cartoon descriptions

UNIVERSITÄT DES SAARLANDES
Philosophische Fakultät II
Fachrichtung 4.3
Anglistik, Amerikanistik und Anglophone Kulturen
WISSENSCHAFTLICHE ABSCHLUSSARBEIT
Leitung: Prof. Dr. Neal Norrick
CARTOON DESCRIPTIONS
Kerstin Borau
Metzer Str. 57
66117 Saarbrücken
Tel.: 0681 - 3961496
Email: [email protected]
1
CARTOON DESCRIPTIONS
2
1
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................... 6
2
DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA................................................................... 9
3
REFERENCE, WORD MEANING AND THE MENTAL LEXICON ........... 13
4
DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF THE REFERENTIAL WORDS IN
THE CARTOON-DESCRIPTION TASK........................................................... 16
4.1
Deictical expressions: Anaphora, cataphora and exophora ..................................................17
4.1.1
Demonstratives........................................................................................................................18
4.1.2
Personal pronouns ...................................................................................................................20
4.2
Referential expressions relating to objects...............................................................................23
4.2.1
The definite and indefinite article in reference........................................................................24
4.2.2
Thing or something..................................................................................................................27
4.2.3
Circumlocutions ......................................................................................................................30
4.2.4
Specific level terms .................................................................................................................31
4.2.5
Meronomic expressions...........................................................................................................32
4.2.6
Mismatching and overextended nominal expressions .............................................................34
4.2.6.1
Overextended nominal expressions ...............................................................................35
4.2.6.2
Mismatching nominal expressions.................................................................................39
4.3
Referential words for actions and events .................................................................................42
4.3.1
Overextended words for actions and events ............................................................................44
4.3.2
Onomatopoeic imitation and coinage of novel verbs from onomatopoeic words ...................45
4.3.3
Intransitivity, transitivity and causation ..................................................................................48
3
5
STORY STRUCTURE, STORY SCHEMATA, SCRIPTS AND FRAMES . 53
5.1
6
The classification of cartoon-descriptions................................................................................54
THE INFLUENCE OF FRAMES ON REFERENTIAL WORDS ................ 57
6.1
7
The “frame-relations” of objects and actions and their influence on referential words......57
THE ANALYSIS OF FRAMES IN THE CARTOON DESCRIPTION TASK
AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON SEMANTIC AND GRAMMATICAL
FEATURES ...................................................................................................... 61
7.1
Verbal realizations of expectations ...........................................................................................61
7.1.1
Negative statements.................................................................................................................62
7.1.2
Evaluative elements.................................................................................................................64
7.1.3
Inference and interpretation.....................................................................................................64
7.2
Experiment frame ......................................................................................................................68
7.2.1
Interactional frame ..................................................................................................................68
7.2.2
Functional presumption...........................................................................................................69
7.2.2.1
Adults’ functional presumption .....................................................................................70
7.2.2.2
Children’s functional presumption.................................................................................71
7.2.2.2.1
A labeling task ..........................................................................................................72
7.2.2.2.2
A story telling task ....................................................................................................75
7.2.2.3
8
The cartoon-frame..........................................................................................................76
CONCLUSION .......................................................................................... 79
4
I.
APPENDIX: TRANSCRIPTIONS ................................................................. I
I.I.
Transcriptions of the three-year-olds ......................................................................................... I
I.II.
Transcriptions of the six-year-olds ......................................................................................... XV
I.III.
Transcriptions of the twenty-year-olds ..............................................................................XXIX
II.
REFERENCES.......................................................................................XLIII
II.I.
Literature..............................................................................................................................XLIII
II.II.
Internet Sources .................................................................................................................... XLV
II.III.
CD–ROM: Cartoon.........................................................................................................XLVI
5
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor,
Prof. Dr. Neal Norrick, whose expertise, humor, and
patience, added considerably to my graduate experience.
A very special thanks goes out to Dr. Kristy BeersFägersten and Caren Brinckmann for proofreading.
I must acknowledge my husband and best friend, Carsten
Ullrich, without whose love, encouragement, editing and
formatting assistance, I would not have finished this
thesis.
I would also like to thank my mother Helga Borau for never
having stopped to believe in me.
Danksagung
An dieser Stelle möchte ich meinem Betreuer, Prof. Dr. Neal
Norrick, meinen Dank aussprechen. Er hat mit Fachkenntnis,
Humor und Geduld beträchtlich zu meiner Studienerfahrung
beigetragen.
Mein besonderer Dank gilt außerdem Dr. Kristy BeersFägersten und Caren Brinckmann für das Korrekturlesen.
Zu besonderem Dank bin ich meinem Ehemann und besten Freund
Carsten Ullrich verpflichtet. Ohne seine Liebe und
Ermutigung sowie seine Fähigkeiten im Bereich des
Editierens und Formatierens hätte ich diese Magisterarbeit
nicht zu Ende geschrieben.
Ich möchte außerdem meiner Mutter Helga Borau dafür danken,
dass sie nie aufgehört hat, an mich zu glauben.
6
1 Introduction
The research into first language acquisition, the
development of language in children, is a highly
interdisciplinary field of study. Besides linguistics, it
is related to a number of areas such as psychology,
psycholinguistics and cognitive science, which is the study
of how the mind and brain give rise to behavior. The
cognitive approach to linguistics examines the relation of
language and mind and how human language is structured,
acquired, and put to use.
Historically, theories and theorists have debated
which factors most prominently influence first language
acquisition. Generally speaking, the discussion involves
between researchers supporting nativist theories, such as
the linguist Noam Chomsky, and researchers supporting
behaviorist approaches to the study of first language
acquisition, such as the psychologist B.F Skinner. In
recent years, other researchers theorize that language
learning results from general cognitive abilities and the
interaction between learners and their surrounding
communities. Elizabeth Bates and Brian MacWhinney, who
collected the data analyzed in this thesis, belong to the
latter group.
7
The following thesis will analyze cartoon-descriptions
by American speakers in three different age groups. The
descriptions were recorded and transcribed in a study
conducted by Elizabeth Bates and Brian MacWhinney in the
1980s.
The thesis is divided into two parts. In the first
part, the different referential words used by children in
the cartoon-description task are examined. Based on the
findings of Eve V. Clark (1993) and Louis Bloom (1998),
this part starts with a brief introduction on the theory of
how reference, word meaning and the mental lexicon are
related. The analysis of children’s referential words is
again subdivided into three sections; each section is
prefaced with a subsection explaining the respective
linguistic theory.
The first section examines the children’s employment
of deictic expressions paying special attention to the
exophoric use of demonstratives and the personal pronoun
“he”. Since false starts which contain the definite article
and seem to be aiming at a noun phrase occur frequently in
reference to objects, the role of the definite and
indefinite article is outlined at the beginning of the next
section. Then, different referential expressions relating
to objects are illustrated. In the third section
referential expressions relating to actions and events are
8
discussed including the children’s understanding of
intransitivity, transitivity and causation.
In the second part of this thesis, the influence of
frames on referential words and structural elements is
analyzed. A brief introduction into the theory of frames is
provided with special consideration to Deborah Tannen’s
(1993) frame theory. After the cartoon-descriptions are
classified as a special type of oral account similar to
accounts children produce in a natural environment,
Tannen’s frame theory is applied to the cartoon
descriptions. This analysis illustrates the influence of
pre-existing knowledge structures on semantic and
grammatical features. In the concluding section the
findings of this study are summarized and the advantages of
interdisciplinary studies are presented.
The cartoon-transcriptions as well the script of the
cartoon is included in an appendix. The script of the
cartoon is available on the CHILDES corpus; it briefly
describes the events in the cartoon. A copy of the cartoon
is attached to the last page of the thesis.
9
2 Description of the data
The data presented in this thesis is taken from the
MacBates 2 corpus included in the CHILDES database (www.
childes.psy.cmu.edu). The creation of the CHILDES database
by Brian MacWhinney and Elizabeth Bates was one of the most
important advances in the study of first language
acquisition since it has made data on child language widely
available. The MacBates 2 corpus consists of a study
conducted by MacWhinney and Bates during 1980 and 1982
using a cartoon-description task with American children and
adults.
In this study, all the subjects individually watched a
six-minute long color cartoon. The original recording
included sound effects which today are lost and cannot be
restored. All participants were asked to simultaneously
watch and describe what they saw; their descriptions were
then transcribed and incorporated in the CHILDES corpus.
The data analyzed in this thesis comprise transcripts of 14
cartoon-descriptions by three-year-old children and
transcripts of 14 cartoon-descriptions by six-year-old
children as well as 14 transcripts of the descriptions by
adults for comparison.
10
The cartoon can be structured into two larger parts;
each part is again subdivided into two sequences. The
protagonist of the first part’s first sequence is a
woodpecker. The bird is sitting on a tree and pecking it
when a dog comes running and barks at the bird. The bird
then pecks off the tree top, and the tree top chases the
bird and the dog. In the second sequence the woodpecker and
the dog encounter a bear that is chasing them out of a
cave. The bear is the element linking the first and the
second part of the cartoon. He is the protagonist of the
third sequence, that is, the second part’s first sequence,
which consists of two structurally almost parallel
subsequences: The bear first hits a banana tree and a fruit
falls down which he eats, and then he hits an apple tree
and again a fruit falls down which he again eats. The first
subsequence suggests that the bear picks up a stick and
hits the tree rather randomly, while the second subsequence
implies that the bear hits the apple tree intentionally
after having learnt that this action is rewarded with a
fruit. In the fourth and final sequence, the bear once more
hits a tree, but this time a monkey sitting on the tree
falls down. After an initial quarrel, they eventually both
share bananas they managed to get hold of and shake hands.
The cartoon script was annotated with line numbers by
MacWhinney and Bates; the line numbers in the cartoon
11
descriptions were additionally annotated for the thesis.
The numeral codes assigned to the cartoon descriptions were
also given and label each description. In the appendix,
each transcript has such numeral code as heading as
illustrated below. The first two digits refer to the
subjects’ age. Consequently, the numeral code in example
(03e01) refers to a child in the group of three-year-olds:
03e01
1. The # he pound on the tree.
2. The doggie um # um # come on and watch that.
3. He # he says ruff ruff ruff at hh that [^ pointing to
the bird].
In this thesis, quotations from the description will be
identified by use of these numeral codes with the according
line numbers:
The # he pound on the tree.
(03e01, l. 1)
Since the participants were simultaneously watching and
describing the events of the cartoon, the order of events
in their description is parallel to the order of events
shown in the cartoon. Thus the line numbers of the cartoontranscriptions more or less correspond to the line numbers
of the cartoon’s script.
12
The experimental design offers a number of advantages.
First, the subjects are not faced with the difficulty of
retrieving the events from memory, which poses a
complexity, especially for young children. This allows the
researcher to identify the target utterance without much
effort, which is a major advantage in case of phenomena
like mismatches, as explained in section 4.2.6.
Second, unlike an experiment in which the subjects are
asked to tell a story in their own words, the children
might have to refer to objects, actions and events in the
cartoon without having acquired a word which could be
considered correct from an adult point of view. In this
context it has to be noted that the drawing style of the
cartoon is somewhat rough and the objects shown cannot
exclusively be recognized by visual clues. Consequently,
the subjects need to access pre-existing knowledge
structures in order to apply an appropriate referential
word, which poses an additional difficulty for the
children. On the other hand, in the given situational
context, in which the referents are visible to speakers and
addressees, the children could easily use extralinguistic
gestures such as pointing to specify unfamiliar as-yet
unlabelled objects and actions.
13
3 Reference, word meaning and the mental
lexicon
The notions of reference, word meaning, and mental
representation have been the focus of an ongoing discussion
between linguists as well as scholars from different fields
such as psychology, philosophy, semantics and semiotics. A
detailed discussion of their differing views and
terminology would go beyond the scope of this thesis. The
following section will therefore provide a brief but for
this purpose expedient outline of the relation of word
meaning and reference.
Reference is defined as an expression a speaker
employs to identify an object; it describes the relation of
a linguistic expression and the object in the real world.
This object can be animate as well as inanimate, human or
non-human; or it may consist of a place. The objects
referred to in a discourse are called the referents of the
word while the words describing the referents are called
referential words or referential expressions. In the
analyzed data, for instance, woodpecker is a referent,
while “duckie” (03e03, l.1) is a referential word employed
for woodpecker by a child. Cave is another referent, with
14
“the fishes ear” (03e03, l.10) as one of the corresponding
referential expression.
Referential expressions are assumed to be related to
“a certain mental representation or concept” which again is
“associated with a certain form” (Bloom, P. 2000: 17). The
mental representation or concept can be described as a
mental image, similar to Saussure’s signified; and the
certain form can be described as a phonological
representation of a mental image, similar to Saussure’s
signifier.
Louis Bloom describes the mental concept in
combination with its form as mental meanings:
“When a child looks at the clock on the wall and says ‘ticktock,’ the act of reference has a mental meaning that gives rise
to the behavior we observe. The mental meaning represents and
refers to the object in the world; the word the child says names
the representation in the mental meaning”
(Bloom, L. 1998: 317)
The different mental representations and forms are stored
and organized within the mental lexicon, which can be
described in short as the mental vocabulary in a speaker's
mind. These mental vocabularies differ; and an individual's
knowledge of vocabulary is described as the speaker’s
lexical knowledge. Entries in the lexicon are organized
according to certain principles; i.e., the entries contain
information about meaning, syntactic form, morphological
structure, and phonological shape (Clark 1993).
15
Semantically related entries, that is, entries with related
meanings, are grouped together in semantic fields or
semantic categories. Animal terms such as dog, bear, and
bird, for instance, are grouped together in one semantic
field.
Adult speakers have already acquired an extensive
lexical knowledge stored in their mental lexicon, that is,
they have a variety of ideas of objects and actions
represented in their mind, combined with the appropriate
words in their native language. Adult speakers of English
have production vocabularies of 20,000 to 50,000 words, and
presumably an even larger comprehension vocabulary.
Children at age 2 have a vocabulary of 50 – 600 words and
they continue to acquire approximately 10 new words per
day. By the age of six they have acquired approximately
14,000 words (Clark 1993). In the course of acquisition,
children not only have to name each new object they
encounter, but they also have to attribute them to
different semantic categories.
When a child encounters an unfamiliar object, a
subconscious mental process starts: the child compares the
unfamiliar object to the already existing mental concepts
and checks the new and as-yet unlabelled object for
representative features in the existing mental concepts.
The child will then choose to label the new object with the
16
referential word for the mental concept that shares the
most common features with the new object (Clark 1993).
4 Description and analysis of the
referential words in the cartoondescription task
The following sections examine the expressions children use
to establish reference to objects, actions and events in
MacWhinney’s and Bates’ cartoon-descriptions task.
Strictly speaking, the notion of reference relates to
objects and not to actions or events, which leaves
linguists without an appropriate expression for the latter
two. Clark avoided this problem in “The lexicon in
acquisition” (1993) by labeling reference to objects as
“words for things” and words referring to actions as “words
for actions”, since a concept for reference to actions does
not exist. In this thesis, the problem will be addressed by
the employment of the terms referential words for objects,
referential words for actions and accordingly referential
words for events.
Referential words for actions generally consist of
verbs while referential words for objects can consist of
proper names, nouns, pronouns, and demonstratives. Whereas
proper names and nouns are independent of their context,
17
referential words consisting of pronouns and demonstratives
cannot be interpreted separately from their context because
they refer to intra- or extralinguistic elements within a
given speech situation. Context dependent referential words
are subsumed under the linguistic phenomenon of deixis,
which will be explained in the following section.
4.1 Deictical expressions:
Anaphora, cataphora and exophora
Deixis is often described as a “form of verbal pointing”
(Halliday 1976:58), that is to say, pointing by means of
language. This verbal pointing is realized by single
deictic words or deictic expressions. They can either refer
to elements outside of a text or to elements within a text.
Deictics referring to extralinguistic elements, that is, to
elements outside of a text, establish exophoric reference
while deictics referring to intralinguistic elements, that
is, elements inside a text, establish endophoric reference.
Expressions establishing endophoric reference can
refer either backwards or forwards to elements in a text;
the backward reference is called anaphora or anaphoric
reference while the forward reference is called cataphora
or cataphoric reference. The following examples illustrate
the two different types of reference:
18
Um # the bird was pecking on a tree and then he stopped.
It stopped [^ did anything else happen?] a dog came.
(06e20, l. 1 + 2)
Since “he” in the first line refers back to “the bird”,
“he” is an anaphoric reference. “It” in line two also
refers back to “the bird”, hence it is also an anaphoric
expression.
1. He's hammering [^ who is?] a bird.
2. It was a dog [^ and wh?] he's ruffing [^ he is?].
(03e02)
In this example, “he” in the first line refers forwards to
“a bird”; just as “it” in line two refers forwards to “a
dog”, thus they are cataphoric expressions.
4.1.1
Demonstratives
This section will discuss the use of demonstratives on the
condition that they substitute a nominal expression in
first mention.
Demonstratives can be subdivided into adverbial and
nominal demonstratives. Relevant for what follows are the
nominal demonstratives this and that and the adverbial
demonstrative of place there. Nominal demonstratives can
either modify a noun and act as determinative
demonstratives as in example (06e25) or they can replace a
19
noun and act as independent demonstratives as in line 3 of
example (03e01):
That bird was um # pecking um the the tree.
That that dog was um watching the um bird peck the tree.
(06e25, l. 1 + 2)
He # he says ruff ruff ruff at hh that [^ pointing to
the bird]
(03e01, l. 3)
However, in line 11 of example (03e01), the adverbial
demonstrative of place there takes up the same function as
an independent demonstrative. Without specification of the
modified or replaced noun in previous discourse both types
of demonstratives are exophoric, as the example given below
shows:
He went under there [^ ok, pointing to the cave].
(03e01, l. 11)
Halliday claims that the use of demonstratives
“is the primary form of verbal pointing and it may be
accompanied by demonstrative action, in the form of a
gesture indicating the object referred to” (Halliday
1976:58). According to the transcription of the CHILDES
corpus, in which pointing gestures are annotated in square
brackets, child (03e01) is the only subject which actually
employs an independent demonstrative in combination with a
pointing gesture to an unidentifiable and as-yet unlabeled
20
object. What is equally surprising is that merely three of
the three-year-olds employ an independent demonstrative
without pointing gesture:
The bear just # got into that [^ what is that?]
its a # I don't know what that is [^ cave] yea cave .
(03e24, l. 10)
Um # that goes down on the floor [^ do you know what that was? #
apple].
(03e03, l. 20)
I don't know what that was [^ banana] fell right on his head.
(03e19, l. 16)
In the examples above the children state that they “don’t
know what that is/was” (03e24, 03e19). This clearly shows
that they employ an independent demonstrative instead of a
noun phrase because they do not recognize the objects on
the screen and consequently cannot refer to them with a
noun phrase. However, a number of other children
participating in the study obviously have difficulties in
finding referential words, yet no other child chooses the
easy way by making use of determinative or independent
demonstratives.
4.1.2
Personal pronouns
Third person pronouns, as well as the nominal
demonstratives, can be used either endophorically or
exophorically. Hence, the term exophoric pronoun is
employed when reference is established with a pronoun
21
without previous linguistic mention of the referent of the
pronoun. Therefore, just as in the study of demonstratives,
exophoric pronouns need to be examined on the condition
that they substitute a nominal expression in their first
mention.
The exophoric pronoun he is employed by eight children
from the group of three-year-olds compared to four children
in the group of six year-olds in the first mention of
woodpecker. Similarly, in the first mention of bear, four
children from the three-year-old group and only one child
from the six-year-old group exophorically employ “he”. In
contrast to the high number of the exophoric pronoun “he”
with reference to woodpecker, none of the children from
either group uses an exophoric pronoun in the first mention
of dog; neither do they apply a mismatching term or invent
a word as they do for woodpecker.
This comparison shows on the one hand that the number
of exophoric pronouns is highest among the group of threeyear-olds; and on the other hand it shows that the number
of exophoric pronouns is highest when the children have
difficulty recognizing and labeling objects, which is
clearly the case with woodpecker. Further evidence for the
fact that children employ exophoric pronouns only until
they find a more suitable term can be drawn from the
following examples:
22
“He was knocking on the tree and its a woodpecker.”
(03e21, l. 1)
“He # the bird was kn # trying to knock the tree over.”
(06e11, l. 1)
In both examples the children replace the exophoric pronoun
with a noun phrase as soon as he or she can think of an
appropriate term. In example (03e01) the child starts with
a definite article, presumably aiming at a definite noun
phrase, then realizing that he or she is not able to label
the perceived object with an appropriate noun:
“The # he pound on the tree”
(03e01, l. 1)
This false start shows that the child finding himself or
herself unable to label the object decides to employ an
exophoric pronoun to refer to the object rather than
pointing or admitting the inability of naming. This
suggests that exophoric use of pronouns does not
automatically emerge out of the special type of speech
situation in cartoon-description tasks, but is rather a
result of poor recognition and consequent inability to
label the object.
Karmiloff-Smith made a similar observation:
“in a story-telling task based on a series of pictures,
younger children tended to use pronouns more rapidly than
23
did older children” (1979:222). Young children tend to use
pronouns exophorically whenever they are unable to label
the referent. In other words, children employ exophoric
pronouns as substitutes for the correct term. None of the
adult subjects ever uses an exophoric third person pronoun
in the cartoon-description task, simply because they are
able to recognize and label the referents of the cartoon.
Exophoric third person pronouns are only applied by both
groups of children; and they are only applied when lacking
an appropriate word or description. These findings agree
with Lyons’ (1980) claim that pronouns have an initial
deictic function; however, their application diminishes
with age and the accordingly growing vocabulary.
4.2 Referential expressions relating to
objects
This section analyzes single referential words and
referential expressions composed of more than one word,
such as noun phrases consisting of an article and a noun or
circumlocutions. However, in a number of examples the
children start their descriptions with the definite article
“the”, then hesitate and continue their description with an
exophoric pronoun in place of a noun phrase. Hence, the
24
exophoric function of the definite article is discussed
before the actual use of nominal expressions is examined.
4.2.1
The definite and indefinite article in
reference
A number of uses of the articles have been discussed in the
field of linguistics as well as in the field of philosophy;
however, the following list will only include those
relevant for this analysis.
The definite article is usually applied to a certain
member of a category, while the indefinite article can be
applied to any member of a category. In adult discourse the
indefinite article is normally used as an introductory
referential device for the first mention while the definite
article is used as an anaphoric referential device in
subsequent reference when the object of attention has
already been specified as a certain member of a category in
the first mention. Hence, the use of the definite article
indicates that reference is being made to an object which
is known to both speaker and addressee. In the example
given below, the adult subject first employs an indefinite
noun phrase in the first mention of “bird” and “tree” and
employs a definite noun phrase in the second mention, while
he or she employs again an indefinite noun phrase for the
first mention of “dog”:
25
There there’s a bird pecking on a tree.
A dog came # and its staring at the bird # up in the tree.
(20e05, l.1 + 2)
However, the definite article may also be used as an
introductory referential device in the first mention if the
referent is clear by the context of the utterance, for
instance, if a definite noun phrase is used to refer to
something visible to both speaker and addressee (Halliday
1976:59). Lyons follows Hawkins in labeling this as
“visible situation use” of the definite article (Lyons
1980:84). The type of reference established by the definite
article in visible situation use is exophoric. In what
follows, the definite article in visible situation use
without previous linguistic mention will be designated as
exophoric definite article. Conclusively, in the cartoondescription tasks the definite article is either used in
first mention as an introductory referential device, that
is exophorically, or it is used anaphorically in second
reference. It is therefore necessary to examine definite
noun phrases which introduce new referents in order to
examine the exophoric definite article.
The article usage explained above refers to adults,
whereas according to Karmiloff-Smith (1979), children under
five years do not employ the articles in the same way
26
adults do. She claims that in the language system of young
children the definite article occurs exclusively in its
exophoric function to draw attention to the object in the
focus of attention, while the indefinite article occurs in
naming (Karmiloff-Smith 1979:123). Consequently, in the
context of the visible situation in the analyzed data a
frequent use of the exophoric definitive article as an
introductory referential device in the group of three-yearolds could be expected; inversely to a frequent use of the
indefinite article as an introductory referential device in
the group of six-year-olds having acquired and adjusted to
the adult article usage. However, in the group of threeyear olds there is no remarkable difference in the
frequency of the definite and indefinite article usage
while the six-year-olds make a comparatively frequent use
of the exophoric definite article, contrary to the adults
who mostly use the indefinite article as an introductory
referential device.
The results of the analysis of article usage in the
group of adult subjects come as no surprise since the
indefinite article is the introductory device which is to
be expected in first mention in a typical adult discourse,
as explicated above. The frequent use of the definite
article by the six-year-olds in first mention can be easily
explained by the visible situation use. What is surprising
27
is the small number of three-year-olds employing an
exophoric, definite article. However, the main prerequisite
for article usage is the familiarity with a word to which
the article can be applied plus the confidence in the
application of the word. Three-year-olds have difficulty
labeling the objects, and since they do not have a
referential noun to combine with an article they
consequently cannot apply an article. Hence, the reticent
article usage in the group of the three-year-olds can be
easily explained by their reticent use of noun phrases.
4.2.2
Thing or something
Of course all of the children have already learnt that
thing or something can substitute the correct referential
word, as in the examples given below. In (03e19), the child
refers to the scene where the woodpecker has pecked off the
tree top and refers to the falling tree top as “something
else”; in example (06e08) the appropriate term substituted
with “thing” is stick:
The tree came out a little farther [^ what else happened in there?]
Something else broke right here
(03e19, l. 7)
The monkey took the thing away.
(06e08, l. 25)
28
However, even the three-year-olds have already learnt that
thing or something is only used for inanimate objects. In
the cartoon descriptions, they use thing or something
mostly in the third sequence for the falling fruits or the
bear’s wooden stick. Still, children as well as adults may
use thing or something whenever they cannot recognize
whether this is an inanimate or animate object as in the
following examples:
Something came down on him.
It was a monkey [^ and what did the monkey do?] he went rrrraahh.
(03e04, l. 23 + 24)
The bear goes back to the banana tree and hits it # with the stick but
there is something red on top a monkey ok.
(20e03, l. 22)
In example (03e04), the three-year-old refers to the monkey
with something until he or she recognizes the animal and
labels it correctly. The adult in example (20e03) uses
exactly the same strategy and applies the word “something”
only until he or she recognizes the animal and hence can
label it with the correct word.
In addition to these usages, the children seem to use
thing or something for inanimate objects when they can
think of a possibly matching word, but are not sure about
the appropriateness of this word:
29
Um # one of those things um fell down and dropped on the floor [^ what
was that, do you remember?] a banana.
(03e03, l. 17)
The um thing fell down [^ the what?] the orange fell down.
(06e12, l. 20)
In both examples, the children seem to have a vague idea
that the object in question is some kind of fruit, but the
only label the fruits after an inquiry of the interviewer
(although “orange” is an overextension caused by an object
recognition error, see section 4.2.6.1). In example
(03e04), the child corrects him- or herself without inquiry
(still, this child also produces an overextension due to an
object recognition error by mistaking the bananas for
pinecones):
Something fell bumped two heads pinecone.
(03e04, l. 28)
In some cases, children combine an already acquired word
with thing to create a novel referential compound:
Um # he's knocking on the banana thing again.
(06e12, l. 23)
He picked up the tree thing.
(03e06, l. 14)
Um the bear he took the # the bear's chopping thing the wood away from
him.
(03e05, l. 24)
In example (06e12) the child creates the compound from
“banana” + “thing” in reference to banana tree. Example
30
(03e06) functions similar by combining “tree” + “thing” to
create a novel word for stick. Child (03e05) also creates a
novel word for stick; however, the technique applied is
different. The child creates the compound from a verb and
forms the compound by combining “chopping” + “thing”.
In example (03e18), the child uses a different strategy.
In the scene where the monkey falls from the tree, the
child simply inserts “I don’t know” in the place of a noun
like “thing” or “something”:
I don't know got up.
(03e18, l. 23)
4.2.3
Circumlocutions
Circumlocution, sometimes also called periphrasis, means
the paraphrasing of a word with other words, i.e.,
definitions in dictionaries. Child (03e19) refers to the
peel of the banana by means of circumlocutions. He or she
first describes the peel as a “part of the outside”, and
then paraphrases it with “the outside isn’t part of the
thing”:
He ate part of the outside # the outside isn't part of the thing
you're not suppose to eat.
(03e19, l. 20)
31
Circumlocutions rarely occur in the cartoon-descriptions.
Due to their still small vocabulary, children lack a number
of appropriate referential words as well as the vocabulary
necessary to construct circumlocutions. Consequently,
children prefer pronominal reference, or reference by the
usage of mismatching or overextended nominal expressions
when encounter as-yet unlabeled objects or objects they are
momentarily incapable of labeling.
4.2.4
Specific level terms
Clark (1993) defines 5 levels for plants and animals within
lexical hierarchies. Taking bear as an example, Clark’s
lexical hierarchy would read as follows:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
unique beginner (mammal)
life form (animal)
generic (bear)
specific (grizzly bear)
varietal (Canadian grizzly bear)
The labels in everyday use usually belong to the generic
level; most of the adult subjects use the generic level
word bear in the respective cartoon-scenes. Semantically
speaking, the term animal is hypernym to bear as well as
woodpecker; conversely, bear and woodpecker are hyponym to
animal, and on this level, bear and woodpecker are cohyponyms. The labels of the generic level can be assumed to
be acquired first since they are the labels children are
most exposed to and therefore most familiar with. Indeed,
32
all of the children in the cartoon-description task use the
generic level words dog, bear and bird. The specific level
term woodpecker occurs less frequent in contrast to the
generic level word bird. However, some children have
already acquired the specific level term woodpecker, as the
examples (03e06, l. 5) and (06e15, l. 1) show:
He's a woody # woodpecker [^ and wh?] he [^ tell me] knock knock knock
(03e06, l. 5)
The woodpecker was # the bird was knocking on the tree
(06e15, l. 1)
Two other children apply other specific level words to
bird, which are co-hyponyms: “Duckie” (03e03, l.1) and
“Chicken” (06e16, l. 1). Even though these words are
overextensions based on perceptual features these two
examples show that children perceive prominent features in
objects which require a specific level term and attempt to
refer to these features.
4.2.5
Meronomic expressions
Meronomy describes a special type of part-whole relation.
While the part-whole relation in a synecdoche is
hierarchically organized, the components of a meronomic
part-whole relation are equated, as in the relation of body
part such as arm-hand-finger. In the scene of the cartoon
33
which relates to line 6 in the script, the subjects have to
refer to a meronomic relation when the woodpecker pecks off
the tree top. Even some of the adult subjects have to pay
attention to their choice of words. One of them evades
relating to tree top by employing a third person pronoun,
“okay # the tree is about to fall. It fell” (20e05, l. 5 +
6); another relates to tree top with “part of it (the
tree)” (20e07, l. 6); and yet another does not express the
part whole relation at first, but then corrects him- or
herself: “He pecked on the tree until the # tree # fell I
guess # the top of the tree fell (20e14, l. 6)”.
As in the first attempt of subject (20e14) in line
six, most of the children simply use the whole to refer to
the part and thus use an endophorical “it” referring to
tree or simply the word “tree” with reference to tree top.
Only two of the children are able to produce a referential
expression for tree top which expresses the part-whole
relation correctly; they refer to it as “top of the tree”
(06e10, l. 6) and (06e14, l. 6). Other children express the
part-whole relation in this scene without the usage of a
meronomical expression, they refer to tree top as “one part
… of the tree” (06e15, l. 6), or “half of the tree” (06e13,
l. 6). However, these expressions do not specify the tree
top as the part falling off. The usage of expressions
relating to single parts of a tree is another means of
34
referring to tree top, as in “some leaves” (03e05, l. 6),
“leaves” (06e20, l. 6), or “the branch” (03e04, l. 6).
However, leaves and branches can be part of a tree top, but
a tree top is not part of a leaf or branch. Hence, the
usage of these specific meronomic referential expressions
conveys the events shown in the cartoon only
insufficiently. Subject (06e28) combines the two techniques
illustrated above and describes the tree top as “half of
his tree branches” (06e28, l. 6).
4.2.6
Mismatching and overextended nominal
expressions
Among different phenomena characterizing young children’s
referential words, mismatch and overextension are relevant
in the analysis of cartoon-descriptions. Children do not
acquire the whole range of possible word meanings
synchronistically with each new word, but during the
process of first language acquisition. As a result, their
word use differs from adult word use. In some cases, the
gap between adult word use and child’s word use hardly
allows an identification of the referent; this phenomenon
is called mismatch. In other cases, the child extends the
word use in order to apply a familiar word to an as-yet
unlabelled concept; this is called overextension. The next
paragraphs will illustrate mismatches and overextensions in
35
the cartoon-description task and discuss possible reasons
for this phenomenon.
4.2.6.1
Overextended nominal expressions
According to Barrett, the initial referents of the
overextended referential word can share perceptual or
functional features with the overextended referent (Barrett
1995). “Duckie” (03e03, l. 1) and “Chicken” (06e16, l. 1),
two overextended words used with reference to woodpecker,
are based on the visual features the rough sketch of a
woodpecker in the cartoon shares with these two members of
the category bird. “Hammer” (03e18, l. 1), another
overextension with reference to woodpecker, is based on a
functional feature, assuming that the child views the
function or rather, the action of the woodpecker, as
hammering. In fact, some other children overextend the verb
hammer in reference to pecking, as in the examples given
below:
Um # it um # hammered it [^ it hammered, good girl]
(03e01, l. 5)
He's hammering [^ who is?] a bird.
(03e02, l. 1)
Um # he was hammering [^ it was hammering?] yea.
(03e22, l. 1)
As Barret (1995) explains, there are a number of
reasons for children to overextend referential words. The
36
most simple and obvious reason for a child to stretch the
use of a familiar word is that he or she has not yet
acquired a more appropriate word. Child (03e22) stretches
the use of the word skin to skin of a banana because it has
not acquired the word peel:
Um # um # um # he ate the banana with the skin on
(03e22, l. 17)
Three further reasons explicated by Barrett are relevant
for this analysis: object recognition errors, incorrect
retrieval from memory, and mispronunciation.
In the case of an object recognition error, the child
mistakes one object for another and therefore applies an
incorrect referential word. In the scene related to line 17
of the cartoon script, a banana falls down, but is not
recognized by the child and incorrectly referred to as
“leaf”:
A leaf fell down and he bumped his head and went down
(03e04, l. 17)
However, due to the poor quality of the cartoon, object
recognition errors are relatively frequent in the cartoondescriptions and even occur in the adults’ descriptions, as
the following example illustrates. These lines refer to a
37
scene in which the bear picks up a stick, which the adult
erroneously labels as the “shadow” of the bear:
The bear walks away but stops to pick up his shadow. Then walks to a #
tree # and hits the tree with his shadow.
(20e01, l. 15 + 16)
In the cartoon, there are three scenes involving a
fruit falling from a tree. These scenes evoke a number of
overextensions. However, one of the repeatedly overextended
referents is pine or pinecone for banana:
Something fell bumped two heads pinecone.
[^ ok] They threw # he threw # the stick and then they ate some they
ate # the pinecone.
(03e04, l. 28 +29)
A um um # um a pine # what just fell down like a tree.
(03e05, l. 27)
Bangdid there heads [^ what did?] the pinecone.
(03e19, l. 27)
The pinecone fell.
(03e23, l. 27)
Another example for an object recognition error is the
usage of “tent” (03e17, l.10) for cave. The peaked form of
the stylized drawing of the cartoon-cave indeed bears a
strong resemblance to a tent; and thus the child might use
the term “tent” although it might be familiar with the word
cave. However, this assumption cannot be confirmed; since
child (03e17) does not use the word cave in his or her
38
description, it cannot be unerringly stated that he or she
has already acquired this word. A more definite example is
provided by child (03e17), when he or she refers to the
woodpecker’s eyes as “sunglasses”:
He put sunglasses on he he he um he # um he put his sunglasses on.
(03e17, l. 4)
The woodpecker’s eyes in the cartoon are depicted huge and
uniformly black and hence bear more resemblance to a set of
huge sunglasses than eyes.
Yet another child has trouble recognizing the monkey:
He's chopping um another tree to get that man down.
It was a dead man.
It was a monkey [^ what did the monkey do?] he went rrrrraahh .
(06e08, l. 22 – 24)
In this case, the object recognition error is caused by the
combination of perceptual features and the event, that is,
the falling. The shape of the monkey resembles that of a
human, and the passive falling evokes the idea of
lifelessness; thus, the child mistakes the falling monkey
for a body.
Incorrect retrieval from memory assumes that the
children already have acquired the correct word, but
confuse the words and accidentally apply an incorrect term.
In example (06e09), the child initially attempts to use a
39
wrong word, banana, and then corrects him- or herself to
apple:
The bear ate the bana # I mean not the banana # the apple
(06e09, l. 21)
Incorrect retrieval from memory in combination with
mispronunciation might explain the usage of “cage” for cave
by two children in (03e06) and (03e07):
He went into his cage.
(03e06, l. 10)
Bear went in his cage.
(03e07, l. 10)
Since cave as well as cage denote a place where bears live,
and because the terms also resemble each other
phonologically, the children might confuse both terms and
retrieve the incorrect word for cave or mispronounce cave
as “cage”.
4.2.6.2
Mismatching nominal expressions
In the occurrence of an overextension, the initial referent
and the overextended referent share certain features.
However, in the occurrence of a mismatch, the referential
word used by the child has nothing in common with the
initial referent.
40
Clark describes mismatch as the child’s attempt
“to pronounce some word having assigned some meaning to it, but
the adults around neither recognize the word being attempted,
nor the meaning assigned to it”
(Clark 1993:36)
This quote highlights the advantages of a cartoondescription task: because the child describes objects,
actions and events the researcher watches simultaneously
with the child, the adult is able to relate the child’s
utterance to the respective objects, actions and events of
the cartoon. Otherwise it might impossible to make sense of
the examples illustrated below, in which the children not
only label the referent with a single word, but by means of
a circumlocution:
The # the # bear um # um # got in the fishes ear [^ got in what?] the
fishes ear.
(03e03, l. 10)
He walked inside of a hand.
(06e27, l. 10)
With these circumlocutions the children obviously attempt
to describe the object depicted on the screen, a cave.
However, the children not only lack an appropriate
referential word, but they also lack the mental meaning of
cave including the idea of cave as home of bears. Some
other children who also lack an appropriate referential
term for cave relate to the scene by overextending words
which denote place were people or animals live, but since
41
the children’s referential circumlocutions in the
descriptions (03e03) and (06e27) present such an absolute
mismatch, it is obvious that the have not yet encountered
the concept of cave.
In contrast to mismatches where the child does not
stretch the word use beyond its ordinary range, but
provides as word that does not belong within this range,
other mismatches are also caused by mispronunciation and
object recognition errors.
In the case of a mismatched pronunciation, the child
comes up with non-existing word, such as “blananas” (03e06,
l.22) or “blanana” (03e06, l. 25). As in the case of
overextension, the prime reason for mismatch is an object
recognition error as illustrated by a child who refers to
woodpecker with “trees eyes” (03e04, l. 1) in the first
scene. This child seems to mistake the woodpecker clinging
to the tree as a representation of the “trees eyes” (03e04,
l. 1) and thus labels it incorrectly. Other children have
difficulty recognizing the bananas in the scene represented
in line 28, but while the some children overextend words,
others provide a clear mismatch:
They both had fire in their hands [^ they both had what?] they both
had fire in their hands.
(3e23, l. 28)
A beehive fell down.
(06e16, l. 28)
42
Beehive fell down and they're eating it.
(6e26, l. 29)
4.3 Referential words for actions and
events
Some of the phenomena occurring in reference to nouns or
nominal expressions also occur in reference to actions and
events. An example of a circumlocution in place of a verb
is the attempt of child (03e19) to refer to the scene where
the tree top is breaking off:
The tree came out a little farther [^ what else happened in there?]
something else broke right here
(03e19, l. 7)
As already mentioned, circumlocutions are generally rare in
the cartoon-description task, and so are circumlocutions
substituting verbs. Overextension as a linguistic
phenomenon occurs more frequently in referential words
substituting nouns.
However, in the analysis of referential words for
actions an additional phenomenon has to be considered: the
coinage of novel verbs.
Children start to coin verbs at around age two. They
do not coin novel verb forms by adding suffixes until the
age of five and even later (Clark 1993), but prefer to
43
construct novel verbs by zero derivation. Zero derivation
is a word formation process that changes the lexical
category of a word, but does not change its phonological
shape. When children employ zero derivation to coin verbs
from nouns, they take a noun for the agent performing the
action and use this word as a verb, as in “Axing a tree
(03e23, l. 5)”. “Axing” is created from the noun axe, the
tool which is used to fell a tree. The child refers to the
scene corresponding to line 5 of the cartoon’s script in
which the bird is pecking the tree again.
There are two reasons for the preference of zero
derivation: First, young children have not yet acquired the
meaning carried by different kinds of suffixes; and second,
zero derivation is the most common process of word
formation in English; hence it is also the word formation
process young children are most often exposed to and most
familiar with. However, the coinage of novel verbs from a
noun occurs comparatively seldom in the cartoon-description
task compared to Clark’s findings that “the majority of
verbs were coined from nouns” in her observation of Damon
(Clark 1993:201).
The different ways of relating to as-yet unlabeled
actions and events children use in the cartoon-description
task are explained in the following paragraphs.
44
4.3.1
Overextended words for actions and events
While none of children have difficulty in finding the
appropriate verbs to refer to flying or going (although the
tense forms are confused frequently), finding words for
pecking and barking proves to be a rather challenging task.
In the first line of the cartoon, the children have to
refer to the woodpecker pecking the tree. While seven in
the group of six-year-olds employ the correct verb
“pecking”, only one of the three-year-olds is able to do
so. However, most of the other children overextend verbs
which denote an action that involves the notion of hitting
and the according sound: “pound on” in description (03e01,
l. 1), “hammering” in the descriptions (03e02, l. 1) and
(03e22, l. 1),
“chopping” (03e23, l. 1),
“knock” with
different tense markers in the descriptions (03e03, l. 1 ),
(03e06, l. 1) and (03e07, l. 1), and finally “knock on”,
again with different tense markers, in the descriptions
(03e18, l. 1) and (03e21, l. 1). One child overextends the
word “chirping” (03e19, l. 1) to pecking, probably because
he or she has learned that chirping is a word that
frequently occurs in relation to birds.
45
4.3.2
Onomatopoeic imitation and coinage of novel
verbs from onomatopoeic words
Some children use extralinguistic gestures to refer to
actions as they do to refer to nouns as described in
section 4.1.1. When referring to objects with an
extralinguistic gesture, the children point; when referring
to actions with extralinguistic gesture, children imitate
the action or part of the action, as illustrated in the
examples below:
He # he hammered like this [^ he hammered?] the tree.
(03e01, l. 17)
He hammered like this [^ showing how to hammer on the screen? he
hammered?] on the tree.
(03e01, l. 20)
The bird was fly away like this.
(03e02, l. 8)
These extralinguistic gestures indicate that the children
would like to use more specific verbs to denote the actions
in more detail and thus convey their observations in a more
detailed manner; however, since they still lack the
appropriate words, they fall back on extralinguistic
gestures allowed by the given speech situation.
Lacking of an appropriate word, children not only
imitate the actions with gestures, they also imitate
sounds. This phenomenon is called onomatopoeia.
Onomatopoeia employs a word that imitates or suggests the
46
object it is describing, such as “bang”, or animal noises
such as “ruff-ruff”. It is also related to child-directed
speech (CDS), sometimes also referred to as Baby talk or
Motherese. CDS is a non-standard form of speech used by
adults, usually the caretakers, in talking to young
children. It is characterized by a cooing speech pattern
and a number of simplified adult words, such as din-din for
dinner or “nana” for banana (03e17, l. 1). Those simplified
words within the CDS vocabulary are sometimes onomatopoeic,
i.e., “choo choo” for train, imitating the sound of a
locomotive.
Within the group of the three-year-olds, onomatopoeia
plays an important role. Some of the young children simply
employ a familiar verb such as “went” or “say” combined
with an onomatopoeic word to describe an action or event:
The thing went on his head and it went boing.
(03e01, l. 29)
When # when # when # the # the trees eyes was moving and then they
were stopped and went ruff ruff [^ what went ruff ruff ?] the dog .
(03e04, l.3)
He # he says ruff ruff ruff at hh that [^ pointing to the bird].
(03e01, l. 3)
He's saying ruff ruff ruff [^ who is?] a dog.
(03e02, l. 3)
The # he said rrrraaahhh [^ you know what? monkey] the monkey said
rrrraaahhh .
(03e01, l. 25)
Um # the bear said rrrraaahh [^ did anything else happen?] um # the
bird fly away then it's gone .
(03e02, l. 12)
47
He's a woody # woodpecker [^ and wh?] he [^ tell me] knock knock
knock.
(03e06, l. 5)
Um he # ruff ruff ruff [^ he barked, good girl].
(03e06, l. 3)
In addition to this mere imitation of sounds, the threeyear-olds coin novel verbs with the usage of onomatopoeic
words. They construct the new verbs by adding a tense
marker to the onomatopoeic word. In the examples given
below, it is boing + past tense marker [–ed]:
A apple fell and it boinged [^ it boinged,ok].
(03e01, l. 21)
He # he # he # he # um # um # he # he bb # the thing um # boinged
on his head and then it went on the ground.
(03e01, l. 24)
Another child uses the onomatopoeic word bang + a past
tense, although the child pronounces the past tense marker
[-ed] defectively as [-did]:
He bangdid the tree.
(03e19, l. 26)
Bangdid there heads [^ what did?] the pinecone.
(03e19, l. 27)
The same principle works in combining the onomatopoeic with
the past tense was and the progressive form marker [-ing]
to create a past progressive: “He was banging the tree”
48
(03e19, l. 18). Onomatopoeic words derived from animal
noises also serve to coin a novel verb, as in “He ruffed”
(03e17, l. 3) or “he's ruffing” (03e02, l. 2).
According to Clark’s findings, Damon coined a few
novel verbs from exclamations such as “pow”, although only
until the age of three (Clark 1993: 201). Verb coinage
involving an onomatopoeic word as well as onomatopoeic
imitaton occurs in the cartoon-description task only in the
group of three-year-olds. Onomatopoeic imitation as in
example (03e02, l. 3) can be attributed to Child Directed
Speech (CDS). “He’s saying ruff ruff” is a CDS-expression
for barking which the children adopted from adult CDS. Sixyear-olds usually reject the use of CDS because they
perceive it as Baby talk, a concept six-year-olds do not
want to be associated with. Consequently, onomatopoeic verb
coinage or onomatopoeic imitation does not occur in the
six-year-olds’ cartoon-descriptions.
4.3.3
Intransitivity, transitivity and causation
Verbs can be subdivided in different classes and according
to different aspects. Relevant to this analysis is the
notion of intransitivity and transitivity. Intransitive
verbs have a subject but no object, as in “The monkey # gg
growled” (06e09, l. 24). Transitive verbs are verbs that
require both a subject and an object, often an agent and a
49
patient, as illustrated with “chase” and “eat” in the
examples below:
A tree and a bird were chasing the dog.
(06e08, l. 9)
He ate the apple.
(06e08, l. 21)
Transitive verbs can be part of a causative expression,
which consists of an agent causing or forcing a patient to
perform an action (or to be in a certain state): “The dogs
are # was ready to get on the tree and scare the bird away”
(06e08, l. 2).
According to Clark, children start to discover the
notion of transitivity and intransitivity in verbs as well
as connections between intransitive and transitive
causative pairs like open (the door opened/ He opened the
door) at the approximate age of two years (1993). At the
same time children start to become aware of transitivity
and intransitivity they begin to use “make”, “get” and
“let” to express causation. However, in the cartoondescription task, the children use “make”, “get” or “let”
only on few occasions, and if they do, they rather employ
those verbs as substitute for a more specific verb, as the
examples below show:
There gonna get crumbled up by the bear.
(03e19, l. 11)
50
The doggie's trying to get him right [^ what?] the dog is trying to
get em [^ yes that doggies is trying to get him].
(03e21, l. 2)
Um # he didn't get a blanana cause he didn't knock it.
(03e06, l. 25)
He can't get a banana.
(03e21, l. 25)
In all four of these examples, the use of “get” resembles
the adult informal use: “get” as substitute for receive in
(03e06, l. 25) and (03e21, l. 25), as a substitute for
catch in (03e21, l. 2), and as a substitute for become or
be in (03e19, l. 11).
However, in both groups the children rarely use
causative expressions, although such an expression would be
appropriate in the scene in which the woodpecker chops off
the tree top (Script of Cartoon, l.6). It appears that some
of the children do not relate the action of pecking to the
falling of the tree top, as the following example
indicates:
He's still axing a tree [^ and did anything else happen?] no [^ did
you see the top of the tree fall off] yes.
(03e23 l. 6)
In a few other cases the children simply state that the
“tree fell down” (03e18, 03e210, 06e090, 06e25). Some other
children describe the events as one sequence, but do not
explicitly express the causal relation:
51
He was knocking on the tree and then it fell off.
(03e03 l. 6)
The bird was pecking on the tree and half of the tree came off.
(06e13 l. 6)
The dd # um # the bird knocked on the tree then the a then one part
fell off of the tree.
(06e15 l. 6)
Child (06e14) does not employ a transitive verb, but uses a
circumlocution with a because-construction (“cause”), which
still indicates that he or she comprehends the relational
sequence of the events: “The top of the tree fell off cause
he pecked it too much” (06e14, l. 6).
Only few children clearly and correctly note and
express the relation of the woodpecker pecking the tree and
the tree top falling to the ground:
Knocked some leaves down [^ Knocked some leaves down?].
(03e05, l. 6)
The bird pecked the um # top of the tree down.
(06e10, l. 6)
He knocked the tree over.
(06e11, l. 6)
It knocked down the tree.
(06e16, l. 6)
He pecked it off.
(06e27, l. 6)
The employment of verb particles or prepositions like up or
down in children’s reference to motion in space starts at
an early age (Clark 1993), and is still employed when
lacking an appropriate verb. In order to express the
causality and the motion, all the children coin novel verbs
52
as phrasal verbs, that is, verbs plus prepositions: “Knock
down” in example (03e05, l. 6) and (06e16, l. 6), “knock
over” (06e11. l. 6) “peck down” (06e10, l. 6), and “peck
off” in (06e27, l. 6).
In the beginning, children confuse transitive and
intransitive verb forms, as Clark illustrates: “She threw
the ball/The ball threw down” (1993: 201). There are two
similar examples in the data from the cartoon-description
task:
The # the tree knock # knocked down
(03e02, l. 6)
The tree knocked down.
(03e07, l. 6; 03e19, l. 6)
According to Clark, the examples above would translate as
“he (the woodpecker) knocked the tree down”, which then
corresponds to the children giving the descriptions (03e05,
l. 6) and (06e16, l. 6), who also refer to the action with
“knock down”. However, since this confusion of transitivity
and intransitivity in the scene corresponding to line 6
occurs only in the group of three-year-olds, the data from
the cartoon-description task confirms the findings Clark
observed in a natural environment.
53
5 Story structure, story schemata, scripts
and frames
The notion of frames goes back to Bartlett (1923), who
introduced the term schema for nonverbal information on
knowledge of the world stored in the human mind. Bartlett
disliked the notion of invariability inherent in the term
schema and instead hypothesized that structures of
knowledge were continuously subjected to change as the
human mind is continuously subjected to new experiences.
While schema can be described as a pre-existing knowledge
structure, the term script has been introduced to relate to
the pre-existing knowledge structure referring to a
sequence of events.
The notion of schemata as pre-existing knowledge
structures has been specified for the study of story
comprehension and story production. Mandler (1983) points
out that stories have common underlying structures that can
be described in the form of story structures. These story
structures are mentally represented by story schemata which
are potentially subconscious. In other words, stories have
inherent structures, and the pre-existing knowledge of
story structures stored in the human mind is referred to as
story schemata. They are acquired through encounter with
different kinds of stories (Mandler 1983). Story structures
54
and story schemata have been central to the analysis of
story comprehensions and story production because it has
been hypothesized that story schemata provide the preexisting knowledge structures essential to interpretation
and hence comprehension of the events of a story.
Deborah Tannen further elaborated the connection of
pre-existing knowledge structures to an individual’s story
comprehension and story production. For this purpose, she
introduced the term frame as “structures of expectations”
Tannen (1993: 17), and theorizes that “as soon as we
measure a new perception against what we know of the world
from prior experience, we are dealing with expectations”
(1993: 17). In other words, pre-existing knowledge
structures form the basic assessment of each new situation
encountered. While theories of story schemata distinguish
different types of knowledge, Tannen differentiates
different “levels of frames” (Tannen 1993: 22). Tannen
adopted the basic ideas of story schemata and modified them
to create a vocabulary suitable to describe her data.
5.1 The classification of cartoondescriptions
In Tannen’s data the narration or story consists of a
retelling of a film. The data analyzed in this thesis also
55
consist of an oral account of events in a film, but the
events are reported while the subjects are watching. How is
this oral account to be classified?
Tannen refers to the samples in her data as “a special
kind of story telling”. In the CHILDES corpus, the cartoondescriptions are listed under the category narrative.
However, Labov states that a narrative contains temporally
ordered sentences relating to a teller’s past experience
(Labov 1972). By this definition, the term narrative is
limited to the verbal accounts of experiences that are a)
personal and b) past. In the light of Labov’s theory a
number of problems arise from the attempt to apply the term
narrative to the data from the MacBates 2 corpus. First,
the children are not narrating a personal experience.
Second, they are not retelling the cartoon after watching
it, which could be considered as past experience in the
broadest sense. While Labov was interested in the structure
of oral narratives of personal past experiences, this
thesis studies how frames influence children’s
verbalization of the visual depiction of a pre-determined
sequence of events; hence the structure of the cartoondescription plays only a minor role. Consequently, the
problem whether they are to be labeled as narratives or
stories can be neglected. It is rather the cartoon’s
structure which pre-determines the structure of the
56
cartoon-descriptions that deserves some further
elaboration.
Provided that story schemata, or in Tannen’s words,
the expectations about events, influences the subjects’ and
especially the children’s comprehension of the story, the
pre-existing knowledge about story structures in children
needs to be considered. In fact, the pre-determined
structure of the cartoon correlates with one of the six
basic types of structures that can be found in verbal
accounts of personal past experiences by children between
the ages of two and five (Applebee 1978). The cartoon’s
structure corresponds to Applebee’s sequence in which
“…the events are linked together on the basis of an attribute shared
with a common center or core of the story. The center can take a
number of different forms: … a scene or situation … such as the events
of a day”
(Applebee 1978: 38)
The center of the cartoon is represented by the events that
are connected by the protagonists which link the single
sequences or episodes of the cartoon together.
Consequently, the cartoon’s pre-determined structure
corresponds to the sequence suggested by Applebee as one of
the structures a child is likely to use when asked to tell
as story. Hence, the structure of the cartoon appears
natural to the children and is suitable to trigger a story
telling frame.
57
6 The influence of frames on referential
words
Tannen brought forward linguistic evidence as proof of her
theory. In this thesis, the existence of frames as
structures of expectation is premised and the object of
investigation is the influence of pre-existing knowledge
structures on semantic and grammatical features of language
as well as structural elements in oral accounts.
6.1 The “frame-relations” of objects and
actions and their influence on referential
words
The following section discusses the influence of rather
general pre-existing knowledge structures. As pointed out
before, some of the objects shown in the cartoon are not
always recognizable at first glance, i.e., the woodpecker
at the very beginning of the cartoon. It has no typical
features of a woodpecker; still, the adults have no
difficulty recognizing the object as a bird and labeling it
with the specific level term woodpecker. The reason why the
woodpecker is recognized as such so easily by the adult
subjects is due to their frame knowledge concerning birds
which can be summarized as a bird that pecks trees is a
58
special kind of bird named woodpecker. It can be assumed
that it is the action of pecking which calls up the
woodpecker frame and the corresponding bird name. In both
groups of children, only few subjects are able to apply the
correct specific level term, but most of them are familiar
with the generic level term bird. However, in the very
first scene that shows the woodpecker, the three-year-olds
have great difficulty in recognizing and labeling the
object; most of them evade the usage of a noun by referring
to the woodpecker with an exophoric third person pronoun
“he”, as illustrated below in the first line of example
(03e22). Interestingly, child (03e22) applies the generic
level term bird for the first time in his or her
description in line 7 which corresponds to the cartoon
scene where the woodpecker starts to fly:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Um # he was hammering [^ it was hammering?] yea.
Hammering and the dog runned out .
He barked.
I don't know [^ did you see that one? wh?] I don't know
[^ you can tell me] I just don't know.
5. He was hammering.
6. The tree almost fell.
7. A bird [^ and wh?] the dog ran away and the bird flew with him.
(03e22)
The same phenomenon can be observed in example (03e17)
where the child has great difficulty in comprehending and
verbalizing the events. The child avoids the usage of any
nominal referential expression for woodpecker. Then again
59
in line 7, the child recognizes and labels the object as
“birdie”:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Nana tree [^ but what happened in there ?] he he said knock knock .
Doggie was there [^ doggie was there, good girl] .
He ruffed [^ he ruffed] .
He put sunglasses on he he he um he # um he put his sunglasses on .
He did that [^ what was that called?] a nana tree [^ but what was
he doing to it ?] xxx.
6. The tree fell off .
7. A birdie [^ what did the birdie do?] he flew away with the doggie.
(03e17)
In the following example (03e18) the child refers to
woodpecker with the mismatching word “hammer”. The mismatch
might be caused by the bird’s action; it appears that the
child has not yet learned that the hammering action of
birds is usually labeled as pecking. It could also be
assumed that the child has learned that the action of
hammers is referred to as hammering and hence label the
bird as hammer. However, this child also recognizes the
object and labels it correctly as soon as it starts flying
in line 7:
1.
[^
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Um # a hammer [^ a hammer] knocked on the tree
knocked on the tree, very good].
Dog came [^ a dog came].
Um # um barked [^ what barked?] the dog.
He looked.
Ah # he knocked again [^ he knocked again].
The tree fell down.
Flew away [^ who flew away] the bird [^ did anything else happen?]
catch the dog .
(03e18)
60
In the example (03e04) the child mistakes the woodpecker
for the “tree’s eyes” and refers to it with “tree’s eyes”
persistently through the lines 1, 3, 4 and 6. Again, the
flying in line 7 brings about the change from “tree’s eyes”
to “birdie”:
1. The # the # trees eyes was moving .
2. When # when a doggie was looking up he stopped .
3. When # when # when # the # the trees eyes was moving and then they
were stopped and went ruff ruff [^ what went ruff ruff ?] the dog.
4. The eyes moved and they turn around to triangles .
5. They turned around and um # the # the eyes went # like that.
6. The eyes were moving and the branch fell off.
7. The birdie flew away [^ and did anything else happen?] the dog run
away .
(03e04)
Examples (03e06) and (03e23) further support the theory
that certain actions call upon certain frames and hence
support the recognition and labeling of objects. In example
(03e06) the child labels the bird correctly with the
specific level term. The researcher asks “and why” and the
child gives the reason “he … knock knock knock”, which
might be interpreted as “because he’s pecking on a tree and
a bird pecking on a tree is a woodpecker”:
He's a woody # woodpecker [^ and wh?] he [^ tell me] knock knock
knock .
(03e06, l. 5)
61
7 The analysis of frames in the cartoon
description task and their influence on
semantic and grammatical features
In what follows, the notion of frames outlined by Tannen in
“What’s in a frame” (Tannen 1993) will be applied to the
cartoon-description task. In the analysis of semantic and
grammatical features, the experiment frame presents the
outer frame. On a sublevel, the interaction frame and the
expectation evoked by the functional presumption are the
predominant factors influencing the subjects’ oral account.
In the study conducted with the children the researcher
interacts with the children by encouraging them to continue
with their account whenever they digress; in the accounts
of the adults the mere awareness of the researcher’s
presence is reflected in the use of features typical for
interaction in discourse. Additional frames are represented
by the cartoon frame, the subjects’ general assumptions
about cartoons and by the story telling frame, the
expectations of how stories should be told.
7.1 Verbal realizations of expectations
Prior to a detailed analysis of the different frames and
their influence on language use, four phenomena related to
62
expectations will be outlined: negative statements,
evaluation, inference and interpretation. All of the four
phenomena can occur within different levels of frames.
7.1.1
Negative statements
According to Tannen, a negative statement is “one of the
clearest and most frequent indications that an expectation
is not being met” (Tannen 1993: 23). It may refer to
expectations the subjects have about themselves, i.g., the
children assume that they should be able to name the
objects shown in the cartoon, and finding themselves unable
to do so, they utter the negative statement “I don’t know”.
In fact, “I don’t know” with reference to an as-yet
unlabelled object or an object they cannot recognize is the
most frequent negative statement in the cartoon-description
of the three-year-olds. In the following examples, the
negative statement “I don’t know” indicates the children’s
assumption that he or she should be able to label the
object shown in the cartoon. Child (03e22) cannot refer to
woodpecker in the first scene, and substitutes the nominal
reference with exophoric “he” (03e22, l. 1). Then, in the
fourth line, he or she finally admits to not being able to
name the object:
63
I don't know [^ did you see that one? wh?] I don't know
[^ you can tell me] I just don't know.
(03e22, l. 4)
As stated by Tannen, the word “just” is often used to
“underplay a statement to block criticism on the basis that
it is not more, therefore revealing the assumption that
others might expect more” (Tannen 1993: 25). In the example
above, the “just” functions on the one side to add emphasis
to the “I don’t know”, similar to the effect that could be
achieved by the word really in an utterance such as I
really don’t know. The child probably adds the stress
because the researcher repeatedly asked the child whether
he or she could label the object. The use of “just” instead
of really indicates that the child feels distress
about not meeting the researcher’s expectations.
Another example of an unmet expectation is the
negative statement of (03e01): “he didn't peel it off”
(03e01, l. 19). While the utterance “I don’t know”
expresses the subject’s unmet expectation about him- or
herself and thus is triggered by the experiment frame, the
above example expresses an unmet expectation about the
events shown in the cartoon in comparison to the child’s
pre-existing knowledge structure about food. He or she
compares the bear’s eating of the banana without peeling to
his or her previous experiences with bananas and finds that
64
they are usually peeled before eating. Hence, this negative
statement is triggered by general world knowledge.
7.1.2
Evaluative elements
Labov explains that, “Evaluation of a narrative event is
information on the consequences of the event for human
needs and desires”. He further states that a “narrator
evaluates events by comparing them with events in an
alternative reality that was not in fact realized.”
(http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~wlabov/sfs.html)
In the example (03e23) below, the event in an alternative
reality that was not in fact realized is the previous
peeling of the banana. The cartoon’s protagonist eating the
banana “with the peel on” is compared to this and evaluated
by the child (03e23) with the comment “yuk”:
What did he eat with the peel on # yuk.
(03e23, l. 20)
However, in the cartoon-descriptions evaluative elements
are rather seldom.
7.1.3
Inference and interpretation
Tannen describes inferences as “statements which could not
be known simply from observation of the film, as for
example when the subjects report characters’ thoughts,
65
feelings, and motivations” (Tannen 1993: 47), as the below
example illustrates. The child assumes that there is a
reason for the bird to turn its head and therefore infers
that “he thought … something was behind him”:
He thought # he thought the dd # something was behind him so he turned
his head the other way.
(06e28, l. 4)
Child (03e21) also tries to assign a motive to the bird’s
turning of its head and infers that it is a reaction to the
dog’s barking because “he didn’t like that”:
He barked and it made a # and he and he didn't like that.
(03e21, l. 3)
In example (03e24), the child figures that the dog has a
reason to come running and infers the motive as “to see
what was going on”:
A dog came along to see what was going on.
(03e24, l. 2)
Interestingly, the scene where the bear chases the bird and
dog out of the cave, causes the most inference in both
groups of children. All inference relate to emotion fear,
or rather, the absence of fear as in example (03e23). In
this example, the child infers that “they must be brave”
66
and reveals thereby that he or she would feel fear in such
a situation:
They must be brave [^ they must be brave?] yea [^ who must?] the
bird and the dog .
(03e23, l. 11)
In the following examples, all children use a form of the
word “scare” and thereby infer that the protagonists are
scared by the bear:
He's scared [^ and what else happened?] they runned away.
(03e07, l. 12)
He scared out of poop of them.
(03e17, l. 12)
He scared # the dog [^ who was?] it was the bear.
(03e22, l. 12)
See the # the bear scared both of em away.
(06e28, l. 12)
They ran out because the um bird flew away and the dog run away
because the bear # the bear scared em .
(06e15, l. 12)
Remarkably, only one adult subject refers to this scene
with a form of “scare” (20e11, l. 12); all other adults
describe the scene in emotional neutral words. It can be
followed that the children infer the notion of being scared
because they expect themselves to be scared in a similar
situation.
In contrast to inference, interpretation does not
refer to the projection of inner states to the protagonists
67
of the cartoon, but tries to find an explanation for their
actions. The following two examples illustrate
interpretative language using the example of “friend”. Both
adult subjects interpret the action of shaking hands as a
gesture of friendship:
Monkey # uh monkey throws the rock away both animals shake hands
become friends and # both eat the bananas.
(20e06 l. 29)
Instead I guess they decide to become friends they shook hands and
just both started eating the bananas.
(20e07, l. 29)
Two other adult subjects interpret the handshake as an act
of congratulation:
The two animals # shake as if they have worked together to # reach a
common goal and they both # eat the bananas.
(20e08, l. 29)
The monkey throws the stick away # um the monkey and the bear shake
hands # I guess for they're achievement and begin to eat the bananas.
(20e10, l. 29)
This kind of interpretation of the hand shaking scene
cannot be found in the children’s cartoon-descriptions.
Presumably, the children have not yet acquired respective
frames that relate this action to the concept of friendship
or congratulation.
68
7.2 Experiment frame
The experiment frame influences the subjects’ oral
performance in a number of ways. As already pointed out,
the researcher and the subjects participating in this
experiment are watching the cartoon conjointly, which leads
to the exophoric use of the definite article as explained
in section 4.2.1. Further, the experiment frame affects the
subjects’ oral performance insofar as it brings about two
other influencing factors: interaction of researcher and
subjects and the subjects’ functional presumption.
7.2.1
Interactional frame
The major difference between the researcher-child
interaction and the researcher-adult interaction is that
the researcher does not need to “guide” the adult subjects
through their accounts. Hence, the interaction is not as
frequent as the researcher-child interaction and is rather
one-sided. It comes more or less implicitly from the
subjects, as the following examples illustrate:
4.
5.
7.
7.
11.
okay # the bird turned around to look at the dog.
okay # the tree is about to fall.
okay the bird chase started chasing the dog.
(20e05)
okay # the dog runs off and then the bird flies away.
okay # the same dog and bird appear and the dog runs into the
cave And then the bird follows.
(20e01)
69
The “okay” seems to be a signal to the researcher meaning
something similar to “Now I’m going to give you the next
description”.
The interaction between researcher and child is mostly
initiated by the researcher. In some cases, the children
need the researcher’s assistance to continue with their
account, as in example (06e27):
They all went out [^ and what else happened?] the bear went after em.
(06e27, l. 12)
In other cases, the researcher assists by providing the
lacking vocabulary, as “cave” in (03e24):
The bear just # got into that [^ what is that?] its a # I don't know
what that is [^ cave] yea cave.
(03e24, l. 10)
Still, the children do not simply respond to the
researcher’s questions but address him or her themselves
with the call “See # see” as in (06e28):
See # see he's chopping on the tree.
(06e28, l. 1)
7.2.2
Functional presumption
Bamberg lists four types of knowledge involved in story
comprehension. One of them is functional knowledge, “the
70
purpose for telling a story” (Bamberg 1986: 7). In this
thesis it will be argued that the purpose for telling a
story is not only involved in story comprehension, but also
in the production of oral accounts. Although the subjects
participating in the cartoon description task do not know
the purpose of their oral accounts, they subconsciously
presuppose a purpose for their accounts. This
presupposition of purpose for giving their account will be
labeled as functional presumption.
The functional presumption calls up certain frames with
respective semantic and grammatical features.
7.2.2.1
Adults’ functional presumption
All subjects are instructed to tell the researcher what
they see. In fact, a number of adults start their
descriptions with a preface indicating that they relate to
something they see or saw:
xxx just saw a bird pecking on a tree.
(20e01, l. 1)
I just saw a bird pecking on the tree.
(20e09, l. 1)
I see a bird pecking on a tree.
(20e13, l. 1)
I see a woodpecker pecking a tree.
(20e08, l. 1)
71
Subject (20e08) returns to the “tell you what I see
pattern” again in line 11 of the transcript:
Next you see # the dog run into the cave # and the woodpecker # fly
after him.
(20e08, l. 11)
Most of the adult subjects seem to assume that a mere
description of the events is the single purpose of their
oral accounts. Apart from the frequently occurring preface
“I see” or “I saw”, the adults also use different tenses
than the children. Due to the simultaneous watching and
describing, the tenses are rather confused in all cartoondescriptions; the subjects switch from present to past
without an analyzable pattern. However, the tense most
frequently occurring in the adults’ descriptions is the
simple present. They use it the same way in which it is
used, e.g., in sports reports.
7.2.2.2
Children’s functional presumption
While most of the adults comprehend the task as a mere
description task, the children seem to have rather
different expectations about this task. The group of threeyear-olds seems to assume that they are supposed to fulfill
a mixture of labeling and a story telling task; the group
of six-year-olds performs a mixture of labeling, story
telling and a description task.
72
7.2.2.2.1
A labeling task
Karmiloff-Smith pointed out that in her experiment the
children under 4 years old “decoded the whole task as a
naming task” (Karmiloff-Smith 1979: 121). She understood
that the large number of indefinite articles occurring in
her data resulted from the young children’s use of the
indefinite article in naming. As explicated in section
4.2.1, the indefinite article occurs more frequently in the
cartoon-descriptions of the three-year-olds than in those
of the six-year-olds. Assuming that the indefinite article
is in fact an indicator of the children’s expectation of
the task as a naming task, this expectation directly
affects the article usage.
However, there is more evidence for the assumption
that the children understand the task as a naming task. As
illustrated in section 4.1.1, only one child uses
extralinguistic pointing gestures for reference. This is
astonishing considering that especially the three-year-olds
have great difficulty in labeling a number of objects.
Still, they rather draw on different naming techniques
illustrated in sections 5 and 6 than to simply rely on a
pointing gesture.
Further evidence supporting the theory of the threeyear olds’ understanding of the task is provided by the
false starts and negative statements. As explained in
73
section 7.1.1, the negative statement “I don’t know”
indicates that they expect themselves to be able to name
the objects. In example (03e21), the negative statement is
preceded by a false start in which the child is obviously
aiming at a noun phrase:
Knocking down the banana with a # I don't know what that is.
(03e21, l. 21)
In example (03e24), the child first refers to cave with a
demonstrative pronoun, then tries to answer the
researcher’s question, “it’s a”, hesitates “#”, and finally
admits “I don’t know what that is”.
The bear just # got into that [^ what is that?] its a # I don't know
what that is [^ cave] yea cave.
(03e24, l. 10)
The next example shows a child trying to refer to an action
it cannot comprehend and therefore cannot label. The
negative statement is again preceded by false starts “The”,
hesitation “#”, and another false start “they were”:
The # they were I don't know I don't know.
(03e24, l.27)
In the following examples, the children try to verbalize
what they see in the cartoon directly after their negative
74
statement, which shows that they are trying to meet what
they believe to be the researcher’s expectations.
Child (03e23) has difficulty in referring to the
meronomical relation of tree and tree top, and consequently
has difficulty in labeling the tree top, but after the
researcher’s question the child attempts to refer to tree
top by a synecdoche pars pro toto:
I don't know [^ tell me what you saw] I don't know the tree walked
away.
(03e23, l. 8)
It is again the researcher’s question that elicits a prompt
labeling after an initial negative statement in example
(03e18):
I don't know [^ what is that?] a banana [^ and what did it do?] it
fell down.
(03e18, l. 16)
In example (06e16), the child starts with a negative
statement, but names the object as soon as he or she
believes to have recognized the object. Unfortunately, the
exigency results in a mismatch caused by an object
recognition error; the child mistakes the moving tree top
for a rock:
I don't know what that was it was a rock
(06e16, l. 8)
75
This illustrates how different knowledge ranges and
knowledge structures influence the subjects’ functional
presumption, and also illustrates how functional
presumption again influences word choice as well tense use
and article usage.
7.2.2.2.2
A story telling task
The theory that the children also understand the purpose of
the experiment as a story telling task is supported by
their use of formulations typical for stories as well as
their tense use. Child (03e24) even applies a formal story
closing phrase; although the formal closing does not occur
at the actual end of the cartoon, it still indicates that
the child perceives his or her account related to story
telling:
The dog # and the bird # lived happily ever after well the bird was
pecking and the dog was seeing what was going on.
(03e24, l. 5)
Child (03e21) introduces a sentence with “What happened
is”. This preface signals that the child is in the story
telling frame; further, he or she accounts the events in
the past tense typically used in stories:
What happened is he went into the cave [^ he went into the cave].
(03e21, l. 10)
76
As pointed out before, the simultaneity of watching and
describing causes a confusion in the use of tenses, and
adult subjects as well as the children switch from past to
present without an evident pattern. In spite of the tense
switching, the present tense is predominant in most of the
adult’s descriptions, while the past tense is predominant
in most of the children’s descriptions. As the adult’s
predominantly use the present tense because they assume
that they are supposed to fulfill a description task, the
children use the past tense because they assume that they
are supposed to fulfill a story telling task.
7.2.2.3
The cartoon-frame
Tannen further classifies a film-frame and a film-viewer
frame. In the film-viewer frame, expectations the subjects
have about themselves as film- viewers, or in this case
rather cartoon-viewers, come into play. Subject (20e07)
includes a number of utterances in his or her description
that rather refer to his or her assumptions about the
events of the cartoon than the actual events. In the
example below, subject (20e07) marks his or her assumptions
with “I guess” and thereby indicates that the following
utterances not only depict the events shown in the cartoon
but also reflect his or her inferences about the cartoon:
77
Then one of the bunches of bananas fell down hit the bear on the head
# hit then it hit the monkey on the head and landed in
between them so I guess now they're going to fight over it or
something.
Instead I guess they decide to become friends they shook hands
and just both started eating the bananas.
(20e07, l. 28 + 29)
The subjects participating in this experiment – children as
well as adults - hardly ever fall into the cartoon-viewer
frame. While it can be assumed that the young children
simply do not realize themselves as cartoon-viewers, the
six-year olds as well as the adults do not relate to their
expectations about the cartoon presumably for the same
reason why they hardly ever evaluate the events shown in
the cartoon: it is simply not included in the subjects’
functional presumption.
Far more influential is the film frame, or in this
case, the cartoon frame. The cartoon frame subsumes any
kind of pre-existing knowledge about cartoons including the
fact that events, objects and actions depicted are not
necessarily realistic. This explains some rather
idiosyncratic descriptions in the group of the children, as
the examples below demonstrate.
Child (03e04) mistakes the woodpecker for “the trees
eyes”, because in illustrations of children’s books or
cartoons in general it is not that unusual for a tree to
have eyes:
78
The # the # trees eyes was moving.
(03e04, l. 4)
Another child mistakes the hammering sound produced by the
woodpecker as some sort of tree language:
Nana tree [^ but what happened in there ?] he he said knock knock .
(03e17, l. 1)
The same child finds it possible that birds wear
sunglasses:
He put sunglasses on he he he um he # um he put his sunglasses on.
(03e17, l. 4)
These examples show that children classify factual
unrealistic events as part of a cartoon and hence classify
them as realistic due to their pre-existing knowledge of
cartoons.
79
8 Conclusion
In this thesis, the notion of frames outlined by Deborah
Tannen has been applied to oral accounts collected in a
cartoon-description task. Tannen states that “structures of
expectation make interpretation possible, but in the
process they also reflect back on perception of the world
to justify that interpretation” (Tannen 1993: 21). Although
the basic conditions of this study were different than
those in Tannen’s study, frames could be found and their
influence on vocabulary, story comprehension and story
production could be illustrated. It has been shown that
pre-existing knowledge assists in the recognition of
objects and in the comprehension of situations. The role of
outer conditions, in the analyzed data presented by the
experiment frame, and the assumed purpose for giving an
oral account, presented by the functional presumption, are
factors that influence oral accounts on different levels.
The functional presumption affects structural elements of
an account; it leads to a number of negative statements and
few evaluative elements this study. A different level of
frame which is related to general knowledge about the world
assist in the interpretation of gestures, as exemplified in
the scene where the protagonists are shaking hands. The
80
children merely report the action, presumably because they
have not acquired a frame that helps them to classify and
label this action, while this gesture calls up a
“friendship frame” in some of the adults. The analysis of
children’s and adults inference and interpretation
demonstrates that frames are acquired just as language.
Without a respective frame situations may not be fully
comprehended and hence not verbalized. Consequently,
children have to acquire frames to express themselves.
However, frames are also culture-specific. As the
world is becoming ever smaller with advanced communication
technologies, research into frame knowledge will be further
developed and play an important role in intercultural
communication.
I
I.
Appendix: Transcriptions
I.I.
Transcriptions of the three-year-olds
03e01
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The # he pound on the tree .
The doggie um # um # come on and watch that .
He # he says ruff ruff ruff at hh that [^ pointing to the bird] .
It turned around .
Um # it um # hammered [^ it hammered, good girl] .
It breaked [^ ok] the tree breaked .
That was a bird um # the tree broked the # the doggie runned away
and the bird flyed .
8. Something went by.
9. There # there they are again # there was a tree and a doggie and
bird.
10. they runned .
11. He went under there [^ ok, pointing to the cave] .
12. The dog went # the bird and the dog went in there with the bear
[^ with the bear, pointing to the cave] .
13. It said rrrrraahh the bear rrrraahhh [^ and?] they runned .
14. The bear and the doggie and the bird # and this one [^ the bear]
the bear said rrrraahh they say rrrrrahhh [^ and?] they went in this
tree .
15. The tree moved .
16. Maybe he's # he picked up a um # the um # the stick .
17. He # he hammered like this [^ he hammered ?] the tree .
18. A banana fell down on his head and it # went on the ground
[^ and it went on the ground, good girl] .
19. He he ate it with # a peel he didn't peel it off
[^ he ate the peel too?] .
20. He hammered like this
[^ showing how to hammer on the screen? he hammered?] on the tree .
21. A apple fell and it boinged [^ it boinged,ok] .
22. He # ate it .
23. He hammered it # he's hammer # he hammered on the tree .
24. He # he # he # he # um # um # he # he bb # the thing um # boinged
on his head and then it went on the ground
[^ it went on the ground the thing did] .
25. The # he said rrrraaahhh [^ you know what ? monkey] the monkey said
rrrraaahhh .
26. He taked the thing off the tree # off # his hand
[^ pointing to the bear] he taked # he taked it away from the bear
the stick .
27. [^ did you see what happened ?] It taked # the thing taked off the
tree .
28. He hammered like this .
29. The thing went on his head and it went boing .
30. They ated and and # [^ what do you think those are?] um bananas .
@End
Words 464
II
03e02
1. He's hammering [^ who is?] a bird .
2. It was a dog [^ and wh?] he's ruffing [^ he is?] .
3. He's saying ruff ruff ruff [^ who is ?] a dog .
4. He turned around .
5. He he # [^ he did what?] he hammered it .
6. The # the tree knock # knocked down .
7. The bird fly away [^ and?] and the dog runned .
8. [^ did you see that? wh?] The bird was fly away like this .
9. The bird # get the tree then he's eating it [^ he was?] .
10. The bear went on the # [^ do you remember what that was?] it was a
bear .
11. The bird flyed down and the dog run in it .
12. Um # the bear said rrrraaahh [^ did anything else happen?] um # the
bird fly away then it's gone .
13. The bear # um # um # um # the # um # um # the bird and the # dog
went in the tree .
14. The bird and the dog fly away [^ they did? are you sure?] .
15. He picked up the stick then he # then the # he's gonna go that way
then he's gonna get back in his home .
16. [^ what did he do?] He hammered a tree .
17. The banana fell down .
18. He eat the banana in his mouth .
19. He knocked # he kn he hammered the tree .
20. The apple fell down .
21. He eat the apple in his mouth .
22. He knocked .
23. A # it was a monkies [^ it was what?] monkies they fell off then
they cryed .
24. A lion [^ a what?] a lion [^ it was a lion?] .
25. He take the stick away from the bear .
26. He opened his mouth [^ he opened his mouth ?] .
27. He knocked all the way down [^ knocked all the way down ,ok] .
28. That fell down right on the floor # on the grass .
29. They eat the bananas then they shake hands .
@End
Words: 376
III
03e24
1. Ah # the bird was pecking a tree
[^ the bird was pecking the tree] .
2. A dog came along to see what was going on .
3. Well the bird the dog barked at him .
4. The bird went down and the dog went up .
5. The dog # and the bird # lived happily ever after well the bird was
pecking and the dog was seeing what was going on .
6. The tree fell off .
7. The # well # ah the # well the tree went up and the # the the dog
just ran away and bird flew after him .
8. The bear ran after the bird [^ the what did?] the bear .
9. A walkin tree [^ what else happened?] I don't know lets start the
film back .
10. The bear just # got into that [^ what is that?] its a # I don't know
what that is [^ cave] yea cave .
11. The dog and the bird went into a cave .
12. They # they runned # over and over again
[^ they runned over and over again ?] yea [^ what else happened?]
well the cave was # was # empty .
13. Yea that's a talkin # that's a walkin tree .
14. There were # the bear took onto a tr took a treebranch .
15. Well # the bear # tryed to hit a tree .
16. A banana # came down [^ a banana came down] .
17. Ah # the bear got a banana .
18. He hit the tree # again .
19. Well # the bear got an apple .
20. The bear just ate it [^ he ate it, ok] .
21. Well # the bear hit the tree with a monkey in it .
22. The monkey fell .
23. He roared [^ he roared?] he said aaaaahhhhh .
24. He took the tree branch .
25. He roared [^ he roared?] he said aaaaahhhhh .
26. Well # the monkey hit the tree .
27. The # they were I don't know I don't know .
28. Well # they shaked hands # and they ate pineapple .
@End
397 words
IV
03e03
1. Um # duckie knocking [^ the what?] the duckie knocking on the tree.
2. The # the doggie runned when the when the duckie was knocking .
3. Hh he was he he was um # he was barking .
4. [^ did you see what happened?] Um #
[^ tell me everything you saw] he was looking up in the sky
[^ say it a little bit louder for me] the # the # doggie was # was
looking up in the sky .
5. He knocked on the tree .
6. He was knocking on the tree and then it fell off .
7. The both runned away .
8. Um # part of the tree um runned away .
9. All of them runned the other way [^ they what?] all of them runned
the other way .
10. The # the # bear um # um # got in the fishes ear [^ got in what?]
the fishes ear .
11. Um # the birdie flyed and # and then he um # he got in his ear so
did the dd doggie .
12. They all runned out and the bear growled [^ he growled?] yea .
13. They were walking in the swimming pool and then they two well got
in the tree and the bear didn't .
14. The tree went away .
15. Um # the bear # walked and then he found a stick and he picked it up.
16. Um # hh he picked up and a stick and then he knocked it on the tree
and it wasn't make noise .
17. Um # one of those things um fell down and dropped on the floor
[^ what was that, do you remember ?] a banana
[^ it was a banana,ok] .
18. Um # he throw the stick um # away [^ and then what else?] um it
went away .
19. Um he walked and then he found a stick # ah the stick again and
then # it make noise when he um bumped it # .
20. Um # that goes down on the floor
[^ do you know what that was? # apple] .
21. He ate it [^ he ate what?] the apple .
22. Um # he picked up the stick and then knocked it on the tree .
23. He fell off [^ who did?] the duck .
24.
[^ what was that?] That was the bear growling at the monkey
[^ oh, the bear growled at the monkey ,ok] .
25. Um # the monkey taked away the stick from the bear .
26. Um # he dropped it down .
27. Now # now the ma # I mean the # I mean the monkey had the stick and
he knocked it on the tree .
28. The bb # the whole um bananas fell down .
29. Um # um # the mon # key throwed the stick down and then it went away
and then they share the apple and then they shaked hands .
@End
520 words
V
03e04
1. The # the # trees eyes was moving .
2. When # when a doggie was looking up he stopped .
3. When # when # when # the # the trees eyes was moving and then they
were stopped and went ruff ruff [^ what went ruff ruff ?] the dog .
4. The eyes moved and they turn around to triangles .
5. They turned around and um # the # the eyes went # like that .
6. The eyes were moving and the branch fell off .
7. The birdie flew away [^ and did anything else happen?] the dog run
away .
8. The leaf went away .
9. The doggie and the bird and a branch came back and they rr run up
the hill .
10. The bear crawled in his cave .
11. The dog and the bird # got in the cave .
12. That was a bear # when it got out the bear it went rrrraahhh .
13. The # the bird and the doggie was running and they hide in the tree
and there and they and the bear xxx the face .
14. They were they # got away .
15. The bear crawled away and he # lift up the wood .
16. He was hitting the tree .
17. A leaf fell down and he bumped his head and went down .
18. He ate # the leaf [^ ok] that was a banana .
19. He was hitting the tree and nothing came down .
20. A apple fell down on his head and then it # he looked down .
22. [^ ok] The tree came close to him and he walked away so he # he
hammered that tree and nothing came down .
23. Something came down on him .
24. It was a monkey [^ and what did the monkey do?] he went rrrraahh .
25. He took the stick away .
26. They both looked up on a tree .
27. He was hitting the tree and nothing came down .
28. Something fell bumped two heads pinecone .
29. [^ ok] They threw # he threw # the stick and then they ate some they
ate # the pinecone .
@End
384 words
VI
03e05
1. A bird [^ a bird what?] knocking the tree down .
2. A bb a dog came by an an and looked at the bird
[^ and looked at the bird, very good] .
3. The dd dd dog bb barked at the bird .
4. He turned around .
5. He knocked on it he knocked the tree (a)gain [^ uh huh, again] .
6. Knocked some leaves down [^ Knocked some leaves down?] .
7. They all flew they # the bird flew away and the dog ran away .
8. The # um the # um the # the leaves rolled away .
9. They went that way [^ what went that way?] the dog and the tree and
the bird .
10. The bear went in the cave .
11. xxx um the bear um the dog and the bird went in the cave .
12. The dog and the bird and the bear was trying to get the bird and the
dog # was trying to get away .
13. The # tree went away .
14. The # the bear picked up some wood .
15. He he he's try to knock the tree down .
16. He's he # the a bird came # flying right down .
17. And the bear um ate the bird up .
18. He's chopping that tree down .
19. Um a apple came falling right down
[^ it came falling right down, very good] .
20. He ate the apple up .
21. The monkey was on the tree and he was try he was trying to chop it
down .
22. The um the # the monkey fell down .
23. He's hh hh he said rrrrraaahh he jumped .
24. Um the bear he took the # the bear's chopping thing the wood away
from him .
25. He he he looked up in the tree # and the bear did too .
26. He he was chopping the tree down so so the so the bear wouldn't get
up so the so the so the so the tree will fall down on the bear .
27. A um um # um a pine # what just fell down like a tree .
28. [^ ok now tell me] Um the the bear and the monkey were shake
shakibg hands [^ and what else?] they they picked up some things to
eat .
@End
411 words
VII
03e06
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
He's knocking .
A doggie runned to his tree .
Um he # ruff ruff ruff [^ he barked, good girl] .
[^ tell me] He turned about [^ he turned about?] .
He's a woody # woodpecker [^ and wh?] he [^ tell me] knock knock
knock .
6. The tree falled the grass down his coat .
7. He flewed away [^ and what else?] the doggie runned and he wanted
his mother .
8. It grass grass runned [^ the grass ran , good girl] .
9. They # they runned back now [^ they ran back, good girl] .
10. He went into his cage .
11. They went # went in # in his cage .
12. He was gonna # he was aaaaa [^ he was what?] he was screaming
[^ ok, and what else happened?] the doggie went and the birdie flyed
away .
13. Um # the tree went away [^ uh huh] and the bear was wasn't gonna
get those little baby bear [^ the bears not gonna get them?] .
14. He picked up the tree thing .
15. He knocked # knocked the tree .
16. He # the banana falled for him # so he xxx # so he would get it .
17. He # he eatin it # with the peel off .
18. He knock knock knock .
19. It falled [^ talk here, wh?] it was gonna fall off so he eat it .
20. He eated it already .
21. He knocked it so he gets another orange .
22. Lot of bl # blananas falled .
23. Um the monkey said rrrrrraahh he said rrrrah .
24. The monkey took it away .
25. Um # he didn't get a blanana cause he didn't knock it .
26. It didn't fall down yet .
27. xxx [^ what?] xxx fall down [^ oh half of them fell down] .
28. They eat two of them .
@End
340 words
VIII
03e07
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
He knocked # the wall .
A dog was watching the bird knock the tree .
The bird didn't look at the dog [^ what did the dog do?] he barked .
Look backwards he didn't see any nothing .
He nn # do that again [^ he did what again?] knocked the tree .
The tree knocked down .
They flyed away and the dog # and the dog run .
The tree # come with the bird [^ he come with the bird] .
They # they went that way [^ who went that way?] the bird and the
dog and the # tree .
10. Bear went in his cage .
11. The dog went in the cage and the bird .
12. He's scared [^ and what else happened?] they runned away .
13. The tree went away all by itself .
14. The bear pick up # a stick .
15. Um ah it's trying knock down the tree .
16. A banana # banana [^ what did it do ?] it fall down on the grass .
17. Bears like to eat banana .
18. He's trying knock down a apple
[^ ok, he's trying to knock down an apple] .
19. He knocked down a apple .
20. He eat it all gone [^ he eat it all gone, ok] .
21. He's trying knock down a banana again .
22. The monkies jumped down .
23. He scared the bear .
24. He take the stick away from him .
25. They looked up the tree .
26. They kn # the tt # what's that it its # the monkey's trying knock
down a banana for the bear
[^ he's trying to knock down a banana for the bear] .
27. The bear # a banana got full of bananas .
28. They both eat bananas together .
@End
327 words
IX
03e17
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Nana tree [^ but what happened in there ?] he he said knock knock .
Doggie was there [^ doggie was there, good girl] .
He ruffed [^ he ruffed] .
He put sunglasses on he he he um he # um he put his sunglasses on .
He did that [^ what was that called?] a nana tree
[^ but what was he doing to it ?] xxx.
6. The tree fell off .
7. A birdie [^ what did the birdie do?] he flew away with the doggie .
8. The tr # part of the tree fell # the part # part of the tree rolled
and rolled and rolled .
9. Um the tree and the # and the doggie and the birdie flyed and then
and then and then the birdie and then the birdie was gonna go home .
10. He went in his other tent .
11. Birdie and the doggie went in in the tent .
12. He scared out of poop of them .
13. It moved away from him .
14. He picked it up .
15. The # a banana tree [^ and wh?] he knocked on the door .
16. What did he do?
17. He ate it he ate it .
18. Now is he getting another one ?
19. he knocked on the door and said I want nana .
20. apple it bum # it went on his head .
21. He ate it .
22. He knocked on the door .
23. A dog he went down here .
24. He said rah rah [^ who did?] the doggie .
25. Put his hand down .
26. Um # he knocked on the door .
27. He knocked on the door # he kn he knocked on the tree .
28. He got bananas out .
29. They ate em .
@End
323 words
X
03e18
1. Um # a hammer [^ a hammer] knocked on the tree
[^ knocked on the tree,very good] .
2. Dog came [^ a dog came] .
3. Um # um barked [^ what barked?] the dog .
4. He looked .
5. Ah # he knocked again [^ he knocked again] .
6. The tree fell down .
7. Flew away [^ who flew away] the bird [^ did anything else happen?]
catch the dog .
8. Um # one of the trees fell off .
9. Um # ran with the tree [^ what ran with the tree?] um the bird .
10. Um # the bear went in his cave .
11. The dog [^ and what else?] went in the cave .
12. The bear run with them [^ the bear run with them] .
13. The tree ran away .
14. Picked up a branch .
15. Knocked on a tree .
16. I don't know [^ what is that?] a banana [^ and what did it do?] it
fell down .
17. Ate the banana all up .
18. Um # knocked on a on another tree .
19. The banana came dd # another banana came down .
20. Ate it .
21. Um # knocked on another tree .
22. xxx the tree
[^ what did? do you know what that is? monkey] .
23. I don't know got up .
24. Took it away from the bear .
25. 0 [^ what did they do?] .
26. The monkey knocked it [^ the monkey knocked it] .
27. Knocked on both heads [^ it knocked on both of their heads?] .
28. Ate all the bananas .
@End
287 words
XI
03e19
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
He was chirping [^ he was chirping , very good] .
The dog running .
He barked .
The tree came down lower .
Ah # chirping [^ again huh?] .
The tree knocked down .
The tree came out a little farther [^ what else happened in there?]
something else broke right here
[^ ok, but didn't the dog and the bird go away?] yea .
8. A rock came by .
9. The rock's following the guys .
10. The bears xxx by # eating the kite [^ now wh?] he went threw the
kite and ate the kite # ate the kite too .
11. There gonna get crumbled up by the bear .
12. The bear was chasing them .
13. The bear didn't chase them again the tree moved .
14. Found the back .
15. Banging a tree .
16. I don't know what that was [^ banana] fell right on his head .
17. He was eating a bb # a banana on your papers .
18. He was banging the tree .
19. Apple came down on his head .
20. He ate part of the outside # the outside isn't part of the thing
you're not suppose to eat .
21. He bangdid the tree .
22. He was hiding behind the tree [^ what was?] the owl .
23. The monkey got scared .
24. He took his bananan away cause # cause bears aren't really suppose
to eat bananas .
25. I don't know .
26. He bangdid the tree .
27. Bangdid there heads [^ what did?] the pinecone .
28. The pinecone got away um they ate some bananas .
@End
292 words
XII
03e21
1. He was knocking on the tree and its a woodpecker .
2. The doggie's trying to get him right [^ what?] the dog is trying to
get em [^ yes that doggies is trying to get him] .
3. He barked and it made a # and he and he didn't like that .
4. His head turned around .
5. He turned his head into a bird head .
6. A tree fell down .
7. He flew away and the doggie run away .
8. It runned the tree # part of the tree run away .
9. The dd # the tree ran after the doggie and the um bird .
10. What happened is he went into the cave [^ he went into the cave] .
11. The bird and the um # the dog went in the cave .
12. He chase the bear chased em after .
13. The dog crawled away with it .
14. The bear picked up a # he walked over and picked up a log .
15. He's gonna knock down the tree to get some bananas .
16. He knocked a banana down .
17. He ate it .
18. He's knocking down some apples .
19. Ah # I not right it wasn't a apple it was a coconut
[^ and what did it do?] fell down .
20. He ate the shell .
21. Knocking down the banana with a # I don't know what that is .
22. It flew down [^ monkey] monkey .
23. He went rrrraahhh [^ who did?] the monkey .
24. The monkey took away the log .
25. He can't get a banana .
26. No banana falled .
27. A banana fall bananas fall down .
28. They shaked hands and ate # two bananas .
@End
311 words
XIII
03e22
1.
2.
3.
4.
Um # he was hammering [^ it was hammering?] yea .
Hammering and the dog runned out .
He barked .
I don't know [^ did you see that one ? wh?] I don't know
[^ you can tell me] I just don't know .
5. He was hammering .
6. The tree almost fell .
7. A bird [^ and wh?] the dog ran away and the bird flew with him .
8. A rock [^ and what did it do?] um # it it rolled over there to there.
9. Um # um they flew and um the dog ran and and he flew and then the
rock um followed .
10. A bear walking across # into the cave .
11. Um they went # went into the cave .
12. He scared # the dog [^ who was?] it was the bear .
13. It moved away .
14. Picking up um a st # a branch .
15. He bumped the tree and it almost fell .
16. A banana fell .
17. Um # um # um # he ate the banana with the skin on .
18. He's banging on the tree and it almost fell .
19. Another banana fell on him .
20. He ate it again .
21. It almost fell [^ what did?] the tree .
22. One of the monkies fell .
23. He screamed at the bear .
24. The monkey took it away from the bear .
25. Um # I didn't see .
26. Um # he was banging and some of the monkies fell off a little #
sorta .
27. I I don't know what that is [^ bananas] bananas The banana fell off.
28. Ateing bananas [^ is that all] no they have to eat these bananas
[^ oh, they have to eat those bananas] .
@End
320 words
XIV
03e23
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
He chopping a tree [^ he's chopping a tree] .
A dog came .
He's barked [^ he barked, ok] .
Now he turn his face [^ what was that?] xxx he turn his face .
Axing a tree .
He's still axing a tree [^ and did anything else happen?] no
[^ did you see the top of the tree fall off] yes .
7. xxx .
8. I don't know [^ tell me what you saw] I don't know the tree walked
away .
9. The doggie and the bird ran # that way .
10. A bear's walking # into his cave .
11. They must be brave [^ they must be brave?] yea [^ who must?] the
bird and the dog .
12. He growled and they got out .
13. Trees mm # the tree moved .
14. He was blocked by a tree .
15. No response recorded for #16.
16. A banana falls [^ a banana fall?] .
17. He ate it with a peel on .
18. He just hit the tree two times .
19. Another banana # fall .
20. What did he eat with the peel on # yuk .
21. He hit it two times .
22. And the monkies jumped down .
23. Those are apes [^ and wh?] I don't know [^ what did they do?] they
jumped .
24. He took his stick away .
25. He put it down .
26. He hit it three times .
27. The pinecone fell .
28. They both had fire in their hands [^ they both had what?] they both
had fire in their hands .
@End
287 words
XV
I.II.
Transcriptions of the six-year-olds
06e08
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The bird was chopping the tree .
The dogs are # was ready to get on the tree and scare the bird away.
Um he just stayed there .
He didn't know it was a dog .
The tree is trimming # like # um different .
The tree fell down .
The um woodpecker went after the dog .
Um I think someone # went after # help em [^ help em?, who did?] I
don't know .
9. A tree and a bird were chasing the dog .
10. The bear went um # in in his cave .
11. The um dog went in the bb # bear's cave # so did the um # so did the
um # bird .
12. The bear scared em away .
13. Um he took the look at the bush tree but he thought they weren't
there .
14. It's moving away [^ what is?] the tree .
15. He's thinking about them [^ who is?] the bear [^ is that all?] ah #.
16. He's chopping the tree like.
17. A banana came down for him .
18. He um ate the banana with the peel on it .
19. [^ wh?] He's chopping another tree again .
20. A apple fell down on his head and he's he um he looked at it .
21. He ate the apple .
22. He's chopping um another tree to get that man down .
23. It was a dead man .
24. It was a monkey [^ what did the monkey do?] he went rrrrraahh .
25. The monkey took the thing away .
26. They both look up on the tree .
27. The um monkey's getting big chops .
28. It fell on both of their heads .
29. They both made friends [^ what else did they do?] they shooked hands
and they share um the # the bananas .
@End
334 words
XVI
06e09
1. He's um # pecking the tree .
2. The dog is looking at the bird .
3. The doggie barked at the bir # bird .
4. He turned his head around .
5. He's pecking the tree again .
6. The tree fell down .
7. The bird flyed away and the dog runned .
8. The tree rolled away .
9. The tree's # um # chasing the bird and the dog .
10. The bear climbed in his cave .
11. The dog and the bird um went in his cave .
12. The bear chased the dog and the birdie .
13. They # they hided in the tree .
14. The tree went away .
15. The bear # um the bear picked up a branch .
16. The bear's um knockin the tree .
17. Banana fell down .
18. The bear ate the banana .
19. The bear's knocking the tree down .
20. Apple fell down .
21. The bear ate the bana # I mean not the banana # the apple .
22. He's knocking the tree down .
23. The monkey fell down .
24. The monkey # gg growled .
25. The monkey # um took the branch away from the bear .
26. Um # [^ did you see that?] no
[^ well I'll tell you this time, they both just looked up] .
27. The monkey um patted the tree again [^ the monkey did what?] he
knocked the tree down .
28. The bananas fell down .
29. They ate the bananas .
@End
269 words
XVII
06e10
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The bird is # pecking .
The dog # walk # ran across .
The bird was pecking and the dog # was # bb barking .
The bird looked the other way .
The bird went back to pecking his hole .
The bird pecked the um # top of the tree down.
The bird flyed after the dog .
The tree rolled away .
The # the bird was chasing the # dog # and um the tree top was
chasing the bird .
10. The bear was walking into his cave .
11. The dog and the bird went on inside the cave .
12. The bear was after the dog and the bird .
13. The # um # the bird and the dog hided in the # christmas tree and
the bear # was looking at the christmas tree .
14. A tree moved away from the # bear .
15. The bear picked up a board .
16. The bear um # walked over to a tree and he banged it with a # board.
17. A banana dropped on his head .
18. The bear ate all the banana .
19. The bear walked on and he banged another tree .
20. A apple fell down from the tree .
21. The bear ate the apple .
22. The bear banged # the tree.
23. The monkey fell down out of the tree .
24. The monkey was mad at the bear .
25. The monkey took the board away from the bear .
26. The bear looked up at the tree .
27. The monkey hit the tree .
28. A whole bunch of bananas fell on the bear's head and the monkey's
head and fell on the # ground .
29. The um monkey threw the board away and he started to eat the bananas
with the bear.
@End
328 words
XVIII
06e11
1. He # the bird was kn # trying to knock the tree over .
2. The dog is watching him .
3. Barking he barked [^ ok, he barked at #] the bird .
4. He turned around .
5. He's still doing it .
6. He knocked the tree over .
7. They ah # they flew away # the dd # the dog runned and the bird fly.
8. It flew away [^ ok, it?] it flew away .
9. The part of the tree chased # chased the bird and # the dog .
10. The bear's going in the cave .
11. The dog went in the cave # in the bird .
13. He growled [^ and?] they rr # the dog flew [^ the dog flew?] [^ wh?]
the dog # runned and the bear runned # and the bird flew .
14. They # they went in the tree [^ and?] the bear didn't .
15. It moved away [^ what did?] the tree .
16. He picked up the log .
17. He's trying to chop it down .
18. The leaf fell down .
19. He ate the leaf .
20. He's chopping the tree down .
21. The orange fell down .
22. He picked up the orange .
23. He's chopping that tree down .
24. The # [^ monkey] monkey fell down .
25. He growled .
26. He took the log away .
27. He looked up .
28. He's trimming the tree down .
29. It fell down .
30. He ate the ban # they both ate the bananas .
@End
278 words
XIX
06e12
1. Um # the bird was kn um knocking the tree
[^ knocking on the tree, very good] .
2. Um the dog came along and he was pecking .
3. Um # the dog was barking to the bird .
4. Um # xxx the bird went like this [^ went like this?] yea
[^ did he turn his head?] .
5. Um # hh it the trees about to knock off cause he was pecking on it .
6. Um the # he was um knocking on the tree.
7. They all flew away .
8. Um the tree went over there [^ it went over there?] .
9. Um # all the stuff went over there .
10. The bear went in his house .
11. The bird and the dog went in his house .
12. The bear um screamed at them .
13. Now the bear can't find em .
14. Now the bear um is trying to look for them um # the tree moved over.
15. And the bear saw # um a log [^ uh huh and ?] and um # he was going
back home .
16. Um he's trying to get a banana .
17. A banana fell down .
18. He ate it .
19. He was do # he was trying to get a um a orange .
20. The um thing fell down [^ the what?] the orange fell down .
22. He ate it # with the orange peel on .
23. Um # he's knocking on the banana thing again .
24. The um # bear fell down I mean I mean the monkey fell down
[^ monkey fell down , ok] .
25. The monkey went rrrraaahh .
26. Um # hh um # the monkey took the thing # the wood .
27. [^ did you see wh?] I didn't see it .
28. Um # now the um # monkey's doing it # pounding it .
29. Um the um # that side of the bananas fell down .
30. Um # they're now um # the monkey shared [^ shared what?] the bananas.
@End
363 words
XX
06e13
1. The bird was tapping on the tree .
2. The bird was # knocking on the tree # and the dog came # and he #
barked .
3. The # the # woodpecker was pecking on the tree # and the dog barked.
4. I forgot # The bird was pecking on the tree and the dog was barking .
5. The bird was pecking on the tree again [^ again] .
6. The bird was pecking on the tree and half of the tree came off .
7. The bird flew away after the dog .
8. The ss # ball ran # out of the film
[^ uh huh the ball went out of the film] .
9. The tree was chasing # the # dog # and the # dog was chasing the
bird .
10. The bear went into his cave .
11. The # bird went in and the bear # and a the dog went in .
12. The bear was chasing the dog # and the dog was chasing the # bird .
13. The bear was chasing them and then the dog got in the tree and the
bird flew up to the top .
14. The # the tree went away .
15. The # bear was gonna # kick something .
16. The bear was knocking on the tree .
17. A banana fell down .
18. He ate the banana .
19. He was knocking on the tree .
20. A # pineapple fell down .
21. He ate the pineapple .
22. He was knocking on the tree .
23. The dog fell down .
24. The monkey woke up .
25. He took # the # tree away from the boy # bear .
26. [^ what did they do?] He climbed up the tree .
27. The monkey hit the tree .
28. The # pineapple # fell down # off of the tree # and hit the monkey's
head and hit the bear's head .
29. [^ what were they doing?] Um # they were fighting
[^ they were fighting? did they do anything else?] no .
@End
366 words
XXI
06e14
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Um # he was pecking on the tree .
A dog was trying to get up in tree and # get # the bird .
The dog rr # the dog # um # barked .
The bird turned his head .
He # he he turned his head this way and then started pecking again .
The top of the tree fell off cause he pecked it too much .
The dog and the bird flew away .
The the the top of the tree rolled .
The the dog and the a # bird and and the bush rr the bush rolled
over there and then the # the dog went after it oh and the bird went
after it [^ uh huh the bird went too] .
10. The bear went into the cave .
11. The dog and the bb bear I mean the dog and the bird went in it .
12. The bear was # mad and the # the dog and the bird rr ran out .
13. They ran into the tree and the bear couldn't catch em .
14. The tt the tree rr the tree went away .
15. He picked up a piece of wood or something .
16. He he was patting the tree .
17. A banana fell down .
18. He ate it with the skin on .
19. He was patting that tree .
20. The apple fell down from the tree .
21. He ate the apple .
22. He was patting that tree came back to the banana tree .
23. Ah # ah # a whole bunch of # bananas came down .
24. That didn't # that wasn't a banana # that was a monkey
[^ and what did the monkey do?] he said rrrrraahh .
25. The monkey tt took his stick # and then # didn't um # the bear was
very ss was very mad .
26. They both looked up .
27. Um # he patted the tree .
28. Some bananas fell down .
29. They # they're sharing the bananas .
@End
366 words
XXII
06e15
1. The woodpecker was # the bird was knocking on the tree.
2. The when the bird was knocking the dog came over and looked at the
bird.
3. The bird was knocking on the tree and the um dog began to bark at it.
4. The bird turned around .
5. After it turned around it ww looked back at the tree and started
knocking again .
6. The dd # um # the bird knocked on the tree then the a then one part
fell off of the tree .
7. After it fell down the dog runned away and the bird flew away .
8. Um a rock rolled over and then the tree went like that .
9. The dog ran and the um bird flew and the other part of the tree went
with them .
10. Um the bear was walking on there and then he went back in his cave .
11. The dog ran and he went # and he went in there and the bird missed
the turn and he flew back and went in there with the dog .
12. They ran out because the um bird flew away and the dog run away
because the bear # the bear scared em .
13. When they were running across those bumps the dog run in there and
the bird flew in there and then they peeked out when the bear comed .
14. The dog was still staring when the tree runned away.
15. The bear walked back and he picked up a branch.
16. He # he walked with the branch and then he knocked on that tree two
times.
17. Um # he knocked on the tree # one more time and then um # something
fell down .
18. The something that fell down um the bear ate it.
19. After he ate that thing he um # walked with his um # stick in his
hand and # then he knocked on that tree again .
20. A nut fell down and then he saw it fell down.
21. He dropped his stick and ate the nut .
22. He walked over to the other tree and um # took a stick to knocked on
a tree two times .
23. The thing fell down.
24. The monkey um jumped up and ss um # um # oo ah um # did like the
bear did when he scared those um # when the when he scared the dog
and the bird .
25. He ss # the mon # the monkey stand there for a little bit and then
he took his he took the thing away from him .
26. The monkey um # hit um # the bear reached his arms like that.
27. Um # the when the bear put his um arms down the um # the monkey
knocked two three times .
28. The monkey knocked it two times and then the um nut fell down and
hit the bear's head and the monkies head and then after it did that
it fell below the tree .
29. Um # after a while when # the nut fell down um # the monkey threw
the stick and um then the monkey shaked the um # the hand with the
bear and the bear shook the hand with the monkey and then they both
picked a nut and ate it .
@End
582 words
XXIII
06e16
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The chicken [^ the chicken what? do you remember what he did?] .
Um the doggie came .
He barked [^ who barked?] the doggie .
I didn't see .
He was knocking on the tree then he went back .
It knocked down the tree .
Now he's going after the dog .
I don't know what that was it was a rock
[^ and what did the rock do?] roll .
9. Um # the tree went with it and the dog was running and the # um #
bird was flying .
10. Now the bear's walking # now he's walking into a # cave .
11. The cat and dog # no the # the dog and bird went in there .
12. They all went out and he said that noise .
13. They went in the bush and the bear stand out there .
14. The tree moved away .
15. The bear picked up his stick .
16. Now he was knocking to try to get those things down from the tree .
17. Now he # now he # um # put it the stick down .
18. He ate a banana .
19. Now he's knocking on another tree to get a banana down .
20. It fell on his head .
21. He ate it .
22. He was knocking on another tree .
23. Something fell on his head .
24. He # he said rah rah .
25. I didn't see Oh he was # he sit down on his arm .
26. He # they both stand ww he just stand up .
27. He's hitting the tree .
28. A beehive fell down .
29. They were eating a banana and they shake hands .
@End
309 words
XXIV
06e20
1. Um # the bird was pecking on a tree and then he stopped.
2. It stopped [^ did anything else happen?] a dog came.
3. The dog was # barking and then he stopped.
4. He looked that way and then stopped.
5. He # um pecked again and then he stopped.
6. Leaves felled off [^ oh, leaves fell off].
7. No ones at it # no ones at it.
8. Um # the pile went away.
9. They keep doing that # going back and forth.
10. Bear went into his cave.
11. The dog went in the cave and the bird went in the cave.
12. Ah # the um bear went after the dog.
13. Um he's chasing the dog and the bird # um # they're gg hiding in
there [^ they're hiding in there?] .
14. The tree's moving away.
15. The bear picked up a piece of wood.
16. Pineapple tree # and he's cutting down it .
17. Ah # the bear stopped and # one of the leaves fell off .
18. The bear got that leaf and ate it .
19. He he he hit on the tree again .
20. A apple fell on his head .
21. Picked it up and ate it .
22. He was knocking on the tree and then he stopped .
23. [^ monkey] Monkey fell out of the tree .
24. He got up # and made noise .
25. The um # monkey took the away from # the bear .
26. Looked up in the tree .
27. Um the monkey was hitting it on the tree too and then he stopped .
28. One fell on their head .
29. They both ate leaves and they shaked hands .
@End
301 words
XXV
06e25
1. That bird was um # pecking um the the tree .
2. That that dog was um watching the um bird peck the tree .
3. The dog was um # talking to the bird .
4. The um bird turned around .
5. The bird # turned back around and started pecking again .
6. The tree fell down .
7. The dog runned away and the bird flyed away .
8. The tree limbs runned away .
9. Um # they're gg # they're chasing the dog a little bit .
10. Bear went into his cave .
11. The dog and the bird went # in the cave .
12. They came out of the cave [^ and what else?] chased em out of his
home .
13. They hided in the bushes from the bear .
14. The tree runned away with the dog and the bird .
15. The bear took up a um # a log .
16. The bear was hitting the tree .
17. Banana bounce on his head .
18. He ate the banana .
19. He was # hitting the tree again .
20. A apple bounced on his head .
21. He ate the apple .
22. He hit the tree again .
23. The whole bunch of bananas fell down on his head and then bounce and
the other xxx too .
24. It was a um # [^ monkey] a monkey he thought it was a # a whole
bunch of bananas .
25. He took the log from the bear .
26. 0 [^ let's go on and do the next one] .
27. He was # the that monkey was hitting the tree .
28. Um # the bananas bounce on the um bear's head and then it bounce on
the monkey's head and it bounce in the middle .
29. They're eating bananas .
@End
322 words
XXVI
06e26
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Bird pecking a tree .
Dog watching the bird peck the tree .
The bird pecking a tree with a dog barking at it .
The bird moved his head .
The dog watching the bird peck the tree and the bird moved .
The dog watched the bird peck the tree and # um # the tree fell down.
The tree # the tree grew up cause the bird was pecking at it when
the dog ran away the bird went after him .
8. Um # the part of the tree moved away .
9. The dog went after the dog that was watching the bird peck the tree
and the pp the tree that pecked is going after them .
10. A bear went in a cave .
11. The bear # went in the cave and the then the dog and then the bird .
12. Um # the # the bear went after the bird when the # bird's going
after # the um # dog .
13. The bird # and the dog went inside and the bear can't find them .
14. The # the tree went away with the dog and # the bird and the bear is
still sitting there not knowing where it went .
15. The bear crawled back and picked up a log .
16. He's hitting a tree # with the log .
17. A nut fell down on his head .
18. He's # he ate it .
19. He's # he's hitting a apple tree with another log .
20. Ah aa # he was hitting the apple tree with a log and the apple fell
on head and he's looking at it .
21. He ate the apple .
22. He's hitting a tree with the # the same log .
23. Um # [^ monkey] monkey came down .
24. The monkey growled at the bear .
25. Hh # the monkey took it away from the bear .
26. [^ did you see what happened?] The monkey put the log down and they
both looked up .
27. He # the monkey's hitting the tree wh when they looked up .
28. Um # a beehive # fell down on their head .
29. Beehive fell down and they're eating it .
@End
398 words
XXVII
06e27
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The bird pecking a tree .
The dog tryed to get the bird .
He started to bark at the bird .
He turned around .
He started to peck the tree again .
He pecked it off .
He flew away and the dog ran away .
The branches went away too .
They went the other way [^ who did?] the # the branches and the bird
and the dog .
10. He walked inside of a hand .
11. The dog ran in the bird went in .
12. They all went out [^ and what else happened?] the bear went after em.
13. They flew into the tree and the bear can't find em now .
14. The tree # the tree went away with them .
15. The bear got a piece of wood .
16. He's trying to knock the tree down .
17. The bb # something hit em on the head [^ do you know what it was?]
what [^ banana] .
18. He ate it .
19. He's trying to knock that tree down and a and a apple gonna fall on
him .
20. The apple fell on him .
21. He ate it .
22. A bird's sitting in the tree that # somethings gonna fall on him
again .
23. The monkey fell .
24. He growled at it .
25. Um # the bear tryed to do something to him .
26. The bear standed up .
27. The monkey got that branch and tryed to hit the tree .
28. Something fell down .
29. They shaked hands and started being friends and # and they both ate
it .
@End
294 words
XXVIII
06e28
1. See # see he's chopping on the tree .
2. While he was chopping on the tree a dog came along and looked at him.
3. While he was chopping on the tree the dog saw him and barked # at
him .
4. He thought # he thought the dd # something was behind him so he
turned his head the other way .
5. So then he turned his head back the other way and started chopping
because he thought it was gone .
6. The tree fell # half of his tree branches fell down .
7. What # what happened is the bird flew away and the dog ran away .
8. Um the tree branch walked away # that's what happened .
9. The dog and the bird came back and the tree branch came back and
they went over the hill .
10. The bear was up on the hill and he went into his cave .
11. The dog and the bear # the dog and then the bird went into the
bear's cave .
12. See the # the bear scared both of em away .
13. They both hid in # they both jumped into the tree and hid # from the
bear .
14. The tree # the tree walked away .
15. A bear the bear started walking back to his cave and before he got
there he found something .
16. He's starting hit # he started hitting it on the tree .
17. A banana fell on his nose .
18. He ate the banana .
19. He's hitting a apple tree .
20. A apple fell on his head .
21. Um # the aa # he ate the apple .
22. He's hitting a tt # he's hitting the same tree [^ ok] # that he did
before and a monkey # is on it .
23. The monkey fell on his head .
24. The monk # the monkey growled .
25. Then the monkey grabbed his stick # the bear's stick .
26. I missed that one .
27. Now the monkey's hitting the tree with his stick and noth and
nothing fell .
28. The bananas # a banana fell on this side and it hit his head and
then it bounced back over onto his head and then it fell on the
ground .
29. He started hitting and then he threw his stick away and then they
both shaked hands and they're eating the bananas .
@End
428 words
XXIX
I.III.
Transcriptions of the twenty-year-olds
20e01
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@End
xxx just saw a bird pecking on a tree.
okay # Bird continues pecking on a tree And the dog appears in the
background and then sits and looks at the bird.
The dog then barks at the bird.
Um the bird turns his head and looks # away from the tree.
okay # the bird continues to peck at the tree and it dit pecks # into
the tree and it's xxx # there's just a little bit sitting on top.
And the top of the tree falls off and the dog kind of # looks back
at it.
okay # the dog runs off and then the bird flies away.
Then the top of the tree runs away.
The dog runs across the screen seemingly chased by the bird which is
in turn # followed by the top of the tree.
The bear appears and # walks # into a cave.
okay # the same dog and bird appear and the dog runs into the cave And
then the bird follows.
The bird and the dog run out of the cave chased by the bear # which
growls at them.
The dog and the bird # run and fly into the tree # and look at the
bear And the bear stops and looks at them.
The tree slides off the edge of the screen.
The bear walks away but stops to pick up his shadow.
Then walks to a # tree # and hits the tree with his shadow.
A banana subsequently falls to the ground.
He drops his shadow which disappears and then eats the banana whole.
Walks to an apple tree and begins hitting it with # what I will take
to be his shadow.
An apple falls down hits him on the head and then # falls to the
ground.
The bear eats the apple.
He picks up his shadow again walks to a banana tree # upon which is
sitting some red creature # and he hits the tree .
The monkey falls out of the tree and lands on the bear's head and
then falls to the ground.
The monkey becomes irrate # and screams at the bear.
The monkey takes # um whatever the bear was carrying around from
him.
They both look up # at the banana tree anticipating that the bananas
will fall down.
They both look at each other and then the monkey starts hitting the
tree.
A clump of bananas floats softly to the ground # ah # first hitting
the bear and the monkey.
Monkey throws the stick away which disappears And then both the bear
and the monkey commense to eat bananas.
XXX
20e02
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@End
A woodpecker is pecking in a tree.
A dog came running # curious about the noise # the woodpecker was
making.
Now the dog is barking at the woodpecker.
Wookpecker look # turns aroun # looks around.
He pecks a big hole # in the tree.
The top of the tree fell down # beside the dog.
And the dog # runs away # woodpecker # goes in the same direction.
And the top of the tree # goes out of the film # out of the #
picture.
And the dog is running # woodpecker still flying after it and the #
tree going after the woodpecker.
And there's a bear that crawls into his # hole # cave.
The dog and the woodpecker fly in # dog runs in there and the
And the bear chases them both out.
And both the dog and the woodpecker hide in the tree.
Then the tree moves out of the picture # with the dog and the
woodpecker in it.
Then the bear picks up a piece of wood # like a club.
Then he hits the tree # with it.
A banana fell on his head # then to the ground.
Picks up the banana and eats it.
Then he walked to another tree with the apples in it and hit it with
the stick.
Apple falls down on his head then on the ground again.
Then he picks up the apple and eats it.
Then he walks back to the banana tree again and hits it with the ss
stick again.
There was a monkey on the top of the tree it fell down on his head
and then on the ground.
Then the monkey starts # yelling towards the bear.
Picks the # stick from the bear # takes it from him.
And then the bear is pointing towards the bananas.
Then the monkey is hitting with # tree with the stick.
Then the bunch of bananas fall on the bear's head # then on the
monkey's head # and then on the ground.
Then the monkey and the bear shake each other hands # and then they
eat the bananas.
XXXI
20e03
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There was a bird in a tree # pecking the tree.
okay a dog approaches and looks up at the bird.
The dog barks at the bird.
The bird # looks around and probably sees the dog.
Ah # the bird pecks the tree # and # pecks some of it away.
The # top of the tree falls off.
Um # the dog runs away and the bird flies away.
And the top of the tree rolls away.
The tree and the dog and the top of the tree cross the picture # the
other way .
okay there's a bear going into a cave.
The dog and the bird go into the cave.
The bear chases them out.
The bear # chases them # the dog and the bird to a tree and they
hide in the tree.
The tree moves away # from the bear.
The bear # finds a big stick and picks it up.
The bear # hits a # a # like a palm tree with # the stick.
A banana falls down # and hits the bear on the nose.
The bear eats the banana.
The bear # comes to an apple tree and hits it with the stick.
An apple falls off the tree and hits him on the head.
Bear eats the apple.
The bear goes back to the banana tree and hits it # with the stick
but there is something red on top a monkey ok.
The monkey falls off the tree and hits him on the head.
The monkey gets mad # at the bear.
He takes away the bear's stick.
The bear wants a banana.
The monkey hits the tree with the stick.
A whole # bunch of bananas fall off the tree # and hit them both on
the head.
They share the bananas.
XXXII
20e04
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@End
The bird's pecking at the tree.
The dog's trying to scare the bird # trying to get to the bird.
The dog's barking and the bird stopped pecking.
The bird's # turning to look at the down at the dog.
It's ignoring the dog and going about its business # keeps pecking.
Chopped down top of the tree.
Bird chased the dog away.
The top of the tree rolled away.
Bird's chasing the dog and the top of the tree is flying after the #
bird.
They are going into # the cave.
Dog and the bird go into the cave after the bear.
The bear chases both of them out.
The dog and the bird hide behind the tree # in the tree.
And they move the tree away # hiding behind it.
The bear walks away and # picks something up off the ground.
He's trying to chop down a tree with # whatever he picked up off the
ground.
Um # looks like a banana fell out of the tree.
Bear eats the banana.
Goes to an apple tree # tries to knock apples out of the tree.
Apple falls out of the tree.
Eats the apple.
Walks back to the # banana tree and starts hitting the banana tree.
Monkey falls off the top.
Monkey's screaming at the bear.
Monkey takes the branch away from the bear.
They both look up into the tree.
Monkey's hitting the # banana tree.
A bunch of bananas falls out # hits the bear # on the head # hits
the monkey on the head # falls on the ground.
Bear and the monkey shake hands and they both eat the bananas.
XXXIII
20e05
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@End
There there's a bird pecking on a tree.
A dog came # and its staring at the bird # up in the tree.
The dog's barking at the bird.
okay # the bird turned around to look at the dog.
okay # the tree is about to fall.
It fell.
okay the bird chase started chasing the dog.
The tree started chasing the # the bird.
okay # the wind blew it away # no now its chasing it for sure.
The bear just went in the cave.
Dog and the bird just went in the cave.
There all three of them were scared out of there.
The two # the bird and the dog went in the tree and were hiding from
the # bear.
The tree moved away # with the bird and the # dog in it.
The # bear picked up something and he's looking at it # like a brick
or something # wood.
okay he's trying to hit at a tree # he is going to try and knock it
down.
okay he was knocking down and he knocked out a banana # he is gonna
pick it up now.
He picked it up and started eating it.
He's knocking the tree so he can get some apples down now.
It fell on his head and it's sitting there on the ground.
Picked up the apple and ate it.
Now he's knocking the tree # again with the bananas on it there is
something else on top of the tree # the monkey.
The monkey fell and hit the # bear and its on the ground now #
unconscious.
The monkey just yelled at the bear because its pissed off at him.
Monkey took the club from the um # bear # and it looks like he might
hit him.
Now they both look up in the tree # where the fruit is.
Now the monkey starts hitting the tree cause he wants to get the
fruit down.
A whole bunch hit both of them on the head and fell to the ground.
They shook hands cause they had done a good job and they both
started eating the bunch.
XXXIV
20e06
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@End
Bird's pecking on a tree.
A dog came # and its staring at the bird # up in the tree.
Dog's barking at the bird who's pecking on the tree.
Bird became intimidated by the dog stopped pecking and looked around
to see who was barking at it.
Bird looked around # and # turned around and continued pecking on
the tree.
Bird pecked on the tree until the top fell off.
Dog ran away and the bird flew after it.
Top of the tree followed # both the dog and the bird.
All three came back and past the tree.
Bear comes into the cartoon # finds a cave and crawls into it.
Dog and the bird come by and enter into the same cave.
Bear scares out # both the bird and the dog out of the cave.
Bear chases the # bird and the dog into a tree # and stops and looks
for them.
The tree which contain the bird and the dog cr walks away.
Bear is confused walks back # picks up a rock and looks at it.
Dog walks to a tree with a rock and bangs the rock on the tree.
A piece of fruit falls from the tree onto the bear's head.
Bear picks up the fruit that fell from the tree and eats it.
After eating the fruit the bear walks to another tree with the same
rock and hits the rock onto the tree.
An apple falls from the tree hits the bear on the head and lands on
the ground.
Bear picks up the apple and eats it.
Bear picks up the rock walks back to the banana tree and hits it #
um something's on top of the tree I don't know what it is # Oh it's a
monkey on top of the tree.
Monkey falls from top of the tree onto the bear's head and lands to
the ground.
Monkey becomes mad at the bear for hitting his tree with the rock #
and yells at him.
Monkey takes the rock out of the bear's hand.
Both animals look up at the uh bananas.
After looking up at the tree # the monkey takes the rock and hits
the tree.
After hitting the tree # a batch of bananas falls from the tree onto
the ground.
Monkey # uh monkey throws the rock away both animals shake hands
become friends and # both eat the bananas.
XXXV
20e07
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@End
The woodpecker's pecking the tree.
A dog appeared out of nowhere and is # looking at the bird trying to
figure out what it's doing.
Dog's barking at the bird.
Bird looks around to see wh where the noise is coming from.
And then it just goes back to doing what its doing # just # pecking
on the tree.
Bird # pecked away through the tree and knocked part of it down.
The dog gets kinda scared # not realizing what it is and runs away #
and the bird flies after it # I guess either because he's finished
doing the tree or he thinks he's gained control and is chasing after
the bird one or the other.
The top of the tree ran away.
xx the tree's chasing # well ok the dog's running away cause its
scared # the bird's chasing the dog and the tree's chasing the bird.
Bear looks kind of tired so he goes into his cave # or just walks in
there.
So the # the dog is following and runs into the cave and the bird's
running into the cave too looking for shelter I guess xx hide or
something.
And they're both chased out by the bear.
The dog and the bird hide in the tree # and the bear's looking for
them.
The tree starts moving with the dog and the bear in it they're
looking at the bear.
Bear looks kind of confused # turns around walks away and picks up
like uh a tree stump or a twig a really large # piece of the tree or
something.
He's looking at it and # hitting it against a a palm tree I guess
with bananas or coconuts or something like that I don't # they look
like bananas but palm trees don't have # bananas.
It is a banana # it's a banana and he was hitting the tree and so
one of them # shook down.
So I guess he was hungry that's why he was chasing the bird and the
dog and he gave up and so he went back and # ate bananas.
Now he wants apples so he goes and does the same thing to the apple
tree.
And an apple falls on his head so he looks down # probably eat it.
And he does.
I guess he liked the bananas better so he went back to the banana
tree # not realizing that there's like a monkey or gorilla on top of
the tree and is hitting the tree trying to get the bananas down but.
Instead down came the gorilla or monkey # and hit him on the head
and fell down beside her.
He looks kind of mad and is jumping up and down and trying to scare
the bear # frighten him or something # get back at him.
He takes away the bear's stick.
And they're both looking up at the bananas.
Then they look at each other # and the gorilla or the monkey starts
hitting the I guess to get the bananas down.
Then one of the bunches of bananas fell down hit the bear on the
head # hit then it hit the monkey on the head and landed in between
them so I guess now they're going to fight over it or something.
Instead I guess they decide to become friends they shook hands and
just both started eating the bananas.
XXXVI
20e08
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@End
I see a woodpecker pecking a tree.
The woodpecker continues to peck the tree # and a dog comes running
up # and stops at the tree and sits down.
The woodpecker continues to peck the tree # the dog looks up at the
woodpecker and starts to bark.
The woodpecker stops pecking # and stands still # and the dog keeps
on staring at him and then the woodpecker turns away.
The woodpecker stays turned away then turns back around and starts
pecking the tree and the tree appears # to be getting # chipped at
the top like it's about ready to fall off.
The woodpecker keeps on pecking at the tree and the top of the tree
falls down # the woodpecker looks at it and so does the dog.
The dog appears to be frightened at what just happened and he runs
away and the woodpecker flies after him.
The tree stays still for a moment then the part that # fell off
chases the bird # and the dog.
You now see the dog being followed by the woodpecker # being chased
by the tree come back into the picture.
You see a cave and a bear approaches the cave and he looks jolly
because he keeps on pounding his chest and he # goes into the cave
and is out of sight.
Next you see # the dog run into the cave # and the woodpecker # fly
after him.
The bird flies out of the cave # being followed by the dog # being
followed by the bear who # lets out a roar.
Next you see some ground that's uneven # and you see the dog running
# and the bird flying right above him being chased by the bear and
they run and hide in the tree and stick their faces out # and the
bear # is on the outside and he stares at em.
Next the tree moves # with the bird and the dog in it # and the bear
stays stationary.
The bear turns away # and picks up something that appears to be a
piece of wood # and looks at it.
The bear takes the wood and uses it it as a tool to # start pounding
on a tree possibly to # get something out of the tree.
The pounding motion made a banana fall out of the tree # hit him on
the head and fall on the ground.
The bear drops the wood and eats the whole banana.
The bear continues until he reaches an apple tree and he uses the
same process as before and hits the tree with a piece of wood.
An apple falls from the tree and hits him on the head # falls on the
ground # and he looks at it.
The bear eats the apple in one bite.
The bear picks up the wood and goes back to the # banana tree # and
he starts to hit the tree # to get another banana # and meanwhile
there's some # strange looking red creature on top of the tree.
The creature from the top of the tree which possibly is a monkey
falls on the ground # on his back.
The thi the animal that fell on the ground is a monkey or a #
chimpanzee or something and he gets off his back and jumps up and
down # and he yelps at the bear.
The monkey stares at the bear and takes his piece of wood from him.
Both animals look up at the tree possibly communicating the thought
that they # both want bananas.
The monkey pounds the tree three times # and # stops.
Ah a whole bunch of bananas fall from the tree # and hit the bear on
the head # then bounce and hit the monkey on the head and then fall
to the ground.
The two animals # shake as if they have worked together to # reach a
common goal and they both # eat the bananas.
XXXVII
20e09
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@End
I just saw a bird pecking on the tree.
A dog just came up to the tree and looked up at the bird.
The dog's barking at the at the bird in the tree.
The bird was looking around at since the dog barked.
The bird knowing he was safe went back to # um pecking at the tree.
The bird just pecked through the trunk of the tree and it the top
part fell off.
The bird flew after the dog.
The top of the tree just ran after both of the the dog and the bird.
The dog and the bird and the tree just ran past the screen.
A bear just walked into the cave.
The dog and the bird followed the bear into the cave.
The bear just tap chased the dog and the bird ou out of the cave.
The bear just chased the dog and the bird and they hid # behind in a
tree.
The tree just moved away with the dog and the bird in the tree.
The bear just picked up a # a log.
The bear's hitting a palm tree with a log.
It was a banana tree and a banana just fell out of the tree.
The bea the bear just ate the banana.
Now the bear's hitting an apple tree with a log.
An apple just fell out of the tree.
The bear just ate the apple.
The bear's hitting the banana tree again.
I think of the bird that just fell out of the tree .
It's a monkey # and the monkey just yelled at the bear.
Then the monkey just # took the bear's log.
And they both # the bear and the monkey both just looked up into the
tree.
Now the monkey's hitting the tree with a log.
This time a whole bunch of bananas fell down # hit the bear on the
head then the monkey on the head # then to the ground.
The monkey threw a the log away it disappeared # they shook hands #
and then they both began to eat the bunch of bananas # together.
XXXVIII
20e10
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@End
okay um # the woodpecker's obviously sitting on a branch # um pecking
at the tree.
A dog um comes running up # and uh # views the woodpecker in the
tree sits down below him and observes.
The dog begins to bark at the woodpecker and the woodpecker uh stops
# um pecking at the tree.
The woodpecker looks both ways.
And then proceeds to uh go back to his pecking # and in this frame
you notice uh # the tree is beginning is becoming smaller # xxx.
Uh the top of the tree just fell off # next to the dog.
Both the woodpecker and the dog uh # leave the scene.
And so does the branch.
Uh the next frame the dog uh is running across the # field the bird
is the woodpecker is flying behind it and the branch is following #
all in a line.
In this scene we see a bear crawling into a cave.
Followed by the dog and then the bird.
Uh first we see uh # the dog and then the bird and then the uh bear
come running out and then we hear a growl.
In this scene we see the bird flying above the dog running below and
the bear following the dog # and uh they come across a tree where the
bird # flies into the tree and the dog hides below # in the branches
[^ This is great] .
Then the tree with the bird and the dog uh leave the scene # with
the bear # staying there.
The bear uh # leaves the scene and then stumbles across a piece of
wood and picks it up.
The bear takes the piece of wood and hits um # a banana tree # with
it.
Ahm # and a banana falls from the tree # and hits the bear on the
head and then to the ground.
Uh the bear picks up the uh # banana and eats it.
Then the bear takes the same club I assume and hits an apple tree
with it.
The same thing happens an apple drops from the tree hits the bear on
the head then xxx to the ground.
Um the bear picks up the # apple and eats it.
The bear walks back to the banana tree # with the club and hits it
twice.
Then a man drops out of the tree # falls on the ground.
Oh # well I guess it was a monkey # and he gets up and is awfully
upset # at the bear.
The monkey uh takes the club from the bear.
Uh both the animals look up at the bananas # in the tree.
Now the monkey hits the tree three times.
And from that uh the tree drops an entire bunch of bananas which #
falls on top of the bear's head and then bounced to the monkey's head
# and then onto the ground.
The monkey throws the stick away # um the monkey and the bear shake
hands # I guess for they're achievement and begin to eat the bananas.
XXXIX
20e11
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Bird in tree pecking at tree.
Dog # spots bird and # stops curious.
Dog begins to get excited # and # starts to bark.
Bird notices something # trys to # figure out what he sees # hears.
Bird continues to peck at tree as the top about # top begins to fall
off.
The top of the tree falls off and the bird stops pecking.
Ah dog runs away and the bird follows or flies out of the tree.
Top of the tree tray chases the dog and the bird.
The dog is being chased by the bird and the bird is being chased by
the dog # I mean and the tree is being the bird is being chased by
the tree.
Bear enters a cave.
Dog and the bird # enter the cae ah cave also.
The ah # bird flies out of the cave out of the cave dog follows #
bear follows also and # makes a noise.
The ah # dog # and the bird # hide in a tree as the bear stands and
watches # them as there heads are # pointing out of the tree.
The tree begins to walk away as the bear freaks out.
Being a bit confused it looks like the bear walks away picks
something up # and looks at it # I have no idea what it is.
The bear picks up a piece of wood and bangs on a # palm tree.
Make that a banana tree # he hits the tree to get a banana.
The bear eats the banana along with the # skin.
The bear moves on to an apple tree and tries to get an apple out of
the tree by banging on the # trunk.
An apple falls down hits him on the head and the bear looks down #
at the apple.
The bear drops his ah # piece of wood # and eats the apple.
The bear walks back to the banana tree # and begins banging on the
banana tree # and there seems to a monkey on top of the tree.
Instead of the banana falling the monkey falls out of the tree.
The monkey becomes upset and makes his # famous noises.
The monkey takes the board away from the bear and # they stand there
looking at each other.
They both look up # towards the bananas.
Now the monkey begins hitting the trunk of the banana tree trying to
get down a banana # I guess.
A stock of bananas fall to the ground between the bear and the
monkey.
The monkey and the bear congratulate each other and begin eating the
# bananas.
XL
20e12
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@End
okay I saw a woodpecker # pecking on a tree.
Um a dog # came out of nowhere # and got curious # about the
woodpecker.
The dog started barking and the woodpecker stopped pecking at the
tree.
A woodpecker turned his head # to the right.
The woodpecker turned back around and started pecking at the tree
again.
The top of the tree fell off where the woodpecker was pecking #
[^ tongue twister] .
The dog ran away and the woodpecker flew off.
The top of the tree moved off too.
The tree was pay chasing the woodpecker that was chasing the dog.
A bear went into a cave # on the side of a hill.
And the dog and the woodpecker ran inside the cave.
All three ran out and the bear growled.
The dog and the woodpecker were hiding in a tree and the bear was
chasing after them.
The tree moved off with the woodpecker and the bear and the dog
inside the tree.
The bear turned around and picked up the stick that appeared out of
nowhere.
The bear hit the stick on the side of a tree twice.
Banana fell down and hit the bear on the head.
A bear ate the banana peel and all.
Bear picked up the same stick and pick # and hit an apple tree # on
the side twice.
And an apple came down and hit the bear on the head.
And the bear ate the apple and threw away the stick.
A bear walked back over to the banana tree and # hit it again where
a monkey was sitting on top.
And the monkey came down and hit the bear on the head.
And the monkey got upset at the bear.
The monkey took the stick from the bear.
Um # the bear and the monkey both looked up # at the tree.
And the monkey hit the side of the tree three times.
And one bunch of bananas came down and first hit the bear # then hit
the monkey and then fell to the ground.
The bear and the monkey appeared to make friends # and both started
eating the bananas.
XLI
20e13
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@End
I see a bird pecking on a tree.
The bird's continuing to peck on the tree and a dog # runs up to the
bird # and looks at it.
The bird's pecking on the tree and the dog barks at it.
The bird looks around.
The bird continues to peck at the tree and the # trunk of the tree
is getting smaller.
The top of the tree falls off.
The dog runs away and then the bird flies away.
The top of the tree chases the bird after it.
The dog runs by with the bird # flying after it and the top of the
tree is following the bird.
A red bear enters into a cave.
The dog goes into the cave first and then the bird follows.
The bird flies out # of the cave the dog follows and then the bear
growls xxx chasing both of them.
The dog is running and the bird is flying above him and they run
into a bush # and the bear is following them # and then # they both
look out at the bear # while hiding in the bush.
The bush walks away.
The bear's walking and he picks up his shadow .
The bear walks over to a tree and hits what he haves what he has in
his hand against a tree.
Something falls from the top of the tree probably something you can
eat.
The bear ate what fell.
The bear goes to another tree and knocks on the trunk with the same
apparatus in his hand.
A piece of fruit hits him on the head and it falls to the ground #
and he looks at it.
He picks it up and he eats it.
The bear walks to another tree # and knocks on it to get food but he
doesn't realize there is a monkey on top of the tree.
The monkey falls in # on his head and then to the ground.
The monkey screams at the bear.
The monkey takes the apparatus away from the bear.
They both look up at the top of the tree.
They both look at the top of the tree # and the monkey proceeds to
hit the trunk of the tree.
Part of the top of the tree falls and hits the bear on the head and
the monkey and then to the ground.
The monkey throws away the stick and the bear and the monkey shake
hands # and they # start eating the bananas that had fallen # from
the tree.
XLII
20e14
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
@End
Woodpecker pecking on a tree.
Woodpecker pecking on a tree dog runs from the back # and sits down
# beside the tree # and watches the woodpecker.
The dog starts barking at the woodpecker pecking in the tree who
stops for a moment.
Woodpecker looks around.
He starts pecking on the tree again.
He pecked on the tree until the # tree # fell I guess # the top of
the tree fell.
The woodpecker flew away and the dog ran off.
The tree branch got up and # and ran after em too.
The # dog ran after the woodpecker who just flew by # and the top of
the tree was following the dog.
A grizzly bear went into the cave # .
The dog went in the cave # and the woodpepper pecker flew in the
cave # following the dog.
The bear chased after the woodpecker and um # dog.
The dog and the woodpecker hid in the tree # and the # grizzly bear
is # just standing there sitting there I guess.
The tree moved away with the wood woodpecker and the # dog in it.
The grizzly bear # began to walk away and stood up # what is that a
stick # and picked up he picked up a stick and stood up.
Now the grizzly bear is hitting on the tree with the # stick # or
is it an ax .
A banana fell from the tree # and the xxx the grizzly bear is
looking down at it now # .
The grizzly bear ate the banana.
The grizzly bear is knocking on a another tree which apparently is
an apple tree .
An apple fell out of the tree and hit the grizzly bear on the head.
The grizzly bear ate the apple.
The grizzly bear is knocking on the tree again # the banana tree
this time a monkey is sitting on top.
Monkey fell out of the tree on the grizzly bear's head # and then to
the ground .
Monkey jumping up and down # screaming at the grizzly bear.
The monkey took the stick from the grizzly bear.
They both looked up # the monkey and the grizzly bear.
The monkey hit the tree three times with the stick.
A bunch of bananas fell down from the tree hit the grizzly bear on
the head then it hit the monkey on the head then it fell down in the
middle # of the two of them.
The grizzly bear and the monkey shook hands # and now they are
sharing the bananas.
XLIII
II. References
II.I.
Literature
Applebee, Arthur N. 1978. The child’s concept of story. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Bamberg, Michael G.W. 1947 (1987). The acquisition of narratives:
learning how to use language. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Barrett, Martyn. 1995 (1996). Early lexical development.
The
Handbook of child language, ed. by Paul Fletcher and Brian
MacWhinney, 362–392. Oxford: Blackwell.
Bartlett, Frederic. 1932. Remembering. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Bloom, Louis. 1998. Language acquisition in its developmental
context. Handbook of Child Psychology, vol 2: Cognition,
perception and language, ed. by Kuhn and R. Siegler, 309-370.
New York: Wiley.
Garvey, C. (1984). Children's talk. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Bloom, Paul. 1963 (2001). How children learn the meaning of words.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Clark, Eve V. 1979. The ontogenesis of meaning. Wiesbaden:
Athenaion.
----. 1993 (1994). The lexicon in acquisition. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Halliday, M.A.K. 1976 (1979). Cohesion in English. London: Longman.
XLIV
Karmiloff-Smith, Annette. (1979). A study of determiners and
reference. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Labov, William. 1972. Language in the inner city. Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press.
Lyons, Christopher. 1980. The meaning of the English definite
article. The semantics of determiners, ed. by Johan van der
Auwera, 81–95. London: Croom Helm.
----. 1999. Definiteness. Cambrigde: Cambrigde University Press.
Mandler, Jean Matter. 1983. Representation. Handbook of child
psychology, ed. by Mussen P. Fourth edition; Vol 3. New York:
Wiley.
Maratsos, Michael P. 1976. The use of definite and indefinite
reference in young children. An experimental study of
semantic acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nelson, Katherine. 1988. Acquisition of words by first language
learners. Child Language: A reader, ed. by Magery F. Franklin
and Sybil S. Barten, 50–59. Oxford University Press. New York.
Swan, Michael. 1980. Practical English usage. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Tannen, Deborah. 1993. Framing in Discourse. What’s in a frame?
Surface evidence for underlying expectations, ed. by Deborah
Tannen, 14–56. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
XLV
II.II.
Internet Sources
CHILDES Corpus
www.childes.psy.cmu.edu
(02.11.2005)
Labov, William. Uncovering the event structure of narrative.
(02.11.2005)
www.ling.upenn.edu/~wlabov/home.html (02.11.2005)
www.wikipedia.org (02.11.2005)
XLVI
II.III. CD–ROM: Cartoon
Eidesstattliche Erklärung
Hiermit versichere ich, dass ich die vorliegende
Arbeit selbstständig verfasst und keine anderen
als die angegebenen Quellen und Hilfsmittel
verwendet habe.
Saarbrücken, den 3. November 2005
Kerstin Borau