ifda dossier 68 - Online Burma Library

ifda dossier 68
LOCAL SPACE
. A Pilot Integrated Farm tor South China (George L. Chan) 3
Elementos de la cultura como respuesta a la vida e n barrios
marginales de Asunci6n (Benno Glauser) 13
.
NATIONAL SPACE
Alternative economic strategy for Nigeria: Indigenous small-scale
industries (Regina U . Obi) 23
.
GLOBAL SPACE
The gospel of global efficiency: On Worldwatch and other reports
on t h e state of the world (Wolfgang Sachs) 33
. Women's voice in the NorthISouth dialogue (Hilkka Pietilii) 41
. Identity culturelle et developpement, Tradition et modernit6
(Ananda W.P. Guruge) 51
. Les notes de lecture d'lgnacy Sachs 60
.
NEWS FROM THE THIRD SYSTEM
The Nairobi Declaration on Consumers in Africa 63
Indonesia: Government tightens control over citizens' groups 69
Senegal: Reseau d1Alphabetisation Communautaire (RAC) 72
Chile: Primer encuentro de la Red de Centres de Desarrollo Local 73
Chile: El Taller de cooperaci6n al desarrollo 74
Ecuador: Centro d e Investigaciones Ciudad 75
Venezuela: Centro para la Gesti6n Tecnol6gica Popular (CETEP) 77
India: CAMERA, Cadre of Media Resources and Action 79
India: PAHAR, Peoples Association for Himalaya Area Research 80
France: ALDEA
81
Maroc: Une nouvelle association des Droits de l'hornme 83
Poland: Strong anti-nuclear movement emerging 85
Suisse: Le Centre Martin Luther King pour la non-violence 87
Peru: Asociaci6n Peruana de Estudios e Investigaci6n para la Paz 88
CANDELA 89
LETTERS/LETTRES/CARTAS
FOOTNOTES
91
93
MATERIALS RECEIVED FOR PUBLICATION
111
-
T h i s i s s u e has been printed i n 22,000 copies.
p
-
ISSN 0254-3036
dialogue
The Laws of Life:
Another Development
I.
and
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af
lBltfiutl-1 dtfriofxnfB1
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publubed bf ttw
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the New Biotechnologies
The Life Technologies
. Some Facts of Liie: Towards t h e Understanding of t h e
Biosciences
Journey t o t h e C e n t r e of Life: An Introduction to t h e N e w
Technologies
T h e Homogenization of Life
.
.
11.
T h e Economic Laws of Life
. T h e Gene Revolution: Food a n d Agriculture
. Biofarms: The End of t h e End? T h i r d World Farmers a n d t h e
New Plant Genetics
. Pharm-ecology: The Corporate Approach to Organic Agriculture
. T h e Factory Farm: T h e Transformation of t h e Food Processing
Industry
. Animal Pharm: Animal Husbandry i n t h e 1990's
. On t h e High Reef of t h e Human Dawn? Biodrugs: T h e Clean
Revolution
. T h e Cleanup Revolution? Biotechnologies, The Environment a n d
Other Uses
111. T h e Political Laws of Life
. T h e Lords of Life: Corporate Control of t h e New Biosciences
. On Mars a n d Microbes: Biolog-ical Warfare, Plants a n d People
Regulating t h e S u p e r ~ a t u r a l - : The Legal Challenge of ~ e g u l a t i n ~
Biotechnology
From Cabbages to Kings? P a t e n t s , Politics a n d t h e Poor
Biobattles at the United Nations: Plants a n d Politics a t FAO
.
.
.
IV.
Reflections of t h e T h i r d System
. Climbing t h e DNA Ladder
. Tomorrow h a s no Fixed A d d r e s s
T h e T h i r d System a n d t h e U N System
V.
Appendix
. Glossary of Terms; Major Plant Biotechnology Companies
Company Profiles; UN Agencies a n d Biotechnology
.
( A v a i l a b l e from Daq L m a r s k j t i l d Foundation, O w e S l o t t s g a t a n 2 , 7 5 2 20
Uppsala, Sweden).
i fda dossier 68
, november/ciecernber
local space
1988
A PILOT INTEGRATED FARM FOR SOUTH CHINA
b y George L . Chan
Visiting Professor, Guangzhou Institute of Geography
B4-5 Nanyang Mansion
Shenzhen, Guangdong Province, China
.. .. .
A
b s t r a c t . - i n l e s s tkm. m e decade, t h e P.ura1 Feapor.s~o:+
P
.. S..y s t e.~o f
the neu chinese s i r a z e g y for development Has enabled "anp :rz:vza'^.:,
households zo expacd s r c o t h l y frcrr. t'r.e tr&<or.al
fzim s i d e l i n e s %c
s u c c e s s f u l larger-scale self-managed e n t e r p r i s e s . The z e x t s t e p is t o
i n c o r p o r ~ emodem science and technology, pzrtzculor-7y in b i o e q i x e e r i n g , t o upgrade t h s means of produsticr. in order t o o p t i m i z e producti v i t y i n a s u s t a i n a i l e and ecologically-balanced m a w e r . The
^.nt e g r a t e d Farm 5s not only to dernonstrmte t o t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e farmers
t h a t bioengineering uorks, b u t a l s o t o convince engineers t h a t the3
should cooperate w-th m i c r o b i o l o g i s t s t o h e l p t h e i n d i v i d x z l firm famil i e s produce aLL t h e e s s e n t i a l elements f o r i n t e g r a t i n g animal husbandr y , f i s h e r y , plants and food processing through combination o f w a d i tiona'i. ar.d modem methods of bioconversion t h a t r e c y c l e s a l l t h e soc a l l e d DaSte?~ a s r e n e u c b k energy, degradable f e r i i L i z e r ar.d/or highp r g t e i n feed. The p i l o t farm u i l l a l s o allou s c i e n t i s t s ana s o c i o l o g i s t s , engineers and economists, t o c o l l e c t and analyse t h e nwierous
data t h a t u z l l enable o t h e r s t o e v a l u a t e such a system and perhaps adapz
i t t o t h e i r own rural, development plans.
UNE FERME PILOTE INTEGREE EN CHINE MERIDIONALE
(ET EN PAYS T R O P I C A L / S U B T R O P I C A L )
R e s d . - En mains de 10 a w , l e "Systems de r e s p o n s a b i l i t e m a l e " de
La n o u v e l l e stratc'gie c h i n o i s e lie developpement a permis 2 de nombreux
menages i n d i v i d u a l s de passer en douceur de La ferme marginale t r a d i t i o n n e l l e d La r e u s s i t e de L'envreprise plus grande e t autoge're'e. La
prochaine i t a p e e s t Z ' u t i l i s a t i o n de La s c i e n c e e t des techniques modernes, n o t m e n t en b i o - i n g i n i e r i e , pour caneliorer l e s noyens de product i o n a f i n d ' o p t i m i s e r l e s rendements d'une maniere durable e t k o l o g i y ~ e m e n t e q u i l i b r d e . It ne s ' a g i t pas seulement, avec 'La Ferme p i l o t e
z n t i q r k e , de montrer aux paysans conservateurs que La 3 i o - i n g e n i e r i e
f o n c t i c m e , mats a u s s i de eonvair.cre l e s i n g i n i e u r s de c o l l a b o r e r avec
l e s m i c r o b i o l o g i s t e s pour a i d e r l e s fermiers 6 produire t o u s l e s etirnents e s s e n t i e t s 6 L'intc'gration de L'elevage, de La ?&eke, de to. t r a n s formation des p l a n t e s e t de l a n o u r r i t u r e par La combinaison de mdthodes
t r a d z t i o n n e l l e s e t moaemes de bioconversion r e c y c l a n t t o u s l e s p r i t e n aus ' a & h e t s l en k r g i e renouvetable, engrais degradcbles e t / o u fourrage 6 f o r t e derisive protbiniqu:.
La f e m e p i l o t e p e t a u s s i a z
s c i e n t i f - i q u e s , sociotogues, i n g e n i e u r s et, ieonomistes de r h i r e t
d ' a n a t y s e r zes nombreuses donnies p e r n e t t a n t L'evaluation du s y s t i m e en
vua de son u t i l i s a t i o n 6 v e n t u e l l e p m d ' a u t r e s .
George L . Chan
A PILOT INTEGRATED FARM FOR SOUTH CHINA
1. Introduction
The big problems with commercialization of animal and poultry breeding
in most Third World countries are the high costs of feed and e n e r g y ,
resulting in reduced profits and even losses; and the environmental
ollution created by a huge amount of livestock wastes that cannot be
et ectively treated by a conventional sewage treatment plant because of
i t s inefficiency a s well a s i t s prohibitive capital and running costs.
+-
The main objectives of this pilot integrated farm are to quantify the
economic feasibility for specific areas of South china, and to demonstrate how the proven or innovative technologies of bioengineering can
be profitable for a commercial animal/poultry project without polluting
the environment I / . It will have rapid growth of animals*, chickens,
ducks, geese and pigeons with a high proportion of lean meat at minimum production costs. It will also treat the livestock wastes using the
abundant natural organisms under their most favorable environmental
conditions to recover all energy and fertilizer content for efficient
production of feed and food, which will then be processed into highvalue products for sale or transformed by efficient micro-organisms into
high-quality feed for the livestock. The income from the sales will be
used to buy cheap but appropriate raw materials for transformation into
higher feed for the animals and poultry, making the whole operation a
very economic one by having maximum productivity at the lowest costs.
Such an Integrated Farming System (IFS) 21 i s an expansion of the traditional Dike-Pond System 3 1 , which has been operating continuously
and successfully in the P e a 3 River Delta of South Guangdong Province
for more than 400 years over an area of 800 square kilometers involving
over one million people. It is an ingenious example of utilizing science
and technology in rural areas to have a sustainable, ecologically-balanced and economically-viable development that will encourage young
people to remain on the land instead of drifting to urban areas. 41.
2 . Design considerations
The IFS incorporates livestock, aquaculture, agriculture and agroindustry in a closed cycle i n low-lying o r waterlogged land, and is designed to meet the following criteria:
. There i s no handling of livestock wastes a s they a r e automatically
flushed by means of a siphon tank into the digesters where they a r e
isolated, settled and digested, while producing biogas fuel, before the
effluent i s f u r t h e r treated by oxidation in a series of stabilization
* a.nima.'is
can be m i n i c a t t l e or goats or pigs Inhere a c c e p t a b l e )
4
ponds, while producing aquatic life as food and feed 51. It also reduces
routine labor to a minimum because the liquid overflows from one pond
to the other by gravity. The final effluent, which i s highly mineralized,
is drifted to overhead tanks for flushing the livestock wastes into dig e s t e r s , and for irrigation and fertilization of crops on the dikes.
.
Electric generators operated by biogas, after removal of carbon dioxide and sulfide and their utilization to produce algae and fertilizer
(sulfate) respectively, supply most of the energy required for the
waste treatment operations a s well a s for the processing industries, except for some pumps in the ponds where either wind or photovoltaic i s
used in order to save on the wiring system. Biogas is also utilized directly for boiling, heating and running farm equipment and vehicles.
. The utilization of waterlogged land for the IFS does not only t u r n a
useless resource into a high productivity unit, but also saves considerable sums of money on costly drainage and irrigation systems, and prevents environmental degradation such a s soil erosion because the pond
mud i s constantly recycled on the dikes; flooding damage because the
dikes and ponds control any excess water to protect all the crops; toxic
chemicals because only organic fertilizer i s used with rotation of crops
for disease and pest control; and pathogens for propagation of diseases
because of the complete treatment of all wastes.
3 . Requirements
The pilot farm i s established on one hectare of land, preferably in a
water-logged area that is non-productive at the moment, o r near a
river. Two shallow ponds and four deep ponds are d u g , using the excavated soil to build up the dikes above highest water level, with minimum freeboard of 50 cm. The total area of ponds i s 2 1 3 hectare, with
the dikes occupying 113 hectare.
There should also be a small farmhouse serving as residence for the
farm family, with a workshop for processing and storage of the farm
produce. The integrated farm i s self-sufficient in power, water, waste
disposal, and basic food supphes. It may require a telephone and some
means of transportation for i t s produce.
4. Livestock
A special animal house i s built with 100 square meters (s.m.) of animal
pens on the ground floor; 75 s.m. of mezzanine for chicken layers and
broilers, with two suspended shelters for ducks and geese; and 100
s . m . of algae tanks on the roof, which also has cantilevered canopies a s
walkways. There i s no communication between the animal pens, opening
on the outside, and the chicken pens, opening on the inside. The
ducks and geese are completely separated form the animals and chickens.
There are 100 animals on the ground floor, 1,000 chickens and 400
duckstgeese on the mezzanine, and 100 pairs of pigeons under the
walkways. They are fed the best rations known in animal husbandry,
with emphasis on quality r a t h e r t h a n q u a n t i t y , and given t h e utmost
health care for optimum productivity of milk (where applicable) a n d tend e r i l e a n meat.
For t h e pilot project, the y o u n g animals, c h i c k s , d u c k l i n g s , goslings
and s q u a b s a r e imported o r b o u g h t on t h e local market. In a commercial
e n t e r p r i s e , t h e r e will b e facilities for artificial insemination/ b r e e d i n g ,
with exotic b r e e d s introduced to u p g r a d e local stock. The animals and
poultry a r e sold live, f r e s h , frozen, o r processed into o t h e r p r o d u c t s
for added value. Sideline i n d u s t r i e s u s i n g feathers and s k i n s will also
be added in a commercial e n t e r p r i s e .
5 . Aquaculture
Photosynthetic c u l t u r e of spirulina a n d other high-yield a n d high-protein algae o r minute aquatic p l a n t s is done in shallow t a n k s on roofs of
buildings and d i g e s t e r s , on plastic basins floating on t h e shallow
p o n d s , and in horizontal clear plastic p i p e s , a s stockfeed for the dig e s t e r s to increase biogas production 61 o r a s livestock feed. The liq u i d i s moved intermittently b y m e a n s o f a small pump o r compressed
a i r ; a n d artificial lighting, operated b y biogas fuel produced on t h e
s i t e , is u s e d at night and on s u n l e s s d a y s for continuous photosynthetic growth of between 100 and 200 tons d r y l h e c t a r e l y e a r . This i s a n
efficient way of utilizing s u n l i g h t , carbon dioxide and nitrogen - all
f r e e n a t u r a l resources - to produce in substantial q u a n t i t y the protein
component of feedstuff t h a t is most essential for livestock growth. The
algal liquid can e i t h e r b e used for livestock d r i n k i n g , o r h a r v e s t e d b y
centrifuge a n d u s e d in feed forn~ulation.
Algae, protozoa, b e n t h o s , macrophytes and bacteria a r e grown naturally
inside t h e deep p o n d s , and used a s feed in traditional Chinese polyc u l t u r e of five o r more compatible species of c a r p s ( a n d p r a w n s , where
acceptable) in the same ponds 71. Only g r a s s and v i n e , grown o n t h e
e d g e s of t h e p o n d s , a r e r e q u i r e d a s e x t e r n a l s o u r c e s of feed for one
species of fish ( g r a s s c a r p ) , in o r d e r to enhance a complex food chain
to feed all t h e o t h e r s 81. However, t h e appropriate feeds will also b e
added to accelerate t h e i r g r o w t h . All t h e fish a r e u s e d a s raw materials
for livestock feed; and t h e prawns (if grown) a r e retained for a few
d a y s in one of t h e shallow ponds for polishing before sale. Aeration of
the bottom water i n t h e deep ponds i s done o v e r t h e e n t i r e area with
small pumps operated b y wind, photovoltaic o r biogas g e n e r a t o r s , in
o r d e r to remove unwanted g a s e s a n d reduce fish s t r e s s , and at t h e
same time enhance growth. T h e water temperature is kept a s high a s
possible year-round b y solar heating.
Fast-growing a n d high-yield ipomoea aquatica a n d r c p e n s , h y b r i d Napie r g r a s s a n d Centrosema vine a r e grown on e d g e s of t h e p o n d s , a n d
azolla 9 / , duckweed, water hyacinth & water lotus are grown on p a r t of
t h e pond s u r f a c e . They a r e among t h e most prolific plants on e a r t h ,
r a n g i n g from 200 to 500 t o n s / h e c t a r e / y e a r . Such plants contain a high
proportion of water b u t t h e y also have most of t h e amino-acids, nitrog e n , p h o s p h o r u s , potassium, s u l f u r and o t h e r minerals. Some a r e used
directly a s f e e d , particularly for the g r a s s carps and a s feed supplemerit for the young livestock, but most of them are transformed by
microbial processes into high-protein feed 101.
Lotus and water chestnut are grown on p a r t of the pond surface for
processing into high-value flour, with the residues transformed into
high-protein feed. Hydroponic culture of high-yield sweet potatoes and
aquaponic culture of inoculated beans a r e done in 4 rows of special
plastic containers, 1 meter high, floating on each p o n d , with irrigation
& fertilization done by capillary action using the highly-mineralized
pond water, and the growing media inoculated with appropriate organisms to enhance growth o r nitrogen fixation. The sweet potatoes and
crop remains a r e transformed by microbial processes into high-protein
feed; and the beans a r e processed into high-value goods for sale, with
the already high-protein residues converted into higher-protein feed b y
microbial processes.
There a r e many o t h e r aquatic p l a n t s , fishes and animals that a r e not
known in China, but can be of economic significance to i t s r u r a l development programs. The local academics and technologists should pay
more attention to these potential resources that can be introduced into
the local economy at low costs.
6 . Agriculture
The crops on the dikes a r e not the same a s those in the Dike-Pond
System, because t h e aims are different. In the traditional system the
crops a r e mulberry leaves for silkworm culture; sugarcane for the
s u g a r mills; r i c e , vegetables, f r u i t s a n d l o r flowers for the market; and
g r a s s for t h e fish ponds. In the IFS, the main aim is to produce crops
a s raw materials for processing into high-value products o r high-protein
feedstuffs.
There i s one row of fast-growing nitrogen-fixing t r e e s l b u s h e s and inoculated beans in the middle of every longitudinal dike, and one row of
fruit o r oil-bearing t r e e s intercropped with high-yield g r o u n d n u t s and
big squashes along the longitudinal edges of the ponds. Similar t r e e s
a r e also planted a s fences and windbreakers, and for shading around
the farm and animal houses. The pods and leaves of the t r e e s and
bushes a r e raw materials for protein enrichment a s livestock feed; t h e
beans and groundnuts a r e processed for sale, with the residues used a s
feed materials; the f r u i t s a r e sold in o r d e r to purchase cheap feed materials a s s u b s t r a t e for protein enrichment; a n d the squashes a r e t r a n s formed b y micro-organisms into high-protein feed.
Culture of sweet potatoes and aeroponic culture of various inoculated
beans in special plastic containers, t h r e e meters h i g h , a r e done on both
sides of the rows of t r e e s , a n d processed a s mentioned above. Multicropping and rotation of leafy vegetables a r e done between the aeroponic s t a n d s , with 10-12 c r o p s l y e a r . The vegetables are sold if prices
a r e good, o r used a s s u b s t r a t e s for transformation into high-protein
feed. Drip irrigation t u b e s a r e used on the ground for the t r e e s l b u s h e s
and multicropping; and overhead irrigation pipes for hydroponics and
aeroponics.
7 . Industry
The industrial operations are limited to processing some crops such a s
beans and groundnuts into products such as oil and condiments for sale
in order to purchase feed materials which, together with the processing
residues, are converted into fermented products of high-protein content
and used a s feed. The remaining crops, including the aquatic ones, are
used a s substrates for organisms to perform microbial processes for
protein enrichment before they a r e used a s feed. The ultimate aim i s to
produce livestock feed of the highest protein content at the lowest cost,
using the abundant and efficient natural organisms a s the work force
and providing them with the best environmental conditions for optimum
growth.
It is to be noted that the industrial operations a r e not labor-intensive,
with the farm family itself being able to cope through new skills and
more creative processes obtained from the intensive help of modern scientific methods and technological innovations. Biogas is used to provide
heat for optimum microbial activity, or electricity for grinding, pressi n g , s t i r r i n g , mixing and other operations, which are all connected with
the livestock and crop processing industry.
The appropriate investment should be made so a s to build the solid
foundation for the advanced farming techniques and the processing industries, but using a s much a s possible simple machinery and locallyavailable materials and skills.
8 . Wastes
The IFS still benefits from traditional Chinese practices concerning the
biological recycling of wastes to recover valuable resources and utilize
them beneficially, in order to maintain the intensive but ecologically
balanced farming on the dike and in the pond. It also incorporates science and technology not only to solve the aesthetic and health problems, but also to enhance the bioengineering processes in the interaction between land and water, in o r d e r to utilize free natural resources
to produce livestock, fish and crops. So we a r e able to avoid the
wasteful practices of so-called modern farming that i s heavily dependent
on expensive machinery and fossil fuel, with substantial use of chemical
fertilizers and toxic pesticides that create many environmental problems
which are mostly ignored.
The livestock wastes represent the most valuable component of the IFS.
They must be flushed many times a day into digesters to minimize t h e
losses due to ammonia and sulfides, which are lost to the atmosphere
and consequently reduce the nitrate and sulfate content of the effluent,
resulting in a lower fertilizer value. The organic compounds in the
wastes a r e broken down at a fast rate by anaerobic bacteria, naturally
present in the intestines of the livestock, at optimum temperature range
of 30-40° obtained by solar or biogas heating, producing almost instant fuel when compared with the thousands of years required by biomass to become fossil fuel. The availability of biogas in the rural areas
will also stop the cutting of trees and bushes for use a s firewood - a
practice that has already caused serious erosion problems in China and
other countries.
The digesters should be properly designed and built so a s to avoid
leakage o r corrosion problems that have often plagued the digester
programs. The corrosion problem has been solved in China by eliminating the metal gasholder, and leakage is the result of faulty construction, which can b e avoided if the builders know what they are doing.
Operation and maintenance are simple, and the farmers have themselves
to blame - and nobody else - if they do not perform their work properly. However, the design should include all the appropriate breakthroughs obtained worldwide. It should be a two-stage unit with short
hydraulic retention time and long solid retention time, for over 60%
reduction of the organic content of the wastes (BOD), optimum production of biogas fuel, and maximum COD and solid reduction g / . The biogas can meet most of the domestic, farming and industrial requirements
in e n e r g y , with substantial reduction in production costs amounting to
about 20% of the benefits of the IFS, but the prime function of the
digesters is to treat all the wastes and transform them into efficient
fertilizers and suitable micro-organisms for production of the highest
quality f e e d , representing up to 80% of tlie IFS benefits 151.
The digester effluent is f u r t h e r treated in algae tanks o r pipes on roofs
of digesters and buildings, and also floating on the shallow ponds, for
another 30% o r more BOD reduction. The algal liquid is moved intermittently by a biogas-operated pump o r compressor. The algae also fix nitrogen and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, increasing the nitrogen
and carbon content of the system for higher-protein feed, b e t t e r fertilizer value, and more available components for organism growth to enhance the microbial processes. At the same time, oxygen is also r e leased to oxidize the remaining organic content of the wastes into
minerals. Such treatment of wastes in ponds i s v e r y effective and economical where waterlogged land i s available, and this has been advocated a decade o r two ago by scientists in L'SA I l l b u t , unfortunately, non-Asian countries were not culturally r e a d y t o r such innovations, which have served Asia so well for centuries. Fortunately, the
oil crisis in the early seventies has encouraged some institutions in USA
and even Europe to t r y and change this situation E l .
The algal effluent flows into a shallow pond without much health o r pollution problem, because any pathogens that happen to be in the original
wastes a r e almost completely destroyed by the various treatment processes. The additional retention in the shallow p o n d , where aquatic plants
a r e grown, will eliminate any remaining pathogens before the effluent
flows into the deep ponds. The use of raw wastes in traditional ponds
i s responsible for pathogens accumulating inside the fish without showi n g any external sign of infection 1 2 1 , and they can transmit diseases
to humans consuming the fish i f it is not adequately cooked. Also most
of the polluting organic matter has been transformed into minerals, but
nothing can be done if there are heavy metals present because of industrial pollution, which is not a problem with the IFS. The highly mineralized water encourages plankton growth to feed various species of
fish and prawn (if u s e d ) , and also makes the aquatic and land plants
grow faster. These plants remove the minerals so efficiently that the
final effluent is almost pure water, which is never the case with any
conventional sewage treatment plant anywhere in the world.
The Dike-Pond area in the Pearl River Delta is lucky because there is
not much grazing by cattle, sheep and goat, o r monoculture without
crop rotation, a s in some neighboring places which should replace such
bad practices with integrated farming systems, so i t has no soil depletion problems. There is no fallow, and the only period when nothing is
growing on the dikes is between rice harvesting and planting of winter
vegetables, while the paddy fields are waiting to be cultivated, but this
can often take a long time if the farmer still relies on himself and his
water buffalo to do the work. In the IFS, we are not growing rice, but
if we should do so we would integrate a special crayfish with rice cult u r e , as is the practice in part of the USA, and let the crayfish do the
cultivation for u s after the rice is harvested, t h u s saving u s a lot of
work and time besides having succulent crayfish for sale.
In the IFS, besides using the soil as the media to grow various c r o p s ,
with the fertility maintained by natural organisms, each pilot plot of
land is also used once every two y e a r s for one crop of worm and maggot for use as feed and fertilizer, which are in short supply or relatively expensive in most Third World countries. Such activities can revive the fertility of large areas of land that have been depleted of their
nutrients because ot excessive grazing o r monoculture worldwide.
The system of dikes and ponds also p r e v e n t s erosion of the precious
soil because i t can only b e washed from t h e dikes into the ponds. The
mud from the bottom of all ponds is removed by means of a special
pump and spread on the dikes every two months, before broadcasting
new seeds in the multicropping process that can yield up to 1 2 crops of
leafy vegetables yearly in hot climates, without tilling, using the highly
mineralized pond water tor irrigation and fertilization.
It should also b e noted that in the IFS neither the livestock nor the
human excreta a r e used directly as fertilizer, but are fully treated first
- in fact, the treatment is far superior than what is done in any other
c o u n t r y , so all the products should meet the most stringent standards
anywhere. No chemical fertilizers, except for some trace elements, o r
toxic pesticides are used so a s to avoid the insurmountable pollution
problems plaguing many countries, including China which i s indiscriminately using such poisonous materials in some regions with irresponsible
disregard of the consequences in the name of modernization.
The IFS Pilot Farm demonstrates the rational utilization of all available
resources - human, environmental, material and energy - with the physical, chemical, biological and microbial processes to maintain a favorh l e ecological cycle integrating livestock, aquaculture, agriculture and
i n d u s t r y , using the residues of one process iia input for one o r more of
the tollowing processes. It mobilizes all the human, natural and scientific forces of production to utilize the available resources in symbiotic
relationships to develop animals, b i r d s , algae, fish, plants, trees and
agro-industries simultaneously as an integrated whole, instead of having
any one ot them at the expense of another.
The primary aim i s to narrow the socio-economic gap between urban and
rural areas by promoting other activities besides the traditional subsistence farming- t h a t , despite the hard work, has brought nothing' but
poverty to the countryside. Since the new responsibility system was e s tablished less than a decade ago, many farm families have increased
their output and income b y getting involved in integrated farmingindustry-commerce operations, and are now much b e t t e r off than most
urban workers. Some even own China's few private airplanes and sophisticated computers, as well a s most of i t s private c a r s and other
motor vehicles 131. However, it is still not good enough because they
have become dependent on chemical fertilizers and pesticides, o r are not
concerned enough about environmental pollution and degradation that
will threaten future rural and even industrial development; o r about
energy input-output deficits that were unknown in traditional farming.
Modern farming, based on energy input-output balance using a special
computer program, a s practiced in USA, shows a deficit factor of 10:l;
in Britain, 6 : 1 ; and in Japan, 4 : 1. A similar assessment 141 applied to
Chinese farming in an eco-village outside Beijing, using digesters and
fish ponds to recycle the energy and fertilizer resources, shows a
favorable factor of 1.0:1.26. There is no doubt that the energy inputoutput balance in the IFS of Livestock-Aquaculture-Agriculture-Industry
will be much more favorable when the actual production figures of the
Pilot Plant are obtained.
With an adequate and convenient supply of the three essential elements
(fuel, feed and fertilizer) for optimum biomass productivity in South
China, with wide applications for other countries within the tropical
zone, and the use of science and technology to enhance three-dimensional yields a s well as protein quality, the scope of the IFS with
complete recycling of all resources through already known processes of
bioengineering is almost limitless. Still we do not have to worry too
much about marketing our produce at p r e s e n t , because of the huge insatiable Chinese market and the versatility of the Chinese who do not
have many cultural, social o r religious qualms concerning food. As the
saying goes, the Chinese will eat anything with legs except humans,
tables and chairs, and do not care where the food comes from as long
a s i t ' s well cooked and tastes good;
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B i a n Y.S.,
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( B e i j i n g Municipa"!esearch
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Rates of
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6 Feed i n L i u M i n Y i n g E c o - A g r o s y s t e m
R u r a l Development f o r D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s ( 1 9 8 8 ,
i n press).
ELEMENTOS D E L A CULTURA COMO RESPUESTA A L A V I D A EN BARRIOS
MARGINALES DE ASUNCION
Dor Benno Glauser
CDE, Centre de Documentaci6n y Estudios
C.C. 2558
Asunci6n, Paraguay
P
-
-as ideas elaboradas en e s t e p q e l son e l f r u t o de las exper'.er.sias de
un grupo de personas trabaj'ando son d i v e r s c s s e c t o r e s de 1-ci poblasi.&
iirbana pobre de Asur.sidn. A t r a v 6 s de e s t a s e x p e r i e n s i a s , fus posible
acersarse rnds y profundizar 10s conocinientos que se t e n h acerca deL
'mod3 tie s e i - ' , de l a s f m a s de v i v i r , p e n s m y actuar de d 3 1 a p o b k i d n . Una. primera v e r s i s n d e l t e x t o fue d i s c u t z d a cor. an'ircp62ogos, y
t m b i k n con n m e r o s o s promotores s o c i a t e s de programas de promoci6n comunitaria en seatores populares. Esta v e r s i o n ha s i d o enriquecida media
:r'Cticas, comentcir'ios y a p o n e s ccmple'r.eni-orios surqidcs de esas
d i s c u s i o n e s . El t e x t o r e s u l t a n t e e s solo un fraqmento de 10 rmc'no ffue
todavCa queda por conocer en e l v a s t o c q o de l a c u t t w a de s e c t o r e s
urbanos pobres. Es por e l l o que pueds c o n t e r e r p o s i b l e s ~ ~ L L ~ ' " ' J o C O Ssea
,
eomo r e s u t t a d o de una observacidn i n c o n p l e t a y p c r c i a l , o de t r a n s f o r maeiones p o s t e r i o r e s que d e s a c t u a l i c e n a l p n o s a s p e c t o s .
*
Una idea de cultura
-
La cultura de la poblacion urbanalsuburbana
Contrariamente a otros usos corrientes, definimos aqui cultura como 'la
suma de elementos de 10s cuales un grupo social, en nuestro caso la poblaci6n urbana y suburbana pobre, dispone para responder a 10s desafios y condiciones cambiantes de la realidad'.
Estos elementos pueden s e r tanto de c a r i c t e r material -- herramientas,
tip0 de vivienda, costumbres alimenticias e incluso pricticas de medicina
popular -- como asimismo de naturaleza inmaterial -- conductas sociales,
creencias y pricticas religiosas o attitudes politicas. Son las condiciones
materiales, sociales e historicas compartidas por un grupo poblacional
las que determinan s u cultura. Dichas condiciones van validando o invalidando 10s elementos que conforman la cultura del grupo de acuerdo a
su efectividad o la utilidad que tienen para 'responder' a 10s desafios de
la realidad en la cual vive. En este sentido, se puede decir que existe
una cultura, un 'modo de s e r f caracteristico de un grupo tan heterogeneo e inestable como el de la poblaci6n pobre de la ciudad: ell0 es
innegable desde le moment0 en que este grupo se caracteriza por cond i c i o ~ e smateriales y sociales compartidas, a1 igual que por una historia
corntin.
Pero e s dificil describir la cultura de este g r u p o , incluso si se trata tan
solo de ennumerar algunos elementos importantes de ella: la cultura de
la poblaci6n urbana y suburbana pobre constituye una verdadera mezcla
de culturas diferentes, resultado de la confluencia de representantes de
grupos culturales diversos en el context0 de una realidad nueva, con-
fusa y cambiante, con une historia cornfin afin corta y dificil de entender. En esta n~ezcla confluyen elementos provenientes de las culturas
campesinas, de diversas culturas u r b a n a s , d e culturas de paises limitrofes ( a traves de la emigraci6n temporaria) y de culturas f o r h e a s a
traves de 10s medios de comunicaci6n masiva ( p o r ejemplo, las telenov e l a s ) , ademas de elementos adquiridos en la breve historia cornun. En
este ensayo, nos limitamos a describir algunos elernentos de la cultura
inmaterial q u e , segfin encontramos, tienen validez mAs general e intluyen especialmente en la conducta social y politica de la poblaci6n.
Hacemos la salvedad que describir elcmentos culturales de un sector
social a1 que no pertenecernos y cuyas vivencias diarias no compartinios
conlleva el riesgo de e n t r a r en prhcticas paternalistas: por la selection
de elementos para nosotros resaltantes e importantes, por una interpretaci6n de hechos a partir de nuestras propias categorias de pensamiento
y por la intenci6n que tenemos a1 q u e r e r hacer la descripci6n propuesta. De e s t e rnodo, se puede llegar a glorificar la pobreza, a reducirla a algo romantico, folkl6rico o curioso, o se puede caer en una
vision sombria que asocia la pobreza con la inconciencia, el letargo y la
incapacidad de vivir
.
Ninguna de estas opciones vienen a1 caso: 10s pobres de la ciudad viven
su vida y tratan de manejarla con elementos y valores propios. Su cult u r a no se agota en carencias o negaciones de culturas de otros sectores. Por el contrario, tiene s u propio s t a t u s , uno cuyas dimensiones y
caracteristicas deben s e r descubiertas desde adentro de la cultura y con
la participaci6n de s u s propios protagonistas. Es en ese sentido que nos
abstenernos d e hacer juicios d e valor sobre estos elementos: nos contentamos con indicar que aparenternente existen y con seftalar s u incidencia
positiva o negativa sobre las posibilidades de supervivencia colectiva del
grupo.
Algunos elementos de indole general
Se puede constatar la presencia de diversos mecanisrnos de defensa, que
se ponen de manifiesto tanto a nivel individual corno a nivel colectivo.
EstAn, por ejernplo, el 'fternbotavy' (hacerse el tonto); la opci6n por una
manera d e expresarse poco clara y afirrnativa a1 hablar; el no q u e r e enf r e n t a r en forma directa u n problema o a una persona que pone dificultades; la represi6n o autorepresibn de las manifestaciones de rabia o
enojo; no q u e r e asumir cornpromisos; la predisposici6n a criticar y
c a e r l e ' a1 que se cornprorneti6 a nivel colectivo; la terquedad con la cual
se defiende una posici6n que expresa negaci6n o resistencia.
Estos mecanismos constituyen una verdadera estrategia de superviviencia
dentro de u n arnbiente percibido como algo extrafto y desconocido, y de
hecho determinado por otros. Permiten una evasion no-violenta de la
realidad, a la vez que crean condiciones favorables para una minima
tranquilidad y vigcncia dc lo 'asegurado', frente a 10s impactos y desafios d e un mundo externo y de una vida diaria dominada por factores
y poderes q u e se ubican fuera del alcance de esta poblacion.
Particularmente notables e s la fuerza con la cual la poblaci6n, a traves
de e s t e tipo de mecanismos, se resiste a cambiar s u s costumbres, creen-
cias y prficticas, o a adaptarlas a condiciones cambiantes. El10 echa por
t i e r r a 10s anhelos d e 10s poderosos, de 10s patrones, las patronas y 10s
e d u c a d o r e s ' del pueblo en todos 10s ambientes en 10s cuales estos se
manit'iestan.
Dentro de este context0 cabe mencionar tambien la gran capacidad de
improvisaci6n de la gente: cJn estrategias tradicionales de respuesta a
10s impactos del medio, la gente intenta -- y muchas veces consigue -transformar elementos concretos que constituyen obsticulos de la vida
diaria en elementos utiles para la superviviencia y defensa de s u s propios intereses.
Una postura que se asume frecuentemente e s el inmediatismo: se vive el
p r e s e n t e , no se toman muchas previsiones ni se planit'ica el futuro. Esto
implica que las dificultades, cuando finalmente son percibidas colectivumente como tales, casi siempre se han convertido ya en problemas
agudos: para entonces, ya requieren una soluci6n urgente que debe s e r
adoptada en medio de circunstancias que ejercen considerable presi6n y
limitan 10s cursos de acci6n posibles. Como consecuencia, hay reacciones
antes que acciones, junto con conductas puramente pricticas ante 10s
hechos que se presentan.
Contrariamente a 10 que algunos c r e e n , la falta de previsi6n no constituye un hecho cultural de por s i ; basta recordar que las culturas
campesinas conocen la previsi6n y la consideraci6n del f u t u r o , por
ejemplo, a t r a v e s d e la neeesidad de guardar semillas para la siembra
del aiio e n t r a n t e . Se puede suponer mAs bien que la poblacibn urbana
pobre no e n c u e n t r a , e n t r e 10s elementos y las condiciones d e s u vida,
aquellos que Ie permiten practical- la planificacion y la previsi6n.
El bienestar y la tranquilidad individual y familiar constituyen valores
fuertemente anhelados. Se expresan a t r a v e s de conceptos tales como
p y a g u a p y ' , 'jeiko pora' , 'karu pora' , 'casa propia', 'tener trabajo e
ingresos , 'jeiko tranquilopa' y 'jevy'a' I / .
Estos valores, conseguidos solo en casos aislados y en forma precaria,
s e contraponen a la intranquilidad general y a las deficientes condiciones del ambiente de vida y de trabajo. El bienestar individual o
t'amiliar priman sobre el colectivo de la comunidad, del barrio o del
g r u p o . Es decir, e n casos d e incompatibilidad, se t r a t a de luchar por el
bienestar individual o familiar a6n si ell0 va en detriment0 del bienestar
colectivo.
Otro element0 cultural muy fuerte e s la religiosidad. No constituye,
para la poblaci611, un factor alejado d e s u sentir y movilizado exclusivamente en las prficticas y rituales que se dan en el Ambito de alguna
Iglesia; se t r a t a m&s bien de una suma d e elementos presentes en todos
10s Ambitos d e la vida cotidiana. Estos elementos proyectados por la
religion se mezclan alli con 10s conceptos y valores q u e la realidad
d i a n a d e la vida y del trabajo torma en l a s personas: estan interrela-
"traxquilidad internu",
t r a n q u c o l, "kal lapse I f .
2/
-
"estar bien",
"corner b i e n " ,
. . ...,
"esm
cionados con la conducta individual y social, con las relaciones familiares y de pareja, con la sexualidad, con la comprensi6n y las explicaciones del mundo, del medio ambiente y del funcionamiento d e la
sociedad, con las creencias sobre el cuerpo humano y la rnedicina, e t c .
Sin embargo, estos valores ya no constituyen un cuerpo compact0 y
cerrado, sin0 mas bien u n conglomerado mis suelto de valores; algunos
se retienen y se van ai'irmando, mientras que otros son reemplazados
paulatinamente por valores dictados y vilidados por la practica diaria.
Los elementos religiosos vigentes pueden s e r desglosados en t r e s imbitos: el de las creencias, el de las p r i c t i c a s de la religiosidad popular y
el de 10s valores proyectados por las iglesias institucionales.
i. Las creencias forman parte del amplio cuerpo normative del saber
popular. Estas creencias son, por un lado, consejos sobre como actuar
en circunstancias concretas para el 'teko pora'; por o t r o , son explicaciones de '10 que pasa' que perrniten a las personas mantener una
vision coherente sobre el mundo externo y sobre las formas en que ese
mundo externo interviene en s u s vidas. Pero se t r a t a de un cuerpo inestable y cuestionado, a veces incluso negado frente a extranos o a s u rnido parcialmente, con cierta verguenza o a escondidas. El10 se debe al
trato despectivo con el c u d la sociedad formal ha mirado y sigue mirando al saber popular, generalrnente resttindole importancia o denunciando
su caracter supuestamente nocivo.
ii. En las practicas de la religiosidad popular se juntan elementos de las
creencias con elementos de 10s ritos de la Iglesia Catblica, estos ultimos
interpretados por la p o b l a c i h a la luz de las creencias y la comprensi6n
popular.
. ..
m . A pesar de que existen difercncias profundas e n t r e 10s valores promovidos por las iglesias institucionales -- la Catblica, les Evangeli'cas y
las llamadas 'sectas' --, no hacernos distinci6n e n t r e ellas en 10 que
respecta a tales valores; el peso d e la Iglesia Cat6lica e s rnuy superior
a1 de las r e s t a n t e s , aun cuando algunos valores de las sectas encuentren fuerte respuesta a nivel popular. Nos limitamos a sefialar valores
que son prornovidos por una o varias de las iglesias institucionales a
t r a v e s d e s u presencia e n 10s sectores populares.
Algunos de ellos son: la irnagen de la Iglesia-instituci6n como una est r u c t u r a material jerarquizada en poderes y autoridades, comparable asi
a la e s t r u c t u r a de 10s poderes estatales; norrnas y creencias frecuenternente expresadas a t r a v e s de conceptos ajenos a las expresiones vitales
del s e n t i r popular; el concepto de subordinaci6n a la autoridad; la
imagen de u n Dios y un reino d e Dios q u e no se ubican en la t i e r r a y
la vida real, sino en el rnas aliA; la concepci6n de la rnujer sometida e
inhabilitada para cumplir t'unciones centrales del culto; la inamovilidad
de las e s t r u c t u r a s sociales vigentes; el concepto de una sociedad compuesta por clases sociales diferentes; la justification de la caridad practicada por '10s q u e tienen' y por 10s poderosos como medio para lograr
una mayor justicia social; la aceptacibn de la pobreza y del sufrirniento
humano, declarados condici6n privilegiada para 'llegar ai paraiso'; la
idea de que '10s bendecidos' son 10s rnhs favorecidos materialmente; la
idea de que 10s destinos humanos son predestinados; el autocentrisrno de
la comunidad religiosa ('10s eiegidos') y la falta de preocupacibn por la
suerte de 10s demas.
Pero tambien se encuentra la i.lromoci6n de otros valores - - a veces contrapuestos a 10s anteriores -- tales como la solidaridad, la priorizacibn
del compromiso con 10s pobres y la prornoci6n y bfisqueda de una sociedad mas justa y mas hurnana con la participacibn de 10s sectores rnenos
privile@ados, con 10 cual a veces se asigna a 10s misrnos un papel claramente protagonico y deterininante.
Finalmente, cabe sefialar, eritre 10s elernentos culturales de indole general, la tremenda capacidad (?inconciente?) de aguante que tierle la
poblaci6n urbana pobre der'tro de condiciones tan claramente dificiles.
La vida y la lucha por la supervivencia e s enfrentada en muchos casos
con confianza y fuerza. Se aprovechan todos 10s espacios disponibles
para 'estar bien' y hasta para alegrarse. Queda, sin embargo, un interrogante: ?hasta qu6 punto la alegria y la aparente ecuanimidad ante
tantas penurias no son sino otros mecanismos de defensa, necesarios
para poder seguir adelante pese a las angustias y la desesperacibn?
Forrnas culturales como respuesta a problemas colectivos
Frente a problemas concretos que se presentan a nivel grupal o barrial,
generalmente s e espera que la iniciativa para resolverlos sea asurnida
por otros. La colectividad tiende a descargar la responsabilidad sobre
algfin individuo, y con ello, s u s integrantes tienden a asumir el rol de
s e g u i d o r e s ' . Raras veces ocurre que una persona asuma un inter6s
colectivo en base a una responsabilidad sentida a nivel personal, y es
diffcil que se comprometa en una organizacibn. Se hace valer mas bien
conceptos que justifican la reserva de la persona, y que demuestran la
inconveniencia de arriesgarse como individuo responsable en nombre de
un interes colectivo. Es comun escuchar expresiones tales como 'no te
metas', 'ocupate dc tu familial, 'despues la gente va a hablar mal de
vos', 'te van a criticar', 'la gente e s desagradecida, no sabe valorarl.
Un 'fie enga' (dicho) aplicable en este caso, 'ofiekuava osevai' ('el que
se ofrece, sale malt), forma parte de valores de conducta sugeridos y
practicados dentro de estructuras autoritarias; constituye un mecanismo
de defensa en situaciones que de entrada coartan las posibilidades de
un accionar participativo. El que se ofrece en esta situaci6n 'sale m a l l y
se le dela fracasar. El concept0 que s e contrapone a e s t e , propio de
estructuras igualitarias cuya presencia aUn se retiene de alguna manera
en la cultura popular, e s el do la persona 'itekove' ('que actfia espontineamente donde hace falta') .
En lugar de enfrentar 10s problemas por medio de la organizaci6n. se
espera soluciones de arriba. Esta actitud es frecuentemente citada -pero pocas veces analizada -- en relacion a 10s factores que la motivan.
Pensamos que algunos de esos factores son 10s siguientss:
- La sociedad formal considera a1 individuo o grupo de pobres o
marginales como 'incapaces' de integrarse a la sociedad formal en la
cual las personas supuestamente tienen posibilidades de triunfar 'si
se esfuerzan y trabajan'. A1 culpar de esta manera la propio marg-inalizado de s u rnarginacibn, niiseria y pobreza, la sociedad, a
traves de un discurso ideologizante, logra hacerle creer que es realmente incapaz y culpable de su condition: incapaz de dar pasos
hacia soiuciones de 10s problemas con su fuerza y s u s propios medios .
- Desde 10s tiempos de la colonia,
10s sectores populares del
Paraguay, sin posibilidad de acceder a1 poder y la riqueza, fueron
relegados al papel de seguidores de aquellos que podian articularse
en posiciones claves del poder y la domination politica. Los sectores populares, a pesar de s e r mayoritarios, no accedieron nunca
ni a 10s instrumentos ni a1 espacio necesarios para enfrentar sus
propios problemas.
- Este factor politico, junto con 10s condicionamientos propios del
sisterna educative formal gener6, y sigue generando en la actualid a d , una e s t r u c t u r a mental o rnodo de pensamiento verticalista en
las personas. A1 no poder acceder a puestos de autoridad, esa
e s t r u c t u r a mental hace que 10s sectores populares asuman el 1-01 de
dominados y sometidos. Ya desde la escuela se enseiia que 'no hay
que hacer nada sin que se te diga'.
- Dentro de este mod0 de pensamiento se cree, conciente o inconcientemente, que todo esth prefijado, que las posibilidades de carnbios a iniciativa dc las personas son minirnas y q u e , por 10 general, la vida cotidiana misma depende de factores externos que se
sustraen al control de las personas. Esta suerte de fatalism0 nace
de la experiencia cotidiana de una vida pautada y deterrninada por
las autoridades o , alternativamente, por un destino oscuro que se
relaciona tarnbien con el concept0 de la predeterrninacibn en 10 religioso.
-
Existe cierta predisposici6n autosugestiva a creer que la autoridad personificada e s fundamentalmente buena e intcresada en
promover el bien cornfin, 10 que motiva expectativas en este sentido.
- A veces, la organizaci6n, como camino para la solucibn de problemas colectivos, tambien e s desestirnulada por la idea de que 'no
hay necesidad de ella, pues para eso hay responsables', haciendo
alusibn a las instituciones estatales cornpetentes.
Ademas, tambi6n hay determinantes (nateriales que inciden negativarnente
sobre las posibilidades de encarar 10s problemas colectivarnente, como
por ejernplo, la situaci6n economica apremiante. El10 hace diflcil que la
gente de estos sectores, dentro del sinfin de preocupaciones vitales
cotidianas, dedique mucho tiempo o tenga un interes mis que pasajero
en cuestiones relacionadas con la organizaci6n grupal o cornunitaria. La
misma inestabilidad de 10s ernpleos o trabajos, que puede implicar cambios repentinos e n el horario o en el lugar de trabajo, dificulta la
participaci6n en tareas organizativas con la constancia que ella requerirfa. Asimismo, 10s sectores populares suelen equiparar 10s esfuerzos por organizarse con la subversion, sea como consecuencia de
amenazas o del recuerdo de hechos represivos del pasado. El10 contribuye a1 desarrollo de actitudes autorepresivas.
Incluso, se puede constatar q u e , en algunos intentos de soluci6n colectiva de 10s problemas a traves de organizaciones que surgen esporadi-
camente, las formas de procedimiento tarnbien estbn rnarcadas por una
e s t r u c t u r a mental condicionada por el verticalismo y el autoritarismo: 10s
participantes tienden a concentrar el poder de decisi6n y la iniciativa
para la acci6n en una persona o en una cornision, encargadas estas de
l l e v a r adelante' el inter& comun. Los demis esperan y se desentienden
del asunto sin pretender mayor participaci6n en las decisiones y las
tareas.
Los mecanismos de toma de decision que se aplican son, por lo general,
10s que la sociedad formal considera corno democriticos: las decisiones
son preparadas y adoptadas en reuniones, aplicandose el voto por rnayoria en caso de no haber consenso. Sin embargo, al mismo tiempo sigue
vigente otra pauta cultural s e e n la cual las decisiones son tomadas por
consenso, pero en base a una discusion y preparation informal del tema
con 10s familiares, vecinos y amigos en un proceso que se desarrolla y
madura antes que tenga lugar el debate en asamblea. Segun esta pauta,
la r e u n i 6 n r v e para la mera ratificaci6n del concenso alcanzado en las
discusiones informales previas. La vigencia latente de esta pauta dificulta la toma de decisiones en base a mecanismos democrhticos 'occidentales'. En estas circunstancias, la aplicacion de mecanismos 'occidentales'
no garantiza que las decisiones adoptadas sean realmente asumidas posteriormente por todos y cada uno de 10s participantes del proceso.
En cuanto a estrategias para resolver problemas, no se reivindica tanto
el cumplimiento de derechos ya establecidos y supuestamente respetados
por las autoridades. El recurso mbs cornfin, y tal vez el mAs expedito en
el context0 de la sociedad actual, e s el de r e c u r r i r a 'compadres', funcionarios en posici6n influyente, lideres de partido, etc. Si estos pueden intervenir y resolver problemas, 10 hacen corno favor y rnuestra de
benevolencia personal, vale decir, en base a mecanismos de tipo clientelista antes que a partir de una realizaci6n efectiva de una norrna legal
que e s , o que deberia s e r , valida para todos.
Valores morales
Los valores morales tradicionales, junto con aquellos que son amparados
oficial y legalmente, van siendo complernentados -- y en p a r t e , reemplazados -- por valores morales nuevos y alternatives. Estos, por un lado,
son forjados y validados por la experiencia y la prbctica diaria, segun
la pauta de '10 que s i r v e , e s bueno'. Por el otro, se t r a t a de valores
adoptados a partir de la observaci6n de la prictica de la sociedad
global; valores q u e , a pesar de no s e r promovidos oficialmente, se encuentran en plena vigencia y no son reprimidos, o si son reprirnidos, 10
son a e manera simb6lica (el ejempio mAs claro e s el de la corruption
tolerada) .
Estos nuevos valores cambian a medida que se va transformando el entorno social: no se encuentran formulados en ningun codigo normativo,
pero constituyen un sisterna de normas reales dotado de alguna coherencia. Se encuentran vigentes a un nivel m& general y son considerados
'normales' dentro del sector de 10s pobres de la ciudad, constituyendo
un sisterna de 'sublegalidad' vigente para ellos pese a la calificaci6n
contraria por parte de la sociedad formal, la que sindica 10s hechos
amparados por 10s mencionados valores nuevos como ilegales, inmorales y
rechazables.
De este modo, 10s valores proyeetados por la sociedad y s u s instituclones frecuentemente carecen de contenido y validez efectiva: no son
verdaderamente respetados e n la p r i c t i c a , sino mis bien asurnidos como
apariencia cuando hay q u e enfrentar una presi6n o un control ineludible.
Entre 10s ejemplos de hechos y actuaciones amparados por 10s mencionados valores morales de la ' s u b l e g d i d a d ' , podemos citar:
- Engahar a las instituciones estatales y s u s representantes. Esto
no o c u r r e solamente a nivel de 10s sectores populares, sin0 que
constituye una prhctica generahzada. A nivel de 10s p o b r e s , sin
embargo, adquiere mayor importancia cuando el engaiio -- evasion
de controles, impuestos y fiscalizaciones, por ejemplo -- e s cond i c i h necesaria para sobrevivir.
- Buscar ventajas personales y , sobre todo, econ6micas por casi
cualquier medio -- cosa que tampoco e s privativa de 10s sectores
populares.
- La p r i c t i c a del contrabando hormiga y el apoyo a1 contrabando
d e escala media, especialmente en articulos de consurno familiar e n
10s mercados.
- La defensa de posibilidades alternativas de explotaci6n econ6mica
e n la economia informal, con acciones ocasionales de resistencia o
protesta (el caso de las vendedoras en las veredas de las avenidas
aledaftas a1 Mercado 4 e s ilustrativo de ello).
- Los robos, q u e muchas veces constituyen una medida de emergencia para poder corner y sobrevivir en el dia.
- La inestabilidad de la pareja; hombres y mujeres que comparten
s u s vidas y tienen hijos con varies compafteros o cornpaneras sucesivamente a 10 largo d e s u vida.
- La prostituci6n, incluyendo la prostitution de j6venes y niftas,
que puede s e r considerada primordialmente como inconveniente personal -- peligro de embarazos precoces, tener q u e mantener u n a
c r i a t u r a siendo joven -- antes q u e como 'pecado' o hecho inmoral.
En estos casos, la lucha por la supervivencia marca y dicta pautas de
valoraci6n q u e no pueden mis q u e romper con codigos y consideraciones
morales tradicionales. Y dad0 q u e son valores percibidos como 'vigentes
de hecho', tampoco son mayormente sometidos a presiones o correctivos,
sean grupales o colectivos.
A nuestro p a r e c e r , estos nuevos valores no deben s e r vistos como antivalores o valores negativos, asociados a la delincuencia o a 'las malas
costumbres'. Son valores q u e marcan conductas, pautas y attitudes de
10 q u e se podria llamar una sociedad paralela (o sociedad informal, tal
como s e habla de una economia informal), y que constituye un sistema
normative perfectamente 'normal' e n esa 'otra' sociedad. Quer6moslo o
n o , nos g u s t e o no nos g u s t e , 10s sectores urbanos pobres adoptan
valores q u e , en s u ambiente, les permitirhn la supervivencia: si necesitan r o b a r , r o b a r i n , y para ellos, estarh bien.
WHEN THE TOURISTS FLEW IN
The Finance Minister said
'It will boost the Economy
The dollars will flow in."
The Minister of the Interior said
"It will provide full
and varied employment
for all indigenes."
The Minister of Culture said
"It will enrich our life ...
contact with other cultures
must surely
improve the texture of living."
The man from the Hilton said
"We will make you a second Paradise:
for you it is the dawn
of a glorious new beginning."
When the tourists flew in
our island people
metamorphosed into
a grotesque carnival
- a two-week sideshow
When the tourists flew in
our men put aside
their fishing nets
to become waiters
our women became whores
When the tourists flew in
what culture we had went out the window
we traded our customs
for sunglasses and pop
we turned sacred ceremonies
into ten-cent peep shows
When the tourists flew in
local food became scarce
prices went up
but our wages stayed low
When the tourists flew in
we could no longer
go down to our beaches
the hotel manager said
Natives defile the sea-shore."
When t h e t o u r i s t s f l e w i n
t h e hunger and t h e s q u a l o r
were p r e s e r v e d
a s a passing pageant
f o r c l i c k i n g cameras
- a c h i c eye-sore
When t h e t o u r i s t s f l e w i n
we w e r e a s k e d
t o be "side-walk ambassadors"
t o s t a y s m i l i n g and p o l i t e
t o always guide
the "lost" visitor
...
H e l l , i f we c o u l d o n l y t e l l t h e m
w h e r e we r e a l l y w a n t t h e m t o g o .
C. Rajendra
( C o n t o u r s , Ecumenical C o a l i t i o n on T h i r d W o r l d T o u r i s m , Bangkok, T h a i l a n d ,
T h i r d Quarter
1 9 8 3 , and S a t y o d a y a , N o 1 0 3 , J a n u a r y 1984, Kandy, S r i L a n k a ) .
THE HEALTH IMPACT OF DEVELOPMENT
A CALL FOR CASE-STUDIES AND OPERATIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS
T h e International Course f o r Primary Health Care Managers at District
Level in Developing Countries ( I s t i t u t o Superiore di SanitA, Rome) i s
c u r r e n t l y sponsoring a s e r i e s of international working meetings on the
health impact of development. T h e meetings will d i s c u s s t h e pathways
b y which environmental, economic, social, cultural a n d political c h a n g e
impact on the health of t h e affected populations. Health i s h e r e u n d e r stood both in t h e quantitative s e n s e of 'number of y e a r s lived' - with
related universal indicators s u c h a s mortality r a t e s and life expectancy
- and in t h e qualitative, highly c o n t e x t - d e p e n d e n t , s e n s e of wellbeing
(freedom from d i s e a s e , personal satisfaction, social participation, p r o d u c t i v i t y ) . T h e aim of t h e meetings i s to develop operational tools and
recommendations to optimize t h e health impact of development projects
a n d to promote related awareness among health a n d development worke r s . The proceeding's will b e published and available on r e q u e s t . Reade r s involved in development projects with clear positive o r negative
consequences fur t h e health of t h e affected communities a r e kindly invited to write to t h e a d d r e s s below and include a description of t h e i r
e x p e r i e n c e . R e f e r e n c e s , c a s e - s t u d i e s , observations and justified o p e r a tional recommendations to increase t h e health pluses and decreased the
health minuses 01' Ji-'vrilopil!ent projects bill be v e r y welcome to a d d to
t h e discussion a n d , possibly, b e included in t h e publication that will
collect the r e s u l t s of t h e meetings.
Borr'ini, International Course f o r PHC Managers, L f v t u c o :weriore di S m i t J , 7 i a l e Reqina Elena 293, 00161 Rome, I t 3 . 1 ~ .
Gr&
ifda dossier 68
.
noveniber/decen!ber
national space
1988
A L T E R N A T I V E ECONOMIC STRATEGY FOR N I G E R I A :
INDIGENOUS SMALL SCALE I N D U S T R I E S
b y Regina U . Obi
Department of Sociology
University of Benin
Private Mail B a g 1154
Benin C i t y , Nigeria
&
Anthropolog-y
Abszract. - The indigenou: sacio-economic system uhich enabled t h e development o f complex kingdoms and s t a t e s in 9igeri.a uas rooted on smalt
s c a l e iru+dstries uhich f l o u r i s h e d , f o r ¥i.nstsr..ce i n Auka, Supe, Benin,
Oyo and Zaria i n pre-colonial e r a , s l a v e trade n o t - u i t h - s t a n d i n g . The
strangu7at'im o f small s s a l e i.ndustries i n c o l o n i a l and post-coloniat
e r a by development planners made room f o r the take-over of t'ne eccnomy
by t r a n s n a t i o n a l and goveiwment-owned i n d u s t r i e s . These large s c a l e i n d u s t r i e s f a i l e d . T h i s mis-mamgement has l e f t t h e ccuntry w i t h huge
foreign d e b t s . During t h e economic depression (1980-1988), lligerians are
forced t o s t a r t o f f small s c a l e i n d u s t r i e s and t h e s e have helped t o o f f e r employment. These small s c a l e i n d u s t r i e s maximise t h e use o f l o c a l
rm m a t e r i a l and t r a d i t i o n a l s k i l l s . The economic importance o f such
i n d u s t r i e s has been demonstrated i n Japan and Germany, and t h e r e c e n t
' i i g e r i a n experience b u t t r e s s e s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y c o n t r i b u t e more t o
development because they a r e rooted i n t h e indigenous c u l t u r e o f t h e
people. The author concludes w i t h t h e recommendation ( i ) t h a t t h e g m e m e n t should s t u d y the s t r u c t u r e and functions o f t r a d i t i o n a l small
s c a l e i n d u s t r i e s , and find ways o f i n t e g r a t i n g them i n t o t h e development
plan and ( i i l t h a t , t h e present method devised by t h e National Director a t e of Employment t o e s t a b l i s h small s c a l e i n d u s t r i e s being inappropria t e , i t be r e s t r u c t u r e d .
UNE AUTRE STRATEGIE ECONOMIQUE POUR LE NIGERIA:
LES PETITES INDUSTRIES INDIGENES
Re'sum6. - Le systeme socio-iconomique indigene q u i a p e m i s Le de'veloppement d e s complexes royaumes e t titate ae la Higeria e t a i t fond6 s u r de
p e t i v e s ¥industrie f l m i s s a n t e s d 1 'epoque pr2-coloniale, par exemple 6
Auka, Pi'upe, Benin, Gyo e t Zariu, en & p i t de l a t r a i t s des escl-aves.
L 'eTravLgl£>men
de c e s ind'uiscries 6 L '+oque co l o n i a l e e t post-co l o n i a l e
par l e s pLar:ificateurs o u u r i t la v o t e 3 lsi domination de L16conortie par
des e c t z " e ~ " ' . s e ts r u ~ ~ ~ r ~ t i o n ou
a l epropr'^t>
s
du go'-ive:*.enei".t. Les 3rsr.aes e n t r e p r i s e s onz echoue e t Leur mauvaise j e s t z o n ptong6 Le pays duns
l ' e n d e t t e m e n t e x t i r i e u r . Pendant La depression iconomique (1NC-1988),
Les Nigerians durent r e - d m a r r e r de p e t i t e s i n d u s t r i e s
( s u i t e 2 la page 31)
Regina U . Obi
ALTERNATIVE ECONOMIC STRATEGY FOR N I G E R I A :
INDIGENOUS SMALL SCALE INDUSTRIES
Introduction
In Nigeria, the Fourth National Development Plan 1981-1985, an improvement on the Third National Development Plan 1975-1980, has eleven
specific objectives, namely: ( i ) increase in the real income of the
average citizen; (ii) more even distribution of income among individuals
and socio-economic g r o u p s ; (iii) reduction in the level of unemployment
and under-employment; ( i v ) increase in the supply of skilled manpower;
( v ) reduction of the dependence of the economy on a narrow range of
activities; ( v i ) balanced development - that i s , the achievement of a
balance in the development of the different sectors of the economy and
the various geographical areas of the country; (vii) increased participation b y citizens in the ownership and management of production enterprises; (viii) greater self-reliance - that i s , increased dependence on
o u r resources in seeking to achieve the various objectives of society.
This also implies increased efforts to achieve optimum utilization of o u r
human and material resources; ( i x ) development of technology; ( X ) increase productivity; and ( x i ) the promotion of a new national orientation conducive to greater discipline, b e t t e r attitude to work and cleaner
environment (Federal Ministry of National Planning, l981 : 3 7 ) . But experience in Nigeria since the First National Development Plan 1962-1968,
has shown that i t is difficult to achieve the expected goals because of
lack of plan discipline, emergence of corruption in a large scale, lack of
proper statistical data, lack of indigenous manpower in key positions
etc. (Okigbo, 1983:55-59).
Even today Nigeria cannot boast of being a self-reliant nation; she still
imports elementary goods and services. The economy is depressed with
hyper inflation, and high rates of unemployment, retrenchment and
crime. So, s h e has so far not succeeded to b e a land of full opportunities for all citizens a s a result of poor economic planning and management of resources.
Nigeria emphasizes the establishment of large scale industries ( e . g .
Peugeot Automobile of Nigeria Ltd) which depend more on imported materials for economic production, and lukewarm on small scale industries
which depend less on imported materials and more on local raw materials
for economic efficiency in production I / . Investment on indigenous small
scale industries ( i . e . indigenous economic production) such as blacksmithing, iron-work, shoe i n d u s t r y , mechanics, traditional food processing i n d u s t r y , soap making i n d u s t r y , textile i n d u s t r y , agro-based
i n d u s t r y , building and construction i n d u s t r y will help to utilize our
local resources and develop o u r indigenous technology. The Third
National Development Plan stated that the main objectives of the Government programmes for the establishment of small scale industries are
the creation of employment opportunities, mobilization of local resources,
mitigation of rural-urban migration, and distribution of industrial enterprises in different p a r t s of the country (Federal Ministry of Economic
Planning, 1975:155). Plans on how to develop small scale industries are
contained in the Fourth National Development Plan. It reads:
Apart from t h e smalt s c a l e i n d u s t r i e s c r e d i t scheme and t h e s r o v i s i o n o f i n f r a a t r u c t u r d f a c i l i t i e s and i n c e n t i v e s , t h e s n a l l s c a l e
i n d u s t r i a l i s t s and t h e i r e n t e r p r i s e s uiLl r e c e i v e o t h e r b e n e f i t s
from some s t a t e Governments during t h e Fourth Plan period. For i n stance, through i t s s n a i l - s c a l e e n t e r p r i s e s development programs,
the Oyo S t a t e Government u i l l provide b u i l d i ~ g s and equipment a s
u e t t a s t e c h n i c a l s e r v i c e s f o r t h e use o f t h e s n a i l - s c a l e i n c h t r i a l i s t . The e x t e n t i o n s e r v i c e c e n t r e s u i l L carry o u t r e p a i r s on
t h e machinery o f i n d u s t r i a l i s t s and f a b r i c a t e spare p a r t s Like
b o l t s and n u t s f o r them. The S t a t e Government u s l l spend J a i r a ( W 3
m i l l i o n for the provision o f t h e s e s e r v i c e s during t h e plan period.
I n p u r s u i t of t h e same o b j e c t i v e s t h e Anambra S t a t e G o v e m e n t u i l t
spend 313 m i t - i o n during t h e -plan t o b u i l d cottage i n d u s t r i e s i n 13
Local g o v e m e n t areas o f the s t a t e . Cgun S t a t e has earmarked X4
m i l l i o n f o r preparation o f r u r a l areas f o r e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f small
s c a l e i n d u s t r i e s uhi-te t h e Plateau S t a t e G o v e m e n t v i l l spend E0,5
mi-llion on development o f Alushi C r a f t Centre. Tne Ondo S t a t e Goverrment u i l l spend N I m i l l i o n on e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f zonal o f f i c e s for
promotion o f small s c a l e e n t e r p r i s e s (Federal M i n i s t r y o f National
Planning, 1381 : ] ? U ) .
The above sounds good and commendable but it says little o r nothing
about how to encourage t h e development of existing indigenous small
scale industries. This is a very serious omission because the indigenous
socio-economic system which had enabled the development of complex
kingdoms and states in Nigeria was rooted on small scale industries
which flourished, for instance, in Awka, Benin, Nupe, Oyo and Zaria
i n pre-colonial e r a , slave trade not-with-standing. This aspect will be
discussed below.
This paper is in four p a r t s . The first part discusses the traditional and
contemporary indigenous small scale industries. The second focuses on
the contemporary large scale industries in Nigeria. The third deals with
the relevance of indigenous economic organisation to Nigeria while the
final part draws conclusions and make recommendations.
Indigenous small scale industries: past and present
The development of indigenous centralized and non-centralized states in
Africa especially i n West Africa and Nigeria has intrigued anthropologists, sociologists, historians and political economist S . They agreed
that each indigenous state had an economic base which sustained it such
a s long distant t r a d e , local crafts and technology, occupational guilds
and associations. The studies done by Leo Frobenius (1913) and Nadel
(1942) on Bida; M . G . Smith (1955) on Zaria; Alagoa (1970) on Ijo;
Bohannan (1954) on Tiv; Onwuejeogwu (1981) on Nri-Igbo; and
Bradbury (1957) on Benin establish beyond doubt that guilds and associations of small and medium scale industries formed the basic work and
industrial group s t r u c t u r e of production, distribution and consumption
in the states.
For example, in the Nrl (Igbo) Kingdom and Hegemony ( A . D . 9001911), Onwue]eogwu (1981: 56-74) described four major productive
groups organised in small scale units not exceeding ten individuals
bound by kinship o r friendship ties, namely: farming group, trading
group, ritual group and crafts group. He described how through the
market and non-market systems production, distribution and consumption were generated by small industrial groups o r guilds through-out
the kingdom and hegemony which at its climax involved many Igbo
settlements "living in an area of about 4,500 square miles east and west
of the River Niger". Leo Frobenius (1913) and Nadel (1942) described
the flourishing metal-work in Bida at the beginning of this century as
small scale industries with core groups of kinsmen engaged in economic
production of various types. The g r o u p s made iron implements used for
planting grain which was an important food item that sustained the
kingdom's economy. Bida people manufactured sophisticated bronze and
b r a s s household materials, decorative trinkets and bangles. The glass
and bead industries were rich and prosperous; manned by small group
of persons related through kinship and non-kinship ties.
These few ethnography examples support the theories put forward h e r e ,
that small scale groups (indigenous economic organisation) formed the
basis of effective production in traditional Nigerian economy. Indeed,
indigenous economic production was more effective in the context of
small group a s epitomised in the Hausa Gandu system which was the
most effective farming group that p r o d u c e d e groundnut and cotton
pyramids which Hausland was famous for during their trading history
especially between 1930 and 1966.
The relegation of small scale industries in Nigerian economy began after
the Nigerian Civil War when the oil boom blinded the planners from including small scale industries in their National Development Plan. Chapt e r Eleven of the Third National Development Plan, for example, listed
what is considered as small scale industries and defined it a s industries
with less than ten persons with capital of up-to N60,000. This definition
aside, the list did not include motor mechanics, metal workslblacksmiths
who construct hoes, cutlasses, r a k e s , grinding and milling machines.
The Third National Development Plan says nothing about how to encourage the growth of these small scale industries. The e n t r e p r e n e u r s were
left alone even though they form over 80% of the private sector.
The study on Rural small scale industries in Bendel North and their
role in rural development has revealed a boom in small scale industries
such a s bakeries. saw-mills and block mouldine'.
" The existence of medium sized urban c e n t r e s which retail different raw materials has enabled
the research area to benefit greatly in terms of raw material production, distribution and generation of employment (Segynola, 1986; X-xii).
The study of separate groups of bloc moulders in Benin City revealed
that performance was superior under conditions of goal setting and
supervision than "in no goal situations with supervision". To the
Nigerian manager, the result of the s t u d y implies that goal setting and
supervision act jointly to motivate and maximise the performance of the
workers (Ebegbe, 1983: 2-11). Mbagwu (1983: 311-325) classified indigenous small scale industries into two categories, namely ( i ) those concerned with processing of raw materials into intermediate o r finished
production, and (ii) crafts production. He highlighted the intellectual
and the policy neglect of indigenous small scale industries and their
significant roles but lacked statistical data to support his argument.
The experience of Western Germany shows that small scale industries
play important roles in the economy. For example, the recent statistics
number 1.9 million small and medium sized businesses including offices,
service companies and factories. The small scale industries provide 2
out of every 3 jobs, 4 out of every 5 apprenticeships and half of the
gross national products (GNP). Entrepreneurs of these industries a r e
creative and take risks in times of crises. In the early 19801s, unfavourable economic conditions forced some large scale industries to
close down, retrench workers or render them redundant, whereas small
scale industries expanded, and are still expanding. Between the first
q u a r t e r of 1983 and the first q u a r t e r of 1986, they created 306,000 new
jobs in Western Germany (Scala, 1987: 11-13).
The Japanese experience i s another ethnographic case of how the
Japanese government encouraged small scale industries in agricultural
and in many industrial sectors. The Japanese successes in rapid and
effective industrialisation is strongly correlated with the adaptation of
indigenous small scale industries into contemporary manufacturing companies, on the one hand, and the incorporation of ideas of the g, the
family system, in organising t h e large industries, on the other. These
make the workers have a feeling of family solidarity by introducing welf a r e , and promotional systems that motivate workers into putting their
best i n their companies (Beardley, Hall and Ward, 1959: 45-193).
Contemporary large scale industries in Nigeria
The strangulation of small scale industries in colonial and post-colonial
e r a made room for the take-over of the economy by the transnational
and government-owned industries. Some studies of the large scale industries done at state levels show that they a r e inefficient and wasteful
(e.g. Anao, 1985).
Between 1970 and 1980, about 200 state-owned limited liability companies
were registered in Bendel State to pursue activities in industrial and
commercial sectors. They include cement, glass and textile industries;
brewery industry; insurance, banking, clearing houses and consultancy; woodwork; laundry; supermarkets and gambling industry. These
economic activities were traditionally reserved for the private entrepren e u r s . By the end of the decade, the state-owned industries started to
collapse and were consequently criticized by the public for poor perforrnance. In his effort to find out the causal f a c t o r ( s ) , Anao conducted
an indepth study of the Bendel Construction Company Limited. He discovered that the company failed because of lack of clear and rational
objectives for investments coupled with the appointment of successive
boards of directors who were ill-equipped and unsuitable for the needs
of the company (Anao, 1985: 269-285). He also criticized the structural
organisation of the company a s faulty though he did not state the
nature of the human relationship which is pursued for effective management and production.
The case s t u d y of Hardel and Enic ( N i g . ) Limited in Owerri (Imo State)
and in Enugu (Anambra State) shows the effects of traditional values of
et'ticiency of Western bureaucratic style of organisation. According to
Eke (19851, in Hardel and Enic (Nig.) L t d , there is a peaceful coexistence of both traditional values as ignored by Max Weber, and
bureaucratic values as postulated by him. These two values operated
simultaneously and effectively in most of the activities in the firm, e . g .
recruitment and integration of workers, promotion, authority s t r u c t u r e
and chains of relationships. What Max Weber regards as detrimental to
the efficiency of bureaucratic organisation in the West is what the
managers and subordinates of Hardel and Enic (Nig.) Ltd appreciate
most in the firm (Eke, 1985: 147-149). In Hardel and Enic (Nig.) Ltd,
traditional cultural values of workers were integrated into the cultural
values of Western bureaucracy. These have the positive effect of ameliorating the rigidity of Western bureaucracy, and making work more
meaningful and acceptable for the workers. Consequently, they a r e able
to perceive the firm as their personal property that should be protected
at all costs. This i s similar to the situation in Japanese firms a s described b y Linhart (1984: 51-52).
The relevance of indigenous economic organisations to Nigeria
Small scale industries establish face-to-face relationship between the
boss and the subordinates similar to kinship relationship obtained in
indigenous economic organisations which a r e organised in small groups
of k i n s , relations and friends. This type of network enhances high
motivation to work among workers. Workers have a feeling of belonging
at workplaces, and accept slogans such a s (i) The work i s "our work"
and not "Oyibo work", and (ii) S.F.O. that i s "service for ourselves".
The positive attitude towards work found in indigenous industries i s
diametrically opposed to the negative type found mostly in big companies for various reasons such a s : impersonal relationship established
in the name of bureaucracy and lack of cultural relations which a r e
found in small scale industries.
The effectiveness and adaptability of small scale industries to the
changing fate of world economy is remarkable. During the present economic depression that started around 1 9 8 0 , the Nigerian government introduced stringent economic measures to fight against the devaluation.
The first industries to collapse were the large scale industries specialises in importation of raw materials and manufactured goods. The collapse of these large scale industries saw the boom of the small scale industries. The manpower retrenched in various large scale i n d u s t r i e s ,
some unemployed school leavers and university graduates were absorbed
into the existing small scale industries. New small scale industries were
established especially in the areas of food and metal industries. They
began to make use of the local manpower and raw material resources
which the large scale industries ignored d u r i n g the boom years. One
case in point is the motor i n d u s t r y . Spare p a r t s were re-conditioned
and new ones made with interior metal ( t h e so-called Taiwan make) in
Anambra and Imo states especially Onitsha-Nnewi-Owerri-Aba axis. The
big Aladja and Ajaokuta iron and steel industries were unable to cope
with the new situation. Ajaokuta was unable to produce flat iron sheets
necessary for metal work which the small scale indigenous non-univer-
sity trained engineers need in moulding and making small machines and
engines such a s kneading and grinding machines, cassava grinders,
pepper and egusi g r i n d e r s , tomato and bean grinders. The small scale
indigenous 'engineers' began to use scrap irons to make hoes, plates,
iron and steel p o t s , boxes and machines and motor p a r t s . Small scale
meachanics, welders and vulcanizers emerged here and there and made
it possible for private company and public vehicles to sustain the
country's transport system. While the Volkswagen Nigeria Ltd and the
Peugeot Automobile Nigeria Ltd were contracting, the small motor-part
makers and mechanics were expanding and even absorbing workers retrenched from the big companies. This is the state of the present phase
of the economy.
It is at this stage that the Nigerian government came out with i t s small
scale industry project which i s one of the four projects currently organised by the National Directorate of Employment in order to combat
unemployment 21. The main objective of the small scale industry project
i s to encourage unemployment graduates and young entrepreneurs to
establish small businesses, become self-employed, and provide employment for other workers (Babangida, l987:4; The Guardian 1987: 1 0 ) .
The Federal Government has deposited a job creation loan guarantee
fund of N55 million with twenty participating banks to serve a s coll a t e r a l ~ for young entrepreneurs and unemployed graduates with good
business plans who have no access to bank credits (The Guardian,
1987: 1 0 ) .
Entry into the small scale industry and guarantee employment loan
scheme is very competitive since applicants a r e expected to satisfy certain requirements to the National Directorate of Employment, such a s :
( i ) formal application letter stating the amount, purpose and addresses
of two guarantors; (ii) photo-copies of credentials/certificates; (iii) a
curriculum vitae (personal data) and ( i v ) comprehensive feasibility report of the proposed project stating the project, location, market analys i s , management team, production processes and plan, man-power requirement, estimated capital expenditure, projected income and expendit u r e , projected balance sheet, depreciation of a s s e t s , repayment plan,
cash flow analysis and viability tests (National Directorate of Employment, 1987: 1 ) .
The completion of the above requirements (Nos i-iii) present little or no
problems to the applicants. However, concern should be expressed
about requirement (No i v ) which deals with comprehensive feasibility
report of the proposed project. We appreciate the fact that comprehensive feasibility report of any business project can be very expensive.
Given the financial predicament of the unemployed graduate, how can he
afford such bills? Assuming that he finally presents a feasibility report
of the proposed project, how authentic and genuine is i t , putting into
consideration the high wave of corrupt and fraudulent practices which
are prevalent in Nigeria? These are some of the problems which should
be addressed, especially by the planners, in order to achieve fruitful
results. Furthermore, it is observed that loans are given to qualified
unemployed individuals who have little or no experience of business
management to s t a r t new businesses 31. These loans should be given,
instead, to existing established entrepreneurs of indigenous small scale
industries to enable them grow and prosper. It seems that in i t s present form the project i s organised on a n individual basis for those who
can satisfy the requirements for selection, and not necessarily on developing and expanding the existing indigenous small scale industries.
So, it is planned with the socio-cultural realities of Nigeria not taken
into proper consideration. The project is saddled with western individualism and bureaucratic exigencies which are foreign to success and
inimical to growth of indigenous small scale industries in Nigeria.
Conclusion
It has been shown in this paper that indigenous economic organisations
which a r e small scale are invaluable to the socio-economic and technological developments in Nigeria, and a s such should be encouraged to
grow and prosper. In view of this, the following recommendations a r e
made: (1) the Government should study the s t r u c t u r e and functions of
indigenous traditional organisations and find ways of integrating them
into the development plans, and (ii) the present method devised by the
National Directorate of Employment to establish small scale industries i s
inadequate from a cultural and sociological point of view and may not
sustain the test of time a n d , a s such, should be restructured to reflect
the needs of existing indigenous small scale industries.
FOOTNOTES
-l /
F o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s , see " M a n u f a c t u r i n g and C r a f t " , i n t h e T h i r d N a t i o n a l Development
P l a n 1975-1980, V o l . 1 (Lagos: The C e n t r a l P l a n n i n g O f f i c e , F e d e r a l M i n i s t r y o f Economic
D e v e l o p m e n t ) pp.147-173.
-11
The N a t i o n a l D i r e c t o r a t e o f Employment was i n a u g u r a t e d o n November 1986. The f o u r c o r e
programmes o f t h e D i r e c t o r a t e a r e : ( i ) Youth Employment and v o c a t i o n a l s k i l l s development
programme. ( i i ) S p e c i a l p u b l i c works programme. ( i i i ) A g r i c u l t u r a l programme.
s c a l e i n d u s t r i e s and g r a d u a t e employment programme.
-3 /
( i v ) Small
D a t a c o l l e c t e d f r o m N a t i o n a l D i r e c t o r a t e o f Employment, B e n i n C i t y , December 1987
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global space
THE GOSPEL OF GLOBAL EFFICIENCY
ON WORLDWATCH AND OTHER REPORTS ON THE STATE OF THE WORLD
by Wolfgang Sachs
Penn State University
128 Willard
University Park, PA 16802, USA
It's raining reports about the state of the planet. The Gaia Atlas and
the Worldwatch Institute's State of the World are circulating in more
than a dozen languages, the Annual report of the World Resources Institute stands in easy reach of enlightened UN officials, and environmentalists across the world hail the report of the BrundtlandCommission as high-level testimony to their claims.
I should show gratitude and relief. It i s t r u e , the curtain of silence is
finally pulled away from the global survival crisis and a series of data
and tables reveal the vast panorama of today's threats and perils. The
evidence i s indeed undebatable. Also the appeal for urgent responsible
action has been long overdue and cannot but command consent. Conversion i s indeed indispensable. Yet my admiration for the reports i s increasingly stained with mistrust in their effects. The proposed policies
of resource management, I am afraid, ignore the option of intelligent
self-limitation and reduce ecology to a higher form of efficiency. Such a
reductionism, I claim, implicitly affirms the universal validity of the
economic world-view and will eventually spread further the Westernization of minds and habits, a cultural fall-out that in the long r u n also
endangers the overall goal of sustainability.
More out of less
Each of the 80 odd Worldwatch papers, for example, paints a picture of
the global state of affairs which looks roughly a s follows: On the one
hand we see how more and more people with increasing- needs for food,
shelter, health care or e n e r g y , a r e demanding to be recognized, as the
population grows and some inequality is levelled. On the other hand we
are shown how economies squander their potential to meet these demands as they deplete resources, ruin the environment and drive up
costs. The available means are diminishing, while needs become more
pressing: what looms large in the picture i s a global sustainability
squeeze. Fossil fuels, for instance, use up in one year what took a million years to produce, overburden the atmosphere with carbon dioxide,
and prove to be more costly than investing in saving energy. The misuse ot water supplies deprives humans, animals and plants of a basic
means of survival, pollutes the earth's reserves for a long time to
come, and new water works c a r r y a multi-billion dollar price tag. Examples abound. Fortunately enough, t h e Worldwatch people s a y , the pict u r e i s not completely gloomy, but shows a streak of light in the distance. Shifting to less harmful means and concentrating on efficiency
signals for them the way out of the dilemma. Renewable fuels and fine
tuning through conservation and careful management are typical r e sponses which point to the desired t a r g e t : resource efficiency. Indeed,
if one were to suggest a motto to be engraved above the entrance of
the Worldwatch Institute, the obvious choice would be "More Out Of
Less".
I will not doubt the necessity of this approach nor will I quarrel with
the soundness of the alternative solutions suggested. But i would like
to draw attention to a hidden reductionism which t u r n s ecological politics from a call for new public virtues into a set of managerial s t r a tegies. As with a pair of pliers where p r e s s u r e is relieved by yielding
the grip of both p a r t s , there are two possibilities to move out of the
dangerous squeeze between growing demand and insufficient means: to
consider an enlightened restraint of demand on the one hand and to
deal diligently with the available means on the other. The world watchmen, however, highlight only the second alternative and allow the first
alternative to sink into oblivion. In their r e p o r t s , they alert to the efficiency of means, elevating the rules of micro-economics to imperatives
for national (and even global) policy. Certainly, by doing so they
spearhead the transition from an output-centered to an input-centered
economy where not all resources are lavished on boosting the G N P but
utilized with utmost efficiency in o r d e r to obtain growth without slag
and d r o s s . Under the new prescriptions, economies are supposed to
"work out" until they reach overall fitness, instead of simply putting on
more muscle until they break some record, as in the decades after the
war. Optimizing, not maximizing, i s the order of the day, and both engineers and economists take renewed pleasure in their trade puzzling
out the minimum input for each unit of output.
Yet, disregard for t h e first alternative - to consider an enlightened restraint of supply-oriented demands - t r a p s the world watchmen into the
economic world-view. In such a perspective, each society p u t s production highest on i t s list of values and seeks the good life through expanding and accelerating the economic apparatus. As the reports rarely
question the predominant position of the economy in society, they implicitly take for granted that the world's cultures converge in the steady
desire for more material production. This prejudice b a r s the way to
examining closer - even for the overindustrialized countries of the
North! - a politics of intelligent self-limitation, which attempts to adapt
level, volume, s t r u c t u r e and velocity of production/consumption to society's overarching goals. Failing to do t h a t , the reports seem to consider less cornmodity-intensive, less professionalized, less speedy societies inherently deficient. Since they are unable to imagme diverse
cultures that intentionally live on intermediate levels of material demand, they cannot but make the economic outlook appear a s the natural
mode of human living. Consequently, the view on the globe they propose continues (in the tradition of "development") to assume that all
circumstances have first to be judged according to the imperative of
production, be i t even environmentally rational production. Ecological
politics, however, which take the steady growth in demand for g r a n t e d ,
and limit themselves to propagating efficient means, fall into the t r a p to
p u s h , in the name of ecology, for the f u r t h e r rationalization of the
world.
Resources everywhere
The myopia of conventional economists has become proverbial. While
staring at the role of capital and labour, they ignore many other
sources of wealth and well-being: from the unpaid labour of women
backing up the world of production, to the silent workings of nature
replenishing water, nutrients and energy. Eco-developers set out to
overcome this tunnel vision; they prospect the broad range of lifesupporting factors to assure the sustainability of yields over the long
term. Through their glasses, numerous things and actions which so far
had been taken for granted as part of ordinary life acquire a new,
dramatic significance: they change into valuable resources. Cow dung
for example, kindled b y the Senegalese peasant to heat water in the
cooking p o t , suddenly becomes an energy resource; the scrap metal
used b y a Peruvian squatter to build an annex to his hut takes on the
dignity of a recoverable i n p u t ; Kenyan women cultivating village fields
a r e discovered to be human resources for boosting food production. Und e r Worldwatch e y e s , more and more p a r t s of the world assume a new
s t a t u s , they are disembedded from their local context and redefined as
resources.
In what new light, however, do actions, things and people appear when
they are redefined a s "resources"? Obviously they acquire importance
because they a r e considered useful for some higher purpose. They
count not because of what they are but because of what they can become. They a r e stripped of their own worth in the present in o r d e r to
be stripmined for somebody else's use in the future. A resource i s
something that has no value until it has been made into something else.
Whatever i t s intrinsic value, it fades away under the claim of superior
interests. For more than 100 years tlie term "resource" has been used
to survey the world for useful inputs into industry. Consequently, perception has been trained to look at forests and see lumber, at rocks
and see o r e , at landscapes and see real estate, at people and see
human resources. To call something a "resource" means to place it under the authority of production. The old-fashioned synonym for "resources" reveals clearly how language can impart destiny: what can you
do with "raw materials" except finish them in a manufacturing process?
But not just any productive use can make something a resource. While
the peasant in Gujarat may use cow d u n g to fertilize his plot, i t becomes a resource only in t h e framework of national production. It i s in
national ( o r global) accounting books that resources are specified,
measured and assessed according to their relative productivity; it i s the
capacity to boost GNP that constitutes a resource. Calling something a
resource endows it with the availability to be exploited for the national
interest.
In a non-economic perspective, things often have a meaning which
makes them resistant to unlimited availability. For instance, in a Hindu
village there is always a holy tree or a sacred grove which is untouchable. Gods a r e said to reside in their shadow; to cut them as timber
would deprive the village of mighty protection. Consider another example: From Bolivia to ancient Germany, mines were regarded as wombs of
Mother Earth where metals grow in slow gestation. Entering this underground world with i t s mysteries meant crossing a treshold into a domain
which does not rightfully belong to man. Responsibility and care were
required, and rituals were performed in order to ask for Mother's generosity. Cooperation of nature also had to be obtained by the NorthAmerican Cree when they went hunting deer. For them, animals were
not game out there to be killed, but had to be convinced, in a dialogue
of rites and offerings, to present themselves to the h u n t e r s . Indeed,
hunting was an exchange between animals and man that was governed
by friendship, coercion o r love, like an ordinary human relationship. In
sum, understanding t r e e s , rocks or animals as animated beings in a
wider cosmos where each element possesses i t s separate but related
identity, entailed intrinsic limits on exploitation.
Labelling things as "resources" takes off whatever protective identity
they may have and opens them for intervention from the outside. Looking at water, soils, animals, people in terms of resources reconstitutes
them as objects for management by planners and for prizing by economists. Even if they are renamed "resources" in o r d e r to maximize their
efficient u s e , because of the cultural fall-out from the all-embracing
economic cloud, i t will, in the f u t u r e , be much more difficult to have
any intrinsic respect for them.
Never enough
The clock, we are warned, shows five minutes to twelve. Or even less.
Be it Gaia, Worldwatch or Brundtland, they set off the alarm and seek
to alert u s against the threat to the survival of the planet. The message is fully credible. But the conclusion i s highly double-edged:
' s e c u r i n g survival" is the proclaimed target for all responsible planning. However, has there e v e r been a society whose primary concern
was survival? Probably not. Nomads might have fled d r o u g h t s ,
Florentine citizens may have hidden from the plague, soldiers in Verdun
might have mobilized their last r e s e r v e s , b u t when has e v e r been proposed that society's s t r u c t u r e should be geared towards securing s u r vival? Of course, previous cultures never deliberately neglected the requirements of survival, but neither did they pay them much attention.
Whatever their customs and rule, whatever their obsessions and fantasies, the conditions of physical existence were met in the course of
the culture's pursuit of higher goals. Survival was nothing else than
the by-product of greater achievements. It was not an explicit concern,
but a given banality. Yet, precisely in the historical epoch where
riches have been amassed a s never before, eco-developers from all four
winds raise their voice and call upon people and governments to put
survival f i r s t .
A glance into the various Worldwatch papers and yearbooks recalls the
most recent p a r t of the story how plenty vanished and scarcity assumed
command. A short time ago it could be taken for granted that the great
cycle of evaporation, condensation and precipitation fully replenished
o u r sources of water, but overpumping for irrigation, which makes the
water level d r o p , and pollution from i n d u s t r y , which r e n d e r s i t unsafe,
have today turned fresh water into a scarce good. Since time immeniorial, legions of insects and worms have renewed the topsoil, but pcsticicles and overuse of marginal land now accelerate the rate of erosion.
And so it goes for global rainfall ( f o r e s t s ) , s u n radiation (ozone hole)
o r temperature (greenhouse effect). Plenty turned into scarcity as industrial and agricultural production were intensified and generalized
around the globe. The threat to survival i s the result - one i s embarrassed to state the obvious - of the increasing identification of the good
life with the availability of material products. Scarcity, therefore, is
one side of a coin whose reverse side is called open-ended production.
An emerging tribe of eco-experts, however, defines i t s field of expertise by focusing the spotlight on the first side of the coin leaving the
second in the shadow. As the World Resources Institute programmatically states on the first page of i t s 1987 report: "The global environment
i s an interconnected web.. The human race relies on the environment
and therefore must manage it wisely". Clearly, the "therefore" is the
c r u x of the matter: t h e scarcity of what was once plenty i s sealed and
meant to be the base for a new type of management. While the supposition in the statement holds t r u e for all cultures, i t s conclusion highlights the hidden axiom of the economic worldview: there will be no
boundaries to material progression. It is only when this axiom reigns
that water, air and soil become and remain scarce. Taking the scarcity
of natural riches for granted, however, is the base for the ecodeveloper's intervention: i t becomes his task to monitor and manage
what has now turned into a scarce resource. And it will require all his
professional skill to steer a course along that optimal level of exploitation which does not jeopardize t h e sustainability of f u t u r e growth. To
rally around "survival" happens only in a society which i s driven by
the imperative of continuously testing the limits of nature. Any other
couldn't care less.
.
By putting on the glasses of micro-economics, i . e . the technique for
selecting the most efficient means for a given e n d , eco-developers cannot escape the axiom of infinite growth. Since the time of Jevron and
Walras, means a r e for the economist principally insufficient; their scarcity appears a s part of the natural o r d e r of things and no longer as
caused by some particular, transient constellation where ends happen to
outstrip means. Instead, the presumptuous expectation of 19th century
Europe that wants, along the supposedly linear course of history, will
continuously expand rendering means notoriously insufficient, has entered the nature of things as an implicit axiom, whenever economists
seek to make the best out of so-called scarce means. They will never
tell you what ends you will finally achieve "managing wisely" your
means; for them ends a r e faceless, they have only one, just formal
character: they a r e infinite.
For the economic world-view, needs will always become claims on material production. Well-being, in this perspective, is recast a s wellhaving. Society's welfare, therefore, depends in the first place on
material output. Setting out to manage "global resources", world watchmen imply the world-wide victory of this specifically modern outlook as
a f a i t accornpli. What separates them from the conventional economist, i s
their straightforward recognition of environmental limits to production;
what ties them nevertheless to the economic worldview, is the failure to
appreciate cultural limits to the predominance of production, cultural
limits that render production less important and consequently relieve
also environmental pressure. For them as well a s for the conventional
economists, nature's riches a r e doomed to be insufficient, because both
the affluent and the impoverished part of the world will inevitably grow
in their attachment to material growth. The many different ways to the
good life a r e implicitly reduced to the one single racetrack towards a
higher standard of living. If societies always expended all their energies on pushing production, there would never have been the strikingly
coloured fabrics in Senegal, nor the extravagant Moghul gardens in
India, nor any gothic cathedral in France. As diverse a s these societies
have been, they h a d , nevertheless, one thing in common: they aspired
to something other than producing and spent their s u r p l u s on whatever
g r a n d design. The West has decided to spend i t on multiplying o u t p u t ;
eco-developers tacitly accept that formula for the entire globe.
Always rational
Throughout the Worldwatch p a p e r s , one frequently meets persons of a
particular virtue. the utopia of a sustainable world appears to be
populated b y a fairly recent version of homo sapiens, the efficiencyconscious individual. When i t comes to collecting glass-bottles in separate containers, to replacing open fires with stoves, to introducing
minimum tillage in place of soil-breaking plowing, o r to installing d r i p
irrigation instead of canals, all these suggestions, as reasonable a s they
may b e , propagate the gospel of efficiency. Amory Lovins provided a
striking illustration of the eco-developer's mood when he presented his
audience with two light bulbs. Both lights were equally b r i g h t , although the conventional model uses 75 and the new one only 18 watts.
He explained: "We should get used to seeing the purchase of an electricity-saving device like constructing a tiny power plant in the home.
The new bulb, in f a c t , is producing 57 negawatts, i . e . unused watts.
And the saved electricity can be sold to another client, making new
power plants superfluous". Indeed, this could nicely e x p r e s s the
efficiency ethos in a nutshell: "Produce negawatts!"
Undoubtedly, the message is charming in i t s elegance. And this tends
to blur the shift from the housekeeping to the efficiency ethos. Good
housekeeping i s the traditional ideal of subsistence-oriented households.
What i s t h e r e is not collected, preserved and reused: Food i s s t o r e d ,
tools are carefully maintained, furniture is handed down from generation
to generation. Necessary possessions are fully u s e d , while outside p u r chases a r e kept to a minimum. Each coin i s turned over twice before it
i s s p e n t , each transaction is carried out prudently, sometimes even with
misgivings. However, the point of good house-keeping is not economizing for the sake of investment, but saving for the sake of independence. Choice of an efficient means has nothing to do with keeping expenses down, but aims at obtaining a higher r e t u r n in o r d e r to liberate
funds for f u r t h e r investments. Saving, in contrast, intends to keep
market involvement at a low level in o r d e r to shield t h e domestic
economy against p r e s s u r e from the larger economy. Efficiency looks for
opportunities, saving looks for security. Wlule the former implies infinite progression, the latter derives from a sense of enoughness. Both
attitudes can easily conflict a s soon as a gain in efficiency would require money; the Indian peasant may, therefore, prefer to b u r n piles of
cow d u n g , which involves no money expense, r a t h e r than buy a biodigest e r , though it uses less cow d u n g to obtain the same amount of heat.
More fundamentally, the peasant might not want to care at all, because
he has other preferences in life. After all, the efficiency imperative demands leaving nothing idle and selecting - in terms of money, effort
and environmental consequences - the least costly way to achieve a
goal. Our peasant, however, might not be happy with the waterproof
roof the "development" agency provided, and replace it with the t r a ditional roof of leaves and branches which requires major repairs each
year. After all, this roof repair is the occasion of the village's weeklong festival! He is ready to be effective but not efficient. Since people
are not fools, they will always intend to be effective and act so as to
achieve a certain result. Yet efficiency can be way off, because the
activity i s embedded in a web of other concerns. They may for instance
use long hours every day to carry out customary visits to family members o r spend most of their money on elaborate festivities. The call to
efficiency disrupts the other priorities which deflect o r retard the
(technically) one best way. Actions are often over-determined and serve
a host of purposes; to t u r n mere effectiveness into efficiency means to
delete the other concerns and to privilege the naked means-end relationship. Once that privilege is erected, means count only as means;
any consideration of context, quality, style or esthetics tends to become
irrelevant. The model of rational choice, in fact, i s based on the assumption that means have been purified of any context, since they are
considered to b e interchangeable according to the highest r e t u r n and
calculable according to a single yardstick, generally either money o r
energy. Efficiency behaviour spreads at t h e expense of culture-guided
behaviour; it undermines non-economic notions of the good and proper
life.
Certainly, interpreting the state of the world chiefly in terms of "resources", "management" and "efficiency" may appeal to planners and
economists. But it continues to promote development a s a cultural mission and to shape the world in the image of the West. The reports do
more than simply propose new strategies; they also tell people how to
see nature, society and their own actions. The more their language i s
adopted around the globe, the more difficult will it be to see nature in
terms of respect and not a s a resource, society i n terms of the common
good and not of production, and action in terms of virtue and not of
efficiency. To put it in a nutshell: they promote the sustainability of
nature and erode the sustainability of cultures. And t h i s , for s u r e , will
not benefit nature either.
NQ12 (514 piginas)
SUMARIO
Julio-Diciembre 1987
ELTEMA CENTRAL: .MEDIO AMBIENTE: DETERIORO Y RECUPERACIONn s t de C o o p e r a c i 6 n I b e r o a m e r i c a n a , Ave de 10s Reyes C a t b l i c o s 4,
28040 M a d r i d , Espaiia.
ASIAN EXCHANGE
A s i a n Exchance i s t h e q u a r t e r l y b u l l e t i n o f ARENA, w h i c h has w i t h i n i t s v e r y s h o r t p e r i o d
of e x i s t e n c e e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f
i n t h e r e g i o n and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y .
I n many i n s t a n c e s a r -
t i c l e s p u b l i s h e d i n t h e q u a r t e r l y b u l l e t i n have been t r a n s l a t e d i n t o A s i a n l a n g u a g e s such
as T h a i ,
in-depth,
Korean and Japanese.
The m a i n e d i t o r i a l t h r u s t o f A s i a n Exchanqe i s t o p r o v i d e
a n a l y t i c a l and i n f o r m a t i v e m a t e r i a l o f use t o r e s e a r c h e r s and s o c i a l a c t i v i s t s
i n t h e r e g i o n . The genera1 f o r m a t i s t o c o v e r s p e c i f i c themes i n each i s s u e , e i t h e r from
t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f m a k i n g s p e c i a l i s e d i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e s o c i a l - s c i e n c e s more s o c i a l l y
i n t e l l i g i b l e and o f
use t o p r a c t i o n e r s
or
f r o m an i n - d e p t h
i n f o r m a t i v e p o i n t o f view.
I s s u e s o f A s i a n Exchange have c o v e r e d t o p i c s such as ( 1 ) The Women's Q u e s t i o n ;
( 2 ) Sci-
ence, Technology and S o c i e t y i n A s i a ; ( 3 ) E n v i r o n m e n t and Development; ( 4 ) Human R i g h t s i n
t h e C o n t e x t o f A s i a n C u l t u r a l T r a d i t i o n s ; ( 5 ) Peace and S e c u r i t y i n A s i a and t h e P a c i f i c ;
(6) Development I n d i c a t o r s ; ( 7 ) S p e c i a l C o u n t r y R e p o r t s
-
P h i l i p p i n e s , S r i Lanka and C h i n a
i n t h e Year 2000.
Annual s u b s c r i p t i o n r a t e s ( f o u r i s s u e s ) ; Japan, A u s t r a l i a and New Z e a l a n d USS30; R e s t o f
A s i a ( i n d i v i d u a l ) USS10, i n s t i t u t i o n s US120; USA and Europe USS50.
( A 4 2F, G-Block,
Hung Rorn Bay Centre,
Kauloon, Hong Kongl.
104-108
Baker St. Eunq Horn,
Razv~t/Demlopmenf-international.is a biannual
journal devoted to me mulbdlsciplinary scientific
study of socio-economic development, particuluy. but not exdusively, from the viewpoint of
social, economic, political, cultural, technologic a l environmental and other aspects of developmental experience and the goals of the developing countries at national and international levels
Razvoj/Oevelopmenf-interna!.onal. is intended
to provide a forum for mntr~butionsby scholars.
experts and prominent public figures from
developing countries and the international academic and political community working in different
fields o f development linked by a common ms p c t fortheoveralldevelopmental emancipation
of peoples and countnes, as well as for equitable
international relations and co-operation for
development
I n s t i t u t e f o r D e v e l o p i n g S t u d i e s , FOB 303, 41000 Zagreb,
JULIOIAGOSTO 1988
Yugoslavia
No 96
TEMA CENTRAL: Mifiud Uriof: El campunado: wan producior, gran au-nte; Gçr
Â¥hi"- Sorpraiat para a1 Tarcer Mundo. Biolecnologia, E f n i n GoruçlÃ.d O l a r f : Modecni:
zacibn a pas0 do lortuga. Eccinomia canwuna ç d Peni. H ~ r n f i nJ. T i l I m ~ n Sabiduna
campeiina acorralada: Juan Luis Hçrnindç E1 milagro ayicola vçnçzolanEduTCio E m rnçistçLa raforma agrarla sandiniiia; Ram6n FogçJTigcra y democracia. La luchade 10s
campeiinos paraquavos.
Apdo 61 . 7 1 2 , Chacao Caracas 1060-A, Venezuela
WOMEN'S V O I C E I N THE NORTH/SOUTH DIALOGUE
STRATEGIES FOR INDEPENDENCE AND S O L I D A R I T Y *
b y Hilkka Pietila
Secretary-General, The Finnish UN Association
Jussaarenkuja 5 N
0 0 8 4 0 Helsinki, Finland
Tlie theme of t h i s symposium i s a v e r y appropriate one: "Women's voice
in t h e NorthISouth Dialogue: S t r a t e g i e s for Interdependence and Solidar i t y " . T h e women's voice i s barely h e a r d , e i t h e r in t h e North o r in t h e
S o u t h , not to s p e a k of the NorthISouth dialogue.
S t r a t e g i e s for Interdependence a n d Solidarity" b r i n g s u s to core of t h e
matter a n d to o u r hopes for the f u t u r e . I n t e r d e p e n d e n t we a r e , whethe r we like it o r not. But t h e mere concept of interdependence i s often
connotated a s if t h e South had been and were more dependent on t h e
North t h a n t h e o t h e r way r o u n d . But i s t h a t t r u e ? In my view, the
North i s vitally dependent on the South in t h e situation a s i t i s now.
The North h a s been exploiting and utilizing t h e South e v e r since t h e
colonial e r a b e g a n , and h a s t h u s built i t s development into such a form
that it relies heavily on t h e continuous flow of resources from South to
North. Now t h e North i s becoming o r making itself additionally depend e n t also on t h e T h i r d World markets and demand.
If t h e globe broke into two s e p a r a t e halves. Northern a n d S o u t h e r n ,
t h e outcome might b e s u r p r i s i n g : a f t e r a s h o r t period in a kind of
s h o c k , t h e South would finally become really self-reliant and develop i t s
life a n d institutions rapidly and independently. But the Northern halt'
would really be i n trouble. J u s t think of t h e e n e r g y s u p p l y alone: most
of t h e machinery would not w o r k , t h e e n g i n e s , c a r s and t r a c t o r s would
s t o p . T h a t would v e r y quickly mean t h a t we in t h e Northern Hernis p h e r e would both s t a r v e and freeze. It would take y e a r s to develop
s u b s t i t u t e s for t h e e n e r g y a n d raw materials which we a r e so used to
g e t t i n g cheaply from the T h i r d World. Some of them could not b e s u b s t i t u t e d at all.
However, once upon a time - in Finland, no longer ago than in my
childhood - we were able t o live a decent life primarily on o u r own,
with respect to both fuel and food supply. This gives an idea of the
vulnerability of the kind of development we have created. It is not
without reason that i t is called =development.
There a r e a lot more
indications of i t s malignancy.
As to solidarity, I will come later on to sisterhood, a s I would r a t h e r
call it among women.
The industrial society through the eyes of women
Through t h e y e a r s , development talks have been conducted a s if t h e
development problems existed only in the South. I often call t h i s approach in t h e North 'looking at the world through a telescope'. Women
from t h e South have asked with good reason whether there a r e any
problems in the North at all.
Development i s taking place everywhere, for good o r
t r y i s standing still. In that process, we can also
may be of great value in human terms. I would like
aspects of industrial development a s they look from
spective:
for bad: no counlose things which
to point out some
t h e women's p e r -
.
The microcosm of the family a s a social unit has dispersed, when
many of i t s original functions have been t r a n s f e r r e d to public institutions, i n d u s t r y and business. The nuclear family that remains
is u n d e r p r e s s u r e from within and without.
.
The work-load of women has constantly increased, despite t h e multitude of public services and the mechanization of housework. In
earlier d a y s , women worked only one - albeit long - s h i f t ; now,
most of them do a double o r even triple shift.
.
As a p a r t of t h i s development, large, centralized s t r u c t u r e s have
emerged in societies. The economic, military, political and administrative s t r u c t u r e s have become more and more hierarchical, all of
them wielding a great deal of power. At the head of all these s y s tems a r e men, i . e . patriarchal power. Women have lost most of
their real power to influence by means of their own work and
capabilities.
.
Non-material human needs (mutual r e s p e c t , dignity, meaningful
work and life, t e n d e r n e s s , caring, n u r t u r e , human relations) have
been ignored in the economic p r o g r e s s , and t h u s satisfaction of
these needs has been left to women, in addition to all their o t h e r
duties.
.
Both socialism and the market economy bee n a t u r e , as well as>
human beings, a s resources to be exploited, thereby destroying
ecological systems a n d the beauty of t h e environment, a n d deg r a d i n g human beings to be mere instruments of production and
consumption. Both women and n a t u r e a r e eventually raped!
The military systems a n d t h e arms race mark t h e climax of the
hierarchies. They a r e nothing b u t a t h r e a t to e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i s
d e a r to women: c h i l d r e n , n a t u r e , home and s a f e t y , even to men
themselves. They imply total a b u s e of t h e scarce r e s o u r c e s available to humanity.
All t h i s h a s taken place within t h e process of economic growth, prog r e s s in technology, a rising s t a n d a r d of public education, and intensification of production a n d consumption. The a d v e r s e implications of
t h i s development, many of which remain unseen due to a lack of awaren e s s among women a n d to t h e i r self-imposed adjustment to male terms in
society, have been p a r t l y excused b y t h e favourable effects of t h a t
same process.
T h e questions to b e asked a r e , whether i t would b e possible to achieve
t h e favourable r e s u l t s without paying s u c h a high p r i c e , o r whether t h e
negative implications a r e so marked that t h i s kind of development should
b e rejected altogether. At least t h e p r o s a n d cons of t h e outcome
should have been carefully weighed. And whatever t h e fair p r i c e , how
could i t b e equitably s h a r e d between men and women, instead of being
loaded principally onto women?
This historical p r o c e s s was also discussed in t h e r e p o r t of t h e Asian
a n d Pacific C e n t r e of Women and Development workshop, 1979:
The women's movement i n the V e s t passed through a period o f i n t e n s i v e , dramatic s o c i a l and economic change t h a t removed prod u c t i o n from t h e home, c o n t r i b u f i n q t o aeva'Luation o f uomen's
household production and household maintenance, t h e i r e x c l u s i o n
from s o c i a l and economic power and resources, and t h e n o t i o n t h a t
men work and women have b a b i e s .
C u r r e n t Z y women i n the Third World are going through mich t h e same
trauma for man3 o f t h e same reasons, though the d i r e c t economic and
p o l i t i c a l forces are d i f f e r e n t . I f wornen from c a p i t a l i s t and soc i a i i s t c o u n t r i e s , e l i t e and poor, North and South, are t o bridge
t h e p o l i t i c a l and economic g u l f s between them, the r e c o g n i t i o n of
t h i s f'~.ndamental c o m o n a l i t y o f economic processes i s c r u c i a l .
T h e world economic c r i s i s h i t s women in North a n d South
In recent y e a r s , t h e r e h a s indeed been a lot of evidence t h a t so-called
development i s not necessarily "a girl's b e s t friend". The DAWN group*
h a s spoken out t h e experiences of women in t h e South i n i t s book E
velopment. Crises and Alternative Visions: T h i r d World Women's Perspectives. T h e United Nations World S u r v e y o n t h e Role of Women i n
Development h a s a s s e s s e d for t h e f i r s t time in U N history the outcome
of development for women in North and South. T h i s i s t h e first occasion
when t h e ON h a s really looked at development from t h e human point of
view and not only from the economic point of view.
* A group o f T h i r d World worner. researchers c a l l e d Levelopmen^ Alternat i r e s o f hcmen for a .Vew Era, DAÈh fcf Z D A d o s s i e r 50, p . 6 1 1 .
The recent example of the commonality of the consequences for women is
the so-called world economic c r i s i s , or the debt problem. In the South,
it has led to forceful p r e s s u r e on the governments to adjust their economies to the terms dictated by the International Monetary Fund. In the
North, it has led to so-called manageable structural change - the term
used by the Finnish Government - which is in fact adjustment of the
economies of the industrialized countries to the merciless terms of the
international economy, and is hardly manageable at all by the national
governments.
The consequences in the Third World are grave: the b u r d e n on women
is increasing, instead of decreasing, infant mortality i s rising again,
more and more babies are born underweight, and women are working
h a r d e r than e v e r in order to keep life going at all. All s t r u c t u r a l adjustment policies are gender biased, since they ignore the unpaid labour
of women. This work, however, keeps society going.
The t r u t h is that unpaid labour in villages and families is the final
lifeline for people all over the world when macro-economic measures do
not work o r may even collapse. At p r e s e n t , self-initiated activities are
experiencing a remarkable revival and developing into a new wave of
economic activity in many of the least affluent countries, when adjustment policies have failed. Most of this activity is initiated and developed
by women.
In industrialized countries, the economic s t r u c t u r e s have grown rapidly
in size and power in recent years. This implies t h a t they a r e less and
less u n d e r the control of anybody, either the government o r the people. People a r e manipulated into adjusting to the role of conspicuous
consumers, who do not control even their personal n e e d s , let alone
their lives o r their society. The children and youth a r e the victims of
arrogant marketing and manipulation b y advertizing and entertainment
industries, which reduces them to powerless puppets of competition and
consumption.
Invisible economy
In fact, the biggest common denominator for all the women in the world
i s the invisibility of their unpaid labour in the national and international statistics - and in the minds of male calculators, planners and
policy-makers. Still, the policy planning implies that t h e r e are certain
invisible hands to take care of the very basic personal needs - both
material and non-material - of people, including men. The economists
have a term for t h a t , reproduction (of l a b o u r ! ) , but still they do not
account for it in their statistics.
The special characteristic of this labour i s that it actually becomes visible when i t i s not done. This was the way Icelandic women demons t r a t e d their contribution to society on U N Day, 24th October 1975,
when they went on a total s t r i k e , doing neither paid o r unpaid work
that day. And the whole society was brought virtually to a standstill,
when about 90% of the women were just walking in the s t r e e t s and congregating. The men had to make their breakfasts by themselves that
morning, change the babies' nappies, and take the children with them
to their offices and factories o r stay a t home with them.
It would quickly be seen in a n y family of the 'invisible h a n d s ' stopped
working o r if t h e 'invisible p l a n n e r and administrator' went on s t r i k e .
T h e life of t h e family would v e r y soon become unbearable a n d t h e home
uninhabitable '.
A new economics needed
One can s a y that t h e world economic situation today demonstrates t h e
b a n k r u p t c y of t h e Western economic philosophy. It looks a s if t h e p u r pose of economics a s a science i s r a t h e r to control t h a n to u n d e r s t a n d :
how to control the flow of r e s o u r c e s and money, how to control t h e
production and t h e economic activities of people. But now e v e r y t h i n g
seems to b e out of h a n d . and t h e whole of world economics h a s ended
up i n a situation which i s more o r less unmanageable, at least within
t h e traditional terms of economics. The magnitude of t h e d e b t problem
i s t h e s t r o n g e s t indication that something h a s failed profoundly in world
development.
T h i s , also, i s t r u e of both South a n d North. The more t h e Finnish ent e r p r i s e s e x p a n d and become transnational, t h e less power the Finnish
people have t o control t h e i r own economy and terms of life. It i s not
only t h e sovereignty of t h e T h i r d World countries which i s being hijacked: t h e sovereignty of e v e r y c o u n t r y i s affected. T h e adjustment
a n d t h e so-called manageable s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e a r e two s i d e s of t h e
same coin, b u t t h e consequences a r e more dramatic i n t h e S o u t h . We
a r e all victims of the same inhuman international economic o r d e r .
But a r e t h e r e alternatives? Is t h e r e any o t h e r way to u n d e r s t a n d economics a s t h e c a r r y i n g o u t of production a n d consumption within human
societies? Any o t h e r philosophy to explain and clarify t h e economics of
human e n d e a v o u r s ?
I am not a n economist - t h e r e f o r e I can pose questions which economists
d o not usually a s k . A v e r y basic question in my mind i s , whether it i s
a value a s s u c h to b e able to control one's own life? To what e x t e n t
could i t be possible a n d on what terms? What i s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e balance
between t h e price a n d t h e benefits - o r t h e value - of b e i n g able to
control one's own life?
This question can b e asked also about a nation. It i s a question of what
self-reliance, independence, sovereignty and self-determination actually
mean. Are t h e s e still t h e kind of cherished values that t h e y have been
in p a s t human h i s t o r y , o r a r e we r e a d y a n d willing to give them u p a s
t h e cost of material affluency, i n addition to o t h e r prices already paid,
s u c h a s deterioration of non-material, cultural a n d spiritual p r o p e r t i e s
of o u r lives? What would b e a n adequate price - if any - to pay for a
materially decent life, without giving up more of the basic values? How
can we protect ourselves - a s individuals and a s nations - against being
robbed of o u r dignity a n d self-determination just for the s a k e of conspicuous consumption a n d t h e power-greediness of t h e economic man?
T h e r e i s a paradox in t h e world in t h i s r e s p e c t : t h e less industrialized
a c o u n t r y i s - in the modern economic s e n s e - t h e more independent
a n d in control of i t s life i t could b e : What i s t h e n the optimal balance
between the costs and benefits in human terms? Is dependency automatically the necessary price for affluence?
The full picture of economy
A s a hint of the direction in which we might look for new perspectives
in economics, I would like to p r e s e n t the Three-Layer Cake with Icin
by Hazel Henderson, an American futurolo&6st and alternative economist!
In this figure. Hazel Henderson has illustrated what i s the actual foundation on which all nionetarized economy is built. For u s women, this
could be a revelation in itselt. It gives due credit to the various
components of the material bases of o u r lives - also the non-monetary
ones. Only t h e proportions of the cake are debatable. F i r s t , the proportion of Mother Nature cannot b e measured. We can only say that it
is much bigger than what i s seen in the picture. The second layer,
consisting of all kinds of unpaid labour and production, i s different in
different societies today, depending on their stage of monetarization.
Total Productlç S y 8 f m ol an Induahlal Soclfh
(Thrn-Laymr Cakm with Icing)
t
QNP "Public" Sçclo
Counter-Economy
The top two layers also vary greatly in size, depending on the socalled level of development. In rich industrialized countries, the top
layers are relatively bigger than in Third World countries. The essential fact i s that the top layers rest on the lower layers: they could not
exist without the base, comprising Mother Nature and the unpaid work
of her daughters in delivering, nurturing and providing the basic care
for young and old, male and female human beings.
I have proposed that we should divide the national economy into two
p a r t s , the rimary economy and the secondary economy. The primary
economy is t h e n naturally the family economy - the households - which
provides the prerequisites for the secondary economy to exist. Without
the work and production of basic services in the households, no other
economies would exist in any country. This should therefore be called
the primary economy, and the secondary economy should only be auxiliary to t h a t , nothing more nor less. Now, the situation is just the opposite: families are made to be auxiliary, to reproduce labour for the
national economy. This i s the basic misunderstanding o r intentional misinterpretation on the part of the whole of Western economic thinking.
Can we create a sustainable economy?
Recognition of the very basic fact which the figure illustrates provides
u s women with a lot of food for thought. First of all, it gives solid
grounds for our claims that unpaid labour must be recognized in considering the basic factors contributing to human well-being. It also
makes it perfectly clear that any economic thinking or calculation which
does not take into account the very basis of human economy, Mother
Nature, i s bound to be wrong and lead to disaster in the long r u n .
That i s exactly what we are witnessing today in the world and in practically every one of our societies.
What can we do i n o r d e r to rectify the whole of the economic thinking
and policies in the world from now on?
I do not think there is any ready-made answer to this question. The
least we can do i s to be critical: not to accept, not to go along with
the prevailing economic system, even though it i s still normally considered a s if it were the only one possible. We should t r y to liberate
ourselves from this kind of competitive, exploitative and disastrous economy, and s t a r t to create and practise another kind of economic thinking.
The bases of the new economics could and should be the essential
human needs - not the greeds! - and the practices within family econom y . Traditionally, in farming families, everyone contributed according
to hislher capabilities and received according to hislher needs. Moreo v e r , production took place on the terms of Nature - there was no
other choice.
I have been working lately on tracing back how the relationship between women and nature appears in the light of history and mythology.
There a r e quite a lot of indications that women's relationship with
nature seems originally to have been one of n u r t u r i n g it and utilizing it
at t h e s a n e time. Women seem to have i n v e n t e d a g r i c u l t u r e at t h e dawn
of h i s t o r y , a n d s t a r t e d to domesticate animals in o r d e r to s e c u r e food
for t h e family even when t h e m e n were unsuccessful in hunting' a n d fishi n g . Both t h e original a g r i c u l t u r e and animal h u s b a n d r y imply n u r t u r i n g
in o r d e r to utilize. T h e y a r e c o n t r a r y to t h e practices of h u n t i n g a n d
f i s h i n g , which a r e just exploiting, t a k i n g without giving. The relationship 01 men with n a t u r e a p p e a r s in t h e light of history to have been
primarily competitive, fighting' ~ n conquering
- and it still i s .
d
An American w r i t e r and f u t u r i s t . Riane Eisler. in h e r recent book The
Chalice and t h e Blade, calls for a p a r t n e r s h i p economics - i n s t e a d o f
exploitative, competitive and conquering economics - i . e . economics in
p a r t n e r s h i p between women a n d men, between nations a n d with n a t u r e .
Here we have some of t h e points of d e p a r t u r e for u s women to s t a r t
with o u r t a s k of rectifying economics.
One t h i n g which I feel v e r y s t r o n g l y about is o u r a t t i t u d e towards con]petition. It does not originally belong to t h e women's domain at all.
However, the d r i v i n g force of t h e whole Western c u l t u r e i s competition.
T h i s makes i t a g g r e s s i v e , acquisitive a n d c o n q u e r i n g , a n d i t h a s made
it colonialist, militarist a n d s u p p r e s s i v e . T o d a y , i t makes o u r c u l t u r e
d i s a s t r o u s , e x t r a v a g a n t a n d wasteful. T h e roots of t h e arms race a n d
t h e economic race a r e in t h e competition for power. T h e r e f o r e we should
denounce competition i n all i t s forms, a n d t r y to avoid it w h e r e v e r we
c a n . T h a t i s one way of c h a n g i n g o u r c u l t u r e .
Women a n d
peace
Women's a l t e r n a t i v e , c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g h a s already proved i t s importance
in t h e women's peace movement a s i t a p p e a r s in t h e s e decades ( A n o t h e r
Mother for Peace, Women S t r i k e for Peace, Women for Peace in many count r i e s , Greenham Common Women, e t c . ) . I t h a s denounced t h e concept of
e n e m y ' ; it h a s redefined t h e concepts of violence, s e c u r i t y a n d militarism. It h a s revealed t h e futility of armies a n d weapons for p r o v i d i n g
s e c u r i t y against nuclear arms a n d nuclear technology, against ecological
damage, depletion of n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s a n d extinction of living species.
Neither can armies p r o t e c t u s against dornebtic violence a n d r a p e r a t h e r t h e opposite.
Lately, in d i s c u s s i o n s , one of t h e s u p e r p o w e r s h a s launched a new concept of s e c u r i t y . T h e Soviet Government h a s s t a r t e d to s p e a k about comp r e h e n s i v e s e c u r i t y , a concept which c o v e r s also t h e economic, humanitarian a n d ecological a s p e c t s of s e c u r i t y , in addition to t h e political a n d
military o n e s . T h i s i s a b i g l e a p , since i t implies t h a t t h e Soviet
Government h a s t a k e n o v e r t h e creative a n d intellectual lead in s e c u r i t y
discussions from t h e military-strategic e x p e r t s , who have ruled t h e domain of international s e c u r i t y for all too long.
I do nut claim o u t r i g h t that t h e Soviets have just adopted
perspective in t h e i r new s e c u r i t y doctrine - they still lag
way behind - b u t one can claim t h a t t h e new a p p r o a c h e s ,
clally t h e women's peace movement h a s been p r o p a g a t i n g ,
t h r o u g h . At least t h i s indicates t h a t i t i s worthwhile to
creative thinking.
t h e women's
q u i t e a long
which e s p e are breaking
develop new
Sisterhood is global
I have tried to highlight some of t h e experiences of ivon:en in the North
in the process of industrial development. I s u g g e s t that we have a lot
in common with women in the South a s r e g a r d s o u r e x p e r i e n c e s , b u t
these may be somewhat difficult to compare, since they a r e not pdrallel
in time a n d generation: t h e experiences of my grandmothers a n d even
m y mother often resembled those of o u r s i s t e r s in t h e South t o d a y .
When we recognize the comrnonalities of experiences even across the gene r a t i o n s , we u n d e r s t a n d b e t t e r the whole process of development.
\Ve can also s h a r e from another angle:
we in t h e industrialized world
today a r c in t h e midst of t h e consequences 01 a certain t y p e of development. Analysing and s h a r i n g o u r experiences today from t h e women's
point of view may help o u r s i s t e r s in the South to see more clearly
what to adopt and what to reject in this kind of development. I f only
ive in t h e North had done o u r homework b e t t e r , so t h a t we would have
a clearer p i c t u r e to offer of t h e pros and cons of o u r development!
I d o assume t h a t we women have common aims as to what we really want
and a s p i r e f o r . We want to s a f e g u a r d the life of humanity - and therefore also t h e life of Mother Nature, so as to provide t h e bases upon
which f u t u r e generations can live. Ecology, peace and justice - including equality and p a r t n e r s h i p between the s e x e s - a r e inseparably
linked.
A s women, we a r e a t t h e s t a g e of culmination: t h e time of mere reacting
a n d p r o t e s t i n g against discrimination and subjugation of all kinds i s
about to p a s s , and a new e r a is dawning when we will propose o u r alt e r n a t i v e visions a n d focus o u r actions on effecting c h a n g e in o u r societies a n d in the world. Feminism i s i n the process of becoming a distinct social a n d political philosophy in itself.
Solidarity h a s been a powerful slogan of t h e labour movement. Sisterhood i s t h e keyword for feminism. The new name for solidarity i s sisterhood.
* ANNONCES * ANUNCIOS
ANNOUNCEMENTS
*
The I n t e r n a t i o n a l F u t u r e s L i b r a r y [ I m b e r g s t r a s s e 2,
a C a t a l o g u e o f Hope P r o j e c t .
p r o j e c t s round t h e world,
I t will
5020 S a l z b u r g , A u s t r i a ) i s l a u n c h i n g
be an annual p u b l i c a t i o n f e a t u r i n g some o f t h e many
b i g and s m a l l ,
w h i c h a r e f a c i n g up t o t h e numerous t h r e a t e n i n g
c r i s e s o f o u r t i m e s and d e v e l o p i n g p o s i t i v e new approaches beyond t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l
l a e and t r u l y o r i e n t e d t o w a r d s a more j u s t ,
e c t s are g l i m e r i n g s of
blems.
it i s v i t a l
that
human and s u s t a i n a b l e w o r l d o r d e r .
formu-
These p r o -
hope t h a t t h e r e a r e v i a b l e s o l u t i o n s t o h u m a n i t y ' s awesome p r o t h e y a r e b e t t e r known so t h a t
their
lesions are
l e a r n e d by and
t h e y g i v e i n s p i r a t i o n and encouragement t o as many p e o p l e ds p o s s i b l e . T h i s i s t h e C a t a l o gue's o b j e c t i v e .
such an
I t may be t h a t you know o f a p r o j e c t o r
inspiration
for
others.
H e l m u t von L o e b e l l , a t t h e IFL.
i n i t i a t i v e w h i c h c o u l d s e r v e as
P r o j e c t - C r ~ t e r i a and G u i d e l i n e s c o u l d
be o b t a i n e d f r o m
SIPRI Yearbook 1987
W)rld Armaments and Disarmament
1986 did not live up to its name as the International Year of Peace. At the end of
1986 there were 36 wars and armed conflicts being fought, the most destructive
of which (the Iraq-IranWar) involves the USA and the USSR both supplying
arms to the combatants and now protecting shipping in the Persian Gulf. Arms
control came to an impasse, weapons proliferated and arms transfers became
more uncontrolled.
Selected findings from the S I N Yearbook 1987:
In 1986, 36 wars and armed conflicts were being waged and involved over five million
combatants from 41 nations and material support from even more. It is estimated that three
to five million people have been killed throughout the course of these conflicts.
From 1980-86, arms or support were sent from 53 countries to Iraq or Iran, 13 more nations
than the three previous years; 28 countries supplied both combatants during the same period, (compared to 10 previously), including most European nations, (eg. as Austria, France,
FR Germany, German DR, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK, the USA, the USSR).
The three largest arms exporters world-wide in 1986 remained the USA (333 %), the USSR
(31.4 %) and France (13.3 %). The US and Soviet shares of deliveries to the Third World have
declined from 69 % (during 1977-81) to 59 % (during 1982-86).
Iraq used chemical weapons again in 1986 against Iranian forces.
Of the 86 countries for which figuresare available, it is estimated that 60 % increased their
military expenditure in 1986 while 40% decreased theirs. This compares to 70 % increasing
and 30 % decreasing in 1981.
It is estimated that actual military spending for the USA declined in real terms for the f i s t
time in 10 years.
The risk of collisions in space is increasing with the addition of man-made debris from
national space and satellite programs, including tests of military systems for ASAT and strategic defence programmes. These activities have doubled the amount of microscopic debris
&g
naturally.
China has emerged as a significant commercial arms merchant, with 4.3 % of all sales to the
Third World.
Progress in verification technology and policies have been such that verification cannot be
the excuse for not pursuing or achieving arms control agreements, particularly on nuclear
testing, theatre nuclear forces, military activities in Europe and a chemical weapons ban.
23 nuclear explosions were conducted in 1986, the lowest number since 1961: the USA had
14, France 8 and the UK I wiih the USA. Since the USSR resumed testing in 1987, and China
has conducted its first nucleir test since 196.4, the number will be higher in 1987 than in 19%.
IDENTITE CULTURELLE ET DEVELOPPEMENT
TRADITION ET MODERNITE*
p a r Ananda \ V . P . Guruge
Representant permanent d u S r i Lanka A I'UNESCO
7 , place d e Fontenoy
75700 Paris, France
Dans ie cuntexte de l'interaction intellectuelle e n t r e Ie monde i n d u s t n a lise et Ie T i e r s Monde (aujourd'hui appele dialogue N o r d - S u d ) , chacun
d e s elements d e ces d e u x e x p r e s s i o n s , "identite culturelle et developpement", et "tradition et modernitet', s e voit a t t r i b u e r d e s connotations e t
d e s definitions fort d i v e r g e n t e s . I1 e n k s u l t e , au plan conceptuel, un
conflit q u i , non seulernent empsche les deux p a r t i e s de s e comprendre
rnais, hien s o u v e n t , a l'effet negatif d ' e n g e n d r e r de g r a v e s malentend u s , de la mefiance e t d e s deceptions.
Cette situation e s t essentiellement d u e & d e u x f a c t e u r s : ( a ) le "sentiment" v a g u e mais neanmoins marque q u e les d e u x elements d e chacune
d e s e x p r e s s i o n s sont a n t i t h e t i q u e s ; ( b ) l'idee q u e les p a y s r u c h e s ont
privilegier Ie deuxieme element ( h savoir
t e n d a n c e , non seulement
developpernent e t modernite) conime 6tiint le p l u s souhaitable, mais
egalement
d e p r e c i e r le p r e m i e r , considere comme l'obstacle i3 la realisation d u second. A c e s d e u x facons d e p e n s e r e s t intrinsequement lie
un jugement subjectif d e v n l e u r s , isau d u contexte historique e t d e la
realite socio-economique q u i e n t o u r e n t l'individu, le g r o u p e ou la nation
concernes. Le conflit s u r g i t l o r s q u e l'une d e s p a r t i e s t e n t e d'imposer
s e s v u e s A l ' a u t r e , et l'on ahoutit alors a la r u p t u r e d u dialogue.
Le conflit n e s e manifeste p a s toujours explicitement s o u s la forme
d'agressivite verbale ou e c r i t e . M a i s il e s t constarnment p r e s e n t , faisant
p e s e r line menace latente s u r les r e n c o n t r e s d'intellectuels e t d e professionnels, particulierement q u a n d il s'agit d'elaborer u n e politique nationale d a n s les domaines d e Ifeducation, d e la c u l t u r e ou d e la science e t
d e la t e c h n i q u e , ou e n c o r e d e formuler u n projet d e "developpement"
d a n s les p a y s non i n d u s t r i a l i s e s , notamment les plus p a u v r e s . Le fait
q u e le p a y s destinataire , p a r politique ou pragrnatisme , estime devoir
faire p r e u v e d e soumission e t d e deference e n v e r s Ie p a y s f o u r n i s s e u r
n e signifie p a s toujours q u e les divergences intellectuelles aient e t e
aplanies ou q u e le benet'iciaire s e soit laisse convainere.
Tant q u e la relation Nord-Sud r e s t e r a celle d'un d o n a t e u r a son ben&ficiaire - evoquant l'image penihle d ' u n hautain d i s p e n s a t e u r s e p e n chant v e r s !a main docilement tendue d u quernandeur - il ne p o u r r a
guere y avoir de reel dialogue e n t r e les deux partenaires. Ce texte
tente d'analyser certaines experiences personnelles dans le domaine de
la cooperation internationale en vue dc discerner, aussi precisement que
possible, l'oripne des deformations de pensees les plus courantes et de
p r e s e n t e r un certain nombre de propositions facilitant un dialogue plus
authentique et plus efficace. E t , pour Gtre f r u c t u e u x , ce dialogue devra
aller au-del2 du sens et des definitions des termes pour aborder les
questions de fond, dans Ie cadre d ' u n schema conceptuel elabore d'un
commun accord et fonde s u r l'unite de vues et le desir d'aboutir.
Le developpement - une menace pour i'identite culturelle?
A des agents nouvellement recrutes de l'UNESC0, lors de briefings s u r
leur role de conseiller technique international, jfavais l'habitude de
raconter deux histoires entendues des annges auparavant et dont je n'ai
d'ailleurs pas encore reussi a retrouver l'origine. Le premiere est celle
d'une sauterelle envoyee comme conseiller en developpement d a n s le
pays des blattes. Des I'atterrissage, l'expert savait d6ja comment regler
Ie probleme du sous-developpement chez les cafards: "Toutes vos difficultes", leur dit-il, "viennent d'une seule et meme cause - vous devriez
s a u t e r et non pas ramper". La deuxieme histoire est celle d ' u n singe
compatissant et genereux qui voit un poisson lutter conte le cvurant
d'une riviere e n c r u e . Se dormant beaucaup de m a l e t au peril de sa
vie, il se penche v e r s Ie fleuve en se suspendant d ' u n e main h une
branche e t , non sans grandes difficultes, sort le poisson de l'eau. Mais
celui-ci ne semble pas d u tout apprecier le sauvetage.
La morale d e ces fables est claire: etant donne la specificit6 de chaque
environnement, une solution valable pour l'un est totalement inapplicable, sinon a b s u r d e , pour l t a u t r e . Ce message n'est pas facilement
accepte p a r ceux q u i , d'une p a r t , sont convaincus de leur competence
e t efficacit6 s u r le plan technique, e t , d'autre p a r t , pensent que les
hommes ont partout les m6mes caracteristiques. Us croient, d e bonne
foi, que la p a u v r e t e , l'ignorance, la malnutrition, la maladie, etc. peuvent Ctre eliminees p a r des moyens identiques. Souvent je ne pouvais
rien faire d'autre q u e dire aux recrues: discutons de nos experiences
reciproques quand vous aurez passe quelques annees s u r le terrain.
Deux ou trois fois p a r a n , et cela pendant six a n s , j'ai eu a recommander a mes collegues (originaires pour la plupart d u Nord) affectes dans le s u d de g a r d e r l'esprit ouvert et de l u t t e r contre le decouragement s'ils rencontraient des barrieres insurmontables a l'application de leurs solutions techniquernent parfaites. Ce qui les s u r p r e naient, souvent, etait Ie fait que le simple terme de develop ement n'ait
pas partout le ni&me s e n s . Selon les definitions, a u t r e f o i s ,
des
manuels, le E e l o p p e m e n t serait t'croiss:~nce plus cliangemcnt" et
s u p p o s e r a t des plans ambitieux permettant de r6soudre tous les problernes p a r une crvissance econoniique rapide. Celle-ci devralt 6tre meaurable en t e r m e ~ d ' a c c r o i s s e m e n t d u revonu national par habitant, du
revenu national b r u t , ou encore d u produit interieur et s'accompagner
d ' u n changement, suscite p a r deh reformes sociales et cle nouvelles attitudes. Une seule chose etait necessaire: disposer d ' u n nombre suffisant d'economistes et de sociologues e t r a n g e r s pour decider des options
nationales jusqulA ce que les autoehtones aient acquis 1'6tat d'esprit
voulu, c'est-a-dire
oriente v e r s Ie developpement, la competition,
l'aggressivite et l'obligation des resultats. Inutile de d i r e q u e ces
idealistes bien pensants (ou plut6t ces technocrates) reviennent de leur
mission en s e plaignant amerement de l'autosatisfaction contemplative des
habitants, de llindecision, de la corruption, du n e p o t i s m et a u t r e s defauts. Quant a savoir quelle e s t . dans ces assertions, la part d e reel et
celle qu'il faut attribuer au choc culture1 subi p a r l'expert, on en est
r6duit aux conjectures.
Les pays qui resolvent ces technocrates enthousiastes ne sont pas nioins
degus. U s reprochent aux e x p e r t s leur manque d e patience, l e u r s prejuges et etroitesse de v u e s , ainsi que leur ignorance et mgpris des besoins et aspirations de la population locale. Dans la mesure o t ~la decision d e recevoir des conseillers depend d'eux, ceux des pays du Sud
qui ont f a i t , ?I cet e g a r d , une mauvaise experience refusent d'accepter
de nouveaux e x p e r t s ou alors prefhrent s'adresser pour llassistance
technique A des pays dont la situation e s t plus proche de la l e u r . Les
statistiques montrent que Ie Nord a perdu en trois decenies beaucoup
de son prestige comme source d e conseillers techniques pour le Sud. Ce
n'est pas p a r hasard q u e , de plus en plus, les pays du T i e r s Monde
recherchent des conseillers dans des pays de la m6me region. C'est a
mon avis autant regrettable pour Ie Nord que pour Ie S u d , car les possibilites d'echanges internationaux d'experiences et d'enrichissement
mutuel ne cessent , d e ce fait, de s'amenuiser.
L'analyse de cette situation permet de mesurer combien la revendication
de l'identite culturelle a pu Gtre jugee incongrue. Certains t r a i t s culturels des pays d u Tiers Monde ont ete vivement critiques, verbalement
et p a r e c r i t , comme prejudiciables a u d4veloppement. Une grande religion qui a influence le cours de Ithistoire de tout un continent a meme
e t e une fois carrement qualifiee de "poids mort pour le developpement".
Le meme genre de critique a ete profere contre les politiques favorables
a l'adoption des langues nationales comme vehicule de l'administration et
d e l'education, voire contre la preference pour le costume national et
les usages traditionnels.
Quiconque a hate de voir le monde entier coule dans un seui moule,
l'ensemble des inega-lites redressees et tous les avantages de la technique moderne equitablement r e p a r t i s , est certes en droit de s'irriter
des obstacles que les differences culturelles, traduites dans les attit u d e s e t les aspirations, placent s u r le chemin qu'il suit pour atteindre
son b u t . Mais les beneficiaires presumes d e ce rapide developpement
d a n s Ie sens d'un monde uniformise peuvent avoir d'autres priorites.
S'ils acceptent de leur plein gre de ralentir le rythme ou d e faire un
d e t o u r , il faut nous demander pourquoi. Preferent-ils p r e s e r v e r et promouvoir d ' a u t r e s aspects de la vie, l'cnvironnement, certaines norrnes
ou v a l e u r s , plut6t q u e de chercher une croissance econornique rapide
s'accompagnant de changements sociaux, nioraux, politiques et autres?
Revendiquer son identite culturelle a toujours ete la reaction politique
deliberee de tout groupe humain grand et petits, menace d'extinction et
de subordination. En revanche, un groupe qui se sent en securite, un
pays dont la souverainete ou l'independance ne sont pas en danger
n'eprouve guere Ie besoin de renforcer son unification culturelle ou de
proclamer s a difference. Meme a l'epoque contemporaine, la revendication d e l'identite culturelle a toujours et6 p l u s forte e n cas d'acculturation nationale ou r e g o n a l e , d e deplacement de populations ou
d'adoption d e v a l e u r s e t caracteristiques culturelles e t r a n g e r e h p a r une
certaine p a r t i e d u g r o u p e .
Ce q u i soude d e s collectivites e n lutte p o u r l e u r independance politique,
kconomique ou culturelle d a n s les circonstances susmentionnees, c ' e s t
toute unc s e r i e dt614ments culturels
de la langue ( q u i cletient le
plus haul d e g r e d'inflammabilite) a la religion o u , plus precisement, i
ccrtaines s e c t e s ou denominations religieuses particulieres ( p o u v a n t
e n g e n d r e r d e s formes tout aussi d a n g e r e u s e s d e fanatisme).
Revendiquer son identite culturelle suppose necessairement q u e l'on
croie a la superiorite de son p r o p r e patrimoine c u l t u r e l , a v e c s e s val e u r s e t s e s norrnes, et q u e l'on rejette celui d e s a u t r e s - e n particulier
celui d e s a d v e r s a i r e s - considere cornrne i n f e r i e u r . J'ai c o n s t a t e , e n
e t u d i a n t les mouvemcnts de renouveau nationaliste d e p l u s i e u r s p a y s
d'Asie, q u e la revendication d e l'identite culturelle e n tant qu'instrument politique d e la l u t t e p o u r l'independance e s t destinee h produire deux effets:
( a ) i n s p i r e r u n sentiment de fierte a propos d u patrimoine national e n
mettant e n relief, g r a c e a d e s r e c h e r c h e s l i t t e r a i r e s , historiques e t
archeologiques, les g r a n d e s realisations d u passe d a n s les domaines de
l ' a r t , de l ' a r c h i t e c t u r e , d e la religion, d e la philosophic, d e la langue
et de la l i t t e r a t u r e ;
( b ) p r o v o q u e r u n e repulsion A l'egard d e la c u l t u r e d e s rnaitres e t r a n g e r s e t de l e u r s seides locaux, e n c a r i c a t u r a n t constarnment e t e n t o u r nant deliber6ment e n derision l e u r mode de vie et l e u r s a t t i t u d e s . Dans
cette demarche, q u i constitue un acte d e g u e r r e o u v e r t e - bien q u e non
violente - on considere q u e tous les rnoyens sont bons.
L'enseignernent q u e je voudrais t i r e r d e ces observations e s t q u e la revendication d e l'identite culturelle constitue l'expression naturelle et
legitime d ' u n groupe e n d a n g e r d c disparition ou menace de dependance
d u fait d ' u n e concurrence p a r t r o p inkgale. C r e s t alors le seul moyen de
defense e t d e s u r v i e d e ce g r o u p e et il faut y v o i r , non p a s un p r o d u i t
de l'insularite ou d ' u n e etroitesse d e v u e , mats la manifestation d ' u n e
inquietude profonde.
Bien q u e le colonialisme appartienne p o u r ainsi d i r e au pcisse, q u a t r e
phenornenes continuent d e faire p e s e r u n e lourde menace s u r la souverainete e t l'indkpendance socio-economique d e s p a y s d u S u d :
(a)
u n e t a t d e dependance economique p e r s i s t a n t e n raison d ' u n e e x ploitation systematique d e s p a y s riches auxqucls ils s e r v e n t d e
f o u r n i s s e u r s de matieres premieres bon marche et d e debauches
lucratifs p o u r I'ecoulement d e s p r o d u i t s finis du Nord (selon un
~ y - t e m e q u i a p p a u v r i t encore les p a y s p a u v r e s et enrichit les
riches) ;
(b)
u n e tendance croissante h considerer l'information, les connaissances e t Ie savoir-faire cornrne cles "produits" qu'il faut a c h e t e r
t r e s c h e r , ce q u i , faute d e moyens financiers, p r i v e les pays pauv r e s d e s a v a n t a g e s d u p r o g r e s scientifique et technique;
l'hemorragie d e s competences qui fait perdre aux pays pauvres
l'elite de leur main d'oeuvre, dont la formation et l'apprentissage
initial a represent4 d'enormes investissements;
l'impact des mass-media q u i , principalement axes s u r le divertissement, diffusent essentiellement du materiel etranger t r e s eloigne
des valeurs culturelles nationales.
en raison de ces facteurs. en oarticulier les deux derniers. les
pays concernes craignent serieusement de voir un sentiment d'alienation
s'emparer de leur population, notamment des jeunes, il convient de faire
le necessaire pour apaiser ces craintes. Dans un tel contexte, il faudra
considerer dans un esprit constructif et avec comprehension les concept
elabores p a r le S u d , -notamment ceux dtautoresp~nsabilit6et de
loppement endogene.
&
Dans quelle mesure les experts du Nord sont-ils capables d'accepter
l'idee que le "developpement" doit 6tre un processus modeste et progressii', permettant d'attenuer peu a peu, puis d'eliminer eventuellement, la faim, la malnutrition, la maladie, l'ignorance, l'exploitation e t
les inegalites sociales? Quelle importance sont-ils p r e t s & accorder h
l'amelioration de la qualite mat6rielle de la vie pour les masses, au lieu
d'encourager une croissance economique rapide favorisant l'apparition de
quelques Hots de riches privilegies qui s'emparent alors d e s moyens de
production? Dans quelle mesure voudraient-ils admettre que les peuples
dotes d'un riche patrimoine culturel, y compris de philosophes de vie
reputees depuis des siecles, preferent sauvegarder leurs normes et val e u r s , m6me au prix de grands sacrifices au plan du confort materiel?
Les besoins et aspirations des differents peuples du Sud meritent d16tre
etudies de maniere attentive e t exhaustive. Alors seulement on pourra
trouver des normes et des formes d e developpement acceptables p a r les
deux parties. En attendant, on faciliterait considerablement la confiance
reciproque e t la cooperation si l'on ne demandait pas aux blattes l'impossible exploit de sauter comme des sauterelles, et si l'on ne retirereit
pas les poissons de l'eau avec l'id6e saugrenue de les sauver.
Developpement = modernisation = occidentalisation: une equation fausse
Les craintes et p d j u g e s qui conduisent A faussement opposer identite
culturelle et developpement paraissent egalement jouer pour les notions
de tradition e t modernite. L'idee selon laquelle modernisation 6gale
occid-tion
decoule, en fait, de lfhommage que le monde a rendu
durant le 19e siecle 6 1'Europe occidentale pour ses progres scientifiques e t techniques spectaculaires. M6me des pays qui ne furent jamais
colonises (le Japon et la Thailande, pour citer deux exemples remarquables) ont reconnu le profit qu'ils on? tire des systgmes, institutions,
procedes et methodes mis au point par 1'Ouest. Qu'il s'agisse de r o u t e s ,
chemins de f e r , telecommunications, moteurs, machines et usines, ecoles
e t bureaux, systemes et methodes de gestion, investissements, etc. , les
initiatives prises p a r llOccident ont 4te avidement suivies, leur utilite
pratique ou plut6t leur caractere indispensable s'imposant
l'evidence.
Ces progres ont fait disparaitre nombre de pratiques traditionnelles et
personne ne les regrette. Mais tous ont en commun une caracteristique:
ils tie concernent que la penpherie tie la vie de l'intiividu e t , pour la
plupart, ne touchent qu'un groupe restraint de la population. D'une
maniere generale, ils ameliorent le confort rnateriel de ceux qui peuvent
se les offrir.
Que le meme desir de modernisation ne s'etende pas A des aspects plus
profonds du mode de vie e s t . pour la plupart des o b s e r v a t e u r s , un
sujet de perplexite. Us constatent meme un refus categorique des popul a t i o n ~de se laisser forcer & adopter certaines innovations.
Une analyse attentive montre que cette resistance se manifeste a l'egard
d'innovations qui touchent a des matieres cruciales pour leur survie. Un
gouvernement ou un agriculteur prospere acceptera d'essayer une nouvelle technique d'irrigation ou de rotation des c u l t u r e s , de nouvelles
semences ou de nouveaux types d'engrais. Mais le petit paysan qui ne
retire que des moyens d'existence p&caires de I'agriculture de subsistance n'osera pas tenter l'experience, craignant que l'echec d'une seule
k c o l t e ne mette en danger sa survie et celle de sa farnille. Cette
crainte de la nouveaute s'etend aux institutions sociales qui l'entourent.
A ses y e u x , la tradition, qui lui prornet un lendemain previsible, importe beaucoup plus que tous les profits materiels qu'experts et conseillers lui font e s p e r e r .
Pour les conseiller e n "developpement", originaire d u Nord ou en ayant
la mentalite, l'attitude do ceux qui s'accrochent a la tradition est reactionnaire et va a l'encontre d u but recherche. Pour e u x , les techniq u e s , les produits e t les methodes modernes valent la peine d ' e t r e e s sayes. Us s o n t , en o u t r e , persuades qu'on ne saurait progresser sans
prendre d e s risques - des risques calcules, ajoutent-ils cependant. Et
c'est l& justement qu'on touche h la racine du conflit e n t r e tradition et
modernite. Ce n f e s t pas q u e les partisans de la tradition ne soient pas
conscients des avantages eventuels de la modernite, mais ils s'effraient
des sacrifices que celle-ci les amenerait finalement
consentir.
Chaque fois que l'on est tente d e contester, de ridiculiser ou de critiq u e r les k t i c e n c e s d'un pays devant le modernisme, il serait bon de
reflechir un moment a deux series de questions:
( a ) Cette reticence se manifeste-t-elle dans tous les cas? La radio, la
television, l'informatique et bien d t a u t r e s produits de la technique
moderne n'ont-ils pas ete adoptes avec un enthousiasme evident?
( b ) Pourquoi la sagesse collective d'une population particuliere rejette-t-elle une innovation que l'expert trouve appropriee et ef'ticace? La
proposition implique-t-elle d e s sacrifices inherents ou caches qui engendrent la suspicion ou le doute? Pourquoi s'etonner de ce que les
p a u v r e s , souvent illettres, qui s'opposent a la modernite, soient finalernent, d'instinct, plus perspicaces que les conseillers avec toute leur
competence technique?
Je peux citer au moins deux exernples pour illustrer mon propos. Dans
les champs de riz d u village de mon grand-pere, quand ]'etait e n f a n t ,
on labourait, on ensernencait et on recoltait avec l'aide de toute la communaute. Tous les paysans du village travaillaient les champs ensemble,
e n cornmencant p a r les t e r r e s les plus eloignees de la riviere. La seule
fagon de savoir s u r quel champ on travaillait etait d'observer quelle
famille apportait le repas de midi pour l'ensemble des travailleurs.
Quand quelqu'un etait malade ou en difficulte, Ie village se partageait la
responsabilite du repas collectif, mais le travail etait fait s u r Ie champ
de l'absent. L'heure du repas etait l'occasion de se rejouir et tout le
village se rassernblait dans une atmosphere amicale et joyeuse. Les villageois ont durcment lutte pour sauvegarder cette tradition, mats les
promoteurs d u modernisme ont finalement eu Ie dernier mot. Desormais,
les champs sont laboures p a r des t r a c t e u r s loues
un depot central de
la ville proche. La production a augrnente, mais la hausse du tout du
fuel et le prix d'autres innovations telles que les engrais chimiques font
que les exploitants se retrouvent plus ou moins dans la meme situation
economique. En o u t r e , la disparition des buffles a entraine celle du
delicieux petit caille qui faisait la renommee d u village. Les anciens
regrettent encore les beaux jours d'autrefois oh tout Ie nioncie se connaissait dans Ie village qui jouissait d'une impression collective de
securite. 11s nous interrogent s u r le bien-fonde de la mecanisation e t ,
parfois, il est bien difficile de leur repondre.
Le deuxieme exemple concerne une proposition discutee en Inde il y a
une vingtaine dfannees visant a remplacer l'institution traditionnelle de
la famille composite p a r un systeme de securite sociale "moderne". Outre
que certains des detracteurs de la famille composite etaient mal informes
au point de la confondre avec polygamie, polyandrie et levirat - trois
notions qualifiees "d'absolument intolerables
notre epoque moderne de
liberte individuelle" - on critiquait soit Ie caractere traditionnel de
l'institution et Ie fait qu'elle limitait n i b e r t e e t Itinitiative de l'individu,
Ie fait qu'elle n'existait nulle part ailleurs. I1 fallut l'intervention de plusieurs e r u d i t s indiens, bien informes e t intellectuellement
courageux, pour faire valoir les avantages economiques, culturels et sociaux d e ce systeme d e "socialisme" familial dont la qualite etait prouvee
p a r Ie temps. I1 garantissait la protection des personnes &gees, des
malades e t d e s t r e s jeunes, fournissait un cadre ideal pour la croissance
e t Ie bon developpement des e n f a n t s , sans conflits de generations et
avec l'enrichissement culture1 e t le sentiments de securite que grandsp a r e n t s , oncles, tantes et cousins contribuaient ensemble a apporter.
Les partisans d e la modernite avaient uniquement considere l'efficacite
d'une prise en charge des personnes &gees dans des maisons de retraite, sans penser un instant a la carence affective que ressentent,
dans certaines cultures, les vieillards places dans une telle situation!
Un dialogue fructueux s u r les avantages e t les inconvenients relatifs de
la tradition e t de la rnodernite ne peut raisonnablement s t a p p u y e r que
s u r l'ouverture d'esprit: il faut consciemment et consciencieusement se
liberer des idees preconcues, des partis-pris et des prejuges. Plus particulierement, quand les partenaires qui cherchent des solutions a long
terme a u x problenies d'ensemble les plus graves mettent en commun
leurs experiences, connaissances et savoir-faire dans un but precis, ils
devraient appliquer les principes elementaires de la tolerance et de
l'ecoute de l'autre. I1 est souvent utile, en ces circonstances, de se
rememorer quelques notions de base, telles q u e : "Aucune culture n'a Ie
droit de se p r e t e n d r e superieure A une autre"; "Ce qui e s t considere
comme scientifique a une kpoque peut ulterieurement devenir superstition A la suite d'une simple decouverte, et vice versa"; "I1 est facile a e
donner A
s u s , son
parable";
tuellement
nisation =
une societe un nouvel "equipement", mais s i , dans le procestissu social et culturel se desagrege, le dommage sera irreenfin e t s u r t o u t , "Rien n'est plus errone ni meme intellecmalhonnete que de poser l'equation "Developpement = moderoccidentalisation".
I1 me faut cependant lancer un avertissement. Les conseillers changent
parfois completement de bord et deviennent d e s defenseurs de la tradition plus ardents que les faits ne le justifieraient. Ce peut 6tre une
reaction de defense face au choc culturel qu'eux-m6mes ont subi. Mais
ce peut 6tre egalement le resultat d'une attitude romantique, davantage
fondee s u r l'emotion que s u r l'intelligence. Un tel soutien illogique et
affectif a la tradition est tout aussi dangereux que Ie rejet p u r e t
simple.
S'il fallait pour trouver une solution A ce probleme remonter tr6s loin en
a r r i e r e , on pourrait rappeler un bon conseil donne en Inde s u r les
rives du Gange p a r le Bouddha il y a 2500 ans. I1 disait: "N'accepte
rien pour le simple raison que cela vient de la tradition ou que c'est
dans les dcritures, ou s'il s'agit dlune rumeur, d'oui-dire, d'une simple
supposition ou inference ou encore.. . p a r respect pour le Maitre. Pense
p a r toi-meme e t vois si l'idee, une fois mise en pratique, contribue au
bien-etre et au bonheur de llhomme; alors seulement fais-la tienne et
agis en consequence". Cette recommandation venue du fond des ages
doit nous incliner & la modestie en montrant que ce qui e s t souvent rejete comme etant tradition desuete peut contenir une sagesse immortelle
s u r laquelle le temps n'a pas de prise.
Conditions d'un dialogue utile
Un dialogue Nord-Sud fonde s u r le respect mutuel, la tolerance, la comprehension e t la cooperation evitera les pieges decrits ci-dessus & proDOS des quatre concept d'identite culturelle, de developpement, de tradition e t de modernite. Au lieu de rechercher des differences qui creusent le fosse, il faut s'efforcer de construire des passerelles.
Ce faisant, il e s t vital de ne pas limiter le dialogue aux interlocuteurs
actuels qui malheureusement - mais c'est une realite inevitable - sont
tous coul6s dans le meme moule de p a r leur formation, inclination, attitudes intellectuelles e t prejuges, quelles que soient, p a r ailleurs, leur
origine, couleur, culture ou ideologie politique. Les enceintes internationales retentissent souvent de l'echo des "convictions" d'un groupe
dlintellectuels e t de specialistes, qui se ressemblent p a r leur mentalite
e t trouvent reconfort et securite dans leur unite de vues et communaute
d1inter6ts.
Mais les participants qui , dans ces enceintes , representent "physiqueculture, de l'affecment" le Sud sont-ils vraiment Ie porte-parole de
tivite, d e s modes de vie ou des valeurs du Tiers Monde? Cornbien
d'entre eux sont en contact direct avec les masses, parlent et ecrivent
leur langue nationale, lisent dans cette langue et sont en relation prolongee avec les collectivites rurales et les citadins des quartiers
pauvres? Pour que s'etablisse un veritable dialogue, il faut que les
participants des pays du S u a defendent rbellement les normes, valeurs
s
et aspirations de la populations dont ils pretendent e t r e la voix. C'est
aux actuels r e p r e s e n t a n t s d u Sud q u f i l appartient d ' e l a r p r le cercle d e s
participants au dialogue pour q u e l'on puisse connaitre les v u e , inter e t s , valeurs et aspirations, e n particulier de ceux q u i , pour le moment, n'ont d'audience qu'au plan national, p a r les medias internes.
Pour e t r e utile, le dialogue doit e t r e axe s u r un objectif. Des echanges
d'opinions, d'experiences et d'idees s u r un plan purement academique et
intellectuel ne constituent pas un veritable dialogue. Ltinteraction doit
conduire a d e s resultats concrets e t , a ce t i t r e , s'accompagner d ' u n effort de cooperation visant a resoudre les problemes q u e l'on a rep&& e n
commun. Premier critere
r e t e n i r : ce n'est p a s Ie Nord q u i essaie de
resoudre les problemes du S u d , ou vice v e r s a . Les domaines d'action
doivent e t r e ceux oh l'interdependance s e niaiufeste clairement, la cooperation amenant chacun d e s deux partenaires a faire le maximum pour
que la demarche soit pleinement un effort de codeveloppement.
C'est grace a cet effort commun q u e le d6veloppement culturel o u , plus
precisement , le codeveloppement culturel offrira de nombreuses possibiUtes de puiser d a n s les divers patrimoines tout ce q u i , parmi les realisations d u passe et les experiences actuelles, contribuera a un enrichissement mutuel.
D'une maniere generale, le Sud apporte un veritable tresor d'experiences culturelles, uniques en leur g e n r e . D'une p a r t , ces experiences
et l e u r s produits admirables couvrent plusieurs siecles et sont d'une
diversite et d'une richesse de themes et de formes q u e le Nord tourne
v e r s l'harmonisation culturulle peut difficilement egaler. D'autre p a r t ,
elles sont Ie fruit d ' u n e s p r i t de creativite philosophique et artistique
spontanement et directement inspire p a r la n a t u r e . Le Nord, e n revanche, a non settlement les rnoyens de diffuser, r e i n t e r p r e t e r et orient e r Ie patrimoine du Sud dans de nouvelles directions pour offrir une
culture vivante et vibrante a l'humanite d'aujourd'hui et de demain,
mais il possede egalement le savoir technique necessaire pour stimuler la
creativite naturelle d u S u d .
Un effort commun pour faciliter A chacun des deux mondes l'acces au
meiileur d e s experiences culturelles d e s deux partenaires ferait peute t r e enierger de nouvelles formes de creativite qui seroient le fruit du
codeveloppement. Grace a ce processus. le dialogue Nord-Sud pourrait
aiors donner naissance a d e s normes et des valeurs d'applicabilite universelle.
Une derniere observation s'impose s u r le cadre dans lequel le dialogue
peut s ' i n s t a u r e r avec le plus d'efficacite. Les relations purement bilateraies e n t r c pays du Nord et pays du Sud entrainant les contraintes deja
mentionnees, il est a souiigner que les reunions de cooperations multilaterales tenues au sein du systeme d e s Nations Unies e t d ' a u t r e s organisations Internationales - ot'ficielles ou non - creent un climat plus favorable pour disculer de5 problkmes et atteindre un consensus s u r ce
qu'il convient de faire et comment. Ces reunions out aussi I'avantage de
garantir le respect d e la souverainete nationale et l'egalite e n t r e Etats,
puisque chacun y dispose d'une voix, quelle que soit sa dimension ou
s a situation econornique.
LES NOTES
DE
LECTURE D'IGNACY SACHS
L'apparition de Gorbatchev sur la scene politique de 1'URSS reflete,
selon l'auteur, des changements profonds survenus dans la societe sovietique sous la double impulsion de l'urbanisation et de 1'6ducation.
Alors que l'afflux massif des paysans vers les villes, au lendemain de
la Revolution, a provoque au debut l'urbanisation de celle-ci, une societe civile urbaine a fini par se constituer dans la periods de
1'aprSs-guerre. M. Lewin consacre des chapitres passionnants 2 la constitution de l'opinion publique independante, au pouvoir croissant des
"micromondes" et au developpement des sciences sociales. I1 montre en
meme temps l'ampleur du d6fi releve par Gorbatchev: un parti totalement
depolitis6 sombrant dans 1'~conomicisme et transform6 en une seconde
administration incapable de comprendre Ie fonctionnement de l'economie
reelle plus complexe que Ie modele officiel, les ravages d'une approche
sectorielle i outrance, les 6normes gaspillages des ressources et des
energies humaines qui en resultant (cependant l'ampleur des gaspillages
constitue une "reserve pour Ie dGveloppement"). La rapidits des changements sociaux survenus a exacerb6 l'hGterogen6it6 du pays. Quelle forme
pourra prendre dans ces conditions la democratisation du parti et de la
vie politique? PlutSt que de predire, Lewin essaie de comprendre en situant l'episcde Gorbatchev dans la dynamique de l'histoire sociale de
~ ' U R S S ,done 11 est un specialiste incontestable.
Giorqio .?uffolo, Potema e Potere,
Lcterza, 13SW
La jlu$:uaz'ione
g i g m e ds l l 'Occi-
dente IEari:
-
La "belle epoque" de l'apres-guerre, marquee par la montee de la sociald6mocratie nourrie du keynesianisme et de l'ideal du Welfare State,
n'auca dur6 que deux ou trois decennies. La fragilite du pacte social
entre Ie capitalisme et la d6mocratie s'explique par la place demesuree
laissee 2 la croissance 6conomique, cette espece de "tapis roulant miraculeux" cense dCisamorcer les conflits sociaux et apporter Ie bien-etre.
Pourtant cette croissance se traduit par des codes sociaux exorbitants
que ne reflste pas Ie systeme des prix economiques. "Nous trichons dans
nos comptes avec la nature" ecrit en connaissance de cause le ministre
italien de l'environnement. L'houune moderne ressemble au roi Midas. Tout
ce qu'il touche devient immediatement une marchandise et perd de ce fait
sa valeur finale. Dans cet univers instrumental, l'esprit nt; crouve plus
5 se nourrir. Pour Ruifolo, cette crise resulte de la rupture de plus
en plus profonde entre la puissance technicienne et le pouvoir politique
crop faible et anachronique pour soumettre la technique i un contr6le
social efficace. Ce sous-developpement du politique tient 5 la pauvrete
ethique de notre sociCtS et au mauvais usage que nous fciisons de notre
capacite de f o r m l e r d e s projets (capacitj progettuale) en la laissant
se depenser dans la direction d'une croissance quantitative au lieu
d'imaginer de nouvelles configurations. Le pluralisme social exige un
pluralisme institutionnel organise mettant un frein au jeu des forces du
narche. "Le jeu conpetitif du march&, applique aux rapports economiques
entre les pays riches et les pays pauvres, aggrave les d6s&quilibres;
applique aux relations Zconomiques et monetaires entre pays riches, il
conduit 2 l'instabilite permanence; applique 2 l'exploitation des ressources naturelles, il conduit au saccage de 1'6cosphere" (p.119). On
notera la place qu'occupe dans ce penetrant diagnostic de la crise de
1'Occident Ie sous-dgveloppement du politique. Le parallele est frappant
avec la lecture de la crise sovietique par M. Lewin.
petit livre brosse un tableau dense et precis des problemes de transport auxquels sont confrontes les pays du Tiers Monde. Nous en retiendrons surtout le propos sur l'opportunit6 de taxer le petrole n6goci6
internationalement pour financer les investissements en transport qui
dgpassent les possibilites financieres des pays du Tiers Monde. Une taxe
de 1 cent USA par gallon rapporterait 2 milliards de dollars (pp.187188). L'idee des peages sur les oceans a et6 proposee en 1973 dans l a
foulge de la Conference de Stockholm, mais elle n'a pas fait 6cole. Un
rapport de Brookings Institution sur Ie financement automatique du developpement, auquel Owen se refere, n'a pas et6 suivi non plus d'effet.
Pourtant seule une fiscalite internationale, aussi modeste fut-elle,
donnerait aux Nations Unies l'autonomie financigre absolument nZcessaire
pour gchapper aux pressions des grandes puissances qui sont aussi les
principaux bailleurs de fonds. En Europe medievale, 1'Eglise prglevait
la dime. Les Nations Unies se contenteraient certainement d'une dime sur
une dime sur une dime sur Ie Produit Mondial Brut qui a d6passk 10 000
milliards de dollars. Un imp3t mondial de un pour mille (module de facon
ià ce que les pays riches paient plus et les pauvres en soient exemptes)
rapporterait 10 milliards de dollars, c'est-;-dire en ordre de grandeur
dix fois plus qua Ie budget annuel de l'ONU! Chaque citoyen du monde
paierait en moyenne 2 dollars 2 peine. La voie des impsts indirects semble plus facile i suivre. Voici 2 titre d'illustration cinq variations
sur Ie theme, en empruntant les donnees de base 5 l'ouvrage de Owen:
Ce
.
ur. demi cent LS.4 par litre d'essence (soit environ 6 pour mille du
prix d la pomp6 en France) rapporterait 4 millards de dollars;
.
une taxe de 0 , 5 % sur Le chiffre d'affaires des 31 000 agences de
tourisme rapporterait 1 , 2 5 milliard de dollars. En outre les 8
millions de chambres d'hstel, denombrees dans 130 pays, tax6es 5
raison de 50 cents LSA par cllambre et semaine, rapporterait 200
millions de dollars;
.
un inpot de 50 cents par tonne de marchandise transportee par mer
rapporterait 1,7 milliard de dollars;
.
.
un inp5t de 50 cents par 1000 passagers/mile rapporterait 325 millions de dollars;
une surtaxe de 5 dollars sur la vignette du demi-milliard des v6hicules en circulation rapporterait 2,5 milliards de dollars.
La s o m e de ces cinq imp3ts indirects repr6senterait l pour mille du
Produits Mondial Brut, c'esc-a-dire la dime sur la dime sur la dime...
Ces examples n'ont qu'un but: montrer que Ie financement automatique du
d6veloppement (qu'il s'agisse du transport ou de tout autre secteur)
constitue une possibilit6 reelle, a condition de l'introduire progressivement 2 travers une multiplicit6 de taxes, i incidence faible. L'idee
est peut-etre galvaudee par l'usage abusif qu'en font les gouvernenents,
mais dans ce cas la cause parait b o ~ n e .
Ce livre est exceptionnel par la masse de l'information qu'il contient
et la facon dont 11 a et6 6crit. En 1982 et en 1985, sous l'impulsion
d'Anil Agarwal, journaliste scientifique de reputation internationale,
et du centre qu'il a fond6 i New Delhi, des dizaines de militants de la
vie associative, assist6s par des universicaires, des journalistes et
des hauts fonctionnaires, ont produit deux rapports de citoyens sur
1'6tat de l'environnement en Inde. Ce sombre tableau des "d6gZts du progrgs" consticue une severe mise en accusation du modele de developpement
indien. Mais les faits rapportes sont tellemenc parlant que meme Ie
gouvernement indien en a fait des ouvrages de r&f&rence. Le volume francais - une selection et adaptation des 600 pages de l'original
est lui
aussi Ie resultat competent de l'engagement d'une 6quipe r6unie autour
dfEconomie et Humanisme et coordonnee par Philippe Blancher. Le manifeste pour un 6co-developpement sur lequel Ie livre se tennine esc une
preuve de la vitalit6 de la pensee alternative en Inde. Souhaitons que
ce rapport de citoyens fasse 6cole en Cant que modele de recherche participative engagee et qu'il soit suivi par d'autres initiatives de ce
genre, touchant i d'autres themes et venanc d'autres pays.
-
ANTIPODE
Edited by Joe Doherty and Eric Sheppard
Antipode publishes articles on the radicalanalysisofspatial and
environmentalproblems,providing a forum forintellectuallystimulatingyet
straightforwardlypresented aiscusstonson topicsofvital social and political
concern Recent ssuesofAnbpode have considered such topicsas the
geography ofwomen environmentalcnsis.nationalism Cuba and Nicaragua,
geography and education de-industnalization,the local -^taledevelopment
and underdevelopment in Southern Europe and the capitalistslate
Basil Blackwell
. JournalsDeot..to8 cow~eyRoad
Oxford OX4 I J F or Journals D e ~ r .Box
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1320,Murray Hill Station,
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62
i f d a d o s s i e r 68
.
november/december 1988
news f r o m t h e t h i r d system
THE N A I R O B I DECLARATION ON CONSUMERS I N A F R I C A
T h i s D e c l a r a t i o n was unanimously adopted a t t h e c l o s e of t h e IOCU C o n f e r e n c e "Consumers i n
A f r i c a : Meeting t h e C h a l l e n g e " h e l d i n N a i r o b i from 14-18 J u n e 1988.
'We t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s of t h e f i r s t c o n f e r e n c e on consumer c o n c e r n s i n A f r i c a ,
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of consumer o r g a n i z a t i o n s , v o l u n t a r y development g r o u p s , government
consumer p r o t e c t i o n a g e n c i e s i n A f r i c a , a s w e l l as t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l consumer movement:
1.
Conscious t h a t t h i s c o n f e r e n c e h a s been convened a t a c r i t i c a l time i n t h e h i s t o r y of
A f r i c a when poor economic and p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , w a r s and e n v i r o n m e n t a l
degradation ravage t h e c o n t i n e n t ;
2.
Aware t h a t f o r consumers i n A f r i c a , such c o n d i t i o n s have r e s u l t e d i n a l a c k of b a s i c
n e c e s s i t i e s such a s f o o d , h o u s i n g , c l e a n w a t e r , h e a l t h c a r e , s a n i t a t i o n and
e d u c a t i o n , and t h a t a c c e s s t o such e s s e n t i a l goods and s e r v i c e s , a s w e l l a s t o f a i r
c h o i c e , s a f e t y , i n f o r m a t i o n , r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , r e d r e s s , consumer e d u c a t i o n and a
h e a l t h y environment remain l a r g e l y a dream;
3.
R e c o g n i z i n g t h a t t h e consumermovementhasmadeasubstantial i m p a c t on t h e q u a l i t y of
goods and s e r v i c e s , t h e r a t i o n a l u s e of r e s o u r c e s and t h e e n v i r o n m e n t and t h e
advancement o f t h e s o c i a l and economic r i g h t s of m i l l i o n s of c i t i z e n s worldwide;
A.
R e A U z i n g t h a t t h e b e n e f i t s of t h e consumer movement have n o t been w i d e l y a t t a i n e d i n
A f r i c a , where t h e work o f consumer g r o u p s i s hampered by s c a n t consumer a w a r e n e s s ,
l a c k of t e c h n i c a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s k i l l s , weak c o o r d i n a t i n g and n e t w o r k i n g
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s , s h o r t a g e of f u n d s , t h e m a r k e t i n g power a n d i n f l u e n c e of TNCs, and
government a t t i t u d e s which o f t e n c o n s t r a i n t h e i r a b i l i t y t o o r g a n i z e and t o s p e a k
c r i t i c a l l y and c o n s t r u c t i v e l y ;
5.
Recalling t h e IOCU 1 2 t h World Congress r e s o l u t i o n s on t h e development of t h e A f r i c a n
consumer movement, we h e r e b y d e c l a r e o u r c o d t n e n t t o b u i l d a n i n d e p e n d e n t consumer
movement t h a t is r e s p o n s i v e t o t h e s p e c i f i c needs of consumers i n A f r i c a and which w i l l
c o n t r i b u t e towards a more humane, e q u i t a b l e and j u s t d e v e l o p m e n t ;
6.
Recognizing t h e i m p o r t a n t r o l e t h a t government a g e n c i e s have played and can p l a y i n
7.
-affirm
t h a t governments have a d u t y t o p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e p r o t e c t i o n f o r t h e i r
c i t i z e n s a s consumers, t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e g u i d e l i n e s f o r consumer p r o t e c t i o n ,
a d o p t e d unanimously by t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s G e n e r a l Assembly i n 1985;
8.
S t a t e t h a t t h e m i s s i o n of t h e A f r i c a n consumer movement i n c l u d e s :
t h e p r o t e c t i o n and t h e p r o m o t i o n o f consumer r i g h t s and i n t e r e s t s ;
( i ) p a r t i c i p a t i o n by consumer o r g a n i z a t i o n s and o t h e r like-minded o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n
t h e f o r m a t i o n of p o l i c i e s t h a t a f f e c t t h o s e t h e y r e p r e s e n t ;
( i i ) e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e b a s i c needs of all consumers a r e n e t . e s p e c i a l l y a d e q u a t e food.
c l o t h i n g , s h e l t e r , h e a l t h c a r e , s a n i t a t i o n and e d u c a t i o n ;
( H i ) p r o p a g a t i o n of measures t o promote a f a i r market p l a c e , p r e v e n t harmful b u s i n e s s
and p r o f e s s i o n a l p r a c t i c e s a n d o p p o s e p r a c t i c e s t h a t m i s l e a d , r e s t r i c t c h o i c e , o r
e r e c t b a r r i e r s t o t r a d e which a r e n o t i n t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e consumer;
( i v ) e n f o r c e m e n t of laws and s t a n d a r d s t h a t s a f e g u a r d consumers from h a z a r d o u s goods
s e r v i c e s , and t e c h n o l o g i e s ;
( v ) s e c u r i n g of p r o c e d u r e s t o p r o v i d e e f f e c t i v e r e d r e s s f o r a g g r i e v e d consumers,
e s p e c i a l l y t h e poor;
( v l ) e n s u r i n g t h e p r o v i s i o n of a c c u r a t e and a d e q u a t e i n f o r m a t i o n and t h e p r o v i s i o n of
consumer e d u c a t i o n t o e n s u r e t h a t a l l p e o p l e a c q u i r e t h e knowledge and s k i l l s
n e c e s s a r y t o be informed and a c t i v e c o n s u m e r s , e x e r c i s i n g t h e i r r i g h t s and
f u l f i l l i n g t h e i r economic r o l e ;
( v i i ) e n s u r i n g t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e consumers a g a i n s t poor q u a l i t y p r o d u c t s , u n f a i r
p r i c i n g s y s t e m s and u n a c c e p t a b l e m a r k e t i n g p r a c t i c e s ;
9.
ASD EXSOLTO a s f o l l o w s :
A.
[JB
Initiatives
[JB
G u i d e l i n e s f o r Cmnumer P r o t e c t i o n
1.
Urge governments t o f u l l y implement t h e G u i d e l i n e s .
2.
Urge t h a t t h e United N a t i o n s p r o v i d e t h e n e c e s s a r y t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e f o r
A f r i c a n governments t o implement t h e G u i d e l i n e s .
3.
Urge governments to s u p p o r t and a d o p t t h e s u g g e s t e d r e s o l u t i o n on i m p l e m e n t a t i o n
of t h e G u i d e l i n e s t o be c o n s i d e r e d by t h e UN ECOSOC i n J u l y 1988, and t h e G e n e r a l
Assembly a t U s n e x t s e s s i o n .
4.
Urge governments and t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s t o work t o w a r d s t h e convening of a n
A f r i c a n c o n s u l t a t i o n on t h e G u i d e l i n e s a s a m a t t e r of p r i o r i t y .
5.
Request t h a t IOCU produce s u i t a b l e e d u c a t i o n and t r a i n i n g m a t e r i a l s on t h e
G u i d e l i n e s f o r use by consumer g r o u p s .
6.
Encourage consumer groups t o m o n i t o r t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h e G u i d e l i n e s .
OH C o n s o l i d a t e d List
l.
Encourage consumer groups t o u s e t h e UN c o n s o l i d a t e d l i s t of p r o d u c t s whose
consumption a n d f o r s a l e have been b a n n e d , withdrawn, s e v e r e l y r e s t r i c t e d o r n o t
approved by governments i n t h e i r work on h a z a r d o u s p r o d u c t s .
2.
Urge governments t o s u p p o r t and p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e r e g u l a r u p d a t i n g and
p u b l i s h i n g of t h e UN C o n s o l i d t e d L i s t .
ON Code o f Conduct o n TBCs
Urge governments to b r i n g t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s on t h e Code of
Conduct on T r a n s n a t i o n a l C o r p o r a t i o n s t o a p o s i t i v e and prompt
c o n c l u s i o n and t o e n s u r e p r o p e r m o n i t o r i n g of U s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .
B.
Access t o J u s t i c e
l.
Urge law s o c i e t i e s , j u d i c i a l s e r v i c e s , law r e f o r m a g e n c i e s and a t t o r n e y s - g e n e r a l
t o seek ways t o p r o v i d e a c c e s s t o j u s t i c e t o consumer and o t h e r p u b l i c i n t e r e s t
g r o u p s t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e promotion and d e f e n c e of consumer r i g h t s .
2.
Urge a l l governments t o r a t i f y t h e A f r i c a n C h a r t e r on P e o p l e ' s and Human R i g h t s a s
a m a t t e r of urgency.
3.
Urge governments t o review l e g i s l a t i o n w i t h a view t o e n s u r i n g t h a t consumer
i n t e r e s t s a r e a d e q u a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n a g e n c i e s which s e t r a c e s , t a r i f f s a n d
p r i c e s and i n a g e n c i e s which p r o v i d e p u b l i c u c i l i t i e e and s e r v i c e s .
4 > Urge consumer g r o u p s t o a c t i v e l y l i n k up v i t h a v a i l a b l e l e g a l r e s o u r c e s .
C.
5.
Encourage t h e p r o v i s i o n of t r a i n i n g on l e g a l r i g h t s f o r consumer g r o u p s .
6.
F o s t e r t h e development of c o m p l a i n t s h a n d l i n g s k i l l s and s e r v i c e s .
Apartheid
Urge consumer o r q a n i z a t i o n s to s u p p o r t t h e a n t i - a p a r t h e i d
campaign by b o y c o t t i n g a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e p r o d u c t s from
South A f r i c a .
D.
E.
V.
G.
Consuaer R e s e a r c h and I n f o r m a t i o n
1.
Encourage consumer o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o a d o p t c r e a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s f o r g r e a t e r
l i n k a g e v i t h o t h e r NGOs i n s u p p o r t of r e s e a r c h and e d u c a t i o n a l c a p a c i t i e s .
2.
Request IOCU
marketing.
to
advise
on
publishing
technology,
magazine
f i n a n c i n g and
Media
1.
Urge consumer o r g a n i z a t i o n s to r e c o g n i s e t h e p o t e n t i a l of t h e media i n r a i s i n g
c r i t i c a l a w a r e n e s s and p r o v i d i n g consumer i n f o r m a t i o n .
2.
Encourage t h e t r a i n i n g of consumer o r g a n i z a t i o n s , j o u r n a l i s t s and o t h e r media
p r a c t i t i o n e r s on consumer i s s u e s and c o n c e r n s .
3.
Urge t h e enactment of l e g i s l a t i o n t o p r o t e c t consumers from f a l s e and m i s l e a d i n g
advertisements.
Product T e s t i n g
1.
Urge consumer g r o u p s to e s t a b l i s h l i n k s w i t h t e c h n i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s ( s t a n d a r d s
o r g a n i z a t i o n s , government l a b o r a t o r i e s , u n i v e r s i t i e s , e t c ) which might be a b l e
t o u n d e r t a k e p r o d u c t t e s t i n g on t h e i r b e h a l f .
2.
Encourage consumer o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o c o n s i d e r and s e e k c o s t - e f f e c t i v e j o i n t
t e s t i n g p r o j e c t s w i t h o t h e r like-minded o r g a d z a t i o n s ( f o r example, women's
groups').
3.
Request IOCU t o c o n d u c t t r a i n i n g a c t i v i t i e s f o r consumer g r o u p s d e s i r i n g t o
e s t a b l i s h p r o d u c t t e s t i n g programmes of t h e i r own.
4.
Dequest IOCJ t o a s s i s t i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of a handbook on s u r v e y t e c h n i q u e s
r e l e v a n t t o consumer g r o u p s i n A f r i c a .
Consumer E d u c a t i o n
1.
Urge consumer 8roup-i t o make consumer e d u c a t i o n a p r i o r i t y a c t i v i t y i n t h e i r work.
.
Encourage and conduct consumer e d u c a t i o n programmes f o r r u r a l consumers,
including t n e promotion of l i t e r a c y and t h e development of a p p r o p r i a t e methods
and m a t e r i a l s .
3.
Urge consumer g r o u p s t o c o l l a b o r a t e i n t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a l work w i t h
development g r o u p s .
4.
Urge governments to i n t r o d u c e consumer e d u c a t i o n i n t o s c h o o l c u r r i c u l a and t o
e s t a b l i s h more c o r n u n i t y TV and r a d i o p o i n t s .
l.
Encourage governments and consumer g r o u p s t o u s e t h e r e p o r t o f t h e World
C o d s s i o n on Environment and Eevelopment, Our Common F u t u r e , a s a framework f o r
action.
2.
Impress t h a t e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n c e r n s s h o u l d be a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e work of
consumer g r o u p s .
3.
E v a l u a t e t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l impact of t h e p r o d u c t i o n , c o n s u m p t i o n and d i s p o s a l of
consumer p r o d u c t s .
4.
Urge t h a t n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s f o r economic growth be based on t h e p r i n c i p l e s of
s u s t a i n a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t , t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e s o c i a l and e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o s t s .
5.
I n s i s t t h a t programmes and p o l i c i e s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g e n c i e s l i k e t h e World Bank
and o t h e r development a i d i n s t i t u t i o n s s h o u l d promote s u s t a i n a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t .
6.
Ensure t h a t A f r i c a is n o t used a s a dumping ground f o r i n a p p r o p r i a t e , o b s o l e t e o r
h a z a r d o u s p r o d u c t s , t e c h n o l o g i e s and p r o c e s s e s , i n c l u d i n g p e s t i c i d e s , t o x i c and
nuclear wastes.
rural
I. P e a t i c i d e a
J.
l.
Encourage governments t o s u p p o r t and promote w i d e r u s e o f l e s s chemical-dependent
p e s t c o n t r o l p o l i c i e s and methods.
2.
Urge governments and consumer g r o u p s t o i n t e n s i f y e f f o r t s i n i m p l e m e n t i n g and
m o n i t o r i n g t h e FAO I n t e r n a t i o n l Code of Conduct on t h e D i s t r i b u t i o n and Use of
Pesticides.
3.
Encourage t h e p r o d u c t i o n of s u i t a b l e t r a i n i n g m a t e r i a l s t o i n c r e a s e consumer
awareness about p e s t i c i d e - r e l a t e d i s s u e s .
Biotechnology
Urge governments, r e l e v a n t UN a g e n c i e s , i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s
and consumer g r o u p s t o e n s u r e t h e a d o p t i o n of a p p r o p r i a t e r e g u l a t o r y
mechanisms and i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s t h a t p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e c h e c k s and
s a f e g u a r d s , w i t h f u l l community p a r t i c i p a t i o n , on t h e d e v e l o p m e n t .
r e s e a r c h , t e s t i n g , u s e , c o n t r o l and p a t e n t i n g of b i o t e c h n o l o g i c a l
p r o d u c t s and p r o c e s s e s .
K.
Food and n u t r i t i o n
1.
Urge governments to f o r m u l a t e and implement a p p r o p r i a t e n a t i o n a l food p o l i c i e s
r e s p o n s i v e t o t h e food and n u t r i t i o n a l needs of a l l consumers, and t o i n v o l v e
consumer g r o u p s i n t h e p r o c e e d i n g s .
2.
Support t h e IOCU
i n c l u d e s the c a l l
irradiation u n t i l
safety, Labelling
1 2 t h World C o n g r e s s r e s o l u t i o n on food i r r a d i a t i o n , which
f o r a world u a r a t o r i u m on t h e f u r t h e r u s e and development of
t h e r e i s a s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s o l u t i o n of i s s u e s o f n u t r i t i o n .
and d e t e c t t o n .
L
M.
Infant B u t r i t i o n
1.
Encourage and a s s i s t t h e development, i m p l e i ~ e n t a t i o nand m n i t o r i n g o f n a t i o n a l
c o d e s based on t h e WHO/UtICEF I n t e r n a t i o n a l Code on t h e M a r k e t i n g o f B r e a s t m i l k
Substitutes.
2.
P r o v i d e consumer e d u c a t i o n on t h e n u t r i t i o n a l , i m m u n o l o g i c a l and p s y c h o s o c i a l
b e n e f i t s of b r e a s t f e e d i n g and t h e c o s t s , d i s a d v a n t a g e s and h a z a r d s of b o t t l e and
a r t i f i c i a l Infant feeding.
3.
Urge governments t o d e v e l o p and p a s s l e g i s l a t i o n and p o l i c i e s t o promote, p r o t e c t
and s u p p o r t b r e a s t f e e d i n g and sound young c h i l d f e e d i n g p r a c t i c e s .
PharÈaceuticaI
Urge governments t o c o n s u l t and i n v o l v e consumer and h e a l t h g r o u p s i n t h e
f o r m a t i o n , i m p l e m e n t a t i o n and m o n i t o r i n g of n a t i o n a l h e a l t h p o l i c i e s .
Urge governments to p r o v i d e s a f e , e f f e c t i v e and a f f o r d a b l e m e d i c a l
p r o d u c t s t o a l l consumers who need them i n c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h e WHO'S
e s s e n t i a l drugs p o l i c y .
Urge governments t o s u p p o r t , e n c o u r a g e and d i s s e m i n a t e r e s e a r c h i n t o t r a d i t i o n a l
m e d i c i n a l p r o d u c t s and p r a c t i c e s .
Encourage s t r e n g t h e n i n g of t h e e x i s t i n g network o f g r o u p s i n v o l v e d i n drugrelated issues i n Africa.
Urge governments t o a d o p t t h e WHO G u i d e l i n e s on E t h i c a l C r i t e r i a f o r promotion of
medical substances.
H.
Tobacco
1.
Urge all consumer g r o u p s t o t a k e immediate a c t i o n t o f i g h t t o b a c c o consumption
through education, t r a i n i n g , networking and advocacy.
2.
Urge governments t o :
o
Ban t h e a d v e r t i s i n g of tobacco p r o d u c t s , brand names and l o g o s .
P r o h i b i t t h e s p o n s o r s h i p , by t o b a c c o companies o f s p o r t s and o t h e r p u b l i c
o
events.
o
Ban smoking i n all c l o s e d and p u b l i c p l a c e s .
o
Increase education about t h e h e a l t h hazards of tobacco
consumption.
o
I n c r e a s e t a x on t o b a c c o p r o d u c t s .
o
P l a c e c l e a r and s t r o n g w a r n i n g s on all packages c o n t a i n i n g t o b a c c o p r o d u c t s
and a t r e t a i l o u t l e t s i n r e l e v a n t l a n g u a g e s .
o
P r o h i b i t or phase o u t t h e u s e of s m o k e l e s s t o b a c c o p r o d u c t s .
3.
Urge consumer a n d o t h e r like-minded g r o u p s t o p u b l i c i s e t h e o v e r a l l c o s t s tohuman
h e a l t h and t h e environment of t o b a c c o c u l t i v a t i o n , p r o c e s s i n g , p r o d u c t i o n and
consumption i n comparison t o e x p o r t / f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e / t a x r e v e n u e e a r n i n g s .
4.
Urge governments t o d e v e l o p a l t e r n a t i v e l n c o m e - g e n e r a t i n g
r e p l a c e tobacco.
5.
Urge l n ~ e c n a t i o n a l a g e n c i e s t o s c o p f u n d i n g t o b a c c o g r o w i n g .
crops to
0.
Special I n t e r e s t Groups
1.
S e n s i t i z e government and consumer g r o u p s t o t h e s p e c i a l n e e d s o f t h e d i s a b l e d
consumer.
I.
Urge governments and consumer o r g a r d z a t i o n s t o s y s t e m a t i c a l l y v o r k towards t h e
p r o t e c t i o n and promotion of t h e r i g h t s of women a s consumers, p a r t i c u l a r l y by:
2.
Ensuring t h e i r g r e a t e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n d e c i s i o n making p r o c e s s e s on i s s u e s t h a t
a f f e c t them a s consumers.
Devising measures to p r o v i d e o b j e c t i v e and i n d e p e n d e n t i n f o r m a t i o n t o c o u n t e r a c t
m i s l e a d i n g a d v e r t i s i n g s o f r e q u e n t l y t a r g e t t e d a t women.
Conducting consumer e d u c a t i o n programmes d e s i g n e d to meet t h e s p e c i f i c needs of
b o t h u r b a n a n d r u r a l worsen.
Urge t h e r e l e v a n t a u t h o r i t i e s and a g e n c i e s t o p r o v i d e b a s i c s e r v i c e s s u c h a s
a c c e s s i b l e w a t e r and f u e l , h e a l t h c a r e and c r e d i t f a c i l i t i e s and o t h e r s e r v i c e s
c r u c i a l t o r u r a l women.
Youth
I.
P r o v i d e r e v e l a n t consumer e d u c a t i o n programmes i n and o u t s i d e s c h o o l s f o r youth
on consumer i s s u e s .
2.
C o n s c i o u s l y i n v o l v e youth i n c o n s u m e r m e e t i n g s , c o n f e r e n c e s , w o r k s h o p s , t r a i n i n g
courses, etc.
3.
Encourage r e s e a r c h i n t o consumer problems c o n f r o n t i n g y o u t h .
S t a t e m e n t by P a r t i c i p a n t s of t h e IOCU C o n f e r e n c e "Consumers i n A f r i c a
Challenge"
STOP TK&mHG =CA
- Meeting
the
AS A DOHPIIK GB-
For some time now, i t has become common knowledge t h a t i n d u s t r i a l i s e d n a t i o n s have
b e e n s e e k i n g t o dump t h e i r t o x i c w a s t e s i n t h e T h i r d World.
We r e a d v i t h g r e a t concern t h a t now A f r i c a has become t h e s p e c i a l t a r g e t f o r such
dumping. C o u n t r i e s have d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t o x i c w a s t e s a r e b e i n g dumped s e c r e t l y i n
t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s . Other c o u n t r i e s a r e b e i n g approached v f t h s e d u c t i v e o f f e r s of c a s h
t o a l l o w c o n v e r s i o n of t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s i n t o t o x i c dumps.
We d e p l o r e t h e s e o u t r a g e o u s a c t s which t r e a t and make A f r i c a i n t o a g a r b a g e dumping
g r o u n d , p o s i n g s e r i o u s h e a l t h and s a f e t y problems now and f o r f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s .
We demand a n immediate s t o p of such s h a m e f u l a c t s and c a l l on a l l A f r i c a n governments
and i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g e n c i e s t o a c t d e c i s i v e l y on t h e s e a c t s o f " t o x i c t e r r o r i s m " .
We urge IOCU and i t s member o r g a n i z a t i o n s and n e t v o r k s t o o r g a n i z e g l o b a l a c t i o n
a g a i n s t t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e and t o work p a r t i c u l a r l y v i t h UNEP and t h e O r g a n i s a t i o n of
A f r i c a n Unlcy.
INDONESIA :
GOVERNMENT
TIGHTENS
CONTROL OVER C ITIZENS ' GROUPS
by H a l i n a h Todd
There are hundreds of little, big and even rruLtinatiomt
citizens' groups in Inaonesia, many of u h i c h cla'Lm to
help the poor. B t i t their effectiveness arm freedon to act
are being surbed & neu reguLations and incr'emir.~g m smme-'itcontrol.
I t was a l o n g muddy walk a l o n g t h e r i c e bunds t o Pak S u w a r t o ' s v i l l a g e
on t h e e d g e of t h e Y o g j a k a r t a r i c e p l a i n . Pak Suwarto i s t h e head of a
s e l f - h e l p kelompok ( g r o u p ) of 25 v i l l a g e r s . The g r o u p b e g a n , on i t s own
i n i t i a t i v e , a s a C a t h o l i c p r a y e r group, then developed i n t o a s a v i n g s
and c r e d i t s o c i e t y w i t h b o t h Muslim and C a t h o l i c members.
I n 1986 i t was a d o p t e d by Bina Swadaya ( l i t e r a l l y - b u i l d i n g s e l f - h e l p ) ,
a J a k a r t a - b a s e d c i t i z e n s ' g r o u p . That meant more l o a n s - up t o e i g h t
t i m e s t h e amount of t h e g r o u p ' s s a v i n g s - and more p r o f i t a b l e a c t i v i t i e s
f o r t h e members. Pak Suwarto h i m s e l f now owns f i v e f i s h ponds i n a d d i t i o n t o h i s o n e - h e c t a r e r i c e p l o t , and h i s d a u g h t e r i s v e r y busy weaving
baskets f o r sale.
Compared t o n e i g h b o u r i n g S i n g a p o r e and M a l a y s i a , t h e I n d o n e s i a n c i t i z e n s ' g r o u p w o r l d f a i r l y h o p s w i t h a c t i v i t y and v a r i e t y . I n S i n g a p o r e ,
p r e s s u r e g r o u p s o u t s i d e of t h e government a r e v i r t u a l l y n o n - e x i s t e n t and
s o c i a l a c t i v i s t s , where t h e y s t i l l e x i s t , o p e r a t e u n d e r c l o s e p o l i c e
scrutiny.
I n M a l a y s i a , a l l s o c i e t i e s must b e r e g i s t e r e d by t h e government b e f o r e
t h e y c a n f u n c t i o n . A r a n g e o f a c t i v i s t s were thrown i n t o j a i l i n O c t o b e r
1987. Although most were r e l e a s e d i n December, s e v e r a l were d e t a i n e d f o r
two y e a r s u n d e r t h e I n t e r n a l S e c u r i t y A c t , which a l l o w s i n d e f i n i t e detention without t r i a l .
In c o n t r a s t , Indonesian c i t i z e n s '
p r i s i n g amount of freedom.
g r o u p s seem t o o p e r a t e w i t h a s u r -
N e a r l y e v e r y o n e i n J a v a b e l o n g s t o one o r more a s s o c i a t i o n s , many spont a n e o u s , v i l l a g e - b a s e d , s e l f - h e l p g r o u p s - l i k e t h e a r i s a n , s a v i n g s and
c r e d i t s o c i e t i e s which s c a t t e r t h e r u r a l c o u n t r y s i d e . Tliese a r e t h e
l o n g on c o h e s i o n and r o o t e d i n t h e v i l l a g e ,
L i n g o s ' - t h e l i t t l e NGOs
b u t s h o r t on r e s o u r c e s and t e c h n o l o g y .
-
Then i n J a k a r t a and t h e p r o v i n c i a l c a p i t a l s a r e a n o t h e r m u l t i t u d e of
' B i n g o s ' - b i g N G O s , o f t e n f o r e i g n - f u n d e d and s t a f f e d by p r o f e s s i o n a l s ,
c u l t i v a t i n g p o l i t i c a l p a t r o n s and i n t e r n a t i o n a l d o n o r s , l o n g on r h e t o r i c
and programmes of a c t i o n , b u t sometimes s h o r t on g r a s s r o o t s implementat i o n . Some of t h e most s u c c e s s f u l i m p l e m e n t e r s a r e t h o s e , l i k e Dian
Desa, which h a v e d e l i b e r a t e l y s i t e d t h e m s e l v e s away from t h e power
s t r u g g l e s i n J a k a r t a , and c o n c e n t r a t e on t a k i n g a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g y
i n t o the villages.
t h e t o p of t h e s t r u c t u r e , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e J a k a r t a w i t s , a r e t h e
' H i n g e s ' - t h e m u l t i n d t i o n a l KGOs, Western-based and w e a l t h y , from whom
t h e Bingos g e t t h e i r f u n d s .
At
A t v i l l a g e l e v e l t h e r e a r e many i n i t i a t i v e s a l w a y s t h e r e . Our t a s k i s
t o b u i l d t h e c a p a c i t y t o g r a s p i t , d e v e l o p i t and c o n n e c t i t t o modern
s e r v i c e s , ' s a i d Bambang Ismawan, head of Bina Swadaya, on of t h e most
r e s p e c t e d of t h e J a k a r t a ' B i n g o s ' .
Bina Swadaya h a s ' c o n n e c t e d ' w i t h 1,600 v i l l a g e a r i s a n . With some of
t h e s e g r o u p s i t h a s c h a l k e d up some n o t a b l e a c h i e v e m e n t s , a c c o r d i n g t o
a n u n p u b l i s h e d PhD t h e s i s by Heinz Bor.gartz. The g r o u p s have r a i s e d i n comes, e n c o u r a g e d s a v i n g s and f r e e d t h e i r members from t h e c l u t c h e s of
m o n e y l e n d e r s . I n I n d o n e s i a , where n o r m a l , l e g a l bank i n t e r e s t r u n a t 4%
a month, o r 48,X p e r annum, m o n e y l e n d e r s ' r a t e s c a n r u n from 6 % t o 10%
p e r month!
But t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e Lingo-Bingo l i n k - u p show c l e a r l y i n t h e numb e r of g r o u p s Bina Swadaya h a s managed t o s e r v i c e . Only 270 g r o u p s a r e
a c t u a l l y r e c e i v i n g f u n d s and r e g u l a r v i s i t s b e c a u s e o f a s h o r t a g e of
f i e l d workers.
One c o n s t r a i n t i s t h a t o u t i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , t h e freedom s o a p p a r e n t
i n J a k a r t a a b r u p t l y d i s a p p e a r s . Even t h o s e Bingos who w i s h t o t a r g e t
o n l y t h e v i l l a g e p o o r , c a n n o t go and o r g a n i s e them d i r e c t l y .
Government c o n t r o l a t v i l l a g e l e v e l i s a l l - e m b r a c i n g . O u t s i d e g r o u p s
must work t h r o u g h t h e v i l l a g e headman and u n d e r t h e ' g u i d a n c e ' of t h e
V i l l a g e S e c u r i t y Board (Lembaga K e t a h a n a n M a s y a r a k a t Desa) u n d e r whom
a l l v i l l a g e a c t i v i t i e s a r e o r g a n i s e d . That u s u a l l y means a b i g s l i c e of
the b e n e f i t s going t o t h e v i l l a g e e l i t e .
S o m e t i m e s we have t o s a c r i f i c e 10% t o 15% o f o u r r e s o u r c e s t o t h e l o c a l
e l i t e t o make e v e r y t h i n g smooth. T h a t i s b e t t e r t h a n b e i n g b l o c k e d a l t o g e t h e r ' , remarked t h e head of one of I n d o n e s i a ' s most r e s p e c t e d and most
successful groups.
I n t h e n a t i o n a l s p a c e , t h e I n d o n e s i a n government h a s e n c o u r a g e d NGO
a c t i v i t y , p a r t l y b e c a u s e t h e y c a n c o n t r o l t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s where i t mati n the villages
and p a r t l y b e c a u s e I n d o n e s i a n e e d s t h e f u n d s
ters
and e x p e r t i s e t h a t g r o u p s a t t r a c t from f o r e i g n a g e n c i e s .
-
-
But e v e n t h e r e l a t i v e freedom i n J a k a r t a i s e r o d i n g . I n 1 9 8 5 t h e government p a s s e d t h e Law on S o c i a l O r g a n i s a t i o n s o r t h e Ormas Law, u n d e r
which a l l c i t i z e n s ' g r o u p s must r e g i s t e r w i t h a government m i n i s t r y and
submit t o i t s ' g u i d a n c e ' , f e d e r a t e w i t h s i m i l a r groups under a n umbrella
o r g a n i s a t i o n and s e e k government p e r m i s s i o n b e f o r e r e c e i v i n g f o r e i g n
f u n d s . The law empowers t h e government t o s u s p e n d o r ban any o r g a n i s a tion not following these regulations.
R e a c t i o n a t t h e t i m e ranged from doomsday p r e d i c t i o n s of t h e
a l l i n d e p e n d e n t c i t i z e n s ' g r o u p s a c t i v i t y t o t h e comment t h a t
o n l y b e u s e d a g a i n s t I s l a m i c o r g a n i s a t i o n s . By t h e end of 1 9 8 7 ,
t h e law was supposed t o b e implemented, many g r o u p s s t i l l d i d
d e a t h of
i t would
the year
n o t know
which m i n i s t r y was supposed t o r e g i s t e r and ' g u i d e ' them. Many w e r e
s t i l l r e c e i v i n g f o r e i g n f u n d s d i r e c t l y w i t h o u t g o i n g t h r o u g h t h e government.
But c o m p e t i t i v e ' u m b r e l l a ' o r g a n i s a t i o n s had mushroomed, i n c l u d i n g t h a t
p e c u l i a r l y I n d o n e s i a n c o n t r a d i c t i o n , t h e GONG0 - Government O r g a n i s e d
NGO. t h e M i n i s t r y of S o c i a l W e l f a r e i n 1984 h a s a l r e a d y s e t up a C o u n c i l
of S o c i a l W e l f a r e (DNIKS) and h a s made s t r e n u o u s e f f o r t s t o make t h i s
t h e u m b r e l l a u n d e r which a l l g r o u p s must r e g i s t e r .
T h i s M i n i s t r y i s p e r i p h e r a l enough i n t h e government power s t r u c t u r e t o
make r e g i s t r a t i o n v o l u n t a r y , however. Meanwhile t h e much more p o w e r f u l
I n t e r i o r M i n i s t r y s e t up a w o r k i n g g r o u p of government o f f i c i a l s , a c a demics and t h r e e p r o m i n e n t c i t i z e n s ' group l e a d e r s ' t o s t r e n g t h e n coope r a t i o n between t h e government and c i t i z e n s ' g r o u p s ' .
The l e a d e r s t h e m s e l v e s , t o pre-empt government e f f o r t s t o o r g a n i s e them,
r u s h e d t o s e t up t h e i r own ' u m b r e l l a s ' . P r o b a b l y t h e l e a s t l i k e l y t o
compromise w i t h government r e g u l a t i o n i s a l o o s e c o a l i t i o n of c i t i z e n s '
g r o u p s , known a s t h e INGI c o a l i t i o n , and r u n from t h e o f f i c e of t h e
L e g a l Aid F o u n d a t i o n .
More c e n t r a l i s t h e Committee of 1 3 g r o u p s , made up of most of t h e
l a r g e r J a v a n e s e Bingos. They have e s t a b l i s h e d a d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e government t o t r y t o d e f i n e t h e new r e g u l a t i o n s t o g i v e maximum f l e x i b i l i t y
t o them.
Most c o u n t r i e s , l e d by t h e US, have s i g n e d a i d a g r e e m e n t s w i t h t h e government which s p e c i f y t h a t p r o j e c t s w i t h c i t i z e n s ' g r o u p s must g e t a
'Pronouncement of A p p r o v a l ' from a l l r e l e v a n t a u t h o r i t i e s b e f o r e f u n d s
can b e g i v e n . Donors a r e u n d e r p r e s s u r e t o g i v e b l o c k g r a n t s t o u m b r e l l a
o r g a n i s a t i o n s , which t h e n become b r o k e r s w i t h s m a l l e r g r o u p s .
T h i s ' n e t w o r k i n g f e v e r ' i s w o r k i n g t o d i s t a n c e Bingos even f u r t h e r from
t h e i r work w i t h t h e p o o r , a r g u e s George A d i t j o n d r o from a r u r a l d e v e l o p ment g r o u p i n I r i a n J a y a , i n a p a p e r ' N e t w o r k i n g t o promote o r c o n t r o l
I n d o n e s i a n NGOs? A l o t of t i m e and e n e r g y i s s p e n t ( o r w a s t e d ) by many
Leaders i n J a k a r t a I J a v a i n "networking",
"lobbying"
and " p r o p o s a l
w r i t i n g " which d i v e r t s
a t t e n t i o n which c o u l d o t h e r w i s e b e s p e n t i n
s e r v i n g t h e g r a s s r o o t s communities d i r e c t l y . '
...
S o u r c e s s a y t h a t LBH, t h e I n d o n e s i a n L e g a l Aid F o u n d a t i o n , u n p o p u l a r
w i t h t h e government b e c a u s e of i t s c r i t i c i s m on human r i g h t s i s s u e s , i s
a prime t a r g e t of t h e law. LBH h a s s o f a r r e s i s t e d p r e s s u r e t o p u t i t s e l f u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l l i n g u m b r e l l a of t h e I n d o n e s i a n Bar A s s o c i a t i o n .
'Groups engaged i n p u b l i c advocacy s h a l l have t o become more c r e a t i v e i n
t h e i r e f f o r t s t o s u p p o r t t h e m s e l v e s , ' one of t h e o f f i c e r s t o l d a r e c e n t
seminar.
!!A' Ha"-.nah r o o d i s a fveelanae j o u r n a l i s t , f o r n e r h Features Z d i t o r of
t'!e :.'eu S t r a i n s Times (.'Â¥latdysia 3.22 vats2 ! / a I q s . i c f s ,~ou.mai.ist of t h e
/ear i n l d 3 i i
Source:
-
Thirgd World .';et'^u~'<Features, S 7 Cmtorune~lt Road, I S ^ i C Fsnang,
h'di^G.lj~~~.
SENEGAL; RESEAU D'ALPHABETISATION COMMUNAUTAI RE (RAC)
Le RSseau d'AlphabStisation Comnunautaire est une structure d'echange de
plusieurs associations qui ont choisi de mettre en commun leurs experiences dans le domaine de l'alphabetiscition tout en conservant leur
autonomic. Ce R6seau cherche 2 atteindre trois groupes principaux: les
femmes, les apprentis, les enfants de la rue.
Le RSseau a et2 xniti par le Club UNESCO "Martin Luther King" qui en
assure la coordination, durant la phase expGrimentale, par un organe pedagogique appels Noyau Technique. Une structure de reflexion democratique compose d'un representant de chaque association mercbre, denommee
Conit6 de Suivi, permet d routes les associations de donner leur point
de vue sur les questions relatives au Reseau.
Chaque association membre doit avoir au moins un ptojet dlalphdb$tisaLion communautaire. Elle doit aussi disposer de volontaires pour la realisation de son projet et donner l'aval pour la signature de l'accord de
travail.
Le Volontaire s'engage 2 participer pour une periode de deux ans 2
l'alphabetisation dans un "pent" determine par son association et 1e
Noyau Technique. I1 s'engage 5, produire 2 la fin de chaque annee un rapport d'activitc. Le Volontaire, son association et le Noyau Technique
concourent 5 l'execution de l'action en veillant du respect des engagements scuscrits. Les moyens nis 5 la disposition du Volontaire pour assurer ses deplacemeuts et les activites de son operation sont utilises
et entretenus dans un esprit de bonne gestion.
Chaque association membre prend en charge les infrastructures necessaires pour la realisation de son projet, 2 savoir: local. tables, banes,
tableau, craie et autres instruments didactiques. L'entite de coordination assure la formation des volontaires venant des diffgrmtes associations; l161aboration du materiel d'enseignement avec la participation
des volontaires; les reunions d'echanges; Ie materiel permetcant la multiplication et Id diffusion du materiau elabore; la documentation ngcessaire; les conditions financisres minimum pour deux volontaires par
association; elle prend en charge les membres de l'organe pedagogique.
Chaque association membre s'engage et s'evertue 2: respecter l'autonomie
de chacun; se garder de toute propagande religieuse, politique et ideologique; instaurer un programme dlSchanges, de cooperation et de recherche en commun; brin6ficier et faire beneficier les autres de la richesse
de I'apprentissage mutual; experimenter Ie volontariat dans Ie domaine
de l'alphab6tisdtion communautaire; intensifier ses efforts a tous les
plans possibles: information, pre-alphabetisation, alphabetisation,
promouvoir
l'esprit
post-alphabGtisati.on
sensibilisation,
etc. ;
d'entraide, d'echanges et de cornunion fraternelle pour Ie bien-Stre de
tout un chacun; lutter contre toute discrimination raciale, de sexe,
d'Sge ou autre; sauvegarder Ie patrimoine; entretenir I e rnateriel et les
moyens mis d la disposition du projet; !nettre en oeuvre tcus ses n0yer.s
materiels, financiers et humains disponibles pour la reussite de notre
experience.
CHILE: PRIMER ENCUENTRO DE LA RED DE CENTROS
DE DESARROLLO LOCAL
E n t r e e l 13 y e l 1 7 d e j u n i o s e r e a l i z e e n e l C e n t r o E l Cane10 d e Nos,
d e C h i l e , e l P r i m e r E n c u e n t r o N a c i o n a l d e l a Red d e C e n t r o s d e D e s a r r o 110 L o c a l d e e s t e p a l s . E s t a Red l a conforman ocho i n s t i t u c i o n e s no gub e r n a m e n t a l e s autonomas que t r a b a j a n con d i s t i n t o s g r u p o s d e b a s e a 10
l a r g o d e C h i l e . E s t o s C e n t r o s s o n : OPDECH d e C h i l o 6 , AURORA d e P u e r t o
M o n t t , FREDER d e O s o r n o , CAF'IDE de Temuco, CRATE d e T a l c a , PEHUENCHE d e
T a l c a , CREDES d e Rancagua y EL CANELO DE NOS d e San B e r n a r d o . E s t e G l t i mo ha asumido l a c o o r d i n a c i e n d e l a Red.
E s t a r e l a c i o n e n t r e 1 0 s d i s t i n t o s C e n t r o s s e c o n s t i t u y o e n e n e r o d e 1987
e n l a l o c a l i d a d d e C h o n c h i , u b i c a d a e n l a I s l a Grande d e C h i l o g , a 1 s u r
d e C h i l e . En a q u e l l a o c a s i o n s e r e u n i e r o n 1 0 s d i r e c t i v e s d e l a s r e s p e c t i v a s i n s t i t u c i o n e s y r e d a c t a r o n una " D e c l a r a c i 6 n d e Chonchi", e n l a q u e
s e s i n t e t i z a n 1 0 s p r i n c i p l e s que o r i e n t a n a l a Red. A l l i s e s e f i a l a que
6 s t a "no e s una o r g a n i z a c i o n p i r a m i d a l a l a c u a l s e a d h i e r e i d e o l o g i c a mente" s i n 0 una nueva forma d e " r e l a c i o n h o r i z o n t a l e n t r e o r g a n i z a c i o n e s
l i b r e s y autonomas q u e d e c i d e n a r t i c u l a r s e p a r a p o t e n c i a r s u c o n t r i b u c i o n a 1 d e s a r r o l l o d e 10s grupos p o p u l a r e s . Nuestra r e l a c i o n s e caract e r i z a p o r p r i v i l e g i a r l a u n i d a d en l a d i v e r s i d a d (...) A s i e n r i q u e c e m o s
l a p r o p u e s t a g l o b a l d e un nuevo t i p 0 d e d e s a r r o l l o , r e s p e t u o s o d e l a s
autonomlas l o c a l e s y r e g i o n a l e s , d e s c e n t r a l i z a d o , d e s b u r o c r a t i z a d o ,
democrZtico y p a r t i c i p a t i v o " .
A f i n e s d e 1987 s e convoco a 1 P r i m e r E n c u e n t r o N a c i o n a l d e l a Red con e l
p r o p o s i t o de r e u n i r a 10s t r a b a j a d o r e s d e l a s i n s t i t u c i o n e s a e v a l u a r ,
d e b a t i r y c o m p a r t i r l a marcha y l a o r g a n i z a c i o n d e l a Red, s u p r o p u e s t a
de d e s a r r o l l o y s u s t a r e a s y p e r s p e c t i v a s f u t u r a s .
La r e u n i o n r e s u l t 6 t o d o un 6 x i t o . T r a s c i n c o d l a s d e a n a l i s i s , d i s c u s i o n
y convivencia s e l o g r o a v a n z a r en l a s o c i a l i z a c i e n d e l a s e x p e r i e n c i a s y
v i s i o n e s r e u n i d a s e n e l e n c u e n t r o . Se r e c o n o c i o l a education p o p u l a r y
l a investigation p a r t i c i p a t i v a como f o r m u l a s d e l a p r e n d i z a j e con 1 0 s
s e c t o r e s p o p u l a r e s y s e p l a n t e a r o n numerosos d e s a f l o s o r g Z n i c o s y d e
t r a b a j o , p a r a m e j o r a r l a contribution a 1 0 s s e c t o r e s p o p u l a r e s . F i n a l m e n t e , s e a c o r d o r e a l i z a r a n u a l m e n t e nuevos e n c u e n t r o s , c o r r e s p o n d i 6 n d o l e o r g a n i z a r e l proximo a a l g u n o d e 10s C e n t r o s d e p r o v i n c i a s .
Centro el C d o ae 'ids,
Casitta 2-D San B e m a r d o , C h i l e ) .
73
CHILE; EL TALLER DE COOPERACION AL DESARROLLO
A comienzos d e 1 9 8 5 , d i v e r s a s p e r s o n a s , q u e p o r v a r i e s
aces
han p a r t i c i pado e n e l campo d e l a c o o p e r a c i 6 n i n t e r n a c i o n a l a 1 d e s a r r o l l o , d e c i d i e r o n c o n s t i t u i r e s t e T a l l e r como un e s p a c i o d e r e f l e x i o n q u e p e r m i t i e r a
c o m p a r t i r e x p e r i e n c i a s e i n q u i e t u d e s s o b r e l a m a t e r i a , con l a f i n a l i d a d
d e l l e g a r a f o r m u l a r a l g u n a s p r o p o s i c i o n e s p a r a e l d i s e n o d e una p o l f t i c a d e cooperation i n t e r n a c i o n a l que b e n e f i c i e r e a l m e n t e a q u i e n e s mzs
10 r e q u i e r e n .
Q u i e n e s p a r t i c i p a n 10 hacen a t i t u l o i n d i v i d u a l , y e s t z n o han e s t a d o
v i n c u l a d o s en d i v e r s a s formas con a g e n c i a s no g u b e r n a m e n t a l e s d e cooperation a 1 d e s a r r o l l o ; e n s u t r a b a j o c o t i d i a n o , s e a e n i n s t i t u c i o n e s d e
apoyo y / o i n v e s t i g a c i o n , e l l a s e x p r e s a n l a s p r i n c i p a l e s a r e a s en q u e s e
realiza e s t a actividad.
E l o b j e t i v o g e n e r a l d e l T a l l e r e s g e n e r a r un e s p a c i o d e i n f o r m a c i o n ,
e s t u d i o y d i s c u s i o n s o b r e 1 0 s p r o b l e m a s que p l a n t e a l a c o o p e r a c i 6 n i n t e r n a c i o n a l a 1 d e s a r r o l l o , con e s p e c i a l G n f a s i s en e l p a p e l que desemp e c a n l a s o r g a n i z a c i o n e s no g u b e r n a m e n t a l e s , t a n t o l a s d e p a i s e s i n d u s t r i a l i z a d o s con0 l a s d e n u e s t r o p a l s .
Las a c t i v i d a d e s y o b j e t i v o s e s p e c t f i c o s q u e o r i e n t a n e l t r a b a j o d e l TaH e r son l a s s i g u i e n t e s :
I.
D i f u n d i r en C h i l e l a p r o b l e m i t i c a de l a cooperaci6n a 1 d e s a r r o l l o ,
t a n t o a La o p i n i o n p u b l i c a e n g e n e r a l como a c i e r t o s a c t o r e s s o c i a l e s y politicos que p a r t i c i p a n o que p o r s u i m p o r t a n c i a d e b i e r a n
s e n s i b i l i z a r s e a n t e e l tema.
11. Mantener una i n s t a n c i a e n l a c u a l s e r e f l e x i o n e s i s t e m i t i c a m e n t e
s o b r e e l tema d e l a c o o p e r a c i 6 n a 1 d e s a r r o l l o , y o f r e c e r e s t e e s p a c i o de d i z l o g o a l a s a g e n d a s i n t e r n a c i o n a l e s , a o t r o s grupos reg i o n a l e s q u e p e r s i g u e n o b j e t i v o s s i m i l a r e s a Los d e l T a l l e r , a s ?
como a r e p r e s e n t a n t e s d e l a s i n s t i t u c i o n e s c h i l e n a s d e apoyo y l o
investigacion.
I l l . E s t i m u l a r e l a n a l i s i s y e l d e b a t e s o b r e 10s d e s a f i o s que d e p a r e e l
f u t u r e a 10s d i v e r s o s a c t o r e s d e l a c a d e n a d e l a c o o p e r a c i G n , p a r t i c u l a r m e n t e en c o n d i c i o n e s d e refundacion democrztica.
IV.
Recopilar m a t e r i a l e s e informacion para hacer n i s transparentes 10s
p r o b l e m a s que s u r g e n e n e s t a a c t i v i d a d , a l a vez que o r i e n t a n l a
busqueda d e s o l u c i o n e s q u e e x p r e s e n t o d a s s u s p o t e n c i a l i d a d e s en l a
s u p e r a c i 6 n d e l a s c o n d i c i o n e s d e pobreza y s u b d e s a r r o l l o que c a r a c terizan a nuestro pafs.
E l T a l l e r t i e n e una publication s e m e s t r a l , C o o p e r a c i 6 n i n t e r n a c i o n a l a 1
d e s a r r o l l o . Los e s t u d i o s , n o t i c i a s e i n f o r m a c i o n e n g e n e r a l q u e e l l a
c o n t i e n e , a s p i r a n a J i f u n d i r e l tema e n i d o p i n i o n p u b l i c a , a s e n s i b i l i z a r a a c t o r e s s o c i o - p o l i t i c o s r e l e v a n t e s , a y a p o y a r , con un m a t e r i a l
s e r i o , p r o f u n d o y a c t u a l i z a d o , e l t r a b a j o de q u i e n e s p a r t i c i p a n e n e s t a s
actividades.
(CasiLLa W 8 , S a n t i a g o 1, C h i l e !
ECUADOR: CENTRO DE INVESTIGACIONES CIUDAD
El Centro de Investigaciones CIUDAD fue fundado y constituido por un
grupo de profesionales y estudiantes universitarios preocupados por la
investigacion y la accion sobre distintos aspectos de la realidad nacional, particulannente en 10 relacionado con 10s multiples temas de la
problem5tica urbana y regional del pais.
El Centro, desde sus etapas iniciales, se ha caracterizado por su independencia y autonomla en todos 10s 6rdenes. Es una instituci6n que pcr
su propia naturaleza, no persigue fines lucrativcs; su trabajo se desarrolla, por sobre todo, en base a1 trabajo en equipo y a1 compromise de
sus miembros.
Desde su fundacion, CIUOAD ha desarrollado multiples acciones en materia
de investigacion, asesoria tgcnica, capacitation, difusion y documentacion; cuya crientaci6n general ha sido la de buscar la integration entre
las elaboraciones teorico-conceptuales de caracter explicativo con la
aplicaci6n de soluciones alternativas, creativas y viables.
Objetivos
Los objetivos de CIUDAC, que constan en su Estatuto, buscan:
Promover y desarrollar investigaciones criticas de la realidad nacional y producir instrumentos te6ricos para su interpretation e
intervention.
Incursionar en 10s campos regional y urbano, a craves de estudios y
acciones tanto generates como particulares.
Desarrollar e incentivar la prsctica investigativa.
Difundir a traves de diversos medios tanto las investigaciones y
estudios realizados por CIUDAD como aquellos trabajos nacionales
y/o extranjeros que puedan significar un aporte te6rico o practico
para el desarrollo de la ciencia y la cultura nacionales.
Conformar un sistema de informacion y documentaci6n sobre la ternstica regional y urbana.
Participar con otros organismos similares dentro y fuera del pais
en trabajos de intergs comun.
Areas de interes
Las preocupaciones generates del Centre son las preblemZticas urbana y
regional. Realiza sus accividades a craves de 10s departamentos de investigacion, asistencia tgcnica, capacitaci6n. difusi6n y documentaci6n.
Las areas de interes institucional son:
a)
Proceso de urbanizacik. Se 10 entiende como un producto hist6rico
con marcada tendencia a la bicefalia en detriment0 de las ciudades
p e q u e s a s y m e d i a n a s . Se t r a b a j a en l a g G n e s i s y d e s a r r o l l o d e l proc e s o de u r b a n l z a c i 6 n y s u s m a n i f e s t a c i o n e s t e r r i t o r ~ a l e s . TambiGn
s e e s t u d i a n 1 0 s d i f e r e n t e s r o l e s , f u n c i o n e s y c o n d i c i o n e b de l a s
c i u d a d e s a 1 i n t e r i o r d e s u 5mbito e s p e c C f i c o . Se proponen p o l l t i c a s
y c r i t e r i o s p a r a l a a t e n c i 6 n de 1 0 s d i v e r s o s problemas d e t e c t a d o s .
La c u e s t i 6 n r e g i o n a l . Se conceptila a l a r e g i 6 n como un u n i v e r s o con
c a r a c t e r f s t i c a s p r o p i a s y p a r t i c u l a r i d a d e s . Desde a l l 1 s e comprende
l a s p r o f u n d a s d e s i g u a l d a d e s y d i s p a r i d a d e s . Se i n d a g a n l a s f o r n a s
p r o d u c t i v a s , r e l a c i o n e s s o c i a l e s , e s t r u c t u r a p o l I t i c a , p i s o s eco1 6 g i c o s y c o n f o r m a c i 6 n n a t u r a l r e g i o n a l . Se p e r s i g u e n e s t u d i o s comp a r a t i v o s d e 1 0 s d e s e q u i l i b r i o s , d e s i g u a l d a d e s , d e s a r r o l l o , admin i s t r a c i 6 n y u t i l i z a c i 6 n d e 10s r e c u r s o s n a t u r a l e s e n l a s d i v e r s a s
regiones detectadas.
La c u e s t i 6 n u r b a n a . En Q u i t o , G u a y a q u i l y o t r a s c i u d a d e s s e e s t u d i a n 10s fen6menos d e c o n c e n t r a c i 6 n y c e n t r a l i z a c i b d e l a r i q u e z a
s o c i a l , que 1 0 s c o n v i e r t e e n c e n t r o s a r t i c u l a d o r e s d e 1 0 s c i r c u i t o s
i n c e r n o s d e a c u m u l a c i 6 n y d e u r b a n i z a c i 6 n . Se t r a b a j a n 10s p r o c e s o s
s o c i a l e s , s e g r e g a c i 6 n u r b a n a y residential, c a u s a y p r o b l e m a s gener a d o s p o r e l c r e c i m i e n t o u r b a n o t a l e s como: e s p e c u l a c i 6 n d e t i e r r a s
y v i v i e n d a s , d o t a c i 6 n de i n f r a e s t r u c t u r a y s e r v i c i o s , t r a n s p o r t e ,
a d m i n i s t r a c i 6 n y e l h i b i t a t p o p u l a r u r b a n o . Se i n v e s t i g a e l p a p e l
desempefiado p o r e l s e c t o r i n r n o b i l i a r i o en 1 0 s p r o c e s o s d e e x p a n s i 6 n
y c r e c i m i e n t o d e l a s u r b e s , l a s i m p l i c d c i o n e s econ6micas y s o c i a l e s
d e l a s p o l i t i c a s de v i v i e n d a r e s p e c t o a 1 0 s s e c t o r e s p o p u l a r e s y
l a s a c c i o n e s y 1Cmites d e l a a d m i n i s t r a c i 6 n m u n i c i p a l .
Movimientos s o c i a l e s . Se i n d a g a n l a s l u c h a s p o r e l m e j o r a m i e n t o d e
l a s c o n d i c i o n e s de v i d a , e s t a b i l i d a d l a b o r a l , s e g u r i d a d , t i e r r a ,
v i v i e n d a , equipamiento, s e r v i c i o s y d i s m i n u c i h d e l a jornada de
t r a b a j o . Los p a r o s c i v i c o s p r o v i n c i a l e s s o n i n v e s t i g a d o s como p a r t e
de l a s r n C l t i p l e s f o r m a s d e o r g a n i z a c i 6 n y l u c h a d e 10s s e c t o r e s
s o c i a l e s d e l a s c i u d a d e s y r e g i o n e s . Se e n t i e n d e a s u s u r g i m i e n t o
como un e l e m e n t 0 c e n t r a l d e l d e s a r r o l l o d e l p a i s . Su c a r z c t e r o r g a nizado o espontZneo ha s i d o t r a t a d o a t r a v 6 s de d i f e r e n t e s t i p o l o gCas d e c o m p o r t a m i e n t o s d e l a s o r g a n i z a c i o n e s p o p u l a r e s .
P o b l a c i 6 n . Se e s t u d i a n 1 0 s d i v e r s o s f a c t o r e s q u e i n f l u y e n en l a
d i s t r i b u c i h d e i a p o b l a c i 6 n e n t r e l a s d i f e r e n t e s r e g i o n e s . Tambign
s e t r a b a j a l a m i g r a c i 6 n i n t e r n a , c o n d i c i o n a d a p o r o r g a n i z a c i 6 n econ6mica d e l e s p a c i o y l a c o n c e n t r a c i 6 n d e l a p o b l a c i 6 n .
H z b i t a t , a r q u i t e c t u r a y t e c n o l o g f a . Se r e a l i z a n i n v e s t i g a c i o n e s
s o b r e d i s e s o , aprovechamiento de m a t e r i a l e s , r e c u r s o s y t g c n i c a s
c o n s t r u c t i v a s l o c a l e s que conduzcan a 1 m e j o r a m i e n t o d e l h z b i c a t ,
dad0 s u p r o g r e s i v o d e t e r i o r o r e i a t i v o . Tambign s e t r a b a j a en t g c n i c a s s o c i o - h a b l t a c i o n a l e s p a r a d e t e c t a r n e c e s i d a d e s , mecanismo,
p r Z c t i c a s , h i b i t o s , c o s t u m b r e s , v a l o r e s , attitudes y t e n d e n c i a s
s o c i a l e s que s e e x p r e s a n en l a a r q u i t e c t u r a y e l d i s e f i o . Se t i e n d e
a i d e n t i f i c a r formas y v a l o r e s c u l t u r a l e s p r o p i o s de l a r e a l i d a d .
VENEZUELA: CENTRO PARA LA GESTIOR TECNOLOGICA POPULAR
( CETEP)
E l C e n t r o p a r a l a G e s t i 6 n T e c n o l 6 g i c a P o p u l a r (CETEP) es una o r g a n i z a c i 6 n no g u b e r n a m e n t a l , s i n f i n e s d e l u c r o , que s u r g e p o r l a c o n s t a t a c i 6 n
d e q u e a n i v e l d e 10s s e c t o r e s p o p u l a r e s , en g e n e r a l , y d e l Fiovimiento
P o p u l a r , e n p a r t i c u l a r , s e han v e n i d o d e s a r r o l l a n d o un c o n j u n t o d e exper i e n c i a s e n e l camp0 d e l a p r o d u c c i 6 n ( a g r i c o l a , i n d u s t r i a l , a r t e s a n a l ,
e t c ) y 1 0 s s e r v i c i o s ( s a l u d , a g u a , e n e r g f a , e t c ) e n l a s c u a l e s 10 t e c n o 1 6 g i c o e s un f a c t o r s i g n i f i c a t i v o p a r a s u c o n s o l i d a c i 6 n .
En t a l s e n t i d o , CETE? n a c e m o t i v a d o p o r e l i n t e r 6 s d e a p o y a r y f a c ~ l i t a r
p r o c e s o s d e bilsqueda, t r a n s f e r e n c i a y a p l i c a c i 6 n d e t e c n o l o g Z a s a c o r d e s
con 1 0 s i n t e r e s e s y n e c e s i d a d e s d e 1 0 s s e c t o r e s p o p u l a r e s .
Orientaciones y principios
CETEP c o n c i b e l a t e c n o l o g f a como e l c o n j u n t o d e c o n o c i m i e n t o s o r g a n i z a dos d e d i v e r s a I n d o l e ( c i e n t i f i c o s , e m p ? r i c o s , i n t u i t i v o s , e t c ) emplead o s p a r a l a p r o d u c c i 6 n d e b i e n e s y s e r v i c i o s . En t a l s e n t i d o l a t e c n o 10g:a
e s t 5 mis v i n c u l a d a con e l "C6mo Hacer" y p o r e l l 0 s e l a c o n c i b e
como un medio o i n s t r u m e n t o . Como t o d o i n s t r u m e n t o , r e s p o n d e a l a s neces i d a d e s e i n t e r e s e s d e l c o n t e x t 0 s o c i a l donde s e g e n e r a .
De a l l 1 que CETEP f o m e n t a r z y promover5 e l u s 0 d e a q u e l l a s t e c n o l o g f a s
que r e s p o n d e n m5s d i r e c t a m e n t e a l a s n e c e s i d a d e s e i n t e r e s e s d e 1 0 s s e c c o r e s p o p u l a r e s r e l a c i o n a d o s con l a m e j o r a d e s u c a l i d a d d e v i d a , una
mayor autonomra y a u t o g e s t i 6 n ( n o a i s l a m i e n t o ) y una mayor c a p a c i d a d de
decisi6n.
Enmarcado y c o n d i c i o n a d o p o r e s t a s f i n a l i d a d e s , CETEP p r i v i l e g i a r 5 aquel l a s Tecnologias Apropiadas, Intermedias, A l t e r n a t i v a s , e t c , consider a n d o q u e p o r s u c a r 5 c t e r y n a t u r a l e z a e s t 5 n mZs a1 a l c a n c e y dominio d e
1 0 s s e c t o r e s p o p u l a r e s y que m e j o r p o d r f a n r e s p o n d e r , acompacada d e proc e s o s o r g a r ~ i z a t i v o sy e d u c a t i v o s , a l a s n e c e s i d a d e s e i n t e r e s e s d e d i chos s e c t o r e s .
CETEP s e conforma como un c e n t r o cuya f u n c i 6 n e s l a G e s t i 6 n T e c n o l 6 g i c a
P o p u l a r , e n t e n d i c n d o l a como e l c o n j u n t o d e a c t i v i d a d e s r e l a c i o n a d a s con
l a i d e n t i f i c a c i 6 n d e n e c e s i d a d e s y o p o r t u n i d a d e s de n a t u r a l e z a t e c n o l 6 g i c a , e l d i s e s o de p r o c e s o s y e s t r a t e g i a s , l a a d m i n i s t r a c i 6 n de r e c u r s o s
y l a e v a l u a c i 6 n de r e s u l t a d o s , t o d o e l l 0 a p l i c a b l e a l a m e j o r g e n e r a c i 6 n
( c r e a c i G n , adaptaci611, a s i m i l a c i 6 n ) , t r a n s f e r e n c i a y a p l i c a c i 6 n d e l a
v a r i a b l e t e c n o l 6 g i c a e n comunidades, o r g a n i z a c i o n e s p o p u l a r e s y p e q u e s a s
unidades de producci6n.
D e n t r o d e e s t e c o n j u n t o d e o r i e n t a c i o n e s y p r e m i s a s , CETEP t i e n e como
nisi611 c o n t r i b u i r e n l a bilsqueda, t r a n s f e r e n c i a y a p l i c a c i 6 n d e l a t e c ~ . o l o g f a en c o m ~ n i d ~ d e so,r g a n i z d c i o n e s p o p u l a r e s y pequeEas u n i d a d e s d e
p r o d u c c i 6 n a F i n de m e j o r a r l a c a l i d a d d e v l d a , e j e r c e r una mayor a u t o -
nomia y d e s a r r o l l a r una mayor c a p a c i d a d d e d e c i s i 6 n e n b u s c a d e una soc i e d a d j u s t a y d e un horabre nuevo.
Programas y s e r v i c i o s
E s t u d i o s : Comprende e l c o n j u n t o d e a c t i v i d a d e s t a l e s como d i a g r l 6 s t i c o s ,
a n Z l i s i s , e v a l u a c i o n e s , i n v e s t i g a c i o n e s , e s t u d i o s , e t c , que p e r m i t a n
conocer l a s n e c e s i d a d e s y o p o r t u n i d a d e s d e n a t u r a l e z a t e c n 0 1 6 g i c a ~ d i s e c a r p o l l t i c a s y p r o g r a m s , comprender mas adecuadamente e l p a p e l e
i m p a c t 0 d e l a t e c n o l o g i a e n 1 0 s s e c t o r e s p o p u l a r e s , s i s t e m a t i z a r experiencias, etc.
I n f o r m a c i 6 n t e c n o l 6 g i c a : CETEP d e s a r r o l l a a c t i v i d a d e s r e l a c i o n a d a s con
l a bfisqueda, p r o c e s a m i e n t o , o r g a n i z a c i 6 n y d i f u s i 6 n d e i n f o m a c i 6 n t e c n o l 6 g i c a m e d i a n t e e l " S i s t e m a d e I n f o m a c i 6 n R e t e r e n c i a l " que a b a r c a
t e c n o l o g l a s , i n s t i t u c i o n e s , r e c u r s o s humanos, s e r v i c i o s , i n s u m o s , e t c ,
como s o p o r t e f u n d a m e n t a l d e l a G e s t i 6 n T e c n o l 6 g i c a .
A s e s o r z a : Abarca e l c o n j u n t o d e a c t i v i d a d e s y s e r v i c i o s d e apoyo que
p e r m i t a n una a d e c u a d a t r a n s f e r e n c i a d e t e c n o l o g l a y s u e f i c i e n t e a p l i c a c i 6 n t a l e s coma a n z l i s i s d e f a c t i b i l i d a d econ6mica, apoyo y c a p a c i t a c i 6 n
t G c n i c a , acompaCamiento y s e g u i m i e n t o d e e x p e r i e n c i a s , e s t u d i o s d e mercado, a d m i n i s t r a c i 6 n t e c n o l 6 g i c a , e t c .
F o m a c i 6 n : Comprende a c t i v i d a d e s d e r e f l e x i 6 n y e x p e r i e n c i a s de a p r e n d i z a j e , d e s a r r o l l a d a s j u n t o con o t r o s g r u p o s d e l S r e a , d e s t i n a d a s a gar a n t i z a r l a i n c o r p o r a c i 6 n c o n c i e n t e y c r i t i c a de l a v a r i a b l e t e c n o l 6 g i c a
e n 10s e s p a c i o s y p r o c e s o s donde a c t f i e CETEP, r e f l e x 1 6 n s o b r e modelos
alternatives d e r e l a c i o n e s s o c i a l e s y econ6micas y f o m a c i 6 n d e f a c i l i t a d o r e s p a r a l a GestiGn T e c n o l 6 g i c a P o p u l a r .
Beneficiarios y participantes
Comunidades - A g r u p a c i o n e s d e p e r s o n a s d e 10s s e c t o r e s p o p u l a r e s que
ocupan un t e r r i t o r i o p a r a v i v i r ( u r b a n i z a c i o n e s p o p u l a r e s , b a r r i o s , c a serlos, etc).
O r g a n i z a c i o n e s P o p u l a r e s - E n t e n d i d a s como g r u p o s donde p a r t i c i p a n p e r s o n a s d e 10s s e c t o r e s p o p u l a r e s con e l f i n d e d e s a r r o l l a r un t r a b a j o e n
comfin e n b u s c a d e c i e r t o s o b j e t i v o s ( a s o c i a c i o n e s d e v e c i n o s , c o m i t g s d e
salud, grupos c r i s t i a n o s , grupos juveniles, mujeres, e t c )
P e q u e c a s Unidades d e P r o d u c c i 6 n - A n i v e l a g r i c o l a , i n d u s t r i a l , a r t e s a n a l , e t c , t a l e s como c o o p e r a t i v a s , u n i o n e s c a m p e s i n a s , t a l l e r e s , f z b r i c a s , unidades i n d u s t r i a l e s , e t c .
I N D I A : CAMERA, CADRE OF M E D I A RESOURCES AND A C T I O N
Media p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n a r t i c u l a t i n g t h e i n t e r e s t s a n d o p i n i o n s
o f v a r i o u s s e c t i o n s o f any s o c i e t y . The I n d i a n s o c i e t y h a s n o t b e e n a n
e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s . During t h e r e c e n t p e r i o d we have s e e n a phenomenal
g r o w t h of v a r i o u s media-forms i n o u r c o u n t r y . T h i s h a s been p a r t i c u l a r l y
t r u e of t h e e l e c t r o n i c and p r i n t m e d i a . C o n s e q u e n t l y a l a r g e number o f
p e o p l e , l i t e r a t e and n o n - l i t e r a t e , a r e b e i n g exposed t o media. As a l l
t h e m a j o r forms of media s u c h a s TV, p r e s s , c i n e m a , e t c . a r e owned and
c o n t r o l l e d by t h e government and t h e c o u n t r y ' s e l i t e i t i s b u t n a t u r a l
f o r them t o e x p l o i t t h e s e media t o c r e a t e and r e i n f o r c e v i e w s , o p i n i o n s
and v a l u e s c o n d u c i v e t o t h e i r socio-economic and p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s .
A l l o t h e r opinions a r e e i t h e r d i s t o r t e d o r ignored. In s h o r t , i n today's
c o n t e x t t h e dominant media i n I n d i a s u b - s e r v e s t h e s o c i o - c u l t u r a l v a l u e s
and i n t e r e s t s o f t h e r u l i n g e l i t e a t t h e c o s t of t h e b a s i c n e e d s and
i n t e r e s t s of t h e masses i n g e n e r a l .
Along w i t h t h e growing i m p o r t a n c e of t h e dominant m e d i a , we a l s o n o t i c e
a n o t h e r phenomenon o c c u r r i n g more o r l e s s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . As a r e s p o n s e
t o t h e dominant m e d i a , d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s of p e o p l e and g r o u p s i n v o l v e d
i n s t r ~ g g l e sa r e i n c r e a s i n g l y r e a l i s i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l i m p o r t a n c e of b o t h
t h e t r a d i t i o n a l and modern media f o r t h e e x t e n s i o n and development o f
their struggles.
Some o f t h e s e s e c t i o n s and g r o u p s would c e r t a i n l y be i n a n a d v a n t a g e o u s
p o s i t i o n i f t h e v a r i o u s media t e c h n i q u e s and forms of communication c a n
b e u t i l i s e d i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e a r e a s . However, i t was n o t e d t h a t i f
s u c h a c t i v i t i e s were t o c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e s e t a s k s , much of t h e i r t i m e ,
o t t i e r w i s e needed f o r o r g a n i s i n g , would b e s p e n t i n p l a n n i n g media programmes. Hence i t was t h o u g h t t h a t t h e s u p p o r t of a team of p e o p l e comm i t t e d and e x p e r i e n c e d i n t h e f i e l d of media w i t h a c l e a r p e r s p e c t i v e
would b e t h e i d e a l a l t e r n a t i v e .
I t was i n t h i s c o n t e x t t h a t CAMERA (Cadre of Media R e s o u r c e s and A c t i o n )
came i n t o e x i s t e n c e i n 1982. S t a r t e d by a team of p e o p l e w i t h a common
background of h a v i n g been i n v o l v e d , d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , i n p e o p l e ' s
s t r u g g l e s , t h e t h r u s t o f CAMEM h a s b e e n i n two a r e a s . F i r s t l y , t o monit o r t h e dominant media w i t h a view t o a n a l y s e and e x p o s e i t s i n h e r e n t
s o c i a l , economic and c u l t u r a l b i a s e s a n d , s e c o n d l y , t o p r o d u c e a u d i o
v i s u a l s , v i d e o f i l m s e t c . , on i s s u e s of s o c i a l r e l e v a n c e . I n b o t h t h e s e
r e s p e c t s CAMERA'S o b j e c t i v e i s t o s u p p o r t t h e media n e e d s of t h e p e o p l e
and g r o u p s i n v o l v e d i n s t r u g g l e s .
Programmes
S i n c e i t s i n c e p t i o n , CAMEM h a s i n i t i a t e d a number of programmes cons i s t i n g of a u d i o v i s u a l s , v i d e o f i l m s , p u b l i c a t i o n s and photodocumentat i o n , The AVs were on themes s u c h a s t h e S o c i a l Power R e l a t i o n s h i p s ,
O r i g i n and H i s t o r y of May Day, P r o j e c t - a f f e c t e d P e o p l e , C o n s t r u c t i o n
Workers, F i v e - S t a r Tourism e t c . T h r e e i s h u e s of o u r p u b l i c a t i o n c a l l e d
Media News i n P e r s p e c t i v e h i g h l i g h t i n g t h e r o l e of TV i n g e n e r a l , a cont e n t a n a l y s i s of Bombay D o o r d a r s h a n ' s programme f o r f a r m e r s and w o r k e r s
and t h e r o l e of t h e p r e s s i n t h e Bhopal Gas Tragedy were b r o u g h t o u t .
Our n e w s l e t t e r i s c a l l e d The CAiiERA. We have b e e n m o n i t o r i n g t h e news
and v i e w s a p p e a r i n g i n t h e dominant media e s p e c i a l l y t h e p r i n t m e d i a ,
a n d documenting s l i d e s , p h o t o g r a p h s and p i c t u r e s r e f l e c t i n g t h e s o c i o economic c o n d i t i o n s of p e o p l e and t h e i r s t r u g g l e s . I t h a s a l s o b e e n i m p a r t i n g i n f o r m a l l y s t r u c t u r e d t r a i n i n g i n t h e f i e l d of AV and v i d e o p r o d u c t i o n t o i t s own t e a n members, s t u d e n t s of s o c i a l work i n s t i t u t i o n s
and o t h e r a c t i v i s t s .
The r e s p o n s e t o CAiiERA's programmes h a s been v e r y p o s i t i v e . S e c t i o n s of
p e o p l e and g r o u p s i n v o l v e d i n s t r u g g l e , b o t h i n r u r a l and u r b a n a r e a s ,
have f r e q u e n t l y u t i l i s e d i t s A V s , v i d e o f i l m s and p u b l i c a t i o n s i n t h e i r
programmes. S i m i l a r l y a c t i v i s t g r o u p s and i n d i v i d u a l s h a v e a l s o u t i l i s e d
CAMERA'S p r o f e s s i o n a l s e r v i c e s i n s c r e e n i n g AVs produced by CAMEM and
making AVsIvideo f i l m s f o r t h e i r programmes.
INDIA: PEOPLES ASSOCIATION FOR HIMALAYA AREA RESEARCH
(PAHAR)
Dear F r i e n d ,
PAHAR i s a g r o u p of s o c i a l - n a t u r a l s c i e n t i s t s , a c t i v i s t s , environment a l i s t , l i t t e r a t e u r s , j o u r n a l i s t s , a r t i s t s and m o u n t a i n e e r s d e v o t e d t o
t h e s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y of Himalayan s o c i e t y , c u l t u r e , h i s t o r y and e n v i r o n ment. I t i s c o l l e c t i v e and h o n o r a r y e n t e r p r i s e made p o s s i b l e by t h e r e s e a r c h , h a r d work a n d money of h u n d r e d s of f r i e n d s and m o u n t a i n l o v e r s
of I n d i a . PAHAR i s a l s o t h e o f f s p r i n g o f d i f f e r e n t movements - s p e c i a l l y
of Uttarakhand.
Chipko
-
We do p u b l i s h a n n u a l PAHAR (Mountain) c o v e r i n g a l l t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f man
and n a t u r e i n Himalaya, s m a l l b o o k l e t s / p o s t e r s d e v o t e d t o t h e s t u d y of
m a j o r p r o b l e m s o f t h e Himalayan r e g i o n s . We a l s o o r g a n i s e t r e k s f o r t h e
s t u d y of d i s t a n t p e o p l e and r e g i o n s o f Himalaya. We h a v e a r r a n g e d and
o r g a n i s e d s l i d e shows, s e m i n a r s , d i s c u s s i o n s on d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s of
Himalaya s i n c e 1983. We h a v e p u b l i s h e d f i v e b o o k l e t s on e n v i r o n m e n t and
s o c i a l movements i n Himalaya, and two s e p a r a t e b o o k l e t s on e n v i r o n m e n t
and t r i b e s o f c e n t r a l Himalaya. We o r g a n i s e d t h e Askots-Arakote march
1984, Nandi kund march '85, s t u d y t r e k a l o n g K a l i - K u t i a n d D h a u l i r i v e r s
i n ' 8 6 and a l o n g G o r i g a n g a r i v e r i n ' 8 7 , s u r v e y e d and s t u d i e d more t h a n
l 0 0 0 v i l l a g e s of c e n t r a l Himalaya. The d e t a i l e d r e p o r t i s u n d e r p r e p a r a tion.
Environment f o r u s i s n e i t h e r f a s h i o n n o r i s o l a t e d from o t h e r a s p e c t s of
t h e s o c i e t y . We b e l i e v e i n s c i e n t i f i c e n q u i r y a n d p e o p l e s a c t i o n . We
want C O s t r e n g t h e n c o n s c i o u s n e s s r e g a r d i n g t h e y o u n g e s t m o u n t a i n s y s t e m
of t h e w o r l d and t h e p e o p l e l i v i n g h e r e .
Any p e r s o n who i s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e w e l l - b e i n g of Himalaya and t h e peop l e may become t h e member o f P m R a n d c a n w r i t e f o r f u r t h e r and det a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n . Founder membership i n I n d i a i s Rs l 0 0 0 and o u t s i d e
I n d i a i s $ 500. Annual membership i s Rs 40 i n I n d i a and $ 50 o u t s i d e
I n d i a . The members w i l l g e t a l l t h e PAHAR p u b l i c a t i o n s .
FRANCE: ALDEA
En France et en Europe de plus en plus de gens sont desireux de creer
des entreprises oCi 1'6panouissement individuel et collectif prime sur le
seul imperatif du profit. De plus en plus de personnes interpellees par
la crise et la mont6e des inegalites veulent redonner un sens 2 l'economie en la recentrant sur 1'Stre humain.
L'ALDEA, Agence de Liaison pour Ie Developpement d'une Economie Alternative, a 6te creee en 1981 pour que se rencontrent ces entrepreneurs et
ces investisseurs differents. Son action et son projet se situent sur
les trois plans suivants:
L'n reseau de solidarite pour de nouveaux comportements 6conomiques
L'ALDEA, association loi 1901, s'adresse 2 tous ceux qui s'interessent
et travaillent d de nouvelles pratiques economiques. Independante de
toute institution, elle est soutenue par ses membres actifs (individus
ou collectivit6s) et est ouverte 5 un large partenariat.
un journal entretient un lien entre les abonnes et focalise l'actualite
.
des seminaires confrontent experts et acteurs du terrain sur des
)
sujets cruciaux (epargne, travail, utilite sociale
.
des interventions font appel aux specialistes du reseau sur des
themes prioritaires et repondent 2 la demande de collectivit~s
locales ou nationales
...
un annuaire des demarches Gconomiques alternatives repond au besoin
de promotion et de communication entre les differents acteurs de
l'economie alternative
Des outils et des structures pour favoriser ces nouveaux comportements
A la demande des entreprises alternatives, 1'ALDEA s'est d'abord attachee .2 mettre en place des outils financiers. I1 s'agit en priorite de
reunir les fonds propres necessaires au dgmarrage de ces entreprises
tout en redormant un r5le actif aux epargnants.
.
.
Les Cigales (Clubs dlInvestisseurs pour une Gestion Alternative et
20 personnes qui desirent
Locale de 1'Epargne) reunissent de 5
s'investir dans des projets alternatifs concrets, chacun en fonction de ses ressources. Creees d partir de 1983, les Cigales se
sont regroupees en Federation. En 87, plus de 100 Cigales et autant
d'entreprises avaient vu Ie jour.
Garrigue (Societe Cooperative de Capital-risque,
capital variable, fondee en 1985). Partenaire financier, cette cooperative, la
premiere du genre, complete l'action des Cigales sur le plan national et intervient dans la creation et Ie d6veloppement des entreprises alternatives.
Lancer des recherches et des action concretes
Tout en restant attentive aux innovations micro~conomiques, 1'ALDEA propose une recherche plus globale sur la place du travail, du salariat, du
patronage, des ressources etc... en vue d'aider 2 1'6mergence de rapports 6conomiques iond6s sur l'egalit6, l'autonomie et la solidarite.
Examples d'6tudes
...
.
~'economiealternative,
une r6ponse 2 la crise?
(pour Ie Commissariat au
Plan, 1984)
. Le financement des entreprises intermediaires (avec
1'IDES pour la Caisse des
d6pSts et consignations, 1984)
. Circuits cours de mobilisation d'epargne locale (pour
la Delegation interministerielle 5 1'6conomie socidle,
1985)
. Partage du travail, pluriactivit6, et d6veloppement
local (pour la DATAR, 1986)
. D6veloppemen.t local et mutation des societes industrielles (avec EPSILON, pour Ie ministsre de la Recherche, 1987)
Ces recherches sont rgalisees soit
directement par llALDEA, soit Ie plus
souvent avec l'autres organismes
) avec Ie soutien de
(IDES, CRIDA
partenaires institutionnels francais
et europeens. Elles visent 2 distinguer les possibilit6s d'6closion
de nouvelles pratiques 6conomiques et
les conditions de leur d6veloppement
dans l'environnement 6conomique actuel de comp6tition et d'exclusion.
...
Ces nouvelles pratiques 6conomiques
sont fondees sur:
. la remise en cause des modsles productivistes dfaccumulation, de consommation et dq6pargne,
. des rapports de travail qui allient
responsabilit6 et solidarite, .
. l'offre de produits ou de services
socialement utiles,
.
la mise en oeuvre de technologies
appropri6es, pr6servant les ressources et l'environnement naturels,
. Ie d6veloppement local
.
Pilotage de developpement
6conomique interpartenarial du
Val Fourr6 (pour la municipalit6
de Mantes la Jolie (1985-86)
.
Aide 5 la creation d'entreprises par des jeunes (pour la
mission locale de Louhans, 1986).
( 2 8 Bd de Sebastopol, 75004 P a r i s , F r a n c e ) .
MAROC: UNE NOUVELLE ASSOCIATION DES DROITS Dâ L'HOMME
La necessite imperieuse de renforcer l'action interieure en faveur des
droits de l'homme au Maroc s'impose chaque jour davantage. Ce dessein ne
date pas d'aujourd'hui. I1 puise ses racines dans les traditions de la
soci&te marocaine, dans son patrimoine nusulman et dans la lutte pour
l'independance qui a illustr6 Ie lien profond entre la liberation de la
patrie et la promotion des droits des citoyens et de leurs libertes individuelles et collectives.
Cette lutte ininterrompue a abouti 5 la consecration des principes fondamentaux des Droits de l'homne dans la Charte Royale de 1958, puis dans
la Loi Fondamentale du Royaume promulguee en 1961 et enfin dans les constitutions successives, principes qui one inspire la legislation lib&r a l e des premieres annees de l'independance.
Les droits de l'homme et Ie combat pour la democratie et Ie developpement
L'experience tant nationale qu'internationale a confirm6 l'etroite relation entre la lutte pour les Droits de l'homme et la lutte pour la democratie politique et le progres de la civilisation.
De meme, une politique de d6veloppement economique ne saurait connaitre
le succgs qu'en s'appuyant sur la conscience des masses populaires, leur
participation et leur initiative. Panni les facteurs extra-6conomiques
qui jouent un role decisif dans Ie processus du developpement figurent
notament Ie respect des Droits de l'homme et la justice sociale, fondements d'une stabilite politique reelle. La sauvegarde des Droits de
l'home est une obligation incombant non seulement 5 llEtat, mais &galement aux citoyens.
-
L'etat actuel des Droits de l'homme au Maroc.
Le Maroc dispose d'un
systeme juridique s'articulant sur plusieurs acquis en matigre de Droit
de l'homme, 2 savoir: La Constitution, les conventions internationales
ratifiees et certains textes 16gislatifs ayant trait aux libertes individuelles et publiques.
Des atteintes ont et6 portees 2 ces acquis 5 deux niveaux:
Au niveau legislatif, par des modifications apportees successivement au Code de procedure penale et au Code des libertes publique
d'une part, et par la resurrection de certains textes repressifs
datant de 1'6re coloniale.
Au niveau pratique, c o m e resultat d'une part de l'esprit autoritaire, reposant sur la violation et la marginalisation de la Loi et
se manifestant dans de nombreux secteurs et notamment dans les campagnes, d'autre part une faible conscience des Droits de l'homme.
Le mouvement national a apporte une large contribution au combat
pour les Droits de I'honmne. Cette contribution toutefois a eu tendance
se focaliser, en raison du contexte historique, sur les
aspects politiques, omettant la dimension sociale et culturelle. Le
bilan de cette situation est caracteris6 par une grande faiblesse
sur Ie front de la defense des Droits de l'homme, ce qui justifie
et legitime la creation d'une nouvelle association.
Buts de l'association. - L'Association se fixe pour objectif d'apporter
une contribution efficace dans les principaux domaines cl-aprgs, en
oeuvrant en faveur de:
la diffusion et l'approfondissement de la prise de conscience des
Droits d e l'homme individuels et collectifs dans les domaines social, culturel, 6conomique et politique;
.
l'evolution de la legislation et 1'abrogation des dispositions 16gislatives et reglementaires contraires aux libertes individuelles
et publiques ainsi que des textes incompatibles avec les conventions internationales afin d'assurer une reelle garantie de l'exercice de ces droits et libertes;
Ie renforcement de l'autorite judiciaire et la consolidation de son
independance;
.
.
.
.
la ratification des conventions internationales interessant les
Droits de l'homme;
le respect de la primaute du Droit et la consolidation de 1'Etat de
droit;
la defense des victimes des violations des Droits de l'homme;
Ie renforcement des liens de solidarite nationale, arabe et internationale dans le domaine des Droits de l'homme.
Moyens d'action. - Les moyens d'action sont ceux gsneralement reconnus
aux associations par la loi et en particulier:
.
.
constitution d'une documentation - textes legislatifs, rgglements,
decisions de justice, conventions, actes et recommendations internationales;
organisation de colloques, seminaires, conferences, publication de
toute documentation, circulaires, periodiques et rapports sur les
Droits de l'homme et la garantie de leur exercice;
.
contribution
l'homme;
.
cooperation et coordination avec les associations interessees par
les Droits de l'homme ainsi qu'avec les media;
.
defense et assistance, par les moyens legaux, des victimes des violations des Droits de l'honme;
.
renforcement des relations avec les organisations, institutions et
organismes internationaux oeuvrant dans Ie domaine des Droits de
l'homme et ce, par l'adhesion, la cooperation ou la coordination.
a
1161aboration d'une Charts Nationale des Droits de
Nature de l'association. - L'association se doit de grouper tous ceux
qui sont determines i participer 2 l'action en faveur des Droits de
l'homme. Elle doit egalement garantir une large representativite de
toutes les tendances intellectuelles, politiques. et syndicates engagzes
en faveur des Droits de l'homme. Pour realiser ses objectifs, l'association doit sauvegarder son autonomie par rapport aux pouvoirs publics, et
&carter tout sectarisme au profit d'une tendance politique ou ideologique determinee.
( C o n t a c t : Prof. Mahdi Elmandjra, BP 153, Rabat, Maroc).
POLAND : STRONG ANTI -NUCLEAR MOVEMENT EMERGING
T h r e e p e o p l e were a r r e s t e d on 18 J u n e a f t e r s t a g i n g an a n t i - n u c l e a r p r o t e s t a t a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e f a i r i n t h e c i t y of Poznan, P o l a n d . The
t h r e e were members of a p a c i f i s t e n v i r o n m e n t a l group t h a t o p p o s e s t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n of n u c l e a r power p l a n t s . Thousands of v i s i t o r s t o t h e f a i r
w i t n e s s e d a s two men and one woman opened b a n n e r s and p a s s e d o u t l e a f l e t s . One b a n n e r r e a d , "Stop Zarnowiec and Klempicz, we d o n ' t want a
C h e r n o b y l . " Zarnowiec and Klempicz a r e two n u c l e a r power s t a t i o n s b e i n g
c o n s t r u c t e d by t h e government; t h e y a r e e x p e c t e d t o b e g i n o p e r a t i o n i n
t h e 1990s.
T h e r e a r e a t p r e s e n t no o p e r a t i n g commercial n u c l e a r p l a n t i n P o l a n d ,
b u t t h e P o l i s h n u c l e a r program i s q u i t e a m b i t i o u s . The two p l a n t s now
u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e b o t h VVER r e a c t o r s (1760 MW and 4000 W ) .
Zarnowiec is l o c a t e d on t h e B a l t i c s e a c o a s t , 40 km from Gdansk, and
Klempicz i s 60 km n o r t h w e s t of Poznan. O t h e r r e a c t o r s a r e a l s o p l a n n e d .
A l r e a d y a s t r o n g a n t i - n u c l e a r movement e x i s t s i n t h e a r e a o f Gdansk, and
r e s i s t a n c e i s emerging i n Poznan. A c t i v i t i e s o p p o s i n g n u c l e a r d e v e l o p ment h a v e a l s o t a k e n p l a c e e l s e w h e r e . The P o l i s h o r g a n i z a t i o n Freedom
and P e a c e r e c e n t l y waged a s u c c e s s f u l campaign a g a i n s t a p l a n t o u s e
World War I1 b u n k e r s a t M i e d z y r z e c z e f o r a n u c l e a r w a s t e dump. The proposed dump was opposed by l o c a l r e s i d e n t s and t h e C i t y C o u n c i l a s w e l l .
The P o l i s h E c o l o g i c a l Club (PKE) i n Krakow h a s a l s o b e e n s u c c e s s f u l i n
i t s campaign a g a i n s t a p l a n t o b u i l d a n u c l e a r power p l a n t n e a r t h e
c i t y . On t h e s e c o n d a n n i v e r s a r y of C h e r n o b y l , PKE o r g a n i z e d a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l "Atom-forum",
a p u b l i c d e b a t e on n u c l e a r e n e r g y . The forum
b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e n u c l e a r l o b b y , accompanied by
o f f i c i a l s from a l l s t a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e P o l i s h n u c l e a r
e n e r g y program t o g e t h e r w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s from P o l i s h a n t i - n u c l e a r
g r o u p s and s c i e n t i s t s opposed t o development of n u c l e a r e n e r g y i n
P o l a n d , a s w e l l a s a c t i v i s t s from b o t h e a s t e r n and w e s t e r n Europe. The
d e b a t e was d e s c r i b e d a s "sometimes v e r y tough", p r o v i d i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s
and l i s t e n e r s ( t h e r e w e r e a b o u t 200 p e o p l e ) w i t h "a l o t of u n i q u e i n f o r m a t i o n and a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t n u c l e a r e n e r g y " .
The forum was p r e c e d e d by s t r e e t - t h e a t e r - a c t i o n - p r o v o c a t i o n
o r g a n i z e d by
t h e Ecology and P e a c e ( E k o l o g i a i P o k o j ) b r a n c h of t h e PKE i n Krakow t o
p r o t e s t t h e p r o p o s e d n u c l e a r h e a t i n g p l a n t f o r Krakow. R e c o g n i z i n g t h a t
t h e b u i l d i n g of s u c h a h e a t i n g p l a n t i n t h e m i d d l e of one of t h e most
p o l l u t e d towns i n Europe was, a s t h e group d e s c r i b e d i t , a " r a p e " of
r e a s o n , g o i n g a g a i n s t a l l common s e n s e , t h e y d e c i d e d t o r e s p o n d w i t h
i r o n y . Thus t h e i r a c t i o n t o o k t h e form of a e u p h o r i c c e l e b r a t i o n of t h e
i d e a of t h e h e a t i n g p l a n t . They i n c l u d e d i n t h e i r " c e l e b r a t i o n " demands
f o r f u r t h e r development of a n u c l e a r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n t h e town, c a l l i n g
f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a n u c l e a r w a s t e d i s p o s a l f a c i l i t y on t h e c e n t r a l
s q u a r e of Krakow, t h e r i g h t of a l l c i t i z e n s t o i n s t a l l n u c l e a r f a c i i i t i e s s u c h a s d o m e s t i c h e a t e r s and k i t c h e n s t o v e s i n t h e i r own homes,
and t h e u s e o f p l u t o n i u m w a s t e s from t h e p l a n t f o r p r o d u c t i o n of t o y s
f o r t h e b o y s of t h e new g e n e r a t i o n - m i n i a t o m i c bombs t o be e x p l o d e d
when t h e k i d s f e e l b o r e d .
The plan for a nuclear heating plant at Krakow has since been dropped,
but PKE has gone on to organize a number of actions and public discussions opposing nuclear energy, such as the first Easter March in Poland,
'Klempicz 88", which took place from 31 March to 1 April. Klempicz was
chosen as a focus for the march as construction there has only just begun and the location is being strongly criticized by a number of independent scientists as well as many ecological organizations. Arguments
against its construction include the fact that it will be too expensive
for the country, and that, in the case of a severe accident, it would be
impossible to evacuate the nearby town of Poznan. Opposition also underlines that the plant will consume an enormous amount of water and cause
desertification of a large part of the region. This means the death of
the big forests in the area and the destruction of one of the best agricultural regions in Poland.
The Easter March made a point of emphasizing the connections between
nuclear power and nuclear weapons. It drew approximately 30 participants. despite strong counter-measures by the authorities: dozens of
local activists had been interrogated a few days before the march and
forced to sign declarations that they would not take part in it. There
was mass police attendance as the demonstrators marched with banners
some 50 km through several towns and villages. The reaction of the local
population was nevertheless supportive. Demonstrators were offered food
and accomodations for the night. New contacts were established and organizers expect it to stimulate an anti-nuclear network around Klempicz.
(Contact: Grzegorz Peszko, fiologia i Pokoj, c/o Polish Ecological Club,
Krakow, Zynek Gt. 27, PaZac Pod Baranmi, Poland).
Source: WISE News Communiqui 296 (FOB 5627, 1007 A? Amsterdam, Setheron the basis of Polish Ecological Club; TT (Swedish News Service); Across Frontiers, Vol 4, N02-3, spring-summer 1988.
ANNOUNCEMENTS
*
The
Institute
*
for
*
ANNONCES
t h e Study
of
ANUNCIOS
Genocide
(John Jay C o l l e g e o f
Criminal
Justice,
Rm
3114 S, 444 W 5 6 t h S t r , New York, NY 10019, USA) i s o r g a n i s i n g on 2 2 4 23 May 1989 a conf e r e n c e on "How can we d e t e c t and d e t e r g e n o c i d e and mass p o l i t i c a l k i l l i n g s ? " P a r t i c i pants w i l l
i n c l u d e s t a f f and o f f i c e r s
t i o n s c o n c e r n e d w i t h a i d , development,
o f international
human r i q h t s ,
organizations;
refugees,
v o l u n t a r y associa-
and s u r v i v a l o f endangered
p e o p l e s ; i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s ' r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s ; academics and o t h e r c o n c e r n e d p e o p l e . P a r t i c i p a n t s w i l l choose workshops t o f o c u s on s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s : c o l o n i z a t i o n and d e v e l o p ment, s t a t e c o n f l i c t and c r i m e s , e t h n i c c o n f l i c t , government-imposed famine, r e l i g i o u s
p e r s e c u t i o n and g e n o c i d e . and p r o b l e m s stemming from g e n o c i d e - r e f u g e e f l o w s ,
t o v i c t i m s , r e s e t t l e m e n t and r e s t o r a t i o n o f o r d e r i n p o s t - g e n o c i d a l s o c i e t i e s .
reparations
SUISSE: LE CENTRE MARTIN LUTHER KING POUR LA NON-VIOLENCE
Fond6 e n 1968 5 l ' i n i t i a t i v e du Mouvement d e l a R e c o n c i l i a t i o n , I e
C e n t r e M a r t i n L u t h e r King s e voue 2 promouvoir l a n o n - v i o l e n c e e n S u i s s e
romande. A l ' o c c a s i o n d e son 20Gme a n n i v e r s a i r e , v o i c i b r i g v e m e n t p r e sentees ses principales activit6s.
Dans l e monde: Le CMLK p a r t i c i p e aux e f f o r t s d e s B r i g a d e s d e P a i x I n t e r n a t i o n a l e s ( F B I ) , n o t a m e n t en AmGrique c e n t r a l e . En 1 9 8 4 , une " b r i g a d e
s u i s s e d e p a i x " e s t p a r t i e au N i c a r a g u a . Le C e n t r e e n t r e t i e n t d ' e t r o i t e s
r e l a t i o n s a v e c d e s inouvements e t r a n g e r s comme 1 ' A s s o c i a t i o n p o u r l a P a i x
a u Pays Basque ( t o u r n 6 e d e c o n f e r e n c e s e n S u i s s e romande e n 1 9 8 7 ) ou
1'"End C o n s c r i p t i o n Campaign" en A f r i q u e du Sud (jeGne d e s o l i d a r i t ; l i e
2 Line campagne d e l e t t r e s , en 1 9 8 5 ) . I1 e s t membre du Bureau I n t e r n a t i o n a l de l a P a i x (PIB) e t d e 1 ' I n t e r n a t i o n a l e d e s R e s i s t a n t s 2. l a G u e r r e
(WRI)
.
En S u i s s e : L ' e s s e n t i e l d e s e f f o r t s du CMLJ p o r t e s u r l a S u i s s e . Et
notamment s u r l ' o b j e c t i o n d e c o n s c i e n c e : l e s o b j e c t e u r s c o n t i n u a n t
d ' e t r e e m p r i s o n n e s longuement, e n l ' a b s e n c e de t o u t s e r v i c e c i v i l , I e
CMLK p a r t i c i p e 2 t o u s l e s e f f o r t s , au n i v e a u n a t i o n a l , v i s a n t 5 a m e l i o r e r l e u r s i t u a t i o n . E t , individuellement, a i d e l e s o b j e c t e u r s 2 s e prep a r e r 2 a f f r o n t e r l a j u s t i c e l a i l i t a i r e , p u i s l a p r i s o n . Des d i z a i n e s d e
c o n s e i l l e r s b e n e v o l e s s o n t Ggalement f o r m e s p o u r r e l a y e r c e t t e i n f o r m a tion e t c e t t e aide.
Un a u t r e v o l e t e s s e n t i e l d e s a c t i v i t e s du C e n t r e e s t l a f o r m a t i o n 2
l ' a c t i o n n o n - v i o l e n t e . Chaque a n n e e , une d i z a i n e de s e s s i o n s i n i t i e n t
d e s p e r s o n n e s - v e n a n t du g r a n d p u b l i c ou d e g r o u p e s c o n s t i t u e s - 2 l a
g e s t i o n n o n - v i o l e n c e d e s c o n f l i t s , p a r exemple d a n s l ' e d u c a c i o n d e s enf a n t s , d a n s l e s r a p p o r t s f a m i l i a u x , ou d a n s l ' a c t i o n s o c i a l e .
-
I1 f a u d r a i t e g a l e m e n t p a r l e r d e s c o n f e r e n c e s o r g a n i s e e s
tournees de
J e a n G o s s , d e Jean-Marie M u l l e r ; d e l a p a r t i c i p a t i o n 2 l a d i f f u s i o n d e s
b a n a n e s n i c a r a g u a y e n n e s ; du s o u t i e n 2 d i v e r s r e f e r e n d u m s e t i n i t i a t i v e s
s ' o p p o s a n t a u m i l i t a r i s m e , 5 l ' e t a t p o l i c i e r , 5 l a d e g r a d a t i o n du s t a t u t
d e s r 6 f u g i 6 s en S u i s s e ; de l ' a t t e n t i o n soutenue p o r t e e 5 l a P r o t e c t i o n
c i v i l e , q u i c r o p s o u v e n t f o n c t i o n n e comme a l i b i c o n t r e t o u t e a c t i v i t e
pacifiste
...
C e n t r e d e d o c u m e n t a t i o n : Ce d e r n i e r v o l e t n ' e s t p a s l e moindre. En
e f f e t . l e CMLK r a s s e m b l e u n e d e s d o c u m e n t a t i o n s l e s p l u s complGtes e n
Europe f r a n c o p h o n e s u r l a n o n - v i o l e n c e , l a p a i x , l ' o b j e c t i o n d e conQuelscience e t leurs contraires: violences, guerres, militarisation
que 3500 l i v r e s e t b r o c h u r e s s o n t e n p r e t g r a t u i t ; en c o n s u l t a t i o n , on
t r o u v e d e s m i l l i e r s d e c o u p u r e s d e p r e s s e , p l u s de 160 d o s s i e r s t h e m a t i q u e s , l e s c o l l e c t i o n s d e p r 6 s d e 200 r e v u e s .
...
Le CMLK t r a v a i l l e a v e c d e s moyens r e l a t i v e m e n t r 6 d u i t s : 3 s e c r e t a i r e s
s a l a r i e s 5 temps p a r t i e l , une b i b l i o t h e c a i r e b6n6vole e t d e s d i z a i n e s d e
b e n 6 v o l e s . L ' a r g e n t p r o v i e n t e s s e n t i e l l e m e n t d e s dons d e s q u e l q u e 2 ' 5 0 0
membres, q u i r e s o l v e n t c i n q f o i s p a r a n K c o m e King, I e j o u r n a l du
Centre.
{Aveniis as Bethud3 5 6 , 1 0 1 2 Lausanne, Suisse)
PERU: ASOCIACION PERUANA DE ESTUDIOS E INVESTIGACION
PARA LA PAZ (APEP)
Ante l a n e c e s i d a d de promover e n n u e s t r o p a l s una c o r r i e n t e academica y
c i e n t i f i c a q u e i n v e s t i g u e l a p r o b l e m Z t i c a d e l a paz s e ha c o n s t i t u i d o l a
A s o c i a c i o n P e r u a n a d e E s t u d i o s e I n v e s t i g a c i o n p a r a l e Paz (APEP).
La APEP e s una A s o c i a c i S n academica y c i e n t i f i c a , no g u b e r n a m e n t a l y s i n
f i n e s d e l u c r o , d e s t i n a d a a promover l a i n v e s t i g a c i o n y r e f l e x i o n i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r i a s o b r e 10s o r l g e n e s , d e s a r r o l l o y c o n s e c u e n c i a s d e 1 0 s conf l i c t o s y l a v i o l e n c i a , t a n t o e n e l p i a n o i n t e r n o como i n t e r n a c i o n a l .
La APEP s e c o n s t i t u y e e n e
national d e I n v e s t i g a c i o n
Consejo Latinoamericano d e
s i o n d e Derechos Humanos y
l marco institutional d e l a A s o c i a c i o n I n t e r p a r l a Paz ( I P R A ) , s u section r e g i o n a l , e l
I n v e s t i g a c i 6 n p a r a l a Paz (CLAIP) y l a D i v i Paz d e l a UNESCO.
P a r a l a M E P , a 1 i g u a l que p a r a IPRA y CLAIP, l a Paz no e s c o n c e b i d a
Gnicamente como l a a u s e n c i a d e g u e r r a s i n 0 tambi6n d e t o d a forma d e v i o lencia personal o estructural.
Los e f e c t o s d e l a g u e r r a como 1 0 s d e l a " v i o l e n c i a e s t r u c t u r a l " s o n comp a r a b l e s : p r i v a n d e una v i d a somZticamente s a n a , p o r l a mutilation o l a
m u e r t e v i o l e n t a o l e n t a p o r malnutrition, f a l t a d e v i v i e n d a , d e r o p a ,
a t e n c i o n d e l a s a l u d y l a o t r a g r a v e mutilation l l a m a d a a n a l f a b e t i s m o
f u n c i o n a l , e x p r e s a d a e n l a i n c a p a c i d a d p a r a c o m u n i c a r s e con e l mundo d e l
s a b e r y con s u s s e m e j a n t e s . En p o c a s p a l a b r a s , e n 1 0 s p a l s e s p o b r e s l a
g u e r r a s e l l a m a m i s e r i a , ya que l a m i s e r i a mata y t a m b i e n 10 h a c e con e l
arma d e l a c a r e n c i a d e education. ( J o h a n G a l t u n g ) .
La A s o c i a c i o n promueve e l e s t u d i o , l a i n v e s t i g a c i o n y l a d i v u l g a c i o n d e
temas t a l e s como l a v i o l e n c i a , e l armamentismo, e l d e s a r m e , l a g u e r r a y
l a p a z , l a s o b e r a n i a , l a s r e l a c i o n e s i n t e r n a c i o n a l e s , l a s e g u r i d a d nac i o n a l y todos a q u e l l o s que r e s u l t e n r e l e v a n t e s p a r a e l d e s a r r o l l o de
e s t a joven c o r r i e n t e d e l a s c i e n c i a s s o c i a l e s , llamada C i e n c i a de l a
Paz
.
A 1 mismo tiempo, p r o c u r a i n t e r c a m b i o s y c o n v e n i o s con i n s t i t u c i o n e s a c a -
dgmicas d e n t r o y f u e r a d e l p a l s , p a r a e l l o g r o de s u s o b j e t i v o s . En p a r t i c u l a r , t r a b a j a con l a D i v i s i o n d e A s u n t o s d e l Desanne d e N a c i o n e s Unid a s , con l a D i v i s i o n d e Derechos Humanos y Paz d e l a UNESCO y con t o d o s
1 0 s o t r o s o r g a n i s m o s d e d i c a d o s a promover y d e s a r r o l l a r l a i n v e s t i g a c i h , l a d i f u s i o n y l a education p a r a l a Paz y n i v e l m u n d i a l .
'.a Secretaria e j e c u t i v a de la APEP as Laura HuhLengoitia, mienbra del
i7.msejo del IFUA
.
(Cab0 Lr'vttorra 6804, Pueblo Libre, Lima, P e r u ) .
CANDELA
m
CAVDELA i s a
n o n - p r o f i t making o r g a n i s a t i o n whose aim i s t o promote i n i t i a t i v e s t o t a c k l e t h e u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e of p o v e r t y i n T h i r d
World c o u n t r i e s t h r o u g h a c h i e v i n g more e q u a l forms of e x c h a n g e f o r t h o s e
b a d l y a f f e c t e d by t h e d e b t c r i s i s , s u c h as s m a l l f a n n e r s , a r t i s a n s and
s m a l l p r o d u c e r s . 1t aims t o s e e k a n a l t e r n a t i v e development s t r a t e g y
which combines i n t e r n a l development w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e t r a d i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r c o o p e r a t i v e s and i n d e p e n d e n t p r o d u c e r s of p r o d u c t s which have
n o t t r a d i t i o n a l l y been e x p o r t e d . T h i s a l t e r n a t i v e c h a r a c t e r a f f e c t s b o t h
t h e p r o d u c t s i t a i m s t o d e v e l o p , t h e mechanisms i t u s e s i n c a r r y i n g o u t
t h e p r o j e c t s and t h e dynamics a d o p t e d f o r i t s f u n c t i o n i n g .
CANDELA s t r e s s e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of f u r t h e r i n g South-South
s i d e e s t a b l i s h i n g South-North l i n k s .
t r a d e along-
The need f o r p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e
CANDELA b e l i e v e s i n t h e i m p o r t a n c e of p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d i n t h e
f i e l d by b o t h p e o p l e i n t h e S o u t h , A l t e r n a t i v e T r a d i n g O r g a n i s a t i o n s
(ATOs) a n d c i t i z e n s ' g r o u p s b o t h from t h e S o u t h and t h e N o r t h . CANDELA
t h e r e f o r e a c t i v e l y s e e k s l i n k s w i t h like-minded o r g a n i s a t i o n s t o exchange e x p e r i e n c e s which m i g h t l e a d t o t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f a l t e r n a t i v e
development models.
Formation
CANDELA was formed i n Managua, N i c a r a g u a , i n March 1988 by L a t i n Americ a n A l t e r n a t i v e T r a d i n g O r g a n i s a t i o n s (ATOs). I t c u r r e n t l y c o n s i s t s of
members from s e v e r a l L a t i n American c o u n t r i e s .
Each of t h e s e companies were and a r e members of t h e n e t w o r k s e t up by
Twin T r a d i n g i n t h e UK and h a v e n o t o n l y d e v e l o p e d t r a d e between thems e l v e s , e . g . s h a r k f i n s , rum and s a n d p a p e r , b u t have m a r k e t e d rum, l e a t h e r g o o d s , f u r n i t u r e , h a n d i c r a f t s , t e x t i l e s , and o t h e r p r o d u c t s t h r o u g h
Twin T r a d i n g L t d t o a l t e r n a t i v e o u t l e t s s u c h a s h e a l t h f o o d w h o l e s a l e r s
and T h i r d World c r a f t s h o p s i n t h e n e t w o r k a s w e l l a s c o n v e n t i o n a l buye r s and r e t a i l e r s .
T h e s e L a t i n American ATOs p r o v i d e o r f a c i l i t a t e i n f o r m a t i o n and a s s i s t a n c e ( b o t h t e c h n i c a l and m a t e r i a l ) t o t h e p r o d u c e r g r o u p n e t w o r k s i n
t h e i r respective c o u n t r i e s . I n order t o be a b l e t o carry out t h i s development r o l e , i n h e r e n t i n t h e c h a r a c t e r of a s o u t h e r n ATO, more e f f e c t i v e l y , development f u n d s a r e d e s p e r a t e l y needed which c a n n o t b e gene r a t e d through trade.
Why S o u t h e r n ATOs
The r o l e o r S o u t h e r n A I D s i s s e e n t o be i m p o r t a n t a s i t aims t o r e p l a c e
p a r t of t h e e x p l o i t a t i v e , t r a d i t i o n a l i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l c h a n n e l s of
c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n on which t h e c o o p e r a t i v e s and o t h e r i n d e p e n d e n t produc e r s depend. These ATOs have a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e t o p l a y i n p r o v i d i n g a
t r a d i n g l i n k f o r income g e n e r a t i n g p r o j e c t s .
It was therefore decided to form a South non-profit making organisation
which will serve as a network with branches in all participating countries. The role of the London office initially is the raising of funds
which will enable it to carry out immediate projects and provide finance
for the infrastructure needed to develop its aims.
Services
In order to achieve its aims CANDELA provides the following services to
its members and other organisations:
a.
Fundraising
To obtain funding from international organisations, citizens' groups and
the public at large to finance both projects of technology exchange and
production linked up with export. The projects are prepared on the initiative of the Southern ATOs and internal networks in Latin Anencan
countries.
b.
Information
Technological information which will facilitate the implementation
of new projects in the export of non-traditional products, or the broadening of existing ones. Special attention is given to the exchange of
appropriate technology used in Latin American countries. CANDELA aims to
work closely with ATOs in the North to obtain and to share information.
Organizational information which serves as a tool to consolidate
the organisation of producer groups which will allow the internal networks of producer groups in Latin America to expand. CANDELA aims to
keep close contact with citizens' groups to draw upon their rich experience through information exchange.
Trading information. The provision of information on existing market conditions for given products, in order to achieve more equal
trading relations. The commercial information will also enable the ATOs
to diversify their products, thereby expanding the internal networks of
producer groups in Latin America.
c.
Organization of events
This includes the exchange of experience between the ATOs who form part
of CANDELA and their joint participation in conferences, seminars, exhibitions, fairs and other events which will allow the quantity and quality of the aims of CANDELA to be expanded. Additionally it also aims to
be discussing forum for like-minded organisations, either to work on
income generating projects or alternative trade or to try and establish
alternative internal networks.
(Europe: 5 P e t e r S t r e e t , London U N 3RR, England
Anerica Latina: Domingo Casanova 1 5 1 , Lima 1 4 , Peru)
90
i f d a d o s s i e r 68
.
november/december
1988
letters/lettres/cartas
LIBERALISM0 Y NEO-LIBERALISM0 EN EL TERCER MUNDO
Una n o t a de I e c t u r a de I g n a c y 5achs s o b r e e l l i b r o E l o t r o sendero de Hernando de S o t o
( I F D A D o s s i e r 6 6 ) comprornete a un peruano, corno e s tarnbien e l a u t o r d e l l i b r o , a c a n e n t a r
e l c o n t e x t 0 en que 6 s t e y s u e x i t o e d i t o r i a l han t e n i d o o r i g e n .
Fue ya un e r r o r fundamental de De S o t o e l c o n t r a p o n e r s i n rnss l a i d e a de l a I i b e r t a d a l a
p r e s e n c i a d e l E s t a d o y do l a b u r o c r a c i a ,
pues s i l a l i b e r t a d y l i b e r a l i s m o ,
que hoy se a t r i b u y e a e s t a u l t i m a p a l a b r a , son c o s a s e n t e r a m e n t e d i s t i n t a s ,
e l l i b e r a l i s m o y 1a democrac'a r e s u l t a n e n t o n c e s c o n t r a d i c t o r i o s .
en e l s e n t i d o
como 10 son,
O t r o e r r o r de base en e l l i b r o comentado es c o n s i d e r a r que e l exceso de b u r o c r a c i a es l o
que da o r i g e n a l a economia s u b t e r r s n e a , 10 que e s t i d e s m e n t i d o p o r l a s econornias p r i m i t i vas s i n b u r o c r a c i a , y r e a l i z a r l u e g o c 5 l c u l o s e c o n h i c o s b r i l l a n t e s p a r a o f r e c e r l o s c m o
p r u e b d de que f u e r a de l a b u r o c r a c i a t o d o h a b r l a s i d o p o s i b l e y d e n t r o de e l l a t o d o es im~oslble.
Un e r r o r a d i c i o n a l , y no de pequeha rnonta, e s e l de que e l a u t o r de E l o t r o sendero mezcla
en un s o l o problema l a b u r o c r a c i a y e l l e g a l i s r n o . Uno y o t r o pueden s e r a u t o - p a r a l i z a n t e s
y, e n I a f r a s e d e l h i s t o r i a d o r p e r u a n o J o r g e Basaare, mdnoseada hoy h a s t a e l exceso, e l
p a i s l e g a l y a p a r e n t e puede v i v i r de e s p a l d a s a1 p a i s p r o f u n d o , coma ha probado e l n a c i n i e n t o y l a p e r s i s t e n c i a d e l Sendero v i o l e n t o .
No se exaqera e l o r i g e n de e s t a d u p l i c i d a d de p a i s e s a1 a t r i b u i r l a a un problema e c o n h i c o
rnss b i e n que a uno l e g a l i s t a o b u r o c r h t i c o , y e s t a e s l a c o n t r a d i c c i 6 n anotada ya p o r
o t r o s c m e n t a r i s t a s y que l l e v a , n a t u r a l m e n t e , a p r e t e n d e r r e d u c i r e l E s t a d o y a d e j a r en
manos d e l poder econ6mico e l d e s t i n o de 10s p u e b l o s .
Para u t i l i z a r e l e j e m p l o de uno de 1 0 s t r e s s e c t o r e s que exarnina e l
l i b r o de De Soto,
el
t r a s p o r t e c o l e c t i v o es s u b s i d i a d o y . p o r t a n t o , e x c l u y d o de l a s l e y e s l i b e r a l e s d e l mercado, en p r 5 c t i c a r n e n t e t o d o s 10s p a i s e s d e l mundo, i n d u s t r i a l e s y s u b d e s a r r o l l a d o s .
R e f o r z a r e l s i s t e m a l e g a l i n c o r p o r a n d o en 61 a q u i e n e s e s t 5 n f u e r a , no s o l a m e n t e ha r e s u l t a d o i m p o s i b l e h a s t a hoy s i n o que p o d r i a r e s u l t a r c o n t r a p r o d u c e n t e . E l l o , en p r i m e r l u g a r ,
p o r q u e e l a p a r a t o l e g a l l e j o s de s i m p l i f i c a r s e , se c o m p l i c a r i a , de 10 que e s p r u e b d 1a
c a t a r a t a de d e c r e t o s - I e y e s d e l C o b i e r n o m i l i t a r peruano i n i c i a d o en 1968, d i s p o s i c i o n e s
que i b a n encarninadas a m e j o r a r l a participation p o p u l a r y no h i c i e r o n s i n 0 p a r a l i z a r l a y
con e l l a a t o d o e l p a l s .
Tampoco p a r e c e p e r c i b i r s e en !a concepc16n de e s t e nuevo sendero que l a p r e t e n d i d a o r q a n i z a c i 6 n de 10s " i n f o r n a l e s " y su i n c o r p o r a c i 6 n a un sisterna l e g a l aparentemente d e s b u r o c r a t i z a n t e p o d r i a l l e v a r a l a s o c i e d a d de 10s p o b r e s a una forma de c o r p o r a t i v i s m o con
t r a j e de d e m o c r a c i a y con l a e t i q u e t a y l a excusa de l a s l e y e s l i b r e s d e l mercado.
A l y h n o t r o a u t o r peraano >a hecho n o t a r ya que 10s e s f u e r z o s p a r a c o n c e b i r e s t e segundo
sendero no van c i e r t a r n e n t e encarninados a p r o v o c a r e l cambio que l a s o c i e d a d de 10s p o b r e s
i e c e s i t a , pues cabe p r e g u n t a r s e s i 10s p r o p i o s beneficiaries a c e p t a r s n e l cambio ,v, 10 que
es p e e r , s i n o se r e q u e r i r i p a r a e l l 0 una a c t i t l i d v i o l e n t a de o t r o genero, p e r 0 v i o l e n t a
de t o d o s modos, como l a que e l Sendero s a n q u i n a r i o p r e t e n d e i n p o n e r .
Ignacy Sachs e x p r e s s dudas j u s t i f i c a d a s s o b r e l a p o s i b i l i d a d de que 10s pequefios empresar i o s que e s t a n en n u e s t r o s p a i s e s f u e r a de l a l e y puedan 3caso s e r r e a l r e n t e e l mode10 que
sono Schumpeter. D e s m a n t e l a r e l Estado, p o r o t r o l a d o , p r o c l a n a n d o l a economla p u r a en
s u s t i t u c i 6 n de l a econom?a p o l U i c . 3 , d e j a s i n r e s g u a r d o a1 que no d i s p o n e de r e c u r s o s ,
c o n v i r t i e n d o en e1 m e j o r de 10s c a s o s a1 i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a d o en un e x p l o t a d o r de 10s que
no p e r t e n e c e n a su o r g a n i z a c i 6 n .
Se t r a t a r i a , en suma, de i n c o r p o r a r en e l c a p i t a l i s m o a un s e c t o r i n t e r m e d i o de l a s o c i e dad que p o r e l memento se b u r l a d e l Estado, e l u d e l a s r e f l l a s d e l j u e g o y no paga impuestos.
La e x p e r i e n c i a de i o s G l t i m o s l u s t r o s en 10s p a l s e s p o b r e s m u e s t r a c i a r a m e n t e que no e s l a
r e v o l u c i 6 n v i o i e n t a n i l a participation rnanipulada p o r una d i c t a d u r a 10 que puede empujar
e l cambio n e c e s a r i o ; p e r 0 l a r e c e t a no c o n s i s t e tampoco en r e v i v i r e s f o r z a d a y e n i r g i c a mente e l c a o i t d l i s m o l i b e r a l de antaiio.
AN EXCHANGE WITHIN THE UN
-
Two v e r y s e n i o r UN o f i c i a l s
whom we a r e n o t a t l i b e r t y t o name, b u t who a r e known t o us
exchanged comments on P i e r r e P r a d e r v a n d ' s a r t i c l e ' A f r i q u e M o i r e : La v i c t o i r e du cou-
-
(m
64, p p . 3 - 1 2 ) . The f i r s t one w r i t e s : "Should one f o c u s so p e r f e c t l y e x c l u rage'
s i v e l y on t h e u n d i l u t e d m i s e r y o f d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s ? I s t h e p i c t u r e a l l t h a t u n r e l e n t i n g l y d e s o l a t e ? Has a b s o l u t e l y n o t h i n g , n o t h i n g a t a l l o f any p o s i t i v e w o r t h come o u t o f
economic d i v e r s i t y ? S h o u l d n o t someone l i g h t a m a t c h i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n ? 1 e n c l o s e a copy
o f an i n t e r e s t i n g a r t i c l e . M i g h t t h e r e be s o m e t h i n 9 i n s p i r i n g < n t h i s e f f o r t o f an i n d i v i d u a l ? He r e p o r t s from A f r i c a : "Le manque de moyens e s t d 6 j 3 un moyen. La f a i m d e v i a n t
une arme p o u r i n n o v e r . O u e l s s o n t 1es p o i n t s d ' e s p o i r que vous voyez? 11 y en a t e l l e m e n t
que j e ne s a i s p a s oG canmencer."
The o t h e r r e p l i e s : " l am g l a d you c a l l e d my a t t e n t i o n t o t h e ,a r t i c l e . l do n o t
know how s e r i o u s l y one can t a k e i t b u t l n o t o n l y hope t h a t i t i s c o r r e c t ; I am i n c l i n e d
t o t h i n k t h a t i n a l o n g e r v i e w o f h i s t o r y i t i s t h e k i n d o f r e s p o n s e one s h o u l d e x p e c t .
P e o p l e t a k e t h e i r d e s t i n i e s i n hand when t h e y a r e a l l o w e d t o ,
and t h e y a r e no f o o l s .
The
w e s t e r n - s t y l e d s t a t e has been a d i s a s t e r and i t i s p r o b a b l y an o b s t a c l e t o development i n
many cases. We a r e t o o f o c u s s e d o n what governments do
1 air beconiing more o r i e n t e d t o -
-
wards " a n o t h e r development"
t h e more I l e a r n ,
although i t i s l a t e i n l i f e .
l am warming up
t o NCOs a l l t h e t i m e . "
FROM CANADA
W i t h t h i s l e t t e r I am e n c l o s i n g a cheque t o s u s t a i n my s u b s c r i p t i o n t o IFDA and t o s u p p o r t
-.
I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o judge i t s impact, b u t l
y o u r w o r t h w h i l e work i n p u b l i s h i n g t h e
~ i s u a l l y f i n d one o r two i t e m s o f i n t e r e s t p e r i s s u e . T h a t g e t s t r a n s i a t e d i n t o i m p a c t
t h r o u g h my i n v o l v e n e n t as a c o n s u l t a n t , w r i t e r and s p e a k e r . B u t I w o u l a n ' t want t o j u d g e
t h e i m p a c t o f t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s . I suppose t h a t i t a l l b u i l d s up g r a i n by g r a i n t o f o r m a
c o n s c i o u s n e s s s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t from what m i g h t have been.
Morris M i l l e r , Faculty o f Administratior., U n i v e r s i t y o f Ottduc.
68
.
1988
ifda
dossier
N.B.
Documents mentioned i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n a r e
november/december
pendir-g on t h e case, from p u b l i s h e r s ,
s c r i p t i o n o f t h e document.
footnotes/notes/notas
a v a i l a b l e from
IFSA b u t ,
bookshops o r t h e a d d r e s s i n d i c a t e d a f t e r
de-
t h e de-
LOCAL SPACE
.
Dee Brown, E n t e r r e mon c o e u r ( A r i s t a , 1988) 551pp. "Tuez t o u s I e s I n d i e n s que vous
r e n c o n t r e r e z " . A i n s i ordonna I e c o l o n e l Evans l o r s de l a "ConquGte de 1 ' Q u e s t " q u i ne f u t
q u ' u n e e x t e r m i n a t i o n s y s t 6 m a t i q u e de m i l l i o n s d ' l n d i e n s . Au d e l a de l ' h i s t o i r e , Dee Brown,
qui
n ' u t i l i s e que des documents o f f i c i e l s ,
s ' a t t a c h e i nous f a i r e d i c o u v r i r
l a saqesse
d ' u n p e u p l e neconnu. Connaissance de l a N a t u r e , r e s p e c t de l a v i e q u i s ' y m a n i f e s t e e t
s p i r i t u a l i t 6 f o n t de c e t o u v r a g e un l i v r e p u i s s a n t e t b o u l e v e r s a n t . Chacun s e r a s e n s i b l e
t a n t 3.
l a lumiere q u ' i l
Rouffignac,
d6gage q u ' 5
la reflexion
a
laquelle i 1 invite.
(24580 P l a z a c -
France).
.
Juan Van K e s s e l , L u c e r o b r i l l a n t e : m i s t i c a p o p u l a r
T i r a n a , donde unos d i e z m i l b a i l a r i n e s v i e n e n a v e n e r a r
..."
y m o v i m i e n t o s o c i a l , 284pp. La
a l a V i r g e n d e l Carmen como su
"Lucero B r i l l a n t e
e s s o l o uno de 10s s a n t u a r i o s p o p u l a r e s d e l d e s i e r t o de C h i l e . En
e s t a obra, e l D r . J. Van K e s s e l a n a l i z a l a insospechada r i q u e z a de l a c u l t u r a , l a 6 t i c a y
l a r e l i g i o s i d a d del pueblo n o r t i n o y e x p l i c a por l a m l s t i c a popular,
s o c i a l y l a madurez p o l f t i c a de e s t o s b a i l a r i n e s .
l a clara conciencia
Una o b r a c l i s i c a que s e r a i n d i s p e n s a b l e
p a r a t o d o s 10s p r o f e s i o n a l e s que se d e d i c a n a l a s c i e n c i a s s o c i a l e s , a l a p a s t o r a l popul a r , a1 f o l k l o r e y a l a g e o g r a f i a d e l N o r t e de C h i l e ; J u l i i n Gonzdlez Reyes, Los H i j o s de
l a C e s i n t e g r a c i 6 n C u l t u r a l : J6venes Emigrados Aymaras, 99pp; Juan A l v a r e z T i c u n a ,
c i 6 n p a r a e l D e s a r r o l l o A n d i n o : Une p r o p u e s t a c u r r i c u l a r b i c u l t u r a l p a r a l as e s c u e l a s
aymaras de T a r a p a c i , 123pp; Juan Van K e s s e l , E1 l l a m a d o ' r e p u n t e econormco' en l a P r e c o r d i l l e r a de Tarapac.5: e i case de S i b a y a , 26pp. ( C e n t r o de l n v e s t i g a c i 6 n de l a R e a l i d a d d e l
N o r t e , C a s i l l a 823,
.
E r i c Hansen,
Iquique, C h i l e ) .
S t r a n g e r i n t h e F o r e s t : On F o o t A c r o s s Borneo ( B o s t o n : Houghton M i f f l i n
Company, 1988) 286pp. The r a i n f o r e s t o f B o r n e o i s one o f t h e l a s t p l a c e s on e a r t h s t i l l
l a r g e l y u n t o u c h e d by w e s t e r n ' c i v i l i z a t i o n ' . The a u t h o r w a l k e d i n t o t h i s f o r e s t f o r many
-
months
m e e t i n g and l i v i n g w i t h t r i b e s whose l o n g h o u s e s w e r e s t i l l d e c o r a t e d w i t h t h e
h e a d h u n t i n g swords of t h e i r a n c e s t o r s , b u t whose i d e a o f c r i m e was n o t t o s h a r e w i t h
o t h e r s . H i s w e s t e r n sense o f t i m e washed away and a f t e r 1500 m i l e s , as he n e a r e d t h e c o a s t
and t h e end o f h i s j o u r n e y ,
he d e c i d e d n o t t o c o n f r o n t w e s t e r n c u l t u r e y e t and w a l k e d back
a g a i n . The book i s a r a r e and i n t i m a t e l o o k a t a v a n i s h i n g way o f l i f e , t h a t o f t h e nomadi c Penan, one o f t h e l a s t s u r v i v i n g o r o u o s o f r a i n - f o r e s t d w e l l e r s i n t h e w o r l d , an
a n c i e n t , g e n t l e c u l t u r e b e s i e g e d by t h e t w e n t h i e t h c e n t u r y .
S t r a n q e r i n t h e F o r e s t i s an
i m p a s s i o n e d p l e a f o r t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e r a i n - f o r e s t p e o p l e whose t e r r i t o r i e s a r e r a p i d l y
t a k e n away by t h e b u l l d o z e r s o f t h e t i m b e r companies. ( 2 P a r k S t r ,
.
B o s t o n , MA 02108,
USA).
l r e n e Dankelman and Joan D a v i d s o n , Women and E n v i r o n m e n t i n t h e T h i r d W o r l d : A l l i a n c e
f o r t h e F u t u r e (London: t a r t h s c a n , 1388) 210pp. T h i r d W o r l d women p l a y t h e m a j o r r o l e i n
managing n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s . They a r e t h e f i r s t and n a r d e s t h i t by e n v i r o n m e n t a l mismanagement, y e t t h e y a r e n e i t h e r c o n s u l t e d n o r t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t b y development s t r a t e g i e s .
T h i s book c o n t a i n s w e l l documented c a s e s t u d i e s and i n t e r v i e w s w i t h l e a d i n g women c o n s e r v a t i o n i s t s f r o m t h e T h i r d World, and g i v e s a c l e a r a c c o u n t o f women's p r o b l e m s i n r e l a t i o n
t o l a n d , w a t e r , f o r e s t s , energy ana human s e t t l e m e n t s .
I t a l s o looks a t t h e l a c k of
r e s p o n s e from i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s and a t t h e ways i n w h i c h women c a n o r g a n i z e t o
meet e n v i r o n m e n t a l , s o c i a l and economic c h a l l e n g e s . ( E n d s l e i g h S t r , London WCIH ODD, U K ) .
.
M. Van d e r Veken and I . Hernandez, Women, Technology and Development (Leuven: ATOL,
1988) 155pp. The t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i a l and economic r e l a t i o n s t h a t governed u n t i l r e c e n t l y
t h e c o n t a c t s between t h e g e n d e r s i n many p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d a l l o w e d w m e n a c o n s i d e r a b l e
autonomy.
T h i s s i t u a t i o n was f u n d a m e n t a l l y u p r o o t e d b y t h e g e n e r a l p r o c e s s o f m o d e r n i z a -
t i o n . B u t f o r a number o f i n d i v i d u a l e x c e p t i o n s , women have been c o n f i n e d t o a s u b o r d i n a t e
and m a r g i n a l p o s i t i o n . I n t e n t i o n a l l y o r n o t , most ' d e v e l o p m e n t ' p r o j e c t s enhances t h i s
t e n d e n c y . A q r a d u a l i n s i g h t emerqes t h a t t h i n g s h a v e gone v e r y wrong and t h a t t h e f a i l u r e
o f so many i n i t i a t i v e s f i n d s i t s m a i n cause i n t h e i r d i s r e g a r d f o r women as a g r o u p .
S t a r t i n g f r o m t h e c o n c e p t o f ' a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g y ' , ATOL o f f e r s a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e
r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f i n t e r v e n t i o n s i n t h e T h i r d W o r l d t o w a r d s t h e r e a l needs and p r e f e r e n c e s
o f women. ( B l i j d e I n k m s t s t r a a t 9, 3000 Leuven, B e l g i u m ) .
.
Marie Eliou,
Melanges o f f e r t s
.
La p r o b l e m a t i q u e f e m i n i n e dans 1es s c i e n c e s de I ' e d u c a t i o n ( E x t r a i t des
( 9 r u e A l f e i o u , 115 22 A t h i n e s , C r e c e ) .
2 Roger M i l l i e x , 1988) pp.1-14
Jean-Marie M u l l e r ,
L e x i q u e de l a n o n - v i o l e n c e ,
-
n m e r o s p e c i a l ( 6 8 ) d 4 A 1 t e r n a t i v e s non
a q u i l ' o n d o i t d e j a une S t r a t e q i e de I ' a c t i o n nonv i o l e n t e s . En 68 a r t i c l e s , I ' a u t e u r
v i o l e n t e (Le S e u i l )
c o n t r i b u e , en un l a n g u a g e c l a i r , c o h e r e n t e t c o n c i s , 2 d i s s i p e r l e s
-
confusions e t equivoques q u i p i s e n t s u r l a non-violence. C o n t r i b u t i o n d ' a u t a n t p l u s import a n t e que l a n o n - v i o l e n c e demeure, m a l g r e q u e l q u e s r e f e r e n c e s dans l ' a c t u a l i t e a Gandhi ou
4 M a r t i n L u t h e r K i n g , l a r g m e n t e t r a n g 6 r e 5 l a c u l t u r e o c c i d e n t a l e , e t qua l a d i f f i c u l t 6 a
en p e r c e v o i r I e sens r e e l a b o u t i t souvent 5 en f a i r e r e c u s e r l a p e r t i n e n c e . ( 1 6 r u e P a u l A p p e l l , 42000 S a i n t - E t i e n n e , F r a n c e ) .
.
R.
Biorcio,
C.
Lodi (a cura d i ) ,
La s f i d a v e r d e :
11 movimento e c o l o q i s t a i n I t a l i a
(Padova: L i v i a n a E d i t r i c e , 1988) 215pp. C e t t e p r e m i e r e e t u d e s y s t e r n a t i q u e de 1a complexe
r e a l i t e du mouvement e c o l o q i s t e i t a l i e n examine 1es d i v e r s e s m a n i 6 r e s " d ' z t r e v e r t " m i l i t a n t s , a s s o c i a t i o n s , l i s t e s v e r t e s e t l e u r s e l e c t e u r s . Une e n q u z t e e m p i r i q u e de l a
r e g i o n m e t r o p o l i t a i n e de M i l a n p e r m e t de r e c o n s t r u i r e I e s p e c t r e des groupes e t a s s o c i a t i o n s ; I ' a n a l y s e de t r o i s g r a n d e s a s s o c i a t i o n s r e v i l e l e s s t r a t e g i e s des e l e m e n t s 1es p l u s
organises.
Le phenomene des l i s t e s v e r t e s ,
leur formation e t
leurs electeurs est etudie
dans u n espace r e g i o n a l ,
c e l u i du Veneto.
.
B u d d h i s t P e r s p e c t i v e s on t h e E c o c r i s i s (Kandy:
K l a s Sandel l ( e d ) ,
t i o n S o c i e t y , 1987) 76ppi
t h e D a l a i Lama; " B u d d h i s t
( 1 v i a L u i g i D o t t e s i o , 35138 Padova,
Italia).
Buddhist Publica-
I n c l u d i n g "An E t h i c a l Approach t o E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n " b y
P h i l o s o p h y as I n s p i r a t ~ o nt o Ecodevelopment" by K l a s S a n d e l l ;
"Norwegian E c o p h i l o s o p h y and Ecopol it i c s
K v a l o y (PO8 61, Kandy, S r i L a n k a ) .
and t h e i r
I n f l u e n c e f r o m Buddhism"
b y Sigmund
.
Udo E. Simonis, " I n t e r n a t i o n a l E n v i r o n m e n t a l Problems and t h e R o l e o f L e g i s l a t o r s " ,
pp.187-197;
"Ecology and Economic P o l i c y " , pp.163-167,
i n Agni V l a v i a n o s - A r v a n t i s ( e d )
B i o p o l i t i c s : The B i o - E n v i r o n m e n t ; C h r i s t i a n L e i p e r t and Udo E. S i m o n i s , " E n v i r o n m e n t a l
Damage
E n v i r o n m e n t a l E x p e n d i t u r e s : S t a t i s t i c a l E v i d e n c e on t h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f
-
Germany, i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l
s c h u f e r 50, 1000 B e r l i n 30, FRG).
of
Social
Economics,
15,7
pp.37-52
(WZB,
Reichpiet-
.
Caby S t o l l , N a t u r a l Croc P r o t e c t o r Based on L o c a l Farm Resources i n t h e T r o o i c s and
S u b t r o p i c s (Langen: Tropps ' J e r l a g , 1987; 156pp. Qaoy S t o l l , c o - w o r k e r o t ACRECOL, has c o l l e c t e d i n f o r m a t i o n s on l o c a l p r a c t i c e s as we11 as on s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on
n a t u r a l c r o p p r o t e c t i o n methods. A m a i n f o c u s i s l a i d on t h e use o f i n s e c t i c i d a l p l a n t s .
I n a d d i t i o n o t h e r adapted c r o p p r o t e c t i o n methods a r e p r e s e n t e d w h i c h can be p r a c t i c e d o r
m a n u f a c t u r e d by m a l l f a r m e r s .
( R a i f f e i s e n s t r a s s e 24,
6070 Langen, FRG).
.
C e r t Roland F i s c h e r , Manejo S u s t e n t a d o de F l o r e s t a s N a t i v a s 1987,
947, S9200 J o i n v i l l e SC, B r a s i l ) .
M i c h a e l Renne-,
,
Rethinking t h e Role of
t h e Automobile
82pp. ( C a i x a P o s t a l
(Worldnatch
Institute,
1988)
70pp. ( 1 7 7 6 M a s s a c h u s e t t s Ave NW, Washington, DC 20036, USA).
.
Rethinking
Sweden,
t h e T h i r d World C i t y ,
Report
f r o m a Round-Table
m e e t i n g i n Stockholm,
May 1985 (Swedish Government P r i n t i n g , 1987) 45pp.
J o r g e E. Hardoy and D a v i d S a t t e r t h w a i t e , Urban Chanqe i n t h e T h i r d World: A r e R e c e n t
Trends a U s e f u l P o i n t e r t o t h e Urban F u t u r e ? 26pp; S h e l t e r , I n f r a s t r ~ c t u r eand S e r v i c e s i n
T h i r d W o r l d C i t i e s , 46pp. ( I IED, 3 E n d s l e i c h S t r e e t , London WC1H ODD, U K ) .
.
F. Ryan, Pumps W i t h o u t 'Hater ( I n d o r e : S a t p r a k a s h a n Sanchar Kenara, 1988) 54pp. The
w a t e r p o l i c y o f n a t i o n a l governments and i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s i s m i s c o n c e i v e d and
w i l l n o t d e l i v e r w a t e r t o t h e p o o r o f t h e T h i r d W o r l d i n t h e 2 1 s t c e n t u r y . The c l o s e d s y s tem and hand-pumps t o p r o v i d e w a t e r o n a g l o b a l s c a l e a t c o l o s s a l e x p e n d i t u r e has f a i l e d
due t o v a r i o u s socio-economic. p o l i t i c a l and c l i m a t i c reasons. The a u t h o r a r g u e s t h a t i t
i s o n l y t h e open system t h a t can d e l i v e r w a t e r t o t h e p o o r where t h e y l i v e and a t no c o s t
t o them and e x p l a i n s s e v e r a l ways o f
n d o r e , MP 452 001, I n d i a ) .
.
OCDE,
t a k i n g water
t o t h e people.
(Bhanwarkua Chowraha,
Jean Bonvin, Changements s o c i a u x e t p r o d u c t i v i t e a g r i c o l e en A f r i q u e C e n t r a l e ( P a r i s :
1986) 14Opp. C e t t e e t u d e a p p r o f o n d i t a p a r t i r d c donnees o r i g i n a l e s l e s p r o b l e m e s
s t r u c t u r e l s de l ' a g r i c u l t u r e t r a d i t i o n n e l l e e n A f r i q u e .
Par son approche i n n o v a t r i c e ,
elle
demontre que l ' a n a l y s e des phenomenes d ' o r d r e c u l t u r e 1 e s t une e t a p e i n d i s p e n s a b l e p o u r l a
c m p r e h e n s i o n des r a i s o n s des r e s i s t a n c e s au changement e t p o u r l e c h o i x du mode d ' a c t i o n
e
p l u s approprie.
.
M i c n a e l M.
The N o r l d Bank,
( 2 r u e Andre-Pascal,
75775 P a n ' s Cedex 16, F r a n c e ) .
Cernea, Non-Governmental O r g a n i z a t i o n s ana L o c a l Development (Washington:
1988) 53pp;
I n v o l u n t a r y R e s e t t l e m e n t i n Development P r o j e c t s :
G u i d e l i n e s i n W o r l d Bank-Financed P r o j e c t s ( 1 9 8 8 ) 88pp. Many development p r o j e c t s r e q u i r e
t h a t p e o p l e b e i n v o l u n t a r i l y r e s e t t l e d t o o t h e r l o c a t i o n s t o l i v e and w o r k . Adequate p o l i c i e s a r e needed t o m i n i m i z e t h e n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s o f t h i s r e l o c a t i o n b o t h on t n e i n d i v i d u a l s i n v o l v e d and on t h e n a t i o n a l economy. T h i s volume d i s c u s s e s p a s t W o r l d Bank p r o j e c t s
t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e governments and t h e needs o f r e s e t t l e r s and h o s t
p o p u l a t i o n s d u r i n g r e s e t t l e m e n t , Among t h e t o p i c s a d d r e s s e d a r e t y p e s o f i n v o l u n t a r y r e settlement;
b a s i c s o c i o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s i n approaching r e s e t t l e m e n t ;
policy objectives
and s t r a t e g i e s ; r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e r e s e t t l e r s * homes, p r o d u c t i o n bases, and s o c i a l o r ganizations;
and t h e e f f e c t s o f r e s e t t l e m e n t on t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . (1818 H S t r e e t NW,
Washington, DC 20433, USA).
.
The W o r l d Bank, R u r a l Development: -Bank
E x p e r i e n c e 1965-86 ( 1 9 8 8 ) 132pp. I n t h e
e a r l y 70s t h e World Bank made a s h i f t i n i t s development l e n d i n g f r o m l a r g e - s c a l e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n toward small f a r n s i n r u r a l areas. This s t r a t e g y , designed t o a l l e v i a t e
p o v e r t y i n t h e r u r a l areas, g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d b o t h s m a l l l a n d o w n e r s i n t h e T h i r d W o r l d
c o u n t r i e s and t h e way t h e W o r l d Bank l e n d s money f o r p r o j e c t s and e v a l u a t e s them. T h i s
r e p o r t , based on an e v a l u a t i o n o f a l m o s t 200 p r o - j e c t s c o m p l e t e d o v e r t h e p a s t 22 y e a r s . i s
t h e f i r s t s y s t e m a t i c a n a l y s i s o f t h e B a n k ' s r u r a l development l e n d i n g . I t t r a c e s t h e
t h i n k i n g t h a t l e d t o t h e B a n k ' s s t r a t e g y and examines how vie11 t h e o r i y i n a l o b j e c t i v e s
have been met. The r e p o r t i n c l u d e s p r o t i l e s o f s e l e c t e d r u r a i development p r o j e c t s i n
B r a z i l , Mexico, S r i Lanka, N i g e r i a ,
.
Malawi,
Korea and West A f r i c a .
I n s t i t u t I n t e r n a t i o n a l d0Etudes S o c i a l e s , Table ronde i n t e r n a t i o n a l e sur l a p a r t i c i p a t i o n s o c i a l e au d.6veloppement ( 1 9 8 8 ) 137pp. iCP 6, 1211 Ceneve 22, S u i s s e ) .
Ouelques p u b l i c a t i o n s r e c e n t e s d'ENDA (BP 3370, Dakar, S e n e g a l ) :
-
-
E. Ndione, M. Sagna e t J. B u g n i c o u r t ,
P a u v r e t e ambigue: e n f a n t s e t j e u n e s au
,
185pp.
Abdou S y l l a , L ' e c o l e f u t u r e p o u r q u i ? 122pp.
I n i t i a t i v e s paysannes au S a h e l , 130pp.
-
A . M a l a k i , La v i e p a s t o r a l e au S a h e l 23pp. & Le syst6me de p r o d u c t i o n p a s t o r a l au
-
Abou S i d i Ba, L ' a r t v e t e r i n a i r e des p a s t e u r s s a h e l i e n s ,
Les neveux d ' a b o r d , 16pp.
P . V i n c k e , C. S o u r n i a e t E. Wanqari, Pour une g e s t i o n de l a faune au S a h e l , 130pp.
A. Watt,
Le semis du s o r g h o de d e c r u e au F u u t a , 60pp.
S a h e l , 26pp.
98pp.
.
S r i g i t t e Thebaud, E l e v a g e e t d e v e l o p p m e n t au N i g e r : Ouel a v e n i r p o u r l e s e l e v e u r s du
S a h e l ? (Cengve: Bureau i n t e r n a t i o n a l du t r a v a i l , 1988) 147pp, La c r i s e de I ' e l e v a g e au
Sahel e s t - e l l e due aux s e c h e r e s s e s ? L ' a u t e u r e s t a l l h e c h e r c h e r l a reponse s u r I e t e r r a i n ,
en a n a l y s a n t d i f f e r e n t s systemes p a s t o r a u x . C ' e s t a l o r s q u ' e l l e s u i v a i t l a transhumance
d ' u n g r o u p e d ' e l e v e u r s que s ' e s t p r o d u i t e 1a t e r r i b l e s e c h e r e s s e de 1984, d o n t e l l e a vecu
e d e r o u l e m e n t au j o u r I e j o u r avec 1es nomades. L ' e n q u s t e s u r I e t e r r a i n s ' e s t d o u b l e e
d ' u n e e t u d e du f o n c t i o n n e m e n t e t de I ' e v o l u t i o n de I ' e c o n m i e p a s t o r a l e en r e l a t i o n avec
\ e monde r u r a l e t u r b a i n . La c o n c l u s i o n e s t c l a i r e : l e s secheresses n ' o n t f a i t q u ' a c c e l e r e r un processus dont I ' i s s u e e t a i t i n e l u c t a b l e ,
l e s o r i g i n e s de l a c r i s e de I ' e l e v a g e s e
t r o u v e n t p o u r beaucoup dans lees t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s s o c i o - e c o n m i q u e s
q u i s e s o n t o p k r e e s en
d e h o r s du monde p a s t o r a l . Ce n ' e s t que s i c e s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s s o n t b i e n s a i s i e s que l e s
programmes d ' a i d e aux 6 l e v e u r s p e u v e n t donner des r e s u l t a t s . L ' a u t e u r p r o p o s e dans c e sens
une s e r i e d ' a x e s d ' i n t e r v e n t i o n p o u r e t a b l i r l a v i a b i l i t e de l ' e l e v a g e e t sauvegarder, en
m h e temps q u ' u n s e c t e u r v i t a l , I ' i d e n t i t e s o c i a l e , i c o n m i q u e e t c u l t u r e l l e des p o p u l a t i o n s p a s t o r a l e s (1211 Cen6ve 22, S u i s s e ) .
.
M i c h a e l C.
Latham ( e d ) , Amino A c i d F o r t i f i c a t i o n o f C e r e a l s : R e s u l t s and I n t e r p r e t a -
t i o n o f T r i a l s i n Three C o u n t r i e s ( I t h a c a : C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 8 8 ) . A r e p o r t o n
Guatemala, T h a i l a n d and T u n i s i a ( C o r n e l l U n i v . , D i v o f N u t r i t i o n a l S c i e n c e s , Savage H a l l .
I t h a c a , NY 14853, USA).
.
T h i r d W o r l d I n f o r m a t i o n Network,
!345 G o s w e l l Road, London ECIV 7JT,
E l e c t r o n i c M a i l : Communication f o r B e g i n n e r s ,
46pp.
UK).
.
DiaLogos de l a c o m u n i c a c i b n : La f o t o g r a f i a en l a s f a c u l t a d e s de c o m u n i c a c i 6 n s o c i a l
de America L a t i n a (FELAFACS, 1987) 106pp. (Apdo Aereo 18-0371, Lima 18, Per;).
NATIONAL S P A C E
.
paie,
I b r a h i m Souss, L e t t r e 2 u n ami j u i f ( P a r i s : Le S e u i l , 1987) 92pp. "Aucune v i c t o i r e ne
a l o r s que t o u t e m u t i l a t i o n de I'homme e s t sans r e t o u r " e c r i v a i t A l b e r t Camus dans
ses L e t t r e s
a
u n ami
a l l e m a n d quand I e s h o r d e s n a z i e s e n v a h i r e n t
\'Europe.
En r e l i s a n t
c e t t e p h r a s e que, d e p u i s longtemps, j e t o u r n a i s e t r e t o u r n a i s dans ma t e t e , j ' a i pense 2
t o i . J ' a i r e s o l u de t ' e c r i r e c a r , j ' e n demeure c o n v a i n c u , l e sens p r o f o n d de c e s p r o p o s ne
t ' e c h a p p e r a pas 5 c e moment c r u c i a l , a c e t o u r n a n t de I ' h i s t o i r e de n o t r e a m i t i e i n t e r r o n pue. Je s o u f f r e , mon ami, c a r t a v o i x e s t e t r a n g e m e n t m u e t t e d e p u i a q u e l q u e temps . . . l r
I b r a h i m Souss,
r e p r e s e n t a n t de 1'OLP en France,
e s t aussi musicien, poete, G c r i v a i n .
Dans
c e t t e l o n q u e l e t t r e , t o u s 1es arguments du c o n f l i t i s r a s l o - p a l e s t i n i e n s o n t evoques, t o u s
e s b l o c a g e s rGcusks e t I e s a n g o i s s e s r e c i p r o q u e s c o n j u r e e s ;
i 1 s ' a g i t s u r t o u t , on I e
verra,
d ' u n a r d e n t p l a i d o y e r p o u r l a p a i x en P a l e s t i n e .
,
D a v i d Crossman,
Le v e n t j a u n e ( P a r i s : Le S e u i l ,
1 9 8 8 ) 244pp. Pour I e v i n g t i e v e a n n i -
v e r s a i r e de l a g u e r r e des S i x J o u r s , l e r o m a n c i e r i s r a e l i e n D a v i d Crossman s ' e s t r e n d u en
Ci s j o r d a n i e a f i n d q y r e c u e i l l i r l a m a t i & r e d ' u n a r T i c l e pour l 'hebeomadaire
R a s h i t . S e p t semaices p l u s t a r d , i l en a r a p p o r t e u n l o n g r e p o r t a g e p u i s l i v r e , s u j e t , en
I s r a e l , de c o n t r o v e r s e s p a s s i o n n e e s . R e q u i s i t o i r e s e v e r e c e n t r e l a p o l i t i q u e i s r a e l i e n n e ,
Le v e n t j a u n e e s t a u s s i un p l a i d o y e r en f a v e u r a ' u n e e n t e n t e . O u ' i l s ' a g i s s e de r e f u g i e s
aans 1es camps, d ' e t u d i a n t s ou de t r a v a i l l e u r s a r a b e s e x p l o i t e s , de s o l d a t s de Tsahal ou
d'extremistes " i r p l a n t e s "
l e l i v r e denonce une meme r e a l i t h i n i s t r e . L ' a u t e u r v01 t
s ' e b a u c h e r une r e l a t i o n de m a i t r e 3 l ' e s c l a v e ,
Et,
d'o;
l e f i a i t r e s o r t i r a l e p l u s deshumanise.
f a c e 2 l a c r o i s s a n c e demographique, l a p o l i t i q u e d ' l s r a e l
ne o e u t E t r e que de p l u s en
p l u s r e p r e s s i v e . Le c o s t de c e t t e o c c u p a t i o n 2 l a f o i s p o u r l ' o c c u p a n t e t pour l ' o c c u p e ,
i ' a v e n i r que p r e p a r e c e t t e e s c a l a d e ce I d v i o l e n c e , e e l e s t I ' h e r i t a q e que Crossman r e f u s e
de l e g u e r 2 ses e n f a n t s .
.
S t r a t e g i c Survey 1987-1988 (London: I I S S , 1983) 240pp. The London-based I n t e r n a t i o n a l
I n s t i t u t e f o r S t r a t e g i c S t u d i e s ( I I S S ) emphasises t h a t t h e u p r i s i n g i n t h e Occupied T e r r i -
tories
i s t r u l y a "grass-roots
phenomenon.
I t s b a s i c i n g r e d i e n t appeared t o be t h e a t -
mosphere o f h o p e l e s n e s s and f r u s t r a t i o n i n t h e r e f u g e e camps, f e d by y e a r s o f h u m i l i a t i o n
g e n e r a t e d by t h e I s r a e l i o c c u p a t i o n " . The spontaneous p o p u l a r r e v o l t has "done more t o
b o o s t P a l e s t i n i a n m o r a l e and g e n e r a t e w o r l d - w i d e
sympathy f o r t h e P a l e s t i n i a n s t h a n a l l
t h e p r e c e d i n g 40 y e a r s o f Arab armed s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t I s r a e l " . On t h e i m p a c t o f t h e Weste r n m e d i a ' s r e a c t i o n t o t h e u p r i s i n g , t h e s t u d y n o t e s t h a t t h e American and European p r e s s
was e x t r e m e l y c r i t i c a l of I s r a e l i b r u t a l p r a c t i c e s . ( 2 3 T a v i s t o c k S t r e e t , London WC2E 7N0,
UK).
.
Myriam Zepeda H e r r e r a ,
1967 (IMRED,
1988) 33pp.
Situation en 10s t e r r i t o r i o s a r a b e s ocupados p o r
Israel
en
(CP 06200, M e x i c o DF, M e x i c o ) .
.
ILO, R e p o r t on t h e S i t u a t i o n o f Workers o f t h e Occupied Arab T e r r i t o r i e s , R e p o r t o f
t h e D i r e c t o r - G e n e r a l t o t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Labour c o n f e r e n c e 7 5 t h S e s s i o n 1988 (Geneva:
ILO)
94pp.
Elanchard,
"The
report
confirms,
if
further
confirmation
" t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e Arab workers,
were
needed,"
writes
F.
w h i c h i s a l r e a d y s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d by
t h e s t a t e o f o c c u p a t i o n , i s l i k e l y t o be i n c r e a s i n g l y a g g r a v a t e d i f t h e o c c u p a t i o n c o n t i nues and, i n t h e i m m e d i a t e f u t u r e , i f t h e s e r i o u s e v e n t s t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e t e r r i t o r i e s
p e r s i s t o r assume g r e a t e r d i m e n s i o n s . The r e p e r c u s s i o n s on employment and on l i v i n g and
w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s , w h i c h a r e t h e I L O ' s s p e c i a l concern, c o u l d be e x t r e m e l y grave."
.
Moumen D i o r i , R e a l i t 6 8 m a r o c a i n e s : La d y n a s t i e a l a o u i t e de 1 ' u s u r p a t i o n 3 l ' i m p a s s e
( P a r i s : L ' H a r m a t t a n , 1987) 240pp. 11 e x i s t e une h i s t o i r e o f f i c i e l l e du Maroc, d o n t I e peup i e m a r o c a i n e s t c u r i e u s e m e n t a b s e n t . C ' e s t p o u r t a n t 1 u i q u i , au c o u r s des s i e c l e s , au
p r i x de t r i b u l a t i o n s sans nornbre e t de l u t t e s acharnees q u i I 1 o p p o s 6 r e n t aux e n v a h i s s e u r s
a r e u s s i a sauveqarder
etrangers,
son i d e n t i t e e t 2 f o n d e r un Maroc i n d e p e n d a n t . M a i s au
l i e u de r e c u e i l l i r l e s f r u i t s de sa r e s i s t a n c e o p i n i s t r e , il se t r o u v e a u j o u r d ' h u i f r u s t r e
des avantages q u ' a u r a i t pu l u i v a l o i r I ' a m p l e u r de ses s a c r i f i c e s . V i c t i m e d ' u n r e g i m e de
d i c t a t u r e , t r a h i p a r c e u x - l a meffies q b i a u r a i e n t dG p r e n d r e sa defense, e t s p o l i e p a r une
e x p l o i t a t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e encouraqee p a r I e p o u v o i r , i l e s t conaamne 2 l a T i s e r e , 2 l a
c l o c h a r d i s a t i o n dans l e a b i d o n v i l l e s , 2 I d p r i s o n , 2 l a t o r t u r e . . .
C ' e s t son h i s t o i r e ,
l o n g t e m p s o c c u l t e e , que Moumen D i o r i , q u i f u t I e compagnon de l u t t e de C h e i k e l - A r a b e t de
Ben Barka, e t s u r v e c u t i sa condamnation 2 m o r t , a e n t r e p r i s de n a r r e r : c e l l e d ' u n Maroc
t o u j o u r s brime,
croire e
.
U
a
mals jamais
i
dbattu
qui,
fort
de
sa c o n t i n u i t e
historique,
persiste 2
r m e i l l c u r p a r c e q u ' i l a c o n f i a n c e en 1es v e r t u s de son p e u p l e .
A b c i e l a l i Doumou e t a!,
L ' E t a t m a r o c a i n a a n s l a d u r b e (7850-1985)
(Codesria &
P u b l i s u d , 1 9 8 7 ) 172pp. C e t o u v r a g e se propose, 2 p a r t i r d ' h o r i z o n s d i s c i p l i n a i r e s d i v e r s
...
( h i s t o i r e , socio1oqie p o l i t l q u e , e c o n m i e
) , d ' e c l a i r e r l e s s t r u c t u r e s e t a t i q u e s au
Maroc dans l a I o n g u e d u r e e a f i n de r e p o n d r e aux i n t e r r o q a t i o n s m a j e u r e s s u i v a n t e s : O u e l l e s
s o n t l e s m u t a t i o n s i m p o r t a n t e s de 1 ' E t a t m a r o c a i n survenues sous I ' e f f e t de l a p e n e t r a t i o n
e t r a n g e r e ? Dans q u e u e mesure c e s m u t a t i o n s s o n t - e l l e s p o r t e u s e s d ' u n e n o u v e i l e n a t u r e de
' E t a t m a r o c a i n ? Une m o d i f i c a t i o n de l a n a t u r e de 1 ' E t a t e s t - e l l e n e c e s s a i r e m e n t c o r r e l a t i v e d ' u n changement oe sa forme phenomenale d ' o r q a n i s a t i o n
Ouel
discontinuite par rapport 2 I'administration coloniaie?.,.
des 5 Oiamants, 75013 P a r i s , F r a n c e ) .
,
(*:ype de r e g i m e p o l i t i q u e ) ?
t y p e de n u t a t i o n s ries s t r u c t u r e s e t a t i q u e s p o s t - c o l o n i d l e s ?
S o p h i e B e s s i s e t Souhayr Belhassen,
Y a-t-il
c o n t i n u i t e ou
(3P 3304, Dakar, Senegal/15 r u e
B o u r q u i b a : A I a c o n q u z t e d ' u n d e s t i n (1901-1957)
( P a r i s : Jeune A f r i q u e , 1988) 187pp. Le 7 novembre 1987, t i a b i b B o u r q u i b a . 8 6 ans, p r e s i d e n t
de l a R ~ p u b l i q b e t u n i s i e n n e d e p u i s 30 ans, e t a i t d e c l a r e dans I ' i n c a p a c ^ t e d ' e x e r c e r 1e
p o u v o i r , e p i l o g u e de 60 ans d ' u n e c a r r i e r * e x c e p t i o n n e l l e , d ' u n i r s t i n h o r s du c u r n u n
p a t i e n n e n t c o n s t r u i t p a r un h m e c o n v a i n c u d ' E t r e
superieur
aux a u t r e s .
Pour camprendre
c e t h o m e , s a i s i r l a n a t u r e de ses r e l a t i o n s avec un p o u v o i r q u ' i l n ' a pas su c e d e r , deux
j o u r n a l i s t e s t u n i s i e n n e s o n t f o u i l l 6 l e s j e u n e s annees e t r e t r a c e l e s e t a p e s d ' u n e l u t t e
de 30 ans p o u r l a l i b e r a t i o n de son p a y s q u i se c o n f o n d avec son i r r e s i s t i b l e n a i s d i f f i c i l e a s c e n s i o n . C ' e s t c e t t e p e r i o d e de sa v i e e t de l ' h i s t o i r e t u n i s i e n n e Q u e d e c r i t c e
p r e m i e r ~ o l u m e , de l a n a i s s a n c e avec I e s i e c l e au couronnement de son combat I e 25 j u i l l e t
1957, j o u r de l a p r o c l a m a t i o n de l a R e p u b l i q u e , oG 11 d e v i e n t I e c h e f i n c o n t e s t e de l a
T u n i s i e i n d e p e n d a n t e . La p r e m i e r e p a r t i e d ' u n e v i e t o u r m e n t e e s ' a c h e v e s u r une aootheo5e.
La seconde p e r i o d e , t r e n t e n a i r e e l l e a u s s i , f a i t I ' o b j e t d ' u n d e u x i h e volume 4 p a r a i t r e .
l l d i t comment 1 ' h o m e e x e r c a Lin p o u v o i r q u ' i l n i t 30 an% A c o n q u & r i r . .
e t c o m e n t 11 I ' a
.
perJu.
( 5 1 avenue des Terries,
75C17 P a r i s , France,.
.
T. Thiombiano, L ' e n c l a v e i n d u s t r i e l l e : l a s o c i e t b s u c r i e r e de H a u t e - V o l t a ( D a k a r :
C o d e s r i a ) 192pp. L ' a u t e u r expc56 1es imecham"bmes de dari,~r ~ a t i o n e t d ' e x p l o i t a t i o n ae ? a
H a u t e - V o l t a a t r a v e r s I ' e x e r n p l e de I ' u s i n e de s u c r e r i e i n s t a l l e e dans 1 ' 0 u e s t du p a y s 5ous
e c o n t r 6 l e de l a S o c i e t e T r a n s n a t i o n a l e F r a n c a i s e "La Somdiaa". Tour 2 t o u r s o n t m i s en
e x e r g u e l e s a s p e c t s t h e o r i q u e s de l ' e c o n m i i ? de I ' a g r o - i n d u s t r i e ,
I ' h i s t o r i q u e de I ' i m p l a n t a t i o n de l ' u s i n e , son i m p a c t m i c r o e t m a c r o - e c o n m i q u e .
Apres a v o i r montre qui
6 t a i e n t l e s v e r i t a b l e s " m a i t r e s " de I d s o c i e t e ,
I ' a u t e u r s ' i n t e r r o g e s u r l ' a v e n i r de
l ' a q r o - i n d u s t r i e e n H a u t e - V o l t a . ( W 3304, Dakar, S e n e g a l ) .
.
l b b o Mandaza ( e d ) , Zimbabwe: The P o l i t i c a l E c o n m y o f T r a n s i t i o n 1980-1986 (Dakar:
C o d e s r i a , 1986) 43Opp. T h i s book f o c u s e s on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e i m p e r i a l i s t and
w h i t e s e t t l e r c o l o n i a l l e g a c y on t h e one hand, and t h e p a t t e r n o f p o l i t i c a l and s o c i o economic development i n t h e p o s t - i n d e p e n d e n c e e r a on t h e o t h e r . To what e x t e n t and w i t h
what consequences does t h i s l e g a c y
i t s p o l i t i c a l , economic, s o c i a l , c u l t u r a l and i d e o -
-
-
c o n s t i t u t e s t r u c t u r a l l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l momentum
logical manifestat'ons
and a m b i t i o n s o f Zimbabwe? G i v e n t h e n a t u r e and h i s t o r y o f t h e N a t i o n a l L i b e r a t i o n Movement, i t s c l a s s and i d e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t , how i s t h e new s t a t e i n Zimbabwe t o b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d i n t e r m s o f new a l l i a n c e s and s t a n c e s , and i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e c u r r e n t c o n f i g u r a t i o n
o f f o r c e s i n t h e r e g i o n a l and g l o b a l spaces? And, t h e r e f o r e , what have been t h e a c h i e v e ments and p i t f a l l s ? And,
on t h e b a s i s o f such a n a l y s e s , what o f t h e f u t u r e ?
Three more i o ! u ~ e s i n t h e "Energy,
-
E n # i r o n m e n t a r t Le<elopmer,t i n A f i i c a " s e r i e b ;
Ziababwe: Ecer;,? P l a n ~ i n qf o r N a t i o n a l Develapment, 2C6pp.
Zimbabwe: I n d u s t r i a l and Commercial Energy Use, 142pp.
E n e r g y f o r R u r a l Development i n Zimbabwe, 248pp
P r i c e o f each volume: 5EK 75.-,
T h i r d World: SEK 40.-
can S t u d i e s , FOB 1703, 751 47 Uppsala, Sweden).
(The Scandinavian I n s t i t u t e o f A f r i -
.
John U. F o r j e , S c i e n c e . Technology and Development P o l i c y i n Cameroon ( C e n t r e f o r
A c t i o n - O r i e n t e d Research on A f r i c a n Development, 1987) 8pp. (Domherrevagen 3, 222 31 Lund,
Sweden).
.
Sergio Bitar,
E r n e s t o Edwards y C a r l o s Dminami,
Cambiar l a v i d a
(Santiago:
M e l q u i a d e s , 1 9 8 8 ) 131pp. E l p u e b l o c h i l e n o denanda Cambiar l a Vida, t r a b a j o s e g u r o y b i e n
r e n u n e r a d o , acceso a l a s a l u d ,
l a educacibn,
l a vivienda,
l a c u l t u r a y l a r e c r e a c i b n . De-
vanda I i b e r t a d p a r a o p i n a r y d e c i d i r , t r a n q u i l i d a d en sus b a r r i o s y en e l paTs. E x i g e r e emplazar l a " r e v o l u c i 6 n s i l e n c i o s a " n e o l i b e r a l
que ha b e n e f i c i a d o a una pequena m i n o r i a
-
-
p o r un C h i l e p a r a todos, que e n f r e n t e e l
a c o s t a d e l e m p o b r e c i m i e n t o de una n a y o r i a
s i g l o X X I s o b r e l a base de une economia d i n i m i c a , j u s t a y moderna. E s t e l i b r o es un a p o r t e
p a r a l a e l a b o r a c i b n de un nuevo p r o y e c t o e s t r a t e g i c o .
(Bandera 341, O f i c i n a 352,
Santiago,
Chile).
.
J o r g e C o r r e a S. e t a l , J u s t i c i a y s e c t o r e s de b a j o s i n g r e s o s ( S a n t i a g o : CED, 1 3 8 8 )
216pp. E l C e n t r e de E s t u d i o s d e l O e s a r r o l l o (CED) es une i n s t i t u c i b n formada p a r a e s t u d i a r
10s problemas econ6micos y s o c i a l e s de C h i l e y b u s c a r su s o l u c i 6 n en e l marco de una
s o c i e d a d d e m o c r i t i c a , j u s t a y p a r t i c i p a t i v a . Para e l c u m p l i m i e n t o de sus o b j e t i v o s ha
l l e v a d o a cab0 i n v e s t i q a c i o n e s s o b r e un g r a n nGmero de m a t e r i a s que han c o n t r i b u i d o a un
m e j o r c o n o c i m i e n t o de l a r e a l i d a d . Uno d e 10s problemas que ha s i d o m i s i q n o r a d o p o r 10s
c i e n t i s t a s s o c i a l e s es e l de l a a d m i n i s t r a c i b n de j u s t i c i a a esa g r a n masa de l a p o b l a c i b n
de escasos r e c u r s o s e c o n 6 n i c o s . Es en v i s t a de e l l 0 que l a d i r e c c i 6 n d e l CED d e c i d i 6 avoc a r s e a l a consideration d e l tema y busc6 l a cooperation de e s p e c i a l i s t a s : p r o f e s o r e s ,
m a g i s t r a d o s y abogados, que p u d i e r a n a n a l i z a r con a u t o r i d a d l a i n s t i t u c i o n a l i d a d j u r i d i c a
c h i l e n a en 10 que r e s p e c t a a1 d e r e c h o fundamental de t o d o hombre o m u j e r p a r a o b t e n e r j u s t i c i a en t o d o l o que a f e c t a a su persona,
su f a m i l i a y su p a t r i m o n i o .
(Nueva de Lyon 128,
S a n t i a g o 9, C h i l e ) .
.
Mariano Fernindez,
M a r t a de
l a Luz H u r t a d o e t a l ,
T e l e v i s i b n en C h i l e :
Un d e s a f i o
n a c i o n a l ( S a n t i a g o : CED, 1987) 226pp.
.
M a x i m i l i a n o Cox y Rolando Cnateauneuf ( e d s ) , P o t e n c i a l y p o l i t i c a s p a r a e l d e s a r r o l l o
a g r i c o l a en C h i l e ( S a n t i a g o : CED, 1988) 242pp.
.
I g n a c i o Walker, Un nuevo s o c i a l i s m 0 d e m o c r a t i c 0 en C h i l e ; Daqmar R a c z y n s k i y C l a u d i a
Serrano, P l a n i f i c a c i o n p a r a e l d e s a r r o l l o l o c a l ? La e x p e r i e n c i a en a l g u n o s m u n i c i p i o s de
Santiago (Santiago: E s t u d i o s Cieplan,
1988),
( A V . C. C o l o n 3494, S a n t i a g o , C h i l e ) .
.
Caltan Villavicencio
e t at,
Ecuador 88:
Elecciones,
economia
y
( G u a y a q u i l : CERC, 1988) 184pp. Una r e c o p i l a c i b n de v a r i e s e s t u d i o s acad&nicos
estrategias
que abordan
l a p r o b l e m i t i c a s o c i a l , e c o n h i c a y p o l i t i c a . Un l i b r o s u b t a n t l v o que a p o r t a e l e m e n t o s
c r T t i c o s f u n d a m e n t a l e s p a r a l a c o n f i g u r a c i 6 n d e l nuevo g o b i e r n o . Ou6 problemas s o c i a l e s
e n f r e n t a r i e l nuevo r e g i m e n ? Oue a s p e c t o s de l a econortna n a c i o n a l son b i s i c o s y merecen
a t e n c i 6 n p r i o r i t a r i a ? CuSIes son l a s d i f i c u l t a d e s e s t r u c t u r a l e s que e l nuevo p r e s i d e n t e
e n c o n t r a r i en l a m a t r i z rnisma d e l p a l s ? ( C a s i l l a 94-21,
.
David C o r k i l l
and D a v i d C u b i t t ,
Ecuador:
Guayaquil,
F r a g i l e Democracy
Ecuador).
(London:
L a t i n America
Bureau, 1988) 115pp. T h i s book examines t h e h i s t o r i c a l f o r c e s b e h i n d F e b r e s C o r d e r o ' s exp e r i m e n t i n 'Andean T h a t c h e r i s m ' . A n a l y s i n g E c u a d o r ' s v o l a t i l e p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e and b i t t e r r e g i o n a l i s m , i t a r g u e s t h a t t h e c o u n t r y ' s economic v u l n e r a b i l i t y t h r e a t e n s t h e democ r a t i c p r o c e s s . D e s p i t e t e m p o r a r y b e n e f i t s from o i l e x p o r t e r s , Ecuador i s now a m a j o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e b t o r , t h e v i c t i m o f IMF-imposed a u s t e r i t y measures, and dependent on uns t a b l e commodity m a r k e t s . R e c e s s i o n has f u r t h e r worsened t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e p o o r , who
i n c r e a s i n g l y see hope o n l y i n e x t r a - p a r l i a m e n t a r y
organisation.
F r a g i l e Democracy o f f e r s
t h e most u p - t o - d a t e E n g l i s h - l a n g u a g e s u r v e y o f t h i s l i t t l e known L a t i n American r e p u b l i c .
( 1 Amnell S t r e e t , London ECIR WL, U K ) .
.
S e c r e t a r i a t i n t e r n a t i o n a l des j u r i s t e s p o u r I ' a m n i s t i e e t l a d e m o c r a t i c au Paraguay,
Paraguay: Un d e f i t i l a r e s p o n s a b i l i t e i n t e r n a t i o n a l e , C o l l o q u e I n t e r n a t i o n a l des J u r i s tes,
Montevideo,
Uruguay, du 5 au 7 decembre 1985. (33 r u e Codot de Mauroy, 75009 P a r i s ,
France).
.
F r a n c i s c o Durand, La burguesTa p e r u a n a : Los p r i m e r o s i n d u s t r i a l e s ,
e m p r e s a r i o s [DESCO, 1988) 75pp. [ L e o n de l a F u e n t e 110, Lima 17, P e r u ) .
.
Carlos
M.
Vilas,
Scientific
Research
N i c a r a g u a ( S t o c k h o l m : SAREC Documentation,
in
a
Revolutionary
A l a n C a r c i a y 10s
Setting:
The
Case
of
1988) 97pp.
.
R o b e r t R e p e t t o , The F o r e s t f o r t h e T r e e s ? Government P o l i c i e s and t h e M i s u s e o f
F o r e s t Resources ( W o r l d Resources I n s t i t u t e ,
1988) 105pp. (1750 New York Ave, NW,
Washington, DC 20006,
.
National
USA).
L e g i s l a t i o n and
Regulations
Relating
to
York: U n i t e d N a t i o n s C e n t r e on T r a n s n a t i o n a l C o r p o r a t i o n s ,
Transnational
Corporations
(New
1988) 322pp.
.
I s t v 5 n Dobozi, An E m p i r i c a l E s t i m a t i o n o f t h e P r i c e Responsiveness o f t h e H u n g a r i a n
Economy: The Case o f Energy Demand ( H u n g a r i a n S c i e n t i f i c C o u n c i l f o r W o r l d Economy, 1988)
47pp.
(PO0 36, Budapest H-1531,
Hungary).
.
J e a n - P i e r r e V e l i s , La F r a n c e i l l e t t r e e ( P a r i s : Le S e u i l , 1 9 8 8 ) 270pp. P l u s i e u r s m i l l i o n s d ' a d u l t e s f r a n c a i s s o n t i l l e t t r e s . Le p r o b l 6 m e e s t connu. Son ampleur e t sa g r a v i t e
n ' a r r i v e n t pas 3 e b r a n l e r I ' i n d i f f e r e n c e de l ' o p i n i o n p u b l i q u e . P o u r t a n t , 20 a 22% des
e n f a n t s q u i s o n t e n t r e s en s i x i s m e I ' a n d e r n i e r ne s a v a i e n t pas l i r e . Une t r e s g r a n d e maj o r i t e d ' e n t r e eux r e s t e r a i l l e t t r e e .
u n pnenomene p r 0 p r e . a l a F r a n c e .
P o u r q u o i se v o i l e r
l a f a c e ? L ' i l l e t t r i s r p e n ' e s t pas
l 1 se r e t r o u v e dans l a m a j e u r e p a r t i e des s o c i e t 6 s i n d u s -
t r i e l l e s . L'Unesco s ' e n preoccupe. Pendant deux annees, J e a n - P i e r r e V e l i s a mene une enq u S t e dans t o u t s l a m e t r o p o l e . l 1 a r e n c o n t r e des c e n t a i n e s de personnes, i l l e t t r e s , f o r mateurs, educateurs, responsables d ' a s s o c i a t i o n s , enseignants, o f f i c i e r s , chefs d ' e n t r e p r i s e s , f o n c t i o n n a i r e s d ' o r g a m i s a t i o n s i n t e r n a t i o n a l e s . 11 a c o n s u l t e des k i l o s de r a p p o r t s e t de documents s o u v e n t c o n f i d e n t i e l s e t s u i v i des r e u n i o n s i n t e r n a t i o n a l e s p o u r
r e n c o n t r e r des e x p e r t s e t r a n g e r s . De c e voyage dans I ' i l l e t r i s m e , 11 r a p p o r t e une vue
d'ensemble s u r u n p r o b l e m e o c c u l t 6 p a r t r o p de p r k j u g e s .
R E G I O N A L SPACE
.
Ben Wisner, Power and Need i n A f r i c a : B a s i c Human Needs and Development P o l i c i e s
(London: E a r t h s c a n , 1988) 351pp. T h i s book i s a r a d i c a l c r i t i q u e o f t h e l a s t 15 y e a r s o f
development p o l i c i e s i n A f r i c a . Wisner m a i n t a i n s t h a t p o l i c i e s w h i c h m i g h t have s t a r t e d
w i t h t h e r e a l needs o f t h e p o o r were d i s c a r d e d i n f a v o u r o f a c o n c e p t i o n o f need imposed
f r o m t h e t o p . He i s w a t c h i n g i n h i s a t t a c k s on i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g e n c i e s , on t h e W o r l d Bank,
t h e IMF, t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s , a l l o f whom he sees as h a v i n g f a i l e d t o l i s t e n t o t h e v i e w s
o f t h e v e r y p e o p l e t h e y c l a i m t o want t o h e l p .
.
York:
Thomas P.
F e n t o n and Mary J.
O r b i s Books,
Heffron
( 3 E n d s l e i g h S t r e e t , London W C 3 ODD, UK).
(eds),
W :A
D i r e c t o r y of
Resources (New
1987) 144pp. T h i s d i r e c t o r y c o n t a i n s a n n o t a t e d e n t r i e s and supplemen-
t a r y l i s t s o f r e s o u r c e s i n f i v e c h a p t e r s : o r g a n i z a t i o n s , books, p e r i o d i c a l s , p a m p h l e t s and
AV r e s o u r c e s . A l l e n t r i e s a r e f u l l y
i n d e x e d b y name o f o r g a n i z a t i o n ;
name o f
a u t h o r and
other individuals;
title;
g e o g r a p h i c area;
and s u b j e c t .
i n h e r foreword,
J e n n i f e r David,
e x e c u t i v e d i r e c t o r o f t h e American Committee on A f r i c a , w r i t e s : Africa: A D i r e c t o r y o f
Resources h o l d s g r e a t r i c h e s f o r anyone concerned a b o u t e f f e c t i v e s o c i a l change. I t cont a i n s empowering i n f o r m a t i o n f o r a l l o f us - a n a l y s i s , b i b 1 i o g r a p h i e s , c u r r i c u l u m g u i d e s ,
f i l m s , s l i d e s h o w s and much more. Above a l l i t c o n f i r m s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e a r e many o f us,
t h i n k i n g and w o r k i n g i n many p l a c e s ,
b u i l d a movement t o g e t h e r . "
and t h a t we can r e a c h o u t and f i n d each o t h e r and
(Maryknoll,
New York 10545, U S A ) .
S e i s i n f o r m e s de l a C c m i s i o n Sudamericana de Paz:
-
H e c t o r Cros E s p i e d , E l c o n c e p t 0 de zona de Paz, 15pp.
riuqo Palma, Medidas de c o n f i a n z a r e c i p r o c a , 63pp.
Edgardo Mercado J a r r l n ,
seguridad,
Fundamentos de una d o c t r i n a sudamericana de defensa y
76pp.
A l e x a n d r e B a r r o s , A c o o p e r a ~ 5 0m i l i t a r na seguranca d e m o c r a t i c a r e g i o n a l , 24pp.
Juan C a b r i e l T o k a t l i i n , S e g u r i d a d y d r o g a s : Su s i q n i f i c a d o en l a s r e l a c i o n e s e n t r e
Colombia y E s t a d o s Unidos, ^pp.
N o r b e r t o ConzSlez, Les r e l a c i o n e s i n t e r n a c i o n a l e s y l a s c o n d i c i o n a n t e s de l a segur i d a d economics en America L a t i n a , 39pp.
(ILET, C a s i l l a 16637, C o r r e o 9, S a n t i a g o , C h i l e ) .
.
J a c k i e R o d d i c k , The Dance o f t h e M i l l i o n s : L a t i n America and t h e D e b t C r i s i s
(London: L a t i n American Bureau, 1988) 258pp. P r o v i d e s a comprehensive a c c o u n t o f t h e L a t i n
American d e b t c r i s i s . Examines why t h e bank l o a n s came a b o u t i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e ,
how most
o f them were used, and why t h e y s u d d e n l y d r i e d up i n t h e 1980s. Argues t h a t t h e r o l e
p l a y e d b y t h e IMF and t h e W o r l d Bank as t h e f i n a n c i a l p o l i c e m e n o f L a t i n America h a s compounded t h e c r i s i s f o r t h e p o o r ,
who were t h e l e a s t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
A l s o a n a l y s e s why L a t i n American governments have so f a r
t h e debt mountain.
f a i l e d t o s t a n d u p t o t h e banks
and say " C a n ' t pay, w o n ' t pay". The book i n c l u d e s case s t u d i e s o f B r a z i l , P e r u and C o s t a
R i c a . I t asks how B r a z i l came t o r u n up t h e T h i r d W o r l d ' s l a r g e s t d e b t and why i t f a i l e d
i n i t s a t t e m p t t o qo i t a l o n e w i t h o u t t h e IMF;
i t a n a l y s e s t h e successes and c o n s t r a i n t s
o f A l a n C a r c i a ' s p o l i c y o f n o t p a y i n g a l l P e r u ' s d e b t ; and i t documents t h e enormous p o l i t i c a l and e c o n a n i c c o n s t r a i n t s on a t i n y d e b t o r c o u n t r y 1 i k e C o s t a R i c a . I t c o n c l u d e s b y
a n a l y s i n g a11 t h e present; o p t i o n s t o r e l i e v e t h e d e b t and a l l o w L a t i n America a modicum o f
development i n t h e 1990s. ( 1 Amwell S t r ,
London EClR lUL, UK).
E n t r e 10s E s t u d i o s d e l C e n t r o L a t i n o a m e r i c a n o de Economia y P o l i t i c a l n t e r n a c i o n a l :
-
-
-
L u i s M a i r a , Los e s c e n a r i o s i n t e r n a c i o n a l e s y e l p r o c e s o de f o r m a c i o n de l a s p o l i t i c a s e x t e r i o r e s (N016, 1988) 68pp.
S e r g i o B i t a r y C a r l o s Ominami, La p o l l t i c a i n d u s t r i a l de America L a t i n a h a c i a f i n e s
del s
i
w (N09, 1 9 8 7 ) S8pp.
S e r g i o B i t a r , N e o e s t r u c t u r a l i s m o v e r s u s n e o l i b e r a l i s m o en America L a t i n a ( N 0 3 ,
1987) 52pp.
C a r l o s Ominami, C h i l e en busca de nuevas m o d a l i d a d e s de i n s e r e i o n i n t e r n a c i o n a l
(N04, 1987) 24pp.
Jaime E s t h v e z , America L a t i n a b a j o l a c o n d i c i o n a l i d a d d e l Fondo M o n e t a r i o I n t e r -
national (1983-1987)
( C a s i l l a 16 106, C o r r e o 9,
(N07, 1987) 33pp.
Santiago,
Chile).
. SaGl Zabrano B a r a j a s e t a l . R e s u r g i n i e n t o d e l f u n d a m e n t a l i s m o i s l a m i c o en e l Medio
O r i e n t s (IMRED, 1988) 32pp. (CP 06200, M e x i c o DF, M e x i c o ) .
. Ahmad A b d a l l a ( c d ) , A f r i c a n L a t i n American D i a l o g u e - Seminar I l l ( C a i r o : I n s t i t u t e
o f Diplomatic Studies,
1986) 315pp.
.
John C o n n e l l ,
S o v e r e i g n t y and S u r v i v a l :
i s l a n d M i c r o s t a t e s i n t h e T h i r d World ( U n i -
v e r s i t y o f Sydney, 1988) 120pp. An e x t e n s i v e and s y s t e m a t i c r e v i e w , i n c o r p o r a t i n g more
t h a n 400 r e c e n t r e f e r e n c e s , o f c u r r e n t development p r a c t i c e and p o l i c y i n t h e t w e n t y i s l a n d s t a t e s t h a t have p o p u l a t i o n s o f l e s s t h a n a m i l l i o n . R e f e r e n c e i s a l s o made t o some
l a r g e r i s l a n d s t a t e s ( n o t a b l y M a u r i t i u s ) and t o s m a l l i s l a n d t e r r i t o r i e s , dependencies and
c o l o n i e s where
states.
the
structural
situation
is
similar
t o that of
The monograph examines c o n c e p t s o f v a r i a b i l i t y ,
politically
independent
s e l f - r e l i a n c e and dependence,
as
!Aey a p p l y t o v e r y s m a l l s t a t e s , and r e v i e w s t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y s i t u a t i o n i n c o n v e n t i o n a l
a r e a s o f economic development: a g r i c u l t u r e , f i s h e r i e s , i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n , t o u r i s m (and
o t h e r e x p a n d i n g s e r v i c e s . ( D p t o f Geography, Sydney NSW 2006,
Australia).
G L O B A L SPACE
.
Frank Barnaby f e d ) , The C a i a Peace A t l a s : S u r v i v a l i n t o t h e T h i r d M i l l e n n i u m (London:
Pan Books, 1988) 271pp. The C a i a Peace A t l a s i s a c h a l l e n g i n g and a u t h o r i t a t i v e s t u d y o f
t h e p r o s p e c t f o r peace i n t o t h e n e x t m i l l e n n i u m . The sequel t o t h e b e s t s e l l i n g The Ga:a
A t l a s o f P l a n e t Management, The C a i a Peace A t l a s maps and a n a l y s e s t h e r o o t s o f peace and
war; and a r g u e s t h a t t h e arms r a c e , f a r f r o m a c h i e v i n g s e c u r i t y , t h r e a t e n s t h e s u r v i v a l o f
t h e human r a c e and t h e l i f e - s u s t a i n i n g n a t u r a l w o r l d . P a r t 1 ' P a s t : The Lessons o f E x p e r i e n c e ' and 2 ' P r e s e n t : Between Two W o r l d s ' a r e d e s c r i p t i v e , showing t h e r o o t s o f o u r d i l e m ma and t h e s c a l e o f t h e c r i s e s we f a c e . P a r t 3 ' F u t u r e : Our F a t e i n Our h a n d s ' i s p r e s c r i p t i v e , e x p l o r i n g t h e c h a l l e n g e o f s u s t a i n a b l e peace. Each p a r t i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e
c h a p t e r s , w h i c h s e p a r a t e l y examine t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r peace, t h e c r i s i s o f f a i l u r e , and
e f f o r t s f o r new s o l u t i o n s . E d i t e d b y F r a n k Barnaby, former d i r e c t o r o f t h e S t o c k h o l m I n t e r n a t i o n a l Peace R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , w i t h r e s e a r c h f r o m w o r l d - w i d e o r g a n i z a t i o n s and coni n c l u d i n g Cro
t r i b u t i o n s f r o m m a j o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i g u r e s - E a s t , West and n o n - a l i g n e d ,
B r u n d t l a n d , Johan C a l t u n g , P e t r a K e l l y , M a u r i c e F. S t r o n g and I n g a Thorsson - i t p r e s e n t s
t h e o p t i o n s f o r peace and a s u s t a i n a b l e f u t u r e i n a u t h o r i t a t i v e and h a r d - h i t t i n g g r a p h i c
style.
.
(Cavaye P l a c e , London SW10 9PC. U K ) .
Thomas O h l s o n ( e d ) ,
4
(Stockholm:
SIPRI, 1988) 260pp. I s t h e arms t r a d e o u t o f c o n t r o l ? I s more c o n t r o l d e s i r a b l e ? 'What can
be l e a r n e d f r o m p r e v i o u s a t t e m p t s t o c o n t r o l t h e t r a n s f e r o f arms? Which a r e t h e m a i n obs t a c l e s t o more r e s t r a i n t ? Who s h o u l d b e g i n t h e p r o c e s s o f c o n t r o l ? These a r e some o f t h e
q u e s t i o n s d e a l t w i t h i n t h i s book. S i n c e t h e e a r l y 1970s, arms t r a n s f e r s have p l a y e d a
prominent r o l e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l
r e l a t i o n s and have been a f o c u s o f
i n t e r n a t i o n a l concern.
S t r u c t u r a l changes i n t h e arms m a r k e t h a v e l e d t o a d e c l i n e i n p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l o f t h e
arms t r a d e . S h o r t t e r m c o m n e r c i a l and p o l i t i c a l g a i n s have f r e q u e n t l y c l a s h e d w i t h l o n g e r t e r m f o r e i g n p o l i c y o b j e c t i v e s . The book assessses p a s t a t t e m p t s , c u r r e n t p r o p o s a l s and
f u t u r e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r l i m i t i n g t h e t r a d e i n weapons and weapon t e c h n o l o g y w i c h t h e
T h i r d W o r l d . T h i s volume c o m p l e t e s S I P R I ' s t r i l o g y on t h e f a c t s and i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e
b u i l d u p o f c o n v e n t i o n a l weapon a r s e n a l s i n t h e T h i r d World: Arms P r o d u c t i o n i n t h e T h i r d
(1986) and Arms T r a n s f e r t o t h e T h i r d W o r l d , 1971-85 ( P i p e r s vag 28, l 7 1 73 S o l n a ,
Sweden).
J o z e f G o l d b l a t and D a v i d Cox ( e d s ) . N u c l e a r Weapon T e s t s : P r o h i b i t i o n o r L i m i t a t i o n ?
(Stockholm: SIPRI, 1988) 423pp. No o t h e r i s s u e i n t h e f i e l d o f arms c o n t r o l has been t h e
s u b j e c t o f so much i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e l i b e r a t i o n and n e g o t i a t i o n as t h a t o f t h e c e s s a t i o n o f
n u c l e a r weapon t e s t s . The c o n c l u s i o n s o f t r i e volume a r e as f o l l o w s : ( i ) A comprehensive
t e s t ban w o u l d r e n d e r f u r t h e r n u c l e a r weapon development l a r g e l y i m p o s s i b l e . The r a c e f o r
-
q u a l i t a t i v e improvement o f n u c l e a r weapons
an i m p o r t a n t c h a n n e l o f t h e superpowers arms
c o m p e t i t i o n - w o u l d t h e r e b y be c o n s i d e r a b l y narrowed. ( i i ) N o n - n u c l e a r weapon s t a t e s c o u l d
p r o d u c e a f i r s t - g e n e r a t i o n f i s s i o n d e v i c e w i t h o u t t e s t i n g and b e c o n f i d e n t t h a t t h e d e v i c e
w o u l d e x p l o d e . B u t t h e weapon w o u l d be u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d , o f u n c e r t a i n y i e l d and p e r h a p s
difficult
t o deliver.
T h i s w o u l d s i o w down t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f
fission
neapons among
s t a t e s . The development o f t h e r m o n u c l e a r weapons w i t h o u t c o n d u c t i n g t e s t s w o u l d be o u t o f
t h e q u e s t i o n ; t h e i r p r o l i f e r a t i o n w o u l d t n e r e f o r e be p r e c l u d e d a l t o g e t h e r . ( i i i ) C e s s a t i o n
o f t e s t s by t h e p r e s e n t n u c l e a r weapon s t a t e s w o u l d de-emphasize t h e m i l i t a r y r o l e o f
n u c l e a r weapons. I t nay t h e r e n y a f f e c t t h e v i e w s o f t h o s e c o u n t r i e s w h i c h have so f a r been
r e l u c t a n t t o g i v e up t n e i r n u c l e a r weapon o p t i o n .
( i v ) A t e s t ban w o u l d be a m a j o r i n t e r -
i a t i o r a l achievevent w i t h considerable confidence-building e f f e c t s .
.
27pp.;
M i c h a e l B r z o s k a , The E r o s i o n o f R e s t r a i n t i n West Cerman Arms T r a n s f e r P o z c y : 1 9 8 8 )
M i c h a e l B r z o s k a and P e t e r Lock, Widening t h e Gap: The E f f e c t s o f M i l i t a r y Research
and Development on N o r t h - S o u t h R e l a t i o n s ( 1 9 8 8 ) 23pp. ( C e n t r e f o r t h e S t u d y o f Uars, Armaments and Development, Hamburg U n i v , A l l e n d e - P l a t z 1, 2000 Hamburg 13, FRG).
.
C e r t K r e l l , a s t p o l < t i k D i v e r s i o n s o f 4 e s t Gernan S e c u r ? t y B ( 1 9 8 8 ; S'+*lZpp;
Thanas Risse-Kappen, Z e r o O p t i o n : The G l o b a l E l i m i n a t i o n o f Ground-Launched I n t e r m e d i a t e -
*
Range M i s s i l e s - A P o l i t i c a l Assessment (1988) 34pp; Thomas Pisse-Kappen l e d ) ,
T a c t i c a l M i s s i l e Defenses and West European S e c u r i t y ( 1 9 8 8 ) 79pp. (Peace Research I n s t i tute Frankfurt,
.
Leimenrode 29,
Richard Falk,
6000 F r a n k f u r t / M .
Revolutionaries
and
l, FRG).
Functionaries:
The Qual
Face o f
Terrorism (New
York: D u t t o n , 1988) 222pp. S a u l M e n d l o v i t z w r i t e s : "An e x t r a o r d i n a r y accomplisnment. Cdref u l , comprehensive, and p r e c i s e , F a l k has w r i t t e n t h e d e f i n i t i v e a n a l y s i s on t e r r o r i s m . By
c r u c i a l l y i n t e g r a t i n g h i s p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e innocent w i t h h i s theory o f counterterrorism,
h e i n c i s i v e l y s c r u t i n i z e s i m p r o p e r v i o l e n c e . R e v o l u t i o n a r i e s and F u n c t i o n a i r e s i s a must
r e a d and n e c e s s a r y f o r government o f f i c i a l s and c i t i z e n s a l i ~ et o come t o g r i p s w i t h t n e
deep r o o t s o f v i o l e n c e i n o u r e r a . "
( 2 P a r k Avenue, New Y o ~ K ,NV 10016, USA).
.
R e p r e s e n t a t i o n s du T i e r s Monde ( P a r i s : CEWEV) 99pp. Dans l a s i t u a t i o n de c r i s e act . u e ^ l e , l e s o p i n i o n s , I ' i r n a q i n a i r e , l e s s a v o i r s s u r 1 ' A u t r e s o n t des e n j e u x c o n s i d e r a b l e s .
Les t e x t e s r 6 u n i s i c i s ' e f f o r c e n t
de d e c r y p t e r I e c o n t e n u de c e s r e p r 6 s e n t d t i o n s .
L'ouv-
r a g e f o u r n i t a u s s i des r e f e r e n c e s b i b l i o g r a p h i q u e s e t des i n f o r m a t i o n s s u r l e s a c t i v i t e s
c o n c e r n a n t u n domaine ma1 connu. Le moment e s t venu d ' u n b i l a n e t d ' u n e r e l a n c e des r e c h e r c h e ~c o n c e r n a n t I e m i r o i r b r i s e q u ' e s t n o t r e p e r c e p t i o n du T i e r s Monde. Non m o i n s u r g e n t e s s o n t I e s i n t e r v e n t i o n s dans I e s d e b a t s en c o u r s e t l a m i s e en q u e s t i o n d ' u n f l o t de
s t e r e o t y p e s n e g a t i f s , q u i s e n t s u r t o u t nos l i m i t a t i o n s c u l t u r e l l e s e t s c i e n t i f i q u e s .
r u e M a l h e r , 75004 P a r i s , F r a n c e ) .
(9
.
K a r l P. Sauvant, I n t e r n a t i o n a l T r a n s a c t i o n s i n S e r v i c e s : The P o l i t i c s o f T r a n s b o r d e r
Data F l o w s ( B o u l d e r : Westview P r e s s , 1986) 372pp. Over t h e p a s t decade, t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f
i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e and f o r e i g n d i r e c t i n v e s t m e n t i n s e r v i c e s , and e s p e c i a l l y d a t a s e r v i c e s ( t r a n s b o r d e r d a t a f l o w s ) , has i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y . T h i s book examines t h e r i s e
o f d a t a s e r v i c e s ( d a t a p r o c e s s i n g , s o f t w a r e , d a t a bases, and t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s e r v i c e s )
and t h e i m p a c t o f t h e s e s e r v i c e s on i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic t r a n s a c t i o n s , t h e n l o o k s a t
t r a d e and f o r e i g n d i r e c t i n v e s t m e n t i n s e r v i c e s i n g e n e r a l and r e v i e w s t h e p o l i c y p o s i t i o n
o f t h e U n i t e d States, t h e p r i n c i p a l proponent o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e r v i c e s discussion.
Sauvant a n a l yzes t h e i n t e r e s t s o f v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s v i s - i - v i s t r a d e and f o r e i g n d i r e c t
investment i n data s e r v i c e s ,
l o o k i n g a t p r o t e c t i o n o f p r i v a c y i s s u e s as we11 as c o m p e t i n g
a l u e s and approaches r e l a t i n g t o t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f d a t a r e s o u r c e s . He r e v i e w s t h e i n t e r "ationa:
p o l i c y d i s c u s s i o n as c a r r i e d o u t i m b ' l a t e r a l and mu1 t i l a t e r a l n e g o t i a t i o n s
t h r o u g h t h e OECD, t h e '51, t k e CAT? and m e U n i t e d N a t T i r s . S a s i c s t a t < s t < c a l d a t a accompany t h e t e x t , and key p o l i c y documents a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e annexes.
B o u l d e r , C o l o r a d o 80301, USA).
.
1988,
-
(5500 C e n t r a l Ave.
J a l a l e d d i n J a l a l i ( e d ) , A Research I n v e n t o r y t o r t h e M u l t i l a t e r a l Trade N e g o t i a t i o n s .
f l o r i d Bank Papers f o r t h e Uruguay Round, ( W a s h i n g t o n : IBRD, 1988) 287pp.
.
D a v i d Weir, The Bhopal Syndrome: P e s t i c i a e s , E n v i r o n m e n t & H e a l t h (London: E a r t h s c a n ,
1987) 208pp. T h i s book documents t h e g r o w i n g t h r e a t t o human l i f e and t h e e n v i r o n m e n t
posed by t h e g l o b a l p e s t i c i d e b u s i n e s s . We a r e a l l a t r i s k : F l i x b o r o u g h , England, 1974:
c y l o h e x a n e e x p l o s i o n ; 28 k i l l e d , 89 i n j u r e d , 3000 evacuated, 6 0 - a c r e s i t e c o m p l e t e l y dest r o y e d . Seveso, I t a l y , 1976: d i o x i n escape; mary c h i l d r e n d i s f i g u r e d by c h l o r a c n e , 4450
a c r e s o f f a r m l a n d p o i s o n e d , 100,000
g r a z i n g animals k i l l e d ,
1000 p e o p l e e v a c u a t e d .
Montana, Mexico, 1981: c h l o r i n e r e l e a s e ; 29 k i l l e d , 1000 i n j u r e d , 5000 e v a c u a t e d . Bhopal,
I n d i a , 1984: M1C gas escape; 2500 k i l l e d , 10,000 5 e r j o u s l y i n j u r e d , 20,CCO p a r t i a l l y d i s a b l e s , 180,000 a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d , "10,000
f u r t h e r casies o f i n j u r y a p p e a r i n g . B a s e l ,
Switzerland,
1986: 66,000
pounds o f p e s t i c i d e s l e a c h e d { n t o t h e R h i n e . The Bhopal Syndrome
e v a l u a t e s t h e r i s k s i n v o l v e d i n t h e c u r r e n t w o r l d w i d e e s c a l a t i o n i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n and use
o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p e s t i c i d e s . I t p r o v i d e s t h e i n f o r m a t i o n needed f o r a common f i c h t a g a i n s t
a common d a n g e r . ( 3 E n d s l e i g h S t r e e t , London KCIH ODD, UK).
.
H a b i t a t , G l o b a l R e p o r t on Human S e t t l e m e n t s 1986 ( O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1987)
229pp. T h i s i s t h e most comprehensive p u b l i c a t i o n y e t r e l e a s e d by t h e U n i t e d N a t i o r s on
human s e t t l e m e n t s . Produced by The U n i t e d N a t i o n s C e n t r e f o r Human S e t t l e m e n t s ( H a b i t a t ) ,
t h i s volume i n t r o d u c e s t h e c o n c e p t o f human s e t t l e m e n t s as i t has e v o l v e d f r o m t h e i n a u g u r a l H a b i t a t Conference i n 1976 i n Vancouver,
and a n a l y s e s t r e n d s and p r o s p e c t s i n b o t h t h e
g l o b a l and t h e r e g i o n a l spaces. I t s e l e c t s and i l l u s t r a t e s k e y p o l i c y i s s u e s i n t h e a r e a s
o f n a t i o n a l development, management, i n s t i t u t i o n s , f i n a n c i n g , l a n d , i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s and c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g y ,
and she1 t e r . I t i 1 l u s t r a t e s t h e n e c e s s a r y
t r a n s i t i o n f r o m n o r m a t i v e and r e g u l a t o r y p r a c t i c e s t o e n a b l i n g s t r a t e g i e s , and i t p r e s e n t s
t h e r o l e o f human s e t t l e m e n t s as b o t h t h e o b j e c t i v e s and t h e i n s t r u m e n t s o f development.
statistical
.
annex p r o v i d e s 18 t a b l e s o f n a t i o n a l d a t a .
K a t a r i n a Tomasevski,
F o r e i g n A i d and Human R i g h t s :
(The D a n i s h C e n t e r
Denmark).
.
Yvonne C a r o u t c h ,
of
Human R i g h t s ,
C i o r d a n o Bruno:
1986)
A
( W a l t o n S t r , O x f o r d OX2 6DP, U K ) .
1t2pp.
Case S t u d i e s o f
(PO3 38,
Le v o l c a n de V e n i s e ( A r i s t a ,
Bangladesh and
1002 Copenhagen
1988) 253pp.
K,
Une b i o -
graphie fascinante,
fondee 3 l a f o i s s u r l a f i c t i o n e t I ' e r u d i t i o n ,
du m e r v e i l l e u x
G i o r d a n o Bruno, h o m e de f e u q u i au XVIe s i e c l e osa. en I t a l i e e t 2 t r a v e r s l l E u r o p e ,
p o s e r l a q u e s t i o n de l a p l u r a l i t 6 des mondes e t de I ' i n f i n i , c ' e s t - 2 - d i r e de l a l i b e r t e .
D e f i q u i i e f i t p e r i r s u r I e bucher en 1600. Ce p r e c u r s e u r d ' u n e h u m a n i t e g l o b a l e , m y s t i que sans r e l i g i o n e t p r e c u r s e u r de C a l i l e e , f u t un p h i l o s o p h e , un s a v a n t , un h e r m e t i s t e ,
u n v i s i o n n a i r e e t un g r a n d p o e t e .
11 i n c a r n a 1e g e n i e h o r s des normes,
a
I ' a i s e 5 !a t a b l e
des s o u v e r a i n s e t des a l c h i m i s t e s c o m e a c e l l e des h e r e t i q u e s ou des gueux. Sa v i e e s t un
roman d ' u n e d e n s i t e e g a l e a c e l l e de son o e u v r e . Aprgs a v o i r 1u l ' e d i t i o n de 1975,
M a r g u e r i t e Yourcenar e c r i v a i t 2 I ' a u t e u r : "Ce n ' e s t pas p a r c e q u ' u n h e r o s c h e r c h e l a p e r fection qu'il
a t t e i n t I e bonheur.
Mais c e f o u d i v i n i n i t lui-m&ne
I e f e u au b r a s i e r p o u r
que t r i o m p h e n t e n f i n ses { d e e s . La, sa j o i e f u t sans d o u t e i n i m a q i n a D l e . Vous f a i t e s r e v i v r e l a t r a j e c t o i r e de c e t E t r e g r a n d i o s e avec l a meme v e r a c i t e que s i vous a v i e z e t 6 sa
compagne". (24580 P l a z a c - R o u f f i g n a c , F r a n c e ) .
PERIODICALS
HUMAN RIGHTS:
The Human R i g h t s B u l l e t i n o f
(LAWASIA) ( V o l 6 ,
NO1
A
t h e Law A s s o c i a t i o n f o r A s i a and t h e P a c i f i c
2 ) i s a r i c h d o u b l e i s s u e whose 155 pages a r e f i l l e d w i t h f a c t s
a b o u t m o s t c o u n t r i e s c o u n t r i e s o f t h e r e g i o n . SIM N e w s l e t t e r , t h e N e t h e r l a n d s q u a r t e r l y o f
human r i g h t s ( V o l 6, N02) d i s s u s s e s 'The i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o t e c t i o n o f human r i g h t s , w i t h
a r t i c l e s on t h e UN, t h e ILO, t h e C o u n c i l o f Europe and t h e O r g a n i z a t i o n o f American
S t a t e s . 'The e x e r c i z e o f p o l i t i c a l freedoms i n Morocco' i n The Review o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l
C m i s s i o n o f J u r i s t s ( N o 4 0 ) . S o c i a l J u s t i c e , A J o u r n a l o f Crime, C o n f l i c t & W o r l d O r d e r
i s t h e new name o f C r i m e and S o c i a l J u s t i c e ; v01 15. NO1 f o c u s s e s on p r i s o n s t r u g g l e s a t
L e x i n q t o n , K e n t u c k y , USA. 'Rescatando e l Derecho Andino: Derecho a g r a r i o y d e r e c h o s human o s * en S o c i a l i s m o y Participation ( N 0 4 2 ) .
CULTURES: ' I b n K h a l d o u n ' s i d e a s on s o c i e t y ' i n
( V o l 10, N 0 2 ) . ' A t t e m p t s a t
d e f i n i n g an I s l a m i c Economic O r d e r ' i n Economics ( V o l 3 7 ) . The T h a t c h e d P a t i o , house maga z i n e of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Centre f o r E t h n i c S t u d i e s reviews a t l e n g t h Vikram S e t h ' s novel
'The Golden G a t e ' . I n Green L i n e ( N o 6 4 ) Susan G r f f f i n t a l k s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f c u l t u r e
t h a t has b r o u g h t humankind t o t h e b r i n k . ' E x t e n s i o n d e l t r a b a j o en e l mundo a b o r i g e n ' en
Fundapazl
( N o 1 2 ) . ' P u e b l o s i n d i g e n a s m i l i t a r i z a d o s ' en A m a n e c e r i n d i o (AEo 6 , N07),
p u b l i c a c i 6 n de l a C o n f e d e r a c i f i n de n a c i o n a l i d a d e s de l a Amazonia e c u a t o r i a n a . ' T e c n o l o g i a
y c u l t u r a en 10s Andes: h e l a d a s e n t r e S i q c h o s y Toacazo' on Hombre y A m b i e n t e
E l punto
' R i g h t - w i n g r e l i g i o u s s e c t s ' i n IDOC I n t e r n a z i o n a l e
de v i s t a i n d i g e n a (Afio I , ? S ) .
( 8 8 / 1 ) . 'Tendances dte I ' a n t h r o p o l o g i a ' e s t I e theme du no116 de l a Revue i n t e r n a t i o n a l e
-
d e sciences sociales.
CHANCE: 'Why w o r k ? When t h e r e ' s so much more t o l i f e ' i n t h e U t n e Reader, t h e b e s t o f t h e
[US] a l t e r n a t i v e p r e s s (N028). C e n t r e p o i n t (N032) c e l e b r a t e s i t s 1 0 t h a n n i v e r s a r y and
l o o k s a t ' w h e r e does t h e Community go f r o m h e r e ? ' . F u t u r e S u r v e y ( V o l 10, N08) l o o k s , i n t e r a l i a , a t w o r l d f u t u r e s and a t r e g i o n s and n a t i o n s . I n
( V o l 20, N04), l a n M i l e s
wonders 'The e l e c t r o n i c c o t t a g e : m y t h o r n e a r - m y t h ? ' and S o h a i l I n a y a t u l l a h a b o u t ' A l t e r n a t i v e f u t u r e s f o r t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ' . 'Hegemonia, p o l i t i c a y s o c i a l i s m o : La a c t u a l i d a d de
G r a m s c i ' en Economia i n f o r m a ( 1 5 3 ) .
HEALTH: Debabar B a n e r j i d i s c u s s e s 'The b a t t l e f o r t o t a l h e a l t h c a r e ' i n a s p e c i a l number
o f t h e I n d i a I n t e r n a t i o n a l C e n t r e Q u a r t e r l y on ' I n d i a : F o r t y y e a r s ' ( V o l 14, N03) w h i c h
a l s o f e a t u r e s J.K. C a l b r a i t h , S u r e n d r a P a t e l ( ' T o o much f o r t o o f e w ' ) and s e v e r a l o t h e r s .
IAlma A t a t e n y e a r s a f t e r ' i n A p p r o p r i a t e Technology f o r H e a l t h (N020). HA1 News (Ne40)
c e l e b r a t e s i t s 4 0 t h i s s u e when WHO c e l e b r a t e s i t s 4 0 t h a n n i v e r s a r y . H a l f d a n M a h l e r , t h e
r e t i r i n g D i r e c t o r o f WHO, draws a p a r a l l e l . Medicaments e s s e n t i e l s : l e p o i n t (No6) c e l s b r e
p o u r sa p a r t l e s d i x ans de I ' i d e e des medicaments e s s e n t i e l s , ' m a i s e n c o r e beaucoup .3
f a i r e ' . An i n t e r v f e w w i t h Dr S i d n e y M. Wolfe, t h e a u t h o r o f ' P i l l s t h a t d o n ' t w o r k '
in
t h e M u l t i n a t i o n a l M o n i t o r ( V o l 9, N06). ' D r u g g i n g t h e T h i r d World: Japanese p h a r m a c e u t i ( N o s ) . 'The p e o p l e ' s remedy: H e a l t h c a r e i n E l S a l v a d o r ' i n t h e
cals i n Thailand' i n
M o n t h l y Review ( V o l 40, N03). The f o c u s s e c t i o n o f Panoscope ( N 0 7 ) i s on a i d s . ' A d a p t e r
l ' e d u c a t i o n p o u r l a s a n t e aux r e a l i t e s c u l t u r e l l e s du monde r u r a l ' dans F a m i l l e e t Developpement ( N o 4 9 ) . ' L ' a l l a i t e m e n t m a t e r n e l ' dans S a n t e f a r n i l i a l e e t c o m u n i c a t i o n , b u l l e t i n
3 l ' u s a g e des r a d i o d i f f u s i o n s a f r i c a i n e s ( N o g ) e t ' H a b i t a t e t s a n t e ' dans l a L e t t r e u r b a i n e de 1 'ENDA (Ne15).
m
FOOD PRODUCTION: ' P e r u : A g r i c u l t u r e , c r i s i s and macroeconomic p01 i c y ' b y J a v i e r I g u i i i i z
and ' A g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r p o l i c y and macroeconomic p l a n n i n g ' b y T r e v o r H a r k e r i n t h e Cepal
Review ( N 0 3 3 ) . The IDS B u l l e t i n ( V o l 19, N02) f o c u s s e s on 'Cash c r o p s i n d e v e l o p i n g count r i e s ' . I n l n t e r n a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l Development ( V o l 8, N04) Farhana Raque Rahman w r i t e s
a b o u t ' a p r o j e c t i n Bangladesh r t h i c h s h o u l d b r i n g new o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o s m a l l f a r m e r s ' . The
I L E I A N e w s l e t t e r ( I n f o r m a t i o n c e n t r e f o r Low E x t e r n a l I n p u t A g r i c u l t u r e ) i s d e v o t e d t o
'Mechanized v e r s u s non-mechanized approaches t o s o i l
' M o u n t a i n A g r i c u l t u r e ( V o l 4, ? l ) .
r m i n e r a l i z a t i o n * i n S o i l R e m i n e r a l i z a t i o n , a n e t w o r k n e w s l e t t e r ( V o l 111, N o l O ) .
(N015) p r e s e n t e un d o s s i e r s u r ' c u l t u r e s a s s o c i e e s : l e p a s s e au s e c o u r s d u f u t u r ' .
es un b o l e t i n s o b r e t e c n o l o g i a a l i m e n t a r i a a p r o p r i a d a a1 d e s a r r o l l o a q r o i n d u s t r i a t
Su N o 35 es un e s p e c i a l s o b r e 'eel f r i o ' .
c u l t i v o s en e l A I t i p l a n o i en
'Camas o r g a n i c a s p r o t e g i d a s :
rural.
una a l t e r n a t i v a p a r a
(Noll).
APRENDIZAJE: 'Education s u p e r i o r : p e r s p e c t i v a s h i s t o r i c a s y problemas contemporaneos' en
Opciones ( V l 3 ) . Desde l a s Bases (A60 V, N017) p r e s e n t a una e x p e r l e n c i a de a l f a b e t i z a c i b n
a l t e r n a t i v a en Q u i l m e s , A r g e n t i n a .
Extra",
COMMUNICATION:
i t s essential
work:
t h e n e w s l e t t e r o f FAIR ( F a i r n e s s & Accuracy i n R e p o r t i n g ) c o n t i n u e s
Vo:
1,
P 8 examines i t s f i r s t y e a r and r e v e a l s 'New York C i t y ' s b i g
s e c r e t : The n u c l e a r h o m e p o r t ' whereas Vol 2. N o l compares t h e c o v e r a q e o f KAL 007 and I r a n
A i r 655. 'New i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y f o r d e v e l o p m e n t ' i n S a r i l a k a s G r a s s r o o t s Development
( V 0 l I l l , N02).
VILLES: Un numero muy r i c o de l a R e v i s t a I n t e r a m e r i c a n a de P l a n i f i c a c i o n ( V o l
CIUDADES
XX11, N085) p r e s e n t a d o p o r Ignacy Sachs y V i c e n t e Sanchez con, e n t r e o t r o s , ' E s t r u c t u r a s
de 10 c o t i d i a n o y funci'onamiento
i n f o r m a l ' p o r V i c e n t e Sanchez;
de l a 'economia r e a l ' :
'Mercado,
mhs a l l & de l a d i c o t o m i a f o r m a l -
no mercado, cuasimercado y l a ' e c o n o m i c r e a l ' p o r
I g n a c y Sachs; ' E s t r a t e g i a s de 1a s u p e r v i v i e n c i a en l a s c i u d a d e s l a t i n o a m e r i c a n a s ' p o r
Susana F i n q u e l e v i c h ; ' E s p a c i o y t e c n o l o g i a en e l t r o p i c o humedo' p o r Eduardo N e i r a ; 'Camb i o d e l e s t i l o de v i d a d e l Venezolano a n t e l a c r i s i s ' p o r Frank Bracho: e t c . 'Economie
p o p u l a i r e u r b a i n e ' dans l a L e t t r e u r b a i n e (No16)
RURAL DEVELOPMENT: En Nueva S o c i e d a d ( N 0 9 6 ) ,
' E l mundo campesino cambio s i n r e f o r m a ' .
Re-
forma A g r a r i a (Aiio 17. No3) examine l a q u e s t i o n a g r a i r e au B r e s i l : q u ' e s t - c e q u i a r e e l l e m e n t change dans l e s annees 8 0 / 8 5 ? ( e n p o r t u g a i s ) .
I n t h e Journal o f S o c i a l Development i n A f r i c a ( V o l 3, N02), ' R u r a l g r o w t h p o i n t i n Zimbabwe' and ' S o c i a l s e r v i c e s t o r u r a l a r e a s ' . Dans Need ( N 0 8 ) , un d o s s i e r s u r l ' & l e c t r i f i c a t i o n r u r a l e .
INDUSTRY: A s p e c i a l t h e m a t i c i s s u e o f P u b l i c E n t e r p r i s e ,
'Performance e v a l u a t i o n o f p u b l i c
e n t e r p r i s e s i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s ' ( V o l 8, N o l ) and 'The making o f a s t a t e - o w n e d cong l o m e r a t e : a B r a z i l i a n c a s e s t u d y ' ( V o l 8, N o 2 ) . 'New m a t e r i a l s , new m a c h i n e s ' i n Impact
o f s c i e n c e o n s o c i e t y (No1491.
MEDIO AMBIENTE
en Pensamiento
*
*
ENVIRONMENT
ENVIRONNEMENT: 'Medio ambiente, d e t e r i o r o y recuperation'
I b e r o a m e r i c a n o ( 1 2 ) . Cemat's Red N e w s l e t t e r ( V o l 3, N026) r e p o r t s on t h e
F i r s t C e n t r a l American Conference on e n v i r o n m e n t a l a c t i o n . Bhopal and U n i o n C a r b i d e i n
IOCU Consumer I n t e r p o l Memo ( N 0 1 8 / 8 8 ( 6 1 ) . 'Poor p e o p l e f o r e s t r y ' i n A p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g y
( V o l 15, N o l ) . 'La d e s t r u c t i o n p r o g r e s s i v e du S a h e l ' p a r Rene Dumont dans F u t u r i b l e s
' P o l l u t i o n de l ' e s ( N 0 1 2 3 ) . ' D i s t r i b u t i o n de l ' e a u ' , no s p e c i a l ( V o l 16, N02) de
m.
p a c e ' dans
(No108). ' U m e l t D r i t t e W e l t '
in
(17).
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: 'The I n d i a n t r a d i t i o n i n s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y ' i n
[Patriot i c & P e o p l e - o r i e n t e d S c i e n c e 6 Technology b u l l e t i n ] , (No 1 3 - 1 4 ) .
Science I n t e r n a t i o n a l
,
n e w s l e t t e r o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f S c i e n t i f i c U n i o n s ( N '33) r e p o r t s on t h e e n d i n g
o f ENLMAR, t h e w o r k i n g g r o u p on t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l consequences o f n u c l e a r war and o f f e r s
t h e u s u a l news on 1CSU's a c t i v i t i e s .
TERCER SISTEMA
*
FIERS SYSTEME
*
THIRD SYSTEM:
' M o v i m i e n t o s p o p u l a r e s en C o s t a R i c a ' en l a
R e v i s t a de C i e n c i a s S o c i a l e s ( N o 3 7 - 3 8 ) . ' S u b v e r s i o n y l u c h a a n t i s u b v e r s i v a : l a s b a t a l l a s
m i s s i g n i f i c a t i v a s l a s d a r h l a p o b l a c i 6 n o r g a n i z a d a ' e n t r e v i s t a con e l g e n e r a l S i n e s i o
Jarama en Ouehacer ( 5 3 ) . 'Regroupement a s s o c i a t i f e t d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n ' dans & [ N 0 5 6 ) .
Workteam
ing.
'goes r e g i o n a l
*
f r o m Botswana t o o t h e r SADCC c o u n t r i e s ;
NO5 f o c u s s e s on m a r k e t -
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Labour R e p o r t ( 2 7 - 2 8 ) has a s e c t i o n on ' A f t e r J a p a n '
dnd c o v e r s a l s o
t h e P h i l i p p i n e s and o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . ANCOC I n f o r m a t i o n Notes ('401 8, ?S)
r e p o r t s on t h e
r e g i o n a l s m a l l - s c a l e f i s h e r i e s d e v e l opment i n S o u t h E a s t A s i a . ' S o c i e a a d de consume' en
A l t e r n a t i v a s ( 5 4 ) . 'Consumer m o n i t o r ' i n BEUC News ( 7 6 ) . ' R e f l e x i o n s s u r l e s Ongs, l e u r
g e s t i o n e t I e u r r o l e en m a t i e r e de developpement: l t a l i e , A n g l e t e r r e , lnde, C h i l i , F r a n c e '
dans T r a n s n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n s T r a n s n a t i o n a l e s ( 8 8 1 3 ) .
#OMEN
*
FEMMES:
' U r b a n p o o r women'
i n Piqlas-Diwa,
l s s i i e s and t r e n d s a b o u t women o f
the
P h i l i p p i n e s ( V o l I I , N03) and 'Homen i n f i s h e r i e s ' ('401 I I , N o 2 i . 'Success s t o r i e s i n women's c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s ' by Kamla B h a s i n i n Uomen i n a c t i o n ( 8 8 / 2 ) . # I D B u l l e t i n
o f f e r s 30 pages o f ' r e s o u r c e s ' . ' S o c i a l Change: A r e women a c t o r s o r s p e c t a (Vol 3 , N o > ) . "#men i n t h e o l o g y ' i n
( N 0 3 0 ) . L'=
de ? 'AFARD, evo-
( V o l 3, '4'3)
torsr i n
que ( e n f r a n q a i s e t en a n g l a i s ) 1es a c t i v i t i e s de 1'AFARD e t d ' a u t r e s a s s o c i a t i o n s f e m i n i nes. La T r i b u n e ( N 0 1 3 / 1 4 ) c o n s t i t u e u n 'manuel d ' a c t i o n c m u n a u t a i r e c o n c e r n a n t l e s s t r a f e g i e s p r o s p e c t i v e s d f a c t i o n de N a i r o b i pour l a p r o m o t i o n de l a f e m n e ' .
PEACE: ' A f t e r s t r a t e g y : The s e a r c h f o r a post-modern p o l i t i c s o f p e a c e ' i n A l t e r n a t i v e s
( V o l X l l l , N 0 3 ) . 'The peace s c e n a r i o a f t e r t h e INF t r e a t y ' i n I n d i a I n t e r n a t i o n a l C e n t r e
Q u a r t e r l y (V01 14, N"4).
'Myths and f a c t s on US bases and t h e P h i l i p p i n e economy'
in
M(Vol
V l l , N02) and ' US bases v e r s u s P h i l p p i n e s o v e r e i g n t y ' i n P h i l i p p i n e Resource
C e n t e r M o n i t o r [ N o 3 ) . 'Mi l;t a r i z a t i o n , s t e p t o a n n i h i l a t i o n ' i n A s i a n - P a c i f i c E n v i r o n m e n t
( V o l 5, N 0 2 ) . 'New t e c h n o l o g i e s and econcmics o f d e f e n c e ' i n The I n t e r n a t i o n a l S p e c t a t o r
( V o l XXI I I , N o l ) . 'Las i d e o l o q i a s de l a v i o l e n c i a p o l U i c a ' en E l B i m e s t r e ( N 0 3 9 ) .
ECONOMIA-MUNDO
*
WORLD ECONOMY: O r l a n d o Caputo L.,
' E l s i s t e m a capitalists en 1986: p r i n c -
i p a l e s p r o b l e m a s y p e r s p e c t i v a s ' en l n v e s t i g a c i 6 n econbmica (NO181 ) . I n W o r l d Development,
'The i n t e g r a t i o n o f d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s i n t h e GATT system ( V o l 16, N o s ) and 'The i m p a c t
o f u n t y i n g a i d o f t h e European C m u n i t y c o u n t r i e s ( N 0 7 ) .
'Lome 10 ans a p r e s '
dans
c h e r c h e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l e s ( 2 7 ) . ' P r o s p e c t s f o r change i n t h e EC-ACP? I n t h e LDSs Campaign
N e w s l e t t e r ( N 0 1 1 / 1 2 ) . ' C o c a l c o c a i n e : c o n t r o v e r s y c o n t i n u e s ' i n Andean Focus ( V o l V, N o 3 ) .
' P r i v a t e a i d and p u b l i c p o l i c y : a case s t u d y ' i n I n d o c h i n a I s s u e s ( 8 2 1 . ' L ' i n c i d e n c e de ? a
r e f o r m e du systems m o n e t a i r e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s u r l e s economies du T i e r s Monde: l a reconduct i o n des i n e g a l i t e s ' dans A f r i c a Development/ A f r i q u e e t Developpement ( V o l XI I , N03).
D e b t s and d e v e l o p m e n t ' i n Development h Socio-Economic P r o g r e s s ( 1 / 8 8 ) . ' P r o p u e s t a s de
a l i v i o de l a deuda e x t e r n a l
en OCCIJCRESET B o l e t i n ( N o b ) .
e a r l y s t a g e o f d e v e l o p m e n t ' by Z o f i a Dobrska i n A f r y k a ,
NORTH-SOUTH:
'German F o u n d a t i o n s :
Azja,
Meddling i n t h e P a c i f i c ? '
'Redistribution
and g r o w t h i n
Ameryka L a c i n s k a ( 6 5 ) .
i n P a c i f i c W o r l d ( N 0 8 ) . The
' S e n e g a l a i s e s en A c a d i e ' dans V e n ' d r E s t ( 2 6 ) . 'Le8 j e u n e s e t l e T i e r s Monde' dans
e n marche ( N 0 3 0 ) . Dans ITECO P e u p l e s e t L i b e r a t i o n s ( N 0 1 0 8 ) p r e s e n t e q u a t r e j e u x pedaqogiques pour adul t e s .
SOUTH-SOUTH
*
SUR-SUR
*
SUD-SUD:
' S m a l l and medium s i z e e n t e r p r i s e s i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t -
r i e s ' i n Development & S o u t h - S o u t h C o o p e r a t i o n ( V o l IV, N 0 6 ) . 'The p o o r and t h e p o w e r l e s s ,
Economic p o l i c y and change i n t h e C a r i b b e a n ' by C l i v e Thomas i n C a r i c o n P e r s p e c t i v e s
(?42:.
'Segunda r e u n i o n de l a C o m i s i 6 n S u r ' en Comercio E x t e r i o r ( V o l 38, N o 5 ) : 'L'OUA e t
l a g e s t i o n des c r i s e s a f r i c a i n e s ' p a r Edem K o d j o dans Le C a h i e r de 1 ' I P R l ( N 0 2 ) .
GLOBE: A l o o k a t t h e Gaia h y p o t h e s i s i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l P e r m a c u l t u r e ( N 0 2 8 ) .
-eL
a
! a n Nobe1 P r i z e Winners C o l l o q u i u m ' i n Nova Spe; L e t t e r ( 1 1 - 1 2 ) .
PLACES:
' S c i e n c e and
' 3 7 ahos de economic p e r u a n a ' en A c t u a l i d a d economica d e l P e r u (Ano X,
especial
1 2 ) . ' N i c a r a g u a : Development under f i r e ' i n IDS B u l l e t i n ( V o l 19, N03). ' Panama: More
t h a n j u s t a c a n a l ' i n C e n t r a l America B u l l e t i n (V01 7, N 0 7 - 8 ) . 'Uganda i n t r a n s i t i o n by
Mahmood Mamdani i n T h i r d W o r l d Q u a r t e r l y ( V o l 10, N 0 3 ) . ' E t h i o p i a , P l u s (;a change' i n
A f r i c a Press C l i p s ( V o l 1, N03) A c t i o n on Namibia i s a u n i q u e source on t h e l a s t m a j o r
colony. Southern A f r i c a i s t h e t o p i c o f t h e A u s t r a l i a n Care N e w s l e t t e r (No87). ' P a l e s t i n a :
una r i v o l t a p e r I ' i d e n t i t i ' i n P o l i t i c a i n t e r n a z i o n a l e ( 7 / 8 8 ) . The C h i l d r e n o f Stones/ Les
e n f a n t s des p i e r r e s b r i n g s r e g u l a r l y news and f a c t s about t h e i n t i f a d a . V i b r o i s q u a t e r l y
n e w s l e t t e r on development i n I n d o n e s i a . 'China b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e t h i r t e e n t h p a r t y cong r e s s ' i n Man & Development ( V o l X, N023). ' C h i n a ' s economic reforms 2: Western perspec-
m
(Vol 8:2) i s a useful
t i v e s ' i n A s i a n - P a c i f i c E c o n m i c L i t e r a t u r e ( V o l 2, N o l ) .
u p d a t i n g on r e p r e s s i o n i n M a l a y s i a . Statement o f t h e E a s t - P a c i f i c c o n s u l t a t i o n on E a s t
Timor i n Asian Student News ( 4 ) .
m,
NEW PERIOOICALS:
e d i t e d by M a u r i c e G o l d m i t h , i s a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l t e c h n o l o g i c a l
paper. C o r d i l l e r a C u r r e n t s and C o r d i l l e r a Papers a r e p u b l i s h e d by t h e C o r d i l l e r a Resource
Center f o r Indigenous p e o p l e ' s r i g h t s i n t h e Phi 1i p p i nes.
F u t u r e Generations, pub1 ished
i n M a l t a , i s t h e ' n e w s l e t t e r of t h e g l o b a l network on r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t o f u t u r e qenerations & their enviroment.
i s a new magazine f o r development and environment i n t h e
Himalaya. P e s t i c i d e s News i s t h e q u a r t e r l y n e w s l e t t e r o f t h e P e s t i c i d e s t r u s t i n t h e UK.
CIRDAFRICA, t h e Arusha-based c e n t r e on i i n t e g r a t e d r u r a l development f o r A f r i c a , has
s t a r t e d p u b l i s h i n g a R u r a l World T r i b u n e . V l l l e s en dhveloppement e s t I e nouveau b u l l e t i n
de l a C o o p e r a t i o n f r a n c a i s e pour I e dgveloppement u r b a i n , I ' h a b i t a t e t I'amenaqement du
territoire.
. A c t i o n on Namibia,
NSC, POB 16,
NW5 ZLW, UK
. A c t u a l i d a d e c o n m i c a , CEDAL, AV CuzmSn B l a n c o 465, Of 504, Lima, P e r 6
. A f r i c a Development, W 3304, W, Senegal
. A f r i c a P r e s s C l i p s , P o s t f a c h 88, l 0 0 0 -,
TZST, A u s t r i a
. A f r i k a , Azja, h e r y k a Lacinska, Krakowskie PrzedmieZcie 30, 00-927 Warszawa,
. A I i r a n , FOB 1049, 10830 P u l a u Pinang, M a l a y s i a
. A l t e r n a t i v a s , Q u i l c a 431, 5 ,Peru
110054, I n d i a / 777 UN Plaza, New York, NY
. A l t e r n a t i v e s , 29 R a j p u r Rd.
. Amanecerindio, Apdo 790, Puyo, Pastaza, Ecuador
. Andean Focus, 138 Broadway, R o m 302, New York, NY 10038, USA
WC2E 8HW, UK
. A p p r o p r i a t e T e c h n o l o u , 9 K i n g S t r , Covent Garden,
. A p p r o p r i a t e Technology f o r H e a l t h , WHO, 1211
27, S w i t z e r l a n d
. A s i a n - P a c i f i c E c o n m i c L i t e r a t u r e , GPO Box 4, Canberra ACT 2601, A u s t r a l i a
. A s i a n - P a c i f i c Environment, 37 Lorong B i r c h , 10250 a,
Malaysia
. A s i a n S t u d e n t News, 511 Nathan Road, l / F
Hong Kong
. BEUC Actualit.5s/News, r u e Royale 29, b o T t e 3, l 0 0 0 B r u x e l l e s , B e l g i q u e
. E l Bimestre, Pueyrredon 510, 6' p i s o , 1032 Buenos A i r e s , A r g e n t i n a
. Le C a h i e r de l ' I P R 1 , Cdse p o s t a l e 459, 1215
15, Suisse
. CARE N e w s l e t t e r , PO0 16, Rundle M a l l , SA 5000, A u s t r a l i a
. Caricom P e r s p e c t i v e , POB 10827, Ceorgetonn, Guyana
. C e n t r a l America B u l l e t i n , POB 4797, B e r k e l e y , CA 94704-4797,
. C e n t r e p o i n t , PO8 35, W ,Auckland, New Zealand
. CEPAL Review,
C a s i l l a 179 D,
Poland.
10017, USA
USA
Santiago, C h i l e
. W, 29 Craven S t r e e t , mWC2N SNT, UK
. The C h i l d r e n o f S t o n e s I L e s e n f a n t s des p i e r r e s ,
C I W , CP 127, 1211
20, S u i s s e
. C m e r c i o E x t e r i o r , C. de M a l i n t z i n 28, C o l . Carmen, Coyoacan,
OF 04100, Mexico
. Consumer I n t e r p o l Memo, IOCU, POB 1045, 10830 W, M a l a y s i a
. C o r d i l l e r a C u r r e n t s , Rm 314, L a p e r a l B l d g , Session Road, 2600 Baguio C i t y , P h i l i p p i n e s
. Cordillera
Papers, Rm 314, L a p e r a l Bldg, Session Road, 2600 Baguio C i t y , P h i l i p p i n e s
. Oesde l a s bases, CEDEPO, C a r l o s C a l v o 642, 1102 Buenos A i r e s , A r g e n t i n a
. Oevelopment 4 Socio-Economic Progress, 89 S h a r i a Abdel A z i z Al-Saoud S t r e e t ,
el-Roda, %, E g y p t
Development 4 South-South Cooperation, FOB 97, 61109 L j u b l j a n a ,
Echo, AFARD/AAWORO, W 3304, U,
S&n€g
.
.
. EconmTa
Yugoslavia
i n f o r m a , Fac. de E c o n m i a , Ciudad U n i v e r s i t a r i a ,
04510 OF, M6xico
Landhausstr. 18, 7400 Tubingen, FRG
666 Broadway, S u i t e 400, New York, NY 10012, USA
F a m i l l e e t developpement, BP 3907, 9,
Togo
FONDA, 18 r u e de Varenne, 75007
France
F u t u r e Generations N e w s l e t t e r , I E I , O l d U n i v Bldg, S t P a u l ' s S t r e e t , V a l l e t t a , M a l t a
F u t u r e s , B u t t e r w o r t h S c i e n t i f i c Ltd, PO8 63, G u i l d f o r d , W 2 SBH, UK
F u t u r e Survey, 4916 S t . Elm0 A v a u e , Bethesda, MO 20814-5089, USA
F u t u r i b l e s , 55 r u e de Varenne, 75341
Cedex 07, France
Green L i n e , 34 Cowley Road,
OX4 IHZ, UK
Hai News, I K U , POB 1045, 10830
Malaysia
W ,POB 42, L a l i t p u r 44702, Nepal
Hombre Y ambiente, Abya-Yala, C a s i l l a 8513,
Ecuador
Human, Ohdake Found., C e n t r a l Bldg, 9 t h f l . , 1-1-5 Kyobashi, Chuo-Ku,
104 Japan
Hunan R i g h t s B u l l e t i n , Lawasia, 170 P h i l i p S t r e e t ,
NSW 2000. A u s t r a l i a
IOOC, Via S.M. de1l1Anima 30, 00186
ltalia
IDS B u l l e t i n , U n i v e r s i t y o f Sussex, B r i g h t o n W 1 9RE, UK
ILEIA N e w s l e t t e r , PO0 64, 3830 AB -,
The N e t h e r l a n d s
E,
Unesco, 7 p l a c e de Fontenoy, 75700
France
I n d i a l n t e r n a t i o n a l C e n t r e O u a r t e r l y , 40 Max MueITer Marg, New D e l h i l 1 0 003, I n d i a
Indochina Issues, 236 Massachusetts Ave NE, S u i t e 510, Washington, DC 20002, USA
I n f o r m a t i o n s Notes, ANGOC, 47 M a t r i n c o Bldg, 2178 Pasong T a m , M a k a t i , M e t r o M a n i l a ,
P h i l i p p i n e s 1200
l n t e r n a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l Oevelopment, 19 Woodford C l , Caversham, Reading RC4 7HN, IN
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Labour Reports, FOB 45, Stainborough, Barnaley, Y o r k s h i r e S75 3EA, UK
l n t e r n a t i o n a l P e r m a c u l t u r e J o u r n a l , 113 E n m r e Rd,
NSW 2042, A u s t r a l i a
The l n t e r n a t i o n a l S p e c t a t o r , l s t i t u t o A f f a r i l n t , V i a l e M a z z i n i 88, 00195
Italy
l n v e s t i g a c i 6 n e c o n h i c a , Fac de E c o n m i a , Ciudad Univ,
OF 04510, M6xico
I s l a m i c Order, c10 Ferozsons P r i n t e r s ,
Pakistan
lTECO/Peuples e t l i b 6 r a t i o n s . 31 r u e du h u l e t , l 0 0 0 B r u x e l l e s , @elgique
J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l Development i n A f r i c a , P Bag 66022 Kopje, W ,Zimbabwe
W, SEMTA, C a s i l l a 20410, U ,
hlivia
LOC's Campaign N e w s l e t t e r , YOC, L e l i e g r a c h t 21, 1016 CR Amsterdam, N e t h e r l a n d s
L e t t r e u r b a i n e , ENOA, W 3370, U
,Sgncgal
Man 4 Development, CRRIO, 2-A S e c t o r 19-A, Madhya Marg, Chandiqarh 160 019, I n d i a
Mhdicaments e s s e n t i e l s : l e P o i n t , OMS, 1211
27, Suisse
M o n t h l y Review, 155 West 2 3 r d S t r e e t , New York, 10011, USA
M u l t i n a t i o n a l M o n i t o r , POB 19405, Washington, DC 20036, USA
54 b d R a s p a i l , R o m 309, 75270
Cedex 06, France
Nova Spes L e t t e r , V i a d i V i l l a E m i l i a n i 10, 00197
Italy
Nueva Sociedad, Apdo 61.712,
1060-A, Venezuela
OCCI/CRESET, C a r r e r a 6a No76-34, W, C o l m b i a
Opciones, Academia de Humanism0 C r i s t i a n o , C a t e d r a l 1063, Sopiso, Santiago, C h i l e
P a c i f i c World, I n s t i t u t e o f Resource Management, FOB 10-12, W e l l i n g t o n , New Zealand
Panoscope, 8 A l f r e d P l a c e ,
WClE 7E8, UK
Pensamiento lberoamericano, I C I , Avda de 10s Reyes C a t 6 1 i c o s 4, 28 040 W ,Espana
P e s t i c i d e s News, 20 C m p t o n Terrace,
NI ZUN, UK
Peuples en marche, l 0 r u e Lanterne, 69001
France
. Economics,
. S,
.
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Mania1
-,
e,
m,
W,
m,
*,
=,
m,
m,
. P h i l i p p i n e Resource
. Piqlas-Oiwa, Center
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B e r k e l e y , CA 94794,
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USA
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-,
ltalia
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. -,
Fundapaz, C o r r i e n t e s 330, P i s o 3", Of 321, 1378 Buenos A i r e s , A r g e n t i n a
. Quehacer, AV. S a l a v e r r y 1945, E 14, P e r 6
. Recherche5 i n t e r n a t i o n a l e s , 64 b d A u g u s t e - B l a n q u i , 75013 U,F r a n c e
. La Red, Apdo 1009, C e n t r o Col6n, San Jose, C o s t a R i c a
. Reforma A g r i r i a , C a i x a P o s t a l 1396, 13018 Campinas 550 Paulo, B r a s i l
. -,
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. R e v i s t a l n t e r a m e r i c a n a de P l a n i f i c a c i 6 n , SIAP, 06140
OF, M 6 x i c o
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. S c i e n c e I n t e r n a t i o n a l , ICSU, 51 Bd de Montmorency, 75016 U,F r a n c e
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The U t n e Reader, P00 1974, m,
OH 43306-1974, USA
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cf.
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R u r a l development c o m m u n i c a t i o n : A means o r an end? ( C e n t r e f o r A d u l t &
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S y l v i a Marcos,
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Jesus M a r b .
C e n e v i e v e Prady,
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Raumati South,
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l a n d ) 6pp.
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D i e g o L u i s C a s t e l l a n o s , R e f l e x i o n e s a c e r c a d e l tema de l a p r i v a t i z a c i 6 n y sus i m p l i c a c i o n e s en u n proqrama de g o b i e r n o s o c i a l d e m o c r a t i c a ( U r b . Santa S o f i a , C a l l e C e n t r o ,
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(continued on page 3 2 )
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