centre.
Information or clarification regarding a student’s request for accommodation will
be provided to faculties by the Student Accessibility Centre only upon
authorization of the student.
If students have a documented need for extended time to write tests or exams,
they must register with the Student Accessibility Centre, complete a Request for
Accommodated Examination Form, and return it to the Centre at least one week
prior to the scheduled examination. Exams will not be scheduled until the form
has been signed by the instructor and returned to the Centre. (See VI, Exam
Information for Instructors and Students).
The Centre will act as a resource to faculties and students and will respond to
requests as time and resources permit. Primary responsibilities carried out by the
Centre include:
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Meeting with students to discuss accessibility and accommodation needs.
Verifying disabilities through review of documentation provided by the
student.
Maintaining confidential files on individual students. The documentation
provided by students regarding their disabilities will not be released except
by student request.
Conducting academic assessments on behalf of students who have clear
indicators of challenge.
Providing, at the request of the student and/or instructor, a separate
testing location and exam invigilation.
Making arrangements for the timely delivery (within 48 hours) of
completed exams, and ensuring that all exam materials are kept in a
secure facility. Faculty members (or their delegates) are also welcome to
pick up completed exams from the Centre if they so wish.
Providing information and support for applications for Canada Study
Grants for the Accommodation of Students with Permanent Disabilities.
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V. General Information for Instructors
Instructor Responsibilities
It is the responsibility of the instructor to be aware of the university regulations
and Senate guidelines pertaining to students with disabilities. Further, it is
expected that all possible attempts to meet the individual needs of the student
will be made, and that faculty will work with the student and the Student
Accessibility Centre to put in place necessary accommodations. Where exam
accommodations are appropriate, it is the responsibility of the instructor to
ensure timely delivery of exams to the Centre. (See VI, Exam Information for
Instructors and Students).
The staff members of the Student Accessibility Centre are available to instructors
for consultation, and will make every attempt to answer questions and concerns
that may arise.
Attitude
Key components for the successful teaching of adults with disabilities are
maintaining a positive attitude and keeping an open mind. Fear of dealing with
the unknown is a common reaction. Yet, the experience of working with students
with exceptional needs can be truly rewarding. Technical aids may be necessary
and are available, but positive thinking is always a must.
All students have individual strengths and weaknesses. Uniqueness should be
stressed, rather than differences. Instructors who approach their tasks with
patience, imagination, and flexibility; and who have the ability to create a climate
of trust and openness, will generally have greater success in instructing students
who have disabilities.
People First
If we focus on the person rather than the disability, we will:
 Make reference to the person first, then the disability
 Avoid the use of nouns as adjectives to categorize (for example, not the
"wheelchair student;" but rather the "student who uses a wheelchair")
 Avoid negative connotations or attitudes
 Highlight the individual and his or her accomplishments or uniqueness;
stress an individual's ability, rather than the disability
 Understand that a person who has a disability is not necessarily
chronically sick or unhealthy.
Effective Teaching
In any given class of students, there will be a wide range of aptitudes, talents,
and abilities, which all contribute to the challenge of teaching. With all students,
before learning can take place, consideration must be given to individual
differences. With the broad range of abilities and learning styles that exists in
post-secondary classrooms, it is impossible to provide specific teaching
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strategies to fit each and every situation. However, there are general suggestions
that are based on effective techniques of instruction that can encourage
instructors to be innovative in devising ways to meet new challenges.
The following is a list of well-documented better teaching practices that are useful
in numerous teaching and learning contexts.
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Be willing to be innovative.
Stress accuracy rather than speed.
Take an interest in individual students. Often, a student who is
experiencing difficulty will hesitate to ask for help. Arrange office hours for
individual meetings and get to know students better.
Make sure that the student knows what is expected and what you are
going to contribute to their growth and development.
When communicating with students, use a person-to-person approach.
Try to be as specific as possible, using concrete terms and avoiding
abstractions. Whenever possible, extend sincere and honest praise, a vital
factor in helping to develop individual worth and self-esteem for those who
have disabilities.
When asking students to respond to directions, be specific.
Encourage questions from the class, and always ask if clarification is
necessary on certain points. If there are confused faces, please respond.
If possible, instead of giving lengthy assignments to be completed over
long periods, divide the work into smaller sections, to be done in shorter
periods of time. Be flexible in time allotments. Numerous units of
evaluation allow for adequate feedback throughout the course, and enable
students to adapt to instructor expectations and standards.
Check frequently on the progress of assignments.
Ensure that objectives are clear, and that directions are explicit and
sequential.
Attempt to involve multiple senses in the learning process, a
methodological approach proven to increase retention and engagement.
Planning Lectures or Labs
 Introduce new ideas or materials in a manner that leads from the simple to
the complex.
 Relate new material to what the student already knows.
 Give sequential, organized lectures.
 Allow time for note-taking, and for technical aids to be adjusted.
 Consider the use of web-based technology to organize course materials.
Most students, with and without disabilities, benefit from the provision of
handouts or lecture outlines.
 Reintroduce important points at frequent intervals.
 Make reference to important sections in the textbook.
 Review class material as frequently as possible.
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Universal Instructional Design
Traditionally, educators have “managed” diversity in the classroom by providing
students with exceptional needs with accommodations. Such accommodations
are designed to level the playing field for students with disabilities and learning
challenges, and include such products and services as assistive technology,
extra time for the completion of assignments and tests, aides and attendants,
scribes, note-takers, and alternate assessment formats. In many cases, the
process of accommodating students with disabilities is visible and apparent to
others in the class, contributing to a sense of exclusion among those with
exceptionalities.
The concept of universal instructional design (UID) “maximizes usability of
products, services and environments for everyone….people with disabilities and
without. The idea is that with universal design, only a small minority of students
will need “special” accommodations – those who cannot use even universally
designed instruction” (Bowe, 2000, p.2). Minimizing the need for individuallydesigned accommodated assignments, tests and learning environments based
on specific challenges not only addresses the stigma of students with disabilities
having to accomplish tasks differently, but also enhances the learning
environment by providing choice to students with diverse learning styles and
preferences.
Sometimes referred to as universal design for instruction, this approach to
teaching “consists of the proactive design and use of inclusive instructional
strategies that benefit a broad range of learners, including students with
disabilities (Scott, McGuire & Embry, 2002 in McGuire et al., 2003, p. 11). While
this approach is beginning to make advances among universities and other
postsecondary institutions, primary and secondary educational systems have yet
to adopt the principles of UID with any consistency.
The move toward more universally designed learning environments in
universities and colleges has occurred as a result of the increasingly inclusive
composition of secondary classrooms, and the growing trend toward students
with disabilities attending postsecondary institutions (Scott et al., 2003). The
American Council on Education acknowledged this trend in 2000, reporting that
close to two-thirds of students identified as “at risk” persevere to postsecondary
study. This reality has led to formal initiatives at many North American
universities designed to reflect a new paradigm in postsecondary education,
described by researchers at the University of Connecticut as one requiring that
“faculty anticipate student diversity in the classroom and intentionally incorporate
inclusive teaching practices. The….model shifts the primary responsibility for
providing equal educational access from retrofitted accommodations….to the
proactive consideration and use of inclusive teaching strategies identified by
college faculty” (Scott et al., 2003). Similarly, the University of Minnesota’s
Disability Services unit has adapted Chickering and Gamson's Seven Principles
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for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education (first published in a 1987
American Association for Higher Education Bulletin) to reflect this new model
(University of Minnesota, 2008).
Applying the Principles of UID
The following information, adapted from materials created at the University of
Guelph (2003), provides direction to faculty members interested in applying the
principals of UID to their own course development and classroom environments.
Universal instructional design (UID) involves considering the potential needs of
all learners when designing and delivering instruction. This educational paradigm
strives to identify and eliminate unnecessary barriers to teaching and learning
while maintaining academic rigour. UID evolved from the concept of universal
design in the physical world, where domains such as architecture and industrial
design have identified key goals for their products, including flexibility,
consistency, accessibility, explicitness, and supportiveness. UID applies these
same principles to teaching and learning.
Universal instructional design goes beyond accessibility, reflecting on how to
maximize learning for students of all backgrounds and learner preferences while
minimizing the need for special accommodations. This approach promotes
learner-centeredness, enhances learning for all students, and creates conditions
conducive for learning. Instructors should review courses, texts, schedules,
other aspects of education, asking such questions as:
 Is it necessary to present the bulk of course material via speech? Printed
text?
 Can material be presented in multiple modes to address the preferred
learning styles and abilities of multiple learners?
 Is evaluation fair, equitable, and meaningful?
The principles of UID describe how instructional materials and activities should
be accessible and fair, flexible, straightforward and consistent, and explicit. A
well designed learning environment should be supportive, minimize unnecessary
physical effort, and accommodate students through multiple teaching methods.
Instructors should develop an inclusive syllabus statement and highlight it
verbally the first day of class. This is a powerful way to communicate to students
with disabilities that the class will be accessible, and that the instructor is aware
of and sensitive to student needs and learning styles.
Instructors should ensure that expectations are clearly laid out in the course
syllabus; provide regular and frequent feedback; and use grading rubrics, work
plans and student self-assessments to encourage thoughtful, careful attention to
assignment expectations. Instructors can also provide a variety of ways for
students to demonstrate knowledge, including the development of teaching units,
websites, anthologies/annotated bibliographies, community research projects,
photo or acoustic essays, video documentaries, and other creative means.
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Inclusive Language and Reference Terms for People with Disabilities
(Adapted from Brock University)
Use
Child with a disability
Person with cerebral palsy
Person who has….
Without Speech
Developmental delay
Emotional disorder or mental illness
Of short stature
Uses a wheelchair
Person with epilepsy
Has manic depression
Person with Down Syndrome
Person with a Learning Disability
Non-disabled
Has a physical disability
Congenital Disability
Condition
Seizures
Cleft Lip
Person with mobility impairment
Medically involved or chronic illness
Paralyzed
Person with hemiplegia
Person with quadriplegia
Person with paraplegia
Deaf or hearing impaired and
communicates with sign
Blind or visually impaired
Instead Of
Disabled or handicapped child
Palsied, or C.P. or spastic
Afflicted, suffers from, victim
Mute, or dumb
Slow
Crazy or insane
Dwarf or midget
Confined to a wheelchair
Epileptic
Manic-depressive
Mongoloid
Is learning disabled
Normal, healthy, able-bodied
Crippled
Birth defect
Disease
Fits
Hare lip
Lame
Sickly
Invalid or paralytic
Hemiplegic
Quadriplegic
Paraplegic
Deaf and dumb
Afflicted with blindness
VI. Faculty Guide for Accommodating Specific Disabilities
Generally, no student will require or expect to receive all of the accommodations
presented for each area of disability. The following lists are presented as
acceptable options for reasonable accommodations. As a first step, ask students
what accommodations they need or require.
All students have very
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individualized learning styles. Even students who appear to have the same
disability may require quite different accommodations in order to learn.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurological disorder that
interferes with a student's ability to sustain attention. Other characteristics may
include impulsivity, restlessness, and distractibility. Students sharing a diagnosis
of ADHD may have differing areas of difficulty. Some students may have difficulty
sustaining attention for long periods of time (for example listening to lectures),
while others may have more difficulty self-monitoring or checking their work,
resulting in a high rate of careless errors.
Many students who are diagnosed with ADHD may also have a learning
disability. It is estimated that between 30 and 40% of persons with ADHD also
have a learning disability (see the Learning Disabilities section in the Glossary for
more information).
Recommended Strategies
 Students should be encouraged to sit near the primary area of instruction
to minimize auditory and visual distracters.
 Potential misunderstandings can be avoided if the student and instructor
meet to discuss the impact that the disorder may have on the student's
academic performance.
 Students should be provided with clear instructions on assignments and
labs with due dates clearly indicated.
 Many students will benefit from the provision of lecture outlines, or by
having another student duplicate notes. NCR notepads can be acquired
from the Centre for this purpose.
Tests/Exam Accommodations
 Test/exam instructions should be clear and presented clearly and explicitly
in an uncluttered format.
 Students may benefit from writing tests and exams in a separate location
to minimize distracters.
 Some students may require the use of a computer to compensate for
associated learning challenges.
 Oral testing may be considered an acceptable option in some cases.
Students with Blindness or Low Vision
Over 75% of all persons with blindness have some usable vision. Therefore, the
term blindness should be reserved for those with no sight at all, whereas the term
visual impairment better describes those people who are partially sighted. A
person who is designated legally blind can see, even with the best correction
possible, less at 20 feet than can a person with normal vision at 200 feet. The
designation also applies to one whose field of vision is limited to a narrow angle,
usually less than 20 degrees. Visual acuity figures, however, are not an
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indication of how functional a person may be. For example, one person may be
able to read regular print material by bringing it closer to the eyes; another
person may use a magnifier; and still another may use larger print or Braille
materials.
There are varying degrees and types of blindness and low vision. The spectrum
spans from difficulty reading regular print, to tunnel vision, to total blindness. The
instructor must be prepared to provide any written materials (i.e. syllabi,
handouts) in advance or in digital format. Most students will use a combination
of methods to access printed information such as large print, digitally recorded
books and lectures, screen readers, or Braille books. Modern technology has
made other aids available for persons who are blind or have low vision, such as
talking calculators, paperless Braille machines, Braille computer terminals and
text reading software.
There is considerable variability in the types of accommodations that people who
are blind or have low vision find useful. Therefore, please consult with the
student on what supports they may require.
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Inform students of assigned texts before courses begin, to allow time for
electronic textbooks to be ordered.
Discuss seating arrangements with the student at the beginning of the
term. Take into consideration the desk arrangements in relation to the
instructor and other students.
Give handouts and manuals to the student as soon as possible so the
materials can be enlarged, translated to Braille or digitally translated to
voice. Where possible, provide digital copies of handouts.
Provide time for mobility and orientation. This will enable the student to
move within the classroom independently.
When giving directions to someone who is blind, use descriptive words
and phrases such as “straight,” “forward,” “left,” “three doors down on the
right.” Be very specific in direction changes. For example, instead of
descriptors such as "over there"; use directions such as "to the left ... on
top of the desk".
Do not rearrange or touch the person's desk. Consistency in the physical
arrangement is important. If you do make changes to classroom
configuration, inform the student with a visual impairment.
Identify yourself when speaking to the person. This gives the student a
chance to link your voice, name, and relationship.
It is acceptable to use words and phrases such as "look", "watch", and "I'm
glad to see you."
Incorporate oral information into your teaching techniques as much as
possible.
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Repeat what is written on the board and spell new words out loud. Be
aware of verbal descriptions that may confuse the student; e.g. "this
number added to that number gives you 27".
When equipment is to be used, describe both equipment and usage
procedures verbally.
Allow for tactile exploration of the classroom environment.
Allow ample time for assignments to be completed.
Strongly consider making copies of your class notes and outlines as well
as overhead materials presented in class for use by the student who has a
visual impairment. If this is not possible, ask for another member of the
class to volunteer to share their notes. In this way, students with visual
impairments can arrange to have the notes translated to alternative media.
Use large, legible print on the whiteboard or on an overhead projector.
Advise students that assistive technology, large-screen monitors, NCR
notepads, visual aid software and book magnification via CCTV are
available at the Student Accessibility Centre.
Information written on the board or overheads should be read out loud
clearly and precisely.
A guide dog may accompany some students who are blind. Since these
dogs are highly trained and disciplined, they will not disrupt class. As
tempting as it may be to pet a guide dog, the dog is responsible for
guiding its owner who cannot see, and should not be distracted from that
duty.
When offering a seat to the student, place the student’s hand on the back
or arm of the seat and allow the student to seat him or herself.
Clear pathways of obstructions.
 Depending on the type of test, answers can be recorded on the answer
sheet by the reader, or by having the student digitally record answers.
 Allow the student and the reading assistant to work where they will not be
disturbed by others and where they will not disturb others.
 Allow the reading assistant to repeat the test items as many times as
necessary. This is no different from a sighted student re-reading the
question.
 Students who are partially sighted may choose to use a print magnifier to
help them with the tests.
 Consider administering the test in a one-to-one situation.
 Up to time-and-a-half may be allowed for the completion of alternate
format tests and exams.
 The Student Accessibility Centre provides invigilation and assistance for
accommodated exams.
Students who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing
Because so much learning in the classroom takes place through hearing,
academic environments can be challenging and sometimes frustrating for the
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student with deafness or hardness of hearing. How a person is affected by a
hearing loss depends on the age at which the loss occurred and the degree or
range of the hearing loss. If a person is born deaf, they will have never heard the
spoken word, but may be able to respond to vibrations or loud noises. If the
person has speech, instructors may initially need to listen intently; but gradually
they will adapt to the speaking style and it will be easier to understand. If the
hearing loss occurred after the age of five (after language and speech have
already been acquired), the person's speech is likely to be more developed and
will be easier to understand. The degree of hearing loss may range from mild to
profound.
Some common communication strategies used by people with deafness are
speech reading, sign language, interpretation services, finger-spelling, and
writing. Not all individuals with deafness can read speech, and even a practiced
speech reader can understand only approximately 30 to 40 percent of what is
being said.
Amplification systems assist many people who are hard of hearing; however, one
should not assume that the presence of a hearing aid restores normal hearing. A
hearing aid amplifies sound, and if background noise is present during speech,
the hearing aid will amplify both the background noise and the spoken word.
Persons who are deaf or hard of hearing will rely heavily upon information
presented visually. Because processing visual information takes more time than
processing auditory information, be prepared to allow the student extra time.
Not all students who are deaf or hard of hearing need the same
accommodations, so please ask the student which accommodations they require
rather than making assumptions. The following provides a sampling of potential
strategies:
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Give the student preferential seating in an area with low background noise
levels.
Talk directly to the student, speaking naturally and clearly.
When others in the room speak (e.g. students asking questions), repeat
the question or comment and indicate who is speaking so that the student
with the hearing impairment can follow the discussion.
Avoid speaking with your back to the class.
Allow the student to share notes with a classmate or to record the
lectures.
Utilize technology to post lecture notes on a website.
Provide the student with assignments in written form, or post them on the
class website.
Be aware that speech reading is easier when you are not sitting or
standing directly in front of a light source.
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Be aware that students with hearing impairments may need to watch you
intently and at a close range in order to read visual cues. It is important
that you don't look away – the person may think the conversation is over.
Provide interpreters with written material prior to the course or lecture.
 Students who are deaf or hard of hearing may be able to take
examinations and be evaluated in the same way as other students. Do not
make assumptions; ask the student what accommodations they have
found to be successful.
 Additional time may be required to finish written tests and exams.
accommodated exams.
 Interpreters may be needed for those students who use sign language and
wish to complete tests or exams orally.
Students who have Learning Disabilities
Learning disabilities have no relation to intelligence; however, a person with a
learning disability may be performing significantly below expected ability in one or
more academic areas. A person with a learning disability may have difficulty
collecting, sorting, storing, and expressing information. Each student who has a
learning disability will have a combination of strengths and weaknesses that,
when examined together, will present different learning profiles. Documentation
of a learning disability is required not only to establish the need for individual
services, but also to determine the individual nature of the necessary services.
While learning disabilities cannot be "cured," their impact can be ameliorated by
academic accommodations and by learning compensatory strategies. In general,
instructors who use a variety of instructional modes will enhance the success of
students with learning disabilities.
Since each person with a learning disability is unique, students themselves can
provide valuable information regarding the type of academic adaptations that
work best for them. By the time they reach university, students with learning
disabilities may have many workable strategies for acquiring and processing
information. For example, they may use a computer or word processor to help
with written language and/or spelling, a day-timer to help remember
appointments, or a note-taker for class notes.
Not all people with learning disabilities are affected in the same way. Most will
use a combination of learning strategies to compensate for their disabilities. Ask
the student what works best. Potential strategies include:
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Inform students of assigned texts before courses begin, to allow time for
electronic textbooks to be ordered.
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Offer alternative assignments to the student where appropriate, e.g. an
oral report in place of a written paper (see section V, Universal
Instructional Design ).
Help the student to organize by listing schedules of assignments and due
dates for your class.
Be flexible, but do not feel that you must lower academic standards.
Begin lectures and discussions with a review from the last class and an
overview or outline of the topics to be covered. Provide opportunities for
questioning of material presented.
Use a whiteboard or overhead projector to highlight key components or
difficult terminology, and to outline lecture material. Emphasize these
points orally in lectures.
Allow students to use mechanical devices such as digital recorders,
calculators, word processors and computers.
Utilize technology to post notes and assignments on a class website.
Allow students to record lectures or share notes with a classmate.
Be sensitive to the fact that these students may have difficulty completing
oral readings in class.
Notify students of changes in course outlines and tests, or class
requirements not listed on syllabi.
For persons with visual sequencing difficulty (difficulty seeing things in the
correct order; for example, seeing numbers or letters reversed), verbally
reinforce what is written.
For persons with auditory memory difficulty (difficulty remembering names,
specific facts and numbers, or appointments), write instructions in
checklist form. Reinforce auditory cues with visual cues.
Ensure student attention when giving important information. Often, saying
"What I am going to say is important," will encourage the person to focus
attention on you.
Express yourself directly. Avoid hints or nonverbal signals.
Demonstrate the way to do a job and always give directions in sequential
steps.
Encourage the student to utilize the onsite technical assistance and
mentoring support available at the Student Accessibility Centre.
Test/Exam Accommodations
It is essential that evaluation of student work is based on the acquisition of the
knowledge taught, and not on the individual's ability to read or write.
 After a review of the student's documentation, he or she may be approved
to complete exams in a separate location,
 Allow tests to be taped or read to the student.
 Test directions should be clear, direct and given in sequential order. Avoid
asking questions with difficult sentence structure or embedded meanings.
 Time extensions on exams and written assignments may be required
when there are significant demands for reading and writing skills.
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Permit the use of tools such as calculators, spellcheckers, or other
materials that will assist students with learning disorders.
Allow the student to use a reader, word processor, or digital recorder
where appropriate.
Consider alternative test designs. For example, some students with
learning disabilities may find essay formats difficult; students with visual
perceptual problems may have trouble with tests requiring them to visually
match different items. Vary the exam format to accommodate the student's
individual learning style; for example, provide an essay test instead of an
objective test, or vice versa. Allow for oral, written or combination tests.
Remember you are varying the format, not lowering standards. (See
section V, Universal Instructional Design.)
Consider alternate or supplementary assignments to evaluate a student's
mastery of the course material. Recorded interviews, slide presentations,
photographic essays or handmade models may lead to more accurate
measures of the student's knowledge.
Students who have Mobility Impairments / Physical Disabilities
Physical disabilities involve the partial or total loss of function of a body part,
usually a limb or limbs. This may result in muscle weakness, poor stamina, lack
of muscle control, or total paralysis. Many individuals with physical disabilities
use wheelchairs for mobility; others can walk with the aid of canes, braces,
crutches, or walkers. Using these devices allows the person to move about more
quickly and to conserve energy. The need for adaptation varies among
individuals with physical disabilities. Therefore, the individual should be
consulted regarding the area and extent of adaptation needed. Some people with
physical disabilities are either 1) unable to write, 2) fatigue quickly while writing,
or 3) write more slowly than other students.
Most persons with a mobility impairment will answer legitimate questions, such
as "How do you manage the equipment?" or "Do you use the equipment in any
special way?" A non-legitimate question is curiosity-based and usually borders
on the personal, such as "How long have you been in a wheelchair?" or "Are you
able to have children?" Terms such as "walk", "run", "have a seat", or "stand
there" are acceptable.
 Maximize the physical accessibility of the classroom/lecture hall by
keeping it uncluttered.
 Note-taking is an important but occasionally impossible task, due to
paralysis or tremors in the hands, arms, or fingers. Students in the class
should be asked if one or two of them would volunteer to share their
notes. Volunteer note-takers may use no-carbon-required (NCR) pads
(available at the Centre), or photocopy their notes for the student with a
disability. If possible, note-taker proficiency should be verified by the
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instructor at the beginning of the course. The student may also wish to
record the lectures to act as a back-up source of information for the notes.
If a field trip is a requirement of the course, arrangements should be made
to allow the student with mobility impairment to participate. Where
participation is not possible or advisable, instructors should provide an
alternate way for the student to meet the field trip requirements. The
student who uses a wheelchair should be asked to participate in the
selection of sites and modes of transportation. If the class provides
transportation for field trips, an accessible mode of transportation must be
provided for the student with a disability.
Accommodating a student with mobility impairment in a laboratory setting
might necessitate modification to workstations, such as the use of a ramp
or platform so that the student will be able to work at countertops in a
chemistry lab. Considerations may include counter height, horizontal
reach and aisle widths.
Most non-ambulatory students prefer to remain in their wheelchair rather
than risk injury attempting to transfer to a desk. This means that tables
with space clearance for wheelchairs should meet accessibility
requirements (these can be verified through Physical Plant). Some
students may only need a lap desk or a clipboard on which to write,
whereas others may need an accessible table. The Student Accessibility
Centre can arrange to have suitable desks transferred into classrooms
with notice prior to the beginning of the semester.
If a person has a muscle spasm in the leg, the leg may start jerking, and
often just moving around may stop the spasm. There is nothing you can
do about curtailing the spasm. If you see the person's foot off the footrest
of the wheelchair, ask if assistance is needed in repositioning it.
Ask if the student needs assistance to open a door. If not, do not insist. If
so, go through the door first, then stand behind the opened door while the
student goes through. Do not hold the door open while you stand in the
door opening. This forces the student to go under you "London Bridge"
style, and may result in your toes being crushed.
Allow the student to board an elevator first and permit turn-around room.
When unloading, remain behind and hold the "open" button. Allow the
student to leave first. Do not hold your arms across the elevator doors in
an attempt to keep them open. This does not permit the individual enough
room to manoeuvre.
If breaks between classes are short (10 minutes or less), the student who
uses a wheelchair may frequently be a few minutes late. Students often
have to wait for an elevator, manoeuvre through crowded hallways, or
take a circuitous route to class. If the student is frequently late and it
disrupts class, the instructor should discuss the situation with the student
to seek a solution.
Students are not "confined" to wheelchairs; the wheelchair offers physical
freedom that might not be possible otherwise. Some students who use
wheelchairs can walk with the aid of canes, crutches, or walkers. For
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many, the wheelchair serves as a means to conserve energy or move
about quickly. Most students who use wheelchairs will ask for help if they
need it. Do not assume automatically that assistance is needed. Offer
assistance if you wish, but do not insist.
When talking to a student using a wheelchair, if the conversation
continues for more than a few minutes, sit down, kneel or move the
conversation to a location where you are at eye level with the student.
A wheelchair is part of the person's body space. Do not hang or lean on
the chair.
Students in wheelchairs may experience pain during outdoor activities.
Classmates are usually more than willing to give assistance. Most
students using wheelchairs do not get enough physical exercise and daily
activity; and it is particularly important that they be encouraged, as well as
provided the opportunity, to participate.
The following test-taking suggestions are recommended:
 Provide extra time to write tests and exams where mobility impairment
affects the examination process.
 Provide students with a recorder to record questions and/or answer
questions.
 Provide a scribe to record responses to tests or written reports.
 Consider other options such as take-home exams, oral exams, or tests
administered by an assistant.
accommodated exams.
Students with Hidden Disabilities
Many people have less visible chronic health disorders that cause difficulties with
daily functioning, including mobility. Disorders such as allergies, arthritis, asthma,
cancer, chronic fatigue syndrome, cystic fibrosis, diabetes, fibromyalgia,
ileitis/colitis, lupus, and seizure disorder can cause ongoing health problems
such as fatigue and nausea; but can also become acute, significantly impairing a
student's work performance for a few hours or several days.
Despite the best efforts of the student, these disorders may flare up and become
an acute problem, causing students to miss class and fail to hand in
assignments. The student may be asked to document the flare-up with a medical
certificate from their attending physician or rehabilitation professional.
Students may be reluctant to divulge information regarding their condition, but if
they wish to receive accommodations from instructors, they should be willing to
provide appropriate medical documentation to the Student Accessibility Centre.
Neither instructors nor students should hesitate to contact the Centre if there are
any concerns regarding student requests and how they should be met.
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If extreme fatigue is an issue, provide the student with extra time to
complete in-class work.
Onsite technical assistance is available from the Student Accessibility
Centre.
If note-taking is a challenge, NCR pads can be acquired from the Centre.
Mentoring arrangements can be made through the Centre.
 Test/exam instructions should be clear and presented visually in an
uncluttered format.
 Extended time, up to time-and-a-half, is available for exam completion if
recommended in the student's assessment.
 Some students may wish to use a computer to compensate for poor
handwriting.
 Oral testing should be considered an acceptable option.
accommodated exams.
Students with Speech Impairments
Speech impairments may be developmental or may be the result of illness or
injury. They may be found alone or in combination with other disabilities.
Impairments range from problems with articulation or vocal quality to being totally
nonverbal. Impairments may include stuttering, chronic hoarseness, difficulty in
invoking an appropriate word or term, and esophageal speech. Students with
speech impairments may require some minor adaptations in courses that rely on
class discussions, question/answer sessions, or student presentations.
Typical accommodations for a student with speech impairment may include:
 Increased writing; decreased speaking tasks
 Use of a voice output computer or other speech-generating technology.
 Provision of individual sessions to allow the student to clarify information
presented in class, since the student may be reluctant to speak in class.
Students Who Have Psychological or Mental Health Disabilities
This category of disability includes students who experience significant disruption
in their academic functioning due to psychological, psychiatric, emotional or
social factors. These can include anxiety, depression, bipolar disorder, affective
disorders, eating disorders, suicidal tendencies, stress disorders, and neurotic or
psychotic disorders. These difficulties may be acute or chronic.
Depression and anxiety are among the most common psychological impairments
of university students with disabilities. These types of disabilities may be
invisible or latent, with little or no effect on the student's learning. Even though
students with psychological impairments may not have direct learning problems,
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they may exhibit behavioural or emotional problems. It is important to remember,
when working with students with behavioral/emotional problems, that these
students may have as little control over their disabilities as students with a
physical impairment. Patience and understanding are key elements in working
with students with mental illness or challenges. Symptoms and difficulties
associated with these disorders often manifest themselves during more stressful
conditions, such as exam time.
The accommodations needed by these students will vary greatly from student to
student. Students may or may not be comfortable disclosing the nature of their
challenges with instructors. They must, however, provide the Student
Accessibility Centre with documentation supporting any request for
accommodation. When accommodations related to such disabilities are
recommended by the Student Accessibility Centre, instructors can be certain that
a thorough assessment and review of documentation has taken place.
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Students may need extended time to complete assignments.
Students are responsible for catching up on assignments following any
missed class time.
Instructors may consult with the Student Accessibility Centre regarding the
need for flexibility related to the format of course requirements.
Mentoring arrangements can be made at the Centre where necessary.
Instructors should provide reasonable consideration for absences and
lateness, as well as for fluctuating performance.
Provide assistance in developing a study schedule.
Allow the use of a note-taker or digital recorder.
 Extended time for writing tests/exams may be helpful.
 Alternate test locations may reduce anxiety and provide freedom from
distractions.
accommodated exams.
Seizure Disorder
Seizure Disorder is a condition that can be produced by a variety of organic or
chemical disorders or injuries affecting the brain, which in turn cause erratic or
uncontrolled electrical discharges within the nervous system. Anyone whose
nervous system is subjected to sufficient stimuli to generate an abnormal
electrical discharge can have a seizure. For example, certain drugs, toxic
substances or use of a strobe light can produce seizures. People with seizure
disorders simply have an abnormally low neural threshold for certain stimuli.
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Each person with seizure disorder must be viewed as an individual, rather than
being labelled as part of a general group. Seizure disorder does not affect an
individual's intellectual functioning. Most persons taking anti-convulsive drugs are
seizure free and can live and work normally.
What to do During a Seizure
 Do not try to restrain the person's movements or force them to drink.
 Do not place anything in the person's mouth. The person cannot swallow
their tongue.
 Move hard, sharp, or hot objects out of the person's reach.
 When convulsive movements have ceased, place the person on their side
ensuring that their head is facing to one side. This will ensure
unobstructed breathing. Do not be alarmed if the person having a seizure
appears not to be breathing momentarily.
 Do not try to revive the person. Let the seizure run its course.
 Record the details of the seizure, such as time of onset, length, and
behaviour.
 If a person seems to be having a series of seizures, or if one seizure lasts
longer than 10 minutes, call for medical attention.
 Following a seizure, the person may be sleepy and wish to lie down for a
short period of time.
 During some seizures, the bladder will release. Please be sensitive to the
student's situation, providing adequate covering and assistance following
the seizure.
 Discourage onlookers from gathering around the student during and after
the seizure.
If the seizure occurs in a public place or busy work area, keep curious
bystanders away. It is very uncomfortable for an individual to revive from a
seizure to face glaring stares.
Recommended Strategies:
The accommodations needed by students with seizure disorder will vary greatly
from student to student. Students may or may not be comfortable disclosing the
nature of their disorders with instructors. They must, however, provide the
Student Accessibility Centre with documentation supporting any request for
accommodation. When accommodations related to such disabilities are
recommended by the Centre, instructors can be assured that a thorough
assessment and review of documentation has taken place.
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Highly stressful situations can lead to an increased risk for seizures.
Students may need extended time to complete assignments.
Students are responsible for catching up on assignments following any
missed class time.
Instructors may consult with the Student Accessibility Centre regarding the
need for flexibility related to the format of course requirements.
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 Writing tests/exams in an alternate location is often beneficial in reducing
exam anxiety.
accommodated exams.
Students with Other Disabilities Affecting Endurance or Health
Cancer
Because cancer can occur almost anywhere in the body, the symptoms and
disabling effects will vary greatly among individuals. Some people experience
visual problems, joint pain, backaches, headaches, and other symptoms. The
primary treatments for cancer (radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and surgery)
may cause additional effects. Radiation treatment can cause nausea,
drowsiness, and fatigue, all of which may impact the student's academic
functioning or lead to absences.
Cerebral palsy
Cerebral palsy is caused by injury to the brain. This may have occurred before,
during, or shortly after birth. The injury results in disorders of posture or
movements.
Manifestations may include involuntary muscle control,
contractions, rigidity, spasms, imbalance or impaired spatial relations. Visual,
auditory, speech, hand function, convulsive disorders and mobility problems
might also occur.
Respiratory disorders
Many students have chronic breathing problems, the most common of which are
bronchial asthma and emphysema. Respiratory problems are characterized by
attacks of shortness of breath and difficulty breathing, sometimes triggered by
stress, either physical or mental. Fatigue and difficulty climbing stairs may also
be major problems. Frequent absences may occur and hospitalization may be
required when prescribed medication fails to relieve the symptoms.
Narcolepsy
Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder manifested by recurring onset of sleep, sudden
loss of muscle tone and sleep paralysis. Having this disorder can greatly impact
the learning process. Sleep can occur in an untimely manner and the desire to
sleep can be resisted only temporarily. Drug therapy has been useful in
regulating sleep attacks. The most important thing to remember when advising
this population of students is the careful planning of classes and exam times.
Traumatic Brain Injury
Students with traumatic brain injury are becoming increasingly prevalent on
college campuses. Students often exhibit one or more of the following
symptoms:
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Short-term memory problems
Serious attention deficits
Auditory dysfunction
Cognitive deficits
Unusual behaviours
Impaired judgment
Serious anxiety attacks.
Multiple Sclerosis
Multiple Sclerosis is an autoimmune disease and varies widely from individual to
individual. The most debilitating effect is fatigue. Students may seem well on
one day, but have difficulty with coordination, vision, balance, or cognition on
other days. Rooms that are very warm may exacerbate symptoms, as will
dehydration.
For these and other disabilities that affect endurance or general health, the
following are additional accommodations to consider:
 Reasonable consideration for absences or lateness where academically
practical
 Extended time for testing with allowances for breaks
 Recorded lectures or use of a note taker
 Provision of a series of short tests to replace long tests
 Alteration of time of day for exams due to fatigue or medication side effect
VII. Exam Information for Instructors and Students
In the spirit of UNB’s commitment to reasonable accommodation, students with
documented disabilities and/or learning challenges may be provided with a
separate location for examinations, as well as with extra time for completion
(where appropriate). Accommodated exams may employ the use of scribes for
students with writing disorders or challenges, readers for students with reading
disorders or visual impairment, or assistive technology to support individual
disabilities. The following describes the procedures followed by the Student
Accessibility Centre in the invigilation of accommodated examinations.
Accessibility Centre Exam Procedures
In order to provide exam accommodations to students in a responsible and
appropriate manner, and to protect the integrity of the examination setting, the
Student Accessibility Centre has developed the following exam procedures.
Student Notification
 Students are responsible for informing their instructors by the midpoint of
each term of their need for accommodated exams, and must complete a
Request for Accommodated Examination form listing dates for each exam
throughout the course. Instructors will be contacted by our Centre
concerning exams after student notification. Students will provide
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instructors with a Request for Accommodated Examination form, which is
to be signed and dated by the instructor, and returned to the Centre. This
form details the course name and number; name and contact information
of the instructor; directions on how to contact the instructor during the
exam should the student have questions; and the date and regular
duration and location of the exam(s).
The student returns the signed form to the Student Accessibility Centre in
order to schedule an onsite examination. Notification of the need for an
accommodated exam must be provided to the Accessibility Centre by the
student at least one week prior to the scheduled exam time.
Exam Delivery
 The Student Accessibility Centre contacts the instructor (or his/her
delegate) via email to make arrangements for exam delivery within 24
hours of the exam date.
 Exams and instructions can be forwarded to the Student Accessibility
Centre via email, to [email protected]. This email address is only accessed
by qualified staff at the Centre. Exams sent to [email protected] are printed
upon receipt, placed in a sealed envelope, and stored in a locked cabinet
until the exam is administered.
 Exams and instructions can be faxed to the Centre at 453-4765, after the
Centre is contacted via telephone (453-3515) to ensure that a qualified
staff person is available to remove the exam from the fax machine
immediately upon arrival. The exam is then placed in a sealed envelope,
and stored in a locked cabinet until administered.
 For situations where electronic delivery is not possible or preferred,
instructors (or their delegates) can place the exam, with instructions, in a
sealed envelope and hand-deliver it to the Student Accessibility Centre
(Room 212, Marshall d’Avray Hall), within 24 hours of the scheduled exam
invigilation.
Invigilation
 All exams administered onsite are invigilated by qualified staff members or
graduate students who are registered as invigilators with the Student
Accessibility Centre.
 Where possible, accommodated exam schedules will coincide with regular
exam schedules. Where a regularly scheduled exam takes place during
the evening (e.g. 7-10 p.m.), the Centre will schedule the accommodated
exam start-time no later than 6 p.m. to ensure invigilator availability. In
such cases, students writing accommodated exams will be required to
remain at the Student Accessibility Centre until at least 7:30 p.m. (i.e. 30
minutes past the start-time of the regularly scheduled exam), for the
purpose of exam security.
 Completed exams are place in a sealed envelope and locked in a secure
cabinet onsite pending delivery.
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Writing the Exam
 Students should arrive at the Student Accessibility Centre no earlier than
15 minutes before scheduled exams. Due to limited space, especially
during peak exam times, students should not plan to use the Centre as a
study space or arrive far in advance of scheduled exams.
 Students must arrive at the Centre by the scheduled exam start time in
order to have the time allotted available to them. Students arriving up to
30 minutes past the start time will have this time deducted from their
allotment. Students arriving later than 30 minutes after the scheduled
start time will not be permitted to write the exam.
 During exams, students must meet the standards of behavior and
compliance outlined below.
 (Insert exam guidelines)
Exam Return
 Completed exams will be returned to the administrative offices of each
instructor within 48 hours of exam completion.
 An Examination Receipt will be signed and dated by the departmental
secretary, instructor, or other identified delegate. Instructors (or their
previously-identified delegates) are also welcome to retrieve exams from
the Student Accessibility Centre in person, and will sign the Examination
Receipt at that time.
If you have questions not addressed by these procedures, please feel free to
contact:
Room 212, Marshall d’Avray Hall
Phone: 453-3515
Fax: 453-4765
Email: [email protected]
VIII. Successful Transition to Employment Program (STEP)
The Student Accessibility Centre provides direct support and guidance to assist
students with disabilities to succeed academically, socially, personally and
professionally while at UNB.
The Centre recognizes that the issues affecting the transition of students with
disabilities from post-secondary education to the workplace are significant. Points
of transition are difficult for all learners, but they are crucial for learners with
disabilities. In recognizing this challenge, the Centre is committed to assisting
students with disabilities with the transition from university to work through the
Successful Transition to Employment Program (STEP).
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STEP began as a pilot program (2005-2008) made possible with funding support
from Human Resources and Social Development Canada. The Student
Accessibility Centre partnered with Easter Seals New Brunswick to implement
this pilot program. The goal of the program was to improve the employability of
students with disabilities by providing accesses to employment readiness
services such as mentoring, academic tutoring, and job shadow opportunities.
The STEP pilot program proved to be a significant resource for students as they
managed their personal and academic responsibilities while developing skills and
abilities in preparation for the transition to the workplace after graduation. In
2008, the University of New Brunswick recognized the value of these services in
making a positive impact in the lives of students, and sustained the coordination
of these services beyond the pilot period. The Student Accessibility Centre
seeks funding from both private and public sources to fund the direct mentoring
and transition services provided to students through STEP. TD Canada Trust
has been a proud supporter of the STEP program since 2006, providing both
financial and human resources. STEP is pleased to work with corporate partners
to offer meaningful employment readiness opportunities to UNB students.
STEP services are provided to students registered with the Student Accessibility
Centre on a referral basis.
Assistive Technology
Assistive Technology is an important piece of the whole support system that
individuals with disabilities require to achieve success. The Government of
Canada uses the following definition for Assistive Technology: "Any item, piece of
equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf,
modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional
capabilities of individuals with disabilities. AT service is directly assisting an
individual with a disability in the selection, acquisition, or use of an Assistive
Technology device" (2008).
To learn more about Assistive Technologies and the programs and services
available throughout Canada related to technical accommodation for persons
with disabilities, please visit the Assistive Devices Industry Office (ADIO) home
page at: http://www.at-links.gc.ca/as/as001e.asp.
Role of Technology in Successful Education and Employment
Accommodation and assistive technology cannot address all the answers to the
employment needs and challenges of individuals with disabilities. However,
assistive technology does play a crucial role in empowering individuals and
contributes to the independence, productivity and participation for people with
disabilities in their academic lives, as well as in their careers.
Assistive technology is an important support to enable persons with disabilities to
gain and maintain employment. Research is mounting about the role technology
plays in improving career outcomes for persons with disabilities. Specifically, the
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use of technology has been shown to enhance the ability of individuals with
disabilities and to assist them in performing jobs that would otherwise be difficult
without the aid of Assistive devices (Gamble, et al., 2006).
In addition, research suggests that access to appropriate assistive technology
assists students with disabilities in gaining necessary, complex job-related skills
and in becoming independent learners while increasing participation. Most
importantly, assistive technology facilitates success in academic and
employment settings (Wehmeyer, et al., 2006). Educators, service providers and
employers need to be apprised of the role assistive technology plays in
supporting persons with disabilities if they wish to aid in the successful transition
to employment. Through understanding the role that assistive technology plays
in supporting employment transition, and through staying abreast of information
on current and developing technologies, employment success for persons with
disabilities can be facilitated.
IX. Glossary
One of the best methods of familiarizing oneself with an unfamiliar field is to
become acquainted with the vocabulary associated with it. The following is a list
of some of the most common disabilities one might encounter in the postsecondary setting. The information is in capsule form and is not intended to be a
comprehensive explanation of each disability. It is presented here only to assist
faculty and staff in understanding, discussing, and working with students who
have disabilities.
A
Adjustment Disorders
Powerful stress-induced emotional reactions to difficult or traumatic events in
one’s life, potentially leading to anxiety and depression, which may be prolonged.
Adjustment disorders typically disturb normal social interaction. A sufferer may
become withdrawn and introverted, or may exhibit outwardly rebellious
behaviour, acting out against societal norms. Prolonged Adjustment Disorder
can lead to a more serious mental disorder.
Allergies
Immune-system reactions to substances that are not normally harmful.
Symptoms can be mild such as sneezing, a runny nose, and itching, or can be
more severe such as migraines, swelling, rashes, and asthma. In rare cases,
anaphylactic reactions can be life-threatening.
Amputations
The removal of an external body part through injury or surgery. Surgical
amputation may be the result of severe injuries wherein a limb cannot be saved,
or may be undertaken as a result of physical deformity. It is also used to stop the
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spread of disease or infection from an affected area of the body (as in the case of
gangrene or cancer). The majority of amputees experience a ‘phantom limb’
phenomenon wherein they continue to feel the missing body part. An amputee
may also experience emotional trauma as a result of an amputation.
Anorexia Nervosa
An eating disorder involving an obsessive aversion to gaining weight or
maintaining a body weight within 15 percent of normalcy. People with anorexia
nervosa control their natural hunger by willfully ignoring the desire to eat,
undertaking voluntary starvation, purging, or abnormal amounts of exercise.
Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety disorder is a general term that encompasses many kinds of anxieties and
phobias. Anxiety disorder is the most common mental illness in North America.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder is chronic, unprovoked, excessive tension and
distress, far beyond the anxiety the average person would normally experience.
Physical symptoms can include headaches, insomnia, bodily tension, twitching
and irritability. People with Generalized Anxiety Disorder often experience
fatigue and difficulty with concentration.
Asperger Syndrome
A neurobiological condition often considered to be at the high-functioning end of
the autism spectrum. Asperger Syndrome is usually characterized by a lack of
understanding with regard to social conventions, difficulty dealing with change,
obsessive interest in particular subjects and routines, and excessive sensitivity to
sights and sounds. Understanding verbal and physical cues in communication
may be difficult, as can be determining appropriate body space in social settings.
The disorder can range from mild to severe. People with Asperger Syndrome
usually posses average to above average intelligence, and as adults may lead
highly successful professional lives.
Astigmatism
An eyesight condition caused by an irregular curvature of either the cornea or
lens of the eye. It is a very common condition, and mild cases do not require
treatment. More severe cases of astigmatism may lead to symptoms such as
difficulty seeing detail, strained and tired eyes, squinting, fatigue, and headaches.
However, the condition can usually be corrected with the use of eyeglasses or
surgery.
Ataxia
A blanket term used to refer to a number of degenerative nervous system
diseases. The various types of ataxia fall into two categories: hereditary ataxias
and sporadic (non-inherited) ataxias. The most common type of inherited ataxia
is Friedreich’s Ataxia. The symptoms vary with the type of ataxia, but many are
shared. Symptoms often include impaired coordination of the arms, hands, legs
and feet. Slow, slurred speech may occur, although mental functioning is not
31
affected. Fatigue is common, as is nystagmus (involuntary rapid movement of
the eyes). Friedreich’s Ataxia often leads to curvature of the spine, which in turn
leads to breathing difficulty. This form of ataxia also often leads to heart disease.
All forms of ataxia may progress to the need for wheelchair use.
Athetosis
Continuous, slow-paced involuntary writhing movement, particularly of the hands
and feet. Athetosis is a symptom of different diseases, including Huntington’s
disease (which can also lead to chorea, a symptom distinct from athetosis,
though the two often occur together).
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
A condition characterized by one (or all) of three primary symptoms: inattention,
hyperactivity, and impulsiveness. Hyperactivity and impulsivity may decrease as
people with ADHD age, but those with the inattention subtype of ADHD may find
that symptoms occur or increase in adulthood.
Autism
A developmental disability characterized by repetitive behaviour and obsessive
interests along with an inability to understand social interaction and normal
communication methods. Many people with autism have unique methods of
learning, and learning ability can vary widely from acutely challenged to gifted.
Autoimmune Disorders
Diseases wherein a body’s immune system fails to recognize the body’s normal
substances and actually attacks the body’s own cells. The body then creates
auto-antibodies, which attack the body’s own cells, damaging tissues and
organs. There are various kinds of autoimmune disorders, including Multiple
Sclerosis, Lupus, Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus, and Rheumatoid Arthritis.
Arthritis
Any of over a hundred different conditions, ranging from ‘mild forms’ such as
tendonitis, to severe forms such as Rheumatoid Arthritis. Each of these
conditions involves musculoskeletal pain. Inflammation is a common symptom of
many types of arthritis, such as gout.
B
Bipolar Disorder
A serious form of mental illness, characterized by reoccurring and alternating
manic episodes and depression (often referred to as manic-depression). Bipolar
disorder generally is exhibited in a sequence of moods, moving from severe
depression to mild depression, and mild mania to severe mania.
Brain Injury / Head Injury
32
Often called Traumatic Brain Injury, symptoms can vary widely depending on the
extent of damage caused by the injury. Mild cases may lead to symptoms such
as dizziness, headaches, a ringing in the ears, blurred vision, mood swings,
chronic tiredness, problems with memory, and a lack of ability to concentrate.
More serious cases of brain injury may, in addition to those symptoms already
listed, suffer from nausea, seizures or convulsions, speech impediments,
difficulty with coordination, acute agitation, numbness, and other problems.
Bulimia Nervosa
A potentially life-threatening eating disorder characterized by recurrent binge
eating followed by induced purging, accompanied by feelings of shame,
depression and self-condemnation.
C
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
A condition in which fingers experience a tingling sensation and pain in the hand,
arm or shoulder. If the condition persists and advances, numbness and
diminishing manual dexterity can occur.
Cataract
Clouding of the lens of the eye, caused by a build-up of protein. This cloudiness
reduces the clarity of the images reaching the retina. Also, the lens gradually
changes to a yellow-brown, which gives a tint to objects in vision.
Celiac Disease
An autoimmune disorder in which the small intestine is damaged as a result of
toxic reaction to the ingestion of gluten (found in wheat and other grains). Celiac
disease can affect the body’s absorption of essential dietary nutrients, and
inadequate absorption in turn can lead to excess gas in the intestinal tract,
diarrhea, and other gastrointestinal symptoms. Celiac disease can also lead to
malnutrition, as well as vitamin and mineral deficiencies. These issues in turn
can lead to fluid retention, weight loss, osteoporosis, anemia, muscle weakness,
and nerve damage.
Cerebral Palsy
A motor disorder that is believed to be caused by trauma to the brain at a very
early age, affecting the areas of the brain associated with control of movement.
Inability to control posture, abnormal movement patterns, lack of balance and
lack of coordination are all symptoms of cerebral palsy.
Chorea
Brief, though continual, uncontrolled movements in various parts of the body,
appearing to flow from one muscle to another. Chorea may occur as a result of
various conditions, such as Huntington’s Disease, and sometimes presents with
athetosis (continuous ‘writhing’ movements, usually of the hands and feet).
33
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
A disorder marked by prolonged mental and physical exhaustion, occurring often
in previously healthy people, for which no cause has been discovered. Chronic
Fatigue Syndrome can be accompanied by a multitude of symptoms, including
the following: neuropsychological disturbances such as poor concentration,
confusion and irritability; muscle weakness and pain; digestive disturbances; pain
in lymph nodes and joints; anxiety; and depression.
Chronic Pain
Pain that persists for a prolonged period. There are various types of chronic
pain, including arthritis, headaches, back pain, fibromyalgia, sciatica, neuralgia,
and many others. Chronic pain can occur due to illness, such as lupus,
osteoporosis, cancer, endometriosis, and others. Often, though, the causes of
chronic pain are unknown.
Colitis
A chronic digestive condition characterized by inflammation of the colon.
Ulcerative colitis differs from Chron’s Disease (another inflammatory bowel
disease), as the two affect different areas. Moreover, ulcerative colitis should not
be confused with irritable bowel syndrome (which is sometimes referred to as
‘spastic colitis’ but which involves no inflammation and is a less serious ailment).
Symptoms of ulcerative colitis include weight loss, diarrhea, fever, abdominal
pain, fatigue, liver disorders, and pain in the joints.
Colour Blindness
A condition in which a person is unable to distinguish the difference between
some colours (usually between reds and greens). It is usually a genetically
inherited condition, but may occur as a result of damage to the eye or brain.
Concussion
An injury to the brain caused by blunt force trauma to the head. A concussion
temporarily affects brain function, potentially causing impaired balance and
coordination, memory loss, impaired speech, persistent headaches, nausea,
dizziness, and debilitated reflexes. Concussions can range from mild to severe,
and there is usually not a loss of consciousness. Symptoms can be prolonged,
but there is normally no permanent damage. A second concussion soon after
the first, however, can be fatal or permanently disabling.
Crohn’s Disease
A chronic disorder that causes inflammation of the digestive tract. Crohn’s
Disease differs from ulcerative colitis although they share some symptoms.
Unlike ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease can affect all layers of the intestine.
Symptoms include diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever, weight loss, and pain in the
joints.
34
Cystic Fibrosis
A hereditary chronic disease causing lung infections as well as digestive
disorders that prevent the body’s normal absorption of nutrients. Symptoms
include frequent lung infections and the onset of life-threatening lung disease.
Digestive system symptoms include problems with natural weight gain and
growth due to poor absorption of vitamins and nutrients.
D
Depression
Although the term ‘depression’ is used to refer to common feelings of sadness
and hopelessness, major-depressive disorder (also called clinical depression or
major depression) is a seriously debilitating psychiatric disorder. Symptoms
include inability to sleep, eat, work, or study normally. General health declines,
as does the ability to enjoy life. Other symptoms include persistent sadness and
feelings of hopelessness and worthlessness, physical pain that is not alleviated
by treatment, fatigue, memory loss and difficulty with concentration, and
irritability.
Diabetes Mellitus
Commonly referred to simply as ‘diabetes’, diabetes mellitus is a chronic disorder
characterized by abnormally high blood sugar levels. The hormone insulin
normally controls a body’s blood sugar levels. With diabetes, insulin production
is insufficient or the body does not use insulin properly. There are three main
types of diabetes: Type 1, Type 2, and Gestational diabetes. Type 2 is by far the
most common form of diabetes, in which insulin is not used properly by the body,
and eventually the body stops producing insulin altogether. Over time, diabetes
can lead to blindness, kidney failure, nerve damage, cardiovascular disease, and
gangrene requiring amputation.
Diabetic Retinopathy
The most common eye disease caused by diabetes, affecting the blood vessels
of the retina. Over time the condition can lead to vision loss and eventual
blindness.
Diplopia
The technical term for what is commonly called double vision. Diplopia is the
erroneous perception of a single object as if it were two images, positioned either
vertically or horizontally. Diplopia usually occurs simultaneously in both eyes, but
can occur in only one. The condition can usually be treated with corrective
lenses, surgery, therapy, or medication.
Disorders of Sleep Schedule
See: Sleep Disorders
35
Dyscalculia
A learning disorder affecting a person’s ability to comprehend or perform a
variety of arithmetic operations. Dyscalculia can be genetically inherited or be
the result of damage to the brain.
Dysgraphia
A neurological disability characterized by illegible handwriting, inability to spell
correctly even when explicitly instructed, and persistent use of incorrect words
when writing. Dysgraphia involves difficulty mastering the necessary sequence
of muscle motor movements to write legibly or correctly. Dysgraphia has no
connection to a person’s intelligence, but often occurs with other learning
disabilities.
Dyslexia
A neurological disability affecting the reading and spelling of language. It is
unrelated to intelligence, is present from birth. Although there is no cure, dyslexia
can be ameliorated through guided practice and instruction.
Dystonia
A chronic neurological movement disorder that causes the muscles to contract
and spasm involuntarily, leading to repetitive twisting movements. The pain
associated with dystonia ranges from mild to severe. There are many kinds of
dystonia, but the vast majority of cases do not shorten normal life span or affect
normal thought processes.
E
Eating Disorders
See: Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa
Epilepsy
A neurological disorder wherein episodes of hyperactivity in the brain cause
seizures. Although there is no cure, epilepsy can usually be controlled with
mediation. Epilepsy is not, in fact, a single disorder; but actually a group of
syndromes that share common attributes. All types of epilepsy involve incidents
of unusual electrical activity in the brain and seizures.
F
Fibromyalgia
Fibromyalgia is a clinical syndrome characterized by persistent, widespread
muscular pain. Other symptoms include chronic exhaustion, depression, anxiety,
headaches, ‘memory fog,’ and many more. Although fibromyalgia is generally
believed to be non-progressive (that is, the condition does not become more
36
severe over time), there is not usually any remission of symptoms. The condition
is poorly understood and difficult to diagnose.
Friedreich’s Ataxia
See Ataxia
G
Glaucoma
A group of eye diseases all caused by damage to the optic nerve. The two
primary types of glaucoma are caused by a build-up of pressure inside the eye.
Although treatment is possible through medication or surgery if the condition is
diagnosed early enough, glaucoma is the second leading cause of blindness in
the world.
Grand Mal
An outdated term for a type of seizure caused by abnormal electrical activity in
the brain. Grand Mal seizures involve loss of consciousness and severe muscle
contractions (the type of episode most people would associate with a seizure).
H
Hearing Impairment
A broad term describing an inability to hear, ranging from partial to total. There
are two types of hearing impairment: conductive and sensorineural. Conductive
hearing impairment occurs in the middle or outer ear; it is usually treatable with
surgery or medication. Sensorineural hearing impairment involves the inner ear
(or, less typically, the hearing nerve connecting to the brain); it can be helped
with the use of hearing aids, but is almost always permanent. The World Health
Organization (WHO) has estimated that 278 million people worldwide have
moderate to profound hearing loss in both ears.
Hemiplegia
See: Paralysis
Hemophilia
A disorder that is usually genetically inherited. With this disorder, blood does not
clot normally, meaning that the body’s mechanism for ceasing blood flow from a
cut is impaired. Injuries can therefore be life-threatening. Internal bleeding is
also a common symptom of hemophilia. Although the severity of the disorder
can vary, the majority of people with hemophilia have a severe form.
Huntington’s Disease
See also: Chorea
37
A genetically inherited neurological condition, commonly known as Huntington’s
Chorea. Physical symptoms of the disease may not appear until a person is in
his or her forties or fifties. The most prevalent symptoms involve involuntary
body movement. The condition often impairs physical coordination, facial
expression and speech.
Cognitive function is affected as the disease
progresses.
Hyperopia/Hypermetropia
The medical terms for what is normally known as farsightedness. It is a condition
in which a person is unable to focus properly on objects that are close. It is
usually treatable with the use of corrective eyeglasses or surgery.
I
Ileitus
An inflammation of a portion of the small intestine called the ileum. Ileitus can be
caused by an infection in the small intestine, complications from digestive system
surgery, or Crohn’s Disease. Symptoms include abdominal pain and swelling,
weight loss, fever, and diarrhea.
L
Learning Disabilities
A group of neurological disorders that affect reading, writing, spelling, and
reasoning ability, as well as the ability to recall and organize information.
Learning disabilities are not associated with intelligence level. These disabilities
involve difficulty with one or more of the four stages of learning: input (intake of
information, as perceived by the senses); integration (interpreting of information);
storage (memory); and output (the reproduction of the information through
language, gesture, or other means). See entries for ‘Dyslexia’, ‘Dysgraphia’, and
‘Dyscalculia’ for examples of specific learning disabilities.
Lupus
An autoimmune disease in which the body’s immune system cannot tell the
difference between foreign substances and its own cells and tissues. As a result,
the immune system attacks the body’s own tissue and cells. Symptoms of lupus
include painful internal and external inflammation, ulcers, lesions, joint pain, and
anemia.
M
Macular Degeneration
A condition in which the macula (the center of the retina) deteriorates, impairing a
person’s central field of vision.
Reading, determining fine details, and
38
recognizing nearby objects becomes difficult.
Age-Related Macular
Degeneration (AMD) is the most common cause of vision loss in Canada,
affecting over a million people.
Migraine
The most common neurological condition in the world. Although severe
headaches are the symptom most people associate with migraine, symptoms
can include nausea, vomiting, and intense sensitivity to light and sound.
Monocular Vision Impairment
The loss of vision in one eye, affecting peripheral vision, perception of objects,
and general visual acuity.
Multiple Sclerosis
A disease affecting the central nervous system (the brain, optic nerves and spinal
cord). Multiple Sclerosis (often referred to as MS) is the most common
neurological disease affecting young Canadians. It is twice as likely to be
contracted by females than by males. MS usually presents in relapsing-remitting
form, characterized by sudden attacks followed by complete or partial recovery.
The disease often worsens, becoming progressive. MS can cause difficulty with
balance and coordination, impaired speech, chronic pain, extreme fatigue,
muscle weakness, double vision, cognitive problems, and paralysis.
Muscular Dystrophy (MD)
A collection of many genetically inherited diseases characterized by
degeneration of the muscles that control movement. The most common form is
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy.
This type primarily affects young boys,
materializing between the ages of three and five. This is a rapidly progressing
disease, with those affected usually being unable to walk by the time they are
twelve.
Eventually, people with Duchenne MD require a respirator.
Facioscapulohumeral Muscular Dystrophy normally presents in a person’s teens
and generally progresses slowly. This type of MD causes weakness in the
muscles of the arms, legs, shoulders, and chest, as well as the face. Myotonic
Muscular Dystrophy usually affects adults. This type is characterized by
prolonged muscle spasms, cataracts, and cardiac abnormalities.
Myasthenia Gravis (MG)
A chronic neuromuscular autoimmune disease that causes muscle weakness.
The most common form of Myasthenia Gravis results in fluctuating weakness in
the muscle groups that are voluntarily controlled. The muscle groups that control
facial expression, eye movement, talking, chewing and swallowing are commonly
affected. The muscles that control arm and leg movement can also be affected.
Generally, muscle weakness worsens during periods of activity, and improves
after periods of rest. Medication may improve muscle functioning, as may
surgery; and with treatment life expectancy is usually normal.
39
Myopia
The medical term for nearsightedness. Objects at a distance cannot be properly
brought into focus. Myopia occurs when the cornea is too curved or the eyeball
too long. The opposite condition is hyperopia (farsightedness), wherein nearby
objects cannot be brought into focus because the cornea is too flat or the eyeball
is too short.
N
Nystagmus
Involuntary movement of the eyes, usually from side to side, but occasionally up
and down or in a circular motion. Nystagmus most often develops in infancy
(termed congenital nystagmus), but may develop in later life due to other
diseases or conditions.
O
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
A psychiatric anxiety disorder characterized by obsessions and compulsions.
Obsessions are uncontrollable recurring urges, thoughts, or images. A person
with OCD usually recognizes that these thoughts are irrational, and he or she
does not want to have them. Compulsions are acts that the person with OCD
performs in response to the obsession. Compulsions are unrealistic actions
aimed at reducing distress. These obsessions and compulsions are extremely
time-consuming and lead to social dysfunction.
Osteoarthritis
The most common form of arthritis, it is a disease that affects the body’s joints.
Osteoarthritis is caused by the wearing and breakdown of cartilage, the elastic
material that normally protects the bones.
A person with osteoarthritis
experiences pain from the exposed bones when pressure is placed on them, as it
is in simple acts such as walking and standing.
P
Panic Disorder
A psychiatric disorder characterized by extreme anxiety and recurring panic
attacks. Panic attacks are extreme bouts of overwhelming (and usually irrational)
fear that can cause symptoms such as trembling, increased heartbeat, chest
pain, and difficulty breathing. Panic disorder can last for months or even years,
but it can be treated.
Paralysis
40
The loss of muscle function in part or parts of the body. Paralysis can take many
forms. Paraplegia is paralysis of the lower half of the body. Quadriplegia is
paralysis of the arms and legs. Paralysis may affect only one side of the body or
a localized area. Hemiplegia and hemiparesis are both conditions wherein one
side of the body is paralyzed. The causes of paralysis include damage to the
nervous system or brain, stroke, spinal cord injury, palsy, autoimmune diseases,
and nerve diseases.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
A type of anxiety disorder resulting from the experience of a psychologically
traumatic event, in which serious physical harm occurred or threatened to occur.
Events that trigger PTSD are termed ‘stressors’ and may include witnessing
someone’s death, undergoing a near-death experience oneself, or being
threatened with grave physical harm. Symptoms can vary widely. A common
symptom involves reoccurring memories, flashbacks, or nightmares in which the
event is ‘re-lived’. Another common symptom is avoidance, wherein a person
with PTSD assiduously avoids experiencing any situations that may remind him
or her of the traumatic event. Emotional numbing is another symptom, wherein a
person loses interest in previously enjoyable activities, and may withdraw
emotionally from friends and family. Insomnia is also a symptom of PTSD, as is
difficulty with concentration.
Presbyopia
A vision condition that is a natural result of aging. Presbyopia involves the loss
of flexibility in the eye, causing difficulty with focusing on objects in close range.
The condition usually occurs in middle age, but can normally be treated by
corrective lenses.
Q
Quadriplegia
See: Paralysis
R
Retinitis Pigmentosa
A group of genetically inherited eye conditions, all of which cause degeneration
of the retina and lead to night blindness followed by tunnel vision, and in some
cases total blindness.
S
Schizophrenia
41
A mental illness characterized by delusions, inability to perceive reality,
hallucinations, paranoia, and withdrawal from normal social interaction. A person
with schizophrenia may exhibit speech that is disorganized and
incomprehensible to others. A person might have only one psychotic episode in
their lifetime, or may have intermittent episodes, but function normally between
episodes.
Continuous or chronically recurring episodes typically require
medication.
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
A cyclic season-dependent mood disorder with unknown causes. People with
SAD are fine in certain seasons but become depressed or anxiety-laden in
others. Winter-based SAD (sometimes referred to as winter depression) is the
most common type, and symptoms include mild to severe depression, fatigue,
oversleeping, anxiety, and social withdrawal. Although the causes are unknown,
it is generally believed that SAD is related to the amount of light to which a
person is exposed. There is no cure, but various treatments, including light
therapy and medication, may be effective.
Seizure Disorder
See: Epilepsy
Sleep Disorders
Medical disorders affecting normal sleep schedules. There are many kinds of
sleep disorders, including insomnia (persistent difficulty falling asleep or
remaining asleep); sleep apnea (obstruction of the airway that leads to stoppage
of breathing and sudden awakening); narcolepsy (succumbing to sleep suddenly
and involuntarily at any time of day); delayed sleep phase syndrome (a chronic
disorder affecting the timing of sleep, with an inability to fall asleep or wake at
appropriately early hours); advanced sleep phase syndrome (a chronic disorder
affecting timing of sleep, characterized by falling asleep too early and/or waking
too early).
Spasticity
A disorder in which certain muscles involuntarily contract. Spasticity is caused
by damage to the central nervous system, which controls movement. Spasticity
often occurs with brain injuries, spinal cord injuries, cerebral palsy, multiple
sclerosis, and stroke. The continuous contraction of muscles can interfere with
movement and speech. A person may experience painful muscle spasms or only
mild muscle stiffness.
Spina Bifida
A birth defect involving incomplete development of the spinal cord. The spinal
opening can be surgically closed shortly after birth, but the damage to the spinal
cord and nerves will remain and will continue to affect the spinal cord at that point
and below. There is usually some paralysis below the point of the damage to the
spinal cord. Myelomeningocele (also called spina bifida cystica) is the most
42
common and also the most severe form. In this form, the spinal cord protrudes
through an opening in the vertebrae. The type known as spina bifida occulta is
the mildest form and is often harmless (people with this form may not even be
aware that they have it).
Stroke
An interruption in the supply of blood to the brain resulting in loss of brain
function. Brain cells die during a stroke, and serious brain damage can occur if
the stroke is not treated quickly. The severity and symptoms of a stroke depend
on the amount of damage done to the brain as well as the areas of the brain
affected. Symptoms can therefore range greatly. If the central nervous system
pathways are affected, symptoms can range from mild loss of sensation, to facial
muscle weakness, to paralysis of one half of the body. A stroke affecting the
cerebellum may lead to symptoms such as difficulty with coordination, balance,
and movement. If the cerebral cortex is damaged, symptoms can include
problems with memory, vision impairment, mental confusion, and an inability to
understand language. If the brainstem is affected by a stroke, symptoms may
include an inability to move the tongue, an altered heart rate, impaired reflexes,
impairment of hearing, taste, sight and smell, involuntary eye movement, and an
inability to turn the head to the side.
Strabismus
A condition of the eyes in which a person cannot align both eyes simultaneously
when focusing on an object. The eyes look in different directions, with one or
both of the eyes turning to a side or turning up or down. Strabismus can often be
treated by the use of glasses, prisms (altering the way light hits the eye, and
thereby stimulating re-positioning), surgery, or vision therapy.
T
Thyroid Conditions
Various conditions that result from dysfunction of the thyroid gland. The thyroid
controls the rate of the body’s energy production through the production of
thyroid hormones. Hyperthyroidism is a condition in which the thyroid gland is
producing an overabundance of hormones. Symptoms of hyperthyroidism
include weight loss, heart palpitations, extreme perspiration, hyperactivity,
fatigue, weakness, muscle tremors, and excessive thirst. Hypothyroidism is a
condition in which the thyroid gland is producing insufficient amounts of
hormones. Symptoms of hypothyroidism include weight gain, fatigue, low muscle
tone, joint pain, dry hair, dry skin, and muscle cramps.
Tremor
Involuntary muscle movement. Most often, tremors occur in the hands, although
they can occur in other parts of the body such as the face, head, vocal cords,
arms and legs. Tremors most often occur in healthy people, and result only in
43
some inconvenience and perhaps social embarrassment. However, tremors are
also sometimes symptoms of neurological or medical disorders.
Tourette Syndrome
A neurological disorder (often called Tourette’s or TS) characterized by phonic
(vocal) and motor tics. Phonic tics are vocal sounds produced involuntarily,
whereas motor tics are movement-based. Tics occur suddenly and repetitively.
Onset of Tourette Syndrome occurs in childhood and symptoms range from mild
to severe. The majority of people with Tourette Syndrome have mild cases and
do not require treatment, although treatment is available. Some cases, however,
are severe and persist throughout the person’s life. Tourette Syndrome has no
effect on lifespan or on intelligence level.
Tunnel Vision
A condition in which a person’s peripheral vision is impaired, leaving him or her
with only a central field of vision, as though he or she were looking through a
tube or down a tunnel.
U
Uveitis
An inflammation of the uvea, the middle layer of the eye, which can occur as the
result of many different causes. Symptoms of uveitis include blurred vision, pain
in the eye, dark spots affecting vision, redness of the eye, and sensitivity to light.
If left untreated, uveitis can lead to cataracts, glaucoma and blindness. However,
uveitis can normally be treated with steroidal eye drops.
44
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45
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49

Student Accessibility Centre University of New Brunswick

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