1 History of the French in Louisiana When considering the presence

History of the French in Louisiana
When considering the presence of French in Louisiana, one must remember that the
French had been there since 1682 when Robert Cavalier de La Salle claimed for France
the vast territory that stretched from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico and which he called
La Louisiane in honor of his king Louis XIV. Later, in 1713, when Britain gained control
of Canada after the French and Indian War as a result of the Treaty of Utrecht, Governor
Charles Lawrence ordered the deportation of the Acadians because they refused to give
up both their religion and their language and to assimilate into an English-speaking
Protestantism.
Eager to preserve both their religion and their language, some 3000 Acadians settled into
South Louisiana between 1764 and 1785 because of its large French-speaking population
and their adherence to Catholicism. The French Revolution in 1789 and the revolt of
enslaved Africans in Haiti in 1791 (who were French-speaking Creoles of French and
African descent) saw thousands of immigrants arrive on the shores of South Louisiana.
All those people, French, Acadians, and Creoles, settled into their new home bringing
their way of life, their beliefs, and their language with them. It is no wonder that French
was the lingua franca of the day and was expressed both orally and in writing in the
publications of the day.
However, when, in 1803, Napoleon Bonaparte sold what was known as the Louisiana
Territory to the United States for $15 million, the French language soon became under
attack and the pressure to speak English increased especially since Louisiana became a
state in 1812. As a punishment, because Louisiana was allied with the Confederate States
during the Civil War, the use of French in public activities was forbidden beginning in
1860. In 1915, the State Board of Education banned the use of French in the public
schools and punished the children who used it in the playground. Finally, in 1921, the
Louisiana Constitution prohibited the use of any language other than English in the
public schools of Louisiana.
Spurred on by Theodore Roosevelt’s battle cry of “One nation, one people, one
language”, the need to unify the nation in the wake of World War I became too strong a
force to buck and the use of French in public soon began to disappear, to be spoken only
at home from one generation to another.
The introduction of the railroad in 1882, the discovery of oil near Jennings Louisiana in
1901, and the extensive road and bridge-building projects by Governor Huey Long in
1928 opened this largely closed and inaccessible area of South Louisiana to the rest of
America and the world.
The educated, the ambitious, and the future-minded French-speaking residents
understood that America, the land of opportunity, spoke English. As a result of non-use
and of its being banned from the schools, those who continued to speak French spoke
mainly what was considered to be an inferior French, a mixture of French and English,
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with a non-native pronunciation. For most Cajuns, as the French-speakers came to be
known, French existed in oral form only, in their daily conversation at home, among
friends and in their songs.
A major turning point came in 1964 with the passage of The Civil Rights Act which
outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex or nationality. This also
meant that discrimination based on language was illegal.
The proponents of the French language saw their chance for a revival. Arguing that
Louisianians should be proud of their unique heritage, and that the French language is a
major part of that heritage, they convinced the Louisiana State Legislature in 1968 to
create the Council for the Development of French in Louisiana (CODOFIL) under the
chairmanship of former U.S. Congressman James Domengeaux. With the help of teachers
from France, Belgium, Quebec, and Haiti, French was introduced into the elementary
schools of South Louisiana and parents who had been discouraged by their own parents
from speaking French in public were now encouraging their own children to do what was
once forbidden or shameful for them to do.
Although the 22-parish region of southern Louisiana has been known as Acadiana since
the 1960’s and has had its own flag since 1965, that name became official in1971 by an
act of the Louisiana legislature in recognition of its Cajun and Creole heritage.
Louisiana began as French and its hopes are to be a truly bilingual state. French is now
being offered in grades K-16, with many of the elementary schools offering immersion
programs. There is a pride in one’s own culture as seen by the many Cajun and Zydeco
Music festivals. The French-speaking countries of the world meet periodically to cement
their relationships and in 1997 Louisiana participated in the World Francophone Summit
in Vietnam as an observer and in 1999 all those years of repression and of shame came to
an end with the advent of La Francofête, a year-long celebration of 300 years of French
heritage in Louisiana.
Official Flag of Acadiana
The three silver fleur-de-lis for the French heritage and origin of the Acadians
The gold tower on a red field for Spain, which governed Louisiana when the Acadians arrived
The gold star on a white field for Our Lady of the Assumption, the patron saint of the
Acadians
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(www.answers.com)
French Language Literature in Louisiana
The French fervor led some to bring back the writings of the past and to re-introduce
them not only to the Louisianians (according to the 1990 U.S. census, there are over
260,000 French-speakers living in Louisiana), but to make them available to all who
speak French everywhere. When considering this literature, it’s necessary to separate it
into two categories: the 19th century writers who never lost contact with the French
language viz., Creoles, and the more recent writers of the 20th century who have just been
re-introduced to it after so many years of forced absence, viz., Cadians or Cajuns.
For the most part, the 19th century writers emigrated from France (white Creoles), from
Africa, or Haiti (black Creoles). Among the latter were educated middle-class Blacks
known as “les hommes de couleur libres (HCL)” who wrote some 100 years before the
Black writers of the Harlem Renaissance who had a profound influence over the Black
writers of Africa. This outstanding literature, although known in France, has been
relatively unknown in the United States. The HCL published their own newspapers and
literary journals: L’Album was the first attempt at a literary publication, Les Cenelles the
first anthology of poems in 1845, L’Union, published in 1862, was the first newspaper
and was followed by La Tribune de la Nouvelle-Orléans, the first black daily newspaper
published in the United States.
Both White and Black Creoles wrote of abolition, race issues, slavery, the French
language, on the one hand, but also of love, nature, folklore, and their new country, etc.
on the other hand. All political writings were silenced in 1830 by a law that punished
anyone whose writings encouraged rebellion or racial tension and the Americanization of
Louisiana greatly reduced the number of people who could read and speak French. The
local audience was gradually disappearing. According to Gipson, “Aujourd’hui, presque
cent-cinquante ans après l’apparition des (sic) ces œuvres, nous avons toujours beaucoup
à apprendre sur ces écrits extraordinaires: ils offrent une nouvelle perspective sur la
diversité de l’héritage littéraire américain et sur le développement de la littérature
francophone et afro-américaine. Ils sont des trésors littéraires et culturels d’une valeur
précieuse qui offrent des aperçus de l’oppression, les luttes, et les triomphe (sic) d’un
peuple unique—un peuple dont la voix mérite finalement notre attention et notre
respect. » (1)
While some such as Les Cahiers du Tintamarre of Centenary College of Louisiana were
intent in resurrecting the past, a more contemporary voice was being heard in Acadiana.
A Cajun chapter to the history of Francophone literature was being written. The leading
voice was that of Barry Jean Ancelet whose nom-de-plume was Jean Arceneaux. His
most famous works are Je suis Cadien and Suite du loup. Speaking of his alter ego,
Ancelet says that “ses poèmes décrivent la bataille que les Acadiens ont survécue pour
leur héritage. Il décrit avec vivacité l’histoire de la descente des Acadiens louisianais. »
(2)
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Another voice being heard is that of Zachary Richard, the world renowned Cajun singer.
Both a lyriciste and a poet, he is proud of his heritage and of his language. On the subject
of the inferiority of the Cajun language, he states “Je suis peut-être l’exemple le plus
flagrant de ce dilemme, mais il est partagé, plus ou moins, par tous les auteurs
francophones d’Amérique. Il n’y a pas de bonne réponse à la question de la pureté de la
langue, et il n’y a certainement pas de solution facile. » However he emphasizes that
« Chaque auteur doit respecter les influences qui lui sont particulières et essayer de les
accorder avec la compréhension francophone internationale d’une façon originale.” (3)
As a Franco-American born in New England, I can understand the dilemma of good Vs.
bad French that plagues all French spoken outside of France. However, if our students are
to know that French is spoken in some 40 countries of the world, it would be logical to
assume that there would be some national and regional differences in the language. Our
students would be enriched by that exposure. We need to imitate our colleagues who
teach Spanish: they recognized long ago that not all the Spanish-speaking world speaks
the Spanish of Spain.
The minority literature of Acadiana needs the support of the French-speakers of the world
if it is to survive. It needs to be read outside of Acadiana if the movement is to continue.
Organizations such as CODOFIL and ActionCadienne are leading the way in the effort to
revive the French language in Louisiana and as French teachers in America we have a
perfect opportunity to become involved in this movement. The Communities Standard
urges us to bring the French community into our classrooms and to bring the classroom
out to the French community. The French writers of Louisiana are a perfect way to do
that.
Sample Excerpts
I hope that the Creole and Cajun authors cited below will pique your interest and
motivate you to learn more about the French in Louisiana. The questions are mine; the
answers are theirs.
What did Louisiana consist of in those early days?
Cette Louisiane, si resserrée aujourd’hui, occupait alors près de la moitié du territoire des
Etats de l’Union actuelle. La Belle Rivière (Ohio), le Missouri, les Illinois, la Mobile,
toute cette magnifique vallée qui s’étend entre les territoires indiens et les Alléghanys,
n’avaient qu’un seul maître, la France ! (Contes et Récits de la Louisiane Créole, Le
Soulier Rouge, Jacques de Roquiny)
What was the terrain like in Louisiana?
Après une marche silencieuse de deux heures, par un pays en apparence désert, tantôt à
travers les bois-forts, tantôt à travers des prairies d’une luxuriante végétation, nos
voyageurs arrivèrent sur le bord d’une de ces savanes noyées, où l’oeil ne distingue qu’un
champ immense de roseaux, où l’on ne trouve de fond solide que sous deux ou trois pieds
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d’eau: terrain trompeur et perfide, qui semble impraticable au piéton et cache sous sa
nappe humide un sol parfois résistant, entrecoupé à tout moment par des plaques
vaseuses, des trous profonds où se terrent les crocodiles; véritables gouffres ou le
voyageur égaré reste englouti sans laisser d’autre trace qu’un léger remous, que voilent et
effacent les roseaux ondoyants. (Contes et Récits de la Louisiane Créole, Le Soulier
Rouge, Jacques de Roquiny)
What was the weather like?
Phénomène très ordinaire sous cette latitude désagréable, dans le cours d’une seule
journée nous avions éprouvé de lourdes chaleurs et un froid assez pénible: ainsi l’on a
souvent les quatre saisons dans un jour. (Contes et Récits de la Louisiane Créole, Un été à
la Grand’Île, Adolphe Lemercier Du Quesnay)
How were women treated?
C’est que la femme est, de son essence, la plus haute expression de la création ; par sa
nature contemplative, elle sent, elle éprouve, elle vit plus que l’homme, car elle est au
sommet des superpositions humaines et si elle a le pied dans la matière, elle a le front
dans l’idéal. Voilà d’où vient l’auréole qui la fait la plus belle moitié du genre humain,
c’est à dire le chef-d’œuvre de la création, se rapprochant le plus du créateur. Et pourtant,
une société marâtre et jalouse affecte de considérer la femme comme un être sans force et
sans valeur ; elle en fait une machine à procréer, un instrument de perpétuation et trop
souvent, ô honte! un souffre-caprice…(Contes et Récits de la Louisiane Créole,
L’Histoire d’un domino, Petite Rose)
Did everyone approve of the sale of the Louisiana Purchase?
Mon aïeul, trop attaché à la France, avait trempé dans la conspiration destiné à secouer le
joug de l’Espagne…Plus tard, son fils, qui devint mon père, fut un des chefs de
l’insurrection que souleva la cession par la France, de la Louisiane aux Etats-Unis; la
population ne voulait point changer de drapeau, elle disait que, n’ayant pas été consultée
sur la transaction qui disposait de son sort, elle n’entendait pas se soumettre à un nouveau
gouvernement comme un troupeau de moutons à un nouveau berger. Cet attachement à la
mer-patrie est resté longtemps vivace dans ma famille. (Contes et Récits de la Louisiane
Créole, L’Histoire d’un domino, Petite Rose)
What role did Louisiana play in the cause of the French Revolution?
Ainsi, dans le Nouveau Monde, comme dans l’Ancien, les Français firent, les premiers,
entendre ce cri de révolte des opprimés qui, au siècle dernier, ouvrit une ère nouvelle et
transforma la face du monde. C’est des rives du Mississippi que prit son essor, en 1768,
la revendication des droits du peuple qui, après avoir, huit ans plus tard, secoué le joug
de l’Angleterre en Amérique, fit trembler tous les potentats de l’Europe et entraîna, en
France, la chute de la monarchie. (Chroniques Louisianaises, Lafrénière, François
Tujague)
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What rights did the slaves have?
Denise est belle et je l’aime avec ses yeux si noirs et ses dents si blanches. Dès que les
feuilles jauniront je dois être son époux. Mais que dis-je ! Je vois ici l’œil lubrique du
planteur : il la regarde avec convoitise. Hélas ! Denise est jolie, et nous sommes tous les
deux esclaves du même maître.
Que je serais heureux si ma case était égayée par les jeux de mes enfants ! J’oublierais les
fatigues de la journée en les embrassant, et je les ferais dormir dans mes bras. Misère de
moi ! On les vendrait peut-être pour un pays éloigné sans me laisser l’espoir de les revoir
jamais ! L’esclave n’a pas de famille ! Ses enfants ne sont pas à lui : ils appartiennent à
son maître. (Souvenir De Bonfouca, F.M.S.)
What thanks did the HCL get for fighting in the war?
………………………….
Dix ans après, sur nos vastes frontières,
On entendit le canon des Anglais,
« Nous sommes tous nés du sang Louisianais ».
A ces doux mots, en embrassant ma mère,
Je vous suivis en répétant vos cris,
Ne pensant pas, dans ma course guerrière,
Que je n’étais qu’un objet de mépris.
En arrivant sur le champ de bataille,
Je combattis comme un brave guerrier :
Ni les boulets non plus que la mitraille,
Jamais, jamais ne purent m’effrayer.
Je me battis avec cette vaillance
Dans l’espoir seul de servir mon pays,
Ne pensant pas que pour ma récompense,
Je ne serais qu’un objet de mépris.
……………………………
(La Campagne de 1814-1815, Hippolyte Castra)
And what of the French language?
!!!!!!!!!!!!"!
Ne laissons pas mourir, dans notre Louisiane,
Cette langue de la clarté
Universelle un jour,--qui, légère ou sultane,
Chante si bien la liberté !
…………………………………
Conservons la langue immortelle,
Charme des cœurs, des sens, des yeux,
Qui, toujours claire et toujours belle,
Parle à la terre et chante aux cieux !
Luttons, luttons pour qu’elle vive
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Sur cette chère et noble rive
Où nos pères ont travaillé…
Défendons, défendons encore
L’idiome doux et sonore
Que leurs lèvres ont bégayé !
…………………………………..
(La langue française en Louisiane, Charles Testaut, 1876)
And what of the French language?
…………………………………………..
I will not speak French on the school grounds.
I will not speak French on the school grounds.
Faut pas qu’ils aient besoin d’écrire ça
Parce qu’il faut pas qu’ils parlent français du tout.
Ça laisse voir qu’on est rien que des Cadiens.
Don’t mind us, we‘re just poor coonasses,
Basse classe, faut cacher ça
Faut parler en anglais
Comme de bons Américains.
………………………………….
On a pas réellement besoin de parler français quand même.
C’est les Etats-Unis ici,
Land of the Free.
……………………………………
Mais quand on doit rire, c’est en quelle langue qu’on rit?
Et pour pleurer, c’est en quelle langue qu’on pleure ?
Et pour crier ?
Et chanter ?
Et aimer ?
Et vivre ?
(Je suis cadien, Jean Arceneaux 1978)
Can you hear the sound of the bayou?
…………………………………….
Quand le vent est tombé brut,
Soudainement un silence propagé
Comme un brouillard
De pestilence et de noir,
Plus grand silence
Qui pourrait jamais avoir
Ecraser sur le sud-ouest de la Louisiane,
J’ai entendu un cri.
Un cri sur le bayou
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Comme j’avais jamais entendu.
Fort et résonnant
Comme un cocodris au fond du marais,
Comme le roi des cocodris,
Ses poumons remplis de musique,
Splendide comme le cri d’un feurset
Courtisant le soir,
Comme un marlion
Au fin fond du ciel,
Un cri fier et beau,
Comme un ange,
Comme la voix de dieu
Parlant à son amant
Après avoir fait l’amour.
Un cri venant de
Loin, loin là-bas,
Loin, loin dans le bayou.
Et mon cœur s’est mis
A battre comme pour
Casser ma poitrine.
Et sans faire le moindre petit train,
J’ai regardé autour de moi,
Furtif, me demandant si
Quelqu’un d’autre
L’aurait entendu
Aussi.
(Cris sur le bayou, Zachary Richard)
Louisiana has traditionally been divided into the following geographic subregions: Acadiana,
Central Louisiana, North Louisiana, the Florida Parishes, and the Greater New Orleans area.
©University of Louisiana at Lafayette Center for Cultural and Eco-Tourism
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Useful websites
www.centenary.edu/french/louisiane
XIX century French writers of Louisiana
ccet.louisiana.edu
Studies of Cajun and Creole Culture
Click on on-line tourism guide
Click on Cajuns
www.answers.com/topic/louisiana
History of the French in Louisiana
www.brown.edu/Research/Equinoxes
Poetry of Jean Arceneaux
click on Journal Archives
Click on La Trahison, Numéro 2 Automne/Hiver 2003-2004
Scroll down to Traductions, Clint Bruce
www.codofil.org
Timeline of Louisiana’s French history
Notes
(1)Ancelet, Jean, Retour à (sic) Littérature Louisianaise
www.centenary.edu/french/louisiane
(2) Gipson, Jennifer, Les Histoires que l’histoire nous raconte: la littérature afro-créole
louisianaise du XIX siècle, Introduction, www.centenary.edu/french/anglais
(3) Richard, Zachary, L’émergence d”une littérature francophone en Louisiane,
www.centenary.edu/french (click on la littérature louisianaise)
Texts (available from Editions Tintamarre, Centenary College of Louisiana, P.O. Box
41188, Shreveport, LA 71134-1188)
(1) Contes et Récits de la Louisiane Créole Tome I
(2) Michaelides, Chris, Paroles d’honneur: Ecrits de Créoles de couleur néo-orléanais
(3) Tujague, François, Chroniques louisianaises
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