Mobilizing investment for sustainable development

TD/B/C.II/28
United Nations
United Nations Conference
on Trade and Development
Distr.: General
9 February 2015
Original: English
Investment, Enterprise and Development Commission
Seventh session
Geneva, 20–24 April 2015
Item 4 of the provisional agenda
Mobilizing investment for development:
Contribution of UNCTAD in the
context of financing for development
Mobilizing investment for sustainable development:
Background information and considerations pertinent to the
Third International Conference on Financing for
Development
Note by the UNCTAD secretariat
Executive Summary
This note provides background facts and information on crucial aspects to be
considered in the preparation of the Third International Conference on Financing for
Development, to be held in July 2015.
In principle, a vibrant national business sector and domestic private investment are
the basis of growth in any economy. In practice, however, many developing countries and
countries with economies in transition face shortages in domestic resources and therefore
seek to mobilize external funds for economic growth, including for sustainable
development.
Foreign portfolio investments have been the largest source of external development
finance at the global level, but foreign direct investment (FDI) accounts for the majority in
developing countries and countries with economies in transition. In addition to FDI and
portfolio investments, other external sources such as commercial bank lending, official
development assistance (ODA) and remittances can potentially be drawn upon.
In order to increase the absolute level of investment funds directed to sectors related
to sustainable development goals and multiply their effectiveness and impact, partnerships
between different external and internal sources of development finance and investment are
desirable, to benefit from and synergize their unique attributes. Some combinations of
funds and sources might be more effective for specific activities related to sustainable
development goals (or sectors or projects related to such goals). An important aspect of
partnerships is that they are not only about financing; each partner has unique
GE.15-02099 (E)
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characteristics and attributes, including technological assets, managerial and professional
skills or knowledge of the relevant sector or project.
To achieve scale and scope, existing and innovative financial instruments and
funding mechanisms to raise resources for investment in sustainable development goals
need to be supported, adapted to purpose and scaled up as appropriate. Beyond policies for
financing, consideration should be given to encouraging the private (and public) sectors,
both foreign and domestic, to invest better. For instance, investors expanding the
employment of women, minorities and other excluded groups – or boosting their skills
through training programmes – support sustainable development through how they invest,
and not only by how much.
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Introduction
1.
Attracting increased investment to sectors that are essential for economic
development (e.g. infrastructure and power), for social impact (e.g. water and sanitation,
health, education, food security and social housing) and for environmental sustainability
(e.g. climate change mitigation and renewable energy) is at the centre of the current debate
on sustainable development goals. The amounts needed go well beyond the reach of both
ODA and domestic public sector resources in many countries, especially in the least
developed countries (LDCs), and increased private investment is required to complement
public investment. An overall policy framework that is conducive to attracting and
benefiting from private investment is an essential prerequisite for investment-led inclusive
and sustainable development, as re-emphasized by the Ministerial Round Table held during
the 2014 World Investment Forum, organized by UNCTAD in October.
2.
One of the important milestones in the work on financing for sustainable
development that will be shared by all members of the international community is the
upcoming Third International Conference on Financing for Development, to be held in
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, from 13 to 16 July 2015. The conference will bring together highlevel political representatives, including Heads of State and Government, as well as
relevant institutional stakeholders, non-governmental organizations and business sector
entities. The outcome of this conference should constitute an important contribution to, and
support the implementation of, the post-2015 development agenda. UNCTAD, as a
development partner, will be fully engaged in this milestone activity, and the Investment,
Enterprise and Development Commission is testimony to this. This note is intended to
facilitate the Commission’s discussions.
3.
The International Conference on Financing for Development will set “an agreed and
ambitious course for sustainable development financing beyond 2015”.1 The synthesis
report of the United Nations Secretary-General on the post-2015 sustainable development
agenda states: “Urgent action is needed to mobilize, redirect and unlock the transformative
power of trillions of dollars of private resources to deliver on sustainable development
objectives. Long-term investments, including FDI, are needed in critical sectors, especially
in developing countries.”2
4.
Investors may finance projects through a range of financial instruments (e.g.
international capital flows such as FDI, portfolio investment and commercial bank loans, as
well as domestic sources). As each type of flow alone cannot meet the critical needs for the
envisaged sustainable development goals, it is vital to leverage combinations of them to
maximize their development impact. This note discusses various mechanisms for finance
and the development implications of various modalities and forms of investments. Each
type has different motivations and accordingly behaves differently and, moreover, the
development impact and implications may also vary. It is therefore necessary to review
each instrument, as well as the potential synergies between them. In addition, different
motivations, characteristics and responses lead different groups of investors to investment
projects, including foreign private investors (individuals, including those in diaspora, and
more commonly, enterprises, funds and other entities), foreign public investors (e.g. Stateowned enterprises and sovereign wealth funds (SWFs), ODA donors and other official
financial institutions) and domestic private investors and public entities.
1
2
A/69/700.
Ibid.
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I. External sources of development finance
5.
Although foreign portfolio investments have been the largest source of development
finance at the global level, FDI accounts for the majority of capital inflows to developing
countries and countries with economies in transition. In principle, a vibrant national
business sector and domestic private investment are the basis of growth in any economy. In
practice, however, many developing and transition economies face shortages in domestic
resources and therefore seek to mobilize external funds for economic development as a
major aspect of development strategies. Various external sources – FDI, portfolio
investments, commercial bank lending, ODA and remittances – have varied in their relative
significance in the past decades. The right combination of such resources can, and has
often, delivered good results in developing economies. However, with the onset of the
global crisis in 2008, policymakers once again voiced concerns about the vulnerability of
countries with foreign sources of development finance, especially because of the potential
for their abrupt reduction or the reversal of portfolio investment. Financial crises can be
accompanied by large swings in commercial bank lending and portfolio investments.
6.
ODA is less prone to fluctuations, but has grown slowly. Failure to meet ODA
objectives has led to some scepticism from a number of donor countries about the
effectiveness of ODA in addressing the core development needs of beneficiary countries.
The financial crisis affecting donor countries themselves is another reason for the slow
growth of ODA. Nevertheless, ODA is undisputedly required by developing countries, in
particular LDCs. The synthesis report of the Secretary-General recommends the following:
“All developed countries should meet the target of 0.7 per cent of gross national income for
ODA to developing countries and agree to concrete timetables to meet ODA commitments,
including the Istanbul commitments to the LDCs of 0.15 per cent of gross national income
by 2015”.3 ODA should be better targeted, more efficient, more transparent and, where
possible, used to leverage additional resources.
7.
In contrast, FDI has proved to be less volatile and more resilient to crises than other
forms of external financing. The relative stability of FDI flows can be statistically shown by
their lower standard deviation compared to other external resource flows (see table 1),
though they have become more volatile in recent years, as detailed in this chapter. More
importantly, FDI flows have implications for a host country’s balance of payments, savings,
investment, export–import gap and overall macroeconomic management. FDI flows are
also seen as a principal channel for the transfer of technology to developing countries,
technology spillovers and as a boost to economic growth through employment creation,
integration in value chains and enhancement of production and export capacities.
Table 1
Relative standard deviation in capital flows by type during the period 1990–2013
(Deviation value)
Type of flow
World
Developed countries
Developing countries
Countries with economies in
transition
FDI
Portfolio investment
Other investment
Total
0.637
0.651
1.445
0.752
0.640
0.664
1.583
0.811
0.760
1.037
1.590
0.917
1.138
2.323
1.511
1.142
Note: Other investment includes loans from commercial banks, official loans and trade credits.
Source: UNCTAD secretariat calculations, based on data on FDI from UNCTADStat, available at
http://unctadstat/EN/Index.html, and on portfolio investment and other investment from the
international financial statistics database of the International Monetary Fund, available at
http://www.imf.org/external/data.htm.
3
4
Ibid.
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8.
Total global external capital flows (FDI, portfolio investment and other investment)
declined in 2013 to $2.4 trillion, one quarter of the pre-crisis level during the period 2006–
2007 and less than 20 per cent of all domestic and foreign investments. A sharp fall during
the period 2008–2009 reflected the global financial and economic crisis, while the rise of
external capital flows before this period was explained by rapid growth in gross domestic
product in both developed and developing countries and by financial liberalization. At the
global level, portfolio investment has been larger in absolute values than any other capital
flow in most years, while other investments (i.e. international bank loans) grew more
rapidly until 2007 (see figure 1). Although all components of private capital flows declined
sharply during the period 2008–2009, the most dramatic fall took place in other investments
(i.e. bank loans), reflecting the broader crisis of confidence during that period. The year
2010 brought a rise in capital flows, due to the reversal of this investment component (i.e.
bank loans). However, the current crisis – reinforced in 2012, in particular in Europe –
caused another dip in capital flows. It is essentially bank loans that contribute to dampening
the level of capital flows. This type of investment also further lowered total external capital
flows in 2013 because of negative flows (i.e. more loan payments than new loans).
Figure 1
Global external capital flows, 1990–2013
(Billions of dollars)
12 000
10 000
8 000
6 000
4 000
2 000
0
-2 000
FDI
Portfolio investment
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
-4 000
Other investment
Note: Data are shown in the standard balance of payments presentation, i.e. on a net basis.
Source: UNCTAD secretariat calculations, based on data on FDI from UNCTADStat and on
portfolio investment and other investment from the International Monetary Fund.
9.
Developing countries and countries with economies in transition differ from
developed countries in the dynamics of their external sources of finance. The composition
of external financing in developing countries has fluctuated substantially in the past 15
years, although FDI accounted for the bulk of the total in most years (see figure 2). All
private capital flows fluctuated, following closely the booms and busts of the economy in
general. Including ODA and remittances, development finance to these regions amounted to
$2 trillion in 2013.
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Figure 2
External development finance to developing countries and countries with economies in
transition, 1990–2013
(Billions of dollars)
2 500
2 000
1 500
1 000
500
0
FDI
Portfolio investment
Other investment
ODA
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
- 500
Remittances
Note: Data are shown in the standard balance-of-payments presentation, i.e. on a net basis.
Source: UNCTAD secretariat calculations, based on data on FDI from UNCTADStat, on portfolio
investment and other investment from the International Monetary Fund, on ODA from the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development and on remittances from the World Bank
database, available at http://data.worldbank.org/.
10.
Global economic growth and the pursuit of sound economic policies by many
developing and transition economies generated record levels of private capital flows until
2007. Transnational corporations from developed countries diversified their foreign assets
to developing and transition economies, capital market investors expanded their presence in
emerging economies and commercial banks also refocused their activities on developing
and transition economies.
11.
The global economic slowdown that started in 2008, accentuated by the financial
crisis, dampened all foreign capital flows to developing and transition economies during the
period 2008–2009. However, there were hopes that these regions would prove relatively
immune to the global turmoil, and flows recovered, even approaching the 2007 peak, before
falling again in 2012. The fall during the period 2012–2013 raised concerns, as the decline
of capital flows slowed progress towards the attainment of the Millennium Development
Goals in many countries, especially LDCs. It also tempered discussion of finance needs for
sustainable development goals during the period 2013–2015, leading to the Third
International Conference on Financing for Development.
12.
However, the impact of the financial crisis on various capital flows in developing
and transition economies differed. Portfolio investment was most affected, as large amounts
of such investments were wiped out by plunging share prices and the collapse in the market
capitalization of stock exchanges. Because FDI was less affected, its share in external
financing for developing and transition economies grew, from 34 per cent during the period
2003–2007, before the crisis, to 42 per cent during the period 2008–2013, after the crisis,
and to 53 per cent during the period 2008–2009, the two years immediately after the crisis.
Developing and transition economies are today leading the recovery of global FDI, thanks
to their relatively quick economic recovery and burgeoning South-South linkages.
13.
FDI inflows, together with other external development finance (including portfolio
investment, other investment, ODA and remittances), make important contributions to the
financing needs of developing countries (see figure 2). In recent years and during the period
of financial and economic crisis, FDI inflows remained the most important and stable
source of external financing for developing countries.
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14.
FDI inflows to developing countries have risen without interruption in recent years,
except in 2009, with net inflows as reported in the balance of payments reaching a high of
$780 billion in 2013. Reflecting quantitative easing in developed countries, net flows of
portfolio capital also rose during the period 2012–2013. In contrast, other investments,
including bank loans, and official transfers to developing countries such as ODA, remain at
lower levels.
15.
The steady increase of FDI to developing countries in the past decades has not only
changed the structure of external financing for their economies but also raised the
importance of FDI in overall capital formation. Long-term forces in host countries
attracting FDI, such as positive and relatively high economic growth rates and growing
middle-income populations, as well as established networks of international production in
the developing world, counteract and exceed short-term forces such as low export demand
and low commodity prices, which exert a downward influence on FDI flows. The relative
resilience of FDI flows is also due to supply factors such as the following: long-term nature
of FDI projects, which means they are less affected by short-term considerations; ability of
transnational corporations to raise financial resources outside the financial sector, including
in-house; need to consolidate the industries most affected, such as finance, consumer
products, etc.; and business opportunities in niche industries, such as certain parts of
information and communications technology and business services, that continue to attract
increased FDI.
16.
However, despite the importance of FDI as a source of financing for development,
concerns about its overall rising volatility remain, as more liquid subcomponents assume a
greater share of FDI flows compared to equity. Although it is much less volatile than
portfolio and other investments, such as commercial loans and trade credits, as shown in
table 1, FDI has become more volatile in recent years for several reasons, including the
following:
• FDI flows do not necessarily translate into an equivalent expansion of productive
capacity. For example, a focus on mergers and acquisitions may increase amounts of
cash reserves rather than capital expenditures in new productive capacity in foreign
affiliates. Similarly, direct investments in new greenfield investment projects may be
reduced. There can be considerable differences between FDI flows and capital
expenditures by foreign affiliates. For example, in 2010, United States of America
FDI outflows were some $300 billion, but capital expenditures by United States
foreign affiliates were only $167 billion, just half of total FDI flows.
• The relative share of equity investment has declined in the last 10 years, especially
in developed countries. Some of the decline is structural, for example due to a
reduced need for parent financing in the presence of alternatives such as local
financing, the availability of investment funds, etc.
• FDI composition is changing, with a shift from equity to debt components and
reinvestment of earnings. For some 20 developed countries, equity investment
accounted for less than one quarter of total FDI outflows in 2013, compared with
nearly half until 2011.
• In contrast to equity, the debt and reinvestment components of FDI are potentially
more volatile. Thus, while FDI overall tends to be more constant and long term in
orientation, the short-term nature of intracompany loans and reinvested earnings
may lead to FDI behaving to some extent in a manner similar to portfolio
investment.
• Investments in special-purpose entities and tax havens are normally transitional in
nature. For instance, tax havens in the Caribbean alone accounted for 7 to 8 per cent
of global FDI inflows in 2013. In addition, in part connected to the drying up of
quantitative easing policies, portfolio capital and other hot money has been flowing
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out of large emerging economies, contributing to exchange-rate depreciation, which
may discourage new FDI or dissuade existing investors from repatriating capital.
Policy issues for consideration
17.
There are a number of potential external sources of development finance for
investing in sustainable development goals, although FDI is currently the largest and most
stable source in developing countries and countries with economies in transition. In terms
of specific sectors related to sustainable development goals, which potential sources of
financing and investment are the most appropriate? Relevant factors in considering this
question include the following:
• Characteristics of sectors related to sustainable development goals and the sources
• Differences between developing countries, including LDCs, landlocked developing
countries and small island developing States
• Trends in flows by source and the relevant characteristics, motivations and
propensities of each (further detailed in chapter 2 and chapter 3)
• Degree to which external sources invest directly in developing countries versus
supplying finance and other resources to domestic public or private sector investors
• Nature of investment projects, including public–private partnerships (PPPs)
18.
Lessons learned from country experiences may guide decisions on the above,
including in terms of the following:
• Building an investment climate conducive to financing and investing in sustainable
development goals, while safeguarding public interests
• Establishing new incentive schemes and a new generation of investment promotion
institutions to effectively harness external sources
II. Mobilizing external sources of financing for sustainable
development: The main actors
19.
The global financial system, its institutions and actors, can mobilize capital for
investment in sustainable development goals. There is a wide range of prospective private
sector sources of development finance (see figure 3). The extent to which such finance is
made available depends on the propensity of each source to be used for investment and its
comparative advantages for specific types of projects, as detailed in this chapter.
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Figure 3
Relative sizes of selected potential sources of investment, 2012
(Value of assets, stocks and loans in trillions of dollars)
Bank assets
121
Pension funds
34
Insurance companies
26
TNCs
Transnational
corporations
25 a
SWFs
6.3 a
Notes: a = 2014 value. This figure is not exhaustive but seeks to list some key actors and sources of
finance. The amounts for assets, stocks and loans indicated are not equivalent, in some cases overlap
and cannot be added.
Source: UNCTAD, 2014, World Investment Report 2014 – Investing in the Sustainable
Development Goals: An Action Plan (New York and Geneva, United Nations publication).
Banks
20.
Flows of cross-border bank lending to developing countries were roughly
$325 billion in 2013, making international bank lending the third most important source of
foreign capital after FDI and remittances. Banks are an important source of project
financing that can be used to fund projects relevant to sustainable development goals. The
implementation of the Equator Principles – a risk management framework that helps
determine, assess and manage environmental and social risk – can also help to ensure that
bank lending contributes to sustainable development goals.
21.
State-owned banks and similar financial institutions can be effective in targeting
specific sectors, for example, infrastructure and public services. Today, State-owned
financial institutions account for 25 per cent of total assets in banking systems around the
world and the capital available in such institutions in developing countries can be used both
for investment in sustainable development goals directly and to leverage funds and
investment from the private sector.
Pension funds
22.
UNCTAD estimates that pension funds have at least $1.4 trillion of assets invested
in developing markets and the value of developed-country assets invested in the South is
growing, in addition to the value of pension funds based in developing countries, which are
predominantly invested in each country’s own domestic market. Pension funds recognize
infrastructure investment as a distinct asset class and there is the potential for future
investment by pension funds in more illiquid forms of infrastructure investment. Lessons
may be learned from some countries, including Australia and Canada, that have been
successful in packaging infrastructure projects specifically to increase investment by
pension funds. In both countries, infrastructure investment makes up some 5 per cent of
pension fund portfolios.
Insurance companies
23.
Insurance companies have long-term liabilities (in the life insurance industry), are
less concerned about liquidity and are increasingly prepared to invest in infrastructure,
albeit predominantly in developed markets. One study suggests that insurance companies
currently allocate an average of 2 per cent of their portfolios to infrastructure, although this
9
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increases to more than 5 per cent in some countries. 4 Insurers may also invest in areas such
as climate change adaptation, which would result in savings from fewer insurance claims
and lower insurance premiums in the long term.5 The insurance industry is committed to
mainstreaming economic, social and governance goals into its activities and raising
awareness of the impact of new risks on the industry, for example through the Principles for
Sustainable Insurance of the United Nations Environment Programme Finance Initiative.
Transnational corporations
24.
With $7.7 trillion currently invested in developing economies and with some
$5 trillion in cash holdings, transnational corporations offer a significant potential source of
finance for investment in sectors related to sustainable development goals in developing
countries (further detailed in chapter 3).
Sovereign wealth funds
25.
Although 80 per cent of SWF assets are owned by developing countries, more than
70 per cent of direct investments by SWFs are currently in developed markets and a high
proportion of their total assets under management may also be invested in developed
markets. SWFs can offer a number of advantages for investment in sectors related to
sustainable development goals in poor countries, not least because their finance is
unleveraged and their investment outlook is often long term. For example, 60 per cent of
SWFs already actively invest in infrastructure, in particular in sectors such as water and
energy.6 Some SWFs and public pension funds have non-profit driven obligations, such as
social protection or intergenerational equity; they also represent a form of public capital
that could be used for the provision of essential services in low-income communities.
Foundations, endowments and family offices
26.
Some estimates put total private wealth at $46 trillion, although a third of this figure
is estimated to be incorporated in other investment vehicles, such as mutual funds. 7 The
private wealth management of family offices stood at $1.2 trillion and foundations and/or
endowment funds at $1.3 trillion in 2011.8 From this source of wealth, it may be possible to
mobilize greater philanthropic contributions to long-term investment and investments for
sustainable development through the fund management industry. In 2011, the United States
alone was home to more than 80,000 foundations with $662 billion in assets, representing
over 20 per cent of estimated global foundations and endowments by assets, although much
of this was allocated domestically.
Venture capital
27.
The venture capital industry is estimated at $42 billion.9 Investors seeking to allocate
finance through venture capital often take an active and direct interest in their investments.
In addition, they might provide finance from the start or early stages of a commercial
venture and have a long-term investment horizon for the realization of a return on their
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Preqin, 2013, The 2014 Preqin Sovereign Wealth Fund Review (London).
Climatewise, Munich Climate Insurance Initiative and United Nations Environment Programme
Finance Initiative, 2013, Global insurance industry statement, presented at the Caring for Climate
Business Forum at the Conference of the Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change, Warsaw, 19 November, available at http://www.climatewise.org.uk/global-insurerstatement/ (accessed 29 January 2015).
Preqin, 2013.
TheCityUK, 2013, Fund management, available at http://www.thecityuk.com/research/ourwork/reports-list/uk-fund-management-2014/ (accessed 29 January 2015).
World Economic Forum, 2011, The Future of Long-term Investing (New York and Geneva).
Ernst and Young, 2013, Turning the corner: Global venture capital insights and trends, available at
http://www.ey.com/GL/en/Services/Strategic-Growth-Markets/Global-VC-insights-and-trends-report2013 (accessed 29 January 2015).
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initial capital. This makes venture capital more characteristic of a direct investor than a
short-term portfolio investment.
Policy issues for consideration
28.
In mobilizing development finance from external sources, the relevant
characteristics, motivations and propensities of the principal actors need to be taken into
account, including the following among institutional investors:
• Pension funds are attracted to longer term opportunities, such as in infrastructure
• Insurance companies have some incentive to support climate-change mitigation and
adaptation projects
• For most portfolio and/or institutional investors, bankable projects are a valuable
incentive
29.
In this respect, lessons learned from country experiences may support policymaking
and guide investors towards specific projects related to sustainable development goals, such
as the following:
• Setting up a portfolio of bankable projects
• Developing new rating methodologies for investment in sustainable development
goals
• Building and supporting go-to-market channels for investment projects related to
sustainable development goals in financial markets
30.
At the same time, policies may be required to reorient the propensities and
behaviour of sources of finance and investment, such as the following:
• Building or improving pricing mechanisms for externalities
• Realigning incentives in capital markets
• Widening the scope and content of principles to guide investment behaviour
• Establishing effective instruments for measuring and monitoring investments
III. Enhancing partnerships between external and internal
sources of finance and investment
31.
Mobilizing international resources for development was set as one of the objectives
in the Monterrey Consensus10 to meet the Millennium Development Goals and will be
reiterated at the Third International Conference on Financing for Development with an
agreed and ambitious course for sustainable development financing to meet the future
sustainable development goals. This mobilization will require public and private sectors,
both domestic and foreign, to work in partnership and concert.
32.
Although private capital flows have an increasingly significant role in financing for
development, the public sector is the dominant actor in many sectors related to sustainable
development goals. However, the public sector alone cannot attain the level of investment
10
The Monterrey Consensus was adopted by the First International Conference on Financing for
Development, a summit-level meeting sponsored by the United Nations to address key financial and
related issues pertaining to global development, held in Mexico in March 2002. Among other things,
it called for mobilizing and increasing the effective use of financial resources needed to fulfil
internationally agreed development goals in the context of a holistic approach to the challenges of
financing for development.
11
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required for the envisaged sustainable development goals. As Governments in developing
countries and countries with economies in transition operate on limited budgets, especially
in countries experiencing rapid population growth and urbanization, they need to tap into
the private sector, both domestic and foreign, for capital, technology and the expertise to
finance, develop and manage public-sector projects in infrastructure and other areas.
Partnerships between public, private and foreign investors have increasingly been
recognized as an effective and appropriate mechanism for managing the complexity of the
development challenges facing developing countries and for meeting the Millennium
Development Goals. This has also been clearly articulated with regard to all sectors related
to sustainable development goals. Significant areas in which such partnerships might be the
most effective include promoting infrastructure development, mitigating climate change
and increasing agricultural production, as detailed in the box.
Typical sectors related to sustainable development goals that can effectively utilize
partnerships among different investors
Infrastructure
A good example of industries in which a close association between foreign and
domestic investment – either public or private – can substantially help in meeting local
development needs is seen in the infrastructure sector.11 As the investment requirements of
developing countries in infrastructure far exceed the amounts that can be financed by the
public sector, Governments have opened up infrastructure industries and services to greater
participation by the private sector, including transnational corporations. Fiscal space
limitations and debt sustainability considerations have led many Governments in
developing countries to reassess the potential role of foreign and domestic private-sector
financing of current and future public investment needs in infrastructure.
Climate change
There is considerable potential for interaction between public and private
investments in mitigating the effects of climate change, especially in such areas as
renewable power generation. Given that renewable energy technologies are not yet pricecompetitive with traditional more carbon-intensive ones, their use by private firms often
requires some type of PPP, which can take a number of forms but typically includes
assurances by Government of access to the power grid and preferential rates for the
electricity produced, in addition to long-term purchase agreements and financing at
concessional rates.12
Agriculture
The expansion and revitalization of agricultural production is crucial for developing
countries, both to meet rising food needs and to lay the foundations for economic
diversification and development. Both foreign and domestic investments, public or private,
can contribute to the development of the agriculture sector, and there is considerable
potential for interaction between the two. There are many successful cases of PPPs in
agricultural production in developing countries, especially in areas such as improving
agricultural technologies and inputs, research and development and providing extension
11
12
12
Examples of PPPs involving foreign and local partners worldwide include, among others, hydropower
stations in Cambodia, Port Saïd and Marsa Allam in Egypt and Tangier Méditerranée in Morocco.
PPPs involving public and private partners include the Mbombela water concession in South Africa,
the Enfidha-Hammamet Airport Project in Tunisia and the Bujagali Hydropower Project in Uganda.
Examples include a build, own, operate and transfer wind-generation project in Costa Rica with GDF
Suez of France. In Brazil, the Brazilian Development Bank approved R$72 million ($35 million) in
financing for the Pedra do Sal wind farm in cooperation with Econergy International, a subsidiary of
GDF Suez.
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services to help farmers move from subsistence to market-oriented production.13
Foreign and domestic investors, whether companies, individual farmers or public
investors, may cooperate in agricultural production and at different stages of the food value
chain. For instance, while domestic investors may undertake production, foreign investors
may focus on food processing or distribution. Contract farming is a typical component of
such cooperation.
33.
Involvement of the private sector in sectors related to sustainable development goals
should be based on a set of guiding principles that include balancing liberalization with the
right to regulate, balancing the need for attractive risk-return rates with the need for
accessible and affordable services, balancing a push for private investment with the push
for public investment and balancing the global scope of sustainable development goals with
the need to make a special effort in LDCs. 14
34.
Leveraging external sources for investment in local economies provides a viable and
useful means for supporting development. However, synergizing different sources of
investment is a formidable challenge. Each external source has specific motives and thus
reacts to economic situations differently. It is vital to recognize such differences when
leveraging potential synergies for development purposes.
35.
Used effectively and under the right conditions, other capital (e.g. bank loans) can
boost the level of investment by direct investors, both local and foreign, facilitate its
operation on a day-to-day basis or do both. However, when not used correctly (for example,
if an FDI enterprise becomes overly exposed to debt or derivatives or when banks lend
excessively without proper due diligence to domestic public or private enterprises), such
capital can provoke or worsen a crisis.
36.
Public and private entities directly investing in projects related to sustainable
development goals (e.g. in infrastructure), including transnational corporations, can
potentially partner with various types of external capital from a wide range of sources, such
as the following five, to synergistic effect (see chapter 4 for examples of innovative
financing).
Portfolio investment
37.
Generally speaking, portfolio investors do not have a day-to-day management
interest in how an enterprise is run. Such funds can come and go very quickly. Portfolio
equity investors, who hold less than 10 per cent of shares or the equivalent, may keep the
investment over the long term. Institutional investors, such as SWFs or pension funds, are
typical examples. In their case, the motivation to invest is not simply to make a quick return
and move on but, as with FDI, to seek a return over the longer term. In some cases,
portfolio investors hold a seat on the board of directors. For instance, Government Pension
Fund Global of Norway is considering this kind of arrangement. This type of portfolio
investment can thus reinforce the type of long-term investment required to meet the
challenge of sustainable development.
Official development assistance
38.
ODA can catalyse FDI by improving the conditions needed for direct investments to
flourish. This can be done directly by investing in or jointly with enterprises, including
13
14
Examples include a PPP arrangement for vegetable oil production in Uganda with Wilmar International
of Singapore. PPPs in China include, with Syngenta of Switzerland, involvement with the Hubei
Biopesticide Engineering Research Centre and the Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry for the
development of crop protection innovations. In India, Syngenta has PPPs that support improvements to
farming practices and the livelihoods of poor smallholders.
UNCTAD, 2014.
13
TD/B/C.II/28
through FDI, or indirectly by promoting conditions in which such enterprises can thrive. To
meet its objectives, ODA must be applied carefully, in order that, for example, increasing
FDI crowds in domestic investment rather than crowding it out. ODA, which is motivated
primarily by development concerns, rather than the business interests of the donor country,
supports foreign investment for development in several ways. At one end of the scale of
investment, PPPs are becoming increasingly popular in developing countries, where FDI
synergizes with foreign and domestic public and private investment to run large-scale
projects that otherwise would not be viable. At the other end of the scale, donors, through
development institutions, can behave in a manner similar to FDI investors, especially
investors in domestic small and medium-sized enterprises. Their main objective is to
provide additional finance as a means to boost investment and cover risk. In this way, they
can also facilitate projects that otherwise would not be viable. In such cases, they invest in
individual projects. ODA in its many forms can thus boost private investment and promote
its synergies with other types and sources of investment and this has beneficial results in
helping countries move towards meeting the Millennium Development Goals and future
sustainable development goals. Particularly in a climate of budget cuts, linking ODA to FDI
is important to enhance synergies between them.
Commercial bank loans
39.
Commercial bank loans provide funds directly to an investor to expand a business,
purchase new equipment, upgrade existing facilities, boost working capital or grow
inventory. An investor might have sufficient internal resources but opt to take out a
commercial loan in order to, for example, retain sufficient funds to cover contingencies and
reduce taxable income by increasing debt payments. Bank loans can therefore directly
promote more direct investment by local or foreign investors by adding to the investment or
indirectly by ensuring the smooth operation of an activity. In this respect, the role of
commercial banks is critical. When taking a long-term view, banks may sit on the board of
directors of an enterprise, exert a direct interest in its management and thus be motivated to
ensure its long-term prosperity. This contrasts with a more laissez-faire approach in which
banks are primarily interested in a return on their money. Bank loans may thus stabilize
finance for enterprises in times of crisis.
Supplier credits
40.
Supplier credits are normally provided by partner firms or intermediate banks and
are primarily but not always short-term. Such credits are especially important to investing
enterprises that engage in trade or depend on importing inputs; the global trading economy
has thus relied heavily on them. During the financial crisis, supplier credits took a severe
hit, which had a huge impact on trade and the activities of even healthy enterprises directly
and indirectly involved in trade. An environment conducive to trade credits is therefore
important to sustain investment and economic activity.
Remittances
41.
Workers’ remittances are payments and transfers from foreign workers to their
countries of origin. With some $370 billion in remittances to labour-sending developing
countries and countries with economies in transition in 2013, income transfer has grown to
a significant amount: almost half of FDI flows and over three times as high as total ODA
received by developing countries. As a source of development finance in labour-sending
countries, remittances are still limited because they flow directly to households and are
essentially used for consumption. However, their wide distribution throughout the economy
means they can have a much broader effect than capital flows and even official flows,
where the recipients are targeted, more limited and geographically concentrated. When
emigrants return home, they may become important human resources, as they typically
acquire technological skills in labour-receiving countries. Furthermore, emigrants and
short-term workers also invest directly in their countries of origin (see table 2).
14
TD/B/C.II/28
Table 2
Migrant remittances and diaspora acquisitions, 1990–2013
(Millions of dollars)
Annual average
Receiving region
Developing countries
1990–1994 1995–1999 2000–2004 2005–2009
2010
2012
2013
348 053
365 619 374 702
38 855
63 946
111 895
Africa
10 368
10 868
14 146
Developing Asia
20 215
37 906
66 200
3 793
8 638
14 792
31 398
41 537
44 745
48 327
51 433
8 159
15 062
30 804
57 493
56 050
59 434
59 962
61 124
24 050
37 598
42 152
South-East Asia
246 192 311 202
2011
41 414
51 911
56 408
145 704 201 527
230 397
60 851
60 364
242 957 251 351
Latin America and
the Caribbean
Countries with
economies in
transition
Developed countries
World total
1 193
4 777
6 652
30 319
36 401
33 867
43 395
60 329
99 737 111 978
122 111
118 272 125 084
73 915
112 119
178 876
369 978 453 499
506 565
521 489 541 938
Source: UNCTAD secretariat calculations, based on data from the World Bank.
Investments by diaspora
42.
Investments by permanent emigrants and refugees range from portfolio investment
to FDI and financial investment (e.g. bank deposits) in their countries of origin. As long as
emigrants invest in fixed assets over other assets, they make a direct contribution to
productive investment. Small enterprises managed by families and relatives typically
benefit from such investments. Relatives and others (e.g. friends) in countries of origin may
have access to emigrants’ bank deposits and turn them into productive investments.15 Based
on data on cross-border mergers and acquisitions by diaspora members in their countries of
origin, their investment in developing countries in 2013 is estimated at $3.1 billion,
accounting for 3 per cent of the value of all cross-border mergers and acquisitions in
developing countries. The value of investment is still small – one hundredth of all
remittances in recent years – but members of diaspora, perhaps more than foreign workers
per se, can also contribute technical, managerial and other skills.
Policy issues for consideration
43.
In order to increase the absolute level of investment funds for sectors related to
sustainable development goals and to multiply their effectiveness and impact, partnerships
between different external and internal sources of development finance and investment are
desirable, to benefit from and synergize their unique attributes. Some combinations of
funds and sources might be more effective for specific sectors or projects related to
sustainable development goals. What country experiences may be drawn on to support
policymaking with respect to partnerships? Related policies might entail, among others, the
following:
• Use of ODA funds as base capital or junior debt in order to share risks or improve
risk-return profiles for private-sector funders
• Wider use of PPPs for projects related to sustainable development goals to improve
risk-return profiles and address market failures
15
Such amounts are called personal transfers and are recorded in the income account, not necessarily in
the capital account, in a balance of payments.
15
TD/B/C.II/28
• Advance market commitments and other mechanisms to provide more stable and
reliable markets for sectors related to sustainable development goals
• Use of public development funds (e.g. provided by development or multilateral
banks) as seed capital or guarantees to raise further private sector resources in
financial markets
44.
An important aspect of partnerships is that they are not only about financing; each
partner has unique characteristics and attributes, including technological assets, managerial
and professional skills or knowledge of the relevant sector or project. These attributes and
skills can be quite diffuse, and another area of consideration is thus how to bring such
attributes together into a mutually feasible partnership, especially in terms of nontraditional sources of know-how in developed countries (e.g. diaspora members, retired
individuals and career-gap volunteers).
IV. Innovative
financing
mechanisms
for
sustainable
development: Maximizing benefits from development finance
45.
Innovative financing solutions to support sustainable development, including new
financial instruments, investment funds and financing approaches, have the potential to
contribute significantly to the realization of sustainable development goals. To date,
however, they have remained relatively small in scale and limited in scope. Sources of
innovative finance may operate on the margins of capital markets and, when linked to
discretionary donor budgets, are not always stable. Prevalent examples of sources of
innovative finance that could be scaled up include the following seven sources.
Green bonds and development impact bonds
46.
The current estimated market value of green and/or climate bonds ranges from
$86 billion to 174 billion and various proposed development impact bonds are likely to
raise this further.16 These bonds are appealing because they ensure a safer return for
investors, many of which are backed by donors or multilateral banks, and also because they
are clearly defined sustainable projects or products. The proceeds are often credited to
special accounts that support loan disbursements for projects related to sustainable
development goals (e.g. projects related to development or climate change adaptation and
mitigation). These instruments were often the domain of multilateral development banks,
but more recently, a number of transnational corporations have issued green bonds, such as
EDF Energy, Toyota and Unilever.17
Impact investing
47.
Impact investment can be a valuable source of capital, especially to finance the
needs of low-income developing countries or for products and services aimed at vulnerable
16
17
16
According to the World Economic Forum, the size of the green bond market is estimated at
$174 billion by HSBC and the Climate Bonds Initiative, under a definition that looks beyond
explicitly labelled green and/or climate bonds, while other estimates, including those from the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, place the market nearer to $86 billion
(World Economic Forum, 2013, The Green Investment Report (Geneva)).
EDF Energy undertook a €1.4 billion issue to finance investment in solar and wind energy, Toyota
raised $1.75 billion for the development of hybrid vehicles and Unilever raised £250 million for
projects to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, water usage or waste within its supply chain
(S Mulholland, 2014, Toyota said to issue $1.75 billion of green asset-backed bonds, Bloomberg,
11 March; Reuters, 2013, Successful launch of EDF’s first green bond, 20 November; The Economist,
2014, Green bonds: Spring in the air, 22 March; and Unilever, 2014, Unilever issues first ever green
sustainability bond, 19 March).
TD/B/C.II/28
communities. Estimated impact investments presently range from $40 billion to
$100 billion, depending on which sectors and types of activity are defined as constituting
impact investing. Similarly, the estimated future global potential of impact investing varies
from the relatively modest to up to $1 trillion in total.18 Impact investors include aid
agencies, non-governmental organizations, philanthropic foundations and wealthy
individuals, as well as banks, institutional investors and other types of firms and funds. A
joint study of impact investment by UNCTAD and the United States Department of State in
2012 observed that over 90 per cent of impact investment funds were still invested in the
developed world, mostly in social impact and renewable energy projects. In developing
regions, the largest recipient of impact investing is Latin America and the Caribbean,
followed by Africa and South Asia.19 This is because there are a number of constraints on
the expansion of impact investing in developing countries; some are supply-related
constraints, such as the lack of a common understanding of what impact investment entails,
while others are demand-related constraints, such as a shortage of high-quality investment
opportunities with experience or the lack of innovative structures to accommodate the
needs of portfolio investors.20
Vertical funds
48.
Vertical, or financial intermediary, funds are dedicated mechanisms that allow
multiple stakeholders (e.g. Government, civil society, individuals and the private sector) to
provide funding for previously specified purposes, often to underfunded sectors such as
disease eradication or climate change mitigation. Funds such as the Global Environment
Fund and the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria have now reached a
significant size.21 Similar funds could be created in alignment with other specific focus
areas of sustainable development goals in general. For example, the Africa Enterprise
Challenge Fund has been used as a vehicle to provide preferential loans for the purpose of
developing inclusive businesses.
Matching funds
49.
Matching funds, whereby the public sector commits to contributing an equal or
proportionate amount, have been used to incentivize private sector contributions to
development initiatives. For example, under the Gavi Matching Fund, the Department for
International Development of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation have pledged about $130 million combined to
match contributions from corporations, foundations, customers, members, employees and
business partners (see http://www.gavi.org/funding/give-to-gavi/gavi-matching-fund/).
18
19
20
21
N O’Donohoe, C Leijonhufvud and Y Saltuk, 2010, Impact investments: An emerging asset class, J.P.
Morgan Global Research, available at https://www.jpmorgan.com/pages/detail/1290554691462
(accessed 29 January 2015).
R Addis, J. McLeod and A. Raine, 2013, Impact – Australia: Investment for social and economic
benefit, Australian Government Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations.
A number of initiatives are under way to address these constraints and expand impact investment,
including the Global Impact Investing Network and the Impact Reporting and Investment Standards
catalogue, the Global Impact Economy Forum of the United States Department of State, the Global
Impact Investment Ratings System, the United Kingdom Impact Programme for investment in subSaharan Africa and South Asia and the Group of 8 Social Impact Investment Task Force.
The Global Environment Fund – a partnership between 182 countries, international agencies, civil
society and private sector – has provided $11.5 billion in grants since its creation in 1990 and
leveraged $57 billion in co-financing for over 3,215 projects in over 165 countries. The Global Fund
to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria has secured pledges of about $30 billion since its creation in
2002 and over 60 per cent of the pledges have been paid to date (World Bank, 2013, Financing for
Development Post-2015 (Washington, D.C.)).
17
TD/B/C.II/28
Front-loading aid
50.
In addition to catalysing additional contributions, the public sector can induce
private sector actors to use financing mechanisms that change the time profile of
development financing, through the front loading of aid disbursements. The International
Finance Facility for Immunization issues AAA-rated bonds in capital markets that are
backed by long-term pledges by donor Governments. As such, aid flows to developing
countries that would normally occur over a period of 20 years are converted to cash
immediately upon issuance. For investors, the bonds are attractive due to the credit rating, a
market-comparable interest rate and the perceived socially responsible return on
investment. The International Finance Facility for Immunization has raised more than
$4.5 billion to date through bond issuances purchased by institutional and retail investors in
a range of different mature financial markets (see http://www.iffim.org).
Future-flow securitization
51.
The front loading of aid is a subset of a broader range of initiatives under the
umbrella of future-flow securitization, which allows developing countries to issue
marketable financial instruments whose repayments are secured against a relatively stable
revenue stream. These can be used to attract a broader class of investors than would
otherwise be possible. Other prominent examples are diaspora bonds, whose issuance is
secured against migrant remittance flows, and bonds backed by the revenue stream from,
for example, natural resources. These instruments allow developing countries to access
funding immediately that would normally be received over a protracted period.
Crowdsourcing
52.
It is estimated that crowdfunding platforms raised $2.7 billion globally in 2012 and
were forecast to increase 81 per cent in 2013 to $5.1 billion.22 While currently more
prevalent in developed countries, crowdfunding has the potential to fund projects related to
sustainable development goals in developing countries. Crowdfunding has been an effective
means for entrepreneurs and businesses in developed countries that do not have access to
more formal financial markets. Crowdfunding could also help dormant entrepreneurial
talent and activity to circumvent traditional capital markets and obtain finance.
53.
In dealing with these innovative mechanisms for finance and addressing various
challenges in sectors related to sustainable development goals, investing in human
resources is critical. Mobilizing resources for entrepreneurship promotion is a viable option,
and is addressed in a separate note prepared by the Secretariat (TD/B/C.II/29).
Policy issues for consideration
54.
To achieve scale and scope, existing and innovative financial instruments and
funding mechanisms to raise resources for investment in sustainable development goals
need to be supported, adapted to purpose and scaled up as appropriate. What country
experiences can be drawn on to devise appropriate policies and mechanisms for doing so?
Among others, consideration may be given to the following:
• Partnerships between outward investment agencies in home countries and
investment promotion agencies in host countries
• Facilitation measures to support financial instruments dedicated to sustainable
development goals and impact investing initiatives
• Means of implementation of policies, in order to ensure a better use of innovative
mechanisms and reduce constraints on investors
22
18
Massolution, 2013, The crowdfunding industry report, available at http://www.crowdsourcing.org/
editorial/2013cf-the-crowdfunding-industry-report/25107 (accessed 29 January 2015).
TD/B/C.II/28
55.
Beyond policies for financing, consideration should be given to encouraging private
and public sectors, both foreign and domestic, to invest better. Achieving sustainable
development goals is not only about how much investment is made, but how it is
implemented. For instance, investors expanding the employment of women, minorities and
other excluded groups – or boosting their skills – support sustainable development through
how they invest, and not only by how much.
19
United Nations
United Nations Conference
on Trade and Development
TD/B/C.II/28/Corr.1
Distr.: General
18 February 2015
English only
Trade and Development Board
Investment, Enterprise and Development Commission
Seventh session
Geneva, 20–24 April 2015
Item 4 of the provisional agenda
Mobilizing investment for development:
Contribution of UNCTAD in the
context of financing for development
Mobilizing investment for sustainable development:
Background information and considerations pertinent to the
Third International Conference on Financing for
Development
Note by the UNCTAD secretariat
Corrigendum
The corner notation on document TD/B/C.II/28 should read as above.
GE.15-02998 (E)
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