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HEKIMA REVIEW
Journal of Hekima College
Jesuit School of Theology, Peace Studies
and International Relations
Number 44, May 2011
Address: P. O. Box 21215, Ngong Road, 00505 Nairobi – Kenya
Telephone: (+254-2) 576607/8/9
Fax: (+254-2) 570972
E-mail: [email protected] (for submission of articles)
[email protected] (for subscriptions)
Editorial Board
Editor-in-Chief:
Assistant Editor:
Managing Editor:
Distribution:
Norbert Litoing, SJ
Evaristus Ekwueme, SJ
Raymond C. Tangonyire, SJ
Fr. Jocelyn Rabeson Solofonirina, SJ (co-ordinator)
Wilson Waweru, AA
Makasa Adrian Chikwamo, SJ
Marcel Uwineza, SJ
Gilbert Fungai Banda, S.J.
Members:
Bazebizonza Ndaphet Raphael, SJ
Ndimba Jean-Christian Ndoki, SJ
Benjie Notarte, SMM
Etienne Mborong, SJ
Jacob Barasa, AA
Dieudonné Bomalose, SMM
John Ewu
Charlie B. Chilufya, S.J.
Staff Advisor:
Fr. Jocelyn Rabeson Solofonirina, SJ
The views expressed in this journal do not necessarily reflect the opinion of the editorial
board. We welcome letters to the editor in reaction to any of the articles published in
the Review.
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ISSN 1019-6188
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2
Hekima Review, No. 44, May 2011
Contents
EDITORIAL
Gender: Beyond Social and Biological Determinism
Norbert Litoing, SJ  
THEOLOGICAL ISSUES
Some Preliminary Notes on Gender, Culture and Theology
Hazel O. AYanga .................................................................................................... 8
La déclaration de Benoît XVI au sujet de l’ordination des
femmes ou la réouverture d’un débat biaisé
Jean Luc Enyegue, SJ ............................................................................................. 17
“Let him kiss me with the kisses of his mouth!” (Song of Songs 1:2):
Gender, Pleasure and Conjugal Sexual Ethics
Shaji George Kochuthara, CMI ............................................................................. 32
Toward An African Womanist/ Feminist Biblical Scholarship
Sr Caroline Mbonu, HHCJ .................................................................................... 47
Psalm 31 at the Service of Women Dragged into Sex Work in Cameroon
Besem Oben Etchi ................................................................................................. 55
Saint Paul, grand promoteur de la dignité de la femme
Jean-Claude Havyarimana, SJ ............................................................................. 66
SPIRITUALITY
Constructing a Contemporary Theology of Sin: A Challenge for Contemporary
Theologians
Martins Ayokunle Okoh, SJ 
3
Une méditation sur la responsabilité de l’homme à l’égard de la création
Raphael Ndaphet Bazebizonza, SJ 
PEACE STUDIES AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Understanding the International Community
Bado Arsène Brice, SJ  
The Feminine theory of Peace-building and conflict transformation
Chungi Jane and Mborong Etienne, SJ  
Mutated Identities: Gender and Conflict
Ndanu Mung’ala  
REFLECTIONS PASTORAL ISSUES
A Cause for Celebration: The New Kenyan Constitution Heralds a
Bold New Era Affirming Women’s Rights and Gender Equality
Atieno Ndomo  
Globalization and the Growing Phenomenon of Human Trafficking
Charles B. Chilufya, S.J. and Chongo Vanessa Chitupila 
The Woman in Mveng’s Thought
Joseph Loïc Mben, SJ  
Sublimating Desire: Reflections on the Problem of
Sexual Abuse of Minors by Clergy
Laurenti Magesa  
Cultural Implications of Single Motherhood: An Attempt at
Comprehension in the Light of Feminist Theology
Chikere Ugwuanyi, SJ  
The “Third Gender”
Sr Anne Achieng, FSJ  
Book Reviews ........................................................................................................197
Poems......................................................................................................................210
4
Editorial
Gender: Beyond Social and Biological Determinism
Norbert Litoing, SJ *
F
or centuries, biological differences between men and women have been the determining factor in the ascription of social roles. Women’s biological capacity for
childbirth and breastfeeding and their general lesser physical strength have been
used to confine them to domestic chores and the upbringing of children. Supposedly
ruled by emotion and judged less reasonable than men, they have been deemed unfit
to participate in politics, for example, and ostracised from large areas of the public
arena. More often than not, decision-making has been seen as the sole prerogative of
men. Even in many of the so-called democratic nations, the right of women to vote
and to run for office is hardly a century old. As it stands, this biological determinism
or social Darwinism has often been applied to the detriment of women, whose lot has
largely been an oppressed and restricted form of life. Taken from this perspective, the
feminization of the gender discourse is justifiable.
In fact, the door through which the question of gender comes into theology is
feminism and this is confirmed by the global orientation of the articles of this issue on
“Gender and Theology”. In this discourse, the perennial equality-difference debate of
feminist circles resurfaces under different guises. Put crudely, it is a debate over whether
women should struggle to be equal to men or whether they should valorise their differences from men. This debate is a difficult one, primarily because its terms are not
easily defined and its attendant questions put us in a quagmire. Indeed, not only are
the terms ‘equality’ and ‘difference’ polysemic, but also, the following questions call for
a clear answer for the delineation of the debate: If women are claiming equality with
men, then with which men should they be claiming equality? On what issues are they
claiming this equality? Should they claim equality of opportunity or equality of outcome?
And if women want to valorise their differences, then are these natural, biological differences or differences that are the result of particular social and economic conditions?
The articles in this volume may not give you all the answers to the many questions
you may have in mind with regard to gender and its relation to theology and peace
studies. Nevertheless, my hope is that they serve as a springboard for further reflection
on this salient topic.
Under Theological Issues, you will find a number of interesting articles. Hazel O.
Ayanga offers us some preliminary notes on gender, culture and theology, which can
serve as a launch pad for the reading of the whole of this volume and, more specifically,
*
Norbert Litoing is a Cameroonian Jesuit. He is presently in his second year of theology at
Hekima College.
5
Editorial
its theological issues. Jean Luc Enyegue revisits the question of women’s ordination,
offering information and insights which can help us relate to this much debated issue
with an attitude of creative fidelity. Drawing inspiration from the book of Song of Songs,
Shaji George Kochuthara sets out to articulate a gender-sensitive sexual ethics aimed
at enhancing reciprocal sexual fulfilment in conjugal relationships. In fact, the frustration of this legitimate desire appears to be one of the major causes of marital conflicts.
Caroline Mbonu underscores some of the challenges that confront African women as
they venture into biblical scholarship and she goes ahead to suggest some ways in which
African women exegetes can contribute to the integral growth of persons and of the
Church on the continent. Hinged on psalm 31, Etchi Oben Bessem elaborates a lament
ritual for Cameroonian women dragged into sex work who seek liberation. Saint Paul
has often been accused of having legitimated men’s domination over women; JeanClaude Havyarimana argues that this claim is wrong and sets out to portray him as a
promoter of gender equality.
Under Spirituality, Martins Ayokunle Okoh offers insights into the way in which the
notion of sin can be understood in a way that speaks to our contemporary situation,
drawing inspiration from three sources: Scripture, the African traditional world-view
and the Spiritual Exercises of saint Ignatius of Loyola. On his part, Raphael Ndaphet
Bazebizonza invites us to a meditation on wo/man’s responsibility toward creation
aimed at promoting an ecological consciousness.
Under Peace Studies and International Relations, you will find three articles. The
expression “international community” has become part and parcel of common parlance.
But what does this expression conceal and what does it entail? Brice Bado offers some
insightful thoughts on this. Etienne Mborong and Jane Chungi highlight the fundamental
importance of the feminine touch in the search for peace and in conflict transformation in the African context. Ndanu Mung’ala underscores the need to take the gender
variable into consideration in the analyses of conflict situations in order to circumvent
the oversimplifications and flawed approaches which are very often adopted by most
scholars.
The section entitled Reflections / Pastoral Issues is one of the richest of this volume with articles addressing a number of contemporary issues. In August 2010, Kenya
promulgated a new Constitution. Atieno Ndomo shows how this new fundamental law
harbingers a noteworthy milestone for advancing the position, conditions and status
of Kenyan women. However, in very realistic terms, she stresses the fact that the passage from promise to reality is a very demanding one calling for transformative action.
Charles Bwalya Chilufya and Chongo Vanessa Chitupila discuss the thorny question of
human trafficking in the context of globalisation. They highlight the fact that the efforts
that have so far been made to curb this phenomenon have been inadequate as they
have failed to address the root causes enshrined in the processes and effects of globalisation. They advocate for strategies that can make globalisation work while curbing
the risks that go with it. Engelbert Mveng, one of Africa’s foremost theologians, had a
vision about women extant in his writings and paintings. Joseph Mben Loïc calls us to a
rediscovery of this thought in the crucible of feminist hermeneutics. During the “Year
of the Priests”, the Church was rocked by the publicisation of a number of sex scandals
involving the clergy. Some tend to think about these scandals as a “Western thing”, but
Laurenti Magesa invites us to remove the scales that prevent us from seeing the log in
our eyes and suggests solutions inspired by the African socio-cultural context. A reality
6
Editorial
hitherto considered out of place, single parenthood is today widely practiced and accepted in Africa. Chikere Crescent Ugwuani looks at the cultural implications of single
motherhood in the Gikuyu culture of Kenya, particularly the notion of self-marriage.
Finally, Anne Achieng’ questions the appropriateness of the word ‘gender’ in the classification of humanity, emphasizing the fact that it marginalizes those belonging to the
“third gender” (the intersex). She advocates for the recognition of their sexual identity
and a valorisation of their dignity.
As I take over as editor-in-chief of the journal, I wish to thank Chikere Ugwuanyi
from whom I have learned a great deal as his assistant editor-in-chief for one year. His
dedication and commitment to the journal, even after handing over, are a real source
of inspiration. I equally wish to thank the other editorial members who are leaving
the editorial board as their stay at Hekima College comes to a close: Bomki Mathew,
Chishala Chisembe Francis, Emmanuel Lenge, Ignatius Tambudzai, John Tanyi and Sr
Millicent Omondi. Thank you for your dedication. On behalf of the editorial board, I
wish you a fruitful ministry. I would equally like to welcome those who have joined
the editorial board this year. In a special way, I wish to welcome Evaristus Ekwueme,
our new assistant editor. In like manner, I wish to welcome Makasa Adrian Chikwamo,
Bazebizonza Raphael, Ndimba Jean-Christian Ndoki, Benjie Notarte, John Ewu and
Wilson Waweru who are all joining as members of the editorial board.
Thank you for your fidelity to our journal!
7
Theological Issues
Hazel O. AYanga *
A
bstract: Is gender disparity a “given”, inscribed in the very nature of things, or is
it a socio-cultural construction, the result of relationships gone sour? What is the
relationship of gender to culture and how is this echoed in theological discourse?
These are some of the underlying questions of this paper that explores some avenues along
which gender related issues can be articulated. It does not offer a panacea for all gender
related issues; rather it suggests a framework within which reflection on these issues can
be carried out in a holistic manner.
I
ntroduction: Gender is a much discussed topic in contemporary society. Different
voices are heard on the issue, each with its own perspective and interpretation of the
issues that surround the discussion. Thus, gender means different things to different
people. Our understanding of the term affects our discussion of it and the conclusions
we make out of the discussion. Also, the gender discourse is a multi-faceted issue. It
can not be discussed in isolation from other social and political aspects of life. However,
several questions inform the theoretical and practical direction that the discourse takes.
Such questions include definitions of gender and its origins. Is gender purely about
women and their somewhat negative experiences in life, what is commonly referred to
as women’s issues? Is gender a “given” in any society, in other words, is God the origin
and creator of gender? Or is it a social construct? From the theological perspective, what
has God got to do with in its contemporary manifestations? What does the Bible say,
if anything, about gender? In other words, what does theology bring to the discussion
table? What do theologians have to contribute to the discourse? And what should be
the basis of their contribution?
This paper attempts to give some answers to these and other questions that arise
out of the gender discourse. It is a general survey of the gender discourse by examining and interrogating some of the major variables or terminologies that are often used
in the discussion. These include culture and theology and their relationship in human
experience. Finally the paper examines some aspects of the life and teaching of Jesus
Christ with a view to gleaming out principles or guidelines that Christian may apply in
their approach to gender and gender related issues.
*
8
Hazel O. Ayanga lectures at Moi University in the department of philosophy and religion.
What is Gender?
The term gender has been defined differently by different scholars. This is as it
should since the different scholars bring different academic and faith persuasions to
the discourse. In general, however, the underlying factor behind all the definitions is
the awareness of the differences between men and women in society, whether real or
imagined. There is also the now commonly accepted notion that gender is constructed
rather than natural or created. Scholars are therefore wary of giving universal definitions
to be applied everywhere and all the time. There is also the underlying assumption
that culture, religion and theology have something to do with how we understand and
interpret gender and our contribution to the general gender discourse. Thus Musa Dube
describes gender as “a social construct of men and women.”1 In other words, we are
born as either male or female, but we are grown or socialized into certain gender roles
and expectations created and enforced by society. According to Miroslav Volf we are
born as sexed beings. We have physical marks that undoubtedly classify us as either
male or female human beings.2 These marks can be described as our biological differentiations. However, the sex marks should not be confused with gender. This confusion
is perceptible in many gender discussions. For both Dube and Volf, as for many other
scholars, gender is not biologically determined.3 Christie C. Neuger emphasizes this fact
in the following words: “Male and female sex designations have been seen more as
biological assignments, and masculinity and femininity, or gender, seen more as social
assignments, though of course there are interrelationships.”4
Thus we can say that nature makes us male or female, society and culture make us
masculine or feminine. We become gendered beings by socialization and acceptance
(internalization) of our society’s norms and values; by our acceptance and fulfillment
of the roles (assignments) as male and female given to us by our society. Voicing a
similar view in different words, Keller describes gender as a “cultural category.”5 She
further says that gender refers “to the shared beliefs of a particular culture about what
constitutes masculinity and femininity.”6
Furthermore, gender is an all pervading issue. Every aspect of our life, our experiences and our interpretation of those experiences, is in one way or another related to
gender. Indeed our response to issues and our relationships with one another are generally seen through the lens of gender. “We are gendered human beings, all the time,
everywhere.”7 This is true when we understand that gender is a socio-cultural construct.
Society and culture define us, they tell us what we can or cannot do as men or women.
Gender becomes a power and resource distribution mechanism. It distributes according
to socio-cultural expectations and dictates. Gender and the gender discourse, therefore,
1
Musa Dube, HIV/AIDS and the Curriculum: Methods of Integrating HIV/AIDS in Theological Programmes (Geneva: WCC Publications, 2003), 86.
2
Miroslav Volf, Exclusion and Embrace: A Theological Exploration of Identity, Otherness, and Reconciliation (Nashville: Abingdon, 1996), 174.
3
Sally B. Purvis, “Gender Construction,” in Letty M. Russell and J Shannon Clarkson, eds. Dictionary
of Feminist Theologies (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1996), 124-125.
4
Christie Cozad Neuger, Counseling Women: a Narrative, Pastoral Approach (Minneapolis: Fortress
Press, 2001), 5.
5
Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985),
xv.
6
Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science, xv.
7
Dube, HIV/AIDS and the Curriculum, 87.
9
Hazel O. AYanga
cannot and should not be viewed or understood in isolation from other economic and
socio-political issues in any given context. It is intricately related to issues of race, poverty,
education and religion. Where racism exists, women experience double stigmatization.
First they are outsiders by virtue of being members of a different race from the dominant
race then they are discriminated against by virtue of their gender. The same can be said
of women in economically deprived situations. Women have been described as the
poorest of the poor and there has been a process which has progressively ensured the
feminization of poverty and other related issues. The disparity in the provision of and
access to education for the girl child is an ongoing source of concern in Kenya. This
situation has a lot to do with gender roles and values, but it also has everything to do
with poverty and the patriarchal foundations of our society.
Thus, although gender is about both men and women, about what it means for men
and women to be described as either masculine or feminine, the gender discourse has
been more about women and the issues affecting them than about men. One may say
that there has been a feminization of the gender discourse to such an extent that men
have felt marginalized from the discussion. In recent times in Kenya sentiments decrying
this situation have been voiced, leading to the formation of organizations as Maendeleo
Ya Wanaume.This is an organization that is trying to address issues and problems that
men face by virtue of being male. Whatever its objectives are, the movement has reminded Kenyans that there is another aspect of the gender discourse that needs to be
addressed if discourse is to be holistic. However, this gender imbalance in the discussion was brought about by the fact that throughout history, gender has not distributed
power and other socio-cultural resources equally between men and women; giving rise
to inequality and disparity in the distribution of these resources. The distribution has,
generally speaking, been in favour of the male. The discourse has been an attempt to
raise people’s awareness and to address the disparities inherent in the distribution of
both social and political and spiritual resources.
The Genesis of Gender
The origin of gender is a question that does not have one answer. Yet it is one that
continues to “haunt” any discussions of gender related issues. Whether we believe that
gender is a given or a socio-cultural construction has a lot of bearing on the direction
that the discourse takes. If it is a divine “given” then any discussion, particularly from
the perspective of people of faith will not yield any useful results. That is the way God
or the gods willed it and we should not question or try to change the situation. If it is
a construct, then it is possible to trace some kind of social and historical progression
from one context to another and from one historical era to another.
Gender disparity in favour of men particularly in the West, is a result of certain
historical, economic as well as socio-political developments and processes. Evelyn Fox
Keller adequately traces and describes some of these processes in her book, Reflections on Gender and Science. Although her particular concern is the exploration of
how science became identified with masculinity, she gives us insights into some of
the processes that led to the marginalization of women from the evidence based and
apparently objective aspects of education (science) and of life in general. According
to Keller, such processes include identification of masculinity with aspects of life that
10
require reason and objectivity on the one hand and the feminization of sentimentality
and feeling on the other.8 Science was portrayed as “Hard”, devoid of subjectivity and
personal feelings. These processes can be generalized to other aspects of life and not
just science alone. Men were expected to be unemotional and hard while women began
to be viewed as soft and therefore emotional. They could not do science because they
lacked the stamina and the strength.
Mercy Oduyoye, suggests that the gender question is a cross cutting one. It represents
“one of the oldest power struggles of humanity.”9 However, the struggle and its ramifications became more visible in the 1960s as globally, women began to come together to
voice their concerns over the issues. In other words, gender discourse seems to have
existed among human beings from time immemorial. However, expressions of it have
changed in response to the dynamics of culture and other related human institutions.
Volf sees gender as rooted in the sexed body, “a body that carries indelible marks of
belonging to either male or female sex…Men’s and women’s gender identities are rooted
in the specificity of their distinct sexed bodies.”10 However, Volf clarifies this position
by insisting that gender and gender identity are not simply biological, they are a result
of the interaction between men and women within specific cultures. In other words
gender is a cultural construction whose expression is in the politics and economics of
a given people.
Gender and Culture
Culture is as complex a phenomenon. Culture is the totality of how we live our
lives, how we organize our social relationships.11 Indeed culture dictates even the kind
of food we eat and how we prepare it. Culture is the framework within which our lives
are lived, understood and interpreted. It puts boundaries on our existence right from
birth (or is it even before?) to death and beyond. However, different communities have
different cultures. Scholars say that culture is an adaptive mechanism that communities
employ in response to the challenges that their specific environments pose for them.
It is from culture that we get answers to complex and recurring questions of human
existence. Different questions and challenges arise in different contexts. That is why we
have different cultures in different geographical and historical contexts.
This is one of the reasons why gender and the gender discourse cannot be divorced
from culture and its dictates. It is in culture that gender construction takes place. Expressions of gender and the gender discourse therefore tend to be somewhat different
in different cultural contexts. The good news is that culture is not static, it is dynamic.
This makes room for the deconstruction, transformation and reconstruction of gender.
This is better understood when we see or view culture as an adaptive mechanism. Human beings do not only need to adapt to their natural environment, they also need to
adapt to the ever changing political and socio-economic environment. Thus for any
culture to remain relevant it needs to constantly change in response to new situations
Keller, Reflection on Gender and Science, 29.
Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Daughters of Anowa: African Women and Patriarchy(New York: Orbis
Books, 1995), 2.
10
Volf, Exclusion and Embrace, 174.
11
Hannah W. Kinoti, “Culture,” in Russell and Clarkson, 63.
8
9
11
Hazel O. AYanga
and new challenges that face human beings. In this context, gender reconstruction
becomes an imperative rather than a choice. Gender construction must therefore be in
constant review and interrogation in the light of new circumstances and experiences.
This makes the constant falling back on “our culture” rather superfluous. In Kenya for
instance, whenever we come across something new, some new fashion or new interpretation of issues, we always fall back to “this is against our culture.” This happens in
relation to the gender discourse as well. Our culture says that women must not do this
or the other. Women should not seek leadership positions or women should not make
decisions affecting their families and so on and so forth. This may have been so, but its
relevance and usefulness were to different circumstances of time and place.
But this view is not necessarily accepted by all. One reaction that is prevalent
among people faced with the challenges of change is traditionalism. This is the “our
culture says” syndrome. It is one of the strongest obstacles to gender reconstruction. It
provides a somewhat safe haven from the dangers, perceived or imagined of change.
In this, traditionalism finds a great ally in a certain theology. If God created men and
women the way they are and gave them their specific roles to play, why would any
one of us want to think and behave otherwise? If gender and gender relations are divine mandates, then human beings should not seek to change them without incurring
divine wrath. Thus traditionalism becomes one of the obstacles in the way of gender
reconstruction. In other cases, we people respond by revitalizing or reviving the custom
or tradition that is threatened by change. In this case the cultural practices in question
become even more entrenched. An example of this is what took place around Eldoret
in the early 1990s. This was a time when traditional rites of passage for girls were being condemned, some members of the community responded to the condemnation by
reviving the practice. It was reported that even some elderly women already married
with children and grandchildren went back to their maternal homes and requested for
the rites to be performed on them. The claim was that they felt incomplete and not fully
mature because they had not been properly initiated into adulthood before they got
married. This was an attempt to revive and revitalize a practice that was under attack.
Gender and Theology
If culture is a people’s method of adapting to their environment, theology should
be a response to the people’s experienced and existential needs and questions. Culture
contains information about the community’s relationship to nature and to what is perceived as beyond or outside of nature. From this perspective, theology can be viewed
as “cultural God talk”. It is how a community of believers understands God and God’s
involvement in their lives and their day to day experiences. Theology and theologizing
are a response to issues and answers provided by culture. Thus the gender discourse is
intricately related to our understanding of God and the divine action both in creation
and in the resulting human development and its processes. We have pointed out that
gender is basically a socio-cultural construct which is manifested differently in different
contexts. With the relationship between culture and theology alluded to above, different
theologies arise out of these different contexts. This is very apparent in the development
of different contextual theologies. The theological response to gender has mainly found
expression in feminist theology.
12
Feminist theology is not one universal theology. It has been expressed differently
in different contexts. There are Asian feminist theologies (note the plural); European
Feminist theologies and African feminist theologies among others. Within these larger
contexts, there are more specific context theologies. For example, there is the Mujerista
theology that is the expression of Latina women, especially those living in the United
States. Womanist Theology on the other hand is the expression of feminist theology from
the perspective of African American women and their experiences of racial discrimination
among other forms of discrimination.12 All of them are a response and a contribution to
the gender discourse. For all of them the major question seems to be “what is the role
of God in gender construction?” Thus whether we view gender as divine or as human,
it is clear that our views of God and therefore our theology are essential to the gender
discourse. How we speak of gender and how we speak of God. The language used in
the discourse often reflects the language used in relation to God, hence the frequently
quoted phrase coined by Mary Daly in the early history of contemporary feminist theology, “if God is male, then male is God.”13 The gender of God then becomes a thorn in
the flesh in theological gender discourse.
From the African traditional perspective, Oduyoye suggests that the gender of God
was more or less a non issue. Many African languages do not have pronouns that designate one as either male or female (i.e. he/she). The problem of whether God is male or
female did not arise and if it did, it was not viewed as important. But these issues have
become important in global theology and gender discussions. How do we understand
God and how does this affect our gender talk?
Volf’s ideas on this matter seem to make a lot of sense. Having noted the concerns
of feminist theologians in the matter, he says
Most theologians would agree that God is beyond sexual distinctions. We use masculine or
feminine metaphors for God not because God is male or female, but because God is ‘personal’.
There is no other way to speak of persons except in a gendered way. Since human beings,
the only personal creatures we know, exist only in the duality of male and female, we must
speak of a personal God by using masculine and feminine metaphors14
Accordingly, therefore, our language of God may not necessarily reflect a prescriptive description of God. Rather it is an understanding of God from a purely human
context using metaphors that are more or less exclusively human, and that give some
kind of meaning to human beings. This duality and polarization of male and female is
questioned in postmodern thinking; nevertheless, Volf’s use of it in the context of the
gender identity of God and our God talk gives us a useful theological direction.
Apart from language, theology endeavours to relate God to the everyday, problematic
and not so problematic aspects of human life. This takes us back to some of the questions we raised earlier on. Specifically our attention is directed to the question, what
does the Bible offer the theologian as a basis of participation in the gender discourse?
Can the life and teaching of Jesus give us a framework within which we can understand
and contribute to the gender discourse?
12
13
14
See various entries in Russell and Clarkson, 100-116
Mary Daly, Beyond God the Father (Boston: Beacon, 1973), 19.
Volf, Exclusion and Embrace, 170.
13
Hazel O. AYanga
The Bible, Jesus and Gender
Creation stories as recorded in Genesis 1 and 2 are often the basis of arguments
and counterarguments in the gender discourse among theologians and people of
faith in particular. It is clear that God created human beings as sexed beings. God approved this situation by declaring that what was created was good. We do not see any
evidence of gender disparity or negative gender insinuations before the fall. What is
described is Adam’s celebration of a being different from himself, yet a part of himself.
“Bone of my bone and flesh of my flesh” (Genesis 2:23) he declares. Then something
happens, something that would eternally change this relationship. Something goes
wrong. Whatever the actual practical or empirical form of the change may have been,
it had far reaching implications for the relationship between men and women. After
the fall, Adam’s attitude changes, he begins to view the woman as a problem he could
do without. In a way, he blames God for bringing Eve into his life. After the fall, difference is no longer celebrated. Adam begins to view Eve not just as a different being
from himself, but he views her negatively too. She becomes a problem, something to
be tolerated rather than enjoyed.
The story in Genesis also tells us that it is after the fall that specific gender roles
begin to emerge. There is also an indication of subordination and superiority of roles.
Thus we may conclude that negative gender discourse and disparity is a result of
the fallenness of human beings, the failure to live according to divine expectations?
I suggest that rather than giving gender a divine origin, we should recognize it for
what it is. It is a result of relationships gone sour, a situation that becomes clear only
after the fall.
One may then ask, does this not say that gender and its ramifications are a result
of God’s action? Yes they are, but they are first and foremost the results of human failure. They also describe a situation that God would later be described as being eager to
change. It is the situation that required God becoming flesh to make it right. Does this
not justify the desire of men and women to reformulate and renew the relations in line
with the completed work of salvation?
This is what Jesus came to do, restore broken relationships between human beings
and God, but also between human beings themselves. Even a cursory examination
of his life and teaching indicates that this was the central aspect of the cross. Jesus
taught by means of stories. Many of these stories show God’s desire to restore human
relations. But the stories also indicate that this can only be done by interrogating the
dominant culture of the day. The story of the prodigal son (Luke 15: 11-32) seems to
turn outsiders into insiders and vice versa. The outcast, the stigmatized is welcomed
back and there is a celebration of right relationships. Yet, there is always the one
who prefers things to stay as they are. The elder son in the story is offended by the
welcome celebrations basically because the new situation was going to interfere with
his priviledges as the loyal son. By his own attitude he becomes the outsider whereas
he could have extended a hand of welcome and embrace to his brother. Is it the fear
of losing our priviledged position that stands in the way of appropriate and more
useful gender theology?
The Christ was manifested to humanity as a sexed being, living his life within
the constrains and limitations of his Jewish culture. The Bible records incidences in
14
which he was confronted by this culture, both in its positive as well as in its negative
aspects. Interestingly, many of the negative aspects that he confronted were related
to women and others who were also excluded from the dominant culture of the
day. The story of the Samaritan woman is not just about ethnicity, it is also about
gender and its exclusionary perspectives. As a religious leader of his day, he was
not expected to be talking to a Samaritan and a woman at that! Worse still she was a
woman of questionable moral standing (Cf. John 4: 1-42). But Jesus engages her in a
lively discussion that leads to the conversion of a community. The discussion shows
us that Jesus recognized that the woman had something to bring to the discourse. He
trespasses the cultural and theological boundaries to introduce a new era of thinking. By doing so he interrogates the theology as well as the culture which was the
context of the theology.
Jesus’ participation in cultural reconstruction is equally depicted in his discussion
with the religious groups of his day. “You have heard that it was said…. But I say to
you…” was his constructivist methodology. Indeed he made no attempt to castigate
the law. Rather he built on it as if to say that it was relevant and useful in its time and
place, but now it was time to move on. It was time to reinterpret the “given” law in
ways that were more relevant and appropriate in the new era. This was the era of the
kingdom that he came to inaugurate. Inclusion and embrace would be the norm rather
than the exception in the Kingdom.
In response to his disciples’ question about the source or cause of sickness and
blindness, Jesus says that the origin of these things may be somewhat irrelevant. The
important thing was that God’s work and glory would be manifested by his response
to the situation. What is the origin of gender? May be we do not need to know, the
important thing is that through our response to it and its manifestations we may help
to usher in the kingdom of God on earth. Could it be that as Christian theologians we
sometimes stand in the way of God doing a new thing? Could it be that we try to justify
a situation which is obviously a result of human sin and failure and which therefore is
in need of “salvation”?
C
onclusion: This paper started off with several questions. Its main objective was
to try and respond to the questions by making a general survey of the gender
discourse. This has been done by seeking deeper insights into some of the major
variables that are somewhat inherent in the discussion. These include God or the divine,
culture and gender deconstruction and reconstruction. Male and female sexes appear
to be the given aspect of gender. However, gender as we know it and understand it
today is a result of a process of cultural processes of construction and reconstruction.
The dynamics of culture demand renewed interpretations and understanding of gender
in ever changing ways. Biblical teaching and particularly the life and example of Jesus
give us the theoretical framework within which we can do this as an on going aspect
of kingdom ethics and relationships.
15
Hazel O. AYanga
Bibliography
Dube, Musa W. HIV/AIDS and the Curriculum: Methods of Integrating HIV/AIDS in Theological
Programmes. Geneva: WCC Publications, 2001.
Getui, Mary and Ayanga Hazel eds. Conflicts in Africa: a Women Response. Nairobi: Faith Institute
of Counseling, 2002.
Keller, Evelyn Fox. Reflections on Gender and Science. New haven: Yale University Press, 1985.
Neuger, Christie Cozad. Counseling Women: a Narrative, Pastoral Approach. Minneapolis, Augsburg Fortress, 2001.
Oduyoye, Mercy Amba. Daughters of Anowa: African Women, and Patriarchy. New York: Maryknoll, 1995.
Russell, Letty M and Clarkson, J. Shannon. Dictionary of Feminist Theologies. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996.
Volf, Miroslav. Exclusion and Embrace: A Theological Exploration of Identity, Otherness, and
Reconciliation. Nashville: Abingdon, 1996.
16
La déclaration de Benoît XVI au sujet de l’ordination des
femmes ou la réouverture d’un débat biaisé
Jean Luc Enyegue, SJ *
A
bstract: Jusqu’à ce que je me mette à écrire cet article, le débat sur l’ordination des
femmes était une affaire des autres. Avant que « les choses qui arrivent aux autres
ne commencent aussi à m’arriver », peut-être est-il arrivé le temps pour nous comme
Église, ne serait-ce que pour ne pas être surpris par la question demain, de s’informer
sur l’état actuel de cette question ? Quand le Pape se positionne sur un sujet ardent, les
fidèles viendront à nous pour en savoir plus. Je ne leur dirai plus dès aujourd’hui que je
n’en sais rien, sinon –peut-être– pourrais-je mieux justifier en quoi cela reste une question délicate pour rendre crédible et raisonnable pour nous tous la prudente position des
derniers Papes sur le sujet. Proposer un tas d’informations est l’objet de cet article qui va
au-delà de Benoît XVI et Mira, symbole de tant de femmes et d’hommes qui s’interrogent
et ne se contentent plus des décisions d’autorité. Notre devoir est aussi de les écouter dans
une logique de vérité historique et de fidélité créatrice.
It was not until I started to write this article that the debate on women’s ordination
became a reality for me. Perhaps it is time for us as a Church to be proactive in this
debate, before questions that are posed to those outside the church become a reality
for us. When the Pope proclaims the church’s position on such a controversial issue,
the faithful come to us for more information and clarification. From now onwards,
I will not tell them that I know nothing. Perhaps, I could better justify why this issue
remains sensitive and delicate. We should make credible and reasonable for ourselves
the prudent position of recent Popes on the matter. To offer more information is the
objective of this article that goes beyond Benedict XVI, and Mira, who represent women
and men unsatisfied with decisions of authority. Our duty is to listen to these questions which pervade Church life, in a sort of dialectical logic which takes into account
the historical truth and creative fidelity.
Pour Commencer
Mira s’approcha de moi et me dit: “Jean Luc, je voudrais te poser une question dès
que tu disposes d’un peu de temps » « Je t’écoute !». « Bien ! Je sais que notre Pape est un
homme assez intelligent pour affirmer ce qui se dit dans la presse au sujet de l’ordination
des femmes. S’il a réellement dit ça, je serai vraiment très déçue ». Cette catholique plein
de bon sens, veuve ayant élevé seule ses trois enfants n’a pas eu immédiatement la
réponse qu’elle attendait de moi. Mais quand je l’eus envoyé un exemplaire du livre
pour qu’elle le lise elle-même et me dise ce qu’elle en pensait, elle me répondit par la
suite : « je n’ai pas pu le croire ! Il l’a vraiment dit ; j’en suis fort peinée ! » Mon impression était un peu plus mitigée, parce que je crois moi aussi fermement en l’intelligence
du Pape comme elle et parce que je pouvais percevoir en sa déclaration une tout autre
*
Jean Luc Enyegue is a Jesuit from Cameroon. He is currently in his third year of theology at
the Universidad Pontificia Comillas in Madrid (Spain).
17
Jean Luc Enyegue, SJ
invitation. Je nourris donc secrètement le projet de lui répondre plus amplement avec
un point de vue sans doute plus nuancé, mais qui ne veut nullement prétendre être
une prise de position sur un sujet délicat et complexe. Cette réponse est l’objet de cet
article : Que dit exactement le Saint Père ? Ce qu’il dit peut-il justifier la réaction de
Mira ? Y’a-t-il moyen de trouver un fondement théologique solide à la déclaration du
Pape ? Peut-on sauver sa proposition ? Mira –et tant d’autres catholiques préoccupés par
le même sujet– en seront-ils satisfaits ? Bref, qu’y a-t-il de neuf dans cette déclaration
du Pape Benoît XVI au sujet de l’ordination des femmes ?
Ce qu’a dit le Pape : texte et contexte
Dans la quatrième partie de l’interview que le Pape a accordée au journaliste Peter
Seewald, il est question du « prétendu blocage des réformes au sein de l’Eglise ».1 Après
avoir abordé successivement les questions liées au célibat des prêtres, aux abus au sein
du clergé et aux anti-contraceptifs, la question est posée au Saint Père sur l’impossibilité
de l’ordination des femmes dans l’Eglise, donnant cette question ‘clairement tranchée
comme un non possumus du Magistère suprême.’ En effet, la Congrégation de la Doctrine
de la Foi l’a fixée sous l’égide de Paul VI dans le document Inter Insigniores, de 1976 ;
Jean Paul II l’a confirmée dans sa lettre apostolique Ordinatio Sacerdotalis de 1994.
Dans ce document, faisant référence à « la constitution divine de l’Eglise », il déclare,
en vertu de son ministère, que « l’Eglise n’a en aucune manière le pouvoir de conférer
l’ordination sacerdotale à des femmes, et que cette position doit être définitivement
tenue par tous les fidèles de l’Eglise. » Les critiques, poursuit le journaliste, voient en
cela une discrimination. Ils affirment que Jésus n’a pas appelé des femmes au sacerdoce
tout simplement parce que, il y a deux mil ans, cela aurait été impensable.2
Ce à quoi répond le Pape en affirmant que cela est une ‘absurdité’ d’autant plus
que dans le contexte de Jésus, le monde était rempli de prêtresses. Toutes les religions
avaient leurs prêtresses, et il était bien plutôt étonnant qu’il n’y en ait pas eues dans la
communauté de Jésus. Il reconnaît que cette posture s’inscrit en étroite continuité avec
la tradition d’Israël. Explorons dans un premier temps le fondement de cette première
affirmation du Pape Benoît XVI.
Réalité et limites de l’argument historiciste
Nous voudrions ici nous attarder sur deux aspects principalement : la relation de
Jésus avec les femmes et la situation dans le contexte historique des premiers siècles
de l’Eglise.
Jésus et les premiers leaders de la communauté étaient proche des femmes, mais !
Des femmes jouent un rôle de premier plan dans la vie et la mission de Jésus, et
cela semble reconnu par plusieurs auteurs comme une réalité tout à fait nouvelle. Elles
jouissent autour de lui d’une certaine liberté, d’un profond respect, et surtout d’une
proximité relationnelle et affective qui fait que beaucoup de femmes l’accompagnaient
1
Benoît XVI, Lumière du monde: Le pape, l’Eglise et les signes des temps, Entretien avec Peter Seewald
(Paris : Bayard, 2010), 189.
2
Benoît XVI, Lumière du monde, 197.
18
La déclaration de Benoît XVI au sujet de l’ordination des femmes ou la réouverture d’un débat biaisé
dans sa mission au point où celles-ci iront jusqu’à servir d’exemple au reste des disciples.3
Cette forte présence apparaît assez clairement dans la vie de la primitive communauté,
notamment dans les actes des Apôtres et les lettres authentiques de Paul. Ces deux
sources nous parlent de nombres de femmes qui prirent part de différentes manières à
l’extension de l’évangile.4 Fernando Rivas affirme par ailleurs que certaines parmi elles
furent de véritables « patronnes » dont on utilisait l’influence en faveur du christianisme ;
et que d’autres participèrent comme missionnaires et leaders du mouvement chrétien.
D’autres encore enseignaient, prophétisaient, prêchaient.5
Parmi ces femmes, on retrouve le groupe des femmes riches, dont Tabitha (Act 9,
36-42) ; Marie la mère de Jean dont la maison servait de lieu de rencontre pour les
hellénisants (Act 12, 12-17), Lydie (Act 16, 14-15) ou encore Damaris d’Athènes (Act
17,34). Elles offraient maison, argent et influences à la disposition des missionnaires
itinérants et des communautés nouvellement créées. Plusieurs d’entre elles reçurent
également l’Esprit Saint et le don de la prophétie, lequel était répandu aussi bien sur
les serviteurs que sur les servantes de Yahvé (Act 2, 17-18). Parmi celles-ci les quatre
filles de Philippe (Act 21,9).
Saint Paul parle des femmes qui prient et prophétisent (1Cor 11,5) et l’auteur de
l’Apocalypse accuse une femme influente de l’église de Thyatire de fausse prophétesse
(Ap 2, 18-29).6 Toutefois, ce qui est intéressant chez Paul c’est la nette évolution que
l’on retrouve entre ses lettres authentiques et les autres à lui attribuées plus tard.
En effet, on retrouve dans ses lettres authentiques des femmes engagées dans des
activités missionnaires et responsables de communauté comme Priscille, ‘collaboratrice’
(synegou) de Paul ensemble avec son mari et dont la maison restera toujours ouverte
aux initiatives évangélisatrices (Rom 16,3). Paul appelle Junias et son mari Andronicus
‘apôtres’ (Rom 16,7), alors que Marie, Trifosis, Persides souffrent les mêmes fatigues
(kopiáô) liées à la mission d’apôtres (Rom 16,12). Beaucoup plus pertinent encore, et
en relation directe avec notre thème, Paul présente Febe comme sa sœur (adelphên),
diaconesse (diákonon) et patronne (próstatis) d’église, y compris de Paul lui-même
(Rom 16,1-2).7
En résumé, il ressort premièrement de ce parcours que, bien que leur réelle fonction reste peu explicitée par les Ecritures, il existe non seulement des couples missionnaires, sinon également des diaconesses-leaders et qui partagent les souffrances de
Paul au service du Christ (Rom 16,4.7). Deuxièmement, dans le cadre d’une première
structuration de la jeune Eglise autour du modèle oîkos, le rôle de la femme (y compris
dans un contexte judaïsant) ne peut être que davantage mieux valorisé dans son milieu
3
W. Stegemann, Historia social del cristianismo primitivo: Los inicios en el judaísmo y las comunidades cristianas en el mundo mediterráneo (Estella (Navarra): Verbo Divino, 2001), 515-530.
4
Cf. M. Arlandson, Women, Class and Society in Early Christianity: Models from Luke-Acts (Massachussets: Hendrickson, 1973).
5
F. Rivas Ribaque, Desterradas hijas de Eva: Protagonismo y marginación de la mujer en el cristianismo primitivo (Madrid: San Pablo/UPComillas, 2008), 18. Fernando Rivas est prêtre du Diocèse de Getafe.
Philologue et docteur en théologie, il est professeur à l’Université Pontificale de Comillas où il enseigne la
patristique et la patrologie au premier cycle de théologie, le grec du Nouveau Testament au second cycle
ainsi qu’un cours sur « les femmes dans le christianisme primitif du Ier au IVème siècle » en spécialisation. Nous
le citerons assez souvent dans cet article.
6
Cf. M. Navarro, Jezabel (Ap 2,18-29): Un conflicto eclesial, (Reseña Bíblica 27, 2000), 21-30.
7
C. De Villapadierna, “Febe”, in F. Fernández Ramos (dir.), Diccionario de san Pablo (Burgos: Monte
Carmelo, 1999), 550-551.
19
naturel qui est la maison. Troisièmement, au-delà des écrits canoniques, plusieurs témoignages de type oral ont été regroupés plus tard –dans l’évangile de Thomas ou les
agrapha– dans lesquels se note une plus grande importance des femmes.8 Pouvait-il
en être autrement dans le contexte de l’empire du premier siècle –ce qui impliquerait
la non exclusivité de la continuité d’avec le judaïsme– où l’on pouvait tout de même
se permettre des cultes aux déesses (Artémis et Aphrodite pour citer quelques unes)?
Israël pouvait-il rester indifférent à une évolution de mentalités dans l’Empire où, en Asie
Mineure, le prestige de la femme allait grandissant ? Serait-ce fruit d’une inculturation
questionnable ou le résultat d’un repli identitaire au profit des judaïsants de la jeune
et minoritaire communauté ? C’est ici qu’il convient de traiter du mais du prestige des
femmes à l’intérieur de la même communauté. Et la question est de savoir pourquoi,
tout au moins, le niveau de prestige dont jouissaient les femmes aux temps de Jésus et
de Paul n’a pas pu être maintenu, déjà dès la deuxième génération ?
Les ambigüités à l’intérieur de la communauté
L’on peut observer une certaine ambigüité qui pourrait elle-même s’assimiler à
un lent processus de marginalisation des femmes au sein de la primitive communauté
chrétienne, aussi bien dans les évangiles que dans les lettres pauliniennes. En effet,
une lecture attentive des évangiles met en évidence le fait qu’entre les textes les plus
anciens et les textes plus récents, il y a une croissante rétrogradation des femmes au
profit des hommes (nous en parlerons pour désigner ceux de sexe masculin), notamment
de Pierre. Cela passe par une réduction de Marie Madeleine à la figure de prostituée
et par un procédé textuel assez curieux dans les narrations de la mort et résurrection
du Seigneur (cf. Mc 15, 40s ; Mt 27,55 ; Lc 23,49). Un exemple significatif est lié à la
problématique de la suite du Christ de la part des femmes. Fernando Rivas fait remarquer la tentative de dévaluation dans la distinction que font les textes entre les verbes
synakoloutheîn (accompagner), pour faire référence aux femmes, et akoloutheîn (suivre
comme disciple), en référence aux hommes. La fonction d’accompagner implique celle
de servir (diakoneîn) de sorte qu’accompagner et servir définissent plus ou moins le
rôle des femmes au sein du groupe de la multitude qui accompagne/suit le Seigneur ;
et c’est une fonction bien évidemment domestique.9 Par ailleurs, les synoptiques relatent
la résurrection du Seigneur avec une certaine proéminence des femmes : ce sont elles
qui reçoivent l’annonce pascale et ont la charge de la faire connaître aux disciples (Mc
16,1-11 ; Mt 28, 1-10 ; Lc 24, 1-11). Toutefois, le plus tardif des trois textes, Luc, joint à
cette première apparition la figure de Pierre, lui donnant davantage de crédit (Lc 24,34).
L’évangile de Jean, postérieur aux synoptiques, confirmera cette tendance, laissant à
Pierre et Jean le privilège de rendre témoignage du tombeau vide –en fait, les femmes
pourtant venu embellir le corps du Seigneur n’entrèrent pas dans le tombeau, apeurées
(de manière si émotive !) par le spectacle du tombeau ouvert –. Paul finalement ignore
tout simplement cette apparition aux femmes et attribue son exclusivité à Pierre et aux
Douze (1Cor 15, 3-5).10
8
Eusèbe de Césarée en relève quelques uns de ces témoignages dans son Histoire ecclésiastique,
III, 39, 9.11.
9
F. Rivas Ribaque, Desterradas hijas de Eva, 30.
10
20
Si Paul prêche une égalité théorique et pratique de la femme à l’intérieur de l’Eglise,
on ne peut ignorer cependant certaines questions qui ne manquent pas de contredire
ce principe. Dans 1Cor 12,13, il répète la formule baptismale de Gal 3,28, mais tout
en éliminant le binôme homme-femme. Il invite d’ailleurs –par prudence sans doute –
certaines femmes qui prient et prophétisent à se couvrir la tête au nom de la consolidation et de l’harmonie de la communauté (1Cor 11,2-16). Certains d’entre nous auraient
souhaité sans doute une posture au moins tout aussi combative que celle qu’il adopta
au sujet de la circoncision. Tout au contraire, Dieu, chez saint Paul, finit par ne plus
créer « homme et femme », sinon la femme pour l’homme (1Cor 11, 8-10).11 Les lettres
attribuées à Paul présentent la même dégradation de la situation des femmes. Les règles
disciplinaires de 1Tim 5, 2-16 ont pour finalité, d’après F. Rivas, de limiter l’autonomie
et le nombre des femmes, ainsi que les soutiens dont elles peuvent bénéficier au sein
de la communauté.12 On ne manque pas d’y trouver des références assez proches de
la calomnie et l’injure: les femmes ne contrôlent pas leur langue et parlent de ce qui
ne les concernent pas (1Tim 5,13) ; leurs histoires sont d’impies fables propres des
vieilles gens (1Tim 4,7). Les femmes sont tout simplement d’un « esprit faible et borné,
chargées de péchés, agitées par des passions de toutes espèces » (1 Tim 3,6). Pour être
tant promptes à lever le coude (soulardes en langue vulgaire), au commérage et à la
médisance, la solution paraît toute trouvée : qu’elles se consacrent aux tâches domestiques (Tit 2, 3-5).13
Evaluation de l’argument historiciste
Il est vrai que le monde juif au temps de Jésus ne disposait pas de prêtresses. Il est
aussi vrai que le contexte environnant –celui de l’Empire romain du siècle I –, comme
on vient de le démontrer, leur donnait une dignité qui s’élevait jusqu’à la divinité. Mais
là n’est pas le problème. Existait-il de prêtre parmi les disciples de Jésus pour qu’il pût
choisir aussi des prêtresses ? La réponse de l’histoire semble être la négative. La première
affirmation du Saint Père pourrait alors être justifiée uniquement en tenant compte des
arguments textuels cités plus hauts ou dans le cadre d’un processus d’inculturation de
l’Eglise en faveur des structures juives. Ce qui justifierait par ailleurs la continuité dont
parle le pape. Si l’on tient compte de l’argument textuel, il n’est ni uniforme, ni suffisamment convaincant. De fait, l’évolution des femmes, passant de la fonction de disciple
à celle d’accompagnatrice, ne peut se justifier indépendamment du second argument :
l’inculturation et la difficulté d’admettre des prêtresses dans la mentalité juive. Mais
cette inculturation est-elle suffisamment conséquente des propres principes du Christ
–et même de Paul tel qu’on l’a vu avec la circoncision – ? Obéit-elle au mode actuel de
comprendre ce terme de nos jours ? En d’autres termes, purifie-t-elle et perfectionne-t-elle
assez les pratiques du judaïsme ? Il semble que non. En plus, si l’on admet qu’il y ait eu
inculturation, celle-ci implique une dynamicité intrinsèque qui rendraient adaptables les
cultures nées dans un tel contexte, sauf s’il les considère canoniques. Mais la cononicité
des Ecritures ne se caractérise-t-elle pas par la grande diversité qu’elles contiennent,
11
J. Ramón Busto, San Pablo y las mujeres en Corinto: ¿Fue San Pablo antifeminista? (Santander: Sal
Terrae 995, 1993), 211-221.
12
13
Cf. E. Estévez López, Mediadoras de sanación. Encuentros entre Jesús y las mujeres: una mirada
nueva, (Madrid: San Pablo/UPComillas, 2008).
21
notamment l’évolution constatée entre les lettres authentiques de Paul et celles à lui
attribuées ? Le principe d’une ecclésiologie implicite ne se trouve-t-il pas dans le fait
que justement les évangiles ne donnent pas lieu à une institution explicite de l’Eglise,
laquelle Eglise verra émerger (une fois encore progressivement) jusqu’au troisième
siècle la structure hiérarchique actuelle de l’Eglise ? Cela nous permet de considérer un
autre aspect de ce dialogue entre Mira y le Pape dont je me fais un confus interprète :
une question sacramentelle.
Le deuxième aspect de la réponse du Saint Père
Benoît XVI semble ici s’inscrire clairement en continuité avec Jean-Paul II lorsqu’il
affirme : « Nous ne disons pas : nous ne voulons pas, mais : nous ne pouvons pas. Le
Seigneur a donné à l’Eglise une forme, avec les Douze Apôtres puis, à leur suite, les
évêques et les presbytres, les prêtres. Ce n’est pas nous qui avons donné cette forme
à l’Eglise : c’est lui, et elle est constitutive. S’y conformer est un acte d’obéissance, une
obéissance peut-être laborieuse dans la situation actuelle.»14 En effet, Jean-Paul II, dans
une déclaration formelle, affirmait que les Évangiles et les Actes des Apôtres montrent
bien que cet appel s’est fait selon le dessein éternel de Dieu: le Christ a choisi ceux
qu’il voulait (cf. Mc 3,13-14; Jn 6,70) et il l’a fait en union avec le Père, «par l’Esprit
Saint» (Ac 1,2), après avoir passé la nuit en prière (cf. Lc 6,12). « C’est pourquoi, pour
l’admission au sacerdoce ministériel, l’Église a toujours reconnu comme norme constante
la manière d’agir de son Seigneur dans le choix des douze hommes dont il a fait le
fondement de son Église (cf. Ap 21,14). Et ceux-ci n’ont pas seulement reçu une fonction qui aurait pu ensuite être exercée par n’importe quel membre de l’Église, mais ils
ont été spécialement et intimement associés à la mission du Verbe incarné lui-même
(cf. Mt 10,1.7-8; 28,16-20; Mc 3,13-16; 16,14-15). Les Apôtres ont fait de même lorsqu’ils
ont choisi leurs collaborateurs, qui devaient leur succéder dans le ministère. Dans ce
choix se trouvaient inclus ceux qui, dans le temps de l’Église, continueraient la mission
confiée aux Apôtres de représenter le Christ Seigneur et Rédempteur.»15 Pour Jean-Paul
II, l’idée selon laquelle l’Eglise ne dispose d’aucune faculté pour ordonner les femmes
doit être considérée comme « définitive et appartenant au dépôt de la foi. »16
Avant le pape polonais, Paul VI avait déjà eu à se prononcer sur ce sujet. En effet, les
églises anglicanes du Canada et de l’Angleterre avaient reconnu, en 1975, l’admission des
femmes au ministère sacerdotal. Dans deux lettres dirigées à l’Archevêque de Canterbery
F. D. Coggan datant respectivement du 30 novembre 1975 et du 23 mars 1976, Paul VI
expliquait pourquoi l’Eglise Catholique Romaine récusait l’ordination sacerdotale des
femmes et annonçait le contenu du document ultérieur de la Déclaration de la Congrégation pour la Doctrine de la Foi.17 Elaborée sur instigation du Pape, ce document donne
un caractère normatif sur ce que la tradition affirme sur ce sujet, et justifie sa position par
14
Jean-Paul II, Lettre Apostolique Ordinatio sacerdotalis (22 mai 1994), 2.
16
Cf. « Réponse à la Congrégation pour la Doctrine de la Foi », du 11 décembre 1995. Voir aussi sur
ces documents pontificaux, H. Denzinger; P. Hünermann, El magisterio de la Iglesia : Enchiridion symbolorum definitionum et declarationum de Rebus Fidei et Morum (Barcelona : Herder, 2000). Nous le citerons en
abrégé (DH), 5040.
17
Congrégation pour la Doctrine de la Foi, Déclaration Inter insigniores sur la question de l’admission
des femmes au sacerdoce, 15 octobre 1976.
15
22
l’institution par le Christ de telles dispositions, tout en se défendant avec l’argument de
la naturalis similitudo. D’après cet argument, l’économie sacramentelle est fondée sur
des signes naturels, des symboles inscrits dans la sociologie humaine et qui représentent
ce qu’ils signifient.18 En foi de quoi, lorsqu’on doit représenter sacramentellement la
fonction du Christ dans l’eucharistie, il n’y aurait pas cette ‘ressemblance naturelle’ qui
doit exister entre le Christ et son ministre –lequel agit in persona Christi –, si la fonction du Christ n’était pas assurée par un homme. En effet, que le ministre ne soit pas
un homme empêcherait de rendre compte de l’image du Christ qu’il représente, parce
que le Christ a été et continue d’être un homme.19 L’incarnation s’est réalisée selon le
sexe masculin ; cela est un fait, dit le document, qui nous permettrait d’ailleurs mieux
de comprendre le juste fondement de la pratique de l’Eglise.20
Peut-être est-il temps de vous donner la seconde partie de la réaction de Mira après
avoir lu la déclaration de Benoît XVI : « si tel est vraiment le cas, alors, pourquoi ne
sont-ils pas restés Douze ? Ne devraient être prêtres que des juifs, pêcheurs. Ni les Européens, ni les Africains ne devraient être ordonnés prêtres si l’on reste collé à la forme
de l’institution par le Christ de la fonction sacerdotale. » La remarque, apparemment
simpliste, est d’un poids considérable. Elle balaie en effet l’argument de convenance
anthropologique, lequel ne manquerait pas de dangers propres des normes de pureté
du Lévitique. Bien plus, elle nous invite à prendre au sérieux deux choses : le sens
réel de l’institution des Douze et la question du pouvoir de l’Eglise sur des sacrements
supposés être institués par le Christ lui-même.
La force du recours à l’institution des Douze par le Christ
Jean Paul II, dans sa Lettre Apostolique Mulieris dignitatem21, souligne que le Christ
a donné, en toute liberté et souveraineté, le nom d’apôtre uniquement à des hommes,
lesquels étaient tous réunis avec lui lors de la dernière cène. Seuls ceux-là auraient
reçu l’ordre sacerdotal : « faites cela en mémoire de moi » (Lc 22,19 ; 1Cor 11, 24). En
vertu de quoi, poursuit le pape, ils reçurent l’Esprit Saint pour pardonner les péchés.
22
Le choix du texte lucanien et le choix du chapitre 11 de la lettre aux Corinthiens –et
l’image de la femme qui s’en dégagent comme on l’a vu plus haut – pourraient suffire
à mettre un doute sur la bonne foi de cette déclaration. Y’a-t-il une relation directe
entre la présence à la dernière cène et la structure hiérarchique de l’Eglise ? Je vois déjà
le regard de Mira qui me dit que l’auteur de 1Cor, Paul, n’y était pas lui-même. Il est
pourtant l’un des deux piliers de l’Eglise. Elle me dit même, non sans humour gris, en
18
Le document reprend ici une doctrine de Thomas d’Aquin (Cf. Sententiarum, IV, d.25, q.2, a.2, qc.).
DH, 4600.
DH, 4601-4602. On peut noter que l’Evêque espagnol de la ville d’Almería, Mgr Adolfo González
Montez soutient également ce même argument anthropologique pour justifier la diversification des ministères
dans l’Eglise. Pour lui, « la définition de la condition personnelle de l’homme et de la femme en marge de
leur propre sexualité pourrait paraître quelque chose de gnostique. Il est vrai, poursuit-il, que chacun des
deux [sexes] réalise pleinement la condition de personne, mais non en marge de sa propre corporéité. Et
parce qu’il n’existe pas de personne asexuée, on doit donc affirmer que le sexe introduit une diversification
fonctionnelle dans la notion de personne… de sorte que ne peuvent être identiques ni tous les droits, ni toutes
les obligations des deux sexes [souligné par nous]» (Cf. A. González Montes, Imagen de Iglesia: Eclesiología en
perspectiva ecuménica (Madrid: BAC, 2008), 402. Traduit de l’espagnol par nous-même.
21
Jean-Paul II, Lettre Apostolique Mulieris dignitatem, du 15 Août 1988.
22
DH, 4840.
19
20
23
quoi la chute d’un cheval ferait-elle une meilleure rencontre que le fiat de Marie, et
pourquoi la servante élue du Père ne bénéficierait-elle pas des mêmes préjugés positifs.
Et la liste est longue, d’autant plus qu’en bonne connaisseuse des Exercices Spirituels
de Saint Ignace, que la tradition ne rejette pas, le Ressuscité rendit sa première visite
à sa mère… Mais je ne voudrais pas donner une victoire si facile à Mira. Scrutons tout
de même brièvement le fond de la question, aussi bien le sens réel de l’institution des
Douze que celui d’apôtre, prêtre et surtout diacre tel qu’ils ont été vécus et compris
dans l’Eglise primitive. Comment ont surgi les structures de leadership et les ministères
ecclésiastiques dans l’Eglise chrétienne ?
Le Professeur Santiago Madrigal reconnaît que les structures et les ministères actuels
sont le résultat d’un processus de transformation du mouvement de Jésus.23 D’après lui,
et suivant R. Schnackenburg, la réalité ecclésiale a précédé toute théologie de l’Eglise.
On pourrait aussi déduire par là que l’institution des Douze au cours de la cène n’est
pas prioritaire, ecclésiologiquement parlant, à la vie de la première communauté chrétienne. Il s’est produit une transformation profonde d’un mouvement charismatique à
une institution consolidée ; l’on est passé d’un mouvement rural à une religion urbaine ;
il n’y a pas eu que continuité d’avec le judaïsme ; il y a eu une rupture effective. Les
structures de gouvernements n’ont pas été explicitement instituées par le Christ ; elles ont
évolué, prenant corps dans un contexte d’église domestique dans lequel ont pris forme
les premiers ministères. La structure episkopoï-presbiteroï-diakonoï est ultérieure et fait
partie d’un processus d’institutionnalisation qui va germinant dans les lettres pastorales
de Paul (Colossiens et Ephésiens ; Tite et Timothée), bien qu’existe déjà dans la pratique
un certain ordre hiérarchique au sein de la communauté. Pierre apparaît assez souvent
comme leader, mais son propre ministère ne naît pas avec la connotation de primat. Il
y a évolution ; il y a eu une sacerdotalisation d’une fonction qui s’identifiait à celle d’un
pater familias, laquelle aura un impact réel sur la situation de la femme dans l’Eglise.
La question des Douze ne peut donc être prise de manière séparée de toutes les autres
considérations qui se trouvent réunies à la genèse de l’Eglise. La vocation des Douze ne
peut être comprise que comme signe de restauration future d’Israël et reste inséparable
d’autres caractéristiques liées à l’instauration (qui n’est pas que restauration d’Israël) du
règne de Dieu : les promesses de l’Ancien Testament, l’attribution du nom de Simon-Pierre
et son rôle spécial au sein du groupe des disciples, le rejet de Jésus par Israël, la persistance de son message du règne au moment fatidique de la cène, par sa passion et par sa
mort, l’expérience pascale et la reconstruction de la communauté des disciples à partir
de l’expérience de la résurrection, l’envoi de l’Esprit Saint, la mission vers les païens et
l’émergence de l’Eglise des gentils, la rupture radicale enfin entre le ‘véritable Israël’ et le
judaïsme.24 Jésus, il est vrai, était juif, et le Dieu qu’il annonçait est le Dieu d’Israël (Mc 12,
26). Il existe donc un nœud historique indestructible entre Jésus de Nazareth et l’Eglise
pascale naissante, notamment à travers le concept de ‘réunion d’Israël’ (Lc 13, 34 ; Mt 23,
37), lequel fait de l’Eglise le véritable Israël eschatologique, composé du peuple de Dieu
converti en Jésus-Christ et à son message.25 Mais cette pluralité de données, en même
temps qu’elle nous invite à une fidélité à l’esprit, exige de nous d’éviter des procédés
de type concordiste dans l’interprétation des textes. Ce n’est d’ailleurs pas parce que les
23
S. Madrigal, “Orígen y comienzos de la Iglesia según el Nuevo Testamento” in Estudios Eclesiasticos,
(nº 333, junio 2010), 387-410.
24
Cf. Commission Théologique Internationale, Thèmes choisis d’Ecclésiologie, 1985.
25
S. Madrigal, “Orígen y comienzos de la Iglesia según el Nuevo Testamento”, 393.
24
disciples réunis autour de Jésus étaient tous des hommes que l’on déduirait automatiquement la conséquence de la non ordination d’autres que les Douze ou d’autres que des
hommes. Il n’existe aucune affirmation biblique permettant l’ordination des femmes ; il
n’existe aucune non plus qui l’interdise explicitement du genre : « vous n’ordonnerez
jamais les femmes ! ». L’Eglise primitive l’a compris, et en son sein, il y avait bel et bien
des femmes leaders de communautés, prophétesses, diaconesses.
Femmes leaders de communauté dans l’Eglise primitive
En plus des formes de leadership mentionnées plus haut (les femmes riches,
leadership communautaire et missionnaire, veuves) nous voudrions revenir ici sur
quelques autres fonctions liées à l’ordre : la fonction de prophétesse, de diaconesse et
de presbytre.
Les prophétesses
Fernando Rivas, grand connaisseur des textes de cette période, situe la disparition
du leadership communautaire féminin en Asie Mineure au deuxième siècle de notre ère.
La raison pour lui est qu’il n’existe aucun témoignage littéraire ni épigraphe qui parle
d’episkopa ou de presbytera ou toute autre expression liée à ces fonctions à l’intérieur
de la grande Eglise.26 Cela signifierait aussi qu’avant cette date il existait non seulement ces expressions, mais aussi la réalité qu’elles désignent. De fait, leur expulsion
de la communauté pourrait tout aussi avoir une relation avec la naissance, à la même
époque et dans la même région, du prophétisme montaniste. Dans ce mouvement, les
prophétesses Maximilienne et Priscille jouèrent un rôle de premier plan comme ‘accompagnatrices’ de Montano, puis, comme ‘dirigeantes’ du mouvement après la mort
de ce dernier. Et, citant Eusèbe de Césarée, F. Rivas laisse entendre qu’étant donné que
leur orthodoxie ne souffrait d’aucun doute, on essaya de les discréditer en proférant de
fausses accusations contre elles comme : l’abandon de leurs maris, le suicide, l’amour
de l’argent, la désobéissance à l’autorité ecclésiastique etc.27 Francisco Ramírez Fueyo,
semble lui aussi étonné qu’il n’y ait pas un grand écho sur la disparition du rôle des
prophètes comme piliers fondamentaux de cette Eglise. Paul en parle pourtant dans
ses lettres authentiques (1Cor 12,28 ; 14, 29-37) ; la lettre aux Ephésiens en fait de
même et les situe, aux côtés des Apôtres, parmi les fondateurs de l’Eglise. Cette mention disparaît avec les lettres pastorales.28 L’institutionnalisation de l’Eglise semble s’être
mépris de sa partie charismatique, les femmes leaders avec, bien qu’il n’y ait pas de
relation directe entre dons charismatiques et fonction de gouvernement. De fait, dans
ses listes charismatiques, Paul distingue le charisme de la prophétie et le charisme de
gouvernement et souligne que les phénomènes charismatiques sont très variés et divers,
le tout dépendant du don libre de Dieu (1Cor 12-14).29
26
28
F. Ramírez Fueyo, “Evolución del pensamiento paulino: las cartas pastorales” in Estudios Ecclesiásticos (Madrid, vol 85, nº 333, junio 2010), 332.
29
F. Ramírez Fueyo, « Profecía y ministerio profético en las cartas paulinas » in Gabino Uríbarri (ed.),
El ser sacerdotal: Fundamentos y dimensiones constitutivas (Madrid: San Pablo/UPComillas, 2010), 60.
27
25
Les diaconesses
Il existe des preuves écrites de l’existence des diaconesses dans l’Eglise primitive.
En relation à cette présence, nous avons ce verset : « Je vous recommande Phoebé,
notre sœur, qui est diaconesse de l’Eglise de Cenchrées » (Rom 16,1). C’est sans doute
ce cas de Phoebé que l’on retrouve chez Pline le Jeune (vers 112 Ap. JC) qui, dans
une de ses lettres à Trajan,30 raconte qu’il a voulu éprouver ce que ça fait de torturer
des esclaves (ancillae), surtout lorsque celles-ci se disent diaconesses (ministrae),
traduisant de fait le terme diakónai de Rom 16,1. Ce qui est davantage intéressant
ici, c’est que Paul n’attribue pas ce titre à une femme d’une classe sociale élevée,
sinon à des esclaves. Ce qui suppose, d’après J. Colson, un saut important vers une
généralisation de la fonction.31 Le Document de la Commission Théologique Internationale au sujet du diaconat –et approuvé par le Cardinal Ratzinger qui en était le
Président– reconnaît lui-même qu’à l’époque apostolique, diverses formes d’assistance
diaconale aux apôtres et aux communautés exercées par des femmes semblent avoir un
caractère institutionnel.32 En son chapitre II, il reprend cette citation des Constitutions
Apostoliques : “Écoute, Église sacrée et catholique… Car ce sont eux vos pontifes; vos
prêtres, ce sont les presbytres, et vos lévites ce sont à présent les diacres, ce sont vos
lecteurs, chantres et portiers, ce sont vos diaconesses, vos veuves, vos vierges et vos
orphelins… Le diacre l’assistera comme le Christ assiste le Père…”33
En Asie Mineure donc, on peut affirmer l’existence, à partir du IIIème siècle, d’un
ministère ecclésial spécifique attribué aux femmes appelées diaconesses. D’après
A.G. Martimort, Le premier document qui les présente et qui en est en quelque sorte
l’acte de naissance, c’est la Didascalie des Apôtres.34 Dans cette collection, l’évêque a
les traits d’un patriarche biblique omnipotent.35 Il est à la tête d’une petite communauté qu’il dirige surtout avec l’aide de diacres et de diaconesses. Selon une typologie
empruntée à Ignace d’Antioche, l’évêque tient la place de Dieu le Père, le diacre la
place du Christ et la diaconesse celle du Saint-Esprit (mot au féminin dans les langues
sémitiques), tandis que les presbytres (peu mentionnés) représentent les Apôtres et les
veuves de l’autel. Il n’y est pas question de l’ordination de ces ministres.36 En Occident
par contre, on ne trouve pas de trace de diaconesses durant les cinq premiers siècles.
Les Statuta Ecclesiae antiqua prévoyaient que l’instruction des femmes catéchumènes
et leur préparation au baptême seraient confiées aux veuves et aux moniales « choisies
ad ministerium baptizandarum mulierum ».37 Le canon 2 du Concile de Nîmes (396)
rejette tout ministerium feminae ; tandis que le canon 26 du Premier Concile d’Orange
(441) interdit toute ordination de diaconesse.38 La raison semble toute trouvée dans
30
Pline Le Jeune, Lettres (Livre X): Panégyrique de Trajan (Paris : Les Belles Lettres, 1964). Il s’agit
plus spécifiquement de la lettre 96.
31
J. Colson, La fonction diaconale aux origines de l’Eglise (Paris: DDB, 1960), 121-139.
32
Commission Théologique Internationale (CTI), Le diaconat: évolution et perspectives, 30 sept.
2002.
33
Const. apostoliques VIII 18,3; SCh 336, 221.
34
A. G. Martimort, Les diaconesses: Essai historique (Rome: Edizioni liturgiche, 1982), 31.
35
Cf. Didascalie, 2, 33-35.
36
Didascalie, 2, 4-7.
37
Cf. CTI, Le diaconat: évolution et perspectives, chap II, note 71 en référence au can. 100 (Munier
99). De plus, il est expressément interdit aux femmes “même instruites et saintes” d’enseigner à des hommes,
et de baptiser (cf. can. 37. 41; ibid. 86).
38
Cf. J. Gaudemet, Conciles gaulois du IVe siècle (Paris: Sources Chrétiennes, nº 241, 1977), 127-129.
26
l’Ambrosiaster (à Rome, fin IVe siècle), selon lequel le diaconat féminin était l’apanage
des hérétiques montanistes. S’il ne manque pas aujourd’hui de critiques du mouvement
féministe –lequel n’est pas lui-même exempt d’énormes exagérations– qui voient en lui
uniquement une survie des hérétiques montanistes, aucun cependant ne nie le fait que
les femmes aient eu à exercer comme diaconesses de la communauté.
Tout compte fait, il est à noter que les fonctions de direction et d’enseignement
sont de toutes manières réservées à l’épiscope (1 Tm 3, 5) et aux presbytres (1 Tm 5,
17), pas aux diacres. Évêque et presbytres sont mis en parallèle respectivement avec le
grand-prêtre et les prêtres de l’ancienne Alliance, tandis qu’aux lévites correspondent
tous les autres ministères et états de vie : diacres, lecteurs, chantres, portiers, diaconesses, veuves, vierges et orphelins ».39 Le diacre est placé « au service de l’évêque et des
presbytres » et ne doit pas empiéter sur les fonctions de ces derniers. Le diacre peut
proclamer l’évangile et conduire la prière de l’assemblée,40 mais seuls l’évêque et les
presbytres exhortent.41
Des femmes presbytres ?
Kevin Madigan et Carolyn Osiek42 pensent qu’il exista des femmes presbytres.43
Il est vrai que le titre de presbytre donne lieu à plusieurs significations. Il peut signifier aussi bien toute personne adulte, et dans ce sens on retrouve indistinctement les
expressions presbyteroi et presbyterai (1Tim 5, 1-2), bien que ce sont les presbyteroi
qui revêtent une fonction d’autorité. Du point de vue de l’histoire, on retrouve en
Orient une série de textes littéraires, des inscriptions, canons et légendes confirmant
la présence réelle des femmes presbytres au sein de la communauté. Le canon 11 du
Concile de Laodicée (s. IV-V) condamne celles qui se font appeler presbytres ou femmes
présidentes (prokathemenai) ; elles ne peuvent être tolérées dans l’Eglise.44 Aussi
bien les Actes de Philippe45 comme le Martyre de Mathieu46 reconnaissent l’existence
dans la communauté de femmes presbytres. Il arrive aussi que presbyterai se réfère à
l’épouse d’un presbytre,47 ou à des ‘Anciennes’ de la communauté en qui Tertullien
reconnaît une certaine fonction sacerdotale. S’il ne leur reconnaît pas le droit (non la
faculté) d’enseigner, de baptiser,48 de débattre en public, de prêcher,49 guérir les malades ou exorciser, elles pourraient tout au moins servir comme sacerdotes pudicitae,
prêtresses chastes.50 S’il parle des ‘Vierges ordonnées’, c’est pour décrire une catégorie
sociale officiellement reconnue à l’intérieur de l’Eglise. En l’appliquant aux femmes,
Tertullien suggère que les femmes font partie du clergé chrétien, reconnues par toute
39
Const. Apostoliques, II, 26, 3; VIII, 1, 21.
Const. Apostoliques, II, 57, 18.
41
Const. Apostoliques., II, 57, 7.
42
Elle fut Présidente de la Catholic Biblical Association et de la Society Biblical Literature.
43
K. Madigan; C. Osiek (eds.), Mujeres ordenadas en la Iglesia primitiva: Una historia documentada,
(Estella (Navarra): Verbo Divino, 2006). Titre original: Ordained Women in the Early Church: A Documentary
History (Baltimore: The Johns-Hopkins University Press, 2005).
44
K. Madigan; C. Osiek (eds.), Mujeres ordenadas en la Iglesia primitiva, 240.
45
Actes de Philippe, I, 12, 8-9.
46
Martyre de Mathieu, 28.
47
Martyre de Mathieu, 239.
48
Tertullien, De baptismo 17, 4.
49
Adversus Marcionem, 5, 8, 11; De virginibus velandis, 9,1.
50
De cultu feminarum, 2, 12, 1.
40
27
la communauté comme une classe spéciale de chrétiens qui occupent un lieu à part
dans l’assemblée liturgique. Elles doivent être âgées d’au moins soixante ans, avoir
été mariées une seule fois et avoir bien éduqué leurs enfants.51 Bien plus, à partir du
quatrième siècle, en Occident, on retrouve des lettres d’évêques –Gélase et Fulgence
par exemple – qui suggèrent qu’il y a eu des femmes au service de l’autel dans certaines
régions. L’évêque Atto de Vercelli (924-961) dira d’ailleurs que dans l’Eglise primitive,
les femmes étaient ordonnées prêtres.52
Désignées ou ordonnées ?
Dans son discours au clergé de Rome cité plus haut, le pape Benoît XVI a cette
déclaration : « cependant, vous dites avec justesse : nous voulons voir aussi plus visiblement de façon ministérielle les femmes dans le gouvernement de l’Église. Disons que
la question est la suivante : Le ministère sacerdotal du Seigneur, comme nous le savons
est réservé aux hommes, en tant que le ministère sacerdotal est gouvernement au sens
profond, à savoir qu’en définitive c’est le Sacrement qui gouverne l’Église. C’est là le
point décisif. Ce n’est pas l’homme qui fait quelque chose, mais le prêtre fidèle à sa
mission gouverne dans le sens où c’est le Sacrement, c’est à dire que par le Sacrement
c’est le Christ lui même qui gouverne, dans l’Eucharistie comme dans les autres sacrements, et ainsi c’est toujours le Christ qui préside. » Le pape peut trouver en la Didascalie
un intéressant appui puisque celle-ci met l’accent sur le rôle exclusivement caritatif du
ministère des femmes.53 Le ministère de la diaconie a pour modèle la diaconie du Christ
qui a lavé les pieds de ses disciples.54 Cependant, il n’y a pas de parallélisme strict entre
les deux branches du diaconat (masculin et féminin) quant aux fonctions exercées. Les
diacres sont choisis par l’évêque pour « s’occuper de beaucoup de choses nécessaires »,
et les diaconesses seulement « pour le service des femmes ».55 Le fait d’être membre du
clergé, en Orient comme en Occident, doit être distingué du ministère liturgique et sacramentel. Et il semble reconnu qu’aucune femme n’exerça le ministère sacramentel dans
l’Eglise, bien que quelques unes eurent appartenu au clergé ou purent être ordonnées.56
Le concile de Laodicée que nous avons cité plus haut maintient une certaine ambigüité
sur le statut juridique des presbyteroi y des presbiterai en relation avec leur fonction
ecclésiastique. Le terme prokathëmenai signifie ‘femmes qui occupent des sièges avant
ou poste de leader ou présidentes’. Il implique un status élevé, honneur et privilège.
Quant au mode d’accès à ce status, le canon 11 de ce concile emploie plutôt le terme
kathistasthai, désigner, en lieu et place de l’habituel cheirotonia ou cheirothesia, qui
est réservé à l’ordination sacramentelle.57
51
Ad uxorem, 1,7.
K. Madigan; C. Osiek (eds.), Mujeres ordenadas en la Iglesia primitiva, 270.
53
Mgr. A. González Montes le reconnaît d’ailleurs et précise que ce service est exclusivement lié au
« soin des enfants, des pauvres, des marginalisés, de l’administration, concrétant par là-même le sens de la
charité maternelle de l’Eglise » (Cf. A. González Montes, Imagen de Iglesia. Eclesiología en perspectiva ecuménica,
Madrid, BAC, 2008, 404). Une telle description émeut évidemment tout candidat au diaconat qui comprend
bien son ministère. Les féministes y verraient quant à eux une relégation des femmes à la cuisine.
54
Didascalie, 3, 13, 1-7.
55
Didascalie, 3, 12,1.
56
K. Madigan; C. Osiek (eds.), Mujeres ordenadas en la Iglesia primitiva, 238. Ordonnées, comme
nous l’avons vu avec Tertullien n’implique pas nécessairement une dimension sacramentelle.
57
K. Madigan; C. Osiek (eds), Mujeres ordenadas en la Iglesia primitiva, 240.
52
28
L’office de présidence de l’assemblée par les femmes et celui d’administrer des
sacrements purent avoir été effectifs au service des groupes féminins, avec une certaine
‘ordination’ de l’Eglise à laquelle le canon 11 de Laodicée voulait probablement mettre fin. Et une manière de le faire aurait été de dévaluer cette ordination en utilisant
kathistasthai au lieu de cheirotonia. Voilà pourquoi le canon 45 du même concile
affirme de manière ferme que les femmes ne doivent pas accéder à l’autel.58 On pourrait dire, sans avoir besoin d’être trop malin, que Laodicée condamne une pratique
habituelle dans la communauté. Bien plus, Mira n’hésite pas à me poser un nouveau
cas de conscience : a-t-on exemple d’un seul cas d’ordination sacramentelle de la
part de Jésus ? N’a-t-il pas désigné les Douze ? Et à supposer même qu’il y ait un cas
d’une telle ordination, l’Eglise n’a-t-elle pas réellement ce pouvoir –comme le prétend
le pape– sur les sacrements ? Si nous restons sur l’argument de convenance anthropologique, n’est-elle pas chrétienne cette affirmation : « il n’y a plus de grecs ni de
juifs, il n’y a plus d’esclave ni libre, il n’y a plus d’homme ni de femme ; car tous vous
êtes un en Jésus-Christ » (Ga 3,28) ? La manière comme nous entendons aujourd’hui
les ministères diaconal, presbytéral et épiscopal n’est-elle pas née au troisième siècle
avec Ignace d’Antioche ?
C
onclusion: A partir de la profusion de données que nous avons citées plus haut,
il apparaît que du point de vue biblique et historique Jésus appela hommes et
femmes ; que parmi ceux qu’il appela, il élut un groupe de Douze en signe de la
restauration d’Israël et à partir duquel se fonde le ministère de l’ordre comme l’entend
aujourd’hui l’Eglise. Entre Jésus et cet Israël, il y a continuité, mais aussi rupture. Et
la rupture s’illustre dans l’affirmation de Ga 3,28 : en Christ, il n’y a plus ni hommes,
ni femmes. Cette affirmation n’exclut cependant pas qu’il y ait diversité de charismes
à l’intérieur de la primitive communauté, dont le clair distinguo entre le charisme de
gouvernement et les autres charismes. Dans ces mêmes communautés, il ne fait aucun
doute que les femmes elles aussi reçurent l’Esprit Saint qui légitime le gouvernement de
l’Eglise, que plusieurs d’entre elles administrèrent des sacrements, reçurent l’imposition
des mains, enseignèrent (comme aujourd’hui) et qu’elles perdirent progressivement le
caractère public de leur présence au fur et à mesure que le processus d’inculturation
assumait les modèles sociaux juifs, marqués par le système patriarcal. Jusqu’alors, et
même quelques temps après, elles avaient exercé un leadership communautaire qui
pouvait aller jusqu’à assurer la présidence de la communauté. Autre chose est que ce
leadership soit sacramentel ou concédée par une autorité.
Ce qu’il y a de neuf dans la déclaration de Benoît XVI est qu’il rouvre un débat
mis en veilleuse –peut-être prématurément diraient certains– par son prédécesseur. Sa
posture personnelle s’arrête là où commence la sacramentalité du ministère sacerdotal.
De là viendrait-on à penser que pour lui ce n’est pas tant la fonction (la mission) ce qui
fait l’identité du prêtre, sinon le sacrement. Le sacerdoce étant absent du langage du
Christ, le sacrement n’ayant pas été son mode de désignation ni d’institution, la valeur
de cette réalité essentielle de l’Eglise tient sa consistance d’une vocation personnelle de
l’individu, reconnue et confirmée par l’Eglise qui a pleine autorité sur les sacrements,
excepté sur la partie essentielle de ceux directement institués par le Christ comme le
58
K. Madigan; C. Osiek (eds), Mujeres ordenadas en la Iglesia primitiva, 240.
29
baptême ou la pénitence et l’eucharistie.59 La question dès lors est de savoir si le sexe
du ministre de l’eucharistie est un élément essentiel qui ne peut être modifié par l’Eglise
sans que cela affecte la signification essentielle, c’est-à-dire, telle que voulut le comprendre le Christ lui-même, du dit sacrement. Nous avons certes noté les risques d’une
approche essentiellement basée sur la naturalis similitudo, mais il revient à l’Eglise,
dans la prudence et le discernement qui régissent son gouvernement, de trouver le
moment et la manière d’en décider en tenant compte de son unité et du plus grand
bien des âmes, dans la fidélité aux préceptes de notre Seigneur. De fait, Jean-Paul II,
a la suite du concile Vatican II, en reconnaissant le sacerdoce commun des fidèles en
raison de notre baptême, reconnaissait en même temps que la célébration liturgique
est une action sacrée non seulement du clergé, mais aussi de toute l’Assemblée, et
que, dans des situations d’urgence et de nécessité chronique, carence de prêtres ou
de diacres, certains ministères correspondant aux ministères ordonnés pouvaient être
exercés par des laïcs (hommes et femmes), pourvue qu’elles aient reçu cette mission
par l’autorité compétente.60
Je n’ai pu manquer personnellement de considérer avec une profonde admiration
la dernière partie de la réponse du Pape: « les femmes occupent de grandes fonctions
significatives dans l’Eglise que l’on ne peut parler de discrimination. Ce serait le cas si
la prêtrise était une sorte de pouvoir, mais en réalité elle doit être entièrement consacrée
au service. »61 Qui bien comprend cela saisit que si ce n’était qu’une question de service,
alors il n’y aurait aucun débat : les tenants du féminisme militant baisseraient les armes
et se centreraient sur l’essentiel, le service ; ceux qui ne veulent rien entendre d’eux
passeraient d’une attitude d’intolérance et de pouvoir et réviseraient par là-même leur
compréhension du sacrement de l’ordre. Il n’est pas que sacrement de la présidence ; il
est aussi sacrement de service. Quand je l’ai dit à Mira après avoir écrit ce texte, elle a
semblé soulagé mais, dans un dernier sursaut, elle m’a dit : « Et bien, Jean Luc, il n’y
aurait pas aussi de raison de réserver certains services aux uns et non à d’autres. » Et
on revient au point de départ !
Bibliographie
A. González Montes. Imagen de Iglesia. Eclesiología en perspectiva ecuménica. Madrid, BAC,
2008.
A. G. Martimort. Les diaconesses. Essai historique. Rome, Edizioni liturgiche, 1982.
Benoît XVI. Lumière du monde. Le pape, l’Eglise et les signes des temps, Entretien avec Peter Seewald. Paris, Bayard, 2010.
Commission Théologique Internationale. Le diaconat: évolution et perspectives. 30 sept. 2002.
Commission Théologique Internationale. Thèmes choisis d’Ecclésiologie, 1985.
Congrégation Pour la Doctrine de la Foi. Déclaration Inter insigniores sur la question
de l’admission des femmes au sacerdoce, 15 octobre 1976.
59
Cf. K. Rahner, La Iglesia y los sacramentos (Barcelona: Herder, 1967). Id., Curso fundamental sobre
la fe, (Barcelona, Herder, 1989), 476ss.
60
Jean-Paul II, Exhortation Apostolique Christi fideles laici, 30 décembre 1988, 23. Codex Iuris Canonici (1983) : cc. 230.517.776.861.910.943.1112. Sacrosantum Concilium, 28.
61
30
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Carmelo, 1999.
E. Estévez López. Mediadoras de sanación. Encuentros entre Jesús y las mujeres: una mirada
Nueva. Madrid, San Pablo/UPComillas, 2008.
F. Ramírez Fueyo. “Evolución del pensamiento paulino: las cartas pastorales” in Estudios Ecclesiásticos, Vol 85, nº 333, Año 2010, 309-344.
F. Ramírez Fueyo. « Profecía y ministerio profético en las cartas paulinas » in Gabino Uríbarri
(ed.), El ser sacerdotal. Fundamentos y dimensiones constitutivas. Madrid, San Pablo/UPComillas, 2010, 39-62.
F. Rivas Ribaque. Desterradas hijas de Eva. Protagonismo y marginación de la mujer en el cristianismo primitivo. Madrid, San Pablo/UPComillas, 2008.
H. Denzinger ; P. Hünermann. El magisterio de la Iglesia. Enchiridion symbolorum definitionum
et declarationum de Rebus Fidei et Morum. Barcelona, Herder, 2000.
J. Colson. La fonction diaconale aux origines de l’Eglise. Paris, DDB, 1960.
J. Gaudemet. Conciles gaulois du IVe siècle. Paris, Sources Chrétiennes, nº 241, 1977.
J. R. Busto. San Pablo y las mujeres en Corinto. ¿Fue San Pablo antifeminista? Santander, Sal
Terrae, 1993.
Jean-Paul II. Lettre Apostolique Ordinatio sacerdotalis, 22 mai 1994.
………………., Lettre Apostolique Mulieris dignitatem, 15 Août 1988.
………………., Exhortation Apostolique Christifideles laici, 30 décembre 1988.
K. Madigan; C. Osiek (eds). Mujeres ordenadas en la Iglesia primitiva. Una historia Documentada.
Estella (Navarra), Verbo Divino, 2006. Titre original: Ordained Women in the Early Church. A
Documentary History. Baltimore, The Johns-Hopkins University Press, 2005.
K. Rahner. La Iglesia y los sacramentos. Barcelona, Herder, 1967.
Id., Curso fundamental sobre la fe. Barcelona, Herder, 1989.
M. Arlandson. Women, Class and Society in Early Christianity. Models from Luke-Acts. Massachussets, Hendrickson, 1973.
M. Navarro. Jezabel (Ap 2,18-29). Un conflicto eclesial. Reseña Bíblica 27, 2000.
Pline Le Jeune, Lettres (Livre X). Panégyrique de Trajan. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1964.
S. Madrigal. “Orígen y comienzos de la Iglesia según el Nuevo Testamento” in Estudios Eclesiasticos. vol 85, nº 333, junio 2010, 387-410.
W. Stegemann. Historia social del cristianismo primitivo. Los inicios en el judaísmo y las comunidades cristianas en el mundo mediterráneo. Estella (Navarra), Verbo Divino, 2001.
31
“Let him kiss me with the kisses of his mouth!” (Song of
Songs 1:2): Gender, Pleasure and Conjugal Sexual Ethics
Shaji George Kochuthara, CMI *
A
bstract: The call for gender equality often concentrates more on the role of the woman
in the public forum. Equally important is the recognition of the sexual identity of
the woman and her sexual desire and fulfilment, especially in marriage. Developing trends in traditional societies like India show that the denial of women’s desire
and fulfilment is one of the major reasons behind the rise in marital conflicts. A healthy
man-woman relationship as well as the consideration of justice demands an ethics that
takes into consideration the female desire and fulfilment. The basis for constructing a
gender-sensitive sexual ethics can be found in the Biblical books like Song of Songs. A
gender-sensitive sexual ethics demands the reconsideration of many traditional norms
and an ethics based on reciprocal and mutual sexual fulfilment.
I
ntroduction: Traditional conjugal sexual ethics was built upon the premise of the inequality and inferiority of the woman. This was true not only about the demand of
submission to the “head” (Eph 5: 22-24), but also about her role as a sexual partner.
The woman was supposed to have only a passive role in sexual activity. Her role was
to be a fertile field to receive and grow the male seed; that is, even in procreation, her
role was considered to be only passive. This was more evident with regard to woman’s
sexual desire. In general, woman’s sexual desire and sexual fulfilment were ignored.
Together with the traditional patriarchal structures, inadequate medical knowledge in
the past also contributed to considering the woman as a sexual object than a sexual
subject. It was often thought that the woman was not capable of having sexual fulfilment and orgasm.1 Her desire and fulfilment would be explained, at the maximum, in
terms of dependence on the man and of motherhood. Consequently, the whole sexual
morality was conceived from masculine perspectives and woman’s sexuality and sexual
fulfilment were ignored.
Today, in spite of a greater awareness of the equal dignity of woman and her sexual
desire, it is often pointed out that a number of women do not experience sexual fulfil-
1
In fact, this cannot be said to be a Christian misconception, but can be seen in different cultures:
“There is a popular belief that men enjoy sex more than women. If you go through the ancient literature
of any culture, they are a lot narrations about woman’s excessive sexuality, though. The negative appreciation of woman’s attitude to sexual pleasure must be the result of a negativity towards sexuality that was in
existence mostly in the West. Ancient Taoist physicians offered advice that enabled both women and men
to achieve sexual satisfaction. So did the Jewish Talmud. The approach of Kamasutra in this matter is world
famous. What is the truth? Are women less interested in sex than men? The conclusion reached as a result of
many researches done regarding this question is that the female potential for sexual satisfaction is equal to,
if not actually greater than, that of the male. The actual differences in this matter attributed to women must
be considered as cultural stereotypes.” Thomas Kalam, Understanding Man and Woman, 31.
*
32
Shaji is an associate professor of moral theology at Dharmaram Vidya Kshetram (DVK)
Bangalore, India. He is equally editor in chief of Asian Horizons, Dharmaram Journal of
Theology.
“Let him kiss me with the kisses of his mouth!” (Song of Songs 1:2)
ment in sexual intercourse. For example, some studies reveal that one in three women
having heterosexual relations do not experience orgasm and remain dissatisfied in their
sexual life.2 There may be different reasons for this, but one of the main reasons is
the insensitivity of the male partner and ignorance about female sexuality and female
sexual response cycle. Some other studies have revealed that the number of women
who remain sexually dissatisfied in heterosexual intercourse is still higher, especially in
countries where sexuality is still a taboo subject and where practices like female genital
mutilation continue.
In countries like India – which had boasted about the stability of the family – the
number of divorces is fast increasing and a number of women take initiative for the
divorce. “The Indian woman... is no longer willing to sacrifice her identity or to bear any
misery silently for the sake of her children, family and society.”3 This new awareness
of the woman of their dignity, their needs and her partner’s refusal to accept them are
the main factors behind the growing number of divorces, especially in the cities. “It is
no longer just trust and commitment that a woman is seeking in marriage, she wants
sexual and emotional satisfaction and she wants a life partner who is not just doing well
in his career, but respects her career, too.”4 That is, insensitivity to women’s fulfilment
is threatening the stability of marriage and family even in the developing countries.
Catholic sexual ethics has gone much forward from its traditional insistence on
procreation as the primary end of marriage. There is a growing importance given to
the inseparability of the unitive and procreative purposes and the centrality of love, as
well as on the goodness of sexual fulfilment. Many positive attempts can be seen in
this regard, especially from the time of Vatican Council II. A recent example will be the
recognition of the goodness of eros in Deus Caritas Est.5 However, a theology giving
due importance to sexual desire and fulfilment is yet to be developed. This is especially
true with regard to women’s desire and fulfilment, since there continues the impact of
a sexual ethics formed according to masculine perspectives.
The contemporary culture, particularly from the time of sexual revolution, attempts
to present as role model a liberated woman who seeks pleasure indiscriminately and
asserts her identity as a sexual person, because denial of the sexual desire and fulfilment of the woman was integral to a patriarchal sexual ethics. Developing a sexual
ethics of women’s sexual fulfilment is important to respond to the challenges that
marriage and family face today. This does not mean that we need to blindly adapt
to the ideals of the contemporary culture. Instead, we need to reflect upon whether
we can develop an ethics of women’s desire and fulfilment based on the Christian
tradition. Moreover, creating an awareness of women’s sexual desire and fulfilment
is a matter of justice.
Analysing the Song of Songs we shall try to understand how the scripture can
become a basis for constructing a sexual ethics that gives due importance to women’s
sexual desire and pleasure. Evidently, the Biblical message of the mutuality and reci2
http://www.womansday.com/Articles/Health/10-Surprising-Facts-About-Orgasms.html, accessed
on 06-03-2011.
3
Gunjan Sharma, “In Pursuit of Happiness,” The Week-Health, Dec 6, 2009, 17.
4
Gunjan Sharma, 18. In the last couple of years there is a 30-40% increase in the number of women
seeking divorce and most divorces are happening in the initial first few months. In most cases the reason is
that women are not ready to tolerate things beyond a point.
5
Benedict XVI, Deus Caritas Est, § 3-11.
33
Shaji George Kochuthara, CMI
procity of man and woman can be developed on the basis of the creation story, Jesus’
teaching on marriage and St Paul’s instructions regarding marriage. However, in the
limited space of the present article, we shall deal with Song of Songs only. Following
that we shall consider how theologians today try to develop a gender sensitive sexual
ethics that gives due importance to women’s desire and pleasure.
Song of Songs: A Model for Gender Sensitive Erotic Love and Pleasure
The interpretation of the Song of Songs has been difficult due to the diverse
opinions regarding its basic meaning and purpose. It was interpreted symbolically as
expressing the love between Yahweh and Israel, between Christ and the Church and
between God and the soul. However modern biblical scholars are almost unanimous in
understanding and interpreting the Song of Songs as referring to human sexual love.6
Although the Song of Songs can be utilized as an important basis to develop the unitive
dimension of marriage, our main concern here is to consider it from the perspective
of female sexuality.
Description of Female Sexuality
In the biblical context, the Song of Songs has something unique in the presentation
of the male and female desire, especially in its presentation of the female sexual desire
and fulfilment. David M. Carr beautifully articulates it as follows:
Elsewhere in the Bible, passionate women are often caricatured as promiscuous and wild,
unless their passion is for having sons who will ultimately become the ancestors of Israel and
its kings. Powerful women like Delilah and Jezebel are images of danger. Yet the Song of
Songs ultimately celebrates this powerful, passionate woman. It is her voice that is featured
through more than two-thirds of the book, and parallel to the praise of the “woman of power”
in Proverbs 31, the man and others in the Song end up praising her incomparable worth.7
The Song also presents a beautiful and interesting contrast with the overpowering
and domineering male that we usually encounter in the Bible, especially in the prophetic
texts. The man (lover) is captivated by the beauty of his beloved, her glances (Song
4:9). She is not the image of the punished Eve whose desire is marked by dependency
and who is ruled over by Adam (Gen 3:16), but the image of the original Eve, in whom
Adam finds the bone of his bones and flesh of his flesh (Gen 2:23), and to whom Adam
is passionately attached.
This extraordinarily positive approach to female sexuality has evoked some theologians to attribute female authorship to the Song. For example, Athalya Brenner holds
that although no concluding proofs can be reached, there are compelling evidences for
asserting female authorship of the Song.8 Drawing upon this strong feminist note (as
well as some other unique characteristics of it), Jannie H. Hunter contends that the Song
was written as a protest literature. There is no doubt that the Song was written within
the context of a patriarchal society. However, the values that the Song indirectly stands
for are so different from those of a patriarchal society. So Hunter argues:
6
For example, see Roland E. Murphy, “A Biblical Model of Human Intimacy,” 62.
David .M. Carr, The Erotic Word, 133.
8
Cfr. Athalya Brenner, “Women Poets and Authors.” Also, Cfr. Jannie H. Hunter, “The Song of
Protest,” 115.
7
34
The Song of Songs then, I contend, presents itself as a song of protest in a society within
which women are not allowed to speak openly on many matters where they desire to
express an opinion. The book takes as its theme an experience with which every woman
of the day would have been familiar, a situation which society would have pressured her
into — namely, a (loving) relationship with a man. By so doing the Song of Songs is able
to demonstrate against the prevailing social constructs and to evince the fact that the issue of love can never be one of force because its central emotion is one that functions in
relation to choice. Above all, women — as well as men — cannot turn on this emotion
of love within a relationship of force but only in one of emotional will. A central desire
experienced by every human being is thus taken as providing an occasion to demonstrate
about a central problem in society on behalf of those who suffer the most under the prevailing rules of that society.9
The longing and the desire that the beloved/woman has are not seen as punishments to which Gen 3:16 refers to, but they are the gifts that she possesses. She (or her
lover) does not feel guilty of these feelings. Thus, the Song celebrates the original and
uncontaminated beauty of the man-woman love, which is mutual and in which both
of them have equal roles. She is very much aware of her erotic love and of her sexual
desire, she does not consider them as bad, instead, she knows that her desire and erotic
love are good and integral to her personality and hence she is not afraid to express
them. Consequently, she is not a passive or silent lover, but a bold and active lover. She
enjoys that she loved by her lover, she loves her lover and knows that he enjoys being
loved by her; she has the freedom to express her desire for him and he is happy of her
desire for him. For him, she is not inferior; he appreciates her boldness to express her
erotic love and desire. This reciprocity makes their love stronger and solid.
Depiction of Erotic Love and Pleasure
The Song can be taken as a biblical model of eroticism or the sexual pleasure which
a man and woman mutually share.10 The erotic love between the lovers and their pleasure in it is expressed using different literary techniques. Murphy explains these literary
techniques mainly under three themes:11
1. Presence/absence: The physical presence of the lovers to each other is obvious
from their dialogue. But, the absence is also very significant and it gives opportunity
to express the yearning for the presence of the beloved. There are references to their
mutual presence, as in 2:6. But more frequent are the verses expressing her yearning
and search for her lover who is absent. Some of these are nocturnal experiences (or
even dreams), but they express the pain of the absence:
Upon my bed by night
I sought him whom my soul loves;
I sought him, but found him not;
I called him, but he gave no answer.
“I will rise now and go about the city,
in the streets and in the squares;
I will seek him whom my soul loves”...
“Have you seen him whom my soul loves?” (Song 3:1-3).
9
Hunter, “The Song of Protest,” 115.
Cfr. Murphy, “Interpreting the Song of Songs,” 104.
11
This is mainly based on Murphy, “Interpreting the Song of Songs,” 104; “A Biblical Model of Human Intimacy,”, 62-65; The Song of Songs, 101-104.
10
35
Thus, the absence becomes an occasion to affirm their belongingness to one another,
and to say that they are always present to one another: “My beloved is mine and I am
his” (Song 2:16); “I am my beloved’s and my beloved is mine” (Song 6:3); “I am my
beloved’s and his desire is for me” (Song 7:10). For our consideration what is important
is that she is not afraid or ashamed of expressing her desire for her lover.
2. Mutuality: Mutuality refers to the reciprocity of feelings between the man and the
woman. This mutuality is expressed in different ways, using different symbols like the
garden and so on. The lover depicts the beloved using the imagery of a garden:
A garden locked is my sister, my bride,
a garden locked, a fountain sealed.
Your shoots are an orchard of pomegranates
with all choicest fruits (Song 4:12-13).
To this she replies by inviting him to ‘his garden’ and he happily accepts her invitation:
Let my beloved come to his garden
and eat its choicest fruits (Song 4:16b)
I come to my garden, my sister, my bride,
I gather my myrrh with my spice,
I eat my honeycomb with my honey,
I drink my wine with my milk (Song 5:1a).
There is no indication of male dominance or female subordination. The feelings
are mutual, and both the male and female lovers express without embarrassment their
desire for having sexual fulfilment.
3. Sensuousness: This plays the most important role throughout the Song. The key
role of the senses — seeing, hearing, touching — is expressed without shame, but with
delicateness. The very opening of the Song is marked by this sensuousness:
O that you would kiss me with the
kisses of your mouth!
For your love is better than wine (Song 1:2).
Even the memory of the sensations of his embrace are pleasurable:
O that his left hand were under my head,
and that his right hand embraced me! (Song 2:6)
He sings how sweet her lips and tongue and how fragrant her garments are (Song
4:1-15); she exclaims how fragrant he is, how sweet his voice is:
My beloved is to me a cluster of henna blossoms... (Song 1:13-14)
O my dove, in the clefts of the rock,
in the covert of the cliff,
let me see your face,
let me hear your voice,
for your voice is sweet,
and your face is comely (Song 2:14).
36
Though the language is not at all blunt and often many things are left to the imagination of the reader/hearer, it is not coy about erotic sex and sensuality. This is clear
from more open and direct descriptions of the physical beauty12 of the lover/beloved
by the partner. Erotic enjoyment of the beauty of the different parts of the body of the
beloved, and the erotic intentions are not at all considered to be sinful, but to be an
integral part of their mutual love:
How graceful are your feet in sandals,
O queenly maiden!
Your rounded thighs are like jewels,
the work of a master hand.
Your navel is a rounded bowl
that never lacks mixed wine.
Your belly is a heap of wheat,
encircled with lilies.
Your two breasts are like two fawns,
twins of a gazelle.
Your neck is like an ivory tower...
How fair and pleasant you are,
O loved one, delectable maiden!
You are stately as a palm tree,
and your breasts are like its clusters.
I say I will climb the palm tree
and lay hold of its branches.
Oh, may your breasts be like clusters of the vine,
and the scent of your breath like apples,
and your kisses like the best wine
that goes down smoothly,
gliding over lips and teeth (Song 7:1-9).
The bride accepts without embarrassment, but with joy, her lover’s delight in her
beauty. But, what is more conspicuous and challenging is that the bride/beloved is not
at all ashamed to describe the physical beauty of her lover. This courage from the part
of the beloved to acknowledge her sensuality and her pleasure in the physical beauty
of her lover is something characteristic of the Song:
His head is the finest gold;
...His cheeks are like beds of spices,
yielding fragrance.
His lips are lilies,
distilling liquid myrrh.
His arms are rounded gold,
set with jewels.
His body is ivory work,
encrusted with sapphires.
His legs are alabaster columns,
set upon bases of gold...
His speech is most sweet,
and he is altogether desirable (Song 5:11-16).
12
Description of the physical beauty of the lover/beloved is a common feature in the Middle Eastern
literature. This literary genre is called wasf. Often objects from nature — plants, animals, mountains, towers,
etc. — are used to describe the beauty of the person.
37
Even in the popular literature of our times, often the description of the physical
beauty of the lover by the beloved is not so common! Even today, expressing the enjoyment of the woman in the man’s physical beauty may raise many eyebrows! And, even
today, in spite of the more profound understanding and acceptance of the goodness of
sexuality, it will not be easy for many to consider these as the Word of God!
Though there is a frank description of the erotic body parts, it is clear that there
is no intention of having a hedonistic and self-centred pleasure. Rather, the frankness
is an indication of the confidence, love, sharing and mutual commitment between
the lover and the beloved, a confidence and love and sharing that encompasses the
physical, sexual, emotional and every aspect of their life. Moreover, even such descriptions do not make the Song pornographic. What is described is not clinical acts
of lovemaking, but emotions of love coming from their deep understanding and high
esteem for each other. The “lovers do not only speak about the general emotions
of love, but celebrate the physical beauty which can be enjoyed as part of the love
relationship.”13 This calls for a re-consideration of the continuing opinion that the
Bible gives more importance to the procreative dimension and a re-evaluation of the
continuing scepticism towards erotic love and enjoyment. And, more specifically, it
demands a critical appraisal of the sceptical attitudes towards female sexuality, sexual
desire and sexual pleasure.
Christian Tradition: Totally Ignorant of Female Sexual Desire?
It will not be right to consider the whole Christian tradition as ignorant of and
ignoring the importance of female sexual desire and fulfilment.14 The Fathers and the
theologians were products of their own times and the socio-cultural context did not help
them develop a sexual ethics more sensitive to female desire and fulfilment. However,
in the theological tradition, we can notice a growing recognition of female sexuality
and desire. In the traditional sexual ethics, besides the procreative intention, conjugal
sexual intercourse “for the avoidance of fornication” or for “fidelity to the bed” was usually accepted as a valid motive, and “mutual availability” was insisted upon. Indirectly,
these recognised female sexual desire and pleasure. An exceptional recognition of the
female desire and fulfilment can be found in Bishop Francis Patrick Kenrick’s15 Theologiae
Moralis, who wrote that the wife had the right to bring herself to orgasm “by touches”
after sexual intercourse, if she had experienced no climax during the intercourse. He also
held that a husband who did not remain sexually active until his wife reached orgasm
13
Hunter, “The Song of Protest,” 122.
Though we can say this in general, there are also differing opinions the Christian tradition. For
examples, John Chrysostom made use of the Christ-Church imagery to develop the theology of marital love.
But, there is also the opinion that he made use of this imagery to speak of marital love, instead of insisting
upon the procreative norm, because according to him the earth was already fully populated and this had
brought reproductive sex to an end (Cfr Peter Brown, The Body and Society, New York: Columbia University
Press, 1988, 306). Similarly, in spite of the fact that Thomas Aquinas speaks about the beauty of man-woman
friendship, he was influenced by the traditional medical views that considered woman as inferior. It is beyond
the scope of this article to analyse in detail the attitude of the Christian tradition to women. For a detailed
account of the history of the Christian approach to sexuality, see Shaji George Kochuthara, The Concept of
Sexual Pleasure in the Catholic Moral Tradition, Roma: Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana, 2007.
15
Rt. Rev. Francis Patrick Kenrick was the bishop of Philadelphia. In 1851 he became the Archbishop
of Baltimore. His Theologiae moralis became practically a textbook for confessors. Cfr. Peter Gardella, Innocent Ecstasy, 9.
14
38
was guilty of a venial sin of omission and that it was mortal sin for a wife to distract
herself during sexual intercourse in order to avoid having an orgasm.16
Kenrick founded his argument on Thomas Aquinas and Alphonsus Liguori. He
pointed out that although there where some severe philosophers who rejected all enjoyment, St. Thomas said that they counselled badly. Kenrick further argued that passion
could even add to the moral goodness of an act. Writing on concupiscence, he argued
that consent to the passion resulting from a good act was itself another good act.17 This
gave grounds to conclude that passionate sex in marriage was morally superior to sex
without passion. Kenrick also utilized the argument of Liguori, who permitted the same
on the grounds of “perfection” to any child that might be conceived.18 Although Kenrick
based his argument on Liguori, he eliminated the connection of woman’s orgasm to
conception and emphasised only her right for orgasm. In virtue of this omission, the
encouragement of orgasm grew stronger and more unconditional.19 Further, in his list
of reasons for a husband’s obligation to seek intercourse, Kenrick replaced the negative
purpose of helping the wife to avoid sin with a purpose of “satisfying the wife.”20
Female Sexual Desire: Implications for a Gender Sensitive Sexual Ethics
One of the factors that has contributed to the recognition of love as integral to marriage and marital intimacy is the emancipation of woman, her emergence as a full-fledged,
equal sexual partner.21 This emancipation of woman can be seen in the growth of her
erotic sensibility and in her seeking to share the same level of pleasure as her mate.22
Not only the development in theological understanding, but also the socio-cultural developments and growth in social sciences have brought this positive change. Guindon
observes that the deviations in the present culture, although negative, are only signs of
humanity’s struggle to discover the meaning of this new sexual reality. The discovery
of this new meaning of sexuality, according to him, is the real sexual revolution that is
taking place today.23 This new understanding of women’s sexuality and sexual desire
has its implications for sexual morality.
16
Cfr. Francis Patrick Kenrick, Theologiae moralis. III, 310: Cfr. Gardella, Innocent Ecstasy, 9. This
teaching of Kenrick seems to be extremely interesting. But, unfortunately, so far I haven’t come across any
reference to Kenrick except in Gardella, who says that Kenrick was the “first American writer to prescribe
orgasm” and that he was very important in the Catholic approach to sexual ethics.
17
Cfr. Kenrick, Theologiae moralis. I, 35, 17: Cfr. Gardella, Innocent Ecstasy, 12.
18
Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia moralis, 6.918, 919. Parallel to the doubts whether women enjoyed
sexual pleasure, there was also the concept in some medical traditions that for the perfection of the child
to be conceived, it was necessary that the woman reached orgasm. Such conflicting views can be seen in
different branches of science in any age.
19
Cfr. Gardella, Innocent Ecstasy, 12-19.
20
Cfr. Kenrick, Theologiae moralis. III, 313: Cfr. Gardella, Innocent Ecstasy, 19.
21
Cfr. Andrè Guindon, The Sexual Language, 108-112.
22
Cfr. Guindon, The Sexual Language, 128. Referring to Nelli Guindon says, “Through the centuries...
the erotic sensibility of woman has evolved, in a first moment, from exteriority to interiority, from convexity
to concavity. Today, without abandoning the vaginal component, woman is becoming once again clitoral and
“active”. She is also leaving aside her role as long-suffering servant to become erotic, even as a spouse, seeking to share the same level of pleasure as her mate. In other words, woman has worked actively, especially
during recent years, at her “virilization” while man is in the process of discovering and gradually accepting
his own femininity”.
23
Guindon, The Sexual Language, 112.
39
Mutual Sexual Pleasure as Normative in Conjugal Sexual Activity
“The first word coming to mind (while considering the different aspects of sexual
intercourse) is mutual pleasure or, better, mutual sensual pleasure: to give sensual
pleasure to the other and to receive sensual pleasure from the other — this, in a word,
is the apparent ideal of the sexual exchange”, observes Mark Oraison.24 In sexual intercourse, great attention is to be taken for the demands and desires of the other. As the
physiology of sexual response cycle is different for the man and the woman, an attitude
of understanding and self-domination is needed. This can be done through information
and through a Christian formation of the conscience. What is important is that the sexual
relationship may not be reduced to mere technique of experiencing sexual pleasure,
but rather it should be considered a language and a sign of human love that expresses
an authentic commitment to the other.25
Lack of mutuality in sexual intimacy and attempts to exclude the partner from sexual
pleasure will diminish the pleasure not only of the one excluded, but also of the one
that uses the partner for pleasure. Using the partner will result in the inability to feel any
of the reflected pleasures of the other. For those who respect mutuality, the pleasure
resulting from the pleasure of the partner is powerful.26
Gudorf points out that mutuality in sexual pleasure implies also mutual consent to
sexual intimacy. She shows that even in marriage very often sexual intercourse takes
place without the consent of the partner.27 We may note that the Christian tradition,
rather than emphasizing mutuality, has emphasized the “right” of the husband/wife
over the body of the other. Mutuality also demands change in the traditional ideas that
“good women are always passive.”28
Mutuality in sexual intimacy and pleasure presuppose love and respect for the
partner. The communication of respect and concern for the partner helps to maximise
pleasure in sexual intimacy, because the meaning of the sexual activity is intensified by
the respect and care that the couple have for each other.29
Howard J. Clinebelle and Charlotte H. Clinebelle also emphasise mutuality in conjugal sexual intimacy and say that couples should be free to follow their own impulses
sexually, to play and experiment with new positions, new settings, and new approaches
to foreplay. Open communication about what gives each maximum pleasure is greatly
helpful for developing a unique style. The criterion to decide whether or not to engage
in various forms of sex play is what gives both pleasure.30 Even today, in many cultures,
women are viewed only as sex objects for men’s pleasure.31 As a result, many men take
for granted that they have the right to have the pleasure even if it involves violence or
24
Mark Oraison, The Human Mystery of Sexuality, 124.
Cfr. Mark Attard, “La persona umana come unità totale,” 815.
26
Cfr. Christine E. Gudorf, Body, Sex and Pleasure, 119-120.
27
Cfr. Gudorf, Body, Sex and Pleasure, 141-143. A recent report says that one in five of Indian men
has forced his wife to have sex: “Indian Men Lead in Sexual Violence, Worst on Gender Equality: Study,” in
The Times of India, March 7, 2011: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Indian-men-lead-in-sexualviolence-worst-on-gender-equality-Study/articleshow/7643154.cms, accessed on 07-03-2011.
28
Cfr. Gudorf, Body, Sex and Pleasure, 145-148.
29
30
Cfr. Howard. J. Clinebelle, Jr. – Charlotte H. Clinebelle, The Intimate Marriage, 143.
31
A recent report says that one in five of Indian men has forced his wife to have sex: Neha Bhayana,
“Indian Men Lead in Sexual Violence, Worst on Gender Equality: Study,” in The Times of India, March 7, 2011:
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Indian-men-lead-in-sexual-violence-worst-on-gender-equalityStudy/ articleshow/7643154.cms, accessed on 07-03-2011.
25
40
force on the woman. Considering mutual sexual pleasure as the primary end of sex
can prevent abuses and exploitation in sexual activity.32
The norm of mutual pleasure presupposes the recognition of the sexual identity
of the woman and her sexual desire. If desire and pleasure are defined only in terms
of the male experience and only as those belonging to the male, then the question of
mutuality is out of question. Even today, in many of the cultures, expression of sexual
desire and enjoyment of sexual pleasure by the woman will be considered as something unbecoming even within marriage. Some may feel that it is strange to say that
about a world that lives in the age of sexual revolution. But, for example, think about
the virtues related to sexuality, such as virginity, fidelity, chastity, modesty, etc. They
are often identified more as virtues of the female, and lapses in these from the part of
the male will be tolerated more easily and considered as natural weakness of the male.
What I am trying to propose is not that women also should be given the freedom to
be licentious, but that a sexual ethics that understands desire and fulfilment only in
masculine terms will lead to double standards and encourage further the objectification
and exploitation of women, and the ill-treatment of the female partner. An ethics that
recognises female sexual desire will demand equal responsibility from the part of the
male. Moreover, accepting the woman as an equal partner having sexual desire will
facilitate building up a relationship of mutual respect and sharing.
Self-gratification and Gratification of the Partner: Opposites or
Complementary?
Mutuality in conjugal sexual intimacy means respecting the partner, knowing what
is pleasurable to the partner and giving importance to the pleasure of the partner. It
may not be contested that the search for selfish pleasure does not give real pleasure to
oneself or to one’s partner. At the same time, enjoying pleasure in sexual intimacy is
not selfishness, if mutuality is respected. Moreover, enjoying pleasure in sexual intimacy
is an integral part of mutuality. According to Häring, the acceptance and enjoyment of
the pleasure by each partner is necessary so that the conjugal act becomes a positive
experience: “The conjugal act would become distasteful if one of the spouses were to
try to refuse its pleasure and thus kill the joy of the being-together, being one flesh.
The deeper the meaning in true love in mutual self-bestowal, the greater is the joy and
pleasure also.”33 Joseph Bird and Lois Bird also think in this line. For them, the two-fold
responsibility of the spouses is, “to give sexual fulfilment, and to strive to achieve it.”34
This giving and receiving, according to them, is very important in conjugal intimacy:
It would be a mistake to think of this love-making solely in terms of giving, even mutual
giving. All love-making actions, regardless of how giving they may be... (bring) pleasure and
increasing arousal to the one giving — or at least this is the way it should be... The sexual
arousal experienced by the one “giving” stems not only from observing the sexual response
of the other one, but also from the physical stimulation experienced in the “giving”... Unless
we keep this rather apparent fact in mind, we may tend to think of these love-making actions
as solely giving, and overlook the pleasure that should be derived.35
This does not mean that the woman (or the man) should think about only her
32
33
34
35
Bernard Häring, Free and Faithful in Christ. II, 514.
Joseph Bird & Lois Bird, The Freedom of Sexual Love, 54.
Bird & Bird, The Freedom of Sexual Love, 98.
41
pleasure or that she should become selfish. In fact, there is no conflict between selfenjoyment and the enjoyment of the partner. As Tom Driver underscores, the very
meaning of sexual love includes self-gratification as well and that this should be an
essential dimension of Christian sexual ethics:
Love is not only responsibility and agape. It is also eros, which means desire. Sexual desire is
not only desire of the “other”... It is also desire for self-gratification. The great power of sexual
desire comes from the fact that it combines desire for the other with desire to gratify the self...
No sexual ethic, including a Christian one, can be valid if it does not recognize the sex-force
as power in its own right and in both its other-directed and self-directed aspects.36
Gudorf’s words may make it clearer: “In sex, if one partner is consistently acting
to pleasure the other person without openness to receiving pleasure him/herself, the
pleasure of both persons in the relationship decreases. The active partner can over time
become the controlling partner, which both partners can come to resent.”37 After all,
authentic self-love is necessary for mature human relationships, because proper selfesteem and love of self make it less likely either that I will try to exploit others or that
I will make myself available for exploitation.38 Thus, love of self is morally legitimate.
Similarly, enjoyment of pleasure in sexual intimacy, when it is not an exploitation of
the partner, is morally legitimate and good.
Sex Education as a Moral Responsibility
The physiology of sexual behaviour is different in the man and in the woman. This
is obvious especially from the difference in the way of experiencing orgasm. This difference demands an attitude of reciprocal understanding, self-domination and harmonious
realization of the different phases of sexual behaviour. Adequate information regarding
the physiology of sexual behaviour and differences in the sexual response patterns of
the sexes will be helpful not to reduce the sexual behaviour to mere techniques of gaining pleasure. Sexual relationship is to be understood, rather as sign of human love and
Christian charity.39 Sufficient knowledge of one’s own physiology and sexual response
patterns as well as those of the partner will only help the couple appreciate and enjoy
the God-given gift of sexuality and sexual love. It is with this insight that Jack Dominian
opines that, “In the future the morality of sexual intercourse will include how patient
the spouses are to prepare each other for lovemaking and how patient and disciplined
they are to reach orgasm together, thus ensuring that one does not peak earlier than the
other, leaving one partner unsatisfied.”40 That is, sufficient knowledge about the different
dimensions of one’s own sexuality and that of the partner and sufficient knowledge of
sexual response cycle is a moral responsibility. We may not be surprised to notice that
even in this age of sexual revolution, a number of people, even after years of living
36
Tom Driver, “On Taking Sex Seriously,” 102: Cfr. John Giles Milhaven, “Conjugal Sexual Love,”
704.
37
Gudorf, Body, Sex and Pleasure, 116.
Cfr. Vincent J. Genovesi, In Pursuit of Love, 139. Please note also, “Satisfying intimacy within a
relationship begins with self-love... As we use the term, self-love does not mean conceit, selfishness, or lack
of consideration of others; in fact, these qualities are usually indications of personal insecurities. By self-love
we mean a genuine interest, concern, and respect for ourselves — the ability to look in the mirror and appreciate the person we see and to feel excited about that person’s potential”: Robert Crooks – Klara Baur,
Our Sexuality, 190.
39
Cfr. Marciano Vidal, Manuale di etica teologica. II, Morale dell’amore, 32; Cfr. Jack Dominian ,
Passionate and Compassionate, 91-93; Let’s Make Love, 90-95.
40
Dominian, Let’s Make Love, 91.
38
42
together, lack sufficient knowledge of sexuality, especially that of the partner. Naturally,
this results in the denial of woman’s enjoyment.
Ignorance of sex may also result in excluding oneself or the partner from sexual
pleasure. For example, in the male-dominated cultures, women may take only a passive role in sexual intimacy. They may never become aware of the importance of
shared pleasure in sexuality and may never communicate their experience and needs
to the partner, as they have been trained or as they are supposed to be passive only.41
This passive role and exclusion from sexual pleasure may affect the total quality of
the conjugal relationship. If this exclusion of a partner is due to insensitivity and from
deliberate intention, it also signifies that she/he is being used only as an instrument for
the pleasure of the other partner. Sex may be confused with dominance as well. Then
sexual pleasure becomes dependent upon the experience of dominance or control. This
also may become common especially in a male-dominated society. As a result, man’s
experience of pleasure may be confused with the controlling power he experiences
in sexual intimacy, whereas the woman may take it for granted that her role is to be
subordinate. At the same time, there may be situations where the woman identifies her
pleasure with emotionally controlling the man. Both these models will not help the
growth in conjugal intimacy.42
Mutual Pleasure and Love
While proposing the importance of sexual pleasure in conjugal sexual intimacy, it is
important not to isolate sexual intimacy and sexual pleasure from the totality of conjugal
life. In fact, sexual intimacy, if it is to be successful, “cannot be done in isolation from
the enactment of altruistic love in the rest of their (of the couple) life”. Sexual intimacy
becomes meaningful and enriching only when it is rooted in the love of the couple: “In
fact, love-making is not even the usual way, let alone the only way, in which couples
express their love for each other. When it does come to be so, when it is not the enactment of a more comprehensive sexual tenderness, it can become frustrating, irritating,
even repulsive.”43 In other words, making pleasure the motive of sexual intimacy can
become exploitative if it is not founded on altruistic love between the couple. This is
especially true in the case of women. Unless they experience tenderness, warmth, intimacy and communication in other moments of life, they will not be able to experience
that even during physical sexual intimacy.
Vidal underscores that heterosexual relationship should be a language of oblative love so that it may become personalised and personalising. Vidal says that love
may present itself in different forms and distinguishes three types of love: 1. Love of
enjoyment: It is made obvious through a sexuality of pleasure. Often this approach is
behind the usage, “to enjoy a woman”. Sexuality can be lived a personal experience of
enjoyment, in which the partner is not considered as a person, but only as a source of
pleasure. Sexuality of this kind creates no attachment between the partners; once the
enjoyment and pleasure are over, another person is sought for. This is an immature and
adolescent type of sexuality. 2. Possessive love: Sexual love can become possessive, as
41
For example, Kalam observes: “Often, the role of sexual relations, though it is of paramount importance in the life of human beings, is not discussed. It is swept under the rug kept hidden even from the
life of married people”. Kalam, “Sex and Love“, 6.
42
Gudorf, Body, Sex and Pleasure, 119-127.
43
Charles A. Gallagher – al., Embodied in Love, 34
43
shown by the expression, “to possess a woman”. This is often expressive of different
psychic shortcomings and is indicative of an almost neurotic sexuality. 3. Oblative love:
Only oblative love, which seeks intimate union, reciprocal communion lived in mutual
giving and acceptance, makes human sexuality meaningful.44
Re-thinking Certain Traditional Norms and Concepts
Feminist theologians further raise an issue that deserves special attention. Based on
different research data it is pointed out that even today it cannot be presumed that most
women actually experience sexual pleasure. But, there is little attention to this absence
of pleasure in so many women. Gudorf points out that the Church continues to proscribe
only penile-vaginal intercourse. All other sexual activity are considered “foreplay” or
perverse.45 But, research shows that 56-70% of women cannot reach orgasm as a result
of penile-vaginal intercourse alone,46 whereas it is almost always pleasurable for men.47
Besides, even today, the necessary elements for the completion of marital act are considered to be penile penetration, the semination of the vagina and male pleasure and
orgasm. That is, the wife’s sexual pleasure is not mentioned at all.48 “The many activities
which are more likiely to prove pleasurable for women... do not get identified in official
magisterial teaching except when they are proscribed as ‘polluting’.”49 Jung opines that,
“the absence of sexual joy in so many women’s lives is in part a consequence of the
way “good sex” has been constructed in Christian tradition.”50
One of the threats to mutuality in sexual activity is the traditional concept that sexual
pleasure is irresistible, that is, once there is sexual arousal, it cannot be controlled and
hence automatically it proceeds to gratification. Many feminist theologians today see it
as a male view of human sexuality. The understanding of sexual pleasure as irresistible
justifies egocentric behaviour in sexual activity, that is, one who is under the influence
of sexual arousal is unable to think of the pleasure of the partner, that one can do
nothing else as one is under the influence of a force that is irresistible. On the other
hand, experience proves that sexual pleasure, for men as well as for women, is not
irresistible.51 Irresistibleness of sexual pleasure is not a given human condition, but a
sign of the lack of concern for the partner: “The inability to postpone immediate sexual
gratification constitutes an impediment to concern for the pleasure of the partner... It
is control of sexual pleasure — knowing when and how to postpone sexual gratification, using techniques to build arousal in self and partner — which intensifies sexual
pleasure for oneself and one’s partner.”52
44
Cfr. Vidal, Manuale di etica teologica. II, Morale dell’amore, 343-344.
Cfr. Vidal, Manuale di etica teologica. II, Morale dell’amore, 30.
46
Cfr. Vidal, Manuale di etica teologica. II, Morale dell’amore, 32.
47
Cfr. Patricia Beattie Jung, “Sexual Pleasure,” 41-42. Jung also points out that the conception that
for all humans the capacity for sexual pleasure is closely tied to reproductive activity, comes from the male
experience of orgasm virtually being identified with ejaculation.
48
Cfr. Jung, “Sexual Pleasure,” 27.
49
Jung, “Sexual Pleasure,” 27.
50
Jung, “Sexual Pleasure,” 33. Jung also points out that although the Christian tradition has been
responsible, this denial of female sexual pleasure is much culturally grounded.
51
Cfr. Gudorf, Body, Sex and Pleasure, 82-85. Please note on page 85: “Longtime lovers scoff at the
idea that sexual pleasure can’t be resisted, because resisting immediate sexual pleasure is essential to being
a good lover, especially for males.”
52
Cfr. Gudorf, Body, Sex and Pleasure, 1994, 85.
45
44
C
onclusion: Gender justice has implications not only for the role that the
woman has to play in the society or in the family, but also for the recognition
of her sexual desire and sexual fulfilment. The society is still reluctant to
acknowledge and recognise the woman as a sexual person. Although the media may
present the woman as a sexually liberated and asserting person, this is not recognised
often in actual life. Hence, the woman remains sexually dissatisfied. This, in fact,
threatens the stability of marriage and family and consequently social well-being. A
gender-sensitive sexual ethics demands the recognition of woman as a sexual person,
and of her sexual desire and fulfilment. The basis for constructing such a sexual
ethics can be found in the biblical tradition. However, this requires a re-consideration
of many of the norms in the traditional sexual ethics built upon the premises of a
masculine concept of sexuality alone. Reciprocal and mutual sexual fulfilment should
be considered a basic norm of Christian conjugal sexual ethics. Creative fidelity to the
Christian message about the goodness of sexuality demands such a gender-sensitive
sexual ethics.
Bibliography
Attard, Mark. “La persona umana come unità totale. Spunti per l’antropologia morale,” in Ermanno
Ancilli, ed., De Deo Creante et Elevante. Temi di antropologia teologica, Roma: Teresianum,
1981, 793-839.
Bhayana, Neha. “Indian Men Lead in Sexual Violence, Worst on Gender Equality: Study,” in The
Times of India, March 7, 2011: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Indian-men-leadin-sexual-violence-worst-on-gender-equality-Study/ articleshow/7643154.cms, accessed
on 07-03-2011.
Bird, Joseph & Bird, Lois. The Freedom of Sexual Love, New York: Doubleday, 1967.
Brenner, Athalya. “Women Poets and Authors,” in eadem (ed.), A Feminist Companion to the Song
of Songs, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995, 86-97.
Brown, Peter. The Body and Society, New York: Columbia University Press, 1988.
Carr, David .M. The Erotic Word. Sexuality, Spirituality and the Bible, New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Clinebelle, Jr., Howard. J. – Clinebelle, Charlotte H. The Intimate Marriage, New York: Harper
& Row Publishers, 1970.
Crooks, Robert and Baur. Klara, Our Sexuality, Our Sexuality (8th edition), California: Wadsworth,
2002.
Dominian, Jack. Let’s Make Love, The Meaning of Sexual Intercourse, London: Darton, Longman
and Todd, 2001.
Dominian, Jack. Passionate and Compassionate, A Vision for Christian Marriage, London: Darton,
Longman and Todd, 1991.
Driver, Tom. “On Taking Sex Seriously,” in Paul Jersild & Johnson Dale, ed., Moral Issues and
Christian Response, New York, 1971, 99-104.
Gallagher, Charles A. – al. Embodied in Love. Sacramental Spirituality and Sexual Intimacy. A
New Catholic Guide to Marriage, New York: Crossroad, 1983.
45
Gardella, Peter. Innocent Ecstasy. How Christianity Gave America an Ethic of Sexual Pleasure,
New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.
Genovesi, Vincent J. In Pursuit of Love, Catholic Morality and Human Sexuality, Collegeville: A
Michael Glazier Book, The Liturgical Press, 1996.
Gudorf, Christine E. Body, Sex and Pleasure. Reconstructing Christian Sexual Ethics, Cleveland:
The Pilgrim Press, 1994.
Guindon, André. The Sexual Language. An Essay in Moral Theology, The University of Ottawa
Press, 1976.
Häring, Bernard. Free and Faithful in Christ. II, Moral Theology for Priests and Laity: 2. The Truth
Will Set You Free, Middlegreen: St Paul Publication, 1979.
Hunter, Jannie H. “The Song of Protest. Reassessing the Song of Songs,” Journal for the Study of
the Old Testament 90 (2000) 109-124.
Jio, Sarah. “10 Surprising Facts about Orgasms,” in http://www.womansday.com/Articles/
Health/10-Surprising-Facts-About-Orgasms.html, accessed on 06-03-2011.
Jung, Patricia Beattie. “Sexual Pleasure: A Roman Catholic Perspective on Women’s Delight,”
Theology and Sexuality 12 (2000) 26-47.
Kalam, Thomas. Understanding Man and Woman, New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Open
University, 2001.
Kenrick, Francis Patrick. Theologiae moralis. III, Philadelphia: Eugene Cummiskey, 1841.
Kochuthara, Shaji George. The Concept of Sexual Pleasure in the Catholic Moral Tradition, Roma:
Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana, 2007.
Leone, Salvino. Educare alla sessualità, Bologna: Edizione Dehoniane, 2000.
Liguori, Alphonsus. Theologia moralis, Neapoli: Editio novissima Neapolitana, 1842.
Milhaven, John Giles. “Conjugal Sexual Love and Contemporary Moral Theology,” Theological
Studies 35 (1974) 692-710.
Murphy, Roland E. “A Biblical Model of Human Intimacy. The Song of Songs,” Concilium 121
(1979) 61-66.
Murphy, Roland E. “Interpreting the Song of Songs,” Biblical Theology Bulletin IX (1979) 99105.
Murphy, Roland E. The Song of Songs A Commentary on the Book of Canticles or the Song of Songs,
Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Press, 1990.
Oraison, Mark. The Human Mystery of Sexuality, New York: Sheed & Ward, 1967.
Sharma, Gunjan. “In Pursuit of Happiness,” The Week-Health, Dec 6, 2009, 16-25.
Vidal, Marciano. Manuale di etica teologica. II, Morale dell’amore, Assisi: Cittadella Editrice,
1996.
46
Sr Dr Caroline Mbonu, HHCJ *
A
bstract: In recent decades, African women have made strides in theological studies.
The work of the members of The Circle of Concerned African Women Theologians
attests to this development. However, African women biblical scholarship is yet
to develop at the same pace. Handicapped by academic opportunity and financial
resource, potential African women biblical scholarship appears to be in the incubating
state. Church documents as well as contemporary scholarship that emphasize contextual
theology suggest that women’s insights in biblical studies remain invaluable for a more
effective evangelization. In this essay, I show the challenges that confront African women’s
biblical scholarship and propose ways to encourage women exegetes to contribute to the
integral growth of persons and of the Church on the Continent.
I
ntroduction: The paucity of African women biblical scholars raises concern for the
future of the African Church. Although biblical interpretation has deep roots in the
life of the Church, it remains for the most part the exclusive preserve of men in
the African Church. The subject of biblical interpretation came to the fore during the
Renaissance. During this period of rebirth which witnessed renewed interest in classical
culture of the ancient world, religious revival featured prominently. The scholarly interest
in this period was to free the method of scholarship from the rigidity and formalism of
the medieval tradition. Chief among proponents of the idea was Erasmus of Rotterdam.
Erasmus spearheaded the return to the study of the Bible in its original languages in order
that this ancient text be properly understood and interpreted for the life of the church.
It was not until the Enlightenment, however, that biblical scholarship assumed a more
critical approach. The impetus saw the birth of the historical critical method of biblical
exegesis. New scholarly scientific studies of Scripture continued through subsequent
centuries. Most recently, advocacy criticism has made the list.
This paper is in support of African women biblical scholarship. I show that African
women have equal responsibility as their male counterparts to explore and dialogue
between the experience of God in the biblical tradition and the experience of God
within the African cultural context. The rest of the paper is laid out in three short sections. First I offer an understanding of the power of the biblical text. Second I present
in summary fashion some Church documents supporting women biblical scholarship.
Third, I discuss insight from some African scholars on the question of women’s biblical
scholarship. Since the Bible continues to functions normatively for the community of
faith, I will conclude by proposing avenues for advancement through biblical interpretation in this renewed era of evangelization.
*
Sr Caroline Mbonu hails from Nigeria. She belongs to the Congregation of the Handmaids
of the Holy Child Jesus. She teaches Scripture at the University of Port-Harcourt (Nigeria).
47
Sr Caroline Mbonu, HHCJ
The Power of Text
The Bible, the Church’s book, is normative for the community of faith.1 This
text though sacred to only a small percentage of the human race exerts enormous
influence well beyond the confines of its adherents. Uncritical interpretation of the
biblical text, however, has provided the rhetoric for the marginalization of women as
well as reinforce patriarchal and androcentric views contained in the text.2 Botswana
New Testament scholar, Musa Dube, puts it thus: Texts that legitimate and authorize
imperialism include most canonized classics of ancient and contemporary times, of different disciplines and genres – he Bible, The Iliad, The odyssey, and the Aeneid– have
inspired and participated in different historical processes of imperialism.3 However,
the Bible is not only a book that has justified oppression. But also, from the biblical
text, humans have been informed of the infinite worth of the individual and the call to
fight against evil.4 Thus, the biblical text presents two opposing ideologies: oppression and liberation. In this regard, Africa’s foremost woman theologian, Mercy Amba
Oduyoye, states: “when that which is sacred is used to domesticate and to exploit, it
ceases to deserve the label religion and becomes ideology.”5 But she, nonetheless,
affirms the liberating potential of the sacred text following which the “Gospel is then
understood as a gift, for by it the powers of exploitation, intimidation, and death are
unmasked and destroyed. Gospel is good news for all who live under the shadow
of death, naked or masked.”6 Although the Gospel proclamation of human liberty
represents good news for women also, the teaching for the most part remains on the
theoretical level. Orthodoxy does not seem to match orthopraxis. Women’s continuous invisibility is an example.
A literal interpretation of certain passages of the biblical text is consistently
evoked to diminish women’s struggles for access to “public speaking” within the
ecclesial community. For centuries and still today, biblical texts, particularly Pauline
and pseudo-Pauline writings have been invoked to legitimate the silencing of women.
The old adage that “women should be seen and not heard” is given a biblical foundation. The prescription to silence women in the assembly contradicts the critical role
women played in the Jesus Movement. In the Gospel of Luke, for example, women
were the first to give voice to the foundation of our faith: the Resurrection. They announced the event to the eleven apostles! who were only men (cf. Luke 24: 1-12).
The case of the Letters to Timothy stands out. In 1 Timothy 2:11-14, the author insists
that women must keep silent. Women must not teach. However, in 2 Timothy 1:5,
the author commends Timothy’s female relatives who taught him the faith. “I recall
your sincere faith that first lived in your grandmother Lois and in your mother Eunice
and that I am confident lives also in you.” These contradictions make imperative a
1
Sandra M. Schneiders, The Revelatory Text: Interpreting The New Testament as Sacred Scripture,
Second Edition (Collegeville, Minnesota: A Michael Glazier Book, 1999), 64 – 93.
2
Schneiders, The Revelatory Text, 175.
3
Musa W. Dube, “Reading for Decolonization (John 4:1-42),” in Semeia, 75, (1996) 37-59.
4
Mary Ann Tolbert, “Defining the Problem: The Biblical and Feminist Hermeneutics,” in Semeia 28,
no. 1 (1983), 120.
5
Mercy Amba Oduyoye, “African Culture and the Gospel. Inculturation from an African Women’s
Perspective,” in One Gospel – Many Cultures: Case Studies and Reflections on Cross-Cultural Theology, by
Mercy Amba Oduyoye & Hendrik M.Vroom, eds. (New York: Editions Rodopi B.V., 2003), 43.
6
Oduyoye, “African Culture and the Gospel,” 43.
48
close reading of the biblical text, particularly from women’s point of view in order to
access their true meaning.7
In addition, American biblical scholar, Sandra Schneiders helps us to probe further
how one can fully live the mystery of the Christ-event in the face of oppression, which
is justified by the very same source from which life itself is proclaimed.8 Schneiders
further questions, how the community called Church can continue to claim Scripture
as revelatory when more than half of her members are excluded from actively participating in events which constitute that through which God reveals God-self. Revelation
is understood as God’s personal communication of God-self in word and deed that is
historical, dialogical, and personal, and continues through the work of the Holy Spirit. In
the face of such inconsistency, can Scripture be justified as the Word of God? There are
no clear cut responses to these inquiries. Recent Church documents, however, as well
as ongoing debate on interpretation continues to shed light on the subject matter.
Church Documents and Feminist Biblical Interpretations
In setting the tone for modern Catholic biblical interpretation, Dei Verbum exhorts
“those sons and daughters of the Church who are engaged in biblical studies to continue
the work they have so happily begun, with total dedication, with energy constantly
renewed, and in accordance with the mind of the Church” (Dei Verbum 23).9 The
Church’s call to her “sons and daughters,” remains without doubt her inclusive position in terms of biblical scholarship. This Dei Verbum text makes clear that the ministry
of interpretation is not the exclusive preserve of one gender. Women as well as men
have the responsibility towards the Church of “unceasingly feeding her children with
the divine word” (Dei Verbum 23).While this appears to be the case, the reality is that
the fruits of female exegetes are accorded a half-hearted acceptance, if not altogether
ignored. Some scholar’s unconvinced attitude of the validity of feminist approach to
biblical interpretation notwithstanding,10 the 1993 Scripture Documents makes clear
that God is not a homogenizing being who must only be accessed through a particular
angle. “The God of the Bible is not an absolute Being who, crushing everything he
touches, would suppress all differences and all nuances. On the contrary, he is God, the
Creator, who created the astonishing variety of beings ‘each according to its kind,’ (cf.
Genesis 1). Far from destroying differences, God respects them and makes use of them
(cf. 1 Cor 12:18, 24, 28)”.11 A reading of this text shows that valid biblical interpretation is not limited to just one perspective, in this case androcentric viewpoint. Attitudes
that ignore or downplay women’s interpretive approach diminish feminist contribution
to the theological discourse. It leaves us with a theology that appears to be devoid of
the feminine face of God, a theology that prevents women’s witness in the Bible from
7
Caroline Mbonu, A Redemptive Reading of the Doulē in Luke 1:26-38: Towards a Liberative Process
for Women in Igbo Society (Ph.D. Diss., Graduate Theological Union, Berkeley, California, 2009), 225 -226.
8
Schneiders, The Revelatory Text, 175.
9
Dean P. Bechard, ed., The Scripture Documents: An Anthology of Official Catholic Teaching (Collegeville, Minnesota: The Liturgical Press, 2001), 29.
10
Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, “Biblical Interpretation in Crisis: On the Question of Foundations and
Approaches of Exegesis Today,” in Biblical Interpretation in Crisis: The Ratzinger Conference on Bible and
the Church, Richard John Neuhaus, ed. (Grand Rapids, Mich: Eerdmans, 1989), 5.
11
Bechard, The Scripture Documents, 292.
49
shaping “the inner experiences or the world of most Christians.12 Certainly, the Church
is not sparing in encouraging women biblical scholars. I highlight some passages in the
1993 Scripture Document that promote the initiative. In its 1993 Scripture Document,
the Pontifical Biblical Commission (PBC) insists:
Women have played a more active part in exegetical research. They have succeeded, often
better than men, in detecting the presence, the significance, and the role of women in the
Bible, in Christian origins, and in the Church. The world view of today, because of its greater
attention to the dignity of women and to their role in society and in church ensures that new
questions are put to the biblical text, which in turn occasions new discovery. Feminine sensitivity helps to unmask and correct commonly accepted interpretations that were tendentious
and sought to justify the male domination of women.13
The commission appears to give women exegetes a carte blanche to explore the
sacred text, unearth the feminine face of the text, and to draw anew resources for
“unceasingly feeding her children with the divine word.”In affirming and encouraging
women exegetes, the Commission explicitly recognizes the unique position of women
in Scripture interpretation. According to this same document, women “frequently contribute new and penetrating insights to the interpretation of Scripture and rediscover
features that had been forgotten.”14
Much as Church documents exhort women to fully engage the sacred text, women’s
overall role and presence in Catholicism has remained largely unchanged. To take but
one example, the presence and absence of women in the Catholic Lectionary speaks to
this concern. The importance of the Lectionary in Catholic faith life is aptly expressed in
the document on Biblical Fundamentalism produced by the United States National Conference of Catholic Bishops Ad Hoc Committee on Biblical Fundamentalisms thus:
We have a well-ordered Lectionary that opens for us the treasures of all the books of the
Bible in a three-year cycle for Sunday and holy day Masses, and a more complete two-year
cycle for weekday Masses. Through the Lectionary the Catholic becomes familiar with Bible
according to the rhythm of the liturgical seasons and the church’s experience and use of the
Bible at Mass.15
Restating the bishops’ statement, the impression is that the Lectionary appears to be
the only Bible most Catholics ever read or heard read. What this means is that the Bible
passage these Catholics encounter are only those presented in the Lectionary. How then
can these Lectionary “Bible reading/hearing” Catholics know about women in the Bible
when most women’s narratives are excised from the arrangement?
The reality is that the Lectionary in its present form appears to silence women and
female images, Biblical women are all but eliminated from the Lectionary arrangemen,16
contends American New Testament scholar, Regina Boisclair. She further comments,
“The lectionaries tend to omit passages that introduce women, eliminate women from
approved short readings, hide women in long lections, and emphasize passages that
12
Regina Boisclair A. “Amnesia in the Catholic Sunday Lectionary: Women – Silenced from the
Memories of Salvation History,” in Women and Theology, by Mary Ann Hinsdale and Phyllis H. Kaminski,
eds. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1995), 115.
13
14
15
National Conference of Catholic Bishops Ad Hoc Committee on Biblical Fundamentalism. Archbishop John Whealon of Hartford, Conn: Chair (September 30 Release, dated March 26, 1987) 4.
16
Boisclair, Women and Theology, 119.
50
reinforce patriarchal presuppositions.”17 Boisclair termed this exclusion, “amnesia in
the Catholic Lectionary.” Being thus eliminated, the witness women could provide to
contemporary congregations is unremembered and uncelebrated as ‘Word of the Lord’.
The onus falls on feminist and womanist theologians, therefore, to search for and unearth, for their liberative potentials, passages where women have not been mentioned
but remained invisible. The PBC does, however, acknowledge this Lectionary difficulty
and calls for passages of Sacred Scripture that are “more abundant, more varied, and
more suitable.” 18 But this call only partially fulfills this goal. Regardless of the situation, biblical interpretation community’s openness to the various feminist and womanist
hermeneutics in the field has moved forward the conversation on women’s role within
the Church of which the African church is no exception.
Biblical Interpretation in the African Context
Although some African peoples were privy to ancient Christianity, modern Christianity and the text that validates its teachings, the Bible, as we have it today, appears as
a new phenomenon in Africa. A critical study of the similarities between the cultures
that gave rise to the world of the Bible and contemporary African cultures may offer
much in terms of African biblical interpretation.19 “Gospel as proclaimed,” according
to Laurenti Magesa, “is not a disembodied reality, a pure emanation from God. It is essentially a cultural reality.”20 It is this cultural reality in Africa that will provide the soil
for the appropriation of the Word of God. Outside this reality, the Gospel will continue
to be a stranger in Africa, a stranger who must someday depart. Thus, African women’s
experience possesses the potentials for sustaining the Word, which the PBC describes
as “a seed which extracts from the earth in which it is planted the elements that are
useful for its growth and fruitfulness.”21 Undoubtedly, the indigenous context remains
the source of cultural value and meaning.
In Nigeria, for example, where Catholicism arrived at the turn of the last century,
compared with the West, biblical interpretation is still at its gestation stage. Surprisingly, Catholic Universities and Seminaries remain slow in opening the area of biblical
scholarship to women. Handicapped by academic opportunities and financial resources,
potential African women biblical scholarship seem to still be in the incubating state.
Nigeria with its millions of Catholics has negligible number of women Scripture scholars.
Regrettably, more than forty years after Dei Verbum, many parts of the African church
still struggle to overcome the most rudimentary issue in biblical interpretation, that is,
authentic translation (cf. Dei Verbum 26).
Several reasons account for the persistence of the problem. Oduyoye points out
one such reason: The Bibles that Africans use today are either older versions of English,
French, Spanish, or Portuguese, or translations in local languages of these outdated
17
Boisclair, Women and Theology, 113.
Béchard, The Scripture Documents, 308.
19
Caroline Mbonu, Handmaid: The Power of Names in Theology and Society (Eugene, Oregon: Wipf
and Stock, 2010) 7.
20
Laurenti Magesa, Anatomy of Inculturation. Transforming the Church in Africa (Maryknoll, New
York: Orbis Books, 2004) 6.
21
Béchard, The Scripture Documents, 307.
18
51
versions.22 She goes on to state, “Few Africans, even those in Religious Studies, read
the biblical languages of Greek or Hebrew [or Aramaic].”23 Deprived of the proper
analytical and hermeneutical tools, what seems to be prevalent is the absolutization of
the Bible. The biblical text becomes an oracle to be consulted for instant solution about
all of life’s problems. Consequently, the propensity towards fundamentalism increases.
For instance, it is not unusual to hear reminders of what ‘the Bible says.’ Even the uncritical interpretation of the role of Mary, the handmaid of the Lord (Luke 1:38), is held
out to women as the epitome of docility and obedience to patriarchal society. In the
larger context of Luke 1:26-38, however, the narrator presents Mary as “the first one
to hear the good news of Jesus Christ and to say “Be it done to me according to your
word”24 In other words, Mary was “the first disciple to meet Jesus’ standard of hearing
the word of God and doing it.”25 Regrettably, this role of Mary which is foundational
to discipleship eludes the generous comment of most biblical scholars.
Generosity in biblical scholarship can be achieved when its fruits can become means
of human transformation.26 Such transformation remains a possibility when an African
social cultural context is the subjects of interpretation.27 In the past, in many parts of
Africa, for example, women have taken their places in traditional society alongside
their male counterparts; but such has not been the case in recent history, a history that
is largely informed by biblical interpretation. Biblical interpretation represents not just
religious discourse for, and among Christians, meanings derived from biblical interpretations can also influence public and political discourse. The so-called women’s place
in society and church life is, in part, reinforced by such questionable interpretations.
Thus, Oduyoye decries the subordination and marginalization of women inherited
from the Judeo-Christian tradition: “Unfortunately, biblical interpretation and Christian
theology in Africa have had the effect of secularizing the marginalization of women’s
experience.”28 She goes on to state,
[I]t is painful to observe African women whose female ancestors were dynamically involved
in every aspect of human life, define themselves now in terms of irrelevance and impotence
because significant exceptions in Africa’s religious practices that validate the contributions of
women, have been overlooked because they do not conform to Judeo-Christian perspectives.
This distorts the essence of African womanhood.29
Odudoye’s observation poses some serious concerns for biblical interpretation in
Africa. If the Gospel message of our Lord Jesus Christ must take flesh in the minds
and hearts of Africans, women and men alike, African biblical scholars can no longer
ignore the abundant calls to integrate women’s insight in nourishing God’s African
children.
22
Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Beads and Strands: Reflections of an African Woman on Christianity in
Africa (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2004) 92.
23
Oduyoye, Beads and Strands, 92.
24
Raymond E. Brown, “Appendix: Expressing Catholic faith so that biblical fundamentalists will not
misunderstand it,” in Raymond E. Brown, Responses to 101 Questions on the Bible (New York/Mahwah: Paulist
Press, 1990), 141.
25
Brown, “Appendix: Expressing Catholic faith,” 141.
26
Bechard, The Scripture Document, 307.
27
David Tuesday Adamo, “ Interpreting the Psalms using an African conceptual frame of reference,”
in Global Bible Commentary, General Editor, Danie Patte (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2004), 67.
28
29
52
African women’s biblical scholarship must look to the future. It is not enough to
interrogate patriarchal structures awash in the biblical text. Much remains to be said of
the few passages that speak to women, particularly texts that valorize women. Imageries
of such women as the prophet Hulda (2 Kgs 22: 14), a contemporary of the prophet
Jeremiah, or Phoebe, a minister of the church at Cenchreae, (Rom 16: 1-2), and coworker of St. Paul remain largely unexplored. The grand narrative of the establishment
of the monarchy in ancient Israel, will fall short without a thorough investigation of the
character of Hannah, the mother of Samuel, the king maker. Even the pedestrian but
beautiful narrative of the Book of Ruth, resonates with an understanding of matriarchy.
Indeed matriarchal texts lend themselves to African women scholars given that some
African cultures are staunchly matrilineal. Another area of consideration is the use of
language. Contemporary biblical interpretation comes to the African in the language
of culture and religion, which is predominately gendered. Western feminist rhetoric
for the most part deals with gendered European languages which have adverse effect on the presence and absence of women in biblical readings and, by progression,
in the Church. This mode of expression minimizes women’s presence and creates a
seemingly impenetrable crust for African women to break through.30 An exploration
of non-gendered African languages in biblical interpretation can enhance and facilitate
the appropriation of the text.
A rigorous application of the historical-critical method with the appropriate advocacy criticism represents another area of consideration. Advocacy Criticism, according to
Raymond Brown, is an umbrella title sometimes given to Liberationist, African-American,
Feminist, and related studies, because the proponents advocate that the results be used to
change today’s social, political, or religious situation.31 By asking important questions that
previous exegetes never asked, advocacy researchers have valuably enlightened the New
Testament situation. Biblical interpretation is not a purview of the academy. Those in the
pews can make contributions as well. A very practical approach is to bring men and women
together in prayer and conversation to reflect on the Word. And if important movements
of renewal in the life of the Church owe their debt to Scripture, it does suggest that an
unbiased interpretation of the sacred text appear to be the only force that can radically
abolish systemic oppressive structures in Africa. What this means is that the radicalism of
the Gospel message always brings epoch-making changes in human history.
C
onclusion: I cannot conclude this essay without acknowledging the debt African
women biblical scholars owe to western feminist biblical scholars. These women
blazed the trail of women biblical studies. Their struggles and insights inspire
and embolden us to dare to seek for biblical truths in our own context. With them we
continue to work towards great appreciation of women’s contribution to the life of
the Church. Although the road to achieve optimal results is still far, historical-critical
method has made it possible to identify women in the Bible. The support of the Church
conspired with contemporary history to stimulate feminists’ exegetical work. These have
uncovered women’s role in the Bible and engendered fruitful biblical interpretation.
“For the sake of our salvation,” African feminist and womanist exegetes must continue
on this road for a more fruitful harvest of God’s Word on the continent
30
31
Raymond E. Brown, An Introduction to the New Testament (New York: Doubleday, 1996), 27.
53
Bibliography
Adamo, David Tuesday. “Interpreting the Psalms using an African conceptual frame of reference.”
In Global Bible Commentary, Danie Patte, General Editior, 151- 162. Nashville: Abingdon
Press, 2004.
Bechard, Dean P. ed. The Scripture Documents. An Anthology of Official Catholic Teachings. Collegeville, Minnesota: The Liturgical Press, 2001.
Boisclair, Regina A. “Amnesia in the Catholic Sunday Lectionary: Women – Silenced from the
Memories of Salvation History.” Women and Theology. Mary Ann Hinsdale and Phyllis H.
Kaminski, eds. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1995, 109-35.
Brown Raymond E. “Appendix: Expressing Catholic faith so that biblical fundamentalists will not
misunderstand it.” Raymond E. Brown, Responses to 101 Questions on the Bible. New York/
Mahwah: Paulist Press, 1990.
__________. An Introduction to the New Testament. New York: Doubleday, 1996.
Dube, W. Musa. “Reading for Decolonization (John 4:1-42).” Semeia, 75, (1996) 37-59.
National Conference of Catholic Bishops Ad Hoc Committee on Biblical Fundamentalism. Archbishop John Whealon of Hartford, Conn: Chair (September 30 Release, dated March 26, 1987).
Magesa, Laurenti. Anatomy of Inculturation. Transforming the Church in Africa. Maryknoll, New
York: Orbis Books, 2004.
Mbonu, Caroline. Handmaid: The Power of Names in Theology and Society. Eugene, Oregon:
Wipf and Stock, 2010.
Mbonu, Caroline. A Redemptive Reading of the Doulē in Luke 1:26-38: Towards a Liberative Process for Women in Igbo Society (Ph.D. Diss., Graduate Theological Union, Berkeley,
California, 2009) 225 -226.
Oduyoye, Mercy Amba. Beads and Strands. Reflections of an African Woman on Christianity in
Africa. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2004.
Oduyoye, Mercy Amba & Hendrik M. Vroom, eds. One Gospel – Many Cultures Case Studies and
Reflections on Cross-Cultural Theology. New York: Editions Rodopi B.V., 2003.
Ratzinger, Joseph. “Biblical Interpretation in Crisis: On the Question of Foundations and Approaches
of Exegesis Today.” Biblical Interpretation in Crisis: The Ratzinger Conference on Bible and
the Church. Richard John Neuhaus, ed. Grand Rapids, Mich: Eerdmans, 1989.
Schneiders, Sandra, M. The Revelatory Text. Interpreting The New Testament as Sacred Scripture,
Second Edition. Collegeville, Minnesota: A Michael Glazier Book, 1999.
Tolbert, Mary Ann. “Defining the Problem: The Biblical and Feminist Hermeneutics.” Semeia
28, no. 1 (1983) 113-126.
54
Psalm 31 at the Service of Women Dragged into Sex Work
in Cameroon
Besem Oben Etchi *
A
bstract: This paper exegetes the biblical lament Psalm 31 and subsequently adapts
it as a lament ritual for Cameroonian women dragged into sex work, who seek
liberation. It explores the form, content, function and theology of the psalm, reading
it through Jesus Christ and ritualising it to initiate the path to resurgence of women’s
dignity and agency-the power to pursue their total vocation and fulfil it.1 On the whole
it suggests that a covenant relationship with Jesus Christ through an Africanised lament
ritual is liberating and transforming.
Psalm 31, New Revised Standard Version (NRSV)
1
In you, O Lord, I seek refuge; do not let me ever be put to shame; in your righteousness
deliver me. 2Incline your ear to me; rescue me speedily. Be a rock of refuge for me, a strong
fortress to save me. 3You are indeed my rock and my fortress; for your name’s sake lead me
and guide me, 4take me out of the net that is hidden for me, for you are my refuge. 5Into your
hand I commit my spirit; you have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God. 6You hate those who
pay regard to worthless idols, but I trust in the Lord. 7I will exult and rejoice in your steadfast
love, because you have seen my affliction; you have taken heed of my adversities, 8and have
not delivered me into the hand of the enemy; you have set my feet in a broad place. 9Be gracious to me, O Lord, for I am in distress; my eye wastes away from grief, my soul and body
also. 10For my life is spent with sorrow, and my years with sighing; my strength fails because
of my misery, and my bones waste away. 11I am the scorn of all my adversaries, a horror to
my neighbours, an object of dread to my acquaintances; those who see me in the street flee
from me. 12I have passed out of mind like one who is dead; I have become like a broken
vessel. 13For I hear the whispering of many— terror all around!— as they scheme together
against me, as they plot to take my life. 14But I trust in you, O Lord; I say, “You are my God.”
15
My times are in your hand; deliver me from the hand of my enemies and persecutors. 16Let
your face shine upon your servant; save me in your steadfast love. 17Do not let me be put to
shame, O Lord, for I call on you; let the wicked be put to shame; let them go dumbfounded
to Sheol. 18Let the lying lips be stilled that speak insolently against the righteous with pride
and contempt. 19O how abundant is your goodness that you have laid up for those who fear
you, and accomplished for those who take refuge in you, in the sight of everyone! 20In the
shelter of your presence you hide them from human plots; you hold them safe under your
shelter from contentious tongues. 21Blessed be the Lord, for he has wondrously shown his
steadfast love to me when I was beset as a city under siege. 22I had said in my alarm, “I am
driven far from your sight.” But you heard my supplications when I cried out to you for help.
23
Love the Lord, all you his saints. The Lord preserves the faithful, but abundantly repays
the one who acts haughtily. 24Be strong, and let your heart take courage, all you who wait
for the Lord.
1
This definition is based on the norm of human activity in accordance with the divine plan and
will stipulated in “Gaudium et Spes,” 39, in Vatican Council II: The Conciliar and Post Conciliar Documents,
Austin Flannery, Editor (Mumbai: St Pauls, 1975).
*
Besem Oben Etchi hails from Cameroon. She is a student at the Jesuit School of Theology
of Santa Clara University, Berkeley, CA, USA.
55
Besem Oben Etchi
I
ntroduction: What are the true stories of countless girls and women dragged into sex
slavery in Cameroon and elsewhere in Africa? Are they really immoral and “seeking
easy money,” as many people in church and society often brand them? Aren’t there
among them many who are victims, neglected by society and even the Church? Have
we shut our ears from their histories of suffered sexual violence, physical abuse,
helplessness and powerlessness? Can psalm 31 serve those among them in Cameroon,
who are seeking an alternative, flourishing life? Would they entertain psalm 31 as a
lament ritual and experience it as liberating and transforming?
The intriguing Christian heroine Mary Magdalene whose name Pope Gregory the
Great changed from being the Apostle-to-the-apostles, to being a repentant prostitute2
becomes the great inspiration to rebuild the dignity and agency of female sex workers
from victim back to apostle,3 as late 20th and early 21st century have seen a restoration
of the New Testament figure of Mary Magdalene as a patron of women’s preaching
and ministry. Jesus’ words “I tell you the truth, the tax collectors and the prostitutes are
entering the kingdom of God ahead of you”4 add force to gather these women to the
sheepfold of Jesus where they are dignified, loved, healed and enabled.
I thus discuss Psalm 31 as having the content that matches the lives of women dragged
into sex work and so is a suitable lament psalm to create a Cameroonian lament ritual.
The ritual would effect an offering of entrustment to Jesus Christ for the said women,
as a primary step in resurging their sense of human dignity and their agency.
An African Womanist Concern
Hospitality was once a great Cameroonian virtue where we would look out for each
other especially the poor, the orphan, the widow and the stranger. The hungry child got
fed by a kind neighbour; aunts and uncles kept parents responsible and freely provided
shelter, food and schooling for orphans and family friends were a source of good advice
and sure support. However today many of these seemed threatened with extinction. As
the years progress, the number of female, and even male, prostitutes increase on the
streets of Deido in Cameroon, while their ages reduce. Why is the Church and society
seemingly silent about investigating and overturning the situation? Womanist5 theology,
drawing on the words of Dolores Williams,6 is a prophetic voice concerned about racial
and gender equality and the flourishing of both adults and children. From an African
perspective, it works to uplift “black” women to see, affirm, and have confidence in the
2
Pope Gregory the great in a homily conflated Mary Magdalene with Mary of Bethany and the
woman who washed Jesus’ feet with her hair and anointed it with oil. Though the Gospel text does not say
the woman’s sin was prostitution, it was concluded so and ever since for Catholic tradition, Mary Magdalene
became a repentant prostitute until 1969. Kevin Brown, “‘Tis Pity She’s a Whore: The Revision of Mary
Magdalene in Contemporary Fiction,” in Papers on Language and Literature. FindArticles.com. (Summer 2006).
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3708/is_200607/ai_n17183121/pg_2/?tag=content;col1 (accessed
March 23, 2011).
3
I use “apostle” in this paper to refer to one who wins others into or grows others in genuineness
in, the covenant of the Triune One. Apostleship can be expressed in varied professions and vocations as well
as through varied means.
4
Matthew 21:31.
5
The term Womanist was developed by Alice Walker in her In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens:
Womanist Prose (1983), and referred primarily to African-American women, but also for women in general.
In her own words: “A Womanist is to feminist as purple is to lavender.”
6
Dolores S. Williams, Sisters in the Wilderness ( Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1995), 67.
56
importance of our experiences and faith for determining the character of the Christian
religion and social life in our various communities. As such with educational, religious,
cultural and activist tools womanism stands up to the destructive forces that hinder
the African woman’s development of a positive, productive quality of life conducive
to her and in union with her family. It is necessary to mention that womanism differs
from feminism as the latter is mainly a “white” middle class women’s movement only
concerned with gender equality. Feminism overlooks the racial disparity that affects the
black community wherever we go which is as well perpetrated by some “white” women
against “black” men and women. In many ways the “black” woman is categorised at the
bottom rung of humanity, often dismissed as unimportant even by “black” men such that
her flourishing, womanism believes, constitutes the elevation of the entire human race.
Womanism, in its concern of uplifting both the “black” woman and man, should thus be
a central part of inculturation and the reconstruction of Africa for doing theology such
as it pays no attention to the real living situations of women and children is anything
but authentic. It is in bearing this womanist concern in mind that I study psalm 31 as
an antidote to the plague of Cameroonian women dragged into prostitution.
Psalms of Lament in the Bible
Biblical lament psalms 3, 5, 12, 13, 38, 40, 42-43; 44, 74, 79, 80, 85, 137 and psalm 31
are psalms that cry out to Godde7 in petition.8 The prominent scholar Claus Westermann explains their form as a movement from cries of plea to statements of praise through
which the situation and attitude of the pray-er9 is changed and Godde is mobilised for
the sake of the pray-er10 Functionally, the lament pattern involves an articulation of the
hurt one experiences, and then its submission to Godde, as prerequisites for a relinquishment of the hurt, leading to praise, trust and generosity.11 Lament psalms are both
individual such as psalm 13 and communal such as psalm 137. The scholars Schmidt,
Delekat and Beyerlin for the Sitz im leben of a lament psalm see the psalm as reflecting
a real juridical concern; it will be key in this conversation. They argue that the petition
in a lament psalm outlines a request from the one praying on how the procedure should
be handled.12 As well, renown biblical scholar Walter Brueggermann concludes that
the social impact on the pray-er’s situation caused by this form of prayer is that Godde
becomes available to the petitioner who is thus taken seriously and legitimately granted
power.13 With these in mind, how can psalm 31 enact a ritual for women dragged into
sex work who seek an alternative lifestyle of dignity and agency?
7
Godde is a blend of God (masculine) and Goddess (feminine). It is used by many but it is not
sure who coined it originally. It aligns my language with my beliefs that when one uses God, one refers to
the Trinity, and as the Trinity is not restricted to any one gender, God is not an appropriate English word to
use. For a clear feminine person, the Hebrew for the Holy Spirit is Ruah (feminine), is referenced in Wisdom
as She and in the Gospels as the one who births us. Godde is pronounced the same way as God.
8
John C. Endres and Eizabeth Liebert, A Retreat with the Psalms: Resources for Personal and Communal Prayer (New York: Paulist Press, 2001), 16.
9
This means the one who prays.
10
Westermann is quoted in Walter Brueggemann, “The Costly Loss of Lament,” JSOT 36 (1986), 5771; republished in David J.A. Clines (ed.), The Poetical Books: A Sheffield Reader (The Biblical Seminar 41;
Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997), 84.
11
Brueggemann, The Costly loss of lament, 86.
12
13
57
Besem Oben Etchi
An Accessible Framework
Jesuit scholar Bernard Lonergan’s transcendental method provides the overarching
framework for the basic anthropological component within which to work out the spiritual and theological component of biblical hermeneutics.14 Its conscious and intentional
operations: be attentive, be intelligent, be reasonable and be responsible, mirror the
human conscious pattern of thinking and thus renders the process of exegesis easily
accessible. In this vein, the paper presents the operations as: see the situation, analyse
it intelligently, judge wisely and act responsibly.
Granted that some women are involved in sex work by choice, and I am not referring to these, the preliminary steps to invite interested women into a transforming
covenant relationship with Jesus Christ would involve meeting them in the streets or
bars and engaging one-on-one encounters with them as well as through street preaching. Assuredly, the text of Luke 4:18 roots preaching to these women in Jesus’ love for
them rather than hurling shouts of repentance that coerce a response through fear of
punishment and damnation. Hence the invitation would include a petition to allow the
Holy Spirit to make of them apostles, away from being victims, under the banner of
Mary Magdalene. In so doing, it is planned that those who respond would undertake
the Cameroonian lament ritual which the paper proceeds to explicate.
Seeing the Situation
Womanism calls for making the invisible visible, many at times it is not compassion
that we lack, but simply seeing the true plight of another. Manyi is 19 and has been on
Rue de la Joie for 5 years now. At 11 her father would no longer provide for the home,
so as the eldest daughter among five kids, her mother asked that she give in to the man
in the shop next door who couldn’t take his eyes off her. She was to do as he said and
bring back money or food for her siblings.
The number of men increased as the household demands increased and by 14 she
had to be so full time that school was not an option. “It will all end someday, we are
grateful for your sacrifice, it will help us all,” she had heard over and over again. But
that day never came, instead it was more men, violent men, men who put hot pepper
between her legs for their pleasure at watching her scream, men who subjected her
to demeaning positions and men who would sometimes not pay at all. Following two
abortions Manyi finally decided to have the baby who would change her world. Today
Manyi only dreams of getting out her state. She had always wanted to be a doctor.
She was good in math and the picture is ever so clear before her eyes when some rich
businessman offered an extra 30,00FRS FCFA if her three year old daughter would join
them in bed. “Her baby girl? Never!” For her baby girl? Manyi wants out of the mess;
but how can she? She is still called up for money for her siblings, she has no education
and no where to turn to. Manyi’s story is just one of many others as sordid as this, if
not more repulsive and dramatic.
The Place, Form and Content of Psalm 31 in the Light of this Situation
Psalm 31 holds a special place in Christian liturgy and devotion from Luke 23:46
having v.5 as the last words of Jesus on the cross: “Into your hands I commend my
14
58
Bernard Lonergan, Method in Theology (New York: The Seabury Press, 1972), 13-25.
spirit” and psalm 31:9-16 is the psalm selection for Passion Sunday for all three liturgical
years.15 It thus powerfully roots a ritual built from it in the refuge of the saving suffering
of Jesus Christ and in the heart of the liturgical tradition of the Catholic Church.
Psalm 31 is an individual lament prayer in its I-language, with its crux that shows
well the movement from plea to praise in the direct quotations set in the frame of
vv.14-16: “...terrors are all around me...But I trust in you, LORD; I say, “You are my
God”....rescue me from my enemies,” and v.23-24a: “Once I said in my anguish, “I am
shut out from your sight.” Yet you heard my plea...Love the Lord all you faithful.” This
crux in finding a trustworthy refuge, accomplishes the move from victim to apostle,
summoning the hearer into the new covenant of love with the Lord. Thus the psalm’s
theme stands out as “taking refuge in the Lord” which is evident in the used metaphors
of rock, stronghold, and fortress in vv.3-4 and shelter, abode, and secure city in vv.2122.16 Women like Manyi can thus have laid out for them, a sure refuge where dignity
is restored and motivation soars.
Psalm 31 has three parts that use various parallelisms as in v.11 and v.16, to intensify the pray-er’s distress or the urgency for salvation of the pray-er’s condition; and
in v.7 to express affinity with the Lord. The Lord is being addressed by the pray-er
until v.24 where the psalm becomes didactic thus testifying to a shift from isolation to
community. Part one, vv.1-8, opens with the plea: “In your justice, deliver me,” in a
formula declaring oneself under the Lord’s protection, punctuated with several assertions of trust (vv. 4a, 5b, 6b, 7b) and rounded off with a promise of praise anticipating
deliverance (vv.7-8).17
Part two, vv.9-19, details the pray-er’s troubles with vivid physical (vv.10-11) and
social (vv.12-14) images revealing the shunning, condemnation, disgrace and ridicule
of the pray-er’s condition while stating that enemies dragged her/him into their present
state and appealing for deliverance. Vv.18-19 show the pray-er’s petition of how the
Lord should judge the matter lest the pray-er’s trust be put to shame. With this bidding
the Lord is put at risk, for He may be shown as not really being the supreme after all
(cf. v.4). Again, there are assertions of trust in the Lord vv.14-15.
In Part three, vv.20-25 conclude the psalm with praise and exhortation; v.20 marks
the shift in the pray-er’s attitude from plea to praise. Whereas v.8 was a promise “I
will rejoice and be glad...once you have...,” v.20 is a declaration of praise “How great
is your goodness, Lord...” Apparently, the reason for this is couched in v.21 where the
cry of v.16: “...rescue me from my enemies...” is shown as accomplished in “You hide
them...safe from scheming enemies” and the confidence of v.9: “You will not abandon
me...” is fulfilled in “You keep them....” The allusion here is to a change in the pray-er’s
condition that warrants an outburst full of thanksgiving introduced by “Blessed be the
Lord ...” in v.22.18 It produces a mode that from v.23 to v.25 is didactic. With agency as
a running stream the pray-er now summons the faithful to trust in the Lord and exhorts
them based on her/his experience.
15
James Luther Mays, Psalms (Louisville: John Knox Press, 1994), 142.
Mays, Psalms, 142.
Mays, Psalms, 142.
18
Westermann states that the song of thanksgiving comes out of the sense that the lament is resolved
and is the lament restated after the crisis has been dealt with. Brueggemann, The Costly loss of lament, 85.
16
17
59
Besem Oben Etchi
The Functioning and Theology of Psalm 31 in the Light of this Situation
This psalm functions as to shift the pray-er from isolation to community, community
is a precious African cultural value akin to solidarity. Behold, through the psalm, the once
victim has turned apostle for the Lord and an apostle for love. Notice that underlying
the shift from plea to praise; victim to apostle, is a characteristic of the Lord that draws
the pray-er to approach with the confidence of being heard, saved and granted justice:
the Lord’s loving kindness (Hesed vv.7, 16, 20) towards those who entrust themselves
to Him.19
Psalm 31 uses two expressions of trust unique to the psalm: “Into your hands, I commend my spirit” (v.4) which in Hebrew and in the context of the psalm means “I entrust
my life to your sovereign disposition.”20 This sets the covenantal tone for women like
Manyi to engage an oath of abandon and allegiance to Jesus Christ. Better still, call it
an offering of entrustment since it is the words of the pray-er, building her agency, not
the Lord’s invitation nor a response. In addition, the second unique phrase “My times
are in your hand” (v.16) meaning “my destiny is in your hand,” is as well the prayer’s
declaration, this time of surrender of her/his future in confidence to the Lord. As such
not only is the Lord a place of refuge but a place of candid release as well.
Language shapes behaviour over time. The NRSV version of Psalm 31 offers perfect
gender language for this composition not needing any modifications. While womanism
advocates human and divine inclusive language, since the ritual seeks to address Jesus
Christ, the masculine words He, Lord and God fit perfectly. As such it allows women
like Manyi to recover faith in relationships with male persons in spite of her bad experiences with men. Psalm 31 can in fact, be detailed to allow women like Manyi tell and
come to terms with their stories.
Analysing the Situation Intelligently
Identification with the psalm can be worked out by keeping the form and function
of the text and expounding its content to permit the women to lament their story to
the Lord in the same manner as three parts of the psalm: to make their plea for justice,
deliverance, restoration of dignity and restoration of agency; to detail out their troubles
and to arrive at a place of surrender; and to offer themselves in trust, praise and thanksgiving with a view towards spreading the love they receive. First, it has to be done
individually. One manner is to include incomplete statements throughout the length of
the psalm that the pray-er would fill in with her own experience such as:
2
In you, LORD, I take refuge; let me never be put to shame. In your justice deliver
me;
Deliver me from ____________________________________________________
Deliver me from ____________________________________________________
4
You are my rock and my fortress; for your name’s sake lead and guide me.
Lead me to ________________________________________________________
Guide me in _______________________________________________________
19
20
60
Mays, Psalms, 143.
Mays, Psalms, 144.
7
You hate those who serve worthless idols, but I trust in the LORD.
I trust in you because _______________________________________________
I trust in you because _______________________________________________
Thus she will have the space to sit with her experience with Jesus and enter into
her story with all the emotion that it may bring. She will be guided by the power of the
words of the psalm into a genuine covenant interaction with the Lord21 in an openness
that invites Jesus to heal, to render justice and to transform.
Psalm 31 and Facing Her Reality
Detailing part two of the psalm in like manner will bring the woman to face and
to speak the reality of her disorientation and social status; to become keenly aware
that things are not right, that they need not stay that way and can be changed, that
it is intolerable and it is Godde who will change things.22 Obviously, psalm 31 is
particularly apt for this context because it mentions distress, wasted eyes from grief,
spent body and soul, consumed bones, scorn, a dreaded sight and so on (vv.10-13);
violence clearly dominates everywhere. Furthermore, it offers very graphic images
that a woman repeatedly raped and having suffered physical and sexual violence will
quickly identify and connect with, especially when in addition she has contracted and
is suffering with HIV/AIDS. It is thus a powerful tool in bringing to her consciousness
and articulation that her problem is a religious problem not merely a social or personal
one to which the other women with her are bonded in sisterhood by their common
experience. Another gift of this part of the psalm is the opportunity to express anger
in extreme ways; to name the persons involved and to suggest their punishment to
the Lord.
18
Do not let me be put to shame, for I have called to you, LORD. Put the wicked
to shame;
reduce them to silence in Sheol.
Lord, put __________ to shame; reduce______________ to silence in Sheol.
Lord, put ___________to shame; reduce______________ to silence in Sheol.
19
Strike dumb their lying lips, proud lips that attack the just in contempt and
scorn.
Lord, strike dumb (name) ____________lying lips, for I have been just in
_____________
Lord, strike dumb (name) ____________lying lips, for I have been just in
_____________
21
Brueggermann identifies this as the result of keeping the practice of lament. Brueggemann, The
Costly loss of Lament, 88.
22
Brueggemann, The Costly loss of Lament, 91.
61
Besem Oben Etchi
Psalm 31 and an Emerging New Reality
Ulrike Bail’s thoughts on lament psalm 55 and violence against women,23 contribute an understanding to how the woman’s reality gets overturned subconsciously.
She explains that the power to name the enemy and speak punishment embodies the
power to act, and for the sense of agency to emerge in the woman. The victim, before
excluded and silent, becomes participant in the turning around of her situation. So, in
asking that the Lord should bring shame and silence to the wicked, she pronounces
the desire for a reversal of her situation unto her oppressor so as to make them for the
future, powerless. Herein lies the concrete expression of the praying woman’s hope
that the discourse of violence, symbolised by lying and proud lips will be demolished
and destroyed to make another discourse possible, the verbal expression that returns
her dignity: vision, identity, integrity and agency rooted in the Lord, since the woman
asks the Lord to bring this about.
Expounding part three should achieve a yielding to trust and then to praise, hence
it makes sense to begin with v.23 building off on the shift in consciousness brought by
part two. It is quite frequent for such women to see themselves as shut out from the
Lord’s sight given church and societal derision. Thus, to now know that the Lord is on
her side and He loves, hears and answers her, becomes the impetus for moving from
concentrating on the violence done to her to focusing on her rediscovered dignity in
which she is able to define herself and to formulate a perspective of the future that
involves others. One manner of expounding the psalm’s verses to be completed by the
pray-er with her own desire is as follows:
25
Be strong and take heart, all you who hope in the LORD.
I will be strong and I will _________________________________
I will take heart so that I can _______________________________
I will hope in the Lord so that I will _________________________
Lamenting Their Story in Community
As humans, we tend to need support to flourish, even more so for these women
committed to a journey of resurgence. Hence it is important to create a sister-bond
among them in a communal experience of their individual stories. For example for a
communal prayer, the women could break up into groups of three, to mirror the Trinity, each woman being asked to contribute a line from their personal lament psalm.
They would together, come up with a lament chant, interspersed with the incantation
“I trust in you Lord, you are my God” and body movements to accompany it. Following that they would take turns as groups to present what they have created in dance,
with drumming accompanying them, before the other groups of women who would
be humming dirges alongside. When satisfied, they would kneel down as a group and
pray “Blessed be the Lord, who has shown me wondrous love, today, I offer you my
loyalty, you are my God.” Ritual repetition allows words to acquire emotional value and
23
Ulrike Bail, “‘O God, Hear My Prayer:’ Psalm 55 and Violence against Women,” in Athalya Brenner
and Carole Fontaine (eds.), Wisdom and Psalms: A Feminist Companion to the Bible (Second Series) (Sheffield:
SheffieldAcademic Press, 1998), 255-256.
62
significance leading to a deeper knowledge of what the ritual stands for. Thus would
conclude the prayer of offering oneself in entrustment to Jesus Christ.
Judging Wisely
The viability of this structuring of psalm as a lament ritual lies in it being actually
carried out. For the operative theology involved, psalm 31 shows that the Lord is concerned with justice and owns the power to change even the most hopeless situation.
In African traditions, ritual is the place where humans transcend themselves and communicate directly with the Divine. Ritual enables the experience of salvation thus to
become a present event and not a future reality. African religious rituals hold sacred
the awe of Godde; purity of heart for the one who prays; music and dance that creates
identification and bonding; and the abolishing of the separation of the conscious mind
from the unconscious mind. It is worthwhile to remember that in traditional African
life women play a significant role in the religious activities of the society as priestesses;
almost everywhere in Africa the healers are nearly always women; and those who experience spirit possession are in most cases also women.24
These truths set forth a strong link for the women to the person of Mary Magdalene
who was purified by Jesus in the casting out of seven demons and being the first to
encounter the resurrected Jesus, played the significant role of bearing that good news to
the disciples (Mark 16:9-11), bridging African culture with Christianity. Mary’s carrying
of the good news of salvation to the other Christian brethren expresses the desire that
every strengthened woman will bring other such women to the experience as well. A
fruit borne of experiencing that the Lord is on her side, in the indwelling of the Holy
Spirit and the company of saints. It is thus appropriate to develop other rituals along
the lines of the other genres of psalms to help women establish relationships with the
Father, the Holy Spirit, with Mary mother of Jesus, with Mary Magdalene and other
Christian and ancestral saints, living and dead.
Would Such a Ritual Find Favour in the Eyes of Such Cameroonian Women?
Cameroonian women who seek a sure refuge and show the openness to being
transformed would certainly, on becoming conversant with the cultural element of
ritual and their power, be welcoming of this ritual lament. Specifying the Cameroonian
context holds other preconditions to effect this lament psalm in this way. To start with,
the ritual will take place before the Blessed Sacrament so that the encounter with Jesus
is physically real. Participation should be from personal choice and be self-owned with
its accompanying responsibility as such, each woman would have afore knowledge of
the psalm and the structure of the ritual to allow her accept or reject the ritual. This is
a basic show of respect and acknowledgement of their human adult rights. Moreover,
the Cameroonian context elicits special attention to be paid to individual sharing, group
expression, chanting, drumming and dancing which is the Cameroonian (and to a large
extent African) way of dealing with distress, sorrow, hurt, trouble and death. Individual
and communal lament stands in for therapists and psychologists in the Cameroonian
world. A key point is the absence of a gun-violence and suicidal culture in Cameroon
24
John Mbiti, “The role of Women in African Traditional Religion,” 1988, http://www.afrikaworld.
net/afrel/atr-women.htm (accessed January 25, 2011).
63
Besem Oben Etchi
as a form of retaliation from women. This allows for the implementation of the cursing
verses of the psalm (vv.18-19) without fear that the women would walk out, look for
guns and kill their oppressors or themselves as a result of the memory of their pain.
Looking at the depth of the situation, this ritual may not instantly wipe away all the
problems faced by women dragged into sex work but it would definitely ignite a culture
of boldness, dignity and agency.
Acting Responsibly
Concrete actions borne of orthopathy25 (righteous heart) and orthodoxy carry the
day. This sort of ritual is not new, lament psalms have been Africanised in Reggae rhythms
by the Rastafarians of Jamaicans to express a sense of identity and nurture hope and
faith in a liberating Godde who does justice, because of the poetry and power of the
psalms.26 A sample program for this Cameroonian lament ritual would be as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Opening prayer of a traditional dirge.
Listening to the text being read in lament over background Cameroon-type dirges.
A brief sermon on the text and the day.
Silent meditation.
Exposition of the Blessed Sacrament
Proclamation of the text
Individual appropriation of the text.
Optional Individual sharing
Group work and presentation with humming, dance and drumming
Offering of entrustment
Dancing to praise, fellowship and thanksgiving chants
Reposition of the Blessed Sacrament
Sharing food and drink and symbolic new clothing of newness, identification and oneness
More concrete actions on the social plane would be to provide opportunities for
creative computer-based learning, self-expression through work, healthcare and decent
housing. The embodiment of Godde’s provision of a safe abode has to be made manifest, which as a women’s circle these women can own and shape.
C
onclusion: The Christian tradition holds countless riches that blended with African
cultural practices can provide liberation and empowerment for our brothers and
sisters at the fringes of society. This essay in exegeting psalm 31 has appropriated
it to create a lament ritual for the Cameroonian context that enables women dragged
into sex work and seeking liberation to recuperate their sense of human dignity and
25
African American Catholic social ethicist Toinette Eugene and systematic theologian Jamie Phelps
propose that black Catholic theology must hold itself accountable to the threefold interrelated criteria of
orthodoxy, orthopathy and orthopraxis so as to integrate mind, heart and action as well as theology, life and
ministry. Diana L. Hayes and Cyprian Davis, O.S.B., Taking Down Our Harps: Black Catholics in the United
States (Maryknoll; Orbis books, 1998) 127.
26
Murrell, Nathaniel Samuel “Tuning Hebrew Psalms To Reggae Rhythms: Rastas’ Revolutionary
Lamentations For Social Change.” Cross Currents. FindArticles.com. (Winter 2000). http://findarticles.com/p/
articles/mi_m2096/is_4_50/ai_70396486/?tag=content;col1 (accessed March 23, 2011).
64
agency-. It has rooted such a venture in womanist concerns and entrenched it in reading
the psalms through Jesus Christ a self-offering of covenantal entrustment to Him. Finally
it authenticates the ritual with the memory of African traditions of ritual chanting and
dance, and women’s religious power to invoke Godde to heal and bring justice not
forgetting to propose concrete actions for social re-integration and flourishing. The
Church and African reconstruction in policy and action cannot afford to neglect the
sexual and physical abuse of women and children.
Bibliography
Bail,Ulrike. “ ‘O God, Hear My Prayer:’ Psalm 55 and Violence against Women,” in Athalya Brenner
and Carole Fontaine (eds.). Wisdom and Psalms: A Feminist Companion to the Bible (Second
Series). Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998.
Brown, Kevin. “‘Tis Pity She’s a Whore: The Revision of Mary Magdalene in Contemporary Fiction.” Papers on Language and Literature. FindArticles.com. Summer 2006. http://findarticles.
com/p/articles/mi_qa3708/is_200607/ai_n17183121/pg_2/?tag=content;col1 (accessed
March 23, 2011).
Endres, John C. and Eizabeth Liebert. A Retreat with the Psalms: Resources for Personal and Communal Prayer. New York: Paulist Press, 2001.
Hayes, Diana L. and Cyprian Davis, O.S.B., Taking Down Our Harps: Black Catholics in the United
States. Maryknoll:Orbis books, 1998.
Lonergan, Bernard. Method in Theology. New York: The Seabury Press, 1972.
Mays, James Luther. Psalms. Westminster John Knox Press, 1994.
Mbiti, John. “The role of Women in African Traditional Religion,” 1988. http://www.afrikaworld.
net/afrel/atr-women.htm (accessed March 23, 2011).
Murrell, Nathaniel Samuel. “Tuning Hebrew Psalms To Reggae Rhythms: Rastas’ Revolutionary
Lamentations For Social Change.” Cross Currents. FindArticles.com. (Winter 2000). http://
findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2096/is_4_50/ai_70396486/?tag=content;col1 (accessed
March 23, 2011).
Williams, Dolores S. Sisters in the Wilderness. Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1995.
65
Jean-Claude Havyarimana, SJ *
A
bstract: Based on some statements from the Epistles « of Saint Paul », many a
feminist have accused Saint Paul of having legitimated gender inequality in favour
of men. However, a closer analysis of those ‘antifeminist’ statements proves that
claim to be wrong. For this to come out, one has firstly to distinguish statements about
women made by Paul in the letters that he actually authored from the statements found
in the Epistles attributed to him but which were in fact written by his disciples. Secondly,
one has to set those statements in the context in which the Epistles they are found in were
produced and the circumstances the author and audience were in. That is what this article
does, discussing the very ‘antifeminist’ statements pointed out by feminists. Our viewpoint
is that Saint Paul could not help making such statements, given the circumstances. The
article further points out other evidence showing that Paul treated equally the women and
men he associated to his evangelizing mission. So, in the final analysis, far from being
misogynous, Saint Paul was rather an engaged feminist who did all he could to uplift
the woman’s status in society and in the Church, but was misinterpreted and betrayed
later by those who did not like his pro-woman views because they did not go along with
the androcentric culture prevalent at the time.
I
ntroduction: D’aucuns accusent saint Paul d’avoir légué au christianisme la misogynie.
Il aurait, disent-ils, prêché que les femmes sont inférieures aux hommes et doivent
se subordonner à eux (Ep 5,21 ; Col 3, 18-25), d’où il a imposé discrétion, silence
pendant l’instruction et port d’un voile comme règle de leur conduite publique (1Co
14,33-35 ; 1Co 11,5-6). Pourtant, “L’homme, lui, ne doit pas se voiler la tête : il est l’image
et la gloire de Dieu” tandis que la femme est uniquement “la gloire de l’homme” et a été
créée pour lui (1 Co 11,7.9). Ils disent aussi que Paul a interdit à la femme d’enseigner
parce qu’elle a été créée après l’homme et que “ce n’est pas Adam qui fut séduit, mais
c’est la femme qui, séduite, tomba dans la transgression” (1Tm 2,11-14).
Selon Alice Dermience, ces textes auraient légitimé le mépris des femmes et servi
à “justifier leur statut subordonné dans les structures familiales et sociales”1, dans la
conviction que “le chef de tout homme, c’est le Christ, le chef de la femme, c’est l’homme”
(1Co 11, 3). Même dans les documents du Magistère romain, dit-elle, “la symbolique
d’Ep 5 est invoquée de manière récurrente pour refuser aux femmes l’accès au sacerdoce
ministériel.”2 Quant à Bette EKEYA, elle déplore une interprétation ecclésiale erronée
de Col 3,18 et d’Ep 5,22 (“femmes, soyez soumises à vos maris” ) qui a donné excuse
aux hommes pour leur tyrannie contre leurs épouses3. Ces accusations contre Paul
sont-elles justifiées ? Voilà la question qui a motivé cet article.
1
Alice Dermience, La “Question féminine” et l’Eglise Catholique : Approches biblique, historique et
théologique. (Bruxelles : P.I.E. Peter Lang, 2008), 21.
2
Alice Dermience, La “Question féminine” et l’Eglise…,28.
3
Bette Ekeya, “Woman, For How Long Not?”, in John S. Pobee and Barbell von Wartenberg-Potter,
eds. New Eyes for Reading: Biblical and theological Reflections by Women from the Third World. (Geneva:
Meyer Stone Books, 1986), 63.
*
66
Jean-Claude Havyarimana is a Jesuit from Burundi. He is currently in his second year of
theology at the Jesuit School of Theology (ITCJ) in Abidjan (Côte d’Ivoire).
Pour y répondre, l’idéal serait d’analyser systématiquement tous les passages traitant
de la femme dans le corpus paulinien. Bien entendu, par ordre décroissant d’importance,
on accorderait plus de poids aux passages issus des lettres authentiques de Paul (1 Th,
1 Co, 2 Co, Ph, Phm, Ga et Rm) par rapport aux passages issus des lettres deuteropauliniennes (2Th, Ep, et Col), et plus de poids à ceux-ci par rapport à ceux issus
des trito-pauliniennes ou pastorales (1Pi, 2Pi, 1Tm, 2Tm et Tt). Les premières ont été
“dictées et envoyées personnellement par l’apôtre”, les secondes pourraient avoir été
écrites du vivant de Paul qui aurait même participé à l’écriture de certaines d’entre elles,
tandis que les Pastorales ont été produites après sa mort.4 Nous devrions donc étudier
ces passages en tenant compte de cette chronologie et du contexte de chaque lettre.
Mais, nous avons choisi de traiter uniquement de 1Corinthiens (proto-paulinienne) et
de Ephésiens et Colossiens (deutero-pauliniennes) lesquels contiennent les passages les
plus antiféministes.5 Pour faire justice aux passages choisis, il importe de situer d’abord
le discours paulinien sur la femme dans le contexte du monde juif et gréco-romain du
temps où Paul y a annoncé l’Evangile.
Le contexte social de la femme du temps de Paul
Dans le monde gréco-romain
Les populations de l’empire romain étaient de cultures diverses. Vouloir dresser
un portrait modèle du statut de la femme dans tout l’empire serait donc prétentieux.
Nous dresserons un portrait de la Romaine, la Grecque et la Juive, car leurs cultures
prédominent dans les communautés récipiendaires des lettres pauliniennes.
Au 1er siècle A.D., les femmes romaines et grecques étaient plus émancipées que les
juives. Certains philosophes nourrissaient un courant féministe. Pour Aristote, la femme
est non seulement une genitrix, mais aussi la compagne de l’homme. Les Stoïciens, eux,
prônaient l’égalité des sexes. Ainsi, le stoïcien romain Musonius Rufus, contemporain
de Paul, prônait l’égalité d’éducation des filles et des garçons car les dieux ont donné
les mêmes capacités intellectuelles aux deux sexes, disait-il.6 Cependant, ce féminisme
coexistait avec un antiféminisme puisé dans le platonisme qui nie les réalités charnelles
ou dans l’extension de la pédérastie. Ainsi, « le droit romain a toujours maintenu fermement l’exclusion de la femme des charges et des droits publics, à cause, était-il précisé,
de ‘l’ignorance propre à son sexe’7. Notons que les Romains avaient réussi à imposer
une certaine vision de l’homme et de la femme dans l’empire, malgré quelques résistances, surtout chez les Juifs.
Concernant le mariage, c’était un droit pour tout homme, sauf les esclaves. Pendant
les noces, la mariée se voilait la tête, symbole de sa soumission et de son honneur.8 En
cas d’adultère, elle était punie sévèrement, car elle risquait d’introduire du sang étranger
4
François Vouga, “ Le corpus paulinien”, in Daniel Marguérat, ed. Introduction au Nouveau Testament : son histoire, son écriture, sa théologie. (Genève : Labor et Fides, 2001),142.
5
Nous laissons de côté les trito-pauliniennes, car, vu qu’elles sont de disciples lointains de Paul, ce
qui y est dit ne peut pas valablement contredire ce que Paul lui-même et ses disciples immédiats ont dit du
statut de la femme.
6
Jean-Marie Aubert, L’exil féminin : antiféminisme et christianisme (Paris : Le Cerf, 1988), 40.
7
Jean-Marie Aubert, L’exil féminin , 41.
8
Jean Comby, « le monde gréco-romain », in Hugues Cousin (éd.), Le monde où vivait Jésus (Paris :
Cerf, 1998),189.
67
Jean-Claude Havyarimana, SJ
dans la famille. Mais, l’homme, lui, n’était accusé d’adultère qu’en cas de relations avec
une femme d’autrui ou la fille d’un homme libre. Il lui était même permis de recourir
aux concubines, prostituées ou esclaves de la maison si sa femme en avait marre des
tracas de la maternité.9
Dans le monde juif
L’époque de Paul n’était plus celle où une Esther ou une Judith pouvaient jouer
un rôle politique important en Israël ; où des prophétesses comme Mariam (Ex 15,20),
Holda (Jg 4, 4), Noadya (Né 6,14), etc. jouaient un rôle religieux important ; où une
Déborah pouvait devenir juge (Jg5, 1-31) et Bethsabée une reine mère intrigante (1 R
1,17-19).10 En ce temps, la femme jouissait de peu d’estime et était tenue à l’écart de
toute vie sociale et religieuse.11
L’urbanisation croissante de l’empire, faisant disparaître la civilisation agraire qui
donnait à la femme une certaine liberté de par le travail des champs, reléguait la femme
dans le gynécée. En Israël, la ségrégation de la femme était renforcée par des motifs
religieux. La femme était pratiquement exclue de la vie religieuse, pourtant si importante
pour le Juif. Rangées, dans la trilogie méprisante “femmes, esclaves, enfants”, elles étaient “dispensées de certaines prières importantes.”12 Dans les synagogues, les femmes
étaient mises à l’écart des hommes, excepté dans la diaspora, surtout à Alexandrie
où les femmes pouvaient même jouer un rôle dans le culte. Elles ne pouvaient pas
y lire les Ecritures, chose permise pourtant même à un garçon.13 Elles étaient tenues
d’observer tous les commandements négatifs de la Torah. Il était interdit d’apprendre
la Torah aux filles: “celui qui enseigne la Torah à sa fille lui apprend l’impudicité.”14
Les filles apprenaient juste ce qui était nécessaire pour qu’elles s’adaptent à ce milieu
hyper-patriarcal où elles ne pouvaient qu’être mères ménagères.
En outre, en cas de stérilité, son mari prenait une deuxième épouse. Il patientait
jusqu’à la dixième année, le moment de répudier la stérile. Cela était un précepte
judaïque : un Juif qui ne répudiait pas sa femme stérile était dit “rejeté du ciel.”15 Depuis
le “péché d’Eve”, la femme était considérée comme un réceptacle de malédictions, d’où
tout juif orthodoxe récitait dans sa prière matinale, “loué soit Dieu de ne pas m’avoir
créé femme.”16 En gros donc, l’action de l’homme en Israël du temps de saint Paul était
publique, celle de la femme, privée.
Ce panorama du statut de la femme dans le monde judéo-gréco-romain nous permet
maintenant de mieux apprécier l’enseignement de Paul sur le sujet. Analysons, pour
cela, les passages qui lui ont le plus valu la réputation antiféministe.
9
Jean Comby, “Le monde gréco-romain,” 192.
Roger Gryson, Le ministère des femmes dans l’Eglise ancienne (Genève : Duculot, 1992), 20.
11
Jean-Marie Aubert, L’exil féminin, 23.
12
Jean-Marie Aubert, L’exil féminin, 23-24.
13
14
J.P. Lemon, “Le monde juif,” in Hugues Cousin (éd.), Le monde où vivait Jésus (Paris : Le Cerf,
1998), 217.
15
J.P. Lemon, “Le monde juif,” 211.
16
Fiammetta Vener et Caroline Fourest, “Tournées au nom de Dieu,” in Le monde des Religions.
Pourquoi fait-elle si peur ? La femme dans les religions (n°33, Janvier-Février, 2009), 30.
10
68
La femme dans les lettres proto-pauliniennes.
“Qu’elle porte un voile”
« Toute femme qui prie ou prophétise tête nue fait affront à son chef, car c’est exactement comme
si elle était rasée. Si la femme ne porte pas de voile, qu’elle se fasse tondre ! Mais si c’est une
honte pour une femme d’être tondue ou rasée, qu’elle porte un voile » (1Co11, 5-6).
Paul reconnaît aux femmes le droit de prier et de prophétiser dans les assemblées
(1Co 11,4), contrairement à ce qui se faisait dans les synagogues. Il suffit qu’elles se
couvrent la tête, une règle de bienséance. Il est clair que Paul est en train de répondre
ici à une question qui se pose dans la communauté de Corinthe: les femmes peuventelles ou non se présenter non voilées dans les assemblées chrétiennes ?
Paul écrit depuis Ephèse où il séjourne, vraisemblablement en l’an 54 ; il intervient sur demande
de chrétiens de Corinthe. L’apôtre n’a en effet pas l’habitude de s’imposer dans les affaires
des communautés qu’il a fondées. Une fois achevé le travail de fondation, cet infatigable
bourlingueur s’en va missionner plus loin, et seul un appel de ses anciens “paroissiens” le
fait prendre la plume, soit pour préciser un point de doctrine (1 Thessaloniciens), soit pour
intervenir en situation de crise (Galates)17.
Mais, quel est l’enjeu dans ce conflit sur le port du voile qui urge l’intervention de
Paul? Il est vraisemblable que certaines femmes commençaient à violer la coutume ancestrale de l’Orient exigeant qu’une femme soit voilée une fois en dehors de la maison,
et surtout dans les assemblées. Ces femmes non voilées dans la communauté de Corinthe
auraient provoqué alors un scandale,18 surtout qu’elles pouvaient se faire confondre
avec les prostituées qui étaient légion dans cette ville portuaire.19
Si nous considérons l’hypothèse que l’épître aux Galates aurait précédé 1Corinthiens, il devient fort probable que ces femmes contestaient l’obligation du port du
voile parce que Paul avait enseigné qu’en Christ toutes les discriminations tombent : “Il
n’y a plus ni Juif, ni Grec ; il n’ya plus ni esclave, ni homme libre ; il n’y a plus l’homme
et la femme…” (Ga 3, 28). Et Paul ayant proclamé l’égalité de tous les chrétiens, alors,
ces corinthiennes en auraient conclu que “l’inégalité des rapports entre sexes devait
désormais être abolie, et totalement, dans la vie communautaire.”20 Mais, tout indique
que Paul ne voulait pas cette interprétation radicale: pour lui, l’axiome égalitaire garde
sa validité absolue sur le registre théologique, mais non sur le registre sociologique.
Paul reconnaît aux deux sexes le droit de prier et de prophétiser, mais pas “la confusion
des identités, qui bouscule les genres et touche l’ordre créé.”21
Et si nous considérons que 1Corinthiens précède Galates, nous conclurons que
Paul impose le voile pour faire observer une coutume culturelle trop sensible pour être
violée impunément. Le même Paul recommande aux Corinthiens, en effet, d’assumer
les situations établies: chacun doit se contenter de sa catégorie sociale, même celle
d’esclave (1Co7, 17 ; 20-21). Paul a “bien assimilé l’audace venue de l’Evangile et de
la liberté chrétienne, mais il continue à penser qu’il faut respecter la coutume qui sup17
Daniel Marguérat, L’aube du christianisme (Paris : Bayard Editions, 2008), 261.
Alain Marchadour, L’événement Paul (Paris : Bayard, 2009),161.
19
Alice Dermience, La “Question féminine” et l’Eglise, 22.
20
Daniel Marguérat, L’aube du christianisme, 271.
21
Daniel MARGUERAT, Le Dieu des premiers chrétiens, collection Essais Bibliques n 16 (Genève :
Labor et Fides, 1990), 138.
18
69
pose la supériorité de l’homme sur la femme,”22, d’où il clôt le débat par un argument
d’autorité : “Et si quelqu’un se plaît à contester, nous n’avons pas cette habitude et les
Eglises de Dieu non plus” (1Co 11,16). Nous verrons plus loin que Paul a dû faire un
compromis avec la culture juive sur les sujets très sensibles.
Pelletier a raison : Paul voulait certainement que les Corinthiens issus du paganisme
respectent les traditions,
l’enjeu étant d’éviter que ces derniers (les Corinthiens) n’en viennent à scandaliser la composante judéo-chrétienne de l’Eglise de Corinthe (….) L’objectif est certainement beaucoup
moins dogmatique qu’il n’est pastoral. Le souci de Paul est, par-dessus tout, d’assurer l’unité
de la communauté. Tout le contexte va dans ce sens, si l’on s’avise que le propos sur la
tenue des femmes est enchâssé entre deux développements qui soulignent fortement cette
question de l’unité. Au chapitre 10, Paul évoque la coupe de la bénédiction eucharistique
qui est communion (koinônia) au sang du Christ, et la fraction du pain qui est communion
au corps du Christ : « Puisqu’il n’ya qu’un pain, à nous tous nous ne formons qu’un seul
corps (1Co 10,17)23.
Paul avait, en effet, auparavant, appelé les Corinthiens à un usage de la liberté
chrétienne de façon à ne pas blesser la charité : “Prenez garde que cette liberté même,
qui est la vôtre, ne devienne une occasion de chute pour les faible”(1 Co 8,9). Il donne
cette recommandation à propos des viandes sacrifiées aux idoles, mais elle vaut aussi
pour la question du voile des femmes. Les femmes sont “dégagées des prescriptions
juridiques, mais au-dessus de cette liberté, il y a la communion avec Jérusalem qui doit
l’emporter. C’est pour cette unité que Paul plaide ici passionnément.”24
Ainsi, il est clair que Paul ne fait pas ici une théologie de la différence des sexes,
mais cherche à ramener la paix et l’unité au milieu des querelles qui risquent de diviser
la communauté de Corinthe. Cela le disculpe d’antiféminisme.
“Que les femmes se taisent dans les assemblées”
Dieu n’est pas un Dieu de désordre mais un Dieu de paix. Comme cela se fait dans toutes les
Eglises des saints, que les femmes se taisent dans les assemblées : elles n’ont pas la permission
de parler ; elles doivent rester soumises, comme dit aussi la Loi. Si elles désirent s’instruire sur
quelque détail, qu’elles interrogent leur mari à la maison. Il n’est pas convenable qu’une femme
parle dans les assemblées (1Co 14,33-35).
Selon les exégètes, ces versets 33-35 sont un ajout ultérieur des maris “soucieux de
défendre leurs avantages et les justifier par les Ecritures.”25 Ces versets interrompent
d’ailleurs le développement logique du passage. Si cette injonction de silence venait
de Paul, elle annulerait le droit qu’il reconnaît aux femmes de prier et de prophétiser
dans les assemblées (1Co 11,4). Pourrait-il se contredire dans une même lettre (1Co 14,
33-35 versus 1Co 11, 3-5) et contredire en même temps sa pratique pastorale ? En effet,
comme on va le voir, il a associé à sa mission des femmes, dont certaines avaient des
responsabilités ministérielles dans les Eglises.
Comme la phrase « Dieu n’est pas un Dieu de désordre, mais un Dieu de paix »
indique, le contexte est celui où il faut restaurer l’ordre dans l’Eglise de Corinthe. Pour
certains, Paul aurait utilisé le verbe grec λάλειη (parler) dans le sens de ‘bavarder’, ‘chu22
23
24
25
70
Anne-Marie Pelletier, Le Signe de la femme (Paris, Cerf, 2006), 112.
Anne-Marie Pelletier, Le Signe de la femme, 112.
Alain Marhadour, L’événement Paul, 159.
choter’, ce qui gênerait l’assemblée.26 Mais, nous sommes de ceux qui pensent que Paul
a utilisé λάλειη pour ‘prendre la parole.’ Il exigerait donc des Corinthiennes de s’abstenir
de prendre la parole pour lire et commenter les Ecritures.27 En effet, “l’argument est
ferme: elles doivent être soumises, comme le veut la coutume, c’est-à-dire renoncer à
leur droit : non face à l’homme mais face à la communauté.”28
Ici, Paul (ou mieux, son copieur qui a ajouté l’injonction de silence) se contredit
effectivement, mais à dessein: il veut remédier au désordre. Il veut absolument que “tout
se passe convenablement et avec ordre” (1 Co 14,40). C’est dans ce but qu’il recommande à ceux et celles qui prophétisent de le faire dans l’ordre et de veiller à ce qu’il y
ait un interprète, lors de la glossolalie, pour édifier la communauté (1Co 14,26.27.29).
Comme à propos du voile, en niant aux femmes le droit de parler publiquement, Paul
choisit de souscrire à la pratique cultuelle juive où l’action est monopolisée par l’homme.
L’enjeu est de taille, le sujet trop sensible.
Notons qu’il ne s’agit pas du genre féminin en général, mais de quelques femmes
“qui se trouvent impliquées dans une situation bien précise de prière,”29 dans le cadre
d’un culte chrétien, à une époque et dans un contexte socioculturel donnés. La règle
qu’institue Paul n’était valable que dans le contexte de la communauté de Corinthe du
temps. Cette règle devait évoluer “pour s’adapter aux us et coutumes des peuples appelés à recevoir le message de l’Evangile.”30
Une objection serait que, dans 1Co7b, Paul semble concevoir négativement la
sexualité, quand il traite du divorce, du célibat et du remariage des veufs : “il est bon
pour l’homme de s’abstenir de la femme.” Si on lit cela en ayant à l’esprit Gn 2,18 où
le SEIGNEUR Dieu dit : ‘ Il n’est pas bon pour l’homme d’être seul. Je vais lui faire
une aide qui lui soit accordée (c’est-à-dire qui lui soit assortie),’” l’objection semble
fondée. Par ailleurs, plus loin, Paul fait explicitement l’éloge de la virginité : “celui qui
se marie avec sa fiancée fait bien ; et celui qui ne se marie pas fait mieux encore” (1
Co 7,38).
Toutefois, Paul ne déprécie point la sexualité, en réalité. Premièrement, “plusieurs
exégètes, y compris la note de la TOB, estiment que la proposition pourrait bien renvoyer au contenu d’une lettre que les Corinthiens ont adressée à Paul [voir 1Co 7, 1a].
Dans ce cas, probable, le développement qui suit apparaît comme une mise au point
face à un risque de déviation.”31 Deuxièmement, Paul s’inscrit dans une perspective
eschatologique. Les ordres et conseils qu’il donne aux Corinthiens ne déprécient donc
pas la sexualité mais la subordonnent seulement à la relation au Christ. D’ailleurs, il
loue le célibat consacré des hommes tout autant que la virginité consacrée des femmes.
Troisièmement, il souligne “l’égalité d’initiative de la femme dans le cas du divorce,
de la séparation, du remariage et de la virginité. Or, en affirmant la liberté de choix
et d’initiative de la femme, il allait à l’encontre de la coutume juive et bien au-delà de
l’évolution en cours dans le monde hellénistique.”32 Ainsi, Paul n’enjoint pas le silence
26
Paul-Marie Buetubela, L’apôtre Paul et la femme: Propos pauliniens sur la christianisation des
rapports sociaux entre hommes et femmes, collection Bible et Femme en Afrique n° 9 (Kinshasa: Editions du
Mont Sinaï, 2009), 25.
28
Daniel Marguérat, Le Dieu des premiers chrétiens, 135.
29
Paul-Marie Buetubela, L’apôtre Paul et la femme, 27.
30
31
32
27
71
aux femmes parce qu’il les déprécie, mais parce qu’il faut absolument ramener la paix
et l’ordre dans la communauté.
L’homme, chef de la femme, la femme créée pour l’homme
Je veux pourtant que vous sachiez ceci : le chef de tout homme, c’est le Christ, le chef de la
femme, c’est l’homme…L’homme…est l’image et la gloire de Dieu mais la femme est la gloire
de l’homme. Car ce n’est pas l’homme qui a été tiré de la femme. Et l’homme n’a pas été crée
pour la femme, mais la femme pour l’homme (1Co11, 3.7.8.9)
Dans sa première lettre aux Corinthiens, Paul s’adresse à une jeune Eglise formée de
Juifs et de païens à qui il a annoncé son Evangile. Ils se sont convertis avec empressement, et l’unité de la communauté est donc encore fragile. Antagonismes, factions et
divisions la déchirent. Des groupuscules pullulent33: “ceux de Paul,” “ceux d’Apollos,”
“ceux de Pierre” et “ceux du Christ.” La division porte sur la consommation des viandes sacrifiées aux idoles et la célébration du culte. Ces chrétiens recourent alors à
Paul pour retrouver la paix et l’unité. Paul répondra cas par cas “en traitant chaque
fois du problème à partir du mystère chrétien et en référence à la nouveauté de la vie
baptismale.”34 C’est dans ce contexte qu’il traite de la question du voile dont nous
venons de parler et c’est en argumentant sa réponse sur cette question qu’il a ces mots
qui choquent plus d’une personne: “l’homme n’a pas été créé pour la femme, mais la
femme pour l’homme” (1Co 11,9).
L’expression “chef”, traduction du grec κεφάλἡ (“tête”), doit être comprise dans le
contexte de l’empire romain au 1er siècle A.D marqué par des rapports humains très hiérarchisés : homme et femme, maître et esclave, citoyen et étranger. Paul en tient compte,
mais dépasse l’idée de supériorité purement humaine en se référant au Christ. Pour lui,
Christ est chef de l’homme (άνηρ, mari) surtout parce qu’il l’aime. Rappelons-nous que
Paul présente Jésus comme l’égal de Dieu qui s’anéantit jusqu’à mourir en croix pour
l’amour de l’humanité. Le mari, dont la chefferie sur la femme doit se modeler sur celle
que Christ exerce sur son Eglise, doit être chef de son épouse moins par droit naturel
de supériorité que par l’amour et la responsabilité qu’il doit lui témoigner.35
Ainsi, ce qui précède permet de dire que, dans les épîtres dont Paul est authentiquement auteur, il n’y a rien de misogyne comme tel. L’antiféminisme apparent de certains
passages s’estompe quand on voit leur contexte et celui des destinataires, ainsi que la
vision eschatologique dans laquelle s’inscrit l’auteur.
La femme dans les lettres deutero-pauliniennes
“Femmes, soyez soumises à vos maris”
L’injonction de soumission au mari donnée à la femme, “Epouses, soyez soumises à
vos maris, comme il se doit dans le Seigneur. Maris, aimez vos femmes et ne vous aigrissez pas contre elles” (Col 3,18-19), se retrouve dans (Ep 5,21-23) : “Vous qui craignez le
Christ, soumettez-vous les uns aux autres ; femmes, soyez soumises à vos maris comme
au Seigneur. Car le mari est chef de la femme, tout comme le Christ est le chef de l’Eglise,
33
34
35
72
Chantal Reynier, Pour lire saint Paul (Paris: Le Cerf/Médiaspaul, 2008), 137.
lui le Sauveur de son corps. Mais, comme l’Eglise est soumise au Christ, que les femmes
soient soumises à leurs maris.” Ce thème de soumission apparaît dans ces deux lettres
dans le contexte théologique des “codes de morale domestique” du christianisme primitif
que nous lisons dans Col 3,18-4,1 et Ep 5,21-33.
Les exégètes ont montré qu’Ephésiens dépend de Colossiens : les deux épîtres ont
de nombreuses correspondances aussi bien au niveau des thèmes, des mots, des expressions, des phrases que des ensembles plus importants. Plus particulier, des thèmes
séparés en Colossiens sont combinés en Ephésiens ; et des thèmes à peine mentionnés
en Colossiens sont développés en Ephésiens.36 Illustrons cela :
(1) des thèmes séparés en Col. , combinés en
Ep : Col.1,14.20 ↔ Ep1,7(rédemption/par son
sang) Col1,4.9↔Ep1,15-16 (progrès/action de
grâce) Col2,2.19↔Ep4,16(unité, croissance/
dans l’agapè) ».
(2) des thèmes à peine mentionnés en Col, développés en Eph : Col 1,20 ↔ Ep 2,11-22 (paix
par Christ) Col3,5-8↔Ep5,3-14(conduite hier/
aujourd’hui) Col3,18-21↔Ep5,22-33 (rapport
entre époux) ».
Vu ces rapports étroits entre les deux lettres, nous traiterons d’Ep 5,21-33 uniquement car le code y est plus développé qu’en Col 3,18-19. En effet, comme le note
Chantal Reynier,
là où Col 3,18-19 s’adresse, énergiquement mais brièvement, d’abord aux femmes puis aux
maris, en demandant aux femmes de se soumettre à leur mari et, à ces derniers, d’aimer leur
femme, l’auteur de l’épître aux Ephésiens s’adresse de la même manière aux femmes et aux
maris, mais il y mêle des considérations sur le Christ et l’Eglise, réflexion absente de l’épître
aux Colossiens37.
Ep. 5,21-23 est largement connu pour avoir été entendu maintes fois pendant la
célébration du mariage ; mais beaucoup de gens ont retenu les premiers mots du v.22 :
“femmes, soyez soumises à vos maris.” Cela se comprend parce que le découpage de la
lecture liturgique fit de ces mots l’ouverture du texte pendant longtemps. Cela ne faisait
pas problème car “le monde ambiant tenait pour indiscutable que la femme dût exister
en dépendance de l’homme.”38 Désormais, on commence par citer le v.21 “Vous qui
craignez le Christ, soumettez-vous les uns aux autres…” Mais, ce verset peut aussi être
la conclusion car il est écrit comme une transition entre les versets précédents traitant
de la vie nouvelle initiée par le baptême et les versets suivants traitant de différents rôles
que chaque membre de la société assume. Il faut donc lire le v.21 dans son contexte
donné par l’ensemble Ep. 5,21-23.
L’ordre initial de soumission est donc adressé à tous les membres de la communauté (v21). Le principe vaut pour la femme vis-à-vis de son époux (Ep. 5,25), les
enfants vis-à-vis de leurs parents, les esclaves à l’égard de leurs maîtres (6,1-9). Tous
ces rapports sociaux sont ordinaires dans la société juive de l’époque.39 Ils sont définis
dans un code domestique dans le livre de l’Ecclésiaste (Si 9 ; 1-9 ; 26, 1-27 ; 30,1-13) et
adopté par le judaïsme. Un code régissait les rapports entre les maîtres et les esclaves
(1Tm 6, 1-2). Paul n’invente rien donc quand il enjoint la soumission dans les diverses
36
Jean-Noël Aletti, Saint Paul. Epître aux Colossiens. Introduction, traduction et commentaire, Etudes
Bibliques, nouvelle série n°20 (Paris, J. Gabalda et Cie, 1993) 25-26.
37
Chantal Reynier, L’épître aux Ephésiens. Commentaire biblique, coll. Nouveau Testament n°10
(Paris: Cerf, 2004), 174.
38
39
73
catégories sociales. Mais il christianise et ‘corrige’ ces rapports sociaux profanes en les
référant au Christ.
Chose intéressante, Paul s’adresse mêmement aux différentes catégories. Hommes,
femmes, enfants, esclaves, il les traite tous comme égaux en dignité et en responsabilité, du moment qu’ils appartiennent tous au Christ.40 Le Christ a sauvé les Juifs et les
païens, “des deux peuples n’en a fait qu’un” (Ep 2,14). Paul appelle ses coreligionnaires
à garder cette unité car “il n’y a qu’un Corps et qu’un Esprit, comme il n’y a qu’une
seule espérance (…); un seul Dieu et père de tous…” (Ep 4,4-5). Comme Paul adresse
l’appel à la soumission mutuelle à toutes les catégories (Ep5, 21), il s’ensuit que “la
soumission à laquelle la femme est invitée en Ep 5,22 n’est jamais qu’une spécification
de la soumission à laquelle tous, hommes comme femmes, sont invités dans l’Eglise.
Voir ce fait réduit déjà quelque peu la provocation du texte.”41
L’aspect choquant de ce texte est davantage réduit si nous plaçons le terme ‘soumission’ dans le contexte de la nouveauté chrétienne dans lequel Paul l’a utilisé : “il n’y a
plus ni juif, ni grec, il n’y a ni esclave, ni homme libre ; il n’y a ni homme, ni femme,
car tous vous ne faites qu’un dans le Christ Jésus” (Ga 3 ,27-28). Cette nouveauté chrétienne s’exprime également dans les évangiles où le mot ‘soumission’ est utilisé. Jésus
est dit se soumettre à ses parents, au Père et à son Heure.42 Ici ‘soumission’ n’a donc
pas la connotation négative de dépendance et d’écrasement de la liberté que nous lui
donnons aujourd’hui. Dans les évangiles, la soumission peut aller avec l’amour, la puissance et la gloire. C’est celle-là dont il s’agit en Ep 5,21-2343.
Par ailleurs, l’injonction de la femme à la soumission au mari est équilibrée par une
injonction à ce dernier d’aimer sa femme : “Maris, aimez vos femmes comme le Christ
a aimé l’Eglise et s’est livré lui-même pour elle” (5,25). Si Madame doit obéissance à
Monsieur, celui-ci doit lui réciproquer l’amour chrétien. Le v.23 rappelait déjà que le
mari devait être ‘tête de la femme’ en prenant pour référence la manière dont le Christ
est ‘tête’ de l’Eglise : par l’amour et le sacrifice de soi. Donc, le mari doit aussi consentir
au sacrifice de soi pour sa femme, car “celui qui aime sa femme s’aime soi-même. Jamais
personne n’a jamais pris sa propre chair en aversion ; au contraire, on la nourrit, on
l’entoure d’attention comme le Christ fait pour son Eglise” (Ep.5, 28-29).
Comme le remarque Pelletier, “cet ‘être tête’ de l’homme ne le situe donc pas hors
de la soumission, si l’on se souvient que la souveraineté du Christ a pour expression, à
l’heure de la Passion, le geste du lavement des pieds.”44 L’homme est appelé à laver les
pieds de sa femme! Quelle femme ne voudrait-elle pas se soumettre à son mari dans
ces conditions? L’auteur paulinien est ici tout à fait fidèle à la pensée et praxis de Paul.
Celui-ci insiste sur la complémentarité des deux sexes: “Pourtant, la femme est inséparable
de l’homme et l’homme de la femme, devant le Seigneur. Car si la femme a été tirée de
l’homme, l’homme naît de la femme et tout vient de Dieu” (1Co 11,11-12). Dans le cadre
du mariage, il s’exprime contre l’égoïsme : “la femme ne dispose pas de son corps, mais le
mari. Pareillement, le mari ne dispose pas de son corps, mais la femme” (1Co 7,4). Ainsi,
Ep.5,21-23 ne proclame pas la mise sous tutelle des femmes pendant qu’il renforcerait
l’autorité des hommes. Il appelle plutôt les deux sexes au service mutuel.
40
41
42
43
44
74
On pourrait objecter que, plus loin dans Ep. 5,21-33, la femme est mise dans la
catégorie des enfants et des esclaves. Effectivement, “trois termes font série, qui renvoient à une position de maîtrise : homme, parent, maître, tandis que trois autres désignent
un état de non-maîtrise : femme, enfant, esclaves.”45 Ceci est d’autant plus critique que
Jésus lui-même
se fait connaître sous les traits de l’esclave plutôt que sous ceux du maître. Et il fait du ‘devenir
comme les enfants’ la condition de l’entrée dans le Royaume des cieux (Mt18, 2). Il y a donc
de la complexité en tout cela. A l’évidence, le Fils de l’homme valorise en sa personne et en
sa prédication ce qui constitue, dans le développement paulinien, la série de la non-maîtrise.
On n’oubliera pas non plus que, quelques versets au-delà du passage que nous examinons,
(…) Paul lui-même (…) déclare, en effet, qu’il est ‘dans les chaînes’ (6,20), et c’est donc en
homme captif, privé de liberté, éminemment en situation de non-maîtrise qu’il fait retentir, en
fin de l’épître, un rendez-vous puissant dans le Seigneur et dans la vigueur de sa force (6,10)
complété par un beau développement sur l’équipement qui convient au combat spirituel….
la non-maîtrise vécue à la manière du Christ est finalement le chemin royal de la vraie puissance, loin des figures idolâtriques du pouvoir46.
Disons simplement que ceci indique que l’auteur paulinien, sans être misogyne, a,
tout de même, une attitude complexe. Mais, en cela, il est comme Paul et Jésus, et cette
attitude est justifiable. La suite nous le montre.
Les femmes dans la mission de saint Paul
Selon notre parcours, l’auteur d’Ephésiens n’est pas misogyne, tout comme Paul
à la pensée duquel il est fidèle. Or ce Paul est celui qui fait preuve d’une attitude respectueuse et favorable aux femmes, non seulement dans ses écrits, mais aussi dans
sa pratique pastorale. En effet, il a enseigné la doctrine religieuse A DES FEMMES dont
certaines, converties, se mirent à collaborer avec lui pour l’évangélisation (Ac13, 50-51 ;
16,13 ; 16,40 ; 17,4 ; 17,12). Il a même confié à certaines d’entre elles de réelles responsabilités ministérielles. Aux Romains, il recommande “Phébée, notre sœur, diaconesse
[ministre simplement, car les diaconesses n’apparaîtront qu’au 3ème siècle] de l’Eglise
de Cenchrées…, aussi fut-elle une protectrice pour nombre de chrétiens et pour moimême” (Rm 16,1-2). Il salue Prisca et son mari qui ont beaucoup fait pour lui, au point
de risquer leur vie (Rm16, 3-5).47 Plus loin, il écrit “saluez Marie qui s’est bien fatiguée
pour vous…saluez Tryphena et Tryphosa qui se fatiguent dans le Seigneur” (Rm16,
6-12). Il exhorte Evodia et Syntyché, deux femmes qui l’ “ont assisté dans la lutte pour
l’évangile”, à retrouver l’entente mutuelle (Ph 4,2). En plus, une Eglise se réunissait
dans la maison de Nymphée (Col.4, 5). Même à Jérusalem, des assemblées se tenaient
dans la maison de Marie, la mère de Jean-Marc (Ac12, 12). Cloé, une femme, fait le pont
entre Paul et l’Eglise de Corinthe (1 Co 1,11). Tout cela montre que Paul a reconnu aux
femmes la même dignité qu’aux hommes dans sa pratique pastorale.
Il est vrai, tout comme Jésus, il n’est pas allé jusqu’à proclamer officiellement
l’égalité absolue des sexes dans les rôles sociaux. Il n’a reconnu à aucune femme le
droit d’être apôtre ou presbytre. Mais, même Jésus qui avait tant valorisé la femme en
bravant “tous les interdits légaux pour adresser son message aux femmes, au point
45
Anne-Marie Pelletier, Le Signe de la femme, 179-180.
47
Notons qu’il nomme l’épouse avant l’époux, chose inacceptable chez les Juifs. Cela en dit long
sur son attitude envers les femmes.
46
75
de donner l’apparence d’immoralité et du scandale (Mt 11,6 ; 15,12 ; Mc 2,15-17 ; Jn
6,61)”48 ; qui avait valorisé la monogamie et abrogé la loi autorisant la répudiation de
la femme, etc., n’était pas allé loin pour instaurer “un véritable statut d’égalité entre
hommes et femmes au sein de la communauté apostolique.”49 S’il était allé trop loin
dans sa révolution, il aurait raté sa mission de proclamer le Royaume. En effet, si un
révolutionnaire dépasse certaines limites établies par le statu quo, son projet échoue :
les forces de la droite finissent par l’anéantir. Face à la réalité juive, Jésus a jugé bon de
“ne pas imposer à ses prosélytes des mesures qui les auraient placés hors de la société
qu’il voulait convertir.”50Ainsi, il n’a pas admis des femmes ou un Samaritain parmi les
Douze, pour sauver cet essentiel pour lequel ses apôtres et disciples endureront tout,
même le martyre.51
Dans le sillage de Jésus, Paul a préféré, par pragmatisme, agir en réformateur et
non en révolutionnaire. Conscient du “seuil d’intolérabilité” à ne pas dépasser, dans
son engagement féministe, il a choisi d’évangéliser l’hyper-patriarcat qu’il ne pouvait
détruire. C’est pour cela que, d’un côté, il se montre promoteur de la femme au sein de
la communauté chrétienne (Ga3, 8) ; de l’autre, “à plusieurs reprises il la subordonne vigoureusement à l’homme et pour le justifier développe plusieurs types d’argument.”52
C
onclusion: En définitive, imputer à Paul la misogynie jalonnant la tradition
chrétienne, c’est prouver méconnaître sa doctrine profonde. Plutôt que misogyne,
Paul est un grand féministe, vu ce qu’il a pu faire au profit de la femme dans
un monde si androcentrique. Il ressort de notre parcours que, dans sa pensée et sa
pratique pastorale, le principe d’égalité homme-femme est respecté. Si, par endroits,
il parle en antiféministe, cela est dû à un compromis qu’il a jugé indispensable face
à l’androcentrisme juif. Paul est pragmatique. Ne pouvant révolutionner tout dans le
statut que le monde gréco-romain et juif accordait à la femme, il a fait son maximum
possible en initiant une réforme, ne se laissant arrêter qu’au seuil d’intolérabilité qu’il ne
pouvait franchir sans compromettre sa mission d’évangélisation. La tradition antiféministe
qui jalonne l’histoire de l’Eglise n’est donc pas un legs de saint Paul, mais le fruit des
déviations issues d’une mésinterprétation de l’enseignement paulinien sur le statut de la
femme. Heureusement, le concile Vatican II a mis l’Eglise sur la voie de la rectification
du tir. Qu’elle aille de l’avant, et que la femme se sache égale à l’homme devant Dieu
et même selon l’enseignement de saint Paul.
Bibliographie
Aletti, Jean-Noël. Saint Paul. Epître aux Colossiens. Introduction, Traduction et Commentaire.
Etudes Bibliques, nouvelle série n°20. Paris: J. Gabalda et cie, 1993.
Aubert, Jean-Marie. L’Exil Féminin : Antiféminisme et Christianisme. Paris: Le Cerf, 1988. Buetubela,
Paul Marie, L’Apôtre Paul et la Femme. Propos Pauliniens sur la Christianisation des Rapports
Sociaux entre Hommes et Femmes. Collection Bible et Femme en Afrique n° 9. Kinshasa: Editions du Mont Sinaï, 2009.
48
49
50
51
52
76
Jean-Marie Aubert, L’exil féminin , 34-35.
Comby, Jean. “Le monde Gréco-Romain” in Hugues Cousin, ed., Le monde où vivait Jésus. Paris:
Le Cerf, 1998.
Dermience, Alice. La “Question feminine” et l’Eglise Catholique : Approches Biblique, Historique
et Théologique. Bruxelles: P.I.E. Peter Lang, 2008.
Ekeya, Bette. “Woman, For How Long Not?” in John S. Pobee and Barbell von Wartenberg-Potter,
eds. New Eyes for Reading: Biblical and Theological Reflections by Women from the Third
World. Geneva: Meyer Stone Books, 1986.
Gryson, Roger. Le Ministère des Femmes dans l’Eglise Ancienne. Genève: Duculot, 1972. Lemon,
J.P. “Le Monde Juif,” in Hugues Cousin, ed., Le Monde où vivait Jésus. Paris: Le Cerf, 1998.
Marchadour, Alain. L’Evénement Paul. Paris: Bayard, 2009.
Marguerat, Daniel. L’Aube du Christianisme. Paris: Bayard Editions, 2008.
------------------- Le Dieu des Premiers Chrétiens. Collection Essais Bibliques n°16. Genève: Labor
et Fides, 1990.
---------------------------, ed. Introduction au Nouveau Testament: son Histoire, son Ecriture, sa
Théologie. Genève: Labor et Fides, 2001.
Pelletier, Anne-Marie. Le Signe de la Femme. Paris: Le Cerf, 2006.
Reynier, Chantal. Pour Lire Saint Paul. Paris: Le Cerf/Médiaspaul, 2008.
------------------------L’Epître aux Ephésiens. Commentaire biblique : Nouveau Testament n°10. Paris:
Le Cerf, 2004.
Vener, Fiammetta et Fourest, Caroline. “Tournées au nom de Dieu,” in Le monde des Religions.
Pourquoi fait-elle si peur ? La femme dans les religions 33. Janvier- Février 2009.
Vouga, François. “Le Corpus Paulinien”, in Daniel Marguerat, ed. Introduction au Nouveau Testament : son Histoire, son Ecriture, sa Théologie. Genève : Labor et Fides, 2001.
77
Spirituality
Constructing a Contemporary Theology of Sin: A Challenge
for Contemporary Theologians
Martins Ayokunle Okoh, SJ *
A
bstract: How should contemporary theologians understand sin? On the one
hand, sin is seen as an imperfection; the human being, on the other hand, is by
nature and essence good, sound and whole. Simply put, we might either accept
every doctrine of sin as a mystery or discard every notion of sin because of its seemingly
intrinsic contradiction. In this paper, I shall argue that to understand sin today, we ought
to examine the Scriptural account uncover its suppositions, look at their method and logic
of thinking, lay bare its biases and judge its conclusions in light of and in relation to the
contemporary situation and experience of sin. Also, that African traditional world-view
of sin particularly its accent on concreteness of sin is another significant dimension in
the quest to understand what sin is today. Lastly, that tremendous inspiration can be
drawn from St. Ignatius of Loyola’s insights on sin as codified in his book, The Spiritual
Exercises. These three dimensions can aid us in the quest for a contemporary and relevant
theology of sin.
Overview
According to Tatha Wiley, what the Patristic Fathers forged and medieval theologians
assumed, contemporary minds doubted.1 This is particularly the case with the discourse
on sin. Contemporary theologians have discarded many of the scriptural and traditional
claims on sin with weighty and systematic arguments. Hence, it requires more than mere
repetition of an old and classical dogma to quell the questioning minds of contemporary
theologians on the topic of sin. The usage of scriptural sources as proof-texts will not
suffice to assuage the analytical minds of theologians like Karl Barth and Matthew Fox.
For instance, a former Dominican priest, Matthew Fox denies the doctrine of original sin
and calls it a false theology of sin.2 Yet, a relevant contemporary theology cannot be
oblivious to the reality of sin in general or original sin in particular. Reinhold Niebuhr
points out: “A theology which fails to come to grips with this tragic factor of sin is he1
Tatha Wiley, Original Sin: Origins, Developments, Contemporary Meanings (New York: Paulist
Press, 2002), 127.
2
Wiley, Original Sin, 131.
*
78
Martins Ayokunle Okoh is a member of the Society of Jesus. He hails from Nigeria and is
currently in his third year of theology at Hekima College.
Constructing a Contemporary Theology of Sin
retical both from the standpoint of the gospel and in terms of its blindness to obvious
facts of human experience in every realm and on every level of moral goodness.”3
That is to say to develop an apt theology of sin today, we ought to examine the context
of the past theologies, uncover their suppositions, look at their method and logic of
thinking, lay bare special biases, and judge conclusions in the light of and in relation to
the contemporary situation and experience of sin.4 In this regard, the first and second
sections of this paper will be dedicated to both scriptural and the African traditional
interpretations of sin respectively.
Contemporary theologians are not groundless in rejecting some of the scriptural
notions of sin. From an evolutionary perspective, it is highly unlikely that human beings
all descended from an original couple or that both Adam and Eve enjoyed an idyllic
period in a plentiful garden. Neil Ormerod argues that, “with the emergence of Darwin’s
theory of evolution…and the geological and cosmological evidence that the time scale
for the world stretched beyond the thousands of years of the biblical narrative (taken
literally) to reach millions and even billions of years, a literal reading of the biblical
narrative became increasingly untenable.”5 One can assume, therefore, that the contemporary theologians’ aim is a genuine quest to free humanity from the enslavement
of superstitions, needless-guilt, fear and grace-less situations. This freedom cannot come
from the human person alone any more than one can lift oneself by one’s own ears.
This help must not be solely human help, but a divine as well. Nothing short of both
divine grace and human endeavor can restore that tranquility and happiness that sin
perturbs. In reality, sin makes us focus more on ourselves. Sin makes us believe that
we are not loved. But what it really means is that we cease to love God and ourselves
as the image of God. I find Wiley germane when she says, “refusal to love God shapes
the orientation of persons’ lives. It affects the values that persons apprehend and appropriate. It influences the choices they consider, the decisions they make, and the acts
they commit or fail to carry out.”6 Ormerod expresses this point too in these words:
“the biggest and most damaging lie is that there is something wrong with us, that we
are not lovable, that God wants nothing to do with us, that God is angry with us….Yet
these are lies that Satan tells us, and we believe him.”7 One of the main aims of St.
Ignatius’ Exercises on sin is to make us come to a realization of the unfailing and immeasurable love of God.8 Hence, in the third section of this work, I shall discuss sin
from St. Ignatius of Loyola’s perspective as another significant constituent for formulating
an apt theology of sin today.
Traditional Scriptural view of Sin
The primary source of the Christian doctrine on sin is the Sacred Scripture. The
early chapters of the Book of Genesis not only explain the origin of human beings, but
also give certain details as regard the origin of human’s sinfulness. Though we want
3
4
5
6
7
8
Roger Haight, The Experience and Language of Grace (New York: Paulist Press, 1979), 143.
Neil Ormerod, Creation, Grace and Redemption (New York: Orbis Book, 2007), 75.
Ormerod, Creation, Grace and Redemption, 86.
Michael Ivens, Understanding the Spiritual Exercises (Trowbridge, Wiltshire: Cromwell press, 1998),
23.
79
Martins Ayokunle Okoh, SJ
to uncover the past, a literal or an infantile interpretation of the Genesis 3 account will
not suffice. In Niebuhr’s words,
Religious literalism seeks to preserve childlike profoundity in religion by giving simple and
childlike answers to childlike questions. It thinks that the mythical answers to childlike questions are adequate scientific answers. It tries to insist that, because the idea of creation is true,
it is also true that God created the world in six days; and that because the story of the fall is
true, therefore the account of the serpent and the apple in the garden is actual history. Thus,
it corrupts ultimate religious insights into a bad science.9
From the Genesis account of sin, one can reasonably infer that sin is not an abstract
occurrence; it has no existence or nature of its own. Rather, sin comes from within
human beings—the origin of sin lies not in God or in some cosmic struggle between
good and evil, but in human actions and decision. It is a product of free acts of human
persons. That is, the first human beings were presented with the capacity to choose
between alternatives but they chose evil rather than the Good. It should be noted that
human freedom is both our strength and weakness. As Niebuhr attests, “human beings
are distinctively human because of the self-transcending capacities that constitute their
freedom—capacities for reason, moral choice, and decision. These capacities are the
source of the human good as well as evil.”10 Subsequently, all human sins necessarily
involve making a choice for or against. In this respect, I concur with Wiley when she
says that the literary genre of Genesis 3 is mythical; but a true myth. In this context, a
myth becomes a symbolic codification of knowledge. Every myth becomes an essential
branch of epistemology with its unique way of imparting knowledge and informing
our day to day life. It discloses genuine insight into the human condition.11 As such, a
complete dismissal of the story of human origin as a myth with no theological relevance
to contemporary theology implies discarding a pertinent fundamental and pivotal truth
about human existence. It is a denial of an existential contradiction in human nature.
Placing the origin of sin within human freedom is one of the lessons contemporary
theologians can learn from the scriptural narration about original sin.
Nonetheless, there is the need to be cautious here. Situating human sinfulness at the
realm of a person’s freedom is abhorrent to some contemporary minds for two logical
reasons. First, it contradicts the view that humans from the start and by their nature
and essence are created good, whole and sound. It is not surprising then that modern
minds position human sinfulness, crimes, social disharmonies as merely secondary
products of civilization and society. Accordingly, social disharmonies are seen as exterior to man. For example, some identify money or other material goods as the roots
of human sinfulness. Also, it is common for an elderly person to complain that youths
of this age are promiscuous because of the genre of music they listen and dance to.
The doctrine of original sin which pronounces that human sinfulness rests existentially
in man’s intrinsic capacity to choose contradicts this popular conviction. Secondly, the
doctrine of original sin elicits certain forms of pessimistic existentialism—it implies the
absurdity of human existence and its tragic nature.
The doctrine of original sin even though it situates sin within human freedom, does
not necessarily entail that human beings are by nature bad or incomplete. In a sense,
9
10
11
80
one can compare human freedom with money. A rich man can use his money to build
a house for orphans or use it to promote prostitution. In this case, money is neither
good nor bad. Furthermore, this doctrine instead of revealing the absurdity of human
existence or its tragic nature portrays the mystery of the sanctifying grace of God which
is antecedent to the free decision of a creature who may be ambivalent and therefore
in need of God’s love. In the words of Karl Rahner:
This self-communication of the God who alone is essentially (ontologically) holy is, as grace,
antecedent to the free decision of a creature who is ambivalent and therefore not holy by his
very essence. By it, therefore, there is a holiness of man which is antecedent to moral goodness
(holiness) of the free decision, and (where it is accepted in freedom) confers on this decision
and the condition that ensues from it a holy quality which it does not possess of itself.12
In this context, one can assert that the doctrine of original sin underscores the
grounding ontological holiness of God. It accentuates the primacy of God’s sanctifying
grace which precedes all of human being’s good action.
Another doubt which analytical minds raise with respect to the teaching of original
sin is the claim that this teaching suggests that original sin is prior, more universal and
efficacious than the effects of redemption brought by Christ. That is, chronologically,
Adam’s sinful action occurs prior to Christ’s redemptive action. Here as well, I find Rahner
apt when he affirms that “original sin and being redeemed are two existentials of the
human situation in regard to salvation, which at all times determine human existence.
It may be assumed that sin was only permitted by God within the domain of his unconditional and stronger salvific will, which from the very beginning was directed towards
God’s self-communication in Christ.”13 To see original sin therefore as an unintended
second plan of an all-knowing God is rather myopic. Instead, original sin becomes a
necessary preparatory event in the history of humanity and its salvation.
One of the main doctrines from St. Augustine that has remained in the Church on
this subject of original sin is infant baptism. Yet, it is difficult to see how a one-year-old
baby has the capacity to choose between inviting alternatives. In fact, the scriptural
understanding of sin as seen in Genesis 3 account concretely stresses the actuality that
sin is not an accidental event that would affect only some few individuals in a particular period of human history. According to the Catholic theology of original sin, even
infants are implicated in a sense. St. Thomas Aquinas expresses this participation in
Adamic sin thus:
An individual can be considered either as an individual or as part of a whole, a member
of a society…. Considered in the second way an act can be his although he has not done
it himself, nor has it been done by his free will but by the rest of the society or by its head,
the nation being considered as doing what the prince does. For a society is considered as a
single man of whom the individuals are the different members (St. Paul, 1 Corinthians 12).
Thus the multitude of men who receive their human nature from Adam is to be considered
as a single community or rather as a single body…. If the man, whose privation of original
justice is due to Adam, is considered as a private person, this privation is not his ‘fault’, for
a fault is essentially voluntary. If, however, we consider him as a member of the family of
Adam, as if all men were only one man, then his privation partakes of the nature of sin on
account of its voluntary origin, which is the actual sin of Adam.14
12
Encyclopedia of Theology: The Concise Sacramentum Mundi. Edited by Karl Rahner (New York:
A Crossroad Book, 1975), 1151.
13
Encyclopedia of Theology, 1151.
14
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11312a.htm. Accessed on 5/11/2010.
81
With the contemporary notion of justice, the idea that Adam’s sin affects his future
descendants is unfair. As an illustration, a king might confer a hereditary dignity on
condition that the recipient remains loyal, and that, in case of his rebelling, this dignity
shall be taken away from him and his descendants. It would seem rather unfair that this
king, on account of a fault committed by a father, should order the hands and feet of
all the descendants of the guilty man to be cut off immediately after their birth.15 For
contemporary minds, this is a great injustice. Again, perhaps this is where contemporary
thinkers miss the track. If one considers the fact that the early Israelites were profoundly
communitarian, this notion of infant baptism might make more sense. As Durbale asserts, “[t]he people of Israel were profoundly convinced of the solidarity binding each
person to his family and nation, not to mention his physical environment…this solidarity
enters in on the religious level as on other levels, and was often felt as a solidarity in
sin.”16 One might rightly state that infant baptism expresses an understanding of human solidarity and web of interconnectedness. Many Old Testament texts corroborate
this claim too.
As illustrations, the whole house of Pharaoh was inflicted with severe plagues because of the sins of pharaoh.17 Another example is the case of Ham, the youngest son of
Noah in Genesis 9:25-27, who reduced his descendents to a miserable servitude because
of his iniquity. Further still, Korah, Dathan and Abiram together with their families, little
children and goods were swallowed up by the ground because they rebelled against
God’s authority in Moses.18 It is not, thus, a strange thing that the sins of a person’s
previous generations can affect a person. Tobit captures this mentality when he prays:
“Remember me and look favourably upon me; do not punish me for my sins and for my
unwitting offences and those which my fathers committed before thee.”19 King David
makes a similar heart-broken confession to God in these words: “Behold, I was brought
forth in iniquity; And in sin did my mother conceive me.”20 From these passages, one
begins to appreciate how the entire world is inundated by the sin of Adam and Eve.
Given this communal orientation, all human beings are implicated in Adam’s sin. An
important supposition in this thinking is that all existence is in fact bonded together,
interwoven in a solidarity whereby each person is actually involved in the other’s wellbeing. That is, there is a fundamental falseness to the egoism that develops from one’s
psychic sole instincts for survival, since the ontological reality is that a person’s survival
is bound up with the survival of all else—all reality is interconnected. One will not be
totally wrong in inferring that the problematic atmosphere that surrounds this doctrine
of original sin today is partly because of a paradigm shift from the traditional communal
outlook to our contemporary individualistic stance.
How should we understand the content of the original sin? Some scholars have
interpreted the original sin as a sin of disobedience. Others interpret it as a sin of pride,
and some view it as a rebellion against God—preferring creatures to the Creator. As illustrations, Agbonkhianmeghe Orobator asserts: “God commands Adam and Eve to steer
clear of the fruit of a certain tree. The temptation is too much for the first parents, and
15
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11312a.htm. Accessed on 9/11/2010.
Dubarle A.M., The Biblical Doctrine of Original Sin. Translated by E.M. Stewart (New York: Herder
and Herder, 1964), 28.
17
Genesis 12:17.
18
Numbers 16:25-53.
19
Tobit 3:3.
20
Psalm 51:5
16
82
they eventually succumb. Thereafter, everything begins to go wrong. The harmonious
condition of human existence, which God had taken so much pride in only a few days
earlier, is completely ruptured.”21 Commenting on the same, Ormerod says, “Pride is
the overreaching of the spirit, its attempt to claim more than its proper place. This is the
sin of the first humans, succumbing to the temptation, ‘you will be like God (Gen 3:5),
not being content with the grounded reality of human bodily existence.”22 Whichever
interpretation one intends to give this primordial sin, one essential lesson to learn is
that maybe the sin is not as archaic, inconsequential or mythical as many contemporary
minds seem to suggest. As such, St. Paul’s affirmation that, “It was through one man that
sin came into the world, and through sin death, and thus death has spread through the
whole human race because everyone has sinned… Just as by one man’s disobedience
many were made sinners, so by one man’s obedience are many to be made upright”23
carries a lot of significance. Also, the Catechism of Catholic Church’s declarations that:
“the Church has always taught that the overwhelming misery which oppresses men and
their inclination towards evil and death cannot be understood apart from their connection with Adam’s sin and the fact that he has transmitted to us a sin with which we are
all born afflicted, a sin which is the death of the soul. Because of this certainty of faith,
the Church baptizes for the remission of sins even tiny infants who have not committed personal sin.”24 In this context, these testimonies become statements of faith and
essentials for contemporary minds.
Sin in African World-View
In the African traditional world-view, humanity is prone to strain its relationship
with God. The Dinka myth makes this clear. In Godfrey Lienhardt’s short rendering of
the myth, it says:
God created in the beginning a man and a woman, and the earth was near to the sky that
men on earth could easily reach God in the sky by a rope which stretched between them.
Sickness and death were unknown, and a single grain of millet was sufficient for a day’s
food. God forbade them to pound more than this single grain; but the woman wanted more
food, and began to pound more grain with the long-handled pestle the Dinka use. In doing
so she struck God, who withdrew above and sent a finch to sever the rope which once had
allowed man easy access to him. Therefore man has to work hard to get his food, and death
and sickness, unknown when God and man were near together, are his lot.25
Myths such as this in many African societies explain not only the separation of God
from humanity but also the implications of that separation. Essential to this is the fact
that, in the African traditional worldview, sin is expressed concretely as wrong-doing,
bad-behaviour or destruction of life. These terms seem abstract but they have concrete
implications in real life. In reality, African conception of sin is situated in the realm of
21
Agbonkhianmeghe Orobator, Theology Brewed in an African Pot (Nairobi: Paulines Publication,
200), 60.
22
23
24
Ormerod, Creation, Grace and Redemption, 48.
Romans 5:12, 19.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church. Revised Edition. (Nairobi: Paulines Publication, 1995),
403.
25
Laurenti Magesa, African Religion: The Moral Traditions of Abundant Life (Nairobi: Paulines Publication, 1998), 47.
83
concreteness. This does not imply that the more abstract notion of sin is non-existent
in African traditional consciousness; it is to say, however, that the moral perspective of
African traditional worldview is quite concrete and pragmatic.26
Strongly connected to this idea of concreteness is the fact that sin is always attached
to a wrong doer. Ultimately, the sinful actions are not independent of the doer. In the
words of Magesa: “It is people or personalized beings who are evil, precisely because
they actually entertain bad intentions, utter bad words, or engage in wrong deeds. In
other words, they are incarnations of evil powers, at least for the time they behave in an
anti-life manner, that frustrate the flowering of life and life-energies.”27 This means that
sin is not merely the subject of an abstract theological discourse; in African traditional
thought, sin has a face and a name. Sin is not in the world but it comes into the world
through the decisions and actions of human beings.
This position is similar to the scriptural interpretation highlighted above where sin is
situated within the realm of human freedom. One implication of this is that the corrupt
practices and gruesome post election killings that characterize Africa are actions and
decisions of people. The African understanding of sin is significant in a world where
many fail to take responsibility for their hideous actions. Hence, a theology of sin that
stresses this dimension of people being responsible for their actions will be relevant to
the contemporary world.
In African traditional expression, sin does not merely have a face and a name, it is
equally communal and relational. Sin is like a bush-fire that destroys the harmonious
order in the community. Laurenti Magesa expresses this communal dimension of sin
thus: “In African Religion, wrongdoing relates to the contravention of specific codes of
community expectations, including taboos. Individuals and the whole community must
observe these forms of behavior to preserve order and assure the continuation of life
in its fullness. To threaten in any way to break any of the community codes of behavior, which are in fact moral codes, endangers life; it is bad, wrong or sinful.”28 This is
precisely how the people of Umuofia understood the gravity of Okonkwo’s violation of
an important religious code in Things Fall Apart. In this book by Chinua Achebe, the
chief priest, Ezeani reminds Okonkwo of the consequences of his action:
You are not a stranger in Umuofia. You know as well as I do that our forefathers ordained
that before we plant any crops in the earth we should observe a week in which a man does
not say a harsh word to his neighbor. We live in peace with our fellows to honor our great
goddess of the earth without whose blessing our crops will not grow. You have committed
a great evil…the evil you have done can ruin the whole clan. The earth goddess whom you
have insulted may refuse to give us her increase, and we shall all perish.
This communal understanding of sin in Africa is succinctly expressed in this saying:
if one finger is soiled with palm-oil, it soils all the others.
It is often reported that contemporary minds condone and even protect sinful behavior. A case was recently narrated of a young man caught stealing. This young man
blamed his mother for protecting and never chastising him when he started stealing his
school-mates’ pens as a teenager. With the awareness of communal consequence of
26
Laurenti Magesa, African Religion: The Moral Traditions of Abundant Life (Nairobi: Paulines Publication, 1998), 149.
27
Magesa, African Religion: The Moral Traditions of Abundant Life, 150.
28
Magesa, African Religion: The Moral Traditions of Abundant Life, 150.
84
sin comes communal responsibility to curtail it. In the words of an African proverb: it
takes one man and a woman to give birth to a child but the whole village to raise him/
her. The onus should be on all to ensure that sinful acts are rooted out of our community by reprimanding them. Contemporary theologians may develop this and may
even push this further by re-introducing public penance even in the Church as a way
of emphasizing the communal and relational dimension of sin or as a way of deterring
others from sinning.
African traditional religious expression therefore emphasizes avoiding wrongdoing or sin, but places an even greater importance on consciously pursuing acts that
enhance the general good state of life of the community. Magesa elucidates on this
when he says that
the foundation and purpose of the ethical perspective of African Religion is life, life in its
fullness. Everything is perceived with reference to this. It is no wonder, then, Africans quickly
draw ethical conclusions about thoughts, words, and actions of human beings, or even of
natural cosmological events by asking questions such as: Does the particular happening promote life? If so, it is good, just ethical, desirable, divine. Or, does it diminish life in any way?
Then it is wrong, bad, unethical, unjust, detestable.29
Another significant task for contemporary theologians is to bring to the fore and
make relevant this awareness that sinful acts are those human actions which diminish
life in any way.
Sin in St. Ignatius’ Spiritual Exercises
Stephen Daedalus, the protagonist in James Joyce’s book, A Portrait of the Artist as
A Young Man describes the experience of the First Week of the Spiritual Exercises of
St. Ignatius of Loyola thus:
He had sinned mortally not once but many times and he knew that, while he stood in danger
of eternal damnation for the first sin alone, by every succeeding sin he multiplied his guilt
and his punishment. His days and works and thoughts could make no atonement for him,
the fountains of sanctifying grace having ceased to refresh his soul…What did it avail to pray
when he knew his soul lusted after its own destruction? A certain pride, a certain awe, withheld
him from offering to God even one prayer at night though he knew it was in God’s power to
take away his life while he slept and hurl his soul hell ward ere he could beg for mercy; His
pride in his own sin, his loveless awe of God, told him that his offense was too grievous to
be atoned for in whole or in part by a false homage to the Allseeing and Allknowing.30
I have begun this section with this quote because it highlights some of the erroneous views of the First Week of the Spiritual Exercises and of St. Ignatius of Loyola’s
notion of sin. First, the first week is not about our analyses of sin. Strangely, this seems
to be the case particularly when one considers the prelude which reads, “In the present
meditation it will be to ask for shame and confusion about myself, when I see how many
people have been damned for committing a single mortal sin and how many times I
have deserved eternal damnation for my many sins.”31 However, foundational to this
29
Mages, African Religion: The Traditions of Abundant Life, 77.
Howard Gray, “Christ and First Week of the Spiritual Exercises” in A New Introduction to the
Spiritual Exercise of St. Ignatius. Edited by John Dister (Minnesota: The Liturgical Press, 1993), 40.
31
The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius. Translated by George Ganss. 3rd Edition. (Gujarat: Anand
Press, 2009), 48.
30
85
meditation is God’s love in spite of one’s sinfulness. This foundational and unfathomable love is what the original sin equally reveals. It is always antecedents to all one’s
action and it does not matter whether my decision goes for or against it. Our sinful
act is a failing to participate in God’s love. The vision of God in all reality, particularly
in this contemplation, is in fact to attain the divine love. It suffices therefore to state
that the meditations on sin are done within the context of love and life and not about
condemnation and death. John English expresses this point poignantly:
By now we realize that most of the meditations and prayers in the Exercises are intended
to move us out of ourselves. Even though there is a tremendous amount of introspection in
the prayers on sin, they are still directed towards the all-loving, all merciful-God…our whole
background has convinced us that being loved depends on producing results. We imagine that
we must do something good before people will love us, before even God will love us. This
pelagian tendency is very strong. The mystery about human beings is that they are lovable,
whether or not they are doing good things. The meditations on sins are intended to impart
a deep awareness of the fact that sinful as a man is, he is loved.32
This is precisely what St. Paul implies in his letter to the Romans when he claims
that Christ died for us when we were still sinners.33 Will this awareness not create more
sin? I will say the opposite is true, because the awareness that one is loved pushes one
to always say yes to God. It is like being sick and then being made whole; like being a
slave and then having someone pay the redemption money for one’s release; it is like
going to court expecting to be found guilty, yet being declared righteous and freed from
one’s guilt. This in-depth gratitude is what it means to be human beings completely free
and constantly saying yes to God—the love of God urges us. This is a lesson contemporary theologians can learn from St. Ignatius’ understanding of sin.
Shame, sorrow and even tears are essential ingredients in St. Ignatius’ meditation on
sin. How do these fit into this notion of the immeasurable love of God? In one sense,
the shame of sin stays. St. Ignatius himself was always moved to tears by his past sins.
But, St. Ignatius also learned that Jesus does not want shame to keep us from being his
true companions and disciples in the world. St. Ignatius sheds tears, not merely at his
sins, but at his sins compared to the love of God who forgave him and built him up
with grace. The love of God overwhelmed his shame. This is an experience of every
loved sinner. It is the experience of the prodigal son in the foreign land. Here again,
the analysis of John English captures this point: “He [the prodigal son] has been enslaved by his sensual desires; he is an alien in a foreign land; he cannot make himself
understood. Moreover, because he is surrounded by animals, he is isolated from human
sympathy. He is cut off from his friends. The first movement toward his father comes
when he experiences hunger. Only then does he realize he is a sinner.”34 Another task
of contemporary theologians emerges. The contemporary theologians should create
conducive environments for human beings to appreciate their limitedness but also that
this limitation should make humans depend on God whose love is stronger than the
propensity or inclination to sin and humans’ limitations.
St. Ignatius’ meditation on sin portrays the centrality of Christ in God’s redemptive
mission. This is obvious when one uses Mark 5:1-5 as scriptural text for one of the medita32
John English, Spiritual Freedom: From An Experience of the Ignatian Exercises to the Art of Spiritual
Direction (Guelph: Loyola House, 1973), 70.
33
Romans 5:6-11.
34
English, Spiritual Freedom, 71.
86
tions on sin. This text is about Jesus’ exorcism of the Gerasene demoniac. What Ignatius
invites the retreatant to experience is his or her radical need for Christ as Redeemer.
Here, Jesus becomes a model for the retreatant precisely because Christ conquers death,
sin and fear not through physical power but through the power of love.
Humility is the natural consequence of this First Week. This is exactly the experience with the saints. They were so overwhelmed with the intensity of love received
that they acknowledge that they could never reciprocate the love of God. Humility is
always the response to the mystery of being loved, what St. Ignatius calls the Third
Degree of Humility. The first degree is to avoid mortal sin. The second degree is to
avoid venial sin. The third degree of humility is not only to avoid what is sinful, but to
choose what is more pleasing to God, even though no sin is involved. For example, when
a young African leaves a decent job and changes his mind from marrying a wonderful
girl and enters religious life—he makes the choice to sacrifice what, naturally speaking,
would have meant good life for him. I believe such a person is appropriating this third
degree of humility. Another example is when a prominent Member of Parliament uses
his salary to sponsor an orphan who cannot afford to pay her school fees, without this
particular Member of Parliament expecting any reward in doing so. In other words, it
involves choosing what is more difficult, more demanding, more self-sacrificing, not
under the pain of sin, but because one loves Jesus Christ, and out of love for Him, one
wants to be like Him in choosing what He chose. If one really loves Jesus Christ, one
will follow His example and will even prefer the cross because the God who created us
out of love became man and chose the cross out of love for us. John English captures
this thus: “Love is free both in the giving and receiving. In fact, the reception of love
actually makes a man free. Man finds himself within the love of God, within the sphere
of the Trinity’s love. To freely accept a gift so freely given enables him to love in the
way that divine Persons love—in perfect freedom.”35 Putting this perfect freedom rooted
in love of Christ in words that will make sense to contemporary minds is both a lesson
and a task for contemporary theologians.
Conclusion: I share the view that a contemporary and relevant theology of sin should
be cognizant of scripture, African traditional and Ignatian notions of sin. These improve
contemporary theology of sin and help us understand the origin and persistence of our
own sinfulness. Instead of discarding the scriptural account of original sin as mythical,
African traditional doctrines on sin as archaic and St. Ignatius’ notion of sin as mere
spirituality, the onus of the contemporary theologians is to incorporate these into today’s
world and vocabulary.
Bibliography
Dubarle A.M. The Biblical Doctrine of Original Sin. Translated by E.M. Stewart. New York: Herder
and Herder, 1964.
English, John. Spiritual Freedom: From An Experience of the Ignatian Exercises to the Art of Spiritual Direction. Guelph: Loyola House, 1973.
35
English, Spiritual Freedom, 75.
87
Gray, Howard. “Christ and First Week of the Spiritual Exercises.” A New Introduction to the Spiritual
Exercise of St. Ignatius. Edited by John Dister. Minnesota: The Liturgical Press, 1993.
Haight, Roger. The Experience and Language of Grace. New York: Paulist Press, 1979.
Ivens, Michael. Understanding The Spiritual Exercises. Trowbridge, Wiltshire: Cromwell press,
1998.
Magesa, Laurenti. African Religion: The Moral Traditions of Abundant Life. Nairobi: Paulines
Publication, 1998.
Orobator, Agbonkhianmeghe. Theology Brewed in an African Pot. Nairobi: Paulines Publication,
2008.
Ormerod, Neil. Creation, Grace and Redemption. New York: Orbis Book, 2007.
Wiley, Tatha. Original Sin: Origins, Developments, Contemporary Meanings. New York: Paulist
Press, 2002.
Encyclopedia of Theology: The Concise Sacramentum Mundi. Edited by Karl Rahner. New York:
A Crossroad Book, 1975.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church. Revised Edition. Nairobi: Paulines Publication, 1995.
The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius. Translated by George Ganss. 3rd Edition. Gujarat: Anand
Press, 2009.
The New Jerusalem Bible. Standard Edition. London: Darton, Longman and Todd Ltd, 1985.
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11312a.htm
88
Une méditation sur la responsabilité de l’homme à l’égard
de la création
Raphael Ndaphet Bazebizonza, SJ *
Abstract: La crise écologique est devenue une préoccupation universelle, en ce sens
que tous les pays, quel que soit leur emplacement géographique ou leur degré de
développement, en ressentent les effets. En effet, partout dans le monde on parle
actuellement de pollution, de surexploitation, de désertification, de sécheresse, de
destruction de la couche d’ozone, de changement climatique, etc., bref de la crise
écologique. Toutefois les conséquences de tous ces phénomènes ne sont plus à démontrer ;
tout simplement parce que les populations en expérimentent au quotidien les méfaits.
Cette situation demeure une menace continuelle aussi bien pour le chrétien que pour
toute l’humanité. C’est à ce juste titre que le pape Jean-Paul II parlait de ‘‘la formation
d’une conscience écologique en sachant que les problèmes qui menacent l’environnement
menacent aussi la paix’’. Mais l’homme semble ne pas avoir compris jusque-là le
commandement reçu de Dieu. Que disent les Ecritures du rôle de l’homme dans l’univers ?
Quelle feuille de route les textes lui donnent à suivre et quelle est la responsabilité des
chrétiens vis-à-vis du système qui surexploite la Terre ? C’est à ces lancinantes questions
que tente de répondre cette méditation spirituelle.
Summary: Ecology is, in fact, a sign of the times for the world and the Church. Every
Christian should feel indispensable in the struggle of the Church in favour of creation.
Certainly, men and women are called, through development, to ensure their human
development. It is a duty for them to work at their own development. But, does this
duty of man and woman can justify the exploitation of the nature?
The ecological crisis has indeed become a universal concern in the sense that
all countries, irrespective of their geographical location or level of development, are
feeling the effects. In view of the general deterioration of the environment, humanity realizes now that we cannot continue to use the goods of the earth as in the past.
it is now clear that world good-been is threatened not only by the arms race, regional
conflicts and continued injustices among peoples and nations, but also by a lack of due
respect for nature, by the plundering of natural resources and by a progressive decline
in the quality of life.
In all parts of the world, we see the signs of distressing. The gradual depletion of
the ozone layer and the related greenhouse effect has now reached crisis proportions as
a consequence of industrial growth, massive urban concentrations and vastly increased
energy needs. Industrial waste, the burning of fossil fuels, unrestricted deforestation, the
use of certain types of herbicides, coolants and propellants: all of these are known to
harm the atmosphere and environment. The resulting meteorological and atmospheric
changes range from damage to health to the possible future submersion of low-lying
lands (Jean-Paul II). It is a great ecological crisis. However, the consequences of all
*
Raphael is from Congo Brazzaville. He is a Jesuit and a first year theology student at
Hekima College.
89
Raphael Ndaphet Bazebizonza, SJ
these phenomena are no longer to be demonstrated, simply because the populations
are experiencing their harmful effects every day.
The ecological crisis remains a continuing threat to both the all humanity and for
Christians. The Church, the States, philosophy and science all speak of a harmonious
universe, of a cosmos endowed with its own integrity, its own internal, dynamic balance.
This order must be respected. The human race is called to respect and explore this order,
to examine it with due care and to make use of it while safeguarding its integrity (JeanPaul II). According to the book of Genesis, in the beginning God entrusted the whole of
creation to the man and woman. Adam and Eve’s call to share in the unfolding of God’s
plan of creation brought into play those abilities and gifts which distinguish the human
being from all other creatures.
This article is a reminder that creation is God’s gift to men/women. Understanding the Creation in this way is to understand man or woman as a servant of both
God and creation. Man or woman is created in the image and likeness of God to
dominate the earth with wisdom and love. To dominate – not in the sense of productive mentality –, it is a duty of care, preservation of this creation, which is a gift from
God to all generations. Believe that Creation is a gift, has ethical implications that
ecological awareness helps us to better observe today.
How to understand better the relationship between human activity and the whole
of creation according to the Scriptures and the Tradition of the Church? What is in fact,
the role of man or woman in the universe? What is the responsibility of Christians vis-àvis the system that overusing the Earth? These are the questions that attempt to answer
this meditation.
I
ntroduction: En avril 2010, prenait feu, la plate-forme d’exploration ‘‘Deepwater
horizon’’ construite en 2001, propriété de Trans Océan et exploitée par la
Compagnie British Petroleum (BP). La catastrophe de ce forage, plus cher à mettre
en œuvre et aussi plus technique et risqué avait tué 11 travailleurs. Dit-on que plus
de 2,6 millions de litres d’hydrocarbures étaient stockés à bord de la plate-forme
lors du gigantesque incendie. Les experts ignorent la quantité qui a brulé avant
que cette dernière ne sombre. La victime innocente, oui disons-le, la victime c’est
la mer. Encore une fois, la terre a été sapée ; elle a connu une des pires marées
noires de l’histoire.
Mais la marée noire, c’est aussi tout près de nous. La destruction progressive
de la couche d’ozone, et l’effet de serre qu’elle provoque, ont atteint désormais des
dimensions critiques par suite du développement constant des industries, des grandes
concentrations urbaines et de la consommation d’énergie. Les déchets industriels, les
gaz produits par la combustion des carburants fossiles, la déforestation incontrôlée,
l’usage de certains types de désherbants, de produits réfrigérants et de combustibles de
propulsion, tout cela, on le sait, nuit à l’atmosphère et à l’environnement. Il en résulte
de multiples altérations météorologiques et atmosphériques dont les effets vont des atteintes à la santé jusqu’à l’immersion possible, dans l’avenir, des terres basses.
La crise écologique est en effet devenue une préoccupation universelle, en ce sens
que tous les pays, quel que soit leur emplacement géographique ou leur degré de développement, en ressentent les effets. Face à la dégradation générale de l’environnement,
90
l’humanité se rend compte désormais que l’on ne peut continuer à utiliser les biens de
la Terre comme par le passé1. En réalité, ‘‘la création tout entière ayant l’homme pour
porte-parole demande à être libérée des causes secondes et à recevoir enfin directement sur sa surface purifiée l’image de cet Inventeur qui l’a faite pour y multiplier sa
ressemblance’’2. Mais alors, comment comprendre le judéo-christianisme du point de
vue de l’écologie et l’écologie du point de vue du judéo-christianisme ? Que disent
les Ecritures du rôle de l’homme dans l’univers ? Quelle feuille de route les textes lui
donnent à suivre et quelle est la responsabilité des chrétiens vis-à-vis du système qui
surexploite la Terre ?
L’écologie, un problème ?
Le mot Ecologie sonne sa translittération grecque de ‘‘Oikos’’ qui signifie discours
ou science de la maison. Ce mot est essentiellement une création du langage scientifique
pour désigner l’étude scientifique des rapports des êtres vivants avec leur milieu naturel
(biotope). On comprend, dès lors, que ‘‘la crise écologique ne constitue pas seulement
un problème scientifique et technique mais, également et principalement un problème
éthique et moral’’ pour reprendre les propos de l’évêque péruvien de Huancayo. ‘‘Le
changement climatique, martelait l’évêque péruvien, représente une sérieuse menace
pour la paix dans le monde. Il s’agit d’un authentique signe des temps qui exige de
notre part une conversion écologique. ’’3
Un signe des temps
L’écologie est, en effet, un signe des temps pour le monde et pour l’Eglise. Elle pose
à l’Eglise une question qui est loin d’être entendue dans toute sa profondeur révolutionnaire. ‘‘Révolutionnaire pour la Foi Chrétienne, que l’écologie incite à un retour aux
sources en même temps qu’à un surgissement de l’esprit pour de nouveaux développements du salut en Christ. Mais révolutionnaire aussi pour l’écologie, que l’Eglise à son
tour interroge sur son sens originel et sa destination finale’’4. C’est pourquoi chaque
chrétien doit se sentir indispensable dans la lutte de l’Eglise en faveur de la création.
Certes, ‘‘les hommes sont appelés, par le développement, à assurer leur croissance
humaine’’5, mais c’est un devoir pour eux que de travailler à leur propre épanouissement. Ce devoir de l’homme peut-il légitimer toute exploitation aveugle de la nature ?
En effet, partout dans le monde on parle actuellement de pollution, de surexploitation, de désertification, de sécheresse, de destruction de la couche d’ozone, de changement climatique, etc., bref de la crise écologique. Toutefois les conséquences de tous
ces phénomènes ne sont plus à démontrer ; tout simplement parce que les populations
en expérimentent au quotidien les méfaits. Cette situation demeure une menace continuelle aussi bien pour le chrétien que pour toute l’humanité. C’est à ce juste titre que le
pape Jean-Paul II parlait de ‘‘la formation d’une conscience écologique en sachant que
1
Jean-Paul II, La paix avec Dieu et sa création, message au monde pour la journée de la paix, 1er
janvier 1990 (In Documentation Catholique 1997)
2
Paul Claudel, Au milieu des vitraux de l’Apocalypse, 1932.
3
Mgr Pedro Ricardo Barreto Jimero, SJ, Allocution au synode des évêques de l’Eucharistie, le 4 octobre
2005.
4
Jean Bastaire, L’exigence écologique chrétienne, (in ETVDES, septembre 2005), 203-211.
5
Paul VI, Populorum progression, 15-17.
91
les problèmes qui menacent l’environnement menacent aussi la paix’’6. Mais l’homme
semble ne pas avoir compris jusque-là le commandement reçu de Dieu qui consiste
non pas seulement à cultiver le sol mais aussi à le garder (Gn 2,15), par conséquent,
à prendre soin de toute la création. Cela pose donc un problème moral sérieux qui ne
doit pas nous laisser indifférents. Nous nous posons ainsi la question de savoir : où
trouver la réponse à ce problème ?
Origine et cause de la crise écologique dans le monde
Situer l’origine de la crise écologique dans le temps n’est pas toujours facile, car
elle est intervenue, comme le dit Olivier Burgelin, ‘‘dans une chaîne de crise du progrès
dont chacune peut être analysée comme le retour du moment de la négation dans la
dialectique du développement occidental’’7. Qu’à cela ne tienne, elle correspond à la
prise de conscience historique, qui s’est effectuée à partir des années 50, de la puissance dangereuse, aux effets irréversibles, qu’exerçaient les Hommes contre la nature
et leur milieu environnemental. Il est cependant démontré que celle-ci est très liée au
développement industriel. En effet, la croissance des villes, le tracé des voies de communication, l’implantation de nouvelles industries avec des retombées telles que le bruit,
la fumée, en somme la pollution, sont autant de problèmes dont l’homme et la nature
subissent les conséquences. Entre autres causes, nous pouvons également relever la
coupe abusive de bois, l’utilisation abondante des engrais et des pesticides, l’urbanisme
anarchique, la pollution hydro sphérique et atmosphérique, etc.
Son épiphanie en Afrique
L’Afrique n’est pas a l’abri des marées noires qui sabotent l’environnement. Quel
que soit l’état où elle se trouve, son univers se verra dangereusement menacé. Elle
aura même du plomb dans l’aile par la raréfaction des ressources naturelles: d’un
côté, il y a la baisse de la production pétrolière; de l’autre côté, il y a déjà la pollution
des terres, des mers et de l’atmosphère, pollution largement due aux décharges des
véhicules à moteur. En outre, les installations et occupations des forêts et savanes, la
recherche des bois de chauffage pour la cuisine, de coupe de bois pour la construction des logis, conséquence de la pauvreté galopante, se multiplient. La pêche dans
l’Atlantique et dans de nombreuses eaux d’Afrique n’a plus de limites.
La même gabegie criminelle a présidé à l’exploitation des ressources naturelles
et animales, des singes, des troupeaux de biches, des vols d’éléphants et de pigeons
sauvages radicalement exterminés, des pêcheries empoisonnées par les égouts, par
les usines et par le mazout, des réservoirs de gaz naturel et de pétrole livrés sans aucun contrôle aux pirateries du premier occupant. Qui va expliquer aux populations
pétrolières – Congo, Guinée équatoriale, Gabon, Cameroun, Nigeria, Lybie… – la
situation où elles se trouvent ? Qui aura le courage de leur indiquer les choix à faire
? Qui aura le courage de leur dire : ‘‘Nous sommes face à une échéance qui se rapproche : celle du pic de pétrole qui nous impose de préparer dès maintenant le passage
à une nouvelle société’’.
6
Jean-Paul II, La paix avec Dieu et sa création, message au monde pour la journée de la paix, 1er
janvier 1990 (In Documentation Catholique 1997).
7
Olivier Burgelin, Ecologique (mouvement), in Encyclopedia universalis, Tom 7, 875.
92
Foi et écologie
L’écologie est aujourd’hui sur toutes les lèvres. Elle modèle idées et comportements, jusqu’à remettre en cause le mode de vie actuel de l’homme. Il y a une prise
de conscience salutaire du caractère limité des ressources. De nombreux chrétiens ont
compris que l’homme est responsable de la gestion de la création devant le Créateur.
Quels sont les rapports entre l’écologie et le christianisme ?
Dimension écologique de la Bible
Dans l’Ancien Testament, la foi en Dieu créateur est intervenue après un long
cheminement spirituel du peuple saint. Avant la reconnaissance de son Dieu comme
le créateur de toutes choses, Israël a d’abord fait l’expérience d’un Dieu vivant qui le
protégeait et le sauvait à travers des actions salvifiques. La réflexion sur sa foi en ce
Dieu sauveur, dont la puissance se déploie même dans les éléments de la nature, le
conduisit progressivement à prendre conscience que son Dieu est le seul créateur et
le seul ordonnateur de l’univers, et qu’il crée chaque fois qu’il sauve. Et, dans le récit
Elohiste de la création, pour montrer que l’univers est vraiment une œuvre divine, Dieu
y est présenté comme le grand potier, celui qui moule l’Homme et le cosmos (Gn 2,719). Mais dans le récit Yahviste, Dieu crée par sa parole (ex nihilo) à partir de rien, sans
l’aide d’une matière : ‘‘il dit et tout survint’’ (Gn 1,1-31). Il est évident que pour le Peuple
élu et les traditions judéo-chrétiennes, Dieu est le créateur de l’univers en évolution. Il
est à la source et au terme. Il crée cet univers en permanence et le maintient dans son
déploiement, dont notre Terre n’est qu’un élément. Dieu se révèle comme celui à qui
appartiennent tous les peuples de la terre, et la terre entière; comme celui qui, seul, ‘‘a
fait le ciel et la terre’’ (Ps 115, 15 ; 124, 8 ; 134, 3).
Ce ne sont pas les éléments du cosmos, - pense le Pape Benoit XVI - les lois de la matière qui,
en définitive, gouvernent le monde et l’homme, mais c’est un Dieu personnel qui gouverne
les étoiles, à savoir l’univers; ce ne sont pas les lois de la matière et de l’évolution qui sont
l’instance ultime, mais la raison, la volonté, l’amour – une Personne. Et si nous connaissons
cette Personne et si elle nous connaît, alors vraiment l’inexorable pouvoir des éléments matériels n’est plus l’instance ultime; alors nous ne sommes plus esclaves de l’univers et de ses lois,
alors nous sommes libres. Dans l’antiquité, une telle conscience a déterminé les esprits sincères
qui étaient en recherche. Le ciel n’est pas vide. La vie n’est pas un simple produit des lois et
des causalités de la matière, mais, en tout, et en même temps au-dessus de tout, il y a une
volonté personnelle, il y a un Esprit qui, en Jésus, s’est révélé comme Amour8.
L’enseignement du Nouveau Testament porte à maturité, par son accomplissement
en Christ, ce message de compassion universelle et de délivrance cosmique. Dès la fin de
l’évangile de Marc, au jour de l’ascension, Jésus dit à ses disciples : ‘‘allez par le monde
entier, proclamer l’évangile à toutes les créatures’’ (Mc 16,15). Il ne dit pas, comme chez
Matthieu et Luc, ‘‘à toutes les nations’’, ce qui impliquerait seulement les Hommes. Dans
l’Epître aux Colossiens, Paul s’exprime de la même façon lorsqu’il incite à ne pas se
détourner de l’Evangile qui a été proclamé à toute créature sous le ciel (col 1,23). Et
dans l’épître aux Romains : ‘‘toute la création gémit dans les douleurs de l’enfantement,
attendant d’être libérée, elle aussi, de la servitude et de la corruption pour entrer dans
la liberté et la gloire des enfants de Dieu’’ (Rm 8,19-22). C’est en Christ, en effet, que
toutes choses ont été créées, en lui que tous les êtres ont été réconciliés par le sang
8
Benoit XVI, Spe Salvi, 5.
93
de sa croix (Col 1,15-20). ‘‘Ainsi la doctrine de la création trouve son achèvement dans
une contemplation du Fils de Dieu, par laquelle on voit en lui l’artisan, le modèle et la
fin de toutes choses’’9.
Conception théologique de la création
Après ce bref aperçu des Saintes Ecritures, il en ressort que la création est une œuvre divine. Créée par Dieu et pour lui, la création est dès le départ ouverte, c’est-à-dire
orientée vers son accomplissement. Atteinte par le péché d’Adam, elle fut, tout comme
la nature humaine, rénovée par le Christ mort et ressuscité. Toutefois elle continue de
gémir en douleur d’enfantement dans l’attente du jour où la gloire de Dieu illuminera
toutes choses. Mais avant ce jour, il appartient à l’homme de continuer cette œuvre
divine à travers la science, la technique, etc. L’homme se comportera en intendant de
Dieu avec la création car il l’a reçue comme prêt. De ce fait, il devra toujours chercher
à agir selon les critères de la loi divine, et non pas de ses propres lois. C’est donc une
constante de l’enseignement chrétien. Or, depuis le XVIIème siècle, cela n’est presque plus
enseigné. Combien de pasteurs le rappellent dans leurs prédications ? ‘‘Ce qui oblige
les chrétiens à se réveiller d’un long sommeil’’10. Un réveil qui ne serait pas seulement
dû à l’urgence des problèmes de pollution, de changement climatique ou autres, mais
parce que leur foi elle-même est interpellée. C’est au nom de leur foi que les chrétiens,
contrairement à d’autres écologistes, mèneront une pastorale écologique.
La Création, don et mystère
La terre est don de Dieu fait à l’homme. ‘‘De la terre Dieu a créé nos corps ; de la
terre, Dieu tire la nourriture de nos corps, les remèdes à nos maladies. Il fait plus : de la
terre, Dieu tire l’huile, le pain et le vin, qui sont la matière des sacrements, l’instrument
béni de sa sainte grâce’’11. Selon l’auteur de la Genèse, au commencement Dieu dit à
l’homme : ‘‘Voici, je vous donne toute herbe qui porte sa semence sur toute la surface
de la terre et tout arbre dont le fruit porte sa semence ; ce sera votre nourriture’’12. Cet
amour infini pour la joie de l’être humain a inspiré le chantre du psaume :
Dans les ravins tu fais jaillir des sources et l’eau chemine au creux des montagnes ; les oiseaux
séjournent près d’elle : dans le feuillage on entend leurs cris. De tes demeures tu abreuves
les montagnes, et la terre se rassasie du fruit de tes œuvres ; tu fais pousser les prairies pour
les troupeaux, et les champs pour l’homme qui travaille13.
La mythologie grecque voit en la Terre le Symbole de la fécondité, de la régénération. La communion avec le Ciel donne à la terre le pouvoir de créer, recréer, faire
naître. Dans ce sens, on comprend que le travail agricole soit comme un des éléments
de sa fertilité, cet acte de la Régénération. Mais en réalité, c’est Dieu lui-même qui fait
germer. Comme l’a chanté le jésuite Didier Rimaud, ‘‘la terre nous donne le pain, le vin
qui réjouit notre cœur. [Il] fait germer le grain semé, au temps voulu, les fruits mûrissent
! [Il] rassasie tous les vivants ; les hommes travaillent pour vivre’’. Les forêts par exemple,
nous fournissent toute une série de produits, non seulement du bois rond industriel et
9
10
11
12
13
94
Xavier Léon Dufour, La création nouvelle, in VTB (Paris : Cerf, 1995), 228.
Jean Bastaire, L’exigence écologique chrétienne, 24.
Emmanuel, du Mesnil-Saint-Loup, La présence de Dieu, 1886.
Emmanuel, du Mesnil-Saint-Loup, La présence de Dieu, 1886. 29.
Ps 103 (104), 1-2a, 5-6, 10.12, 13-14b, 24.35c.
du bois à brûler, mais également des aliments (tels que baies, chenilles, champignons,
plantes comestibles et gibier), des exsudats (tels que les résines de plantes et le latex),
des plantes aromatiques et médicinales, du fourrage, des plantes ornementales (comme
les sapins de Noël) de même que d’autres produits issus des plantes. Outre fournir du
bois et d’autres produits, les arbres jouent un rôle dans la conservation d’écosystèmes,
la préservation des ressources d’eau et la prévention des inondations, des avalanches,
de l’érosion et de la sécheresse.
Mais plus encore, le mystère de la création, c’est qu’elle nous procure le pain et
le vin qui deviennent le Corps et le Sang du Christ dans l’Eucharistie. Dans ce sens,
l’Eucharistie est réellement la source et le sommet de toute la création, et devient par
conséquent la réponse à la préoccupation écologique des hommes et des femmes
d’aujourd’hui. Les signes du pain et du vin, pétris par des mortels, ne sont-ils pas fruit
du sol ? De quel sol s’agit-il ? Est-ce de la terre polluée, ou bien fertile ? L’Eucharistie
nous engage à faire en sorte que le pain et le vin qui doivent devenir corps et sang du
Christ soient le fruit pur de la terre fertile, et non pas de la terre polluée.
Le principe de la responsabilité a l’égard de la création
Comprendre la Création de cette manière, c’est comprendre l’homme comme serviteur, à la fois de Dieu et de la Création. Le ‘dominer’ de la Genèse n’est pas une volonté
de produire plus – cette mentalité productiviste. Dominer, c’est un devoir de vigilance,
de conservation de cette Création, qui est un don de Dieu fait à toutes les générations.
Croire que la Création est un don, a donc des conséquences éthiques que la sensibilité
écologique nous aide a mieux observer aujourd’hui.
L’homme créé a en charge la Création : Dieu ne la lui a pas confiée pour qu’il la
saccage. Dans le récit de la Genèse, le Créateur amène les animaux à l’homme pour
‘‘pour voir quels noms il leur donnerait’’ (Gn 2, 19-20) ; en ‘‘nommant’’ toutes les espèces,
l’homme les prend donc toutes en charge. C’est le fondement transcendant de ce que les
écologistes appellent la protection de la biodiversité. En revanche, la destruction de la
biodiversité par la machinerie productiviste est, en quelque sorte, une dé-création : c’est
contre cela (notamment) qu’on doit protéger la Création, dont fait partie l’homme. Car
il existe un bien commun propre à l’ensemble de la planète, selon plusieurs niveaux :
sur le plan physique, c’est l’équilibre global de la biosphère et de ses interactions : le
« cycle vital » de la Terre, selon l’expression du cardinal Martino.
Soumettre la terre
Depuis le XVIIIème siècle, nous vivons sur une confiance assez naïve dans le progrès
des sciences. L’idée d’un progrès de l’humanité ne s’appuyait plus sur des croyances
religieuses, comme celle de l’avènement proche de la Cité de Dieu (saint Augustin), mais
sur une foi dans l’homme, dans sa raison et dans le pouvoir de la technique de changer
radicalement la vie humaine. Le sens de l’Histoire – au sens hégélien du terme – est
la croissance scientifique et technique. Cette conviction que l’homme est éminemment
responsable de son devenir, et qu’il atteint sa dignité d’homme par l’exercice de son
libre arbitre dans l’action efficace, pénètre généralement la pensée des humanistes. C’est
dans toutes les sphères d’action que le travail se trouve ainsi revalorisé, sans exclure,
bien au contraire, le domaine économique et l’activité marchande. Mais en fait, c’est
95
une pure illusion. Sans pour autant sous-estimer les bienfaits de la technique, nous
réalisons indubitablement qu’elle est aussi un facteur prodigieux de destruction. Paul
Claudel, génie catholique du XXe siècle nous livre des réflexions assez angoissantes.
Des les années 1930, il observe en substance que le productivisme industriel, ‘‘est en
train de dévorer toute la création avec ses dents de fer. Partout autour de nous, que
de détritus, de décombres, d’ossements de matériaux usés que nous foulons sous nos
pieds ! Toute la nature souillée et abîmée avec nos affiches, nos usines et nos pompes
à essence’’14 !
Oui, la raison est le grand don de Dieu à l’homme, et la victoire de la raison sur l’irrationalité
est aussi un but de la foi chrétienne. Mais quand la raison domine-t-elle vraiment ? Est-ce quand
elle s’est détachée de Dieu ? Est-ce quand elle est devenue aveugle pour Dieu ? La raison du
pouvoir et du faire est-elle déjà la raison intégrale ? Si, pour être progrès, le progrès a besoin
de la croissance morale de l’humanité, alors la raison du pouvoir et du faire doit pareillement,
de manière urgente, être complétée, grâce à l’ouverture de la raison aux forces salvifiques
de la foi, au discernement entre bien et mal. C’est seulement ainsi qu’elle devient une raison
vraiment humaine. Elle ne devient humaine que si elle est en mesure d’indiquer la route à
la volonté, et elle n’est capable de cela que si elle regarde au delà d’elle-même. Dans le cas
contraire, la situation de l’homme, dans le déséquilibre entre capacité matérielle et manque
de jugement du cœur, devient une menace pour lui et pour tout le créé15.
Faire une marche en arrière pour embrasser cette vérité, nous renvoie davantage
à une logique de gestion, d’intendance, qu’à une logique productrice. Cela nous
aide à contempler la Création comme un espace qui dit Dieu, qui le rend toujours
présent. C’est le même Dieu qui est à l’origine, qui sauve par le don du Christ et
qui mène à son terme toute l’histoire. ‘‘Ce n’est pas l’humanité mais Dieu qui est
le commencement, le centre et l’apogée de toute la Création et de toute l’histoire.
‘Je suis l’Alpha et l’Omega, celui qui est, qui était et qui vient, le Tout-puissant’’16.
Loin de rester passifs ou d’exercer sa tyrannie sur la création, dominer et soumettre
ouvrent au soin de la Terre dans la communion avec Dieu et dans le respect de
cette terre que nous aimons. ‘‘Tout ce que Dieu nous donne, affirme Paul Claudel, il
y a un devoir, un ordre, un art de le ménager, pour que nous gardions cela qui n’est à
nous que pour que nous ayons un moyen de payer à Dieu redevance. Il ne s’agit pas
de violenter la terre […] mais de l’interroger avec douceur, et de lui suggérer le vin et
l’huile’’17.
Dans le respect
Le respect dont il est question ici, ce n’est pas le respect à la manière de nos
anciens, qui était un sentiment de crainte révérencielle, de crainte devant ce qui
est puissant ou devant ce qu’on ne maitrise qu’à peine. D’ailleurs, cette manière
de ‘respecter’ est balayée par la mentalité productrice basée sur l’illusion qu’il faut
transgresser l’ordre de la nature pour aller aux choses mêmes. Si pour les Indiens
Hopis, une colline est un lieu sacré abritant l’âme des morts ; pour les investisseurs
conseillés par des techniciens, elle est un gisement. Ainsi, la fleur pour le regard
poétique est une présence qui mystérieusement évoque d’autres présences. Pour un
14
15
16
17
96
Paul Claudel, Au milieu des vitraux de l’Apocalypse, 1932.
Benoit XVI, Spe Salvi, 23.
Apocalypse 1, 8.
Paul Claudel, Présence et Prophétie, 1942.
fleuriste travaillant à l’échelle industrielle, elle est l’équivalent d’une pièce de monnaie. Pour que la technique se développe, il faut que le monde apparaisse non plus
comme une forme à contempler, mais comme une chose à transformer ou à exploiter,
comme un gisement.
Le respect dont il est question, c’est le sentiment de bienveillance devant ce qui est
petit, fragile, précaire. La nature n’est pas un réservoir inépuisable. Il y a des limites à
son exploitation. L’exploitation anarchique de la Création peut se montrer irréversible.
Et par conséquent déboulonner le chemin de l’homme. Notre époque sensible à la
dignité de l’homme, a du mal à respecter ses droits les plus élémentaires. Sans doute
parce que l’individualisme contemporain claironne la grandeur de l’homme, mais sans
se rappeler que la personne humaine a une dimension sociale, est enracinée dans une
culture, dans un environnement, que la personne est un être en alliance intime avec la
Création qui l’a accueilli.
Et la responsabilité
La technique, l’industrie et le mode de vie de certaines sociétés qui en découle, engendre une marée noire de dangers qui pèsent désormais sur l’écosystème planétaire.
Le chrétien doit en prendre conscience et revisiter non seulement sa relation à la
terre, mais aussi sa responsabilité vis-à-vis de celle-ci. Car la problemata se pose avec
acuité. La dictature du productivisme comme une éclipse solaire tend à échapper
à notre vigilance et a chargé ‘‘l’environnement de substances dont son métabolisme
ne peut venir à bout. A la dévastation d’ordre mécanique vient s’ajouter l’intoxication
chimique et radioactive’’18. Les changements spectaculaires qui marquent aujourd’hui
notre monde, ‘‘nous ont fait passer de l’état de sujets dominés par la nature à celui de
maitres de la nature’’19. Devant la désintégration de notre monde, que faire ? Qu’aux
rumeurs de nos actions destructrices, succède un sens prononcé de responsabilité à
l’égard de la création, mais aussi des générations qui viendront après nous. Qu’allonsnous laisser à nos enfants ? ‘‘Nous n’avons pas le droit, proteste Jonas, d’hypothéquer
l’existence des générations futures à cause de notre simple laisser-aller’’20. Nous devons
agir de façon que les effets de nos actions soient compatibles avec la permanence
d’une vie authentiquement humaine sur terre, ‘‘Agis de façon à ce que les effets
de ton action ne soient pas destructeurs pour la possibilité d’une telle vie’’ martèle
Jonas, ‘‘Ne compromets pas les conditions pour la survie infinie de l’humanité sur
terre’’. Nous demander à chaque fois ‘‘ce que la nature est encore capable de supporter,
compte tenu de l’inventivité humaine’’21 et de la puissance technologique qui est la
tienne. Il s’agit donc de faire preuve de prudence, de ‘‘prendre l’habitude de marquer
des pauses’’22 en matière de découvertes et leur utilisation. Dans ce sens, se sentir
responsable vis-a-vis de la création, c’est mettre un frein à la course effrénée à la
production étouffante qui conduit inévitablement au gâchis des biens de la création.
Ce qui revient à dire, que ‘‘notre appétit de consommation ne doit plus constamment
croitre’’ et que ‘‘nous devons adopter un mode de vie plus modéré’’. Car si nous feintons cette kénose, ‘‘il n’y a guère d’espoir’’23. Ce sont de nouveaux cieux et une terre
18
19
20
21
22
23
Hans Jonas, Une éthique pour la nature. (Paris : Desclée de Brouwer, 2000), 145.
Hans Jonas, Une éthique pour la nature. (Paris : Desclée de Brouwer, 2000), 26.
Hans Jonas, Une éthique pour la nature, 89.
97
nouvelle que nous attendons selon sa promesse, où la justice habitera (cf. 2P 3, 13) et
ramènera toutes choses sous un seul Chef, le Christ, les êtres célestes comme les terrestres (cf. Ep. 1, 10).
Quelques orientations pratiques
Comment concrètement lutter contre le drame écologique ? Benoit XVI invite à ‘‘des
choix courageux pour recréer une solide alliance entre l’homme et la Terre avant qu’il
ne soit trop tard’’24. Et cela passe par des actions concrètes :
• Développer la culture des communautés chrétiennes de base (CCB) qui se rassemblent non seulement pour partager la Parole de Dieu, mais également la mettre en
pratique pour le salut de l’Homme et la protection de la création.
• Lutter contre la pollution domestique et pratiquer le tri des déchets en vue du recyclage, et inciter nos autorités locales dans ce sens.
• Développer l’éducation, la sensibilisation à l’environnement, en particulier auprès
des jeunes, par exemple dans le cadre du catéchisme.
• Participer au débat politique (gestion de la cité). Rien ne nous empêche de faire
entendre notre voix auprès des autorités locales ou régionales, pour les encourager
à prendre des mesures saines visant à protéger l’environnement.
• Aborder ce sujet lors d’un débat dans nos Eglises, et trouver ensemble des solutions
pratiques à notre portée. Il faut poursuivre le débat dans ce sens et ne pas négliger
les petits commencements, car la mise en pratique des recommandations formulées
par les autorités civiles et religieuses commence par des gestes très simples qui
visent à préserver la création dans notre univers.
• Former des associations dans chaque quartier ou secteur pour bâtir des stratégies
de protection de l’environnement; car nous souffrons de beaucoup de maladies qui
proviennent en grande partie de notre environnement impure. N’attendons pas tout
du gouvernement.
C
onclusion : Pour les chrétiens, l’appel à Une méditation sur la responsabilité de
l’homme à l’égard de la création est un message d’espérance. L’effet médiatique
se nourrit d’une inquiétude réelle, dont les causes ne font que grandir au fil des
jours. On ne prendra jamais assez avec sérieux les ravages de plus en plus irréparables
que l’économie industrielle et la société de consommation infligent à la planète. Mais,
justement, comme le dit Jean Bastaire, ‘‘la question déborde la simple analyse des
faits, ce qui est le propre de l’écologie au sens strict du terme vu comme science de
l’environnement, de la maison terrestre’’25. Elle déborde aussi la réponse politique qu’il
est nécessaire d’apporter à une situation inventoriée.
Tout cet immense désordre, qui n’est d’ailleurs pas nouveau, car il remonte à l’origine
du monde (Gn 4,12), mais qui est démesurément accru aujourd’hui par les moyens
techniques, ne se ramène pas seulement à des problèmes de connaissance et de gestion. Il ne s’agit pas non plus d’une question seulement éthique. L’exigence inévitable
24
25
98
Benoit XVI, Discours au rassemblement des jeunes de Lorette, le 2 septembre 2007.
est de nature religieuse. Pas plus que nos frères d’autres religions et confessions, nous,
chrétiens, ne nous en tirerons pas par une attitude d’humanisme pragmatique sans fondement spirituel. Il nous faudrait recourir à notre foi pour éclairer notre comportement.
Certes ‘‘l’Ecriture Sainte n’apprend rien sur la couche d’ozone, sur la crise du climat,
sur le recyclage des ordures, sur le déboisement ou la disparition des espèces’’26, mais
elle dit tout sur l’amour par lequel Dieu a créé le monde, s’est fait homme, s’est offert
aux hommes dans le pain et le vin, fruit de la terre fertile et du travail des hommes et
des femmes. Elle dit tout sur le pain et le vin, fruit pur de la terre fertile devenu par la
suite Corps et Sang du Christ.
Par conséquent, la tâche des chrétiens d’aujourd’hui est de rechristianiser la matière,
rebaptiser la création et re-sanctifier l’univers. Là prend sens l’exigence de la nouvelle
évangélisation jadis annoncée par les pères synodaux de l’Assemblée spéciale pour
l’Afrique du Synode des Evêques (Cf. Ecclesia in Africa), et à laquelle nous sommes tous
conviés. Celle-ci ne consisterait aucunement à un retour en arrière ou à une restauration
du passé, mais plutôt à un ressaisissement du sens qui nous permettrait de susciter l’inédit
et d’inventer l’avenir, afin d’actualiser ce que le père Léonard Santedi appelle déjà ‘‘la
théologie de l’inventivité et de la créativité’’27. Ce que Mgr Ernest Kombo (d’heureuse
mémoire) renchérit en la nommant ‘‘la théologie de l’adaptabilité’’28. Toutefois, face à
la nature, il nous faut retrouver le regard du Christ, verbe créateur et rédempteur de
toutes choses, afin de poursuivre et d’accomplir la sauvegarde et le salut de la création.
Dans ce retournement pour repartir du Christ, nous pouvons nous ouvrir nous-mêmes,
ainsi que le monde, à l’entrée de Dieu : de la vérité, de l’amour, du bien. C’est ce qu’ont
fait les saints, qui, comme collaborateurs de Dieu, ont contribué au salut du monde29.
Nous pouvons libérer notre vie et le monde des empoisonnements et des pollutions qui
pourraient détruire le présent et l’avenir. Nous pouvons découvrir et tenir propres les
sources de la création et ainsi, avec la création qui nous précède comme don, faire ce
qui est juste selon ses exigences intrinsèques et sa finalité30. Dès lors, nous pourrions
chanter avec Didier Rimaud :
‘‘Seigneur, venez, la terre est prête pour vous accueillir.
Seigneur, venez, sur nos sillons le grain peut mûrir.
Car toute chair attend le Verbe de Dieu.
Qu’à notre désir enfin se rouvrent les cieux.
Mon Dieu, que votre règne arrive !’’31
26
Léonard SANTEDI, Inculturation dans Ecclésia in Africa, conférence à l’occasion des journées
dédiées au 10ème anniversaire de l’exhortation Apostolique post-synodale ‘‘Ecclésia in Africa’’, le 19 Mai 2005
au grand séminaire de Brazzaville (Congo).
28
Mgr Ernest KOMBO, Discours aux séminaristes, lors de sa visite au grand séminaire Emile Biayenda
de Brazzaville (Congo), le 20 mars 2005.
29
1 Co 3, 9; 1 Th 3, 2.
30
Spe Salvi.
31
Jésuite, Didier Rimaud a été ordonné prêtre en 1955. Membre du Centre national de pastorale
liturgique pendant quarante ans, il a travaillé aux traductions du « Psautier » et de plusieurs livres liturgiques.
Il a collaboré à la revue « Église qui chante ». Il restera l’un des plus grands auteurs liturgiques de la période
de l’après-concile Vatican II.
27
99
Bibliographie
Benoit XVI. Discours au rassemblement des jeunes de Lorette, le 2 septembre 2007.
Benoit XVI. Spe Salvi.
Emmanuel, du Mesnil-Saint-Loup. La présence de Dieu, 1886.
Jonas, Hans. Une éthique pour la nature, (Paris : Desclée de Brouwer, 2000).
Bastaire, Jean. L’exigence écologique chrétienne, (in ETVDES, septembre 2005).
Jean-Paul II. La paix avec Dieu et sa création, message au monde pour la journée de la paix, 1er
janvier 1990 (In Documentation Catholique 1997)
Santedi, Léonard. Inculturation dans Ecclésia in Africa, conférence à l’occasion des journées
dédiées au 10ème anniversaire de l’exhortation Apostolique post-synodale ‘‘Ecclésia in Africa’’,
le 19 Mai 2005 au grand séminaire de Brazzaville (Congo).
Kombo, Mgr Ernest. Discours aux séminaristes, lors de sa visite au grand séminaire Emile Biayenda
de Brazzaville (Congo), le 20 mars 2005.
Jimero, Mgr Pedro Ricardo Barreto. Allocation au synode des évêques de l’Eucharistie, le 4 octobre
2005. Burgelin, Olivier. Ecologique (mouvement), in Encyclopedia universalis.
Plunkett, Patrick. L’écologie de la Bible a nos jours, pour en définir les idées reçues (Paris : Ed. de
l’œuvre, 2008) Claudel, Paul. Au milieu des vitraux de l’Apocalypse, 1932. Claudel, Paul.
Présence et Prophétie, 1942.
Paul VI. Populorum progression. Dufour, Xavier Léon. La création nouvelle, in VTB (Paris : Cerf,
1995), 228. www.vatican.va
100
Peace Studies
and International
Relations
Bado Arsène Brice, SJ *
A
bstract: This reflection is an attempt to come to a better understanding of the
International Community. Two assumptions about the nature of the International
Community are scrutinized, namely state-centric and people-centric international
community. Each of these two models says something about the international community
but none, taken on its own, embraces all the aspects of the International Community. As
such, the way forward should be an overlapping interconnection between nation-states
and non-state actors and between people across borders. But, above all theories, the
International Community remains a task yet to be fully accomplished.
I
ntroduction: Nowadays, we have a strong awareness of the idea of the International
Community. In the media, we often hear about the international community, and
especially about what it has done, what it is doing, and so much about what it should
do. Yet, if the idea of an international community is commonly accepted, its reality is more
complex. Its identity is very confused: What is this alleged international community? Is
it the United Nations Organization whose hierarchical structure gives most of the power
to a very small committee constituted essentially of the most powerful countries in the
world? Who can act on behalf of the international community? From time to time, some
superpowers claim to act on behalf of the international community. Can we approve of
such a thing? If so, in which situations?
Even though it is difficult to figure out the identity of the international community,
there are obviously many international issues which are not part of the duties of one
country alone. These issues call upon our sense of international responsibility which
transcends the commitment of an individual state.
Throughout this reflection, I will strive to point out the identity of the international
community. I will attempt to address two main claims on the nature of the international
community. First, I will analyze the assumption which conceives the international community as state-centric community. In the second place, I will examine the other claim
*
Bado Arsène Brice is a Jesuit from Burkina Faso. He is a PhD candidate in political sciences
in Québec (Canada).
101
Bado Arsène Brice, SJ
which conceives the International Community as people-based community. My understanding of the International Community will emerge from the confrontation of these
two claims: My thesis will suggest an understanding of the International Community as
built on the overlapping interconnections between nation-states and non-state actors
and between people across national borders.
The International Community as a Community of Nation States
The International Community is often analyzed in a “state-centric” realist perspective. I will examine the advantages and the limits of this model.
Historical Emergence of a Community of States
The contemporary International Community has its roots in the settlement of Westphalia in 1648. This settlement ended the Thirty Years’War in Europe, and opened the
way for the creation of independent states, which enjoy the sovereignty to pursue their
interests without destroying each other or the international system of which each is a
part.1 So, the international system was built on the idea that states were the principal
actors, and their sovereignty was considered as absolute. In this way, all states were
juridically equal, even though in fact they were not. With this follows the decentralization of the system of international relations. According to Gene Lyons and Michael
Mastanduno, the stability of this decentralized system was based on these elements:
A balance of power to prevent the rise of preponderant state and to contain unlimited aggression; the codification of rules of behavior through international law; the convening of
international conferences to settle major differences; and the growth of diplomatic practices
through which states would maintain continuing contact and be encouraged to negotiate differences among themselves. With the emergence of these institutions [principles], the system
of states was transformed into an international “society”, in which members were sovereign
yet recognized commonly accepted norms, rules, and obligations.2
These principles and norms aim to avoid the reign of anarchy and promote a wellordered and peaceful international society. By organizing the international relations,
the major states agreed to take the responsibility for maintaining order in international
relations by a set of institutions and principles. It is from this perspective that the League
of Nations was created after World War I, and the United Nations after World War II.
In the same wake, many other international organizations will be created in order to
address some international issues. Among international organizations, the United Nations Organization (UN) is the most influential; and it is supposed to guide international
relations.
Can the International Community Be Identified to the United Nations
Organization?
Very often, people tend to identify the international community with the United
Nations Organization (UN). In fact, the UN seems to consider itself as the international
community because its General Assembly is constituted by almost the quasi-totality of all
1
G.M. Lyons, and Michael Mastanduno, Beyond Westphalia? State Sovereignty and International
Intervention (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 5.
2
Lyons, and Mastanduno, Beyond Westphalia? State Sovereignty and International Intervention, 6.
102
nations-states of the world3. In its treaties and resolutions4, the UN speaks on behalf
of the international community as the authorized voice of all the nations. Nations who
signed the Charter of the United Nations agreed to give power to this organization to
address international issues and to organize the international community as it is written
in UN Charter.
The purposes of the United Nations are5:
1. To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the
suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about
by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international
law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might
lead to a breach of the peace;
2. To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle
of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, and to take other appropriate
measures to strengthen universal peace;
3. To achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging
respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction
as to race, sex, language, or religion; and
4. To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attainment of these
common ends.
Therefore, the General Assembly of the UN is the gathering of almost all the states,
and it is considered to be the international community whose members are supposed
to be equal. As the Charter affirms: “The Organization is based on the principle of the
sovereign equality of all its Members.”6 This equality seems to be more an ideal than a
reality, because of the lack of genuine equality between nations, due to the dominance
of superpowers over the rest of the world.
At the beginning of the UN, the prerogative of sovereignty was recognized to European states as a guideline in their relations with one another, but not with non-European
states. After the creation of the UN7, European states still “had the right” to expand
their political and economic influence in Africa and Asia. The United States of America
3
The General Assembly is made up of 192 Member States. There is one non-member observer state,
the Holy See (which holds sovereignty over the state of Vatican City). It has been a permanent observer state
since 6 April 1964, and gained all the rights of full membership except voting on 1 July 2004. Non-member
observer states are recognized as sovereign entities, and are free to submit a petition to join as a full member
at their discretion. Yet, there are some states that proclaimed their independence and have been recognized
by other states, but they are not members of United Nations for the reason that their independence is not
acknowledged by all the states. This is the case of the “Republic of China” usually called “Taiwan”; it has 23
diplomatic representations in the states who acknowledged its independence. It is also the case of the “Republic of Kosovo” whose independence has been acknowledged only by the “People’s Republic of China”.
4
See for example the United Nations’ General Assembly’s Resolution 2627 (XXV) of November 2,
1970; or the Resolution 2997 (XXVII) of December 15, 1972; and many other United Nations’ Resolutions. In
these Resolutions, the notion of “international community” is used, and it refers to the United Nations’ General
Assembly.
5
Cf. UN Charter, Chapter 1: Purposes and Principles, Article 1.
6
Cf. UN Charter, Chapter 1: Purposes and Principles, Article 1.
7
The United Nations officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, when the Charter had
been ratified by the 50 states which attended the San Francisco Conference. Among these states, there were
naturally the superpower namely China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States.
103
also did the same in Latin America. However, gradually, the UN evolved and came to
recognize the sovereignty of states under colonization, and helped them to “assume”
their independence by participating in designing the rules of international relations.
Thus, these new independent states were part of the UN.
Nevertheless, the overall position and influence of the newly independent states
remain secondary to the privileged status of the permanent members in the Security
Council and the status of the industrialized states in major financial institutions such as
the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank.8 Hence, the community of states
is a community of unequal actors which do not have the same privileges even though
they are supposed to have the same rights. This is really ambiguous.
So, as states do not alienate their sovereignty by their adherence to the UN, the UN
is not a “world state” or a “world government”. Each state continues to determine the
nature of its relations with other states, and each state is expected to take into consideration the standards of the UN. It is only an expectation, a recommendation. That is why
Joseph S. Nye understands “international politics as politics in the absence of a common
sovereign, politics among entities with no ruler above them. International politics is
often called anarchic. As monarchy means one ruler, anarchy – “an-archy” – means the
absence of any ruler. International politics is a self-help system.”9
Within the UN, there are different political ideologies, different interests, and different views of what the International Community is or should be. For instance, if we
consider ideological points of views, for realists the beginning and the end of international politics is the individual state in interaction with other states. What matters for
realists is not the interest of the International Community as a whole, but the interest of
the individual state which take advantage of the opportunities offered by the International Community to foster their own agenda. In contrast with realists, liberals see the
International Community as a global society that functions alongside the states: “Trade
crosses borders; people have contacts with each other (such as students studying in
foreign countries).”10
If the UN was the one operative International Community, it would seem to follow
that any collective legitimating in international affairs should result from the procedures
provided in the UN Charter and should be consistent with the principles and norms
that flow from the purposes and practice of the organization. Yet, given that the procedures of the UN favor the major states, especially the five permanent members of
the Security Council, we can infer that the UN Organization does not fully represent
the International Community. States matter even if the existence of the UN changes
their capacity to govern11; when powerful states continue to dominate the international
arena, and sometimes use the UN Organization to pursue their own interests. All these
ambiguities guide to the conclusion that the UN cannot fully represent the International
8
Lyons and Mastanduno, Beyond Westphalia? State Sovereignty and International Intervention, 7.
Joseph Nye S., Understanding International Conflicts. An Introduction to Theory and History (New
York, Boston: Pearson Longman, 2005), 5.
10
Joseph Nye, S, Understanding International Conflicts. An Introduction to Theory and History, 5.
11
From the perspective of United Nations’ Charter, the sovereignty of states involves obligations as
well as rights. Article 2 of the Charter begins by asserting the sovereign equality of all member states, yet
goes on to caution that “all members, in order to ensure to all of them the rights and benefits resulting from
membership, shall fulfill in good faith the obligations assumed by them in (…) the present Charter.”
9
104
Community, even though we acknowledge the important role that it plays in the International Community.
The Community of States and the Interdependence between States
The contemporary world is more and more interdependent at many levels so that
the notion of state’s sovereignty should integrate the concepts of interdependence and
cooperation. Nation-states share in common more and more things. For instance, at the
economic level: The United States is dependent upon the Middle East for oil resources12.
In 2004-2005, without the express consent of the UN, France intervened militarily in
Côte d’Ivoire to stop the civil war. This intervention did not primarily aim to stop the
war but to protect the French interests in Côte d’Ivoire. As a matter of fact, about 60%
of businesses in Côte d’Ivoire are controlled by French companies. Another example
of interdependence is that security in states is no longer only a matter of domestic affairs. We can see how refugees from Rwanda are a source of insecurity and war in the
Democratic Republic of Congo.
These few examples show how our contemporary world is really interdependent.
Interdependence between states does not concern poor or weak states. Even superpowers can no longer claim to have a complete sovereignty. This interdependence of
fact expresses that sovereign nation-states have common interests and that they can no
longer pursue their domestic interests without cooperating with others. These common
interests beyond national borders create a community of states. However, despite this
interdependence and these common interests, the International Community understood
as a community of states remains state-centric. This means that within the International
Community, states compete to maximize their interests and to get the community under
their control. As Nye wrote about the use of interdependence of states:
Statesmen and analysts have different motives when they use political words [and namely
interdependence of states]. The statesman wants as many people marching behind his or
her banner as possible. Political leaders blur meanings and try to create a connotation of a
common good: “We are all in the same boat together, therefore we must cooperate, therefore follow me.” The analyst, on the other hand, makes distinctions to understand the world
better… The analyst may point out the boat we are all in may be heading for one person’s
port but not another’s, or that one person is doing all the rowing while another steers or has
a free ride.13
Therefore, the mutual dependence between states is not sufficient to create a real
community. Finally, the state-centric paradigm fails to account for the phenomenon of
globalization that shapes relationships in planet. What about a community of people
instead of a community of states?
12
Middle East countries sometimes take advantage of this interdependence by using oil as a power
resource. For example, in 1973, by cutting production and embargoing sales to countries friendly to Israel,
Arab states were able to bring their issues to the forefront of the United States’ agenda. They also created
temporary disarray in the alliances between Japan, Europe, and the United States. In order to protect their oil
supplies, France and Japan took independent positions. The “oil weapon” made the United States becomes
more aware of its interdependence with the Middle East Arab countries; and it encouraged the United States
to play a more conciliatory role in arranging the settlement of the Arab-Israeli dispute in the aftermath of
the Yom Kippur War. Cf. Joseph Nye, Understanding International Conflicts. An Introduction to Theory and
History, 212.
13
Joseph Nye S., Understanding International Conflicts. An Introduction to Theory and History, 197198.
105
The International Community as a Community of People
The study of the view that understands the International Community as a community
of people may help scrutinize the limits of the state-centric paradigm.
What Does an International Community based on People Mean?
The choice to consider an International Community based on people does not mean
that states no longer matter. Since the International Community is related to international
relations, then nation-states will always have a great influence on the nature of the International Community. In his book The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers14, Paul Kennedy
showed how great powers will still be the central players that defined the international
system. The story of inter-power rivalries that had begun in Europe in the seventeenth
century or even earlier had not ended; players might change from time to time, but not
the fact that they determine the shape of the world. In his famous book Diplomacy15
(1994), Henry Kissinger also argued that power relations among the major states would
continue to be the key to world affairs despite the end of the Cold War.
However, conceiving the International Community as based on people means that the
most important value that nation-states should pursue within and beyond their borders
is the respect of the dignity of humans. Nation-states-based International Community
often fails to conciliate national and international interests. That is why persons-based
International Community is more likely to allow an agreement in the sense that the dignity
of persons is almost accepted by all peoples in the world. This view of the International
Community is human rights-based. It is likely to take into account the long-term societal
changes that have been slowly moving the world away from the Westphalian system
which is based on the sovereignty of states.
The people-based model places the individual person at the center of the world
politics. Hence, it offers many opportunities to protect human beings everywhere in
the world, whose dignity is considered to be the fundamental and the highest value in
national and international politics. The main purpose of international politics is to give
value to human dignity everywhere.
Placing the individual and not states’ interests at the center of international politics,
points to the importance of the common good in international politics through which
we are likely to reconcile individuals’ welfare with state sovereignty and interests.
By stressing the importance to respect the dignity of each human being and by
placing the individuals at the center of world politics, people-based International Community approach gives the opportunity to deal with foreign policy without neglecting
the interest of other peoples. The result of such a way of thinking the international
community is that statesmen will no longer be divided between the dilemma of their
personal moral behavior and the moral behavior of the state in international affairs.
So, they may be more likely to take better decisions which can contribute to build a
peaceful world.
However, the problem of boundaries remains. In states-based International Community pattern, national territorial boundaries constitute an important issue in building
the international community; while in people-based International Community, cultural,
14
15
106
Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers ( London: Fontana,1989).
Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994).
ethnic or religious boundaries become also an important issue. For instance, the opposition between the western cultural tradition and the Muslim Arab cultural tradition,
which could escalate in the so-called fight against terrorism, corroborates the thesis of
Samuel P. Huntington who states that “the great divisions among humankind and the
dominating source of conflict will be cultural (…).16 The principal conflicts of global
politics will occur between nations and groups of different civilizations17. The clash of
civilizations will be the battle lines of the future”. Like Huntington, Dominique Moisi18
suggests a clash of emotions19. The threat against international community comes from
the fact that people of different religious or cultural traditions do not have the same
conception of human beings and their relation to others, or to states. Because of this
diversity, even the definition of human rights becomes a real problem.
Yet, I think the threat to the realization of International Community is not related
immediately to the diversity of cultures and religions; it is related nonetheless to the
boundaries that cultures and religions raise to define and protect their identities. In
fact, to define one’s identity means to seek what makes one different from others. In
other words, to define an identity means to determine what one is not. This sets up
boundaries of identity. When these identity shaping differences are considered to be
more fundamental than the dignity of the human person, they become dangerous and
destructive for an International Community. That is why people-based International
Community should also be a human rights-based community where each member is
given due respect. Then, the community becomes a reality. As J. Mayall wrote:
Community is the coming together of different people with different perspectives and ideas
of the nature of the world, each in the truth recognition of the inadequacy of his own perspective as an understanding of the world and of the need of their manifest difference and
seeming incompatibility. The partners in a community do not seek to blend or emerge their
differences, because their differences are all that each uniquely has to give and because
they understand that it is the creative tension between which leads to a growth in each of
knowledge and understanding of the real world. Thus each is not reduced but fulfilled in the
production of something new.20
Finally, people-based International Community is consistent with a cosmopolitan
view of world politics. Cosmopolitans value individuals over sovereign states. As K. A.
Appiah states: “They believe in human dignity across the nations, and they live their
creed.”21 Cosmopolitanism suggests to take seriously the differences and to think universality across differences. Cosmopolitanism claims that all the people are bound together
by their humanity and by common values. These common values are not inferred by a
positivist deduction, but they emerge from interaction between different people. This
16
Samuel P. Huntington, “The Clash of Civilizations?,” Foreign Affairs 72 ( March 1993), 22-49, at
22.
17
For Huntington, a civilization is a cultural entity like villages, regions, ethnic groups, nationalities,
religious groups, and so forth. Entities have distinct cultures at different levels of cultural heterogeneity.
18
Dominique Moisi, (2007). “The Clash of Emotions,” Foreign Affairs 86 (January 2007), 103-114.
19
Dominique Moisi, using an argument different from that of Huntington but which dovetails it,
emphasizes emotions. He states that the world today faces not only a clash of civilizations but a clash of
emotions as well. The West displays (and is divided by) a culture of fear, while the Arab and Muslim worlds
are trapped in a culture of humiliation, and much of Asia displays a culture of hope. Like Huntington, Moisi
considers these different cultures of fear, humiliation, or hope, as a threat to peace and to human rights.
20
J. Mayall, (ed.), The Community of States. A Study in International Political Theory (London: George
Allen & Uniwin, 1982), 172.
21
K.A. Appiah, Cosmopolitanism. Ethics in a World of Strangers (New York, London:W.W. Norton
& Company,2006),137.
107
interaction makes cosmopolitanism tolerant but not relativist. There are shared values
which come up in consensus at the process of interaction,22 or at the process of what
John Rawls calls “overlapping consensus.”23
Moreover, in Appiah’s perspective, cosmopolitanism is a universal trait of humankind
in a world of strangers. Cosmopolitanism gives an opportunity to bridge worlds and to
work in the interest of human beings. Cosmopolitans consider themselves as world citizens. So, they “resist the temptations of the narrow nationalisms of the countries where
they were born. They would never go to war for a country; but they will enlist in a
campaign against any nation that gets in the way of universal justice.”24 Hence, cosmopolitanism can be considered as foundation of people-based International Community.
International Civil Society and its Contribution to International Community
People-based approach opens the way for non-state actors to play a significant
role in building the International Community. Nowadays, non-states actors, especially
international non-governmental organizations (INGOs), are significant components of
international system and have participated in the international realm to greater or lesser
extent throughout western history. Their recent growth is, in part, a response to increased
interconnectedness among peoples25 These INGOs intervene in many areas like governance, environmental impacts, travel, commercial relations, politics, and economics. The
increasing role of non-state actors reflects the shift from legal interrelationships among
states to a broader, more inclusive, view of non-state participants.
Now, in order to conceive International Community, it is important to note that in
addition to state government leaders and a few wealthy or powerful interest groups,
there are numerous non-governmental organizations (NGOs) of all sorts, various social
movements representing specific interests, indigenous groups, and many other groups
as well as individuals, private business enterprises and groups with questionable interests, which together comprise a category denominated as “global civil society”. Today’s
challenge is determining how to integrate and regulate these numerous actors while
maintaining a manageable and fair international order.
With the emergence of these non-state actors across borders, many analysts compare
the International Community to a “net”. This comparison is meaningful. However, it
is important to be aware of the existence of many kinds of nets; they do not have the
same properties, and they do not function with the same logic. Let us take the example
of computer networks:
There are basically two types of network in the communication engineering and computer
world. There is the centralized control network where every machine (client) is hooked to
a point (central computer, server) and this is what is called master-slave network or two-tier
architecture. This is like your local area network (LAN) in the local office where every connection goes through the central point, but it is so fast you do not notice that there is intermediation between your computer and that of your colleague on the network. The center
in this network necessarily geographical but only and always logical and the clients rely on
22
Appiah, Cosmopolitanism. Ethics in a World of Strangers, 66-67.
John Rawls, The Law of Peoples with. The Idea of Public Reason Revisited.
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001).
23
24
K.A. Appiah, Cosmopolitanism. Ethics in a World of Strangers, xv.
A. Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge:
Polity Press, 1990).
25
108
it for devices and sometimes for processing power. The other network-type is peer-to-peer
distributed network in which there is no master-slave relationship, like the type telephone
companies like Verizon use to distribute and manage calls. It is a full duplex network with
no central control; control is in the hands of each peer (node), each node (workstation) has
equivalent responsibilities and capabilities, and intelligence in the system is pushed to each
peer and end-user.26
It is difficult to argue that the globalized world of states and non-state actors is built
on the peer-to-peer type of network, where there is no central control and each peer
has equivalent control and responsibility. Thus, in the globalized economical and political world, actors do not have the same control, they are not equal. The relationship
between actors is more comparable to a network type with some servers (superpowers)
which master and control the network or the International Community. The emergence
of global cities like New York, London, Tokyo, Frankfurt, and Paris, testify the existence
of centers in the globalized political and economical world. Therefore, if the International Community is a net because of the inter-connection between nation-states and
non-state actors, it will be an illusion to admit that there are no centers or no masters.
However, it is true that non-state actors make difficult for nation-states and especially
for superpowers to master alone the International Community.
Many of these non-state actors claim to act as a “global conscience” representing
broad public interests beyond the purview of individual states. Some transnational
religious communities like the Roman Catholic Church also play an important role
in building the world community. They contribute to develop new norms by directly
pressing governments and business leaders to change policies, and indirectly by altering public perceptions of what governments and firms should be doing. In terms of
power resources, these organizations rarely have much hard power, but the information
revolution has enhanced their soft power. These organizations and their networks are
particularly effective in penetrating states without regard to borders.
Because they often involve citizens who are well placed in the domestic politics of several
countries, they are able to focus the attention of the media and governments on their preferred
issues. The treaty banning landmines, [for example]… was the result of an interesting mixed
coalition of Internet-based organizations working with middle-power governments like Canada
and some individual politicians and celebrities like the Princess Diana27.
It is now obvious that non-state actors also have a significant contribution to bring
to the construction of an International Community.
The International Community as an Overlapping Interconnection between many
Different Actors
Because of the overlapping of states and non-state actors in contemporary world
politics, the International Community will never be a single political entity, or any one
organization like the United Nations Organization. It is or will be the net effect of many
overlapping efforts by people and states all over the world based on the willingness to
cooperate with and assist others in endeavors for the common good. The International
26
27
(Warriboko, 2008: 168).
Joseph Nye S, Understanding International Conflicts. An Introduction to Theory and History, 228-
229.
109
Community cannot be imposed from above but it arises as a natural instinct of humankind ascending from lower to higher level28 That is why the centrality of the human
person and natural inclination of persons and peoples to establish relationships among
themselves are the fundamental elements for building a true International Community,
the ordering of which must aim at guaranteeing the effective universal common good.
The purpose of a new world order should be the fostering of this sense of community
through example and education, and by providing the conditions for its growth. The
existence of an international community requires changing people’s mentality, not just
governments and their leaders, so that a real world citizenship may emerge.
The idea of an International Community does not mean one world or a world government. Rather, it entails a world based on diversity and confederations of equals; a
world of cooperative communities in which people share some common interests and
values. There cannot be an international community without respect of human rights.
Each nation-state, each non-state actor, or each community of people should abide
by the international standards of human rights. The respect for human rights calls for
non-state actors and for states’ accountability for upholding human rights standards and
responsibility for their implementation. Accountability and responsibility justify duties
beyond borders such as humanitarian intervention in the short term, and cooperation
and development in the long term. We share the same humanity and the same destiny.
That is why the common good of a nation or of any organization cannot be separated
from the good of the entire human family.
Conclusion: The International Community as a Task to be Accomplished
This reflection has been an attempt to understand what the International Community
is. I have scrutinized two assumptions about the nature of international community,
namely state-centric, and people-centric international community. I have shown how each
of these models says something true about the International Community; but none of
them is able to embrace all the aspects of the International Community. I have suggested
understanding the International Community as an overlapping interconnection between
nation-states and non-state actors and between people across national borders.
However, geographical boundaries and sovereign states will continue to play the
major role in world politics; but they will be less self-contained and more porous. They
will have to share the stage with actors whose actions go beyond geographical boundaries
and particular cultures. These actors can use information to enhance their soft power
and press governments directly or indirectly by mobilizing their publics.
Finally, the International Community remains a task which is not yet fully accomplished. It is in process of being accomplished without derogation of sovereignty or
diversity in the lives of cooperating members. “Through confederation, treaties, bilateral
and multilateral pacts, and private international arrangements of all types, always enlarging and overlapping, organized international community is being developed. A matrix
is being created binding democratic nations together, creating an inexorable barrier to
war and leading to greater cooperation in overcoming the severe problems the world
28
G. Mcghee C, International Community. A Goal for a New World Order (Lanham/New York: University Press of America, 1992), 37.
110
now faces29” This ongoing process gives credibility to the International Community
which is not a dream, or a utopia; it is a reality in process which should be fostered on
the creed of the unity of the human family.
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29
Mcghee C, International Community. A Goal for a New World Order, 53.
111
The Feminine theory of Peace-building and conflict
transformation
Chungi Jane and Mborong Etienne, SJ *
A woman is the full circle.
Within her is the power to create, nurture and transform.
A
~ Diane Mariechild ~
bstract: Historically, many societies have espoused and limited the woman to
the traditional roles of child-care, giving birth and caring for the young from the
cradle to responsible adulthood. Despite this belief, women play the role of educators
ensuring that both boys and girls receive responsible upbringing and socialization. In this
set-up, practical moral teachings are transmitted where sons and daughters are taught
proper behavior and societal ethos. Values such as respect, honesty, uprightness, patience,
self-control and compromise are mostly transmitted through the mother, enabling them
to be promoters of harmony in the community and builders of a culture of peace. Apart
from providing for their families’ needs, women participate in conflict mediation and
conflict resolution within the family, and often times some elderly women participate
at the community level. This paper aims at highlighting the fundamental importance
of the feminine touch in the search for peace and in conflict transformation with more
emphasis laid on African realities and cases.
I
ntroduction: Peace building, peace-making, peace-keeping, conflict transformation
and conflict management should always be conjugated, in the feminine, if they have
to be durable and sustainable. The motherly character of peace remains unavoidable
as the struggle for durable peace in the world and Africa continues. An in depth study
of peace theories show that the most successful ones are not those that choose the ‘hard
way’ as the only way. Hard methods of building peace have been known to back-fire,
sooner or later. Preventing and transforming conflict using nonviolent means, bringing
conflicting parties to the peace table, disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration of
armed conflicting actors all require a feminine touch or a woman’s heart to be true and
fundamental. In as much as the woman is important in the peace edifice both in a preconflict and post-conflict situation, she is also unavoidable in post-conflict leadership
and governance. In this reflection, our intention is not to be romantic in any way insofar
as peace research and conflict transformation is concerned, but to critically examine the
effectiveness of peace theories as they apply in the international and local systems, with
the hope of identifying the missing feminine links in them. The question of whether it is
possible to talk of sustainable peace where it is all masculine and devoid of any feminine
insight begs an answer. In other words, do military actions, sanctions, condemnations,
punishment and isolation have an upper hand on negotiation, tolerance, non-violence,
*
112
Chungi is a second year student of Peace Studies and International Relations, Hekima College. She hails from Kenya. Mborong Etienne is a Cameroonian Jesuit, in his second year of
theology at Hekima College.
confession, symbolic punishment and above all forgiveness in the process of peace
building in conflict situations and in conflict prevention?
To better harness this problematic we shall predicate our discourse on three major
tenets. The first tenet shall provide a terminological limitation and conception of our
reflection, and then briefly situate the traditional foundation of feminine peace in African
traditional sources. The second tenet will look into a few cases in Africa where certain
feminine peace theories have been implemented in the search for peace. The final
tenet in the reflection will attempt to critically analyse the theory of feminine conflict
transforming and peace-building while exploring how it could enrich existing concepts
and practices in the world system.
Preliminaries
Conceptual Boundaries of Feminine Peace-building and Conflict
Transformation
Feminine peace should not be confused at all with feminism. Every society gives
certain roles and responsibilities to women and men according to their feminine or
masculine aptitudes. These depend on cultures. By feminine peace building and conflict
transformation we mean certain fundamental characteristics and aspects identical to
women and that are unavoidable in peace research. In other words, feminine peacebuilding and conflict transformation have to reflect motherly, affectionate, and loving
attributes. These attributes are imperative in any mediator for the success of the mediation
process. When these attributes lack in peace deals, it then becomes difficult to reach
any sustainable negotiation or peace agreement. Peace has been so rationalised that
the emotional and affective part of it sometimes gets drowned in rational and idealistic
concepts, good only for the classroom and often inefficient in the field. We understand
peacebuilding in a broader perspective to mean: “those initiatives which foster and support sustainable structures and processes which strengthen the prospects of peaceful
coexistence and decrease the likelihood of the outbreak, recurrence or continuation of
violent conflict.”1 Feminine peacebuilding and conflict transformation would be the
search for peace that brings into dialogue all the possible actors aimed at enhancing
immediate and long term life giving objectives.
This type of peacebuilding cannot be successful or fruitful without a close communication between the parties involved in the conflict. During war, women and children are
most vulnerable; “women and girls are usually the victims of sexual violence (including
rape, sexual mutilation, sexual humiliation, forced prostitution and forced pregnancy)
during times of armed conflict.”2 In cases where men are killed during the war or
forced to go away from home, the traditional family division of labour is disrupted and
the woman has to play the roles of father and mother. Apart from appraising men’s
conduct in war in their poems and songs,3 the women of Darfur have played a very
1
Kenneth Bush, “A measure of Peace: Peace and Conflict Assessment (PCA) of Development Projects in Conflict Zones,” Working Paper no.1, the Peacebuilding and Reconstruction Program Initiative and
Evaluation Unit, IDRC, (Ottawa, 1998).
2
Luc Reychler and Thania Paffenholz (Ed.), Peacebuilding: A field Guide (London: Lynne Reinner
Publishers, 2001), 64.
3
Lampen, G.D. ‘The Baggara Tribes of Darfur’, Sudan Notes and Records Vol. XVI, Part 2
113
Chungi Jane and Mborong Etienne, SJ
significant role in the reconstruction of broken homes4 due to the disappearance of
the father of the house. The mater, becoming also the pater familias who has suffered
the pain of war, makes her an important bond that cuts across important actors in the
conflict. She therefore stands as the one who knows the cost for peace and is able to
negotiate between the militia who abuse her and her wounded community.
Her Peace our Peace: Traditional Foundations
In the traditional African society, women have played an important role in peacebuilding and conflict transformation. There no doubt that African women, though apparently absent from the political and economic scene, play a very significant role in
decision-making in these societies. Baba Simon. A catholic priest and an African elder
among the Fulbe people in the North of Cameroon noticed the important role women
played in reconstructing their community and in making decisions in the council of elders.
Elders in this community would not make any important decision without consulting
with the women. In some African contexts, the woman is a symbol of reconciliation.
There was a practice among the Nandi people of Kenya through which intractable
conflict between people or communities was brought to an end when a woman’s birth
belt was laid on the ground creating a divide between the belligerents; meaning the
end of the conflict and the beginning of negotiation. In most African communities, for
example among the Bashi in the D.R. Congo, women are functionally peacemakers;5
if quarrels or fights broke out in the market or any public place that were difficult to
quell, an elderly woman would bare her breasts to them. This would immediately end
the violent conflict, with the parties concerned running away because exposure to such
nakedness was believed to earn one a curse that was difficult to atone.
With the rise of multi-partism in Cameroon in the early 1990s, there were many
uprisings, curfews, commonly called “ghost-towns” and constant fighting between the
civilians and the national army especially in the city of Bamenda. For months the people
were locked in-doors. The situation was dire, with families running out of provisions
and soldiers beating, raping and molesting people even in their houses. To end this
stalemate, society resorted to a known traditional feminine method of conflict resolution. The women of the Mankon chieftaincy came out in the streets naked6 in front of
the soldiers; who ran away disobeying orders to go back to the streets. That ended the
conflict in Bamenda, at least for a while.
In certain African traditions, women’s roles in peace-building may not have been
loud, but they were often recognized in conflict situations. For example, women were
asked to talk to their sons when all other approaches seemed to have failed. Often,
women’s quiet diplomacy bore fruit and was recognized as a vital contribution by the
community. The question that tickles us here concerns the source of this power in the
woman that is able to bring an end to conflict; what is it in the woman that gives her
power that can soften, break through and transform the heart of men in conflict so
4
United Nations Organisation, Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur to the
United Nations Secretary-General: Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1564 of 18 September 2004, (Geneva: 25 January 2005), No. 467.
5
B. Bujo, Plea For Change of Models for Marriage (Nairobi: Paulines Publications for Africa, 2009),
42-61.
6
This women’s traditional society is called Takimbeng. They never come out is the day except in
extreme cases and no man is authorised to see them else he is cursed forever.
114
quickly? Is there anything that can be tapped from this traditional and cultural feminine
conflict resolution ability, into the present world system of peacebuilding?
Feminine conflict transformation “goes beyond tradition to draw attention to issues
of right and justice, promoting inclusive decision-making and participation, addressing
the welfare and survival needs of people, strengthening civil society, encouraging social
and economic reconstruction, and promoting reconciliation.”7 Women’s participation in
the community cannot be limited to traditional gender roles only. The woman, as sister,
aunt and even grand-mother is both a treasure and dynamite that must be protected and
harnessed for the establishing of sustainable peace within the local and international
community of nations. The United Nations Secretary-General, Kofi Annan remarked; “For
generations, women have served as peace educators, both in their families and in their
societies. They have proved instrumental in building bridges rather than walls.” Women
have been able to bridge the divide even in situations where leaders have deemed conflict
resolution futile in the face of so-called intractable ethnic hatreds. Due to the traditional
culture of quiet diplomacy, many African women are still afraid to be heard for fear of
victimization or isolation. Yet their impact is significant both at local and international
levels especially within the challenges of modern unending conflicts.
This impact is thwarted by women’s exclusion from peace keeping and diplomatic efforts which are derived from cultural and political roots; the reasons include
religious and cultural beliefs, hostile political and economic structures.8 Among the
Somali, women’s role in production as well as their labour input did not win for them
equal social status to that of men.9 Cultural constructs go a long way in influencing
women to shun politics as a man’s domain. As a result, foreign and military policy,
international politics, war and peace are dominated by patriarchal thinking, making the
exclusion of women an accepted phenomenon.10 Nonetheless, women’s innate ability
as peacebuilders and/or makers can be harnessed and used across a wide range of
activities relevant to the security sphere: bridging the divide between groups in conflict,
influencing local security forces, collaborating with international organizations, and
seeking political office.11
Women as Peace-builders: Case Studies
Most wars are planned, initiated and fought by men making the war system a male
construction3. In this respect, it is quite paradoxical that planning for peace has been
and seems to be an exclusively male domain. It is increasingly clear that International
negotiators and policymakers need to include peace promoters, not just warriors, at
the negotiating table. More often than not, peace promoters are women and often the
most powerful voice for moderation in times of conflict. While most men come to the
negotiating table directly from the war room and battlefield, women usually arrive
straight out of civil activism and take a deep breath; family care. Yet, traditional thinking
7
Sanan Naraghi Anderlini, Women building peace: What They Do, Why It Matters, (London: Lynne
Reinner Publishers, 2007), 12.
8
Ferris, Elizabeth, Women, War and Peace, Life and Peace Research Report 14, (Uppsala, 1993),
10.
9
Amina, M. W., Queens without Crown, Somaliland Women’s Changing Role and Peace Buildilng,
(Nairobi: Life and Peace Institute 2004), 29.
10
Ferris, Women, War and Peace, 11.
11
Swanee Hunt and Cristina Posa, Women Waging Peace in Foreign Policy, No. 124 (May - Jun.,
2001, pp. 38-47), 41.
115
about war and peace either ignore women or regard them as victims. Women can take
advantage of their identity as mothers and cut across international borders and ethnic
enclaves for peace. As family nurturers, women have a huge investment in the stability
of their communities. And since they know their communities, they can predict the acceptance of peace initiatives, as well as broker agreement in their neighbourhoods.12
Examples abound of women taking the lead in building bridges in situations of overt
or covert conflict.
In South Sudan, a country splintered by decades of civil war, women working together in the New Sudan Council of Churches conducted their own version of shuttle
diplomacy and organized the Wunlit tribal summit in February 1999 to bring an end to
bloody hostilities between the Dinka and Nuer peoples. As a result, the Wunlit Covenant guaranteed peace between the Dinka and the Nuer, who agreed to share rights
to water, fishing, and grazing land, which had been key points of disagreement. The
covenant also returned prisoners and guaranteed freedom of movement for members
of both tribes.13
Many communities used women as tokens of peace either as deterrents within deteriorating relationships, or as peace currencies. In Somaliland for example, sealing final
agreements between warring parties with the exchange of brides was one way of doing
this. It was a gesture of good will and an expression of burying hostilities in exchange
for progressive peace.14 A federation of Palestinian and Israeli women’s groups, served
as a blueprint for negotiations during the Oslo process. “If we’d had women at Camp
David, we’d have an agreement” were the sad words of President Clinton, the week
of the failed Camp David talks in July 2000. These more than ever demonstrate that
the woman or the feminine hand is a key actor in any peace process whether local or
international. Women in many occasions have been known to take dangerous positions
to ensure the end of hostilities and an ushering in of peace.
Women, as Interfaces: Case Studies
Women can act as a valuable interface between their countries’ security forces (police and military) and the public, especially in cases when rapid response is necessary
to head off violence. In Northern Ireland, women helped calm the deadly “marching
season” by facilitating mediations between Protestant unionists and Catholic nationalists15. They brought together key members of each community as mediators to calm
tensions. They worked with local police, meeting quietly and maintaining contact on a
24-hour basis. This intervention served as an extension of the limited tools of the local
security forces. In Sudan, Sudanese Women’s Voice for Peace met and talked with the
military leaders of the various rebel armies;16 contacts which secured women’s access
to areas controlled by the rebels; a critical variable in the success or failure of humanitarian efforts in war zones. Women have also worked with the military to search for
missing people, a common element in the cycle of violence. In Colombia, for example,
women’s persistency in demanding for information regarding one hundred and fifty
abducted persons secured them space in a military base for information and strategy.
12
13
14
15
16
116
Swani & Posa, Women Waging Peace, 41.
Amina M. W., Queens without Crown, 43.
They worked alongside each other in trying to track down the missing people. Local
women often have influence where outsiders, such as international human rights agencies, do not. It is this influence and motherly courage that took Maria Cristina Caballero
a female investigative reporter to venture out alone into the jungle to tape a four-hour
interview with the head of the paramilitary forces in Colombia. She also interviewed
another guerilla leader. Of her award-winning comparison of the transcripts, she said,
“This was bigger than a story this was hope for peace.”17 Risking their lives to move
back and forth across the divide, women like Caballero are women not by gender but
by spirit and by character. This spirit and character can be incarnated in any human
being no matter the sex and by any peace institution irrespective of its geographical
or political inclination.
Portrait of Feminine Peacebuilding and Conflict Transformation
Womanhood goes far beyond feminist gender defence or supremacy and is far from
equality between man and woman. Feminism, especially when pushed to its extreme,
can be a hindrance to peace and a fertile ground for community conflict. Our intention
here is to explore that womaness of a woman that cannot be limited to gender and
that is primordial for harmony in every human society. These qualities are not acquired
by sex but by education. Thus, “women, like men, can spread fear and mistrust, commit atrocities, and send armies of young men and women to kill and be killed”18 but
motherhood is not given to every woman and can be proper in a man.
Vital Force
One very fundamental characteristic that marks an African woman is that she is
always fertile19. She is always at the birth point of life, giving life to the full. In fact, the
heart of womanhood is life-giving. It is impossible to consider a woman in most African
cultures out of the fact that she mothers the society. This is fundamentally linked to the
essence of peacebuilding. Peace is about life-giving and not the search for self-interest
and personal satisfaction. If any peace research or process loses this fundamental aspect,
it loses its essence and ends up only in non-peace. We cannot talk of positive peace
in a context where human life is endangered and not engendered. The quest and the
promotion of life is the ultimate aim of peacebuilding. This spirituality of womanhood
that engenders and brings to birth new life even in the heart of conflict and war, is not
limited only to women but is an image that is portrayed by good mediators and sought
for in every conflict transforming theory. The portrait of women that is to be seen in
the mediator is that he/she should be able to endure humiliations, insults and even
persecutions as the pains that birth peace.
Justice, Compassion and Forgiveness
Justice, compassion and forgiveness are feminine virtues that every peace process
requires to reach its objectives from the heart of any conflict. Compassion and forgiveness which are acts of the heart and not products of an institution or results of the
17
18
19
Sanan Naraghi Anderlini, Women building peace, 4.
E. Mveng, L’Afrique dans l’Eglise: Parole d’un Croyant. (Paris: L’Harmathan, 1985).
117
bullet points have proved to be the most effective and perpetual peace20 humanity can
aspire for. In the eyes of the present world system and pragmatists, forgiving is an act
of cowardice or of weakness. In “African” context, the man who gives up in a battle,
no matter how powerful he may be, is considered a woman. He is considered woman
not because of any feminist ideology but simply because he is weak. The woman is
always considered as the weak one. Nevertheless, compassion and forgiveness have
built bridges of peace in circumstances where theories of peacebuilding and conflict
transformation have failed. This does not in any way negate the fact that justice has to
be exercised but rather guides and humanises the process of judgment. The past that
hurts is not forgotten but pardoned. The “politics of compassion”21 and forgiveness, is
an ethical response that touches conflict at its root cause; all conflicts or wars arise from
the heart thus, the fundamental conflict resolution should be in the heart.
Post-genocide Rwanda and post-apartheid and xenophobic South Africa are being reconstructed under theories of compassion and forgiveness through the Gacaca
courts and the Ubuntu Truth and Reconciliation Commission respectively. The basic
principle underlying these traditional institutions is the fact that all are human beings –
Ubuntu – called to coexist with differences and not to destroy each other for an absurd
uniformity. Public confessions made by genocide perpetrators do not only relief them
from their guilt burdens, they provoke compassion and forgiveness and sometimes,
love from the communities and families; victims of their evil actions. Here, the people
are able to differentiate between the conflict as a state and the actors of the conflict as
human beings. This is important in handling post-conflict trauma and conflict inherent
traditions and myths of the conflicting parties. This feminine touch has long-lasting effects in community reconstruction.
Melander, “Gender Equality and Intrastate Armed Conflict”, 700-711; Mary Caprioli
and Mark A. Boyer. “Gender, Violence, and International Crisis”. The Journal of Conflict
Resolution, 45 (4) (Sage Publications, Inc., 2001), 503-518.
Women Complete the Team
History attests to the fact that women have used their creative thinking, inventive
strategizing and networking for a more peaceful world.22 This has happened against all
odds in a male dominated world despite limited space accorded women in the social
economic and political spheres. One wonders how this is possible. Elise has attempted
a two pronged answer: firstly, women’s ingenuity has always accorded her opportunities
to create space for herself both in private and public spaces; and secondly that some
sensitive caring men have responded to women’s creativity and have enjoyed working
with them in enhancing this aspect to propagate peace. It is therefore imperative to
answer the question of whether an egalitarian relationship between both female and
male genders in establishing a culture of peace in society is need of the hour. Boulding
suggests that egalitarian relationships between men and women predated male domi20
Emmanuel Kant, Toward Perpetual Peace and Other Writings on Politics, Peace, and History (Rethinking the Western Tradition), (Yale University, 2006)
21
Elisabeth Porter, Peacebuilding: Women in international perspective, Routledge, London, 2007, P.
101.
22
Boulding Elise, The Underside of history: A view of Women Through Time, (Biverly Hills: CA Sage,
1976), 123.
118
nance.23 How therefore can the male and female maximize their creative natures to
maintain peace in a conflictual world? Society can no longer afford to ignore Women’s
innate qualities which in modern days are not fully utilized in enhancing peace-building
processes including conflict prevention and resolution; and neither can modern Africa
afford to exclude women in peace processes. Feminists affirm that men are trapped
into ‘macho’ roles through social constructions and as a result suffer as much from a
patriarchal system as the women.24
I don’t think women are naturally more peaceful than men. They have to learn to
be peaceful, just like men do, but women are in situations where they develop their
peaceable capabilities, such as child rearing. Men who are removed from that process
of human growth don’t get the same chance to cultivate that peaceable nature. It’s not
inherent.25 It is argued that the gender perceptions of war and peace are purely social
constructs and therefore not inherent to either gender. Therefore, this accords men and
women the opportunity to draw from each other’s strengths, experiences, and to fill
into each other’s emptiness in order to build a peaceful society.
Both men and women have the potential for peacemaking and the responsibility
to build and keep peace. The women, however, seem more creative and effective
in waging peace. It is the women’s emotional strength to transcend pain and suffering and their ...predisposition to peace that provides them with greater potentials for
peacemaking.26 The assumption here is that both genders must each contribute to a
cross fertilisation of a culture of peace in a bid to birth sustainable development. In
a bid to bring forth a culture of peace within which sustainable development thrives.
Women’s contribution is borne out of heredity of women’s experiences and an intercross of feminine ideas. Women too have a contribution to make of feminine ideas.
Boulding writes:
The constraining effects on women of their relegation to the household and the
private spaces of society have been overstated. What tends to be ignored is that the
focus ought to be on the historical reality that women’s work of feeding, rearing, and
healing humans---building and rebuilding communities under conditions of constant
change, including war, environmental catastrophe, plague, and continual push-pull
migrations---has produced resources and skills within women’s cultures that have been
critical not only to human survival but to human development.27
She further opines that more sharing of experience worlds between both genders
will be an important next step in human development.
C
onclusion: Our goal in this reflection has been to highlight the significant position
the feminine character occupies in the process of peace building and also in the
transformation of conflict. In fact, our intent was to attempt a feminine definition
of peace and to propose a motherly way of managing conflict and reconstructing postconflict communities. From some chosen cases, we have attempted to verify some
23
Boulding Elise, The Underside of history: 123.
Ferris, Women War and Peace, 7.
25
Cited in Judith porter Adams, Peace work: Oral Histories of Women Peace Activists, (Twayne Publishers, Boston, 1991), p.188
26
Garcia, E. (ed.) Pilgrim Voices: Citizens as Peacemakers, (London: International Alert, 1994)
27
Garcia, E. (ed.) Pilgrim Voices: Citizens as Peacemakers, 109.
24
119
theories of peace to see that they remain wanting and are inefficient if they do not
transmit the vital force of, justice, compassion, forgiveness and if they cannot complete
the masculine aspect of peace research. Perhaps this is what is lacking – the feminine
breath - in an assortment of peace deals and efforts to resolve conflicts in the world today.
Perhaps, if the United Nations, the African Union and the ECOWAS acted motherly in
Cote d’Ivoire, without seeking after personal interest, the country would not have come
to the brink of civil war. Perhaps, if Muarmar Gaddafi went beyond keeping female
virgin soldiers as his guards to having a feminine heart after peace and life at all cost;
perhaps it would have deterred him from opening life bullets on his own citizens. A
mother gives her own life for her progeny. Perhaps, if our leaders were motherly, they
would not elicit fear and uncertainty in the lives of their citizens. Our conviction is that
leadership, good governance, peacebuilding, conflict transformation and management
need to draw from the wealth of a woman’s heart, and that women need to be given
the space they deserve in peace research.
Bibliography
Adams, Judith P. Peace work: Oral Histories of Women Peace Activists. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1991.
Boulding, Elise. The Underside of history: A view of Women Through Time. Beverly Hills: CA
Sage, 1976.
Bujo, Bénézet. Plea For Change of Models for Marriage. Nairobi: Paulines Publications for Africa,
2009.
Bush, Kenneth. “A measure of Peace: Peace and Conflict Assessment (PCA) of Development
Projects in Conflict Zones,” working paper no.1, the Peacebuilding and Reconstruction Program Initiative and Evaluation Unit, IDRC, Ottawa, 1998.
Ferrari, Elizabeth. Women and Peace. Temdahls Tryckeri AB, Ostervala: Life and Peace Institute,
2004.
Ferris, Elizabeth. Women, War and Peace. Uppsala: Life and Peace Research Report 14, 1993.
Garcia, E. (ed.) Pilgrim Voices: Citizens as Peacemakers. London: International Alert, 1994.
Hunt, Swanee and Posa, Cristina. “Women Waging Peace” in Foreign Policy, No. 124 (May - Jun.,
2001, 38-47.
IFAPA, Women and Peace-building June 7th 2010 in, http://www.ifapa-africa.org/?p=308
Kant, Immanuel. Toward Perpetual Peace and Other Writings on Politics, Peace, and History:
Rethinking the Western Tradition. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2006.
Lampen, G.D., The Baggara Tribes of Darfur in Sudan Notes and Records Vol. XVI, Part 2,
1933.
Mveng, Engelbert. L’Afrique dans l’Eglise: Parole d’un croyant. Paris: L’Harmathan, 1985.
Pankhurst, Donna. Development in Practice, and Taylorfar Francis Guhing, “The ‘sex war’ And
Other Wars: Towards a Feminist Approach to Peace Building” Vol. 13, Num. 2 & 3, May
2003.
Porter, Elisabeth. Peacebuilding: Women in international perspective. London: Routledge, 2007.
Reychler, Luc and Paffenholz, Thania (Eds.) Peacebuilding: A field Guide. London: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 2001.
120
Sanan Naraghi Anderlini. Women building peace: What They Do, Why It Matters. London: Lynne
Reinner Publishers, 2007.
United Nations Organisation, Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur to the
United Nations Secretary-General: Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1564 of 18 September 2004, (Geneva, 25 January 2005).
Warsame, Amina M. Queens without Crown, Somaliland Women’s Changing Role and Peace
Building. Nairobi: Life and Peace Institute, 2004.
121
Ndanu Mung’ala *
A
bstract: Discussions on gender issues often tend to focus on the roles and power
relations between women and men. This dichotomy has, from time immemorial,
been replicated in almost every sphere of private and public life beginning with the
construction of gender identities. In the context of conflict, particularly armed and violent
conflict, the casualties are often scores of women and children. Humanitarian, peace
and reconstruction efforts often lump this category as one, under ‘victim’. However, it is
emerging that there is need for more gendered analyses of conflict situations in order to
avoid oversimplification and flawed approaches in redressing the problem. Scholars are
questioning previous assumptions that have taken gender relations for granted without
factoring in the wider socio-cultural, political and economic contexts. It is clear that
these factors need to be scrutinised further in order to adequately answer to the baffling
and chronic complexities of war.
I
ntroduction: Even in the world of gods and goddesses, the divine is gendered. From
classical Greek’s Artemis and Zeus to Africa’s Asase Ya and Ogun,1 their characteristics
and functions have a distinct female or male identity. With regard to Hindu deities,
each of the gods in the Trimurti: Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the preserver) and
Shiva (the destroyer) has a respective female consort: Saraswati, Lakshmi and Kali. Sita,
Rama’s wife, is theologically understood to be the avatāra2 of Lakshmi. She represents
wifely and feminine virtues of beauty, love and tenderness and is the epitome of the
ideal wife and of motherhood.
From the celestial to the mortal world, an investigation into the relations between
women and men elicits great interest. Whereas literature on men and their activities is in
abundance, concrete information on women, from ancient to contemporary times, is not
as readily available. There exists much that has idealised even romanticised the feminine
but the real identity of the woman is often masked by how men construe their relation
to the opposite sex. The definition of women has often been made vis-à-vis their social
position and duties. In Emile, Rousseau observed that women should please and care
1
Asase Ya, earth goddess among the Ashanti people of Ghana, is invoked to fill the fields with
bounty and bring forth life. Ogun, a West African god, is the master of hunting, iron and warfare. Their roles
conform to the typical female (nurturing) and male (protector) expectations. Cf. Richard J. Gehman. African
Traditional Religion in Biblical Perspective (Nairobi: East African Publishers, 2005), 191-193 and Sandra Barnes,
ed. Africa’s Ogun: Old World and New (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1989), 2.
2
Avatāra (avatars) in Hinduism represent the descent of God to earth in bodily form (incarnation)
to restore dharma to society i.e. socio-cosmic order and balance in the universe. The most prominent avatars
are of Vishnu namely Rama and Krishna. Cf. Henry O. Thompson. World Religions in War and Peace (North
Carolina: McFarland & Company Inc., 1988), 59 and Trevor Ling. A History of Religion East and West: An
Introduction and Interpretation (London: Macmillan, 1968), 190.
*
122
Ndanu Mung’ala hails from Kenya. She is in her second year at the Institute of Peace Studies
and International Relations, Hekima College.
for men; skills that they should develop from childhood.3 Classical Western thought
saw minimal changes over the centuries with regard to this puritan conception of the
woman. An increased sociological and philosophical distancing of the sexes led to the
perception of the woman as the ‘other’ and it is no wonder that Simone de Beauvoir
spoke of the “Second Sex”.4 It has taken various efforts for women’s issues to become
the focus of serious inquiry especially with regard to the question of gender.
Gender, generally understood as being female or male, is an area that carries its
own complexities. How do gender identities inform the ideal and the reality? How has
the female and male identity evolved over time? How do we define women’s power?
To what extent are women actors in society? An analysis of the way images of gender
have changed over time offers us a starting point in this discussion on how they interplay in conflict.
This article will, in the first part, contextualise the discussion within the socio-cultural
understanding and formation of gender identities. The second and third parts enunciate
how these identities have mutated and have been manipulated in conflict situations
citing examples from various parts of the world. The fourth and final section reiterates
the need for deeper reflections and actions on gendered approaches to conflict situations informed by the reality of socio-cultural, economic and political contexts on local
and international levels.
From Ancient to Contemporary Times: Presenting History/Herstory
“The competition for a man’s love is fought at the cooking place. When he returns from the
field or from the hunt, you win him with a hot bath and sour porridge.” 5
The meaning of being female or male varies from culture to culture and often an
individual learns how to become a girl/boy and woman/man according to socially
constructed characteristics and behaviour.6 Research studies have analysed sex roles
in order to understand how these have informed relations between the sexes through
analyses of myths, history, philosophy, science, literature and art forms.7
In the construction of gender roles, most cultures of the world reflect two common
themes. Boys and men are prepared for their role as warriors whereas girls and women
are assigned the role of caring and nurturing. Boys are made aware of the need to be
tough and if they fail, they are relegated to the ‘lowly’ status of girls and women. They
are expected to be violent and suppress emotion. In direct contrast to this, femininity
3
Pauline S. Pantel, ed. A History of Women in the West: From Ancient Goddesses to Christian Saints
(Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1992), xi.
4
Michelle Z. Rosaldo and Louise Lamphere, eds. Woman, Culture and Society (Stanford: Stanford
University Press, 1974), 1.
5
Okot p’Bitek. Song of Lawino (Nairobi: East African Publishing House, 1970), 47.
6
Rob Pattman and Fatuma Chege. Finding Our Voices: Gendered & Sexual Identities and HIV/AIDS
in Education (Nairobi: UNICEF, 2003), 15.
7
See Pantel, A History of Women in the West: From Ancient Goddesses to Christian Saints; Michael
W. Mwaura, “Artistic Discourse and Gender Politics in the Gikuyu Popular Song”, 62-70; Mwenda Ntarangwi,
“Hip-hop, Westernization and Gender in East Africa”, 290-299 in Kimani Njogu and Hervé Maupeu, eds. Songs
and Politics in Eastern Africa (Dar es Salaam: Mkuki na Nyota Publishers Ltd, 2007); Hervé Maupeu and
Patrick Mutahi, eds. Wahome Mutahi’s World (Nairobi: Transafrica Press, 2005), 59-61 and Ndanu Mung’ala.
“Breaking Through” in Kwani? Series. To Be A Man (India: Thompson Press India Ltd, 2009), 13-17.
123
Ndanu Mung’ala
is associated with submission and empathy.8 Due to this gender orientation, war has a
distinct male character and peace a heavy feminine connotation. The relative pacifism of
women, often a result of socialisation processes, has translated into gendered strategies
when dealing with conflict which can be traced as far back as the ancient Greek play
Lysistrata.9 Nelson Mandela, former President of South Africa, alluded to this power
during the Arusha peace talks on the Burundi conflict. He told the women that if the men
resumed fighting, they should withhold “conjugal rights”, adding “like cooking”.10
The theoretical basis for this thinking has been articulated in the essentialist and
constructivist arguments. The former underscores the belief that women are more averse
to violence and prefer peaceful coexistence which is inherent in their childbearing and
motherly nature. The latter argument posits that gender roles and attendant attitudes
are socially constructed.11 In constructivist logic, since gender roles are seen to be
socially constructed and that they can respond to societal developments then they are
changeable. Once men begin to identify with a masculinity that is less warlike and more
peaceful and they reject the subordination of women, they in turn will be no less averse
to violence than women who reject the legitimacy of their subordination and violence
as a means of imposing domination.
Women’s Peace Activism
The challenge of memory hinders a full appreciation of women’s issues. There are
still gaps in documentation and preservation of women’s experiences in history; her
stories are often untold. In African resistance to colonial rule, the contribution of women
to liberation efforts is rarely acknowledged unless communities preserve the memory.
A fine example is that of Mekatilili wa Menza, a Giriama woman, who successfully
marshaled her fellow women, in 1913 colonial Kenya, to stop the British labour recruitment and re-establish traditional government.12 Mekatilili was an ordinary woman with
no rank among the Giriama but she was concerned with the disintegrating economic
and cultural power of her people and she spoke out fearlessly against social injustices.
Through her astute organisation and powerful oratory skills, she convinced the Giriama
to put up a unified front against their common enemy and they succeeded.
Women’s peace activism is often underestimated or misunderstood because it is
born of their cultural experience of disempowerment. Protest strategies usually take the
form of public symbols of motherhood, songs, peace poetry, mourning or ritual cursing which the women politicise and transform.13 A sterling example of women’s peace
8
Erik Melander. “Gender Equality and Intrastate Armed Conflict”. International Studies Quarterly,
49 (4) (Blackwell Publishing, 2005), 698.
9
Greek playwright Aristophanes created the heroine, Lysistrata, who convinced Athenian women
to deny their husbands sexual privileges in order to exert pressure on them to end the Peloponnesian war.
This theme has been adopted in modern-day campaigns like the Kenyan women organisations’, G10, call
for a one-week sex boycott on 29 April, 2009 to pressurise the principals, Mwai Kibaki and Raila Odinga, to
resolve political differences within the coalition government. “Kenya: Women’s Sex Strike - G10 Press Statement”, 30 April 2009. http://allafrica.com/stories/printable/200905010047.html
10
Swanee Hunt and Cristina Posa. “Women Waging Peace”. Foreign Policy, 124 (Washingtonpost.
Newsweek Interactive, LLC, 2001), 42.
11
Melander, “Gender Equality and Intrastate Armed Conflict”, 697-699.
12
Cynthia Brantley. “Mekatalili and the Role of Women in Giriama Resistance” in Donald Crummey,
ed. Banditry, Rebellion and Social Protest in Africa (London: James Currey Ltd., 1986), 333-347.
13
Rita Manchanda. “Women’s Agency in Peace Building: Gender Relations in Post-Conflict Reconstruc-
124
activism is the Israeli protest movement “Women in Black”, described as a minimalist
social movement, which took place from January 1988 to June 1994 in marked places
all over Israel.14
The purpose of the fixed weekly demonstrations every Friday at 1-2pm was to protest the Israeli occupation of Palestinian territories and the subsequent Israeli-Palestinian
violence. The protests sought to ensure that the issue was not ignored by the national
authorities. The Jewish women, occasionally joined by Palestinian women, would be
dressed in black clothing, symbolising the tragedy of both Israelis and Palestinians and
they would hold a black sign, shaped like a stop sign, with a white inscription: “Stop
the Occupation”.
These protests sparked public outrage especially in the virulent curses aimed at
the women, mostly by taxi drivers. Further condemnation merged sexist and nationalist
sentiments “whores for Arabs”, not only to the ordinary Palestinian but to their leader
too “Arafat’s whores”.15 The Women in Black attempted to distance themselves from
male dominance and regain control over their own bodies by daring to stand in protest
in public. However, this bodily exposure was misconstrued as sexual permissiveness
and not political assertion. By being reduced to chattels, the cursers sought to silence
the women’s moral demands by ignoring the protest’s rationality and importance.
The curses also revealed entrenched mentalities on gender roles when the women
were asked: “What’s the matter, don’t you have a husband?” or “Go make preparations
for the Sabbath”.16 These were harsh reminders that the woman’s place is at home with
her husband and children and the fact that they are in the public square means that they
do not have anyone to cook for. The men felt betrayed and confused that their own
Jewish women had ‘abandoned’ their subservient roles. In short, the women had no
respect for religion and no right to voice their opinion but the women were not cowed.
The movement and protest subverted Israeli socio-political and gender orders and created new definitions and meanings. Its influence spread globally and other groups in
the Balkans and India used similar means to protest against oppression.17
Mutations and Manipulations: Gender Identities in Conflict
“I was at the [war] front until I was eight-months pregnant. I left her in Guinea. There was no
one to take care of her here. But I will bring her back now that the war is over…Taylor has
left. I want to go to school.” 18
tion”. Economic and Political Weekly, 40 (44/45) (Economic and Political Weekly, 2005), 4740. Cf. Chantal
Logan, “The Enduring Power of Somali “Oral Political Poetry”: Songs and Poems of Peace in the Midst of
Chaos” in Njogu and Maupeu, eds. Songs and Politics in Eastern Africa, 370 and Amina Mohamoud Warsame.
Queens without Crowns: Somaliland Women’s Changing Roles and Peace Building (Uppsala: Life and Peace
Institute, 2004), 43-47.
14
Sara Helman and Tamar Rapoport. “Women in Black: Challenging Israel’s Gender and Socio-Political
Orders”. The British Journal of Sociology, 48 (4) (Blackwell Publishing, 1997), 683.
15
Helman and Rapoport, “Women in Black: Challenging Israel’s Gender and Socio-Political Orders”, 690.
16
Helman and Rapoport, “Women in Black: Challenging Israel’s Gender and Socio-Political Orders”, 691.
17
Hunt and Posa, “Women Waging Peace”, 43.
18
This is the story and hope of Black Diamond, a female combatant, who fought with the Liberian
women rebel fighters - the Women’s Artillery Commandos (WAC). Black Diamond, 22, joined the rebel
forces, to take revenge, after being gang-raped in 1999 by President Charles Taylor’s forces in the northern
Lofa county. “Liberia’s Women Killers” http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/africa/3181529.stm (BBC News,
2003).
125
Ndanu Mung’ala
During 14 years of warfare, girls, boys, women and men participated in Liberia’s
civil war as combatants, supporters, peace-builders and political actors. Women and girls
joined the armed forces either involuntarily or voluntarily to survive the tough times or
because they believed in the cause. It is estimated that 38% of the Liberian combatants
eligible for disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) in 2004 were women
and children. Initially, numbers of women combatants were placed at 1,000 to 10,000
but by August 2004, 12,000 had passed through the DDR process.19 Indeed, many girls
and women can be described as victims of the war but their participation in committing atrocities cannot be ignored. In addition to their military duties, girls were raped
and kept as sex slaves or ‘wives’ of soldiers. In order to avoid this constant abuse,
some older girls captured female prisoners for the men so as to deflect attention from
themselves.20
This is an example of cases that defy the essentialist argument as some women
become directly involved in armed conflict. Women served in the capacity of fighters
and support personnel in the Eritrean armed struggle while some women were also
actively involved in the Rwandan genocide. However, these instances have little effect
on attitudes and actions towards women. Eritrean female ex-combatants were socially
and economically ostracised as a direct result of their participation in conflict. Judy
El-Bushra gives an insightful account of the gendered impact of war on women in six
African countries.21
Ironically, conflict has contributed, to a certain extent, to increasing women’s responsibilities and greater participation in decision-making and political processes in
several African countries.22 Women have taken on greater economic responsibilities
with men losing the traditional role of ‘provider’. Previous distinct gender roles have
become blurred in Somali, Angola, Rwanda and Mali. The Rwandan and Mali men
positively acknowledged their women’s increased responsibility in family affairs unlike
their Somali and Angolan counterparts who were more passive. In Sudan and Uganda
this shift contributed to increased alcoholism among men and domestic violence. Limited education and work opportunities coupled with the shift from subsistence farming
to an urban cash economy have increased dependence on women’s petty trade and
reduced standards of living. Nevertheless, the basis and enduring capacity of women’s
“gains” in conflict is debatable especially in light of some of the disadvantages they are
experiencing like for the Rwandan women. They admitted to a “solitude” accompanying their new-found independence; the work demands, the breakdown of services and
social relations and the risks to their health and security as a result of new livelihoods
and expectations.23
Other studies have demonstrated that there is a positive correlation between gender equality, lower levels of intrastate armed conflict and peaceful relations with other
states.24 In comparing male and female leader’s aggression during crises, Caprioli and
19
UNIFEM. “Getting it Right, Doing it Right: Gender and Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration” (New York: 2004), 10.
20
Human Rights Watch. “How to Fight, How to Kill: Child Soldiers in Liberia” 16, 2 (A), (HRW, 2004),
2. http://hrw.org/reports/2004/liberia0204/3.htm#_Toc61673954
21
Judy El-Bushra. “Fused in Combat: Gender Relations and Armed Conflict”. Development in Practice,
13 (2/3) (Taylor & Francis, Ltd., 2003), 259-261.
22
El-Bushra, “Fused in Combat: Gender Relations and Armed Conflict”, 252.
23
El-Bushra, “Fused in Combat: Gender Relations and Armed Conflict”, 257.
24
Melander, “Gender Equality and Intrastate Armed Conflict”, 700-711; Mary Caprioli and Mark A.
126
Boyer observed that gender stereotypes have a dual impact on female leaders in the
effect they have on women’s behaviour in conforming to traditional male leadership
styles and on the behaviour of male leaders when they face a female opponent. Some
male leaders feel compelled to stick to a macho image therefore they are reluctant to
“lose” to a woman lest they be thought to be less “manly”. In the 1971 Indo-Pakistan
war, President Yahya Khan of Pakistan stated: “If that woman [Indira Gandhi] thinks she
is going to cow me down, I refuse to take it”.25 Consequently, women who emulate
men, as many think Margaret Thatcher, Indira Gandhi and Golda Meir did, are more
likely to succeed as national political leaders and more likely to gain political power
in male-dominated societies. Female leaders are often expected to copy male gender
stereotypes partly to overcome the stereotype of “weak” female leadership.
Whereas female state leadership has no statistically significant effect, partly due to
lack of a substantial number of examples to analyse, societies that enjoy higher gender
equality either in female representation in parliament or the ratio of female-to-male
higher education attainment have lower levels of intrastate armed conflict.26 With regard
to the essential nature of women, the expectation is that women state leaders and other
women in influential positions, like parliament, will do more to prevent societal problems from escalating into armed conflicts and to de-escalate armed conflicts than men
in the same positions. This is illustrated in women’s advocacy for resources intended
for military responses to be rechanneled into redressing societal injustices that are seen
to be the structural causes of conflict. Nevertheless, this stance can be qualified by the
exceptional support of the use of force if it is genuinely aimed at reducing overall violence as in some humanitarian interventions. In constructivist logic, gender equality is
linked to less violence and fewer and shorter internal armed conflicts.
Martha Thompson challenges the ‘gender-blind’ debates with regard to analyses
on conflict theory.27 Most theories explaining modern armed conflict are still based
on the actor (male soldier), the traditional reason (state territory and security), the
causes (poverty, frustration, and state failure) and effects (violence and unintentional
civilian casualties) whereas post-Cold War conflicts should be analysed with regard to
the adaptation to globalisation. System malfunctions: state failures, ethnic hatred and
resource conflicts are often manipulated especially by the political and economic elites
to maintain their patronage. The increased use of terror, especially by non-state actors,
is not accidental but a calculated strategy to influence and control the masses.
When looking at the objectives of insurgencies particularly in the use of violence,
we see an increasing number of conflicts involving disintegrating states and the creation
of new forms of power. For example, Afghanistan, Burundi, the Democratic Republic
of Congo (DRC) and Somalia seem to be weak nation states but they have new economic and political powers that depend on the instability. In these contexts, brutality
and terror are increasingly being used especially by armed non-state actors such as the
Revolutionary United Front (RUF) in Sierra Leone, the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) in
Boyer. “Gender, Violence, and International Crisis”. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 45 (4) (Sage Publications, Inc., 2001), 503-518.
25
Malhotra, I. Indira Gandhi: A Personal and Political Biography (Boston: Northeastern University
Press, 1989), 137 in Caprioli and Boyer, “Gender, Violence, and International Crisis”, 508.
26
Melander, “Gender Equality and Intrastate Armed Conflict”, 697-699; Caprioli and Boyer, “Gender,
Violence, and International Crisis”, 505.
27
Martha Thompson. “Women, Gender, and Conflict: Making the Connections”. Development in
Practice, 16 (3/4) (Taylor & Francis, Ltd., 2006), 343.
127
Ndanu Mung’ala
Uganda and different armed groups in Eastern Congo. The use of sexual violence has
been critically analysed especially in genocide cases such as in Bosnia, Kosovo, Rwanda
and Darfur but less is known of how the Uganda and DRC insurgencies work and alter
social relationships through major violations of cultural and gender identities.28 Sexual
violence has moved from being a result of war to a strategy in the waging of war, especially in sealing masculine constructions.
Gendered Approaches for Peaceful and Just Societies
“Peace begins when people find violence the worst threat of all” 29
From the Security Council resolution 1325, Women, Peace and Security, adopted in
October 2000, the United Nations acknowledges the relevance of gender perspectives
in all peace efforts.30 This resolution recognises women as instrumental to peace and
security processes therefore granting them the right to full participation at all levels.
Among the lessons experts have learnt from the field is that there is urgent need to
break away from the traditional thinking of “the combatant” as an armed male; a narrow
definition that has seen women excluded from receiving the services, cash incentives,
business loans, health care, training or housing support that comes with DDR packages. In the 2004 report regarding a gendered DDR process, UNIFEM recommends
that “gender-disaggregated data must be gathered in order to develop a more accurate
picture of what women ex-fighters and dependents know, and what they did during
the conflict.”31
As pointed out, women often become the heads of their families in conflict situations. Some end up “diversifying their livelihood strategies” through selling food to
insurgents, participating in the illegal trade of precious stones and drugs and generally
being a central component of the shadow operations and political economies of war yet
this role is hardly ever discussed. One of the ways of ensuring that gender perspectives
are taken into consideration during conflict, particularly in enhancing the visibility of
women’s roles, is to analyse gender policies of different actors in war. This will contribute to understanding conflict and managing it better so as to guarantee peaceful
and just societies.32
Theologians, ethicists and philosophers concentrate on various aspects of justice
but there is general consensus that justice necessitates freedom and participation of
the person, equitable distribution of social goods and solidarity with the suffering in
order to re-humanise society and re-assert human dignity.33 Paulo Freire, the Brazilian educator, also contributed to this salient debate on justice through his focus on
28
Thompson, “Women, Gender, and Conflict: Making the Connections”, 345-350; Robin M. Schott.
“Philosophical Reflections on War Rape” in Claudia Card, ed. On Feminist Ethics and Politics (Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1999), 173-199.
29
Carolyn Nordstrom. Girls and Warzones: Troubling Questions (Uppsala: Life and Peace Institute,
2004), 3.
30
United Nations Security Council, S/RES/1325 (2000).
31
UNIFEM. “Getting it Right, Doing it Right: Gender and Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration”, 4; 12-16; 26-29.
32
Thompson, “Women, Gender, and Conflict: Making the Connections”, 348-349
33
Michelle Tooley. Voices of the Voiceless: Women, Justice and Human Rights in Guatemala (Scottdale:
Herald Press, 1997), 142-165; Pope John XXIII. “Pacem In Terris” in David J. O’Brien and Thomas A. Shannon,
eds. Catholic Social Thought: The Documentary Heritage. (New York: Orbis Books, 1992), 131-159.
128
conscientisation and praxis as reflection and action.34 The latter must then be aimed
at transforming unjust societal structures. In blunt terms, injustice demands action and
not mere acknowledgement of its existence.
This discussion therefore forms a strong basis for the inclusion of a gendered analysis
in conflict issues. An adequate and balanced approach seeks gender justice in efforts
towards equality between women and men. This demands redressing social injustices
that would greatly improve the lives of many women and girls while simultaneously
freeing men from rigid gender demands thereby minimising the risks of internally torn
societies.
C
onclusion: “Sex is biological; gender is sociological” read my campus GAP
(Gender Action Programme) T-shirt which always got me stopped by my male
colleagues wanting to understand “exactly” what my T meant and often goading
me into a verbal parry of the distorted gender arguments that I fast grew weary of.
Over time, socially and academically, I realised the need to extricate myself from these
stereotypes that severely obstruct meaningful discussions and developments in gender
matters.
Ultimately the quest for women’s growth and progress, their determination for
peace is intricately linked to society’s cause. It is simply untenable to turn a blind eye
to the atrocities committed today in the name of maintaining the status quo. Key individuals and organisations cannot sacrifice human rights and the inclusion of women in
decision-making positions at the altar of ‘peace and security’. Ambassador Juan Somavia
of Chile, expressing his concern for Afghan women living in deplorable circumstances
in Taliban-occupied territories stated that “peace is not only the end of hostilities and a
stable distribution of political power. Peace is also a society living in peace, where all
citizens can enjoy their fundamental human rights and feel safe in their lives, customs
and property”.35
If we do not take into consideration the circumstances, experiences, roles, vulnerabilities and capacities of women and men in conflict, we create blanket response strategies that fail to redress gender-based differences and generally disadvantage women.36
Constructions of femininity and masculinity are also linked in complex ways to factors
such as ethnicity, age and massive social upheavals. The challenge lies in comprehending old, new or alternative femininities and masculinities, how they interplay in current
realities and what they portend for the future particularly for children and young adults
whose voices are usually not heard.37 What is the greatest insight that this debate can
offer us? The courage to keep searching for answers in these complex webs.
34
Paulo Freire. Pedagogy of the Oppressed, trans. Myra Bergman Ramos (New York: Herder and
Herder, 1971) in Tooley, Voices of the Voiceless: Women, Justice and Human Rights in Guatemala, 171-172;
The Brazilian archbishop of Recife and Olinda, Dom Helder Camara, also modelled his Movement for Basic
Education (MEB) on Freirian “conscientisation” in M. Hope and J. Young. The Struggle for Humanity: Agents
of Nonviolent Change in a Violent World (New York: Orbis Books, 1979), 113.
35
J. Somavia. “Gender Apartheid”. People’s Security: Globalizing Social Progress (Allan Markman,
1999), 41.
36
Thompson, “Women, Gender, and Conflict: Making the Connections”, 342.
37
See Pattman and Chege. Finding Our Voices: Gendered & Sexual Identities and HIV/AIDS in Education; Alice Akunga, Eileen Kwamboka and Daniel Muia. The Voices of Young Kenyans: Gender, Sexuality
and HIV/AIDS in Education and Iwani Tapela and Leonard Maveneke. The Voices of Young Zimbabweans:
Gender, Sexuality and HIV/AIDS in Education (Nairobi: UNICEF, 2004).
129
Ndanu Mung’ala
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Sexuality and HIV/AIDS in Education. Nairobi: UNICEF, 2004.
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Barnes, Sandra, ed. Africa’s Ogun: Old World and New. Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana
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Reflections
Pastoral Issues
A Cause for Celebration: The New Kenyan Constitution
Heralds a Bold New Era Affirming Women’s Rights and
Gender Equality
Atieno Ndomo *
A
fter decades of struggle, Kenya enacted a new constitution in mid-2010 following a heavily contested, but successful referendum. The country’s supreme law is
billed by many as being very progressive in affirming human rights, equality and
dignity. A key plank of the new constitution is its affirmation of women’s rights and
the recognition of gender equality principles. Against a back drop of extreme forms of
marginalization, exclusion, discrimination and oppression of women in Kenya, the
new constitution heralds a significant milestone for advancing the position, conditions
and status of Kenyan women. However, the journey to move from promise to reality is a
daunting one which requires very deliberate, decisive and transformative actions from
all actors –the state, non-state actors and citizens. There is an imperative to act, as inaction is not an option.
Overview of the Status of Women in Kenya
One of the main aspects of discussion in Kenya’s long drawn quest for a new constitution was undoubtedly the place women would be accorded within the supreme
law. Against the backdrop of a society and governing framework where women face
discrimination and remain subordinated, thanks to a deeply entrenched patriarchal system, the quest to accord women in Kenya equality before the law and have their rights
enshrined in the new constitution was both critical and necessary.
Gender equality is not about seeking a status of ‘sameness’ between men and
women. Rather, it refers to a situation where access and enjoyment of rights, opportunities, goods and resources is not dependent upon one’s gender (being male or female).
Typically, in instances of gender inequality, women stand at a disadvantage and are
often marginalized and excluded, resulting in violation of their human rights and dignity.
Available quality of life/human development indicators suffice to illustrate the point
about women’s inferior position and status in Kenyan society.
*
132
Ms Ndomo is a social and political economy analyst from Kenya.
A Cause for Celebration
According to the 2010 United Nations Development Program (UNDP) Human Development Report, Kenya has a gender inequality index of 0.7381 and ranks 128 out of
169 countries. On the Gender related Development Index (GDI) which measures how
gender inequalities (disparities between women and men) affect human development
(life expectancy, quality of life and educational achievement), Kenya attains a score of
0.492- a GDI value closer to one represents near equality between men and women.
The country’s maternal mortality2 rate stands at an unacceptably alarming level (at
560 deaths3), and is the leading cause of premature death among women of reproductive age in Kenya. This is due to among others, the inadequate and inaccessible (cost
and availability concerns) status of health care services to a majority of the population
who are poor. According to the 2008-9 Kenya Demographic and Health Survey, only
44 percent of all deliveries took place under the care of a health professional (with
marked variation in access between rural and urban areas). Still on health, figures on
HIV/AIDS prevalence exhibit a significant gender differential to women’s disadvantage.
The 2007 Kenya AIDS Indicator survey finds that HIV prevalence among females aged
between 15-19 is about 3.5 percent in comparison to males the same age which stands
at one percent; and 7.4 percent for females against 1.9 percent for males in the 20-24
age category4.
Notwithstanding an impressive attainment of a measure of gender parity in primary
school enrolment, transition to secondary school is less impressive and consequently
there are far fewer women transitioning from primary to secondary school and eventually to higher levels of learning. At university level it is estimated that male enrolment is 60 percent compared to females at 40 percent. The factors responsible for this
disparity include the high school drop-out rates for girls due to various economic and
socio-cultural factors including: early, forced and unwanted pregnancies and marriage;
parental preference for boy education; and, poverty. Further the picture in terms of
women’s participation in certain disciplines such as the sciences and other technologybased courses is appalling. The Society for International Development in a 2004 study5
pointed out that there is evidence confirming that women are more disadvantaged than
men in terms of access and outcomes in education, with illiteracy among females being
almost twice that of males.
Access to water is a major problem for most Kenyan families and it is estimated
that only over half the population in rural areas have access to safe water sources.
Considering that the burden for household chores falls disproportionately to women
and girls due to assigned gender roles, this has consequences for women’s time and
worsens their work load. For school going girls, lack of access to water means that they
spend huge amounts of time in search of water, at the expense of paying attention to
school work. Moreover, going vast distances to find water exposes women and girls to
gender based violence.
1
See http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/KEN.html
Maternal mortality ratio is estimated as per 100,000 live births and refers to the death of a woman
while pregnant of within 42 days of terminating a pregnancy regardless of length or site of the pregnancy
due to any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy itself but not due to accidental causes.
3
The 2010 Human Development Report.
4
United Nations Development Program, Kenya National Human Development Report 2009: Youth
and Human Development, Tapping the untapped resource (Nairobi: UNDP, 2010), 31.
5
Society for International Development, Pulling Apart: Facts and Figures on Inequality in Kenya
(Nairobi: Ramco Printing Works, 2004), 43.
2
133
Atieno Ndomo
In contexts of food poverty, again given gender roles which assign women an inferior status to men, women tend to suffer poorer nutrition as they would often cater
to the food needs of other family members (males, children and dependent relatives),
over and above their own. This of course has dire consequences on women’s health
and especially if one considers their reproductive roles. Although Kenyan women are
the main workers in the agricultural sector, they do not own the land they till nor control the produce and resources that accrue from the land. It is estimated that only one
percent of land titles are owned by women, with 5-6 percent titles being jointly held.
Women also lack access to agricultural inputs, extension services and training- effectively
compromising productivity.
Finally, in regard to access to finance and formal employment, statistics from the
2009 Economic Survey suggest that males account for about 70 percent of all modern
sector wage employment in Kenya whilst only 17.8 percent of women (compared to
27.9 percent men) had access to formal finance6. This is quite consistent with their
lower level educational status and lack of access and control of productive assets like
land, capital and inputs.
A Bold New Era for Women’s Dignity, Rights and Gender Equality in Kenya
Given the above overview account of the abysmal status of women in Kenya, it
must be fairly obvious why the new constitution heralds such profound milestones for
women. It boldly affirms gender equality and makes explicit provisions to advance
women’s rights, dignity and status. And there- in lies the greatest challenge- how to
transform the present appalling circumstance into the promise envisaged by the new
constitution.
The new constitution is lauded for setting a well considered foundation to build the
Kenyan nation based on principles of human dignity and rights; equity and equality;
social justice and non-discrimination. Key among the high points of this document is
the fact that it upholds the sovereignty of the people. It is important to appreciate that
‘people’ here must mean both genders; Kenyan females and males alike.
Unlike, the case with the previous constitution whereby international conventions
would not become part of Kenyan law unless incorporated through an Act of Parliament,
treaties and international conventions ratified by Kenya (such as international human
rights instruments) automatically become law under the new constitution. This means for
instance that since Kenya signed and ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) -popularly seen as the bill of rights
for women- in 1984, its provisions are now automatically part of Kenyan law. This is
extremely helpful when you consider the fact that in the country’s history, government
tended to sign and ratify international and regional commitments and then proceeded to
pretty much ignore them i.e. take no steps to incorporate the said treaties into domestic
law (domestication). Consequently, ordinary people were not able to benefit from the
progressive provisions and benefits of such treaties. In fact, legislative and policy making
process missed out on a rich source of ideas and standards to draw from.
6
See Wanjala B., Odongo M., “Gender and Kenya Vision 2030: An audit of the economic pillar”, in
Society for International Development, Kenya Vision 2030: An Audit from an Income and Gender Inequalities
Perspective (Nairobi: Ascent Limited, 2010), 47-48.
134
The example of the International Convention on Social, Cultural and Economic
Rights (ICESC) is a good one to cite to further illustrate this point. Until now (where
the new constitution explicitly recognizes socio-economic rights), although Kenya had
signed this 1966 Convention, it subsequently took no steps to make it a reality in its
laws. What this meant was that the very basic requirements for living a life of dignity
(food, shelter, health care, water and education) were not considered as citizens’ rights.
In policy design, addressing poverty and inequality was not an express priority. The
result of course has been decades of wasted human potential and a life of unacceptable inhumane existence for half the country’s citizens who wallow in abject poverty.
When we talk about poverty, it is important to acknowledge the gender dimension
of outcomes which means that poverty tends to afflict females in a worse sense- the
idea of “feminization of poverty” (due to subjugation, discrimination and exclusion,
key hall marks of a patriarchal system of domination). The Kenya National Bureau
of Statistics places poverty incidence for female headed households at 50 percent.
Some of the reasons why women are poorer include: a lack of ‘voice’ (due to exclusion from participation in decision making spheres, hence their interests are ignored);
the fact that their work in the ‘informal’ sphere is invisible and unpaid for; and, the
lack of implementation of progressive women’s rights instruments through policy and
budgetary action.
The new constitution now makes it entirely possible for citizens to invoke the standards enshrined in various international and regional human rights instruments that Kenya
has signed and ratified, and to push for implementation. In the case of women’s rights,
Kenya has signed and ratified both CEDAW and the Protocol to the African Charter on
Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (AU Protocol); both of
which are very comprehensive in their affirmation and recognition of women’s rights.
Moreover, the AU Protocol goes even further than CEDAW in terms of its context sensitivity, thus being very relevant for the African context.
Marginalized Majority: Despite their Toil, Women are Invisible in Kenya’s Public
Sphere
Gender inequality in political and economic participation, and the exercise of decision making power (as seen in representation in elective and appointed positions) is
evident in Kenya. In parliament, women constitute a meager 9.5 percent of membersnotwithstanding that the current parliament (with 21 members out of a 222 member
House) is the highest female representation the country has ever had. The same applies
to the Cabinet, where at 7 full ministers and 6 assistant ministers, these are the highest
ever attained at these levels. The marginal increases registered, fall way below the 30%
national policy threshold for female representation. In this particular regard, Kenya fairs
way worse than the Sub-Saharan Africa average of 16 percent and well below her East
African Community counter parts.
To use the judiciary as an indication of the appalling under- representation of
women in public service: there is no female Court of Appeal Judge; of the 62 High
Court judges, only 14 (22%) are women. Excluding women from participation in decision making processes means their right to speak, to be heard and to make an input is
denied- which goes against basic principles of justice.
135
Atieno Ndomo
One of the exemplars of the glaring gap that exists between the aspirations of
women’s rights provisions as enshrined in the new Kenyan constitution and the prevailing oppressive reality is the trend underway in appointments to key institutions/
offices as outlined by the new law. Failure to adhere to and uphold the gender equality
principles of the new constitution was one of the grounds for rejecting the purported
appointments (since withdrawn) to key judicial and other constitutional appointments.
One can expect that gender and social justice activists will sustain vigilance to ensure
the aspirations for gender equality in appointments are realized.
Principles of Equal and Fair Representation, Including Affirmative Action Upheld
The new constitution incorporates the affirmative action principle in recognition of
historical injustices and instances of marginalization as a measure to redress these sorts of
injustices. Often times when critics talk about affirmative action, they dismiss it as being
discriminatory. This sort of view completely ignores the context and basic rationale for
affirmative action measures. In the new constitution, besides recognizing the need for
affirmative action to redress women’s exclusion, the principle is also to apply to other
minorities and marginalized groups in society. Affirmative action must be appreciated
as a justice and equity question fully consistent with other human dignity principles.
The equality provisions of the new Kenyan constitution are very wholesome; discrimination on various grounds, including gender is outlawed. Further, there is express
recognition of equality of men and women before the law, including the right to equal
protection and enjoyment of all rights and fundamental freedoms. This understanding
of equality means both equality of treatment and that of opportunities in a very broad
sense (in economic, political and social spheres).
Such explicit guarantee of equality between males and females in Kenya is of profound significance, especially if a comparison is made with the old constitution: previously it was possible to discriminate against women in matters of marriage, inheritance,
burial and other personal law matters (Section 82 (4) of the old Kenyan constitution).
In particular, the concomitant application of customary law was especially problematic
for extensively discriminating and denying women’s rights. Article 2 (4) of the new
Constitution renders all other laws (including customary law) that are inconsistent with
the constitution void to the extent of such consistency.
Second Class Citizens No More, New Constitution Affirms Full Citizenship for
Women
The provisions around citizenship are another area of significant departure between
the two documents. In the old constitution, Section 90 and 91 discriminated against
women. Kenyan men held the automatic ability to bequeath citizenship to their children
and spouses, where as women lacked that right. According to Section 90: “ a person
born outside of Kenya after the 11th December, 1963 shall become a citizen of Kenya
at the date of his birth if that date his father is a citizen of Kenya”. Section 91 states: “
a woman who has been married to a citizen of Kenya shall be entitled, upon making
application in such a manner as may be prescribed under an Act of Parliament, to be
136
registered as a citizen of Kenya”. In order to acquire identification documents (such as
the passport and national identity card) women in Kenya had to get the consent of a
significant male (either the father, or spouse). Essentially, these provisions ascribed to
women a lesser form of citizenship, in comparison to their male counter parts. In sharp
contrast, the new constitution states at Article 14 (1): “A person is a citizen by birth if
on the day of the person’s birth, whether or not the person is born in Kenya, either
the mother or father of the person is a citizen”; and Article 15 (1): “A person who has
been married to a citizen for a period of at least seven years is entitled on application
to be registered as a citizen”.
We have only cited a few instances that illustrate the marked differences between
the old and new Kenyan constitution as far as the status and rights of women in Kenya
are concerned. A more detailed comparative analysis of the two documents would
reveal many other instances of such variance, and confirm the significant milestones
attained in regard to women’s rights and human dignity by the enactment of the new
constitution7.
The Promise and Boundless Opportunities of the New Constitution Warrant New
Action
To take these progressive provisions further, the actions of the state and other nonstate actors in Kenya would need to be fundamentally transformed: policy, legislative,
budgetary and administrative actions would need to shift to prioritize the inclusion of
women and a consideration and attention to their needs. As an example, in furthering
the respect for diversity and to uphold equality, public appointments are expected to
give due regard to the principle of gender equality. Therefore, it is untenable that the
present scenario where women are excluded or grossly marginalized from public positions can continue. Article 232 of the Constitution specifies the values and principles to
govern public service and mentions the need to ensure adequate and equal opportunities for appointment to men and women alongside other considerations addressing the
need to respect diversity and guard against exclusion.
Other standards set by the constitution outline a threshold of gender parity. In terms
of representation of the people, one of the general principles stipulated at Article 81
(b) is that “not more than two-thirds of the members of elective public bodies shall be
of the same gender”8. Beyond setting this minimum benchmark for respective organs
of representation, to ensure adherence, further provision is made for special seats in
the event that the election process does not yield this minimum target. For instance, 47
special seats are earmarked for women to be elected through single member constituencies at the county level- Article 97 (b) and 16 seats reserved in the Senate to be filled
through political party nominations- Article 98 (b) .
From the provisions of the very expansive bill of rights, one can make mention
of its comprehensive protection of women’s rights. As an example, the right to health
encompasses reproductive health care- Article 43 (1) a, and stipulates that no-one shall
7
See “ African Women Features and Child Services, Analysis of Women’s Gains in the Proposed
Constitution of Kenya (Nairobi, Noel Creative Media Limited April 2010).
8
Constitution of Kenya 2010.
137
Atieno Ndomo
be denied emergency medical treatment- Article 43(2). The full implementation of this
provision will mean that maternal mortality can be effectively curtailed and pregnant
women in Kenya can access the highest standards of pre-natal and ante- natal care.
As a predominantly agricultural society, land remains a key resource factor in Kenya.
Given, the gender division of labor, women play a significant and eminent role in land
use through small scale farming. Yet, they are discriminated by law and customary
practice from owning land. Statistics on land ownership indicate that women hold less
than one percent of land titles in Kenya. Effectively, this means that while women have
access to till and work the land, they lack the right to own and control the produce
of the land. This is seen as one of the contributing factors to women’s poverty. The
new Constitution fundamentally changes this scenario and asserts women’s right to
own land. Article 60: states that land in Kenya shall be held, used and managed in a
manner that is equitable, efficient, productive and sustainable, and outlines principles
including: “elimination of gender discrimination in law, customs and practices related
to land and property in land”.
Another key to translating these meaningful constitutional provisions into reality will
be a firm commitment from the state, non-state actors as well as citizens, to transform
behavior towards a better respect for women’s rights. Gender relations fall largely within
the realm of societal relations, including at the very basic level of the family unit. Respect
for women’s roles has to begin at that level if any sustainable and real change and shift
in gender relations that is favorable to women’s dignity is to be attained. It has to start at
the level of socialization of children- parents can not assign favorable treatment to boys
over girls; the allocation of household chores can not maintain a problematic gender
asymmetry; and so on and so forth. If individual citizens embrace and take these sorts
of actions, then the aspirations of the new constitution will be actualized.
Where as the new Kenyan constitution avails concrete opportunities and possibilities to redress persistent and long standing gender gaps, attaining real transformation
lies in the extent to which a critical mass will rally around its implementation. There
is no gainsaying the import of recognizing, respecting and fulfilling women’s rights- it
is most certainly the missing link in Kenya’s quest for sustainable socio-economic development.
Bibliography
African Women Features and Child Services, Analysis of Women’s Gains in the Proposed Constitution of Kenya, April 2010
Constitution of Kenya 2010
Society for International Development, Kenya Vision 2030: An Audit from an Income and Gender
Inequalities Perspective
Society for International Development, Pulling Apart: Facts and Figures on Inequality in Kenya
United Nations Development Program, 2010 Human Development Report
United Nations Development Program, Kenya National Human Development Report 2009: Youth
and Human Development, Tapping the untapped resource
138
Globalization and the Growing Phenomenon of Human
Trafficking
Charles B. Chilufya, S.J. and Chongo Vanessa Chitupila *
A
bstract: This article discusses the problem of human trafficking in the context
of globalization. The present authors maintain in this discussion that while
efforts have been made to deal with human trafficking, these initiatives are by
far inadequate as they do not sufficiently address the root causes of human trafficking.
Without downplaying the endogenous factors at play, one of the leading arguments
of the paper is that human trafficking is a crime that is fed by processes and effects of
globalization. Therefore, the responses to human trafficking need to be rooted in new
development strategies that transform societies and individuals; strategies that can make
globalization work and also mitigate the risks it brings. Furthermore, this means that
effective global efforts to end human trafficking will need the support of NGO global
networks and other civil society groups from both developing and developed countries.
Up and above all, any effort to combat crime and poverty demands political will on the
part of national governments and the international or global governance institutions
and organizations and other key actors in the fight against global poverty and crimes like
human trafficking. The current authors maintain the call for an all rounded approach; the
promotion of justice and human rights, protection of rights, mobilizing moral awareness
and implementation of enforceable legal standards, all of these efforts supported by the
creation of a global human community where all are empowered and given the needed
freedom towards self-realization. Such a community where justice prevails can only be
assured if there is commitment to an ethical global vision that promotes social innovation
in global governance, transnational finance and trade; a cosmopolitan vision that looks
toward a new international order that takes seriously the normative standards of justice
and equity and therefore takes care of the moral significance of globalization.
I
ntroduction: Trafficking in persons also known as human trafficking is an aeon-old
practice that shows no sign of abating but is instead thriving and has become one of
the three most lucrative international crimes in the world together with trafficking in
drugs and illegal arms.1 Human trafficking affects men, women and children, although
the sad reality is that women and children are the more vulnerable and obvious victims.2
It occurs in different forms, for various reasons and on every continent and in almost
every country.3 In the practice of human trafficking countries can be source points,
transit points or destination points. African states have been particularly identified as
source, transit and destination countries of trafficked victims.
1
B Olateru-Olagbegi “State response to trafficking in women and children in Africa – the Nigerian
experience” in Centre for Human Rights Gender-based violence in Africa, 153.
2
J. Chuang “Redirecting the debate over trafficking in women: Definitions, paradigms and contexts”
(1998) 11 Harvard Human Rights Journal 65.
3
South Africa Law Reform Commission Report, “Trafficking of Persons” issue paper 25 2004.
*
Charles Chilufya is a Zambian Jesuit, presently in his second year of theology at Hekima
College. Chongo V. Chitupila equally comes from Zambia; she is lecturing in the University
of Zambia in human rights and migration.
139
Charles B. Chilufya, S.J. and Chongo Vanessa Chitupila
This paper discusses human trafficking, identifying it with slavery and underscores
the link between globalization, human trafficking and the sex industry. The following
discussion observes that human trafficking is a global, developmental and justice issue
that requires a holistic and global approach underpinned by an alternative development paradigm and global ethic for global governance. As a form of slavery, human
trafficking is an internationally recognized gross violation of human rights although
there is no specific monitoring UN treaty body dealing with it as a specialized crime or
as a form of slavery. Other than shedding light on the nature of human trafficking, this
discussion will concentrate on articulating the needed change and attention in the fight
against human trafficking at the international level.
Background
The trafficking of women for purposes of commercial sexual exploitation dates
back to the late 19th century with Jewish women being transported to Buenos Aires for
prostitution. Equally, in the 1920s in order to escape poverty and famine in post revolutionary Russia, Russian women were trafficked into China.4 In the 21st century, the
trend continues and is exacerbated by various factors, some old and associated with such
issues as poverty, patriarchal societies and gender inequality.5 Globalization in form
of computer and telecommunication revolution plus other technological advancements
have been identified as being among new factors driving the practice of human trafficking. Globalization is said to have facilitated trafficking by enabling highly organized
transnational crime syndicates to escape countries’ security systems, especially those of
poor nations. Hi-tech information and communication technology have facilitated the
transfer of information at rapid speed.6 Human traffickers have also not failed to take
advantage of the improved transport infrastructure and systems. This combination has
given the human trafficking syndicates and the sex industry various means of exploiting
women and children not different at all from the practice of slave trade.
Globalization and the Rapid Growth of the Sex Industry
The exploitation of female labour and of the female body has led to an international
industry of trafficking in women and girls. Women and girls are trafficked throughout
the world to work as domestic workers, sweatshop labourers, wives and prostitutes.
Historically, trafficking in women has often meant the trade of women for the purpose
of prostitution.7 The trafficking of women and girls is still most commonly for the
purpose of sexual exploitation, servicing a sex industry that has expanded rapidly and
in an unprecedented manner throughout the latter part of the 20th century into the 21st
century, largely aided by globalization.
4
S. Jeffreys “Trafficking in women versus prostitution: A false distinction” A speech given at the
Townsville International Women’s Conference at James Cook University, Australia. www.catwa.com (accessed
18th March 2011).
5
United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights Recommended Principles and
Guidelines on Human Rights and Human Trafficking 2002 principle 5.
6
D Hughes, ‘Globalization, Information Technology and Sexual Exploitation of Women and
Children’(2001) Rain and Thunder – A Radical Feminist Journal of Discussion and Activism, Issue 1.
7
‘Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, its causes and consequences Ms R
Coomeraswamy’ E/CN.4/1997/47.
140
Steadily and over time, women have become a trade in themselves, commodities
to be bought and sold by organized crime syndicates, individuals, tourists, military personnel, men seeking sexual entertainment or non-threatening marriage partners.8 The
sexual exploitation of women has alarmingly become an established industry. The sex
industry is defined as the collection of legal and illegal, single and multi-party operations that profit from the selling of women and children through trafficking, organized
prostitution and/or pornography.9 It consists of various sectors such as street and
indoor prostitution, brothels, escort agencies, massage parlours, strip bars, revue bars,
pornography (both published in form of magazines or books and displayed electronically on the internet and other electronic gadgets like cell phones) and adult shops to
mention but a few.
The modern sex industry is said to have its origins in the 1950s and 1960s particularly in the United States of America and has since expanded over the latter half of the
last century into the 21st century throughout the world gaining unprecedented growth
in some south-east Asian countries and in some African cities.10 This expansion of the
sex industry has been attributed to a liberalization of laws regulating prostitution and
pornography (de jure legalization), wide-scale tolerance of sexual abuse and exploitation
of women (de facto legalization).11 The expansion of the sex industry has also been
aided by the rapid advancements in information technology. Technology has provided
novel methods of advertising, exploiting and delivering women packaged as commodities on sell.12 Another array of factors such as poverty, gender inequality, racism and
violence renders women, especially from poorer countries of the world, vulnerable to
being forced into the sex industry where they become commodities to be bought, sold
and used just as any other consumer item.13
In addition, the sex industry is sustained by a sex-crazy global culture in which
women’s bodies are used to market consumer products;14 for example television commercials advertising drinks, which show skimpily dressed women, soap and perfume
advertisements in magazines that depict semi-nude women. Usually, there is little or no
correlation between the product and the scantily dressed or half-naked women, but we
live in a society where “sex sells” and this phrase usually entails the use of women’s
bodies or sexuality to sell products.
8
D. Hughes ‘The Internet and Sex Industries: Partners in Global Sexual Exploitation’ 2000 Technology and Society Magazine.
9
D. Hughes. ‘The Internet and Sex Industries: Partners in Global Sexual Exploitation’ 2000.
10
According to the national Council for Children’s Services of Kenya , between 10,000 and 15,000
girls living along the Kenyan Coast are involved in commercial sex work. The report claims that child prostittution in the area is closely linked to the lucrative and illegal child-sex tourism. Other than Kenyans the report
implicates Italians, Germans and Swiss tourists as being among those being served by the illegal sex trade.
And according to the Unicef 2006 “Report on the Extent and Effect of Sex Tourism and Sexual Exploitation of
Children on the Kenyan Coast”, family members, bar owners and their managers were the major beficiaries
of the trade. The report also mentions other towns and cities like Nairobi and Kisumu as major centres of sex
tourism. Quoted in a Newspaer article in The Daily Nation, 18th December 2009. Available at www.thenation.
co.ke
11
D. Hughes ‘The Internet and Sex Industries: Partners in Global Sexual Exploitation’ 2000 2 Technology and Society Magazine.
12
D. Hughes, ‘The Internet and Sex Industries: Partners in Global Sexual Exploitation’.
13
‘Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, its causes and consequences Ms R
Coomeraswamy’ E/CN.4/1997/47.The report further explains that poverty is a major factor and that an alarming 30 percent of all 12 to 18 year old are involved in full-time commercial sex work.
14
See D Hughes ‘Men create the demand; women are the supply’ Lecture on Sexual Exploitation at
the Queen Sofia Centre, Valencia, Spain, November 2000.
141
As of 2000, it was estimated that the global sex industry makes US$52 billion dollars a
year and to keep the sex industry in business, women are trafficked to, from and through
every region in the world. The value of this global trade in women as commodities for
sex industries is estimated to be between a staggering $7 and $12 billion dollars annually, creating a situation in which the sex industry targets and consumes young women,
usually under age 25 and each year the age of those trafficked gets lower and lower.15
The global sexual exploitation of women and girls is a supply and demand market.16
Shocking reports are made about the so called sex tourism where men are reported to
charter planes from Europe to East Asia where they find prostitutes trafficked from as
far as Ethiopia in Africa waiting for them in big hotels.
Socioeconomic and Cultural Factors
Countries of the Third World have experienced adverse social, economic and environmental changes with serious implications for the institutional and cultural structures
that have shaped the security of people’s livelihoods for centuries.17 These attitudes are
of multiple dimensions and various authors hold different views on them and differ in
the manner in which they have analyzed them. For example Truong and Angeles have
identified three key clusters of attitudes and factors:18
(i) socio-cultural attitudes such as the social acceptability of putting children to work,
social acceptability of early marriages and factors like illiteracy and low education
levels.
(ii) Economic factors such as the imbalance between rural and urban wealth levels and
a desire to escape poverty.
(iii) Juridical and political factors such as absence of relevant legislation and the ignorance
of parents and trafficked persons of their rights under the law and open borders.
In general, from the Third World or African perspective, poverty has been identified as one of the main factors giving rise to human trafficking. Those who are disproportionately of lower socio-economic status are more vulnerable to human trafficking.
People living in impoverished situations are usually anxious to gain employment and in
so doing travel beyond their communities in search of employment opportunities and
the chance to improve their standard of living as well as that of their family. Reduced
economic opportunities in rural areas, loss of traditional livelihoods, environmental
calamities like droughts and floods, family breakdown due to AIDS and the negative
effects of structural adjustment programs (SAP), the instruments of the Washington
Consensus, such as retrenchments, reduction of subsidies and other protective means
have all aggravated the socioeconomic situation of the poor in Africa and the rest of
15
D Hughes ‘Men create the demand; women are the supply’
Casella et al ‘Critique of Focus on the Demand in the Context of Trafficking in Persons’ A position
paper of the Sex Workers Project at the Urban Justice Center 2007.
17
T-D Truong ‘Poverty, Gender and Human Trafficking in Sub-Saharan Africa: Rethinking Best
Practices in Migration Management’ 2006 28. Report written for UNESCO available at www.unesco.org/shs/
humantrafficking (accessed on 19th March 2011).
18
T-D Truong and M Angeles ‘Searching for Best Practices to Counter Human Trafficking in Africa:
A Focus on Women and Children’ 2005 11 Report commissioned by UNESCO available at www.unesco.org
(accessed on 19 September 2009).
16
142
the Third World.19 High levels of unemployment, predominantly among women, deep
income inequalities, low wages for low-skilled workers in comparison with the cost of
living are all factors that make populations susceptible to trafficking.20
However, even if each of the afore-mentioned factors places women at higher risk
of human trafficking, the global reach and scale of human trafficking is the underside of
globalization.21 Globalization has facilitated the movement of cheap, low skilled labour
in sectors such as domestic service, home health care, sex work, labour intensive manufacturing and agriculture. This demand is present in both industrialized and developing
nations. In such a globalized and intricately interconnected world like ours, violations
of human rights are found in locations that authorities find it difficult to monitor.22
The Disillusionments of Globalization
When signs of globalization started to show more clearly, there was excitement about
the growing “new economy” that fully emerged in the 1990s. There were hopes raised
by this excitement including the hope of the integration of the world into one global
village. There was hope that increased flow of information and knowledge was going to
close or reduce the knowledge gap between the developed and the developing world;
there was hope for the growth of less developed nations as they benefited from their
interaction with developed nations. However, by and large humanity, especially in the
developing world, has been disappointed. It is apparent that globalization has caused
a serious and prolonged downturn for the global economy affecting even the powerful
nations but much more those of the poor South. Africa, especially sub-Saharan Africa,
has suffered the worst setbacks.23
Globalization is multidimensional in both its nature and in its effects. There are political ramifications as nation-states lose their sovereignty to large multinational companies
and NGOs; environmental effects as emissions from expanded industries increase unabatedly accompanied by unsustainable exploitation of natural resources and the economic
effects such as international capital flights, shrinking job markets, reduced government
revenue, etc. As already observed, Third World countries have experienced more serious
economic setbacks which have resulted in high poverty levels, proliferation of disease,
deep inequalities, citizens’ lack of access to basic services, etc. At the beginning of the
twenty first century, 340 million people or half the population of Africa, lived below the
poverty threshold of US$1 a day. The child-mortality rate in Africa is 140 per 1000 births
and only 58 percent have access to safe water. 24 The practice of austerity prescribed
19
See E. Delport et al, ‘Human Trafficking in South Africa: Root Causes and Recommendations’ Policy
Paper Poverty Series No. 14.5 (E) 2007, 34.
20
See L Bermudez, ‘No experience necessary. The internal trafficking of persons in South Africa’
Report prepared for the IOM 26 August 2008, 13.
21
Stopping Forced Labour: Global Report under the follow-up to the ILO Declaration on Fundamental
Principles and Rights at Work, International Labour Conference, 89th session 2001, ILO Geneva.
22
L. Boaventura et al ‘Human Trafficking in Mozambique: Root Causes and Recommendations’ Policy
Paper Poverty Series No. 14.1 (E) 2006, 33.
23
See Joseph Stiglitz, “Globalisation and Growth in Emerging Markets,” (2004) 26 Journal of Policy
Modeling, available at http://www.josephstiglitz.com/ (accessed on 19th March, 2011).
24
See World Bank, World Development Report (WDR) 2000/2001: Attacking Poverty, available at
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,contentMDK:20194762~page
PK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:336992,00.html (accessed on 19th March 2011).
143
by the IMF and the World Bank in the 1990s led to reduced spending on education
and health, a situation which has led to catastrophic human development conditions.
It is estimated that only 50% of Africans have access to health care. After a decade of
strict adherence to neo-liberal policies of the IMF, the instruments of globalization, the
per annum economic growth for Africa has averaged 3.9% during the first half of the
first decade of this century, a level lower than the minimum 5% percent annual level
needed to prevent numbers of those living in poverty to rise.25
However, more characteristic of the era of globalization and of pertinence to our
discussion are the lack of job opportunities as economies shrink; massive job losses
through retrenchments and the folding up of companies. Even those who remained in
employment in the last decade of the twentieth century saw their real wages plummet
by over 20 percent or more while those who attempted to run business ventures saw
their enterprises plunging into bankruptcy.26 Related to our discussion again are the
social and cultural effects of globalization that compound these harsh economic realities – the loss of social capital. By social capital we are referring to the social networks
present in many poor countries that make it easier for vulnerable populations to survive
the harsh forms of deprivation. The effects of globalization in many places have led to
reduced social cohesion. The social contract has been broken, traditional safety nets
such as extended families have been overburdened by negative effects of globalization
and have not been able to keep pace with rapid transformation in social and economic
organization in the new economy. The other way in which social capital is undermined
related to the foregoing analysis is the erosion of a society’s identity and culture where
a new variant culture emerges but one in which the dominant individualistic culture
dominates to fill the gap. These conditions have deepened the poverty in poor nations
and have created a fertile ground for the spread of HIV and AIDS and the consequent
growing phenomenon of family breakdown and increase in the number of orphaned
children. It is estimated that more than 15 million children under the age of 18 have
been orphaned due to HIV and AIDS. About 11.6 million of these children live in subSaharan Africa.27
Meanwhile, as conditions worsened in Africa doors have been “opening up” in the
developed world for unsuspecting redundant and underemployed African young men
and women to go and “work” in Europe, America or South Africa. Without realizing
and with a longing for a better life, these young Africans end up as victims of human
trafficking of various forms. There is evidence of agents who go around the continent
and the world looking for vulnerable young men and women willing to serve as sex
workers in Europe, America, South Africa or elsewhere.
Global Governance and Human Trafficking
Global governance as a concept refers to formal and informal arrangements in
the global political economy or formal and informal regulatory rule. The complexity
of today’s global issues brings alive the fact that territorial states, including the most
25
Joseph Stiglitz, “Globalisation and Growth in Emerging Markets,”
Joseph Stiglitz, “Globalisation and Growth in Emerging Markets,”
27
UNAIDS, Report on Global AIDS Epidemic, available at http://www.unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/HIVData/GlobalReport/2008/2008_Global_report.asp, (accessed on 19th March 2011).
26
144
powerful ones, cannot manage global and some local affairs on their own. Global
governance therefore assigns roles to intergovernmental organizations, regional bodies,
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), international nongovernmental organizations
(INGOs) and multinational corporations. International NGOs are playing a significant
role in this emerging structure of global governance. Human rights groups like Amnesty
International, Red Cross and Green Peace represent ordinary citizens of the world,
defend and protect their rights and freedoms as they speak on their behalf. Global
governance also refers to transnational networks, norm entrepreneurship, regime creation and management of global change.28 It is claimed that in the emerging global
governance structure political globalization is facilitating the formation of democratic
transnational social forces grounded in this thriving sphere of civil society networks
working for the common good and against common bads. These networks cover issues
like women’s rights, human rights, development, democratization, the environment,
security and investments. These networks and efforts in institution building, norm
entrepreneurships have resulted in a number of positive outcomes like the International Criminal Court (ICC), various treaties like the banning of landmines, the World
Trade Organization, a strengthening of the human rights regime, etc. Held observes
that both the number of human rights groups and their level of activity have increased
tremendously. He further notes that these human rights NGOs represent a distinctive
kind of transnational social movement which in many national contexts is regarded as
radical both in terms of its espousal of individual rights and in its claim to defend the
autonomy of civil society.29 While a number of human rights issues are finding space
in this global governance structure, human trafficking does not sufficiently come to the
fore as it is treated merely as a criminal issue to be dealt with by the law and security
agencies of individual states.
Human trafficking is among those contemporary global challenges that require cooperative international approaches. As already noted, human trafficking affects almost
every nation, as a source, transit or destination point. Therefore, developing a global
governance system to address human trafficking is to realize its transnational features
and respond to the following challenges:
a) no one nation state, powerful not so powerful can deal with transnational challenges
like human trafficking on its own without cooperating with other states, whether
powerful or not so powerful;
b) dealing with human trafficking requires a multidimensional and multilateral approach – security, development, justice, ethical, issues - that takes into account the
input and contribution of various stakeholders and actors;
c) the needed balance between the global and the local which calls for the need by
multilateral institutions to adapt in order to accommodate these challenges;
d) all these interventions must be supported by a strong global legal framework with
mechanisms of enforcement both at the local and the global level.
Global governance can further be examined as it is expressed in relation to power,
ethics and accountability.
28
See David Held et al., Global Transformations (California: Standford University Press, 1999) 49-
29
See David Held et al., Global Transformation, 67.
74.
145
Power and Global Governance
Power in the global political economy is an important factor. One of the perceived
major causes of the discontents about globalization is the unequal power relations
between the powerful and the not so powerful, between the haves and the have-nots,
between the rich north and the poor south. In the global governance structure that
we are proposing, the participation of individual states and all citizens of the world
through their representatives is key in all the multilateral processes. This is very necessary if the balance and healthy tension between the local and the global is to be well
maintained.
Global institutions like the United Nations, the IMF, World Bank and the WTO need
to be restructured in ways that assure the balance of power among nations. These institutions are key if we are to talk about the reshaping of globalization. Joesph Stiglitz
posits that the problem with globalization lies with the way international economic
institutions, like the IMF, World Bank and WTO operate.30 They are perceived as institutions through which the powerful nations impose their selfish agendas on the rest of
the world. For example, with 16 percent voting rights, the US is the only country with
the power of veto in the IMF. In the efforts of bringing about tolerance and accommodation of conflicting interests across national, racial, gender and ethnic divides, the
more powerful actors always carry the day.
Ethics and Global Governance
In talking about global governance, the focus is on building a human community
founded on principles of justice. The traditional African concept of community based
on Ubuntu, would help in this respect. Ubuntu refers to those qualities in the human
person that help him or her to promote life and community; building community includes
working for the well being of the social, ecological and spiritual order. Ubuntu is to
have compassion, to be in solidarity with others especially the unfortunate, to rejoice
with others and to learn to live well with others and in harmony with the environment.
For an African, these Ubuntu qualities are indispensable to the formation of any human
community.31
But how are we fairing as an international community? While there is perceived
growing economic, political, cultural, social and environmental interdependence in
our global village, harsh effects of globalization like social and economic inequality,
environmental degradation and crimes like human trafficking abound because these
interconnections do not have an adequate ethical underpinning. Clearly, there is real
need for global interconnections that are underlain by a human-focused moral ecology
- Ubuntu. Economic globalization has outpaced political globalization.32 Observing the
inadequacy of the current international order from the point of view of justice, fairness
and equality, David Hollenbach33 posits the idea of the global common good. Hollenbach proposes a cosmopolitan ethical vision that promotes social innovation in global
30
See Joseph Stiglitz, Globalisation and Its Discontents, (New York: WW Norton and Co., 2001).
See WM van Binsbergen, W.M.J : “Ubuntu and the globalization of Southern African thought and
society” (2002) 15 in Boele Van Hensbroek, P (Ed), African Renaissance and Ubuntu Philosophy, special issue
of Quest: An African Journal of Philosophy, 1-2, 53-89. http://www.shikanda.net/publications/ASC-1239806182.pdf (accessed on 19th March 2011).
32
See Joseph Stiglitz, “Globalisation and Growth in Emerging Markets.”
33
The Common Good and Christian Ethics, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 230 –
244.
31
146
governance, transnational finance and trade. He calls for a new international order that
takes seriously the normative standards of justice and equity and therefore takes care
of the moral significance of globalization.
As the world grows into one global community, human solidarity and the globalization of citizenship become key. This kind of globalization requires strong global
political institutional mediation that can safeguard the common good and eradicate
the common bads. This institutional mediation is one that is based on a consensus
of nations and not on the domination of stronger nations as already noted. It calls
for equity and fairness among nations. We are using the term ‘institutions’ in a wider
sense of set of rules regarding acts in social life that promote consensus and dialogue
and diminish indifference. The importance of global institutional mediation promoting
consensus emerges from the growing long-term relationships of economic, social and
political life. Such mediation will arrest the unfettered terroristic and damaging forces
of the collapsing neoliberal economic paradigm that has landed us in the mess we are
still fighting to come out of.
The global political institutional mediation is thus an ethically charged mediator that
allows free agents in the global community to exercise their freedom without encroaching on the freedom of the others. The ethical intention in this mediation would consist
in what the philosopher Paul Ricoeur refers to as “aiming at a good life with and for
others in just institutions.”34 We are slowly emerging out of an international order ruled
by neoliberal dictatorship that led to egocentrically organized political and economic
structures at national, international and global levels. Political and economic systems
in today’s globalized world need to be well structured and require a value system that
people believe in and can depend on. This entails a system that promotes trust in the
word of others and functions on the principles of equity.
Issues of ethics are issues about how we are to live well with others. Unfortunately,
even if the importance of ethics is emphasized in the governance of our world today, it
is power that determines the outcomes in social, economic and political processes. The
debate about ethics in global governance is very important as we struggle to establish
a just world order. Prominent economists like Joseph Stiglitz and Amartya Sen35 have
raised serious ethical challenges that face the powers-that-be and the rest of humanity.
The efforts of establishing a just global economic and political order that can deliver
for all where all are empowered to resist evils like human trafficking will prove elusive
unless all nations and all peoples , especially the powerful, submit themselves to be
guided by common rules of behaviour as the rest of the global community.
Accountability
In today’s globalized world we live in a complex of globality characterized by the
existence of global, political, cultural and environmental interconnections and these
interconnections precipitate their own impacts and issues on various planes – economic,
34
Paul Ricoeur, Oneself as Another, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
Both Stiglitz and Sen insist on the promotion of social justice. Stiglitz stresses the importance of
consolidating global governance based on social justice and ethics. In the capability approach Sen believes in
a kind of development that frees the human person and gives the human person capability to make choices
tward self-realisation.
35
147
political, social or environmental. If we are to talk about global democracy characterized
by accountability then the current structures of global governance need to be called
into question. Currently, do the powerful geopolitical forces not settle pressing matters
in terms of their objectives and by virtue of their won power? Are they accountable to
anyone? Various proposals have been made regarding the need to reshape global governance structures in order to assure accountability. These include the reforming of the
UN, global institutions like the World Bank, IMF and WTO. Other proposals target the
reform of the regulatory framework of the Transnational Corporations (TNCs); international civil society groups have increased efforts to bring TNCs within a framework of
global governance beyond a patchwork of national laws which they elude with great
ease. Still others call for NGO accountability calling for NGO groups to be brought
within the scope of an accountable structure where they are accountable to those they
represent.
What is pertinent to this call for accountability is the need to avoid pervasive global
social, economic, political and environmental crises that render large sections of the
global population vulnerable to criminal activities like human trafficking. Such an effort
“will require the articulation of a collaborative ethos based on the principles of consultation, transparency and accountability. There is no alternative to working together and
using collective power to create a better [democratic] world.”36 Key to the idea of a
democratic global community is the participation of all the citizens of the world in the
process of governance. This radical republican project stresses the creation of alternative mechanisms of global, social, economic and political organization that promote the
self-government of communities. The idea behind this project is the establishment of
the conditions necessary to empower people to take control of their own lives and to
create communities based on equality, the common good and harmony with the natural
environment.37 In this radical project, the emphasis is on people-power, on empowering
ordinary people of the world to be agents of change especially through various social
movements. In order to enhance accountability, this bottom-up model of democratization and civilization of the global order should take a privileged place.
A New Development Paradigm
As the international community slowly rises from the effects of the 2008/2009 global economic and financial crisis it is gradually learning to allow morality to control
the game rather than the market laws and the invisible hand that is indeed invisible
and therefore not there! From lessons learnt during the last half of the century, Stiglitz,
suggests a framework for a new development paradigm.38 He suggests a notion of
development that goes beyond the traditional GDP-focused notion of development as
construed by the Washington Consensus to one that is transformational. In this more
encompassing model of development, Stiglitz argues for a holistic kind of development
that encompasses the social, moral and economic dimensions. He maintains that the
essence of development is change and transformation. Therefore, while appreciating the
36
See David Held et al., Global Transformation 447.
See Joseph Stiglitz, Globalisation and Its Discontents.
See Joseph Stiglitz, A New Paradigm for Development, in Making Globalization Good: The Moral
Challenges of Global Capitalism, John H. Dunning (ed.), 76-107, available at http://www2.gsb.columbia.
edu/faculty/jstiglitz/topics.cfm, (accessed on 19th March 2011).
37
38
148
important role of GDP growth, Stiglitz points out the need for a kind of development
where social goods accrue to all in form of improved standards of living and education,
health, security, and social welfare systems; a society where there is a reduction in, if
not the elimination of social bads like human trafficking and other crimes. Stiglitz argues
for a transformation of individuals and societies from traditional to more modern ones
that can meet the challenges precipitated by rapid global social, cultural and economic
changes. In this model of development the emphasis is on participation of all and on the
importance of the role of civil society, nongovernmental organizations and transnational
networks concerned about social equality and the protection of the environment in
the development process. This is essential especially in poor countries where national
governments have no capacity to handle the forces of the new economy.
The capability approach of Amartya Sen fortifies the transformation paradigm. It
focuses on the promotion and protection of rights and freedoms of individuals through
empowering them with the necessary social services like education, health care and
social welfare services.39 The alternative development paradigm is one that holds the
promise of a society where there is no social exclusion and where all are given an opportunity for self-determination. That is why in his recent book, Sen shows that concern
about principles of justice in the modern world must avoid parochialism and address
global injustice.40 It is in such a society where no one is subjected to the vicissitudes
of economic and social exclusion, where all are empowered and are less vulnerable to
crimes like human trafficking. Antiglobalist movements and figures both in the north
and south dedicated to the cause of an equitable global community support this agenda
and call for the establishment of equality between the North and the South especially
in areas like the protection of the environment, human rights, labour issues, fair trade,
and women’s issues. The new development paradigm calls for a ‘globalization from
below’ favouring the marginalized and protecting them from neoliberal “globalization
from above.”
C
onclusion: This article has discussed the problem of human trafficking and
used a large body of literature to illumine the subject. The present authors have
maintained in this discussion that while efforts have been made to deal with
human trafficking, these initiatives are by far inadequate as they do not sufficiently
address the root causes of human trafficking. Without downplaying the endogenous
factors at play, one of the leading arguments of the paper is that human trafficking is
a crime that is fed by processes and effects of globalization. Therefore, the responses
to human trafficking need to be rooted in new development strategies that transform
societies and individuals; strategies that can make globalization work and also mitigate
the risks it brings.
One of the major concerns of this essay was to show that trafficking is a justice
issue and a grave violation of human rights especially the fundamental human rights
enshrined in major international instruments. Trafficked women, boys and girls have
some or all of their fundamental rights violated during the process of trafficking and
because it is such a clandestine activity it usually places the trafficked victims out of the
39
Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999).
Amartya Sen, The Idea of Justice (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2009).
40
149
reach of authorities and beyond the protection of the law. Trafficking is a transnational
and highly organised crime. In many cases, perpetrators of this crime easily prove too
sophisticated for ill-equipped security forces of poor continents like Africa. It therefore
proves problematic for poor nation states, like many developing nations, to handle the
problem due to lack of adequate means – technical and financial. Effective global efforts to end human trafficking will therefore require the support of NGO networks and
other civil society groups from developing countries. Such groups and networks would
prove handy by confronting the cultural, economic and institutional barriers and issues
that have been raised in this paper.
In addition, there is need for activists, civil society groups, NGOs and governments
to positively influence public opinion about human rights and other issues of moral
consensus. The making of relevant legislation and the legal enforcement of moral
consensus must go hand in hand with efforts to change certain cultural notions and
attitudes. Awareness creation about human trafficking is another area where NGOs can
complement government efforts. Integration of relevant issues in the formal and informal education programs could also help through increased awareness about rights and
other issues of moral consensus.
Up and above all, any effort to combat crime and poverty demands political will on
the part of national governments and the international or global governance organizations and other key actors in the fight against global poverty and crimes like human
trafficking. The current authors maintain the call for an all rounded approach; the promotion of justice and human rights, protection of rights, mobilizing moral awareness
and implementation of enforceable legal standards, all of these efforts supported by the
creation of a global human community where all are empowered and given the needed
freedom towards self-realization. Such a community where justice prevails can only be
assured if there is commitment to an ethical global vision that promotes social innovation in global governance, transnational finance and trade; a cosmopolitan vision that
looks toward a new international order that takes seriously the normative standards of
justice and equity and therefore takes care of the moral significance of globalization. It
is a call for community in the African sense of Ubuntu:
The capacity to express compassion, reciprocity, dignity, harmony, and humanity in the interests
of building and maintaining community. Ubuntu calls on us to believe and feel that: Your pain
is my pain, my wealth is your wealth, and your salvation is my salvation. In essence, Ubuntu,
a Nguni word from South Africa, addresses our interconnectedness, our common humanity,
and the responsibility to each other that flows from our connection.41
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Joseph Loïc Mben, SJ *
A
bstract: Are women a concern in Engelbert Mveng’s work? This essay aims at
presenting a thorough reflection of Mveng’s perspective on women as it can be
discerned from his various writings. Very few of his writings are directly dedicated
to women. Among possible ways of analyzing references to women in Mveng’s publications,
the author has decided to look at woman in the African universe, in African art, in religion
and in poetry, which are the main areas where women appear in Mveng’s writings. Most
of the publications of Mveng on women were written between the 1950s and 1970s. Later
publications just reinforced points already raised in early writings. After presenting the
fourfold dimension of woman in Mveng’s writings, the author moves to an evaluation
of Mveng’s thought, inspired by feminist hermeneutics.
I
ntroduction: The Cameroonian Jesuit, Engelbert Mveng (1930-1995) is a renowned
African theologian, historian, writer and artist. He is recognized as one of the pioneers
in African theology, history and contemporary art. His prolific works do not always
make it easy to discern a thought pattern.
This essay aims at presenting a thorough reflection of Mveng’s perspective on women
as it can be discerned from his various writings. His emphasis of women changes from
one work to another. There are works such as Lève-toi amie, viens or the article published
in 1966 where the woman appears as the primarily intended goal of Mveng’s reflection.
In most of his works however, one has to read between the lines to catch here and
there an allusion to woman. Among possible ways of analyzing references to woman
in Mveng’s publications, I have decided to look at woman in the African universe, in
African art, in religion and in poetry. These are the main areas where women appear in
Mveng’s writings. It should be said before moving further that most of the publications
of Mveng on women were done between the 1950s and 1970s. Later publications just
reinforced points already raised in early writings. After presenting the fourfold dimension of woman in Mveng’s writings, I will move to an evaluation of Mveng’s thought,
inspired by feminist hermeneutics.
The Woman in the African Universe1
According to Mveng, from the very beginning woman is closely associated to man.
Both form the fundamental structure from which everything else flows. A human being
is originally twofold, male and female, and he/she has to become a triad: male-female1
For this section see, Mveng, “La Femme dans la sagesse Bantoue,” Vivante Afrique, 243 (MarsAvril 1966) : 3-7 ; Engelbert Mveng, “Black African Art as Cosmic Liturgy and Religious Language”, in African
Theology in Route, Papers from the Pan-African Conference of Third World Theologians, December 17-23,
1977, Accra, Ghana, eds. Kofi Appiah-Kubi and Sergio Torres (New York: Orbis Books-Maryknoll, 1979),
138-141; Engelbert Mveng, L’Afrique dans l’Eglise, Paroles d’un croyant (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1985), 8-18.
*
Joseph Loïc Mben is a Cameroonian Jesuit. He is engaged in parish ministry and lectures at
the Jesuit School of Theology (ITCJ) in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire.
153
Joseph Loïc Mben, SJ
infant. This reality is expressed in founding myths of pharaonic Egypt and in many
African cultures. The Egyptian myths attest to the fact that a human being is the product
among others of Shu and Shefnet (principles of masculinity and femininity), and of Geb,
the Heavens (which is masculine) and Nut, the Earth (which is feminine). Hence, the
woman is an essential dimension that cannot be overlooked in order to have a full human being. Mveng goes further to affirm that a man is nothing without a woman.
Strangely enough, Mveng prefers to speak of ‘complementing’ instead of gender
equality. The latter according to him is a weak notion that does not render well the
complex relationship between women and men. He perceives the woman as life-giver
and life-savior, who holds the secret of the rituals of economic (land’s tiller, soil’s fertilizer), social (foundation of biological family) and political (holder of the secret network
of the community government) life. The woman is the primary motive of life, hope,
love and feeling for the man.
Mveng acknowledges some customs within African traditions such as polygyny
(also well-known as polygamy) that have downgraded women. Polygyny was originally limited to ruling classes or the elite, and it was justified by political and religious
reasons. The chief, king, noble or elder had usually two wives, and each one of them
symbolized something specific. One wife was the expression of the chief’s religious
power and the other one the symbol of the chief’s political power. The proliferation
of harems even in the traditional society is for Mveng a sign of a moral decay which
has no justifications.
Another problematic custom is dowry, also known as bride-price. Traditionally, it
is a sacramental sign, that is, a ritual which sanctions marriage validity between two
vital cycles, and merges them into one. Marriage in Africa is primarily the union of two
groups and it goes beyond the mere aggregation of two individuals. The compensatory
theory so prominent today was secondary and even nonexistent in some places according to Mveng. Thus, the “girls’ trade” that takes place in today’s Africa has no historical
or sociological foundation.
Moreover, Mveng denounces modern innovations, which contribute to the depersonalization of women. This depersonalization has six dimensions: moral, affective,
economic, social, cultural and religious. Moral and affective depersonalizations are
closely related; moral decay leads to the practice of “promiscuity”. It is the consequence
of a lack of education though Mveng does not specify the nature of the latter. Affective
depersonalization pinpoints the fact that women are sexually exploited and considered
as mere merchandise. It is unclear whether Mveng refers to prostitution, dowry or other
forms where sex is used as a means of social promotion. In both cases, Mveng blames
the disappearance of proper educative and affective structures that fostered the woman’s
growth and maturation. Social and cultural depersonalizations go hand in hand. Women
no longer find places where their dignity is promoted. The African woman has lost a
sense of who she is and what she ought to be. Traditionally, society offered a holistic
formation which allowed the woman to learn through songs, dances, religious rituals,
hard work and instruction how to behave in society. She was taught to be self-reliant
by learning practical skills which helped her to till the land, take care of the hut and
manufacture clothes, necklaces and baskets. All this has become insignificant in the
monetary economy and has led to the economic depersonalization of the woman. The
latter has moved from an independent status to dependent position due largely to un154
employment and underemployment. The depersonalization is also religious, because
according to Mveng the woman is torn between traditional and Christian beliefs and
practices. This situation creates psychological and affective imbalances and renders the
task of educating her children difficult.
Mveng suggests a way out of this problem. Women need to be liberated and be
“repersonalized” as he puts it. He sees education of man as a way of achieving this goal.
For Mveng, there should be no fight between both sexes rather there should be a reconciliation. The woman should not look for ways to become like the male. She, as well
as, should the man accepts her finitude and incapacity of becoming fully human without
the other sex. Female education should be oriented in a sense that allows women’s
blossoming, that is the promotion of her vocation and dignity. Education should retain
her African characteristic as life-giver and life-savior. Life is understood here in a holistic
way; it is simultaneously biological, religious, cultural, social, political and economic.
Mveng does not limit woman’s role to the domestic sphere and procreation.
Woman in Art
Traditional African art is for the most part “a cosmic liturgy and religious language,”
whose role is to permanently link humanity to the entire cosmos. 2 It is not a mere
profane activity but a deeply religious one which captures the destiny of humanity
within the cosmos. My analysis of Mveng’s perspective on art is drawn from his writings and paintings where women are depicted and portrayed. In these paintings, there
are forms, colors, animals and other natural beings that symbolize powerful notions
such as death and life. There are three important colors: red, white and black. Red is
the color of blood and therefore it signifies life. White is the color of death, and it is
used to prevent death. Black refers to darkness; hence, it is the color of night, hardship,
suffering and testing.3
The feminine dimension of African art is expressed through beauty and fertility.
4
The woman is the expression of beauty and the norm of beauty for all realities of
nature. She is the one who gives meaning to adornment. For instance, there are decorating objects called “fish’s bones” by the Chokwe people in DR Congo, and they are
compared to princesses’ teeth. The similarity to princesses’ teeth is the main reason why
that particular object is found beautiful and used as adornment. Another well-known
motive is what Mveng calls the “back of a turtle”. The slow pace of the animal is compared to that of matrons. Young girls are taught the song and dance of the turtle so as
to learn how to walk with ease.
Fertility is another feminine expression found in African art. Masks and drums
express femaleness as vital function as well as adornment. Geometric figures are also
used as symbols of the fundamental mystery in its feminine dimension. Thus, femaleness is also expressed by triangles and diamonds. Another powerful symbol of fertility
is the snake represented as a double spiral or in a circular way; it is found among the
2
Mveng, “Black African Art as Cosmic Liturgy and Religious Language,” in African Theology in Route,
eds. Appiah-Kubi and Torres, 137.
3
See Ibid, 138; E. Mveng, L’art d’Afrique noire, liturgie cosmique et langage religieux (Paris: MamePoint Omega, 1964), 32.
4
From here onward see Mveng, L’art d’Afrique noire, 83-85.
155
Bantu people of Congo. The Chokwe people also associate red, the symbol of life, to
the moon and to women.
In a nutshell, Mveng states that African artistic expression reveals the woman in her
role of life-creator. She is the path of salvation for the entire cosmos; she is the norm
of beauty and of spiritual and social values.
Women in Mveng’s paintings
One aspect to look at is how Mveng depicts women in his paintings. I will lean on
two of his works, namely, his way of the cross si quelqu’un… published in 1961 and
his meditation of the rosary released in 1966.5 In Mveng’s way of the cross, women
have bicolor faces like all other characters. Mary, the woman who cleans Jesus’ face and
Jerusalem’s women have a side of their face in black and the other one in red. Both
colors epitomize the meaning of Jesus’ way of the cross, that is, a suffering leading to
life. They are dressed in white, the color of death in order to express the universe’s
funeral in Christ’s passion.
In Lève-toi amie, the atmosphere is joyful. Mveng introduces yellow as a symbol
of light and joy. Mary is the only woman portrayed with the exception of Elisabeth in
the second painting. She is in most paintings in red and yellow to celebrate the life
and joy she brings through Jesus. In Jesus birth’s painting, she is depicted with a red
face and her clothes are in white and red, and she is in darkness. The black color used
may point at the time Jesus was supposedly born, but also to the suffering Mary will
undergo. The white color is a sign that death is looming in the child’s life. These three
colors appear in the shepherds’ adoration in addition to yellow. The latter means that
light and joy will eventually overcome suffering and hardship. Identical ideas are brought
back in the Magi’s adoration. On the contrary, in the fleeing to Egypt, Mary is in white
and red and is in the dark carrying her child and her luggage. The fact that Mary finds
herself in darkness tells about the difficult time she experiences, having to run away
from Herod’s anger. The scene of the Temple’s recovery shows Mary bringing light and
joy to people in the dark and indicating the way to Jesus. The last image of Mary with
Jesus just expresses the intrinsic bond between Mary and her son Jesus.
One notices that in portraying women, Mveng retains many of the traditional images
associated with women: women carrying their children on the back, women kneeling,
women carrying the house’s goods on their heads, women cleaning men and women
taking care of their children. There are also innovative and uncommon images like the
one of Mary showing the way to elders.
Woman in Religion
The area where Mveng perceives woman’s decisive contribution is in the religious
sphere. We have already seen that the woman is an essential element of life. This too
is the case in regard to salvation. The most important issue in Africans’ worldview is
the struggle between life and death. For Mveng, the woman is the irreplaceable dimension at the origin of every human being in good and evil, life and death. A thorough
5
See Engelbert Mveng, Si Quelqu’un… (Paris: Mame, 1961); Engelbert Mveng, Lève-toi Amie, Viens
(Dakar: ClairAfrique, 1966).
156
study of African founding myths such as Isis and Osiris and Evu Mana illustrates the
ambivalent role played by women.6
In the Egyptian myth of Isis and Osiris, Mveng notices the key role played by Isis,
sister and wife of Osiris. This story celebrates the victory of life over death. Osiris is
killed by his brother Seth, and his body is scattered throughout the world. Isis does
not give up and looks for his body all over the world. Isis gathers all his remains and
resurrects him through magical incantations. By giving birth to Osiris’ son, Horus, she
establishes the first step toward immortality. Furthermore, she is the first person to
embalm a dead body, and introduces funeral rites to humanity. If Osiris is considered
as the founder of Egyptian civilization, Isis is the founder of a religion and the Osiris’
initiation rite. Without his wife’s devoted love and determination, the devotion to Osiris
would have never come to be.
Mveng shows also how the woman unwittingly introduced evil into the world in
the Cameroonian myth of Evu Mana. The story begins with a woman who unsuccessfully tried to catch fish and who ran into a dead antelope near a swamp. She cut the
dead animal into pieces and went back to her village where she prepared a nice meal
for her family. The same thing repeated itself the following days leading the woman to
believe that it was not fortuitous. This is when she met a strange being, Evu Mana, on
its feet who confessed to her that he/she was the one killing all these antelopes. The
woman decided to bring him/her to the village, but Evu Mana did not accept unless he/
she could enter in her stomach. When they reach the village, Evu Mana told the woman
that he/she was hungry and rejected any cooked meal. He/she devoured the woman’s
husband’s flock, then dogs, cats and poultry. He/she then ate born and unborn human
beings. After that, the woman was forced to give her own husband and children, but
Evu Mana was still hungry. And eventually, Evu Mana, the spirit of death, ate the very
woman who introduced him/her to humanity.
Mary
Mveng mentions women in relation to biblical references and Catholic devotions
such as the way of the cross and the rosary. The figure of Mary in this context is iconic.
His book Lève-toi amie, viens, in which Mary is the central character, meditates on the
significance of the immediate events leading to Jesus’ birth, the events during his birth,
and Christ’s childhood. Most of the events are reflected from Mary’s perspective, and
the book is conceived as dialogue between the author and Mary. The book is presented
in a poetic form and its pictures illustrate the poems colorfully. Mary remains unnamed
throughout the book. Most of the time, she is referred to as daughter.7 Mveng gives a
human figure to Mary who is not the confident and serene woman presented in devotions. For instance, she is worried about becoming a mother and finds herself unworthy
of such a privilege. Mary is also closely associated to Africa. She is the archetype of the
African beauty. She embodies the frailty of Africa with her child; like the Black continent,
she does not possess money, weapons or technological power. Yet, the whole nature
is shaken at her sight. Natural elements such as seas, oceans, the sun and mountains of
the moon, as well as the flora (coco trees, banana plantations), and animals are moved
6
From this line onward see Mveng, L’Afrique dans l’Eglise, 15-16, 26-31; E. Mveng, “Théologie et
langages,” Revue Africaine de Théologie, Volume 10, No 19 (April 1986), 197 ; Mveng, L’art d’Afrique noire,
85.
7
From here onward see Engelbert Mveng, Lève-toi Amie, Viens, I-X.
157
at her presence. Human beings do not remain unaffected by these events. The ancestors
watch her day and night. Mary is the messenger of salvation and fullness. Her word is
equated to the sound of an African xylophone; even drums can name her.
Mveng contrasts the apparent powerlessness of Mary with her depth and strength
before the religious mysteries that are taking place in her life. Hands serve also as a
powerful symbol. “They are the chief organs for physically manipulating the environment…and also are the richest source of tactile feedback.”8 Hands are also used to
communicate and are useful when verbal and articulate language fails in, as in the case
of a discussion with a deaf person or between two people speaking different languages.
Hands are used for blessing but also for cursing. They serve to give, but also to withdraw or take away. One can read that Mary holds in her own hands the river of grace
and the ocean of God’s love. She receives the gifts from destitute people with their
hands of children and pilgrims. Mary’s life is just this kind of self-gift symbolized by
her hands. For Mveng, she is also the humble woman from Africa without whom the
people could not face God. Mary is portrayed as bringing joy and light to the people
in the dark and indicating the way to Jesus. The invitation to Mary to stand up is sent
to everybody; Mary eventually symbolizes all the mourning mothers on the roads of
exile, young girls, and mature women disillusioned about life.
In the way of the cross, the tone is different.9Mary is portrayed as a young woman.
In Station IV, she is the shoulder on which the suffering Jesus leans. She is described as
the pole on which hung the bronze serpent. Following the path of the Church Fathers,
Mveng equates Mary to Eve the mother of all human beings according to Hebrew and
Christian Scriptures, and uses again the symbolism of hands. Mary is in tears and her
tears are those of all African mothers who have experienced the loss of their child in
one way or another. She is also a mother to Africans who are like orphans searching for
“the” Mother. In Station X, Mary is mentioned in relation to Jesus’ robe that she made
with her own fingers. Mveng makes an indirect evocation of the Magnificat when he
shows Mary singing the songs of Myriam, Moses’ sister, Deborah, and Hannah, whose
parts are found in the Magnificat in Lk 1. Through Mary, the great women of Israel
come into the picture. In station XIII, Mary is addressed as Mother. She is the mother
of sorrows, who is in solidarity with all those mothers who have lost their only child.
Mveng depicts her as a professional mourner and a Bamileke widow from Western
Cameroon. The word “lullaby” is used as an inclusion in station XIII and points at both
the birth and the death of Jesus. In spite of the loss, Mary remains a model of faith;
her arms are a scale weighing the weight of the world’s redemption. Mveng insists on
the strength of Mary’s arms on which all who are hopeless can lean. She keeps her
composure in such a tragedy. Paradoxically, Mveng refers simultaneously to Mary as
singing a lullaby and being silent.
In sum, Mary appears in Mveng’s writings as a daughter or a mother. She epitomizes
all humanity and women in particular. Her fate is closely associated to the whole continent of Africa. Mveng emphasizes her humility and her silence, and contrasts them with
the strength of her hands. She is the archetype of strength, virtue and beauty. Interestingly enough, Mary remains unnamed in Mveng’s works. Probably, Mveng copies this
trend from the Gospel of John where important characters like the beloved disciples
8
“Hand” (December 2008), Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; available from http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Hand [accessed December 31, 2008].
9
158
See Engelbert Mveng, Si Quelqu’un…, Station IV.
and Jesus’ mother do not receive a specific name. She remains also speechless; she is
the “woman of silence”. Her only words reported at the end of Lève-toi are “according
to your will”.
Religious References About Other Women
There are many other instances where women are cited in Mveng’s writings. The
mention of women can be rhetorical like in his interview with Lipawing (Moses’Black
wife).10 One finds also other mentions of women mainly in the way of the cross : Rachel,
Lazarus’ sister and Nain’s widow; the professional mourner and the nurse in Mveng’s
way of the cross.11 Mveng signals the importance of nurses’ song in both Stations VI and
VII, and the misfortune of not hearing that song as an abandoned child. Other mentions
of women in relation to religion are that of daughters, wives and mothers.
The mention of women in his religious discourse gives Mveng the opportunity to
point out some injustices against the former. Station VIII of Mveng’s way of the cross is
presented as a lament over all the misfortunes of African women.12 They are the sorrowful face of motherly Africa, and they are the only ones who can tell the real story of
feminine Africa. Women are the palm tree plantation which shades the heavy pilgrimage that earthly life is. Mveng uses the image “stockade of peace” to refer to women by
contrasting war and peace. The strength of women seems to lie in their meekness and
their ability to stand firm in front of hardships. Mveng complains about the abduction
and enslavement of African women; he denounces the fact that women are victims of
economic powers and ancestral customs. He speaks of harem where numerous women
are parked for the pleasure of one man. Women also have to toil day and night to
sustain their families. Mveng brings in the image of the wailing mothers who have lost
a child for various reasons. Eventually, women are like a burned savannah. One notes
the helplessness of women who have nowhere to go so as to express their despair.
Their only hope and ally is Jesus.
Women in Poetry
The main poetical work of Mveng is Balafon, published in 1972; it contains poems
written between the mid-1950s and early 1970s. There are numerous evocations of
women in this book, who are mentioned as lovers, wives, professional mourners, widows, witches, young girls, beauties, mothers, virgins, dancers, princesses, and matrons.13
Women appear in relation to ‘motherly’ places such as America and Africa. Maternal
Africa is evoked in reference to art and liberation from colonialism. Women are also assimilated to nature, mainly animals such as gazelles, or rivers and seas like the Channel
and the “southern Ocean”. The comparison to nature passes through characterization as
flora by the use of terms like savannah, palm tree plantations, and cocoa tree plantations.
One notes also the role of celestial bodies like the moon and the sun. Women are like
Spanish caravels on the Nile. Mveng emphasizes parts or functions of the female body
10
See Engelbert Mveng- B. L. Lipawing, Théologie, Libération et cultures africaines. Dialogue sur
l’anthropologie négro-africaine (Yaoundé-Paris : Clé -Présence Africaine, 1996), 61.
11
Engelbert Mveng, Si Quelqu’un…, Stations VI-VIII, X-XI, XIII.
12
Engelbert Mveng, Si Quelqu’un…, Station VIII.
13
From here onward see Engelbert Mveng, Balafon (Yaoundé: Clé, 1972), 6, 12, 15-16, 19-23, 32,
34, 37, 39-40, 42-44, 47-49, 52-53,59-93.
159
such as fingers, hands, voice, nostrils, hair, lips, neck, and wrist. The voice appears as
an important element for prayer, singing and complaint, crying and laughing. The voice
allows one to communicate in articulate language and to be heard by others. Mveng
never uses the word mouth but only voice which is only one of the possible functions
of a mouth. Other allusions point at women’s physical appearance, the way they are
dressed, their walk, with mention of their perfumes and jewelry; one sees also women
at work in the farm or in manufacturing clothes. Mveng makes use of the image of
African landscape, culture and common scenes when referring to women.
Very few poems of Balafon deal with women as the primary intended object.
Even some times, poems’ titles can be misleading. For instance, the last poem called
“Offrande”14, offering, is about his mother’s pot. Mveng uses again his pancosmism
to link the whole cosmos to the pot. The poem does not dwell much on the mother;
rather it dwells on the pot.
On the “mother”
There are only two poems dedicated to women in Balafon and all of them concern
the “mother”. The first one entitled “Ma Mère”15, my mother, is divided into ten parts.
The first part speaks of the long initiation of the child to life by the mother. In the
second part the author is sent to spread a message. The third and fourth parts insist on
the mother’s tremendous contribution and the mother as God’s instrument. The fifth
part is a dialogue between the author and God, which continues in the next section.
The next three parts are a salutation of the mother from an African child, and the tenth
and last part concludes with a dialogue with the Lord Jesus. In this poem, Mveng uses
a lot of biblical references as well as images from rural and traditional Africa. Biblical
texts are taken from the Psalms, first chapters of Genesis, and the Gospels with an
emphasis on infancy and passion narratives. These highlight the essential character of
the origin and the end. The beginning here is the starting point of each individual as
well as the people. There is always a link with the whole cosmos according to Mveng’s
pancosmism. The end is also important; it is the time when on the cross, every disciple
receives Mary as a mother.
The mother is the one that structures the personality of her children. She is the
one from whom the latter learn the basic things such as naming objects, working and
relating with their environment. The phrase ‘mother tongue’ stresses the dilemma that
so many Africans experience being torn apart between African and Western worlds. For
Mveng, the mother’s lips are full of wisdom and hope. Her voice along with her silence
plays a great role. Her voice personifies the thunder and the meekness of God’s voice.
In this poem the grateful son promises to speak of his mother to natural elements. The
mother is also characterized by her silence. She is the instrument through which the
Lord teaches her child. She is also the sorrowful mother in an Africa plagued by so many
disasters. She identified as a woman from Africa without whom nothing makes sense
and people cannot address themselves to God. There is an insistence on parts of the
mother’s body: feet, fingers, hands, and lips. The mention of the mother’s body associates her and other human beings, especially women. Hands serve to contrast frailty and
strength of the mother who carries so many things in what seem to be a small vessels.
14
15
160
Mveng, Balafon, 89-93.
See Mveng, Balafon, 63-82.
In section 6, the mother is clearly identified as Mary, mother of Christ. Hence, she is
not the mother of one person but the mother of Africa as a whole. The mother reminds
us of our shortcomings and about the mystery of God’s salvation.
It is difficult to say whether Mveng speaks only of the Virgin Mary as mother in this
poem. In some parts, it could be applied to Africa or to his own mother. In pages 78
and 79 he refers to his mother’s mother and the mother who will not recognize him.
It seems that here he is speaking about his own mother. The mention of the mother’s
language contributes to the ambiguity.
The other poem, “Voici ton fils”16, here is your son, is a eulogy to Mveng’s deceased
mother and was written in 1964, the year of her death. Mveng uses figurative language
to point at his mother’s death: sunset, departure, and sleep. He unites her to hills, rivers
and the crops of Africa. Her body has been in communion with her environment her
whole life. He calls his mother “woman” like Jesus with Mary in John’s gospel. Mveng
addresses his mother as elder sister, immortal flower, and rare pearl. It is a cosmic meditation with the sky full of new stars, the sun, the moon, first mornings, dawn, sunrise
and sunset. All this reflects the importance that Mveng’s mother held in his particular
life. The feeling of her loss is so huge that it is felt in Mveng’s whole universe. One
can discern a strong woman who could make her own decisions by the use of “you
chose”, “you elected”, “you did not want”. Mveng uses also religious language such
as the presentation of gifts in the Catholic Mass to express his mother’s offering to the
Lord Jesus; he mentions her at the foot of the cross like Mary. Mveng praises also his
mother’s silence.
Generally speaking, Mveng mentions women in passing or when he does so he
uses traditional imagery. Categories such as mother, young girl, matron and professional
mourner are among those that appear often. He names parts of female bodies to associate
women to the whole cosmos, celestial bodies, fauna, flora and mineral elements. Mveng
also likes celebrating African women’s beauty by evoking their body, their loincloth
and their walk. He even laments on the incapacity of other African poets and novelists
to sing their women’s beauty in its specificity.17 Women are assimilated to places such
as Africa, or to fauna and flora. The strength of women lies, according to Mveng, in
their humility and their silence. Hands and the voice are important in expressing these
two attitudes. Hands help us to master our environment but cannot hold many things;
in Mveng’s perspective women are capable of holding so many complex things. The
voice as a function plays a critical role in its capacity to reveal the woman’s inner being.
Mveng references are mostly biblical and from African cultures.
Evaluation of Mveng’s Perspective on Women
In this section, I intend to use the help of feminist hermeneutics to analyze Mveng’s
perception of women, detecting good insights and flaws in his thought. One positive
aspect in Mveng is that he acknowledges the importance of women without whom there
is no fulfilled humanity. As he puts it in a nutshell, “without woman, man is nothing”.
Woman is the creator and founder of humanity. Without her, the salvation of humanity
is impossible. Mveng also denounces abuses committed in the course of history against
women; he does not hesitate to attack cultural institutions such as polygyny and dowry.
16
17
Mveng, Balafon, 83-88.
Mveng-Lipawimg, Théologie, Liberation et cultures africaines, 186-187.
161
However, there are flaws in Mveng’s thought like his static conception of tradition, his
essentialist perception of women, his male-oriented language, and his uneasiness with
the “equality” of sexes. For the sake of space and clarity I will retain only the critique
of Mveng’s essentialism.
Mveng’s Essentialist Perception of Women
Before going ahead, I would like to say few words on essentialists. Essentialists tend
to identify sexual difference with “both biological/physiological dimensions (sex), and
dispositional/psychological and social characteristics (gender).” 18 Today, essentialists
are using scientific findings on chromosomal structure, hormonal makeup, menstrual
cycles, the structure of women’s brains and other elements to assert sexual difference
in order to found social distinction. Such a view forgets the importance of socialization
which makes people become and behave as men or women. As Simone de Beauvoir
puts it: “one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman.”19 In other words, gender roles
are socially constructed and not the result of a so-called innate disposition.
Mveng’s essentialism is a consequence of his static and ahistorical view on women.
In his 1966 article, Mveng complains about the fact that the African woman is depersonalized, and she needs to be “re-personalized”. The assumption behind such a
thought is that there is a ready-made model for African women, and all of them have
to follow it. This attitude is called essentialism or universalism, and it tends to reproduce stereotypes about women. Essentialism states that beings are made of inherent or
unchanging qualities also called essences.20 The latter differ from accidents, which are
contingencies subject to spatial and historical change. As far as women are concerned,
their essentials are thought to be “natural” that is, innate, instinctual, native or presocial. Essentialists believe that essential qualities of women lie in their physiology; in
opposition to men who are thought to be rational, stable and autonomous, women are
perceived as instable, emotional, relational and nurturing. It is not surprising then that
Mveng refer to women mostly as mothers, nurses, and professional mourners, images
that perfectly fit in stereotypes about women. Even his paintings of women carrying their
kids on their back or being around their little ones betray this tendency. He mentions
once a priestess and twice ‘witches’ in Balafon. Strangely enough, he refers to female
traditional healers or diviners as ‘witches’.21 In addition, Mveng hails silent and humble
women, and never evokes powerful political and military figures like queen Nzinga
of Ndongo and Matamba (present day Angola) or Dahomey Amazons for instance.22
He seems to limit the influence of women to religious, spiritual, esthetic and domestic
spheres. Hence, Mveng promotes implicitly a certain model of women, and though he
never uses the term, Mveng implies that women have a predetermined nature, and social
18
Serene Jones, Feminist Theory and Christian Theology, Cartographies of Grace, Coll. Guides to
Theological Inquiry (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2000), 27.
19
Simone de Beauvoir, “The Second Sex,” in Feminist Theory, a Reader, 2nd edition, eds Wendy K.
Kolmar and Frances Bartkowski (Boston: McGraw Hill, 2005), 184.
20
From here onward see Serene Jones, Feminist Theory and Christian Theology, 25-31.
21
Mveng, Balafon, 15, 52.
22
For further details on Queen Nzinga and the Amazons see “Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba”,
(2008) Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia; available from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nzinga_of_Ndongo_
and_Matamba [January 8, 2009]; “Dahomey Amazons”, (2008) Wikipedia, the Fee Encyclopedia; Wikipedia,
the Free Encyclopedia; avalaible from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dahomey_Amazons [accessed January
8, 2009].
162
roles –mostly domestic- are attached to this nature. Mveng claims not to be what I call
a “domestic reductionist” and someone who limits women to reproductive functions,
but one feels some discomfort with his insistence on domestic issues.23 For instance,
Mveng claims that depersonalization of women is partly caused by the fact that familial
homes are no longer places of physical and moral health. Women are depersonalized
because their life is no longer centered on their homes. By speaking of vocation, Mveng
implicitly affirms that prior to their birth, women have predetermined roles assigned to
them in which they have to fit whether they like it or not. Women are life-givers and
life-sustainers.
The main problem with essentialism is that it ignores particularities, and does not
acknowledge the diversity of contexts. First, when Mveng takes the Bantu world as
one unit, he forgets that Bantu universe is made of hundreds of different ethnic groups
ranging from Cameroon in West Africa to South Africa! Second, within the same area, a
woman’s life and condition will differ according to her social status, religious background,
education level, geographical location, marital status, etc… Essentialism runs the danger
of making women passive agents and not actors of their destiny. Essentialism leaves no
room for creativity and change since the woman only has to follow a predetermined
script. It does not take into account the inherent dynamism of African societies, which
evolve in space and time.
C
onclusion: The present essay has allowed me to show the place women hold
in Mveng’s writings. Mveng acknowledges that woman is a fundamental and
irreplaceable element in the African universe. She is the life-giver and the lifesavior. She is also present in African art where she epitomizes beauty and fertility.
Through his paintings, Mveng adapts his representation of women in accordance with
the context. In a happy context like the Annunciation, Mary portrays light and joy. In
contrast, in a sad context like the way of the cross, Mary’s face betrays suffering and her
clothes are indicating that death is always present. In religion, the woman is an ally of
life like in Isis and Osiris myth, but she can be the gate through which evil penetrates
into this world as in the Evu Mana tale. Again in the religious setting, Mary plays a key
role as Jesus’ mother. She is the archetype of humility and a powerful symbol of faith.
In poetry, the mother’s figure plays a great role. In addition, Mveng does not hesitate to
denounce traditional practices that hamper women’s blossoming. In contrast, he retains
a lot of traditional images of women especially, the ones with women carrying children
and speaks mostly of women as professional mourners, nurses, mothers, wives, young
girls and daughters. There are also reservations to be raised against Mveng. He has a
static vision of tradition that does not take into account history dynamicity. Thus, Mveng
develops an essentialist conception of women which promotes a ready-made model
of femininity in which all have to fit. I think that despite these flaws, Mveng holds the
merit of mentioning women in his writings from an African perspective. There is a need
to go beyond stereotypes and partial perspectives like that of Mveng so as to launch a
constructive debate on women in African societies.
23
Mveng, “La Femme dans la sagesse Bantoue,” 5-6.
163
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164
Sublimating Desire: Reflections on the Problem of Sexual
Abuse of Minors by Clergy
Laurenti Magesa *
A
bstract: Sexual abuse of minors by members of the clergy has grievously wounded
the 21st century Church. These abuses are usually manifest in two forms: pedophilia
(where the minor is a child) and ephebophiles (where the minor is an adolescent).
Since the mid 1990s, millions of dollars that could have enhanced her primary mission of
reaching out to the needy have been rolled out by the church as recompense to the victims
of the sex scandals by the clergy. Of course, no amount of compensation would be enough
to heal the psychological and spiritual wounds suffered by these victims and the wounds of
shame and ridicule suffered by the Church herself. Although these abuses have often been
associated with the Church in the West, this article accentuates the fact that pedophilia (just
like homosexuality) and ephebophiles are not uniquely American or European problems; they
exist in Africa too. Furthermore, it dispels as myth the claim that celibacy is causally linked to
pedophilia and ephebophiles. Nonetheless, that the Church needs to reconsider her teaching
about human sexuality, especially as it pertains to the clergy, is inevitable according to the
author of this article. The understanding of celibacy as a rejection of sensuality, tenderness
and mutuality is essentially Manichaean; it needs to be seriously reexamined. Sublimation
of, rather than flight from, sexual desires is envisaged as the way forward for celibate priests
and religious. Towards the end, the article proposes a possible approach towards the fixated
pedophiles and ephebophiles in the clergy in the African situation.
I
ntroduction: Sexual abuse of minors is of two kinds. The first kind is pedophilia
where the minor is a child between 1 and 13 years, and the second is ephebophilia
where the minor is an adolescent, between 14 and 17 years. The abusers are referred
to as pedophiles and ephebophiles respectively. In either case, the behavior is about
sexuality and, in the wise words of John S. Mbiti:
Sexuality is like a chameleon. It has many colours. In every community, sexuality is encased
in innumerable attitudes, assertions, and beliefs. Some assertions affirm sexuality, while others
deny or denigrate it. Every generation and every community cherishes some forms of myths
about sexuality. These are largely fluid, and they change like the colours of the chameleon.
Many factors impinge upon contemporary myths of sexuality, such as religion, art and literature, economics, politics, movement of people, climate, education, etc. Every young or adult
person, under normal health conditions, will sooner or later be sucked into the vast ocean of
sexuality and that ocean will not evaporate for the rest of the person’s life. These myths can
be compared to a dish of tropical fruit salad, with chunks of both fresh and canned fruits,
ripe and unripe fruits, sweet and sour fruits.1
1
John S. Mbiti, “Myths of Sexuality, Sexual Relations, and Identity in Africa.” Unpublished paper
presented at the conference on “Exploring Stepping-Stones: Sexual Identity and Gender Equality,” Biblica
Guest House, Nairobi, 27 April-01 May, 2010, 1.
*
Fr. Laurenti Magesa is a priest of the Catholic Diocese of Musoma in Tanzania. At present
he lectures in African Theology at Hekima College Jesuit School of Theology and Tangaza
College, both constituent colleges of the Catholic University of Eastern Africa, Nairobi, and in
the Maryknoll Institute of African Studies of Saint Mary’s University in Nairobi.
165
Laurenti Magesa
Sexual activity with minors is certainly one of the “sour” fruits in the mixture and,
everywhere, it must be dealt with by society as such. The behavior becomes much
more repulsive when the adult is entrusted not only with leadership responsibility in
the community, but with care for the young to whom, in their innocence, they usually
give their total trust. Popular horror is perfectly justified, therefore, if the abuser is a
priest or religious.
Still, sexual abuse of minors by clergy must have a long, if hidden, history. If it
is true, as Mbiti seems to suggest above, that at any one time and place some men in
the population are sexually attracted to minors, certain conclusions follow. It becomes
probable (and even inevitable, in my view) that in the life of the Catholic Church a few
such men would have entered the priesthood and acted out their sexual deviation. However, with such a complex issue as sexuality, it is often difficult to cite precise names,
instances, numbers or dates. This is so particularly in the past in Africa, when cultural
mores and ecclesiastical expectations and discipline for children and the lay faithful in
situations of this kind were quite different from our own today.
Explosion of a Hidden Crime and its Consequences
Yet things could not stay hidden forever; sooner or later the truth had to come out.
It began in the United States. In the mid-1980s, the phenomenon began to receive wide
media attention there. But it was a case in the mid-1990s in the Archdiocese of Boston
that acted like a spark: it set off a chain reaction of media investigations and reports into
the issue the consequence of which would suddenly shock the church in the US and
in many other parts of the Catholic world with pained disbelief. At the time, investigative journalists for the Boston Globe newspaper revealed, for example, that a Fr. John
J. Geoghan of the Archdiocese of Boston had over the years sexually molested nearly
140 children. Geoghan was prosecuted by Mitchell Garabedian, a Boston attorney, and
was eventually convicted of the crime. He was murdered in prison. After some resistance, Cardinal Bernard Law, Ordinary of the Archdiocese, was forced to resign in 2002
under public pressure for allegedly covering up Fr. Geoghan’s conduct, among others
in the Archdiocese.2
Subsequent to the imbroglio in the Archdiocese of Boston, crime journalists and
lawyers in North America and Europe had a field day. Some, hostile to the church, deliberately sought to shame it. Others were after a share of the huge sums of the money
that were sometimes paid to the victims in compensation. Others, of course, were honest.
All, however, continued to unearth numerous cases of this crime in one local church
after another, including in Europe, Australia and South America. Various members of
the clergy at every level were found to be involved: diocesan priests, members of religious orders (and in at least one notorious case, a founder), and even a few members
of the hierarchy. Many of the offenders were prosecuted. Some cases were settled out
of court. In some instances, because dioceses had to pay huge sums of money as settlements or compensations, their financial resources were drained, forcing some to file
2
See Stephen J. Rossetti, “The Catholic Church and Child Sexual Abuse,” in America (April 22, 2002),
8-15. Also, among many other places, http://www.garabedianlaw.com/firm-history/ (accessed on February
2, 2011).
166
Sublimating Desire: Reflections on the Problem of Sexual Abuse of Minors by Clergy
for bankruptcy. For instance, in Geoghan’s case alone, the Archdiocese had to dish out
$85 million in compensation to the victim and lawyers’ fees.
Within the Catholic Church itself there were certain unpleasant fallouts from the situation. Some of the lay faithful objected to their contributions to the church being used to
settle these cases, since such payments were often outside their policy provenance of the
insurance companies. Some parishioners in anger withheld their Sunday contributions
altogether, including bishops’ appeals for different causes. Others in disgust even left
the church altogether. In any case, on account of these scandals and the media coverage they received, the church’s credibility worldwide was seriously compromised and
substantially diminished in the eyes of many of its members and society at large.
Unwarranted Simplifications
The media has often portrayed clerical sexual abuse of minors as a clear cut issue
of willful depravity by priests. Despite this simplification, which has often been the case
since the eruption of the crime into the public eye about thirty years ago, it is an extremely
complex problem. For us now, it would be ridiculously pretentious for anyone to claim
that he or she could cover all angles pertaining to it adequately – let alone adequately
– in a single presentation. What we can say for certain is that from whatever point of
view one looks at it, sexual abuse of minors by anyone, but especially by a clergyman,
can only be seen and described as a most repulsive and criminal act. As I have pointed
out, it is a betrayal of the priest’s sacred trust. An editorial in the journal, America, put
it very well: the behavior “has done untold harm to innocent children and adolescents
who were physically, psychologically and spiritually damaged by people they should
have been able to trust and respect.”3 The victims’ testimonies testify to that anguish,
and psychological studies now confirm that the pain and wounds inflicted on children
by such immoral and shameful deeds during the most innocent and vulnerable period
of their lives cannot be completely healed. The scandal caused by the behavior of the
priests in question to the victims as well as to the whole body of Christ, the Church,
and to society at large, is indeed a most grievous one.
Although, for the sake of proper contextualization of the problem, a longer account
of the origins of the crime as well as the history of the response of the authorities of
the church to it in various dioceses and religious institutes around the world would be
extremely important, I am not going to do so for the aforementioned reasons of space
and time. At any rate, this analysis has been extensively done and information about
it is readily available. What I wish to do very briefly here is to look at three things. My
aim is to do no more than (a) to reconsider more rationally some widespread myths
about the behavior and its perpetrators; (b) to outline the kind of thinking that must be
developed around human sexuality if the problem is to be realistically and relevantly
confronted; and (c) to suggest a possible approach towards fixated pedophiles and
ephebophiles in the clergy in the African situation.
3
Stephen J. Rossetti, “The Catholic Church and Child Sexual Abuse,” in America (April 22,
2002):3.
167
Laurenti Magesa
Countering Some Myths
In the relatively short history since this crisis became public, there are ideas assumptions in many people’s minds that are taken for facts, whereas upon scrutiny they are
myths or mere assumptions. These must be countered so that the real situation may be
better understood and handled.4
Pedophilia/Ephebophilia is “a Western Problem”
Since the focus of this reflection is the church in Africa, let me begin with perhaps
the most widespread and most dangerous myth of all. One finds it not only in the church
but in society at large. It is that sexual aberrations, including sexual abuse of children,
are a Western problem; they do not occur in Africa. Up to only a few decades ago, the
same thing used to be claimed of homosexuality, until the reality suddenly burst upon
us, when more and more homosexual people came out of the closet and openly and
rather pompously declared their homosexual orientation and/or preference. It caught
many people unawares because cultural strictures against this reality had shielded
them from recognizing its existence. Thus in some places the response was almost
equally arrogant, even irrational and violent, where some sections of the population,
unfortunately, went as far as advocating the lynching of or the death penalty for active
homosexuals. Christians even went as far as using selected scriptural passages to justify
this unchristian position.
Cultural, moral, or legal strictures may force human actions – good or bad – underground; they do not thereby necessarily eradicate them. The sexual abuse of children is a problem of human aberration, with an emphasis on human; it is not a racial,
geographical or cultural peculiarity, even though these, as we have noted Mbiti specify
above, contribute something to it. Sexual molestation of minors happens in Africa – in
families, neighborhoods, schools, churches, and so on. The media here also frequently
carry stories of brutal sexual abuses against children, and even infants. In South Africa,
for example, we hear of the foolish belief among some people there that having sex
with virgins, usually children, is a cure for AIDS! So whatever differences exist in this
matter between Africa and the West, they are generally of extent, not of actuality. The
sooner we realized this in Africa, the better. Then, instead of burying our heads in the
sand, pretending that what happens does not happen, we would be better prepared to
take the necessary steps to combat the hazard. As the wisdom of the elders has it, “If
you watch your pot, your food will not burn.”
Celibacy is the Source of Pedophilia
African celibate clergy and religious, the latter both men and women, may not like
it, attribute it to popular ignorance, or laugh it off with embarrassed amusement. The
fact remains, however, that among society at large in Africa they are regarded more or
less with suspicion concerning both the condition and state of celibacy and how faithfully they keep it. For pastoral reasons it is also good not to hide this fact. Despite other
influences, marriage is still very highly prized in almost all African cultures. A Yoruba
proverb tells it all: “There is no naked man as a man without a wife.” Or again, “It is
better to sleep with your bad wife than to sleep alone.”
4
For an expansion of the discussion presented in this section, see also Rossetti, “The Catholic
Church.” In several places, Rossetti holds a different point of view than mine. His focus, of course, is the US
church.
168
With extremely rare exceptions, lifelong celibacy was therefore inconceivable in
African societies. When some people, obviously for ideological reasons, claim in defense of the current Catholic practice of celibacy that it traditionally existed here in such
forms, for example, as that of the trokosi and voodoosi or vudusi of Ghana, Togo and
Benin, they are scarcely being true to the facts. The trokosi and voodoosi were usually
young girls, often, though not always, forcibly taken to religious shrines to serve as
“wives of the gods.” Theoretically perpetually virgins, they in reality lived as sex slaves
of the male keepers of the shrines. The euphemism “wives of the gods” was used for
them not because they remained virgins, but because the sexual organs of the shrine
keepers were supposed to be dedicated to the gods, and so having sex with them was
seen to be the same thing as having sex with the gods. Obviously, then, neither the
celibacy of the male shrine keepers nor the physical virginity of the female trokosi and
voodoosi was real.
From such social and cultural environment, it is easy to see why many in African
societies view lifelong celibacy or virginity to be a practical impossibility. It is to them
an unrealizable ideal. Who has not overheard it said at some time, albeit in hushed
voices, that nuns are the “wives of priests” or that priests are “husbands of nuns”?
Consequently, it serves only to confirm an already strongly established bias when a
member of the clergy or religious fails to live up to this vow, or leaves the priesthood
or religious life. Worse so if the person in question happens to be implicated in pedophile acts. But, once again, this is simply a baseless bias, psychologically amplified by
cultural expectations.
The point here is that it is unfair to attribute the shortcomings of society on only
one group in it, in this case in Africa, on celibate clergy, cultural expectations notwithstanding. Africa’s own wisdom indicates the injustice of this scape-goating: “The baboon
does not see his own backside but that of his companion,” and “It’s astonishing that the
camel points to the hump on a cow.” As Rossetti points out, “Researchers and clinicians
have generally accepted the fact that celibacy does not cause child sexual abuse,” in
Africa or elsewhere. Rossetti continues to show that, according to these experts, the
reality is rather different: “the sexual difficulties and inner psychological problems that
give rise to child sexual abuse,” he notes, “are largely in place long before a person
enters into the formation process for the celibate priesthood.” Moreover, the evidence
is that in Africa as elsewhere in the world, “most adults who sexually molest minors
are, or will be married.” 5
All Pedophiles are Homosexuals
We must be careful. “The forest,” according to African wisdom, “though it looks
thick, when one approaches it, one sees that each tree is on its own.” We must therefore
learn to distinguish. It is useful, in tackling the myth that all pedophiles are homosexuals or vice versa, to have an idea of human sexual orientations and what they mean in
practice. Fathers Melvin C. Blanchette and Gerald D. Coleman, in a joint article on “Priest
Pedophiles” identify five basic ones which I list in abbreviated form here:
1. Heterosexuality: the basic sexual desire is for adult members of the opposite sex;
2. Homosexuality: the basic sexual desire is for adult members of the same sex;
5
Rossetti, “The Catholic Church,” 9.
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Laurenti Magesa
3. Bisexuality: the sexual desire is indiscriminate for adult members of either sex;
4. Fixated pedophilia: the sexual desire is for children of either sex aged between 1
and 13 years.
5. Fixated ephebophilia: the sexual desire is for adolescents between 14 and 17years
old.6
It is only in this last category, that of fixated or compulsive ephebophiles, where
some confusion can arise, as Blanchette and Coleman point out. With adolescents, the
sexual molester may be attracted either heterosexually or homosexually rather than
simply to a pubescent person. In this case, the true homosexual will be attracted to
adolescent boys rather than girls.
It should therefore be clear why it is both a serious mistake and quite an unfair
judgment to categorize all homosexuals as child abusers or, conversely, all child abusers
as homosexuals. This is to take the trees for the forest or the forest for the trees. Unless
adult homosexual activity is proscribed (and it is often proscribed in many communities
in Africa), active homosexuals need not always pose a danger to children and adolescents
sexually and, in this regard, may actually be very good, law abiding citizens, as horrified about child sexual abuse as the next heterosexual person. Further, the argument is
made even more absurd by the unfounded (merely chauvinistic) claim that there were
no homosexuals or homosexual activity in Africa. If this were the case – considering
the argument that it is homosexuals that are pedophiles – there would have been no
cases of pedophilia around. Yet, evidence shows that there were instances of this vice,
which totally disproves the claim. It proves, rather, that homosexuality and pedophilia
are two quite separate sexual conditions.
Fixated Pedophiles Can be “cured”
It has not been settled whether pedophilia and ephebophilia are genetic or learned
behaviors; whether, that is, they result from nature or nurture. Different psychologists,
psychoanalysts, behaviorists, sexologists, and sexual ethicists have different opinions
about this question. Consequently, those who hold that the aberrations are a result of
nurture argue that sexual molestation of children is, to some extent at least, willful behavior and therefore can be cured. On the other hand, those who see in this behavior
(as in heterosexuality and homosexuality) a genetic cause cannot disagree more with
this assessment. They strongly state that pedophilia, perhaps somewhat like alcoholism,
can only be controlled, not cured. They would endorse the proverb that “The buffalo
does not wander from the marsh where it was born.” Blanchette and Coleman in the
abovementioned article note the psychosexual theory that
Fixated pedophiles and ephebophiles are typically developmentally arrested, psychosexually immature, nonassertive, heterosexually inhibited, lacking in social skills and without a
basic knowledge of sexuality. They have a need for control, and a child becomes for them a
pliant and manipulative object. The pedophile or ephebophile is at the same psychosexual
age as his victim. Generally, it is not a particular child who is arousing, but the sight, smell
and sound of any child.7
6
See Melvin C. Blanchette and Gerald D. Coleman, “Priest Pedophiles” in America (April 22, 2002),
7
Blanchette and Coleman, “Priest Pedophiles,” 20.
19.
170
On the basis of experience in the last thirty years or so in the church, especially in
the United States and Western Europe, it would seem that the latter opinion is the one
more supported by evidence. In many dioceses in these regions of the world, different
professional methods have been employed to help priests exhibiting sexual preference
for children or who have actually been known to engage in the behavior overcome it.
In a big percentage of all known cases, the methods – specifically counseling – have
not succeeded. In those instances when church authorities thought that the offender
had been cured, it has emerged that the person repeated the behavior. The strong
opinion seems to be that fixated child molesters cannot be cured of this sexual aberration. Indeed, the saying is right: “How can you abort the pregnancy of a born child?”
The question, once again, is only whether the aberration can be controlled and how?
With pedophiles around, how can the church and society minimize the danger they
can pose to children?
The Hierarchy in General Shields All Clerical Pedophiles
When clerical pedophilia became a public issue in the West, it also emerged that
some bishops did not bring the offending priests to the civil authorities (the police)
for prosecution even when they knew them. Rather, they transferred them from place
to place where, in many cases, they continued the abuse on new victims. This is why
people vented their anger on them, and some, like Archbishop Law of Boston, were
forced to resign.
These instances of episcopal indecisiveness led to the exaggerated accusation in
some media outlets, that all members of the hierarchy shielded all clerical pedophiles,
and were all disinterested in the welfare of the molested children but only in the (in
this case undeserved) reputation of the church. The accusation against bishops was that
they were therefore willfully malevolent and dishonest and/or thoroughly incompetent
in handling sexual abuse cases by clergy. It is something that, unfortunately, even a
person and theologian of the stature of Hans Kung, in a letter to the world’s bishops,
repeats without qualification. He accuses Cardinal Ratzinger, then Prefect of the Roman Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (1981-2005) as well as Pope John Paul
II of engineering this cover-up. Kung cites as evidence a document of May 18, 2001
by Ratzinger, sent to all the bishops, instructing them to seal abuse cases “under the
‘secretum pontificium’ [pontifical secrecy], the violation of which could entail grave
ecclesiastical penalties.”8
Like all exaggerations, there is a grain of truth in this simplification, but it is a
simplification. The whole picture is much more complex. While not underestimating
at all some mistakes that some bishops made willfully or by human oversight, nor the
hurt and lasting damage the victims of clerical pedophilia permanently endure, nor the
harm done to the credibility of the church, there are points which could exonerate the
course of action of some of the bishops in the past.
First, knowledge about pedophilia was very limited; it was not as advanced as it is
now, and bishops acted within this limitation, with the thought, especially that pedophilia could be cured. Secondly, bishops are guardians of the good of the church. How
can they be accused of malevolence when they honestly think they are acting with
8
See http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2010/0416/1224268443283.html?via-rel
(accessed on February 2, 2011).
171
Laurenti Magesa
the interests of the church at heart, even granted that we know now that they were
myopic and mistaken in the course of action they opted for? Thirdly, it is not true that
in all, or even in most cases, the bishops acted altogether in bad will. The claim made
post factum that the hierarchy willfully protected pedophile priests at the expense of
the victims is often a way to justify a hostile agenda against the church. Against it we
can justifiably retort with the African village children: “Oh, hyena, don’t give me an
excuse to eat me.”
Sublimating Desire: Priests and Sexuality
Still, despite the myths – particularly the falsehood abroad that celibacy is the source
of pedophilia – the church needs to take a good, long look at her teaching about human sexuality, especially as it pertains to the clergy. She must update her perception of
and position as new and more accurate understandings on human biology, psychology,
sociology and spirituality emerge concerning this fundamental fact of human life. If
the church must always be reformed (ecclesia semper reformanda), today an accepted
principle in its life, one of the areas which we should look at in our time is surely its
teaching on human sexuality. The Second Vatican Council in the Decree on Ecumenism, Unitatis Redintegratio, alludes to the necessity of this constant revision when it
states frankly that
Christ summons the Church, as she goes her pilgrim way, to that continual reformation of
which she always has need, insofar as she is an institution of men [and women] here on
earth. Therefore, if the influence of events or of the times has led to deficiencies in conduct, in Church discipline, or even in the formulation of discipline (which must be carefully
distinguished from the deposit itself of faith), these should be appropriately rectified at the
proper moment.9
And the proper moment is now. Whereas celibacy as a gift (charism) from God is
not in question – even if, as a church discipline, it surely does not constitute “the deposit
itself of faith” – its interpretation as flight from sexuality (in the sense of both maleness
and femaleness and masculinity and femininity) is inaccurate. More so, the understanding
of celibacy as a rejection of sensuality, tenderness and mutuality must be reexamined.
This negative and unhealthy perception of the charism of celibacy (and virginity) as a
state of being sexless and unfeeling has survived for far too long in Catholic Christianity
and has often caused a lot of harm to certain members of the clergy by stunting their
human growth. It is essentially a Manichaean view, suggesting contempt or, worse, fear
of the body. As such, it is manifestly un-African and unchristian. For, according to St.
Gregory of Nyassa, what Christ did not assume, he did not heal (“Quod [Christus]non
assumpsit, non sanavit”). If Christ assumed a human body, he healed the body.10 We
might even quote the divine message in this respect to the then still bigoted Peter the
Apostle: “If God says it’s okay, it’s okay,” or, in more traditional rendering, “What God
has made clean, you are not to call profane” (Acts 10:15).
9
Second Vatican Ecuminical Council, “Decree on Ecumenism, (Unitatis Redintegratio),” in Vatican
Council II: The Conciliar and Post Conciliar Documents, ed. Austin Flannery, (Mumbai: Costello Publishing
Company, Inc., 1975), n° 6.
10
See Andre Guindon, The Sexual Creators (Lanham: University of America Press, 1986), 213.
172
Sensuality, tenderness and mutuality need not always suggest genitality, and obviously not in the context of celibacy. “A celibate,” explains Guindon, “is one who has
consciously left aside the conjugal model [of life] in order to explore alternative forms
of sensuously tender expressions. He or she is an inventor of other languages, of other
gestures of friendship, of affection, of communion.”11 Yet, the celibate priest or religious
is a corporeal or “bodied” being, and the body together with the spirit, or what I call
the humanum, is good. The priest serves humanity in love, not as pure spirit or as an
angel but as a sexual human being, an “enspirited” body or “embodied” spirit. As Andre Guindon writes in his The Sexual Language, “Love which is never felt warmly and
cannot find expression in the flesh is a mystification like so many other ‘pure ideas’.”
Guindon further reminds us of the perceptive observation of Blaise Pascal to the effect
that those who sexually indulge “in the game called ‘Angel’ … end up in beastlike behavior” (“Qui veut faire l’ange fait la bête”). 12 In The Sexual Creators he suggests that
the type of formation which instills in future celibates the “tendency to avoid relating
to persons of the other sex as real sexual beings is a spiritualistic deviation which can
only lead to bruised personalities.”13 As he explains:
Celibates do not belong to another human species. They too are called to love and must
love as human beings do. Even those who have taken a vow of celibacy have not given up
love. How could they? Love is Christian perfection. What celibates have given up is loving as
spouses do. Celibates too are committed to loving others, their “neighbor,” in a way which
is liberating. It should be characteristic of their sexual fecundity to develop life-giving friendships [with men and women].14
What is wrong with sexual desire, so often demonized by some overzealous preachers of the “perfection” of celibacy? In itself, sexual desire is quite innocent, because
it is part and parcel of being a sexed man or woman, God’s good creation. Nay, it is
necessary for the survival of the human race. Although, admittedly, science, through
cloning, may one day bypass sexual intercourse for reproductive purposes in a few
instances, it would seem that sexual desire will remain an essential element of profound
human relationships and affectivity. According to the Jesus of Matthew (5:28), what is
wrong with sexual desire is its perverted goal as “lust”: in the context of marriage, Jesus
says, “everyone who looks at a woman with lust has already committed adultery with
her in his heart” (The African Bible, emphasis added). In Eugene H. Peterson‘s more
contemporary rendering (The Message), the Mosaic Law commanded: “Don’t go to bed
with another’s spouse.” Matthew’s Jesus, however, goes one further, to the source of the
aberration: “But don’t think that you’ve preserved your virtue simply by staying out of
bed. Your heart can be corrupted by lust even quicker than your body. Those leering
looks you think nobody notices – they also corrupt” (emphasis added).
A sensitive and faithful reading of this idea would indicate that far from condemning sexual desire, Matthew’s Jesus advocates sublimation of desire to its proper end; in
the case of the passage sexual relations can only take place legitimately in the context
of committed marital relationships. For the celibate, the question is where to channel
normal human sexual energies, that vast ocean that Mbiti mentions which does not
evaporate for the rest of a person’s life? Sublimation of sexuality and sex appears to be
11
12
13
14
Guindon, The Sexual Creators, 222.
Andre Guindon, The Sexual Language (Ottawa: The University of Ottawa Press, 1976), 94.
173
Laurenti Magesa
what healthy sexuality is all about, both in marriage and in celibacy. By “sublimation”
I am not suggesting, of course, the kind misguided spiritualism or angelism that denies
or demonizes sexual desire; I have already shown the dangers inherent in this option. I
am suggesting by the term, with Anthony Kosnik and his colleagues, “creative fidelity.”
“Those who seek to live celibate or virginal sexuality must know how to experience a
healthy, affective maturation in their own persons; to give and receive friendship with
persons of their own and of the opposite sex; [and]to express universal love (caritas)
in specific concern and care for others …”15
The Future: “Who Watches the Watchmen?”
The Catholic faithful have, of course, the right to expect certain moral standards of
their priests. After all, the institution of the priesthood claims for itself a certain moral
authority. Thus society as a whole is justified in being more demanding of the priest in
moral rectitude than of any other of its members.
The critical pastoral question, one which bishops have for a long time faced and
continue to struggle with is what to do with clerics under their charge who abuse both
their vocation and popular trust and sexually molest minors. As “shepherds” of both,
this is not an easy question. The recent debate in the West on the issue clearly and
rightly lays emphasis on the protection of the children as a priority. It urges that the
offending priests should immediately be defrocked, reported to the civil authorities
and, if convicted, be made to “pay” for their crime by being put away in jail. While one
can see and appreciate the point of this argument, one must also say that it is clearly
pastorally insensitive to the offender. It is too legalistic and fails to fully witness to
the love of Christ for sinners. This should be a consideration especially in the case of
fixated pedophiles. The question is how to balance justice with compassion and vice
versa. Without justice, the process of healing for the victims cannot begin, but without
compassion justice is equally vindictive.
Inspired by African culture where the integrity of community is imperative, perhaps
the church in Africa can attempt other approaches towards dealing with the issue, apart
from the exclusively legalistic one up to now applied in the Western churches. The
legalistic approach emphasizes justice; the African communitarian approach combines
both justice and compassion. Let me briefly explore this option.
From the African communitarian perspective, pedophilia as a crime touches one of
the most central elements of the community. In hurting vulnerable children, it puts the
future existence of the community in jeopardy. This should be clear in the context of
the church. How can the church remain a healthy community of love if its most vulnerable members are hurt from within? When the guardians of the community go astray,
as Juvenal the Roman satirist asked, “Quis custodiet ipsos custodes?” (Who will guard
the guards themselves?) In response, Plato in Socrates’ The Republic said that we must
convince the guards of a “noble lie,” that “they will guard themselves against themselves.”
But that’s just what it is – a noble lie. As the crime of pedophilia has shown, the guards
must also be guarded by others against themselves.
15
174
Anthony Kosnik, et al., Human Sexuality (New York: Paulist Press, 1977), 185.
First of all, those responsible must try to detect the problem of pedophilia at the
source, that is, in those applying to prepare for the priesthood. Sciences such as psychology should be of help here. But honestly, this expertise is rare in Africa, as few
people have been trained in it, especially in the Catholic Church. And even those who
have, are trained in Western psychology which cannot be applied indiscriminately in
the African context.
For pedophile and ephebophile priests, a process of purification must take place,
and this, in my opinion, will happen only when the “Council of Elders” in the form of the
Parish Council (in a parish) or a “Circle of Sages” (in other situations, such as schools) is
empowered to play its proper role in the parish, school, orphanage, and so on, not as
an extension of clerical authority, but as guardians of the Christian community. Present
structures, where decisions in this matter must come from the bishop, cannot address
this issue quickly enough or adequately enough when it happens. People who are in
a position to actually know their priest are the parishioners or the priests’ immediate
coworkers. Can they, through their Parish Council or Circle of Sages, advice, reprimand,
and even censure an offending priest? This now seems to be imperative.
Although the church has up to now not dared to put this structurally into practice,
many official documents of the Church since Vatican II have consistently reiterated it. The
“Final Message” of the Second Special Assembly for Africa of the Synod of Bishops, the
Second African Synod of 2009, affirms the role of the laity in these touching words:
This Synod turns with deep affection to the lay faithful of Africa. You are the Church of God
in the market place of society. It is in and through you that the life and witness of the Church
are made visible to the world. You therefore share the mandate of the Church to be “ambassadors for Christ” working for reconciliation of people to God and among themselves. This
requires of you to allow your Christian faith to permeate every aspect and facet of your lives;
in the family, at work, in the professions, in politics and public life.16
What control mechanism will there be for these Councils or Circles? This is an important question to which answers must be sough when they are established. No one
should discount some problems the structural empowerment of the laity may cause,
including false accusations against innocent priests, divisions in the parish for and against
a particular priest, and so on. Anyone who has been in parish ministry anywhere in
Africa for any length of time will be familiar with the existence of “wagging tongues”
there. But this is also the case, of course, in the wider society, given human sinfulness.
Malice is also very much part of the church. Yet, even if no approach is foolproof, at least
this one has the benefit of transparency and accountability to the people immediately
affected by the leader’s behavior. Concerning our structures and procedures, we in the
Catholic Church in Africa must learn to think outside the traditional “box” handed to
us from the West. For instance, without at all implying that the Catholic Church should
adopt wholesale the practice in some Protestant communities of hiring and firing their
pastors, there is something to be said for it. Again, I need to emphasize that this would
not solve every problem: there are child molesters in these denominations even with
this system in place. All I am saying is that it is a good way, completely lacking in the
Catholic Church, to encourage integrity and accountability among the pastors to those
they serve.
16
Second African Synod, “Final Message” n 22.
175
Laurenti Magesa
C
onclusion: Sexual abuse of minors by clergy is no longer a problem that can
be swept under the rug, even in the Catholic Church in Africa. It must be
confronted squarely. The elders were not wrong who warned that “When you
notice your neighbor’s beard is on fire, you better get some water by yours.” Clerical
sexual abuse has rocked the Catholic Church in many parts of the world. Is the African
church completely immune to the problem? This may not be the time to go hunting, as
if everything was alright in the house.
Bibliography
Blanchette, Melvin C. and Coleman, Gerald D., “Priest Pedophiles,” in America, April 22, 2002.
Guindon, Andre. The Sexual Language. Ottawa: The University of Ottawa Press, 1976.
Guindon, Andre. The Sexual Creators. Lanham: University of America Press, 1986.
Kosnik Anthony, et al., Human Sexuality.New York: Paulist Press, 1977.
Rossetti, Stephen J. “The Catholic Church and Child Sexual Abuse,” in America, April 22, 2002.
Second Vatican Ecuminical Council, “Decree on Ecumenism (Unitatis Redintegratio).” In Vatican
Council II: The Conciliar and Post Conciliar Documents, ed. Austin Flannery, 456-560. Dublin:
Dominican Publications, 1975.
176
Cultural Implications of Single Motherhood: An Attempt at
Comprehension in the Light of Feminist Theology
Chikere Ugwuanyi, SJ *
A
bstract: The reality of single motherhood is all glaring that it does not require a
formal affirmation. What needs an immediate clarification is whether any woman
living alone with a child should be qualified as a ‘single mother’? De facto, yes: they
are mothers without a partner. But in most cases, they are “unmarried mothers”: women
who have children out of marriage setup, or whose earlier marriage(s) has broken up.
These women are not the object of our study. They have been there all along, and their
joys and sorrows are best discussed under the umbrella of “single parenthood”. In the
strict sense that will be used in this article, single mothers are women who decided, under
certain circumstances not to marry, AND to raise a family of their own.1 These women
make such decisions within the general scheme of life choices, and live the consequences
within the society.
While some of the reasons leading to such decisions will be highlighted, the core of
this article is to address the cultural implications of such a resolution. One of the cultural
dilemmas comes to fore when a child of such circumstance starts his/her own rites of passage. The rite of marriage of the child poses a particular problem to the single mother in
certain cultures: she must find a way of “marring herself” before her child could proceed
to a culturally approved marriage. This article does a case study of this self marriage in
the Gikuyu (popularly called Kikuyu) culture of Kenya; and then employs the tools of
feminist theology to interpret it for the Christian faith in Africa.
I
ntroduction: Many African societies practiced, and some still practice, woman-to-
woman marriage.2 Woman-to-woman marriage refers to the marriage institution
whereby a lady marries another lady and assumes control over her and her offspring.
All rites of marriage are observed; and all conventions of divorce in the society apply.3
Different reasons are advanced to justify this kind of union but we shall not go into them
in this essay.4 Our interest, however, is in a new type of woman to woman marriage;
but in this case, the woman ties the knot with herself. For want of another appropriate
vocabulary for this phenomenon, I shall call it “woman-to-herself marriage”.
Some clarifications are important to put certain questions at rest and position this
reflection properly. (1) In the popular culture, there is no difference between a ‘single
lady’ who is not yet married after a certain age, a ‘single parent’, and a ‘single mother’.
1
Jane Mattes, Single Mothers by Choice: A Guidebook for Single Women who are Considering or have
Chosen Motherhood (New York: Three Rivers Press, 1997), 243pp.
2
Regina Smith Oboler, Women, Power, and Economic change: the Nandi of Kenya (California: Stanford University Press, 1985), 133. See p.273 for the main reason why women-to-women marriage is important
for women empowerment.
3
M J. Herskovits, “A Note on Woman Marriage in Dahomey”, in Africa 10 (3, 1937), 335.
4
For full discussion, see Beth Greene, “The Institution of Woman-Marriage in Africa: A Cross-Cultural
Analysis” in Ethnology (Vol. 37, No. 4, Fall 1998), 395-412.
*
Chikere is a final year theology student at Hekima College. He is from Nigeria Jesuit.
177
Chikere Ugwuanyi, SJ
But for academic purposes, we distinguish them as follows. A single lady is the same
as a spinster. The opposite of a bachelor. The fact that one is not married at certain age
does not remove her from being a single lady. ‘A single parent’ could be male or female.
It simply means that his/her spouse is absent from the upbringing of the child. A single
mother is defined as “a woman who decided to have or adopt a child, knowing she would
be her child’s sole parent....”5 (2) The reality of self proclaimed single motherhood in
Africa is still very recent. Sociological studies will be important to describe it and marshal out the basic facts and forms. Efforts could also be made to study its implication
for the African family structures, economic dynamism and human right issues. I have
decided not to take these obvious routes. This is because from the African theological
perspective, while these studies are vital for contextualization, they do not preclude an
African God-talk on this reality.
(3) I must confess that when I started the field study for this article, I was interested
in apprehending the social reality of single mothers. After a couple of interviews, I was
able to discern that most of those the society calls ‘single mothers’ are actually ‘single
parent’. In the light of this clarification, I focused on real single motherhood and on a
particular culture. Even though many single mothers were interviewed for this work,
for formal and stylistic purposes, the report focuses on one person6 whose narrative
explains most of the dynamics important for the purpose of this study. After the narrative from the field, the paper shall attempt a feminist theological explanation cum
implications of this practice.
Part One: Field Studies About the Practice
When the she goat is chewing the cord, the kid may be watching
It was 15hrs15 when Maisha7 returned. She excused herself for being a little bit
late; and thanked me for waiting. Since two of us knew pretty well the subject of this
exchange, she started off talking.
“I want to give you the reason why I performed that ceremony. But before I do
that, let me give you a little background information about my family” she started. And
then continued: “My grandfather had five wives. One of the wives was a woman who
had been married by another woman. But when my grandfather became interested in
her, he went and returned the dowry the other woman had paid. She packed off her
things and came to my grandfather’s house with a son she bore for the woman-husband.
But as the custom would have it, the son had to belong to my grandfather because
he has returned the dowry”. At this point I interjected: ‘does it mean that the dowry
is sufficient for claiming ‘ownership’ of a child?’ She replied in the affirmative. “This is
because, technically, a woman’s child belongs to whoever has paid her dowry. And if
no one pays a dowry, the children of a single mother would belong to her father who
will now claim a dowry on the grandchild”.
5
This definition comes from “Single Mothers by Choice” website. This association was founded in
1981 by Jane Mattes. Her book on Single mothers is excellent for the issues involved in this decision. The
emphasis is from the website. See http://www.singlemothersbychoice.com/ (Accessed on 11/02/2011).
6
She is a Gikuyu (popularly called Kikuyu because of the colonial mispronunciation) woman.
Gikuyu is one of the ethnic groupings in Kenya.
7
Not her real name. I have changed it to protect her identity. My choice of this Kiswahili name
which means ‘Life’ is significant in this essay. Jesus has come to give life in full (Jn 10:10).
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Cultural Implications of Single Motherhood: An Attempt at Comprehension in the Light of Feminist Theology
Pre-ceremony Preparations
Having given this background information, Maisha went on to tell me why she had
to go and pay her own dowry: She has two children, a girl born in 1972 and a boy
born four years later. One day, her girl came home and told her that she is planning on
getting married with her long-time fiancé. She already has the plans and dates of her
marriage at hand. Maisha was happy about this; but something has to be done to clear
the way for the daughter’s big step in life. Since nobody has ever paid Maisha’s dowry,
she has to go and do it herself otherwise her parents will lay claim to the dowry of her
daughter. As an educated person, she would not want her daughter and her fiancé to
go through that ‘long way’.8 She is comfortable and would desired that the marriage
ceremonies of her daughter to be in her home, among her friends and associates.
In order to do ‘her part’, she smartly went to her uncle in the village. She used an
indirect narrative to present the problem to her uncle. The uncle gave his disinterested
candid opinion; and she left back to the Nairobi. After some weeks, she went back to the
uncle and told him that she is the one who actually wanted to perform the ceremony.
But she still hides from him the underlying reason why she wants to do it at that moment – the fact that her own daughter is planning to get married. The uncle called her
blood brother (the parents are dead) and they discussed what could be done. Because
of the relationship between her and her uncle, the uncle cautioned the brothers and
the women of the household ‘not to exaggerate things’. The uncle also reasoned that
she should not be unduly troubled because she wanted to respect this cultural requirement of her own accord.
After the discussions, things were agreed on and she came back to prepare. Part
of the preparation is to get the resources ready. In Kikuyu culture, the bride-wealth
could be as high as ninety goats. But in modern economy, it will be converted into
cash. In her case, a goat was pegged at two-thousand shillings. They told her to bring
ten. Part of the requirements is the things ‘for the women’ – that is, the wives of his
brothers and uncles.
Traditionally, the things for the women should be provided by the mother of the
groom and it is given to mother of the bride. In her case, because she is the groom, she
had to provide it herself; but the wives of his brothers and uncles remain the mother
of the bride. She bought sugar, wheat flour, maize meals and all types of food items.
They have to be shared by all women concerned. The reason for the items is to help the
bride family cook properly for the groom’s family during the ceremony. The excesses
are considered to be a ‘payment’ for the women’s labour of hospitality.
Part of the preparations is also to get someone to ‘talk on her behalf’. Even though
everybody is aware that no person is actually coming to marry her, customarily, she
cannot negotiate her own dowry. She had to beg some friends to be negotiators. She
got a man who discussed the dowry with men; and a woman who talked about the
items with the women. It has to be recalled that all the items to be charged had be
previously and secretly agreed on, but one must pretend to negotiate things on the day
of the ceremony. As she puts it; “that is the custom”. She got two excellent people.
8
A process whereby a prospective couple who have cultural barriers to their formal marriage decides
to begin a family. With the presence of children, the cultural problem is suspended but not resolved. It crops
up if there are other cultural activities in the couple’s life, for example, during the rites of passage.
179
The Ceremony Proper
On the day of the ceremony, she went with more friends who were to form the
crowd that goes to marriage ceremonies as witnesses to the event. These friends might
have chipped in some resources to help the ‘groom’ and ‘his’ family. She went to the
ceremony with twenty thousand shillings in cash to represent the goats. There were
about eight crates of carbonated drinks, some crates of beer and a traditional drink
specifically for the uncle. The uncle represented her father, and he used the traditional
drink to bless her. After the ‘negotiations’ had taken place, and all parties agreed on
what is to be paid, she brought out those things she came with and presented them.
They were accepted. Then, the uncle took the traditional drink, sipped a little and spat
it on his chest; placed his hands on her and blessed her. With this blessing, Maisha has
paid her dowry.
I was fascinated by the rituals and wanted to know their deeper meaning. First,
I asked her why she did not get married as she clearly knows that, according to the
custom, her dowry must be paid someday, somehow and by someone. This question
is a bit personal, but I thought it will help me get to the roots of this practice and why
she decided to do it. At this moment, she opened up about her love life and childhood
dreams. She told me that she grew up in the village. One of her neighbour was a young
boy who had been a childhood friend. They had been friends long before puberty and
maturity and their friendship was known to both families. Everybody was simply waiting
for the formalisation of the relationship. Just after school, she got a job as a secretary.
He got a job as an accountant. Few days later, she discovered she was pregnant. She
told him; and he was apparently very supportive. He only postponed the solemnization
of the relationship because he would love to sort out housing so that they could live
in a more decent place. And the rest is now history.
Don’t Set Loose your Father’s Goats
But that history was a devastating one. It was more devastating when she discovered that she is with another child for the same man. She is now turning to a proper
Gichokio – a woman having children without proper marriage. Then I asked her how
she got strength to take those life decisions to remain single? In response, she told me
that during those troubled moment, she recollected how God has been kind to her all
lifelong. She remembers her childhood experiences of poverty and hardship; and how
God guided her through them to where she was then. In effect, she was convinced
that the strength she had at that time was all surpassing. The strength came from two
things. When she was given the test result of the second pregnancy, she prayed to
God that if her man does not do anything; and the baby in her womb is a boy, she
will have nothing to do with marriage again. She prayed “God give me a boy and I
will never ask you for another husband”.9 So, when she went to his office to tell her
boyfriend about the second pregnancy, she was already convinced that the child was
going to be a boy.
Secondly, before the second pregnancy her employer, a muzugu from the Netherlands, noticed how her eyes had turned red, but not knowing that it was from long night
of cries because of deceptions of her lover, sent her to an optician. After the examina9
In a way, if the child is a boy, he will be ‘the husband’ of the mother. This is a way of saying that
a male child represents the full marriage of a woman.
180
tions, the doctor (another muzungu) told her that her eyes are OK and encouraged her
to open up on the root cause of the red-eye. She broke down in his office and narrated
her life story. At the end, he told her: ‘Lady, it is time you stand up and be counted.
That man is not worthy of you! As you are killing yourself and destroying your future,
he is enjoying himself’. Thus, the promise she made to God and the hope that promise
inspired, and the words of the optician made her to come home and wait for her child
with serenity. After nine months. She had her son.
Such a personal journey of love and betrayal forced me to ask her why she still
felt obligated to go and perform the dowry ceremony. She gave three reasons. First,
having your daughter married off is like climbing a social ladder in the Kikuyu culture.
Ordinarily, those whose daughters are still at home are considered mothers of teenagers. But when one’s daughter(s) get married, one moves to the social ladder of elderly
women of the society. Currently, she is one of the elderly women of the society; and
a lot of respect and honour is accrued from this status. Secondly, doing that ceremony
is a way of opening up the cultural resources for her daughter to get married properly.
In the cultural milieu, her daughter can only get married ‘properly’ if she is able to give
her the parental blessing as required. In her case, she cannot give this blessing if she
has not received it herself. Therefore, performing the dowry ceremony empowered her
to give her daughter the best starting in her marriage – the parental blessing. The third
reason is simple and straightforward. “I want to be right with the culture”.
When I asked her what she meant by that, she delved into another Kikuyu cultural
practice. She told me about this culture with her own personal experience: In the Kikuyu
culture, every girl is supposed to get married. There are no alternatives. She remembers
her mother telling her to ‘sit properly like a woman so that she will not set loose her
father’s goats’. Setting loose one’s father’s goats by improper sitting means that if a girl
exposes her private parts by careless sitting, she will not get a husband because people
will consider her as a loose girl. And not getting a husband means that one’s father
will not get the goats of dowry. Though her lack of a marriage partner is not caused by
her waywardness, she still remembers that caution of the mother. By performing this
ceremony, she would be giving to the father his ‘goats’.
On Cultural Values, Feminism and Faith
Looking at those three reasons, I asked her if she feels ultimately better off now that
she has performed the dowry ceremony. She responded in the affirmative. She feels she
has done what every Kikuyu woman should do: bring to her family some dowry wealth;
have some children; give her daughter(s) out in marriage and properly bless her. In this
way, she is living a ‘worthy’ life and will be respected by the customs and traditions.
In this response, one could say that she has empowered/enhanced life: setting all the
social structures around her at peace and being at peace with herself.
However, I pressed on with the feminist questions: I posed her the three fold feminist questions: where are women in this ceremony? Who ultimately benefited from this
ceremony? Do you think that women are better off with or without the ceremony? “I
think it is an injustice on women”, she started. Her reasons are that nobody asks why
a man that is not married would be left without offering a dowry to any family of his
choice. If one says that a girl’s family must receive her dowry, it should also be that a
boy must pay a dowry somewhere. In this case, the girl’s part is insisted on; while the
181
boy’s part is ignored. In the ceremony proper, the men got everything; or the significant
things. They got the beers, the traditional drink and the money equivalent of the goats.
The women got the food items which will likely be cooked at home for everyone to
eat. The women were doing the cooking and other stuff, while the men waited for the
food and chatted away drinking.
It is also an injustice because there is a curse that follows a woman who receives
her own daughter’s dowry without allowing her family to receive hers. This curse could
fall on her or on her daughter. Nothing is said about the men and many of them are
actually living in ‘irregular’ marriages – that is, marriages that have not started/completed
dowries. More so, there is no other way a woman can get the blessings she will give to
her daughter except through the ceremonies of the dowry. For men, they are the giver
of the blessings and they do not need to get the authority from another person. If a
woman was married, and her husband is around, he will ordinarily give the blessing to
their daughter. And even if he is no more, she can give the blessing because she will
be acting on his behalf.
Thus she thinks that women are not better off with the ceremony. When I asked her
how it can be stopped so that women will be empowered and made equal with men;
she provided two striking answers. First, the mzee (a male elder) who knows and can
insist on the thorough ceremonies are dying off. Most men these days do not know the
full details of the ceremony of a woman coming to pay her own dowry. Even for the
normal marriage dowries, a lot of men are ignorant of the details. So, it is possible that
in future, women could do so little during the ceremony. It will be more of a sign or
gesture. Secondly, the current generation (she points to me to refer to my generation)
does not really care about whatever their parents think. They are not willing to listen
to anyone and they are not even too eager to receive or give blessings.
She remembered vividly how a girl came to inform her parents that she is thinking
of getting married with her fiancé. On the day she was informing her parents about their
intention, she gave them dates and marriage ceremonies they were willing to perform.
There was no room for the parents to object either to the marriage or to the selected
ceremonies. Thus, for the young generations; they have their own preoccupations and
ideals. The much the parents can do is to accept their propositions, give some suggestions and wait if those advices will be taken. For these two reasons, woman-to-herself
marriage will die a natural death in the near future.
Faith in Action
At the end of the chat, seeing two big Bibles on the coffee table where I kept the
tea that I was sipping, I asked her what her Christian faith says about the whole dowry
ceremony. For her, the Christian faith had nothing to tell her about the ceremony when
she did it. But presently, she is better informed. According to her understanding of the
Bible, bride-wealth (she referred to the book of Ruth in the Bible) should be a gift from
the marrying families. In Kikuyu culture, it is not a gift as such. It is a requirement. It
must be done.
However, being a member of Christian Basic Community in the Catholic Church,
and belonging to a Bible reading group, she would still perform the ceremony but with
certain nuances. She would not have gone with beers. She would have given them the
182
money and they could make the conscious decision of whether they want to buy beer
or used the money for a different thing. More so, reading the Gospels has given her
different leverage of reference other than Kikuyu culture. She has a better understanding of her membership of the Christian community.
Having narrated this encounter with Maisha, I asked myself what are the unsaid in
this ceremony; and how a feminist theologian would interpret it. To these questions,
I now turn.
Part two: Attempt at a Theological Explanation Cum Implications of this Practice
Using the Feminist Theological Approach
In this section, my reflection will take this shape: First, I will provide some possible interpretation of this ceremony. Secondly, I will discuss the implications of such
ceremony for the theological liberation movement which takes women experiences as
the starting point in theological reflection. Thirdly, I will suggest ways of addressing
this issue using the example of Jesus and the Samaritan woman in the Fourth Gospel.
I must add that the method of feminist theology is the main focus here, not the results
or the intentions.
Possible Interpretation of this Ceremony
In an effort to be free in a society and culture that still insist on marriage, women
marry themselves. By performing the marriage ceremonies, they ‘settle’ their families.
But could one really call this practice marriage? Jimmy Barrentine says that “Scripture
defines marriage as a faithful, lifelong covenant between a man and a woman. That is
a value that believers are not free to dismiss.”10 And Benignor Blanco continued, “If
everything is marriage then nothing is marriage.”11 But some more cultural conscious
people would put a caveat to the above categorical statements.
John Shelby Spoke, while speaking about same-sex marriage had this to say, “We
are in a transition between a new consciousness and old definitions. The new consciousness will win but as with every human struggle to emerge from ignorance, there will
be casualties long after the issue are decided.”12 Finally, those who have completely
moved the goal post would wonder why people are squabbling about marriage that is
a two person affair. Stew says, “I guess I just don’t understand how people can be so
passionately hateful about something that won’t affect their lives one bit”.13 In all the
examples suggested, the case under review is not yet discussed. In a way, one even
wonders how one could start a profitable discussion on this type of marriage in feminist
10
He is the executive director of the Baptist Convention of Iowa, 2007. See www.religioustolerance.
org (Accessed on 13/02/2011).
11
Benigno Blanco is the vice-president of the Spanish Family Forum. http://www.barcelonareporter.
com/index.php?/news/comments/for_women_life_and_motherhood_millions_rallied_in_the_streets_of_
madrid/ (Accessed on 12/02/2011).
12
“Iowa: on the Cutting Edge of Equality” in WakeBoarder April 07, 2009, in http://forums.wakeboarder.com/viewtopic.php?t=81224&start=105&postdays=0&postorder=asc&highlight=&sid=f3cf8ad1c4
7dd1bbda471a46f92e06f8 (Accessed on 18/03/2011).
13
B. A. Robinson, “Marriages and Families in the Bible, Biblical Passages Describing Eight Family/
Marriage Types” in Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance, January 25, 2011, http://www.religioustolerance.org/mar_bibl0.htm (Accessed on 18/03/2011).
183
theology. But since our concern here is about theology, it may be important to look at
possible marriage arrangements in the Bible for possible leeways.
There are about eight different settings/arrangements of marriage in the Bible.
First is the nuclear family. Gen. 2: 24ff presents how a man would leave his family to
get married to a woman, and they would form a couple by the consummation of their
union. Second is the polygamous marriage. It is a situation where a man leaves his first
family and gets married to a first woman. Later on, and with the accord of the wife, he
can add other women to the already established household. In Genesis 4:19, Lamech
was mentioned as having at least two wives.
Third is the Levirate marriage. It is a situation where a brother-in-law marries the
woman because of the death of her husband. In Genesis 38: 6-10, we discover Onan
who marries Tamar because her husband Er has been killed by God for some sinful
deeds. The fourth type of marriage is described in Genesis 16 where Sarah and Abram
were infertile; and since Sarah owned Hagar as a property, Sarah gave Hagar to Abram
as a type of wife. The major difference between this arrangement and polygamous
marriage is the status of Hagar. She was a slave and thus a property of Sarah. However,
she can still bear a heir to Abram which is a unique status. The fifth type of marriage is
concubine. It is the situation where a man with one or many wives keeps other women
as concubines officially. These women are valued less than a wife because they can
be dismissed when they are no longer needed/desired. For example, Rehoboam had
sixty concubines.
The sixth possibility of marriage is when a male soldier captures a female prisoner.
Deuteronomy 21:11-14 describes what happens to women captives after mourning the
death of their families. They are taken as wives of the soldiers who consider them as war
trophies. The seventh possibility of marriage is recorded in Deuteronomy 22: 28-29. It
is a about a male rapist and his virgin victim. The law says that if a virgin is rapped, the
rapist should marry her. In this way, one becomes another’s wife by being his victim.
The final possibility of marriage is between a male and female slave. Exodus 21: 4ff
says that a slave owner can assign his female slave to a male slave as a wife. However,
if the male slave purchases his freedom, he is free to leave his master, but his wife and
children have to remain.
Some clear pictures emerge from all these ways of getting married. The first picture
is that there is no woman-woman marriage, and there is no woman-to-herself marriage.
This could be interpreted that it is only marriages involving men that were taken into
account in biblical records. Another picture noticed from the list is that the consent of
women is regarded as given for all types of marriages. It is only polygamous marriages
that make women participation evident; in that the first wife implicitly have to agree
with her husband to add other women to the household. The final picture that emerges
is that this essay will not benefit from feminist interpretation of any of those types of
getting married. This is because of the unique nature of the issue under discussion. So
I am left on my own.
Implications of Such Ceremony for Feminist Theology
In the light of feminist theology, one should start by acknowledging the ingenuity
of this practice. The rite is a kind of compromise between women experiences and a
184
hostile society that does not fit their situation in culturally liberating ways. What do I
mean? I mean that a woman who engages in woman-to-herself marriage is responding
to a reality which is hers and to which no one has taken into account. Let us go back
to the experience of Maisha to get the point clear. She would have married the monogamous way; and possibly, she would have consented to a polygamous household.
But she did not have the opportunity. She said that the fact that she did not get married
is “a matter of fate”. She wanted to get married; she submitted and suffered all types
of betrayals – as the culture would want her to – to make the marriage possible. But
it did not happen!
However, there are still realities of life which she has to respond to even if she did
not get married in any way. She must give her daughter away in marriage! In cases as
hers, one could say that women do not lack intelligence and pragmatic way of dealing
with issues that affect them. Accepted that women must get married so that their father’s
goats would not be set loose; yet in an event as Maisha’s case, women do not lack intelligence on how to move on. Accepting the injustice of going through the bride-wealth
ceremony is a way of coping with reality. Let me talk specifically about the implications
of this practice for the feminist movement.
If one responds to the three fold question of the feminist theological method, one
would come to similar answers to the one given by Maisha during the interview. If one
asks: Where are women in the dowry ceremony? One finds these answers: They were
betrayed by long time friends. They raised their children alone. They were smart to
think of how to better the lots of their children. They went to consult uncles and brothers. They looked for money. They bought items and the women share were edibles
which will evidently be cooked for the whole family. They are the ones talking over
these unpleasant experiences with an interested person. They are the ones who have
discovered that this practice is essentially an injustice.
When one asks the second question: if the women are there, what is the value of
their participation? One could respond thus: women were doing the odd jobs. Odd in
the sense that they were doing what should only be done by them. Women are always
betrayed in the most traumatic ways. A woman’s infidelity receives greater disapproval
and has more consequences than the men. A woman would have listened to her
parents who wanted her relationship to a long time friend to turn graciously into marriage. Women are helpless because they do not have the authority to give blessing by
themselves. It must be conferred on them by their male elders. During the ceremony
women were overall of less value; and they got less valued items.
Christ Attitude as a Paradigm
Finally if one asks what can be done to make the situation right and stop this injustice
against women; I suggest that the story of the Samaritan woman and Christ on the well
provides an appropriate narrative for this issue. I ignore any feminist interpretation of this
passage. The gospel of John tells this story in a captivating way. I quote at length:
There came a woman of Samar’ia to draw water. Jesus said to her, “Give me a drink.” For his
disciples had gone away into the city to buy food. The Samaritan woman said to him, “How
is it that you, a Jew, ask a drink of me, a woman of Samar’ia?” For Jews have no dealings
with Samaritans. Jesus answered her, “If you knew the gift of God, and who it is that is saying
to you, `Give me a drink,’ you would have asked him, and he would have given you living
185
water.” The woman said to him, “Sir, you have nothing to draw with, and the well is deep;
where do you get that living water? Are you greater than our father Jacob, who gave us the
well, and drank from it himself, and his sons, and his cattle?” Jesus said to her, “Every one
who drinks of this water will thirst again, but whoever drinks of the water that I shall give
him will never thirst; the water that I shall give him will become in him a spring of water
welling up to eternal life.” The woman said to him, “Sir, give me this water, that I may not
thirst, nor come here to draw.” Jesus said to her, “Go, call your husband, and come here.”
The woman answered him, “I have no husband.” Jesus said to her, “You are right in saying,
`I have no husband’; for you have had five husbands, and he whom you now have is not
your husband; this you said truly.” The woman said to him, “Sir, I perceive that you are a
prophet. Our fathers worshiped on this mountain; and you say that in Jerusalem is the place
where men ought to worship.” Jesus said to her, “Woman, believe me, the hour is coming
when neither on this mountain nor in Jerusalem will you worship the Father. You worship
what you do not know; we worship what we know, for salvation is from the Jews.] But the
hour is coming, and now is, when the true worshipers will worship the Father in spirit and
truth, for such the Father seeks to worship him. God is spirit, and those who worship him
must worship in spirit and truth.” The woman said to him, “I know that Messiah is coming
(he who is called Christ); when he comes, he will show us all things.” Jesus said to her, “I
who speak to you am he.” Just then his disciples came. They marvelled that he was talking
with a woman, but none said, “What do you wish?” or, “Why are you talking with her?” So
the woman left her water jar, and went away into the city, and said to the people, “Come,
see a man who told me all that I ever did. Can this be the Christ?” They went out of the city
and were coming to him. (John 4:3-42).
One can safely draw major insights from this narrative. Firstly, that Jesus gives
an eternal life with God (v.14). Secondly, that this ministry is to the outcasts of Jewish society, which indicates that) all people are important to God (v. 7-9). Thirdly,
that Jesus is the Messiah (v. 25-26). Fourthly, that any encounter with Jesus would
always lead to the invitation of others to partake of his immerse liberating power
(v.39). Finally, the importance of water and Jacob’s well. Let me concentrate on two
of these insights. I choose to dwell on the second and the last insight. But first, let
me point this out:
At the background to this story, Jesus was actually leaving the town of Judea because he was avoiding the controversy over his baptism and that of John the Baptist (Jn
4 1-6). Those in authorities are worried about the varieties of modes of baptism; and
they are questioning the best way. Leaving them and their legalistic problems opens a
unique way for Jesus to extend his ministry outside Judea. In our case point, it is wonderful how this woman-to-herself marriage could open up new avenues to understand
the whole societal structure on marriage and how women are victimized. As a striking
reality, we need to open our mind’s eyes to see where God may be leading us to. This
way would seriously lead us to Jesus.
The road Jesus is taking is a road that pious Jews would ordinarily avoid. Jews
would prefer to walk through Jericho to Jerusalem instead of walking through the town
of Samaria – the homes of prejudiced people. Jesus takes this road and even stops over
for a life changing encounter with the woman. Emphasis is usually laid on the fact that
Jesus met a woman; and in a place where women do their society assigned task. I think
that if one pays attention to the route Jesus is using, one will understand that Jesus has
bruised over the prejudices of Jews to walk through the Samaritan town, and that talking with the woman is only an extension of what Jesus had started.
186
There are similarities between the route Jesus is using and our topic. The option of
woman-to-herself marriage is not the regular way. ‘Pius’ people would not opt for that
way. They would rather use more treacherous and types of marriage to gain acceptance in the society: Every woman must make serious effort “not to set loose her father’s
goats”. However, the decision of Jesus to use the route that runs through the Samaritan
town is a sign that Jesus is making a plan to meet someone. The dowry ceremony is
that meeting. In it, women burdened by the society, still want to make things right. They
want to give their daughters the blessing they did not receive. Taking this prejudiced
route of woman-to-herself is taking the route of better encounter with God.
Another important observation is that the spot where Jesus stopped to rest has a
practical and life giving importance. Jesus stopped at Jacob’s well. As the discussion
progressed, the woman testifies to the importance of this well. “The woman said to
him, ‘Sir, you have nothing to draw with, and the well is deep; where do you get that
living water? Are you greater than our father Jacob, who gave us the well, and drank
from it himself, and his sons, and his cattle?’” There is a link of genealogy mentioned
here. ‘Our father Jacob’ brings together all the divisions between the two Israel. There
is also the universal link: Jacob’s sons and cattle drank from the well. By calling on
Jacob, the woman points out the humanity that is shared by all. She shows the unity
and oneness of everybody: men and women, those whose bride wealth was paid by a
man; those who are in a monogamous marriage; or those paying their own dowry. By
calling into mind the link in the universe, the woman recalls the importance of sharing in the wealth of equality of life that every living thing partakes. Every living thing
needs water. Water is life. It brings all things together. Jesus is that water of life. Jesus
brings everything together.
C
onclusion: Jesus’ role in this episode looks very simple, yet radical. The simple
thing he did was to use his basic judgment to choose to walk down a short road
to Jerusalem through Samaria. Jesus would not allow prejudices to make him
take a longer route. The radical thing is that by choosing this route, Jesus open up the
possibility of encounter with a despised people; and with a despised sex; and with a
woman in ‘irregular’ relationship; and with the whole of humanity. The faith response
to this simple but radical step of Jesus would enable us to think differently about the
women involved in any new type/form of slavery; and stop this injustice against women.
I hope that the effort made to investigate the cultural implication of single motherhood
helps to call the conscience to a reflection.
Bibliography
“Iowa: on the Cutting Edge of Equality” in WakeBoarder April 07, 2009, in http://forums.wakeboarder.com/viewtopic.php?t=81224&start=105&postdays=0&postorder=asc&highlight=&
sid=f3cf8ad1c47dd1bbda471a46f92e06f8 (Accessed on 18/03/2011).
Greene, Beth, “The Institution of Woman-Marriage in Africa: A Cross-Cultural Analysis”. Ethnology. Vol. 37, No. 4, Fall 1998
Herskovits, M J. “A Note on Woman Marriage in Dahomey”. Africa 10, Vol. 3, 1937.
187
http://www.barcelonareporter.com/index.php?/news/comments/for_women_life_and_motherhood_millions_rallied_in_the_streets_of_madrid/ (Accessed on 12/02/2011).
http://www.singlemothersbychoice.com/ (Accessed on 11/02/2011).
Mattes, Jane. Single Mothers by Choice: A Guidebook for Single Women who are Considering or
have Chosen Motherhood. New York: Three Rivers Press, 1997.
Oboler, Regina Smith. Women, Power, and Economic change: the Nandi of Kenya. California:
Stanford University Press, 1985.
Robinson, B. A. “Marriages and Families in the Bible, Biblical Passages Describing Eight Family/
Marriage Types” in Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance. January 25, 2011, http://www.
religioustolerance.org/mar_bibl0.htm (Accessed on 18/03/2011).
www.religioustolerance.org (Accessed on 13/02/2011).
188
Sr Anne Achieng, FSJ *
A
bstract: This paper attempts to re-sensitize humanity on the “third gender,”
questioning the appropriateness of the word ‘gender’ in classifying humanity. This
classification on sexuality marginalizes the intersex. The intersexes, despite the fact
that many people treat them as minorities, are still being born. Perhaps God persistently
speaks to us drawing our attention to them. This indicates why Dorra’s statistics is not
irrelevant. Dorra Gerald1 avers that the intersex persons make up 12 % of the worlds’
population. From this perspective, this paper explores society’s motive in neglecting the
intersex. They are not accepted in areas such as sports; marriage, gendered jobs or to
express their identity. It is time they are treated as human beings, created in the image
of God, so that they can experience human dignity in spite of their sexuality.
I
ntroduction: After a three-semester course work in Peace Studies and International
Relations, I embarked on the crucial moment of thesis writing. One of my demographic
variables was gender. Gender is generally marked as either male or female. During the
pretest, the gender meaning of male and female passed an excellent test. Complications
arose in the field when I met an intersex person who confessed that neither of the male
or female options was suitable for the respondent. The person wore trousers and one
could easily mistake him and categorize him as male. I was on the brink of a precipice.
I felt inadequate for considering humanity as male or female other than human beings.
I wondered whether there were other options than the male- female grouping.
In the depth of my heart, I wondered what God was trying to tell me. Is it proper to
categorize people as male and female only? Is this categorization the cause of prejudice
and stereotypes on gender, non-gendered or the double gendered? Did God intend
this when He created the human person? Are we justified when we classify humanity
in terms of gender? Would it be right to consider ourselves as human beings other than
as the “weaker sex” (female), the “stronger sex” (male)? In this case where would the
intersexes fall? Weaker sex? Stronger sex? Both? Middle way?
From this encounter, I decided to venture into discovering more of who the intersexuals are. Consequently, this paper will primarily discuss the intersexes. This will refer to
the intersexes that are biologically born this way and not the transgendered individuals.
“Intersex” is a general term used for a variety of conditions in which a person is born
with a reproductive or sexual anatomy that does not seem to fit the typical definitions
of female or male. For example, a person might be born appearing to be female on the
outside, but having mostly male-typical anatomy on the inside or vice versa.2
1
2
*
Dorra, G, Intersex and Gender (Ontario: Grewtons, 2008), 157.
Alice D. Drega, The Hastings Center Report 28, 3 (May/Jun 1998), 24-35.
Sr Anne is second year student in the Institute of Peace Studies and International Relations,
Hekima College. She comes from Kenya and is a member of the congregation of Franciscans
of Saint Joseph.
189
Sr Anne Achieng, FSJ
But what exactly is the difference between transgender, transsexuals and intersex?
People who are identified as transgender or transsexual are usually born with typical male
or female anatomies but feel as though they have been born into the “wrong body.” For
example, a person who identifies as transgender or transsexual may have typical female
anatomy but feel like a male and seek to become male by taking hormones or electing
to have sex reassignment surgeries3. The study will not focus on the transgendered
persons but the intersex as key.
The pain of being born different
In the profound sense, Intersex has always been within societies from primordial
time. However, human beings have traditionally been associated with repression of intersex identity. They have treated the intersex with contempt. Some inhumanly reckon
the intersex to be akin to curses and are eager to examine if the person truly has what
they call deformity. But this sophistry is plainly cruel. Let us now try to understand the
pain the intersex undergo in the traditional sense.
Traditionally, the concept of an intersex person is usually characteristically an idea
that is pushed into the unconscious. In my culture where I happened to be conducting the research, the intersex persons are known as “dhoch”. A name rarely spoken of
except in whispers due to the stigma it is associated with. They are mythologized as
a premonition of a bad omen to the family and community in which they are born. A
plethora of treatment is accorded to this third gender. These include name calling such
as the queer sexes, abnormal sexes and anomalous sexes. They are stigmatized people,
stereotyped persons who rarely go public on their sexual nature. They undergo a lot
of rejection, ridicule and scorn within the community, at school, in social spaces and
within the family. The intersex may risk being admitted in neither girls nor boys schools
for no apparent reason. Their parents, more often than not, hide the truth from them
when they are children. Their condition is shielded by their parents from community
to protect them against abuse and ridicule until adulthood. It is a dilemma when such
discoveries are made later in life.
Children born in town hospitals may be given a particular gender through surgery.
However, those born in the rural areas, where proximity to a health facility is far, grow
up as intersex persons. Nevertheless, many intersex individuals have resented the medical intervention. Some have been so discontented with their surgically assigned gender
as to opt for sexual reassignment surgery later in life. Many human rights groups lobby
against such an “assignment”, which is often a permanent surgical performance. The
Declaration of Montreal of July 20064 first demanded prohibition of unnecessary postbirth surgery to reinforce gender assignment until a child is old enough to understand
and give informed consent. This was detailed in the context of existing United Nations
(UN) declarations and conventions under Principle 18 of The Yogyakarta Principles,
which called on states to:
a. Take all necessary legislative, administrative and other measures to ensure that no
child’s body is irreversibly altered by medical procedures in an attempt to impose
a gender identity without the full, free and informed consent of the child in ac3
Huerst Peter, The Marginalized Absent Voices, the Third Gender (Utrecht: Srijsell Publications,
2007), 15.
4
190
Montreal declaration of July 26th 2006 in Yogykarta.
cordance with the age and maturity of the child and guided by the principle that
in all actions concerning children, the best interests of the child shall be a primary
consideration.
b. Establish child protection mechanisms whereby no child is at risk of, or subjected
to, medical abuse.5
Contrasting the above view, Lou Kennedy, in notorious Traditional Values Coalition,
argues that there is no intersex gender, and that doctors should be allowed to genitally
mutilate intersex babies to make them one «gender» or the other, even if that causes
future hardship to the child. Lou and those who hold this view should understand that
such decisions make a come back on the child. At a later stage when the child struggles to be gendered, decisions made on their behalf may not augur well with their sex
choices later in life.6 The crux of the debate seems to depend on which of the two
perspectives you choose to qualify the other. This debate implies that an egalitarian
interpretation of the two perceptions is very difficult to settle on. On the contrary, it
strongly suggests that the intersex group is still a unique phenomenon in our world. The
world community has not fully accepted the intersex. Regardless of the superciliousness of the world community in acknowledging the intersex, there is an iota of hope
in slowly but painstakingly embracing the intersex.
A Grudging Acceptance of the Intersex
There has been a persistent outcry that the global community similarly treats the
intersex with suspicion. This is majorly done if they do not fall into the “normal” classification of gender. A good and recent example is that of Semenya. In 2009, the South
African world champion middle distance 400m and 800m runner, Caster Semenya, was
questioned about her gender. This was based on her somewhat masculine features.
There had been intense speculation about Caster Semenya being intersex. Semenya,
who was raised since birth as a girl, underwent gender identification tests. Her treatment by the sporting community and the media had itself been the subject of debate
in the world media7fraternity. The sexuality tests she was subjected to were described
as humiliating genital photography.
Palang’o S, alarmed by such humiliation, argues that Semenya had the talent, and
that gender had nothing to do with the controversy. The tests proved she had breasts,
no womb or ovaries, and testosterone levels that are three times higher than most
women.8 The test results verified that Semenya was an intersex. Eventually she was
allowed to return to international women’s running competitions. The sex-segregated
sports require that one has to figure out in essence, what makes a man and what makes
a woman. Generally, this verification is not simple. In fact, the world athletics body has
given up on what was once called “gender verification” by admitting Semenya back. In
many cases, there is no rational way to decide whether a person should count as male
or female. Semenya is not alone, there are many intersexes out there that can not be
admitted or given opportunities in employment fields, religious environments, political
5
6
7
8
UNHCR, The Yogyakarta Principles, International Commission of Jurists (2008).
Lou Kennedy, Wrecking the Boat of Gender (Venice: Pace Publications, 2009), 87.
Feder M., Why We Need a stronger Gender Identity (New York: Hass Press, 2009), 22.
Palang’o S, Intersex, the Neglected Minority (California: Treet Press, 2010), 47.
191
echelons, development sectors and other professional and social spaces, simply because
they are intersexed.
Should human beings be judged and determined by their sexuality other than their
humanity? Defenders of the gender practice argue that it is necessary for individuals to
be clearly identified as male or female in order for them to function socially. Those who
oppose this view argue that people should be allowed the freedom to be what they
have been created to be, and this in simple terms is that we are human beings.9
In the last 15 years, discussions revolving around intersex have increasingly moved
beyond the medical/biological realm and taken growing prominence in gender studies, within social movements, and in the socio-cultural realm. This shift was highly
promoted by social movement organizations (SMOs) that have arisen to address various issues related to intersex. The SMOs, encouraged by some academics in the social
sciences and the humanities, began to address intersex advocacy in social movement
terms and spaces10. These start ups have not gained the impetus needed to cause a
squall of change in the world. As a result, people who identify as intersex continue to
face discrimination. Do they deserve equality from the human rights insight? The human rights body has not maximized their efforts in advocating for this minority group
for world identification.
Theories of gender based on sexuality often fell short of capturing the realities of
the intersex lives. According to Palang’o S, it is difficult for the intersex to settle into a
gendered world. However, activists against classification on gender aver that the very
concept of gender for intersex people is oppressive to them11. Others like Panda Midhiero, whom I met during my data collection process, have decided to identify as a third
gender and go public about it. But third gender or no gender, the fact is that intersex
individuals, by virtue of a condition that often impacts the primary human physical
characteristics associated with gender and sexuality, often walk confusing, challenging
and lonely journeys through life. They are in many occasions not fully accepted and at
times considered not fully normal. Why will human persons because of their sexuality
albeit their rationality be considered not normal?
What Makes Us “Normal”?
What is the essence of a human person? What makes us “female” or “male,” “girls”
or “boys,” “women” or “men”? Is it our chromosomes, our genitalia or our socialization? One of the first responses to the birth of a child of ambiguous sex by clinicians,
and parents, is to seek to “disambiguate” the situation. The doctor and the parent(s) try
and assign the newborn’s identity as either female or male. They surgically modify the
child’s genitalia to conform believably to that sex identity, and provide other medical
treatment (such as hormones) to reinforce the gender decided upon.12
Feder argues that the assumptions that underlie efforts to “normalize” intersexual
individuals and the ethics of “treatment” merit closer examination than they generally
9
Huerst, The Marginalized Absent Voices, the Third Gender, 17.
Turner, Preeves, and Greenber, “Intersex People: Disordered or Different?” in Susan. S. (2009,
Chicago: IGI), 30.
11
Palang’o S, Intersex, the Neglected Minority, 51.
12
Alice D. Drega, The Hastings Center Report May/Jun 1998, Volume 28, Issue 3 Page 37.
10
192
receive pragmatically. He wonders how often physicians find themselves unsure which
gender to assign a child at birth?13 This is supported by Aghor’s gynecology text which
estimates that “in approximately 1 in 500 births, the sex is doubtful because of the
external genitalia.”14 So, what is it that determines the actual gender: the genitalia, the
chromosomal balance or the social construction?
Following Semenya’s gender search, abounding arguments developed that she
should sue the world’s athletics body; others thought she should not be allowed in the
female category. Some argued that the male category would be unfair to her. The world
athletics body was caught up in the societal construct of male and female phenomenon.
Semenya in the actual sense was being asked to fit into the majority “normal” social
construct because the minority group gave the impression of being abnormal.
In all this debate, what is the Church’s position on the intersex persons? What
do they consider as “normal”? In this debate, Christians have had a hard time dealing
with the concept of the intersex. Most of them simply do not know how to deal with
it. The fact that the phenomenon is not inscribed in church documents like catechism
books or the canon law, many Christians are skeptical in addressing the issue. What
stands out among Christians is the tendency to ignore the issue whenever it comes up
in debates.15
In addition, because of legal loopholes in international bodies concerning intersex
laws, states and international bodies’ amendments that define intersex are negligible,
depending on how the state chooses to define the concepts16. Consequently, the intersexes have been abandoned in their limbo of abnormal species. Thus, an innocent
minority is oppressed because of an issue that is not necessarily directly related to their
wellbeing. Even their God-given talents are pigeonholed according to functionality and
roles as male and female and not necessarily as humanity.
Functionality or Role Playing?
In my culture, gender connotes the functionality of male and female and the different unique roles placed on them by the community. Modern society has placed a litmus
paper upon people and the way in which they relate to one another based on function.
The secularistic criteria have become common place in the way our society thinks of
people. Functionality now determines our dignity. If we still categorize according to
roles and functionality, then roles have changed over time and what male did before
can now be done by female and vice versa. Are we not more than just persons who
can function in this way or that way?
This notion is highly contrasted by the Church. The Church in deviating from the
secular perception of people as functionalities holds that, human dignity is much more
than mere functionality. We are called to confront the secularistic notion of functionality
as the standard of human dignity and work to let a true notion of human dignity take
its rightful place. So, what is that basis of human dignity?
13
14
15
16
Feder, M, Why We Need a Stronger Gender Identity, 55.
Alice D. Drega, The Hastings Center Report May/Jun 1998, Volume 28, Issue 3 Page 40.
Palang’o S, Intersex, the Neglected Minority, 67.
Wyne, B., Intersex: A Dilemma of the Gendered Society (New York: Leuss Bros, 2007), 211.
193
The image of God
The story of creation in Genesis (Gen.2:28) refers to creation of humanity in the
image of God. What does being made in the image of God entail? It means that we
reflect in some fashion the image of God and the nature of the divine. In this creation
story, God creates the cosmos in an explosion of generosity and diversity. He gives
rise to myriad plants, animals, planets, stars, angels and human beings. He designed all
to reflect some aspect of his own splendor. Everything He created was very good. Of
paramount importance here is that we are fully human in our natural state and reflect
the image of God. Saint Irenaeus in affirming this visualization of humanity in the image
of God states that the glory of God is man fully alive, and the life of man is the vision
of God. Saint Irenaeus wanted to situate the true value of man and was careful to note
the intrinsic dignity of man.Given the above significance, all humanity manifests the
beauty of God’s masterpiece, modeled after His image reflecting the harmony of the
Triune God.
From our Christian Catechism, we learned that God is Trinity, three persons in
one God. We also learned that Jesus Christ is God become man. In the same way, we
mirror the reality of Jesus’ incarnation in our humanity by being made in the image of
God. In his first encyclical, The Redeemer of Man, Pope John Paul II said that not only
do we find meaning to our lives, in relationships, but we can also find the true meaning of ourselves in the incarnation17. Consequently, John Paul II helps us delve into
understanding of ourselves as humans are God’s people. He also tells us that just as
the Trinity is fully ordered and defined, so also a human person is fully ordered and
defined despite their sex.
The Trinity also portrays that just as God is a community of loving persons, so we
are called to live in the same relational community of love18. In this kind of a relationship we can fully find the meaning that God intends us to have by our creation in his
image. In this meaning, there is no discrimination on functionality, on roles, on gender
or on sexuality. What is of supreme prominence is that we are human beings reflecting
God’s image. The intersexuals are indeed a natural manifestation of God’s design and
fully vested citizens of the human race. In fact, their very existence forces the most
conservative religious people to reconsider their own attitudes toward the intersex.
The believers should consider this new vulnerable group. They should include them
alongside the women, children and the old among other vulnerable groups. Their vulnerability springs from the fact that they do not fit what is traditionally understood as
a two sex only society.
Looking at our ethical relativism over and above our ethical skepticism, the global
society need to understand that the intersex has in itself a human person. They have
within themselves preciousness and a human goodness that deserve to be defended
and favored by those who value the common good. The common good here denotes
the goodness characteristic of the human dignity. It is the goodness specifically intrinsic
to the human dignity. It is the constitutive part of the good of the person because they
are basically human.
Inevitably, it follows that human beings as God’s creation deserve human dignity.
Accordingly, the comprehension of this inspiration should necessitate affirmation of
17
18
194
John Paul II, The Redeemer of Man [Redemptor Hominis] (Boston: St. Paul Editions, 1979), 18.
Mulinary Mercy, He Came to Redeem (Vittoriosa: Hellena press, 1982), 234.
every person. Accepting and acknowledging the intersex among us shall help us realize
the innate good in social and sexual diversity. By respecting them, as full human beings
with full dignity, we acknowledge their position, given by God himself.
Granting the Experience of Human Dignity to the Intersex
Intersex Society of North America (ISNA) has been successfully working to de-stigmatize intersex and sensitizing people that the intersexes are all around. Intersexuality
is natural. Intersex people should come out of the closet. There should be no secrecy,
myth or shame. Intersex is beautiful! Intersex people do not need to change; the culture
needs to change. Society needs to be enlightened, and the culture should change to
acknowledge and accommodate intersex people.19
Parents of those children with intersex conditions, and adults with intersex should
be treated in an open, shame-free, supportive, and honest way. They should consistently
be told the truth. Care providers should also attempt to connect intersex children for
peer support. Peer support saves families and lives. Parents of children with intersex can
connect and demonstrate their will to preserve the intersex identity. This helps validate
their feelings and experiences.
There is hope that scholars, particularly those invested
in helping members of marginalized groups, and the human rights groups are gaining
a voice in conversations about the intersex. These groups are seriously considering
the concerns about secrecy and shame felt by intersex people. They are beginning to
understand that the goal of accepting the intersex is a perpetuation of human dignity.
This noble action can be envisioned in the words of mother Teresa of Calcutta “God
still loves the world and sends you and me to be his compassion and love towards the
marginalized.”20
So how should we, as Christians, minister to those among us who deal with the
unique and often traumatic circumstances associated with intersexuality? Perhaps Jesus’ own words, as recorded in Matthew 19, should serve as our guide. Recall that in
this passage, Jesus is discussing eunuchs who were «born» that way, «made that way»
by men, or have «renounced marriage because of the kingdom of heaven.» While the
context of this statement by Jesus is clearly centered on the questions of eunuchs and
God’s created intent for human sexual expression. Their relation to the intersex is the
accommodative attitude Jesus had. It is comforting to note that Jesus’ words divulge
deep compassion on His part with those who find themselves in unfortunate circumstances. These circumstances include those unable to enter into the «one-flesh union»
of marriage, whether by design, mutilation or personal decision.
From the passage, we see that Christians are called to understand that God readily
seeks to strengthen and encourage those who find themselves unable to marry and
participate in genderedness and sexual expression as ordained in the social order. Practically speaking, this means that we as the hands and feet of Christ are called to help
intersexuals. We should steward their assigned gender in a manner that glorifies God
and, to the degree possible, reflects His created intent for human sexuality.
19
Hughes I A, Houk C, Ahmed S F and Lee P A, “Consensus statement on management of intersex
Disorders,” in The archives of Diseases of Childhood. (U.K: University 0f Cambridge, 2006 Jul), 91(7):554.
20
Wyne, Intersex: A Dilemma of the Gendered Society, 226.
195
Beyond this, a biblical ethic toward intersexuals no doubt calls on Christians to reach
out in compassion and love to those who experience life with this condition. We should
humbly admit that we neither have all the answers, nor are we able to fully understand
this issue. Nevertheless, we can undoubtedly say that God, with a deep and abiding
love knows and loves every person made in His image. We all reflect the fact that we
are of inestimable value and worth. Regardless of what disorder or ailment any of us
might have, we are each «beautifully and wonderfully made in our unique sexualities.
C
onclusion: Despite the fact that the global community has made major strides in
eliminating the marginalization of minority groups, several groups still undergo
severe discrimination. One such group is the intersex group. They are segregated,
isolated, denied identification and wished away in a gendered majority. Time is ripe
for humanity to approve this group. All people of all walks of life should defend the
human dignity of the intersex and eradicate shame from their condition. They should
be treated with love, compassion and the dignity that every human person deserves.
Human dignity is something every human being base or noble, wicked or righteous
enjoys equally, simply by virtue of his human being. This dignity prevents the display
of contempt, and especially contempt with lethal consequences, toward those who do
not measure up. The third gender though the minority, does exist. They are part of the
society and should therefore be acknowledged.
Bibliography
Alice D. Drega. The Hastings Center Report. No. 28, 3 (May/Jun 1998): 24-40.
Dorra, G. Intersex and Gender. Ontario: Grewtons, 2008.
Feder, M. Why We Need a Stronger Gender Identity. New York: Hass Press, 2009.
Huerst Peter. The Marginalized Absent Voices: The Third Gender. Utrecht: Srijsell Publica2007.
tions,
Hughes I A, Houk C, Ahmed S F and Lee P A. “Consensus statement on management of intersex disorders.” The archives of Diseases of Childhood no. 91(7). U.K: University 0f
Cambridge, (July, 2006): 554.
John Paul II. The Redeemer of Man [Redemptor Hominis]. Boston: St. Paul Editions, 1979.
Lou Kennedy. Wrecking the Boat of Gender. Venice: Pace Publications, 2009.
Mulinary Mercy, He Came to Redeem. Vittoriosa: Hellena press, 1982.
Palang’o S. Intersex, the Neglected Minority. California: Treet Press, 2010.
Turner, Preeves, and Greenber. Intersex People: Disordered or Different. Chicago: IGI, 2009.
UNHCR, The Yogyakarta Principles, International Commission of Jurists 2008.
Wyne, B. Intersex: A Dilemma of the Gendered Society. New York: Leuss Bros, 2007.
196
Book Reviews
Antoine E. Nachef.
WOMEN IN THE EYES OF JESUS: YESTERDAY, TODAY, AND FOREVER
(New York: Society of St. Paul/Alba House, 2004), 145pages;
Reviewed by Munduni Angelo Dema, SJ *
I
n the preliminary pages of this book, Antoine Nachef comments on an observation
made by an Irish Catholic woman who thought it is unnecessary to write a book on
the lofty dignity and the exceptional roles of women defined by Jesus in the Gospels.
“If women enjoy an touchable dignity,” she argues, “why should you talk about it when
it is so obvious? Is it not like trying to fix something that does not need to be fixed?”
In today’s world, despite many improvements, the author believes that no matter
how many programs there are to promote the dignity of women, the society does not
value this in the full and authentic sense of the word. For him, many women still suffer
abuse and oppression; some are not even respected or appreciated as they ought to be;
their contribution to the quality of life in the society is frequently overlooked. Right from
Ancient times, women have been looked upon as inferior creatures, unjustly despised,
mistreated, and harshly misjudged. According to Antoine Nachef, today’s society rightly
condemns all these negative attitudes and actions taken against women in the past, but
we still have to deal with the same problem, and especially on how to value the identity
and place of women in the life of the human family and the society as a whole.
At the dawn of the third millennium, even though in the beam of development and
technological progress, male chauvinistic views on women have never evaporated. In
the highly developed countries one can occasionally hear: “It is just a woman,” or “don’t
worry, the opinions of women never count.” Sometimes, male feminist advocates can
include the cause of women in their speeches, but that is as far as it goes.
Given the above squabbles, the author raises some stirring questions: How did Jesus
treat women? What kind of conversations did He have with them? Was it easy for Him
to go against the social tendencies of His time? How can those women become a model
to modern day women brought up in a secular society? Is Jesus’ message to women still
meaningful despite the change in the thinking patterns of our time?
Taking Sacred Scripture as a point of departure, this very readable work seeks to
present a balanced analysis of the social, cultural, spiritual and theological dimensions
of Jesus’ encounter with women. The book does not dwell on the pessimistic aspects
of men’s mind-set towards women in the past, but seeks to build a hale and hearty
picture of the central place women should inhabit in the present world. According to
*
Angelo is a Ugandan Jesuit. He is currently in his second year of theology at Hekima
College.
197
Book Review
the author, the Church desires that Christian women should become fully aware of the
greatness of their mission. By alluding to a 1976 statement on the presence of women
in the family, issued by the Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith, Nachef believes
that women have capital value in the humanization of society and a discovery of the
authentic face of the Church.
The author does not intend to defend the dignity of women because their dignity
is already bestowed by God himself. Instead, he highlights the way Jesus upholds the
dignity of women. How Jesus heals them and welcomes their faith; how he opens
conversations with them and changed their lives. The author is astounded that the
longest conversation Jesus ever had in the Gospel was with a woman, and in his view,
Jesus regularly went against the customs of his society to reveal what God thinks about
women. Jesus associated with women, and He was willing to teach them and to treat
them as partners. In a society that assumed women should be seen and not heard, Jesus’
actions were viewed as scandalous.
The author cautions against fanatic feminism and those who tend to undervalue
the essential presence of women leadership in the Church. To avoid both extremes,
Nachef proposes a trail to the roots of the scriptures in helping those who would want
to have a comprehensive analysis on what Jesus Himself thought of women. The author
posits that there is need to take an elaborate approach that will seek out a balanced
analysis of every scene of Jesus’ encounter with women, be it social, cultural, spiritual
or theological.
According to the author, it takes courage for today’s women to go out of their way to
meet Jesus, and Christ is always there revealing the most secret mysteries of His person.
He invites all women to come to him. Women need to go beyond the ordinary in other
to meet the extraordinary, which takes courage, love and adventurous spirit. Jesus is active in the hearts and minds of the spiritually minded. Empowered by the inner strength
that is synonymous with knowing Jesus, women can overcome many of the obstacles
that they face in today’s society. The best way of reaching that goal, according to the
author, is studying the scripture so as to discern what God’s word says to women.
Antoine Nachef thinks that the different Gospel narratives offer us the framework
in which we can understand Jesus’ attitude, love, and respect towards women. For instance, the Gospel of Luke proclaims the universality of God’s salvation by assuring us
that Jesus includes everybody in God’s plan of reconstituting Israel, and this is where
everyone is expected to play a role.
The success of Jesus’ first mission to the gentiles (Samaritans) was through a woman.
This is where he had his longest conversation and a meaningful encounter in which
Jesus revealed His identity to her and through her other Samaritans were attracted to
believe in him. In the author’s view, like the Samaritan woman, every woman lives with
the struggle of discovering who she is; every woman has questions about the meaning
of her existence. The Samaritan woman invites every woman, no matter how inadequate
she feels, to discover herself as she converses in her heart with Christ Jesus.
This book is a trouble-free reading. I do agree with the author that women have an
awesome capacity to love and to offer themselves to others in fulfillment of their various
vocations in life. It is important for them not to misguidedly look for acceptance in the
wrong places and from wrong people. Human persons cannot be reduced to the body
alone, because we transcend the body. Every person, as an inseparable combination
of body and soul, is made in the image and likeness of God.
198
Book Review
Gary Macy
THE HIDDEN HISTORY OF WOMEN’S ORDINATION:
FEMALE CLERGY IN THE MEDIEVAL WEST
(New York: Oxford University, 2008), 260 pages.
Reviewed by Besem Oben Etchi *
F
aced with the Roman Catholic definitive teaching of the inadmissibility of women
to the ministerial priesthood of 1995 and coupled with the 2008 universal sanction
of automatic excommunication void of a formal penal process, can the intriguing
findings of Gary Macy, Santa Clara University’s John Nobili, S.J. Professor of Theology
trigger a new conversation in the Church? Macy has taught for twenty-nine years on the
medieval church and on Christian ritual at the University of San Diego, California. He
has published several books and over twenty articles on the theology and history of the
Eucharist and on women’s ordination. As a competent historian, the author argues that
theologians and canonists intentionally manipulated the reality of ordained women in
medieval western Catholicism to erase its memory, and the latter redefined ordination
to exclude women.
In 132 pages of simple and organized text, followed by notes, bibliographic references and Latin citations, Macy digs into primary and secondary sources and shows that,
1) Confusing the tasks of theologians and historians in studying medieval women’s ordination has led to some odd conclusions like its non-existence. 2) Women lived ordained
roles as episcopae, presbytera, deaconesses and abbesses and they were considered
ordained by their contemporaries. 3) Fueled by the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenthcenturies’ debasing and demonizing of women and fights for clerical supremacy in
church and state, theological and canonical debates changed the concept of ordination
to exclude women. The author thus makes a great contribution that dismantles the idea
of a constant tradition of ordaining only men.
Macy starts with delineating the task of a historian vis-à-vis that of a theologian in
studying the issue of the ordination of women and illustrates how the nature of the questions asked guides the response gotten. She mentions that the alteration of the concept
of ordination down the centuries to articulate the Roman Catholic self-undertanding
does not alter the historicity of previous articulations. As such the question of whether
women were considered ordained in early Christianity according to a 20th-century
definition of ordination is flawed; the historian looks rather at whether women at a
given period were considered ordained, according to the articulation of ordination in
the Church in that same period.
To continue, the author successfully employs compelling ordination rite manuscripts,
a treatise on clerics, the Gregorian sacramentary and a series of Roman Catholic pontificals, amongst other material, based also on precursors on the issue, to convince the
*
Besem is from Cameroon. She is a student at the Jesuit School of Theology of Santa Clara
University, Berkeley, CA, USA.
199
Book Review
reader that the concept of ordination was broader and more inclusive than it is today.
Up until 12th-century debates on the how and by whom of the Eucharist, Macy puts
forth, the sacrament was thought to be confected by the words of institution regardless of who said it (42). The author’s proceeding use of hagiography, epigraphy, tomb
inscriptions, surviving ordination rites, mosaics and church manuscripts commenting
on church law, further evidences and etches into the reader’s mind actual recordings
depicting that “women were considered to be ordained ministers in the Western church
of the early Middle Ages” (132).
Thus Macy wittingly exposes historical denial and revisionism of evidence to impress
a belief that women’s titles such as presbytera, and episcopae were only honorary, as
spouses of ordained men. Significant examples are Martia the presbytera, who functioned
as a priest in 5th-century Poitiers and Brigid of Ireland as episcopae. She concludes that
the development of a powerful mediatory male celibate priesthood for confecting the
Eucharist created the impediment of sex for women’s ordination and began to define
them out of ordination. Promulgated by the decrees of popes such as Gregory VII and
councils, the process of expunging the memory of ordained women by canonists was
successful and scriptural reinterpretation occurred to exclude women from ordination.
M. invites us to start a new dialogue conversant with these facts.
The author’s primary sources are poignant because they roll out of the Roman
Catholic Church’s archives and are heavily male-authored thus dissipating any ideas
of “feminist ranting”. The secondary sources are an excellent example of collaborative
scholarship and the work would satisfy both a scholarly audience and nonspecialists
interested in the issue of women’s ordination.
However, I believe that the book would be even more compelling if it investigated
similar experience from other non-Roman Catholic churches such as the Maronite,
Coptic and Syrian Catholic churches and areas other than the medieval West that have
shaped Catholic experience, to see what reality emerges. This will avoid the setting up
of western Christianity as normative for the entire Catholic experience. Notwithstanding
this is groundbreaking work that knocks off a major obstacle of the absence of grounding in tradition of the consideration of the ordination of women.
200
Book Review
Caroline N. Mbonu
HANDMAID: THE POWER OF NAMES IN THEOLOGY AND SOCIETY
(Oregon: WIPF and Stock Publishers, 2010) 136 pages.
Reviewed by Chikere Ugwuanyi, SJ *
S
ome have prophesized that women’s insights are part of the contemporary trends
that will shape the future of Christian theology. This book by Sr. Dr. Caroline
N. Mbonu, HHCJ comes to fulfill part of that prophesy in an astute way. In five
chapters and over fifty six subtitles, the author presents and interprets Luke 1: 26-38 in
new lights. Her insights, meta-narrative and interpretations bring new life in the domain
of scriptural studies, theology proper, Mariology and social hermeneutics.
The insight is that in the articulation of identity, self identity is heavily influenced by
the fact that one is named by another or that one names oneself. In the first instance,
to name a person is to designate with a name that may or may not capture the essence
of the personhood. In the second instance, how one designates himself or herself is
paramount in the way the person perceives his/her destiny. It is the contention in
this book that overall, women in all places and in all history have been named, and
named themselves in a way that denigrates them. One of such naming is the concept
of handmaid, a word that is traditionally presented to women as model of servitude. It
is because of such designation and the hermeneutic circle around it that the concept
of ‘virgin and mother’ is the trendiest Marian title in Nigerian Mariology. This image of
Mary in catholic theology makes the author wonder if Mary has been listened to in her
self-designation.
Listening to Mary requires that one re-reads the annunciation account as found in
the gospel narrative according to St. Luke. In that account, four points that are often
glossed over emerge more clearly. The first is that the female character dominates in
the story. Thus, while it may lead one immediately to birth and motherhood, one also
reads clearly the story of liberation. Since Mary is dominating, one must find out the
liberative message of the text. The second is that even if one tilts towards motherhood
(as the majority of the exegesis of this text shows), one could still discern a liberative
motherhood if one perceives that Mary accepted hers as a service to God. This point
means that many feminist arguments that motherhood, however interpreted is subjugating to women needs to be reexamined.
The third point is that the blessedness of Mary is due to the fact that he listened to
the voice of God rather than to the fact that she was the biological mother of God. This
means that the whole Christocentric Mariology has to be tempered with appreciating
Mary’s unique relationship with God-Abba. The final point from the narrative is a linguistic one. In the Lucan text, Mary named herself the doulē (Handmaid, Servant) in the
construction of her self-identity. This self designation puts her in the same pedestal as
liberative servants of God like Moses, David, Ruth, Ester, Judith, Beatrice of the Congo
*
Chikere is in his final year of the theology program at Hekima College. He is a Nigeria
Jesuit.
201
Book Review
and Beatrice Nwanyibuife of Chinua Achebe’s Anthills of the Savannah. Each of these
people understood and acted as servants of God in continuing His liberative work, irrespective of whether they named themselves as such, or whether a reinterpretation of
their name showed a deeper meaning of their designated names. What is more?
From the insights and the re-reading the narrative, the author moves to an interpretation of the meaning of Mary’s self-designation and how that example could be a liberative
tool for women. Given the author’s vantage point as a Nigerian-Igbo woman, belonging
to a Religious Order that calls itself “Handmaid”, having a formal formation in different
fields of human sciences, we find that (1) self designation is paramount for any quest for
liberation. Thus, to give a ‘bad name’ to someone will eventually shape how the person
understands him/herself and how people eventually fare in life. (2) It is of great importance to notice that the first words of Mary in the Lucan narrative is a question seeking
clarification from the angel (v. 34). This step is usually glossed over when people read
the text. Instead of listening to this question and seeing how liberative it is (questioning
an authority figure as a ‘voice from below’), the tendency is to move quickly to v.38
where she accepts God’s proposal. (3) In the acceptance, there are shocking elements
that point to the liberated person that Mary is. For example, she agrees to get pregnant
out of wedlock thereby risking her life. Also, she entered an agreement with another
person (God through the angel) without the presence of a male-guardian. These two
actions were completely outside the circle of women’s influence in Mary’s time. (4) In
the Igbo society of Nigeria, there is an ambiguity about how women are treated. Some
names given to women clearly show that they are underrated and belittled. Yet, the actions of women in the same society shows that they had/have/are willing to influence the
society in positive way. This ambiguity has to be resolved through a hermeneutic effort
that seeks to perceive how women have continually sort “a positive form of identification
to enable them to participate and flourish within the community” (92).
I do agree with the insights of the author. The continued quest for identity and
self-designation is still paramount in establishing personhood and living a creative life.
The fact that women have not had a clear opportunity for self emancipation is the next
field of war in the struggle for full human liberation. I am also delighted by the insights
the author brings to the text of Luke. It is clear that this book will shape the theology
on Mary in the near future. More importantly, it will influence millions of Christian
men and women who imitate her humility without fully appreciating and living out her
liberated personality. However, some of the interpretations were sometimes stretched
too far. A point in question.
The biblical language, just like the Igbo language, connotes rather than denotes.
From this premise, it is surprising why the author was particularly quicker and more
lenient in interpreting the biblical world more than the Igbo world. On a number of
occasions, there is an effort made to show that the Igbo society names women with
utilitarian motifs. That may be true. Yet, like all languages that connote, the names are
always multifaceted: at once showing the situation of the naming agent, at once prophetic about the child, at once a pure designation. All these facets should have made
the author to be as lenient towards the biblical world and as to the Igbo world.
My call for equal leniency does not remove the merits of the work. Thus, apart
from three repetitions in pages 106 and 107, some complex rendition in page 74 and
a typo in page 89 (Henry VII instead of VIII), the book is well written and presented.
Everyone may benefit from reading it.
202
Book Review
Pope Benedict XVI (Joseph Ratzinger)
JESUS OF NAZARETH: HOLY WEEK: FROM THE ENTRANCE INTO JERUSALEM TO THE
RESURRECTION
(Nairobi: Paulines Publications Africa, 2011), 264 pages.
Reviewed by Chishala Francis Chisembe, S.J. *
J
oseph Ratzinger, the 265th Pontiff assuming the title Pope Benedict XVI was a
German Theologian and lecturer before he moved to the Vatican to first work as
Prefect of the Congregation of the Doctrine of Faith. He was also President of Biblical Commission and Pontifical Theological Commission. In 2002 he became Dean of
the college of Cardinals before being elected successor of Peter on 19th April 2005. As
a prominent Theologian of his time, Ratzinger has written widely and his new book is
a second volume in a three volume series. The latter volume, which is yet to be published, would focus on the Infancy Narrative of Jesus. Whilst, the first volume of Jesus
of Nazareth was based on: From the Baptism in the Jordan to the Transfiguration, Pope
Benedict XVI in his second volume, Jesus of Nazareth, focuses on the Holy Week: From
the Entrance into Jerusalem to the Resurrection.
The book is divided into nine chapters with an epilogue. Basically, Pope Benedict XVI
utilises the synoptic gospels, the fourth gospel and to some extent the Acts and Pauline
writings for his exegesis. In his discussion, most often, he makes reference to scripture;
both Old Testament and New Testament passages. The book covers a number of topics
in the life of Jesus such as: The entrance into Jerusalem and the Cleansing of the Temple,
Jesus’ Eschatological Discourse, The Washing of the Feet, Jesus’ High-Priestly Prayer,
The Last Supper, Gethsemane, The Trial of Jesus, Crucifixion and Burial of Jesus, and
Jesus’ Resurrection from the Dead. The Epilogue zeros in on the Pope’s own thoughts
and reflections on the reality of the resurrection to the Christian believer.
Pope Benedict often shows how the four gospels portray a passage either through
similarities or differences. He attempts to reconcile the synoptic gospels’ presentation
of a passage with the fourth gospel. He makes parallels of the passages with the Old
Testament Scriptures and the rest of the New Testament. He also seems to be in tune
with the scholarly debates, both past and contemporary, in biblical exegesis. His alertness to the currents of the debates accords him enough aptitude to draw his conclusions
with freedom and easiness.
Pope Benedict discusses the Passover feast celebrated by Jesus in the course of
his public ministry delineating the three; as recorded in the fourth gospel and one in
each of the synoptic gospels. He notes that Jesus, “wants his path and his action to be
understood in terms of the Old Testament promises that are fulfilled in his person” (17).
He also treats the subject of the cleansing of the temple alluding that Jesus becomes the
new temple and the new lamb, without blemish, to be offered for the forgiveness of
the sins of many. Hence, a new way of worshiping begins with the destruction of the
*
Chishala is a Zambian Jesuit. He is in his final year of theology at Hekima College.
203
Book Review
old Temple (29). Benedict argues that care is needed when making connections within
the discourse of Jesus, especially the eschatological discourse. According to him, “the
text is woven together from individual strands of tradition that do not present a straightforward linear argument but that must, as it were, be read in the light of one another”
(43). Further more, the gist of Jesus’ eschatological discourse is that of the proclamation
of an age during which the Gospel must be proclaimed to the ends of the world and
only then can history achieve its goal (46). When discussing Jesus’ High Priestly Prayer,
Pope Benedict acknowledges that the priestly character of the prayer had already been
highlighted in the times of the Fathers, especially by Cyril of Alexandria. “This prayer
can be understood only against the background of the liturgy of the Feast of Atonement
(67). He notes that though a connection does exist between the High-Priestly prayer in
John 17 and the Eucharist, it is not correct to conclude that this prayer is a Eucharistic
prayer (69). The pope goes on to delineate the four major themes of the High-Priestly
prayer, namely, the theme of life, sanctification, revelation of God’s name and finally,
the future unity of Jesus’ disciples. Jesus had inaugurated a non-political Messianic
kingdom. There is a separation of politics from faith in the mission of Christ when he
echoes that “my kingship is not of this world” (139). His destiny is that of the suffering
servant. Jesus’ purpose to come to the world was to bear witness to the truth. Pope
Benedict proffers that “it is part of the mystery of God that he (Jesus) acts so gently,
that he only gradually builds up his history within the great history of mankind” (207).
The author notes that, “Christian prayer for the return of the Lord always includes the
experience of his presence” (217).
Pope Benedict’s book is more an exegetical exercise rather than a spiritualized
reflection on some passages of the Holy Week. Though he constantly makes reference
to some biblical scholars and some exegetes like Marius Reiser, Rudolf Schnackenburg,
Rudolf Pesch, John Meier and others, and also applies biblical languages like Hebrew,
this work is written in a more mild style to appeal to both academics and non-academics
who are interested in the story of Jesus as portrayed in the scriptures. Given that Pope
Benedict’s volumes do not follow any chronological order of the life of Jesus it means
that one can read this volume without necessarily having read the first volume.
What is at play in this volume is the whole ingenuity, aptness and robustness of
the author with the scriptures and his subject and how he manages to weave through
his exegesis with a sharpness and youthfulness of mind. Pope Benedict’s language and
engagement with the subject reflects his steady faith and intimacy with his Christian
profession and confession. Though Pope Benedict XVI resists taking the limelight in biblical exegesis with this work, his prowess, expertise and craftiness would ultimately hold
the reader at bay and swing his/her emotions on the pendulum of piety and academic
astuteness. Indeed, the Pope writes with great passion, integrity, a sense of fulfillment
and a warm heart for, both, his topic and his readership. In the corridors of academic
and biblical exegesis this work is no mean achievement. Just as Pope Benedict himself
acknowledges, this work would appeal to Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox as well as
other believers and non-believers.
204
Book Review
John Paul Lederach
BUILDING PEACE: SUSTAINABLE RECONCILIATION IN DIVIDED SOCIETIES
(Washington: The United States Institute of Peace, 1997), 197 pages.
Reviewed by Sr Anne Achieng, FSJ *
T
he world craves and yearns for peace. The niggling question that agitates researchers,
intellectuals and scholars is the design for durable serenity and peace for humanity. John Paul Lederach is one such pollster proffering to find lasting solution to
conflicts. Lederach commences his work with an inquiry: ‘what are the useful concepts
and perspectives for building peace?’. In Building Peace, he focuses upon the necessity
of constructing relationships across multiple social levels, de-emphasizing the role of
political elites, and instead he focuses on both mid-level elites (bureaucrats, intellectuals, religious leaders, influential persons among others) and grassroots-level activism.
He insists that it is this group that can actually communicate peace like an osmosis
infiltration into a virgin atmosphere. He emphasizes the need to develop long-range
objectives and to delink expectations of short-term results. Lederach accentuates the
need for implementation of training programmes to create a culture of peace within the
society. Trained mediators should be indigenous to the society. In doing this, the hope
is that the parachute problem of credibility (the idea that mediators are dropped from
above (IGO/foreign government), and have no particular attachment to the conflict may
be reduced, thereby initiating transformation of the conflict.
Lederach explains why we need to move beyond traditional diplomacy of conflict
resolution, (which often emphasizes top-level leaders) to middle range and short-term
objectives, towards a holistic approach that stresses the multiplicity of peacemakers like
the NGOs, UN, and Humanitarian assistance organizations, among others. Lederach introspectively describes the actors and issues in conflict in terms of levels of leadership
and nested foci. Leadership, he argues, occurs at three different levels: top level, the
middle- range, and grassroots. Top-level actors consist of political, military or sometimes
religious leaders. The middle range consists of people whose positions of leadership
are not directly dependent on the power hierarchy of the top level, such as respected
heads of business, education, religions or agriculture. The grassroots leadership operates in direct connection to the masses of people and includes refugee camp officials,
NGO workers, and health workers. He advocates for marshalling of the middle and
grassroots leadership to transform conflict.
He recommends Long-term perspectives and the need to create an infrastructure that
empowers resources within a society as well as maximize contributions from outside.
The book explores the dynamics of both protracted contemporary conflicts of Somalia,
Yugoslavia, Sandinista Yatama and Nicaragua. From his experience as a resource person in these conflictual states, he presents a pragmatic integrated framework for peace
*
Sr Anne is in her final year at Hekima College Institute of Peace Studies and International
Relations
205
Book Review
building in which structure, process, resources, training, and evaluations are coordinated
in an attempt to transform the conflict and effect reconciliation.
Lederach argues that dealing with contemporary armed conflict requires new approaches in addition to traditional diplomacy. Building peace in today’s conflicts calls for
long-term commitment to constructing an infrastructure that empowers the resources for
reconciliation from within the particular society in the context of the conflict maximizes
the contribution from the regional and international community from outside.
Paul analyzes the nature of contemporary armed conflict. A global overview of
conflict shows that contemporary armed conflicts are primarily internal conflicts, occurring between different identity groups within a state. These conflicts tend to arise
within poor, developing nations. Lederach argues that contemporary armed conflicts
are more similar to communal and intercommunal conflicts than they are to international or interstate conflicts. Such conflicts are fueled more by psychological, political or
cultural factors than by substantive issues. These features, compounded by a setting of
underdevelopment and poverty, make peace building an enormous task. Unfortunately,
international peacemaking remains oriented to interstate conflict.
Given the nature of contemporary armed conflict, peace building faces four main
challenges. First, it must transform the international culture that accepts and promotes the
global sale of weapons. Second, peace-building approaches must take a very long-term
view in order to build enduring peace. Third, peace building must take a broader, more
comprehensive view of the people and contexts that produce conflict. Finally, we must
focus on preventing trivial conflicts from escalating into overt warfare. Subsequently,
Lederach develops conceptual frameworks for conflict and peace building. Modern
peace building according to him should focus on reconciliation, and on reconstruction
of relationships. A focus on reconciliation recognizes that conflicts are essentially types of
relationships. It also allows us to address the psychological components of conflict.
Lederach illustrates that peace-building resources include not only financial and
material support, but also socio-cultural resources. People in the conflict setting should
be seen as resources rather than beneficiaries. Peace building should also draw on
existing cultural resources.
Paul recommends methods for coordinating the various levels, actors, and resources
in peace building. Generally, coordination should focus on creating strategic points of
contact and coordination rather than rigid, centralized control. One helpful tool is the
peace inventory, a comprehensive listing of the various peace building activities and
actors in a particular conflict. Coordination can also be improved by creating clearer
channels of communication between top- and middle-level actors, and between first
and second track diplomatic initiatives. Finally, external peacemakers should try to link
their activities with internal peacemakers.
Furthermore, Lederach proposes training and preparation program for peace building. Lederach argues that contemporary conflict resolution training focuses too narrowly
on the cognitive skills of analyzing conflict and the communicative skills of negotiation.
In contrast, transformative training views this nature of training as itself a venue for building relationships. In this approach, who participates in training becomes a more central
issue, and training is seen as an integral part of the peace building process. Transformative training seeks to supply people with transformative frameworks of inquiry, which
they may apply to their understanding of their own situation and context.
206
Book Review
Lederach scrutinizes the difficulties in evaluating peace-building initiatives. His
approach to conflict and peace building suggest a strategic, responsive approach to
evaluation. Rather than measuring final results, evaluation should be seen as a tool for
learning and feedback, and so an integral part of the peace building process. Lederach
suggests six sets of inquiries. Generally, these inquiries seek to assess coordination
between the various actors and levels, to assess the responsiveness to the interventions
to the context of the conflict, and to identify long-term and provisional goals.
In his concluding chapter Lederach summarizes the key points of his approach,
namely process, coordination, reconciliation and resources.
207
Book Review
N’teba Mbengi Anicet,
LA MISSION DE LA COMPAGNIE DE JESUS AU KWILU : CONTRIBUTION A LA
TRANSFORMATION D’UNE REGION CONGOLAISE (1901-1954)
(Rome: Pontificia Universita Gregoriana, 2010), 575 pages.
Reviewed by Emmanuel W. Lenge, SJ *
N
’teba Mbengi Anicet’s Book is an adaptation of his doctorate thesis defended at
the Pontifical Gregorian University. The research was on the Church History. N’teba
is a Jesuit from Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The book studies the mission entrusted to the Jesuits from 1892 in one of the largest regions of DRC. This mission
was designated under the title of Kwango’ Mission and included three regions: The Bas
Congo (south West of DRC), The Kwilu and the Kwango, regions situated in the actual
province of Bandundu (central West of DRC). The author has focused his study on the
period between 1901 and 1954 and tries to enlighten the contribution of the Jesuits to
the transformation of that region, especially in the Kwilu.
According to the author this contribution was multiple and diversified including
areas such as intellectual, economical, cultural, social and spiritual dimensions. The book
comprises three main parts and thirteen chapters. The first part of the book presents
geographically the Kwilu: Its Rivers, its climates and vegetations, its different tribes and
then it addresses the issue of the occupation of the region of the Kwilu by the colonizers
and the reaction of the local population towards this occupation. The author reveals that
the protestant missions were the first to try to evangelize the region. He mentions for
example the American Baptist Foreign Mission in 1913 or the Canadian Baptist Mission in 1938 (92). The contact with the west was not of a spiritual kind, for the author,
during the colonization, many Congolese women gave birth to multi racial children as
fruit of sexual abuse (129). Any revolt among the local population was severely punished yet the most famous reaction against the Belgium colonization was the revolt of
the Bapende (population of this region) in 1931.
The second part of the Book focuses on the beginning and the evolution of the
Jesuit’s mission in the Kwilu from 1901 to 1954. For N’ Teba, the first “evangelization”
of the DRC started in 1482 by the Portuguese but was a resounding failure. The Belgian
Jesuits started their mission in DRC in a global missionary movement that started in the
West in the 19th century and in the framework of the Leopold II’s project. It is Leopold
II who invited the Jesuits to Congo in 1879 to take over the mission that the Scheutists
Fathers had refused. (149). Fr Emile van Hencxthoven, SJ was very instrumental in the
starting and the expansion of the mission.
The third part of the book is about the strategies of the transformation of the mission of the Kwilu and its stumbling block. The author states that it is through works like
building schools, providing medical care and economic facilities that the Jesuits changed
the cultural, social and political setting of the indigenous (343). For the author, the teach*
208
Emmanuel is a Jesuit from DRC. He is a final year student of Hekima College
Book Review
ing is tightly linked to the evangelization of the Kwilu by the Jesuits; this has led for a
long time the people of this part of DRC to think that teaching was the only the Jesuits
charism (347). The author concludes the third part by affirming that the mission of the
Jesuits in the Kwilu would not have been what was without the invaluable contribution
of other international congregation especially the female one such as Soeur de Marie
au Kwango, Josephites Brothers of Kinzambi, The sisters of St Joseph of Turin, the
Daughter of Divine Providence of Crehen, the Sisters of the Poor of Bergame.
Anicet N’Teba’s book is an invaluable contribution to the memory of the work of
the first companions in Africa. It is of a great interest to those who want to know are
interested in the history of Jesuits in Africa. The major problems of early evangelization
work were well discussed. For example the author mentions: Polygamy (462), rivalry
between Jesuits and the protestant missionaries (467), and others local religious movements [Kimbanguism, Mpeve] (480). I think that this book will be of great interest to
those who want to know the roots of their faith, the motivations and the decisions that
prevailed at the birth of the Church in Africa. This book provides a very wealthy tool
that makes it simple- in extrapolating, ceteris paribus - the understanding of why the
Jesuits are what they are today and why they are where they are in Africa. As Confucius said: it is good for someone who does not know where he is going, at least to know
where he is coming from.
209
Poems
The Way of Kadogos
By Evaristus O. Ekwueme, SJ *
Here they come dressed in seamless robes
Here they come dancing in circles of ignorance
Here they come embroiled with self-pity
Here they come with blank minds and voided hearts
Here they come with weapons of force and intimidation
Here they come with lungs filled with glues
Here they come high and gay with malice
Here they come possessed by possessions
Here they come as legions in a Plato’s cave.
Reason calls on them for experience, but they lack awareness
Reason calls on them for understanding, but they lack intellect
Reason calls on them for reflection, but they ask “for what use?”
Reason calls on them for wisdom, but they are filled with its opposite
Empathy calls on them for humaneness, but they lack such triviality
Empathy calls on them for charity, but they seek it in Hades
Empathy calls on them for fraternity, but they are monads
Empathy calls on them for affectivity, but they are unsexed Trojans
Justice calls on them for fairness, but only the demise of the non-guilty is
their bounty
Justice calls on them for reciprocity, but they dare not answer, for evil is
their trade
Justice calls on them for equity, but they have no measures
Justice calls on them for rightness, but they say, “I am rightness”
Hope, how dare they hope for better ways, than the way of kadogos?
Hope, how dare they hope for consciousness, than obtuseness?
Hope, how dare they hope for progress, than anarchy?
*
210
Ekwueme is a Nigerian Jesuit. He is in his first year of theology at Hekima College.
Poems
Hope, how dare they hope for humility, than unreasonableness?
Doom is the lot of they who entrust in the way of kadogos
Evil is their bread, who hunger for justice of kadogos
Frustration is their wine, who thirst for the empathy of kadogos.
Love, hahah! No greater love than the way of kadogos
Love, kadogo manifesto states, is impossible without a Seat
Love, kadogo manifesto states, is impossible without possession
Love, kadogo manifesto states, is impossible without unilateral stupidity
Love, kadogo manifesto states, is impossible – period
Love! Love! Love is the birthright of kadogos, ah Not!
They dare not feel guilty, except an excuse for being on the Seat
They dare not feel shame, for what a better way of being enslaved by truth
They dare not hear the truth, for it stings as ferocious wasps
Evil and corruption are their prerogative, for they are pathological liars
Here they come and go in the circle of oblivion
The way of kadogos is the way of legions.
211
Poems
A Figure of Contrasts
By Gilbert Fungai Banda, SJ *
He is the center of the universe
Yet he is capable of so much self sacrifice and devotion
He loves passionately
Yet he breaks the hearts of those whom he loves
He throws himself enthusiastically into life
Yet he yearns for solitude
He is an expert in blind obedience
Yet he is a defiant rebel of established authority
He is materially minded
Yet his mind is full of lofty idealism
He is a true ascetic
Yet he loves to plunge into instinctual primitive indulgence
He is to others rough and inconsiderate
Yet we know him as extremely touchy
He is powered by light-hearted optimism
Yet the blackest pessimism dogs his aspirations
He works with indefatigable enthusiasm
Yet he is pulled by sluggish and apathetic behavior
They call him an innovative visionary
Yet depression dulls his imagination
He is an expert in sound advice
Yet the tritest cravings often toss him wayward
In public speaking he is par excellence
Yet he at times utter the most illogical statements
He is a confidence builder
Yet Childish emotions once razed him to the ground
His writings are internationally acclaimed
Yet he regards what he writes as straw
He claims that he is a staunch believer
Yet spasms of unbelief trouble him
His heart is often warmed by divine intimacy
Yet he sometimes entangles love with brute lust
He is a consoler
Yet there is no one to console him
They look up to him
Yet he has no human being to look up to
Indeed, he is a figure of contrasts.
*
212
Banda is a Zimbabwean Jesuit in his second year of theology at Hekima College.
Poems
Digne Maman Africaine
By Fr Bienvenu Matanzonga, SJ *
Sourire, maturité, humilité t’accompagnent
Beauté africaine qui associe élégance, bon sens et spiritualité
Charme Bantu qui est générosité, sens de devoir, patience, équilibre et
stabilité
Élever le ton n’est pas ton fort : expression de bonne éducation et de paix
intérieure
Assume le passé avec sportivité, le présent avec acuité et attend le futur
avec foi !
Trouve l’inspiration profonde dans notre Maman Afrique
Ta sérénité et ta douceur aideront l’Afrique à croire en ses jeunes générations
Ta foi au Seigneur et ta prière aideront l’Eglise à davantage faire confiance
En ses fils et en ses filles d’Afrique
Afin d’évangéliser non seulement notre féconde Mère Afrique
Mais le monde entier
Que la Mère Afrique te couvre de son souffle de vie
Sois digne et fière
D’appartenir à la Maman Afrique
Digne et fière d’appartenir à Dieu
Digne et fière d’appartenir à la Mère Eglise
D’accomplir avec passion et compassion ta mission parmi le peuple de
Dieu en général
Et le peuple de Dieu qui est en Afrique, en particulier!
A toute femme africaine et chrétienne,
Je dédie ces lignes !
*
Fr Matanzonga is a Jesuit from D.R. Congo. He currently lectures at Hekima College Jesuit
School of Theology.
213
Poems
A Candle Lit
By Crispen Matsilele, SJ *
You sprung amongst us
Like a lily planted by the waters
The waters that flow from the alter of the Lord
Full of life, your face beamed
Full of energy, your countenance radiated
Radiated life, love, joy and peace
Yes, you sprung amongst us.
The wind blew, o-oh the wind blew,
The sound we heard
The chuff and dust blown we saw
Trees branches lost
Reeds by rivers swerved
Rose thick dark clouds
Raindrops like angry words fell
Like a single lily amidst the gale
You, you, you candle lit
Rejoiced, the storm you survived
Far and wide the story we told
Like a blazing bush, it spread,
Young and old, rejoiced
Your story fertilized our imagination.
Hope it built in our failing hearts
“Our hero, our hero has conquered”,
We sung to our hearts’ delight.
One morning, a phone call I received
Your friend, your hero is dying
Dying of cancer
The candlelight into darkness faded
Downcast, your face fading smile radiated
We heard the sound
We saw the dust blow
We saw your eyes close
Darkness enclosed us
The lily by the waters, flowers fell
Dirge we sung
Poems we wrote
Wrote to remember you,
*
214
Matsilele is a Zimbabwean Jesuit in his second year of theology at Hekima College.
Poems
You our hero, who lit a candle
And a candle lit passed to us
To cancer you bowed,
Early you went,
Went leaving us to feed on our tears
Rest in peace…
My Name
By Ndanu Mung’ala *
My name is beauty
my name is charm
my name is sensual
My name is tenderness
my name is strength
my name is intelligence
My name is sacred
my name is divine
my name is blessed
My name is woman
I speak different languages
but I remain woman
Pure, true
my essence never fading
*
Ndanu is a Kenyan in her second year of Peace Studies and International Relations at Hekima
College.
215

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